Lojban As We Mangle It In Lojbanistan: About This Book

Date: Mon May 14 11:09:32 2012 -0700 Made a wrapper for the build process; things should now be much more reliable. diff --git a/.gitignore b/.gitignore index 923fcae..dac4d9b 100644 --- a/.gitignore +++ b/.gitignore @@ -9,10 +9,11 @@ xhtml-nochunks/ xhtml-nochunks.done xhtml_chapters.done cll.epub cll.mobi cll.pdf cll_processed_pdf.xml cll_processed_xhtml.xml xhtml_sections.done xhtml_sections/ *.*~ +build/chapter-list* diff --git a/Makefile b/Makefile deleted file mode 100644 index 4a5b203..0000000 --- a/Makefile +++ /dev/null @@ -1,128 +0,0 @@ -test =3D=20 -chapters =3D $(if $(CHAPTERS), $(CHAPTERS), chapters/1.xml chapters/2.xml = chapters/3.xml chapters/4.xml chapters/5.xml chapters/6.xml chapters/7.xml = chapters/8.xml chapters/9.xml chapters/10.xml chapters/11.xml chapters/12.x= ml chapters/13.xml chapters/14.xml chapters/15.xml chapters/16.xml chapters= /17.xml chapters/18.xml chapters/19.xml chapters/20.xml chapters/21.xml) - -.PHONY: all -all: xhtml_web xhtml_sections_web xhtml_nochunks_web pdf_web epub_web mobi= _web - -.PHONY: clean -clean: - -rm -rf cll* xhtml/ xhtml.done xhtml-nochunks/ xhtml-nochunks.done xhtml_= chapters/ xhtml_chapters.done xhtml_sections/ xhtml_sections.done - -.PHONY: realclean -realclean: clean - -rm -rf jbovlaste.xml jbovlaste2.xml - -#******* -# Basic prep -#******* - -cll.xml: $(chapters) - scripts/merge.sh $(test) $(chapters) - -cll_processed_pdf.xml: cll_processed_xhtml.xml xml/latex_preprocess.xsl - xsltproc --nonet --path . --novalid xml/latex_preprocess.xsl cll_processe= d_xhtml.xml > cll_processed_pdf.xml - -cll_processed_xhtml.xml: cll.xml xml/docbook2html_preprocess.xsl - xsltproc --stringparam format xhtml --nonet --path . --novalid xml/docboo= k2html_preprocess.xsl cll.xml > cll_processed_xhtml.xml - -#******* -# Many xhtml files -#******* -.PHONY: xhtml_web -xhtml_web: xhtml.done - mkdir -p ~/www/media/public/tmp - rm -rf ~/www/media/public/tmp/cll-xhtml - cp -pr xhtml ~/www/media/public/tmp/cll-xhtml - cp $(PWD)/docbook2html.css ~/www/media/public/tmp/cll-xhtml/docbook2html= .css - cp -pr $(PWD)/media ~/www/media/public/tmp/cll-xhtml/ - -.PHONY: xhtml -xhtml: xhtml.done -xhtml.done: cll_processed_xhtml.xml xml/docbook2html_config.xsl - rm -rf xhtml - mkdir xhtml - # FIXME: Consider doing something like this: -x /usr/share/sgml/docbook/x= sl-ns-stylesheets-1.76.1/fo/docbook.xsl - # So we know exactly what stylesheets we're getting - xmlto -m xml/docbook2html_config_no-sections.xsl -o xhtml/ xhtml cll_proc= essed_xhtml.xml 2>&1 | grep -v 'No localization exists for "jbo" or "". Usi= ng default "en".' - touch xhtml.done - -#******* -# Section xhtml files -#******* -.PHONY: xhtml_sections_web -xhtml_sections_web: xhtml_sections.done - mkdir -p ~/www/media/public/tmp - rm -rf ~/www/media/public/tmp/cll-xhtml-sections - cp -pr xhtml_sections ~/www/media/public/tmp/cll-xhtml-sections - cp $(PWD)/docbook2html.css ~/www/media/public/tmp/cll-xhtml-sections/doc= book2html.css - cp -pr $(PWD)/media ~/www/media/public/tmp/cll-xhtml-sections/media - -.PHONY: xhtml_sections -xhtml_sections: xhtml_sections.done -xhtml_sections.done: cll_processed_xhtml.xml xml/docbook2html_config.xsl - rm -rf xhtml_sections - mkdir xhtml_sections - # FIXME: Consider doing something like this: -x /usr/share/sgml/docbook/x= sl-ns-stylesheets-1.76.1/fo/docbook.xsl - # So we know exactly what stylesheets we're getting - xmlto -m xml/docbook2html_config_sections.xsl -o xhtml_sections/ --string= param chunk.section.depth=3D1 --stringparam chunk.first.sections=3D1 xhtml = cll_processed_xhtml.xml 2>&1 | grep -v 'No localization exists for "jbo" or= "". Using default "en".' - touch xhtml_sections.done - -#******* -# One XHTML file -#******* -.PHONY: xhtml_nochunks_web -xhtml_nochunks_web: xhtml-nochunks.done - mkdir -p ~/www/media/public/tmp/media - cp $(PWD)/docbook2html.css ~/www/media/public/tmp/docbook2html.css - cp $(PWD)/xhtml-nochunks/cll_processed_xhtml.html ~/www/media/public/tmp/= cll-xhtml-nochunks.html - cp -pr $(PWD)/media ~/www/media/public/tmp/ - -.PHONY: xhtml_nochunks -xhtml_nochunks: xhtml-nochunks.done -xhtml-nochunks.done: cll_processed_xhtml.xml xml/docbook2html_config.xsl - rm -rf xhtml-nochunks - mkdir xhtml-nochunks - ln -fs $(PWD)/docbook2html.css xhtml-nochunks/ - # FIXME: Consider doing something like this: -x /usr/share/sgml/docbook/x= sl-ns-stylesheets-1.76.1/fo/docbook.xsl - # So we know exactly what stylesheets we're getting - xmlto -m xml/docbook2html_config.xsl -o xhtml-nochunks/ xhtml-nochunks cl= l_processed_xhtml.xml 2>&1 | grep -v 'No localization exists for "jbo" or "= ". Using default "en".' - touch xhtml-nochunks.done - -#******* -# EPUB -#******* -.PHONY: epub -epub: cll.epub -cll.epub: xhtml.done - xvfb-run ebook-convert xhtml/index.html cll.epub - -.PHONY: epub_web -epub_web: epub - cp cll.epub ~/www/media/public/tmp/cll.epub - -#******* -# MOBI -#******* -.PHONY: mobi -mobi: cll.mobi -cll.mobi: xhtml.done - xvfb-run ebook-convert xhtml/index.html cll.mobi - -.PHONY: mobi_web -mobi_web: mobi - cp cll.mobi ~/www/media/public/tmp/cll.mobi - -#******* -# PDF -# -# We actually do need xetex (aka xalatex) here, for the IPA and -# other utf-8 issues -#******* -.PHONY: pdf -pdf: cll.pdf -cll.pdf: cll_processed_pdf.xml xml/dblatex_config.xsl - dblatex -T latex/cll -o cll.pdf -b xetex -p xml/dblatex_config.xsl cll_pr= ocessed_pdf.xml 2>&1 | grep -v 'default template used in programlisting or = screen' - -.PHONY: pdf_web -pdf_web: pdf - cp cll.pdf ~/www/media/public/tmp/cll.pdf diff --git a/README b/README index 56f4449..cf84920 100644 --- a/README +++ b/README @@ -1,50 +1,30 @@ To make the XHTML version (ends up in a dir named html/): =20 - make + scripts/build =20 This takes quite a while. To do it for just one chapter for faster testing: =20 - make test=3D"-t" chapters=3D"chapters/5.xml" + scripts/build -t chapters/05.xml=20 =20 This does the whole book but is also much faster: =20 - make test=3D"-t" + scripts/build -t =20 There are many possible sub-targets as well, such as: =20 - make test=3D"-t" pdf_web - -Also, -t there makes internal links break and strips out the -glossary; -s only does the former. - -Here's a list of all the make targets you care about, as of May -2012: - - all (default) - clean - realclean - xhtml_web - xhtml - xhtml_sections_web - xhtml_sections - xhtml_nochunks_web - xhtml_nochunks - epub - epub_web - mobi - mobi_web - pdf - pdf_web - -They all have _test versions as well. + scripts/build -t pdf_web + +You can get a complete list of targets via: + + scripts/build -h =20 Requirements ------------ =20 Getting this all working is actually a pretty huge undertaking; you're almost certainly better off asking Robin Lee Powell for an account on the appropriate server. =20 General -------------- diff --git a/build/Makefile b/build/Makefile new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4a5b203 --- /dev/null +++ b/build/Makefile @@ -0,0 +1,128 @@ +test =3D=20 +chapters =3D $(if $(CHAPTERS), $(CHAPTERS), chapters/1.xml chapters/2.xml = chapters/3.xml chapters/4.xml chapters/5.xml chapters/6.xml chapters/7.xml = chapters/8.xml chapters/9.xml chapters/10.xml chapters/11.xml chapters/12.x= ml chapters/13.xml chapters/14.xml chapters/15.xml chapters/16.xml chapters= /17.xml chapters/18.xml chapters/19.xml chapters/20.xml chapters/21.xml) + +.PHONY: all +all: xhtml_web xhtml_sections_web xhtml_nochunks_web pdf_web epub_web mobi= _web + +.PHONY: clean +clean: + -rm -rf cll* xhtml/ xhtml.done xhtml-nochunks/ xhtml-nochunks.done xhtml_= chapters/ xhtml_chapters.done xhtml_sections/ xhtml_sections.done + +.PHONY: realclean +realclean: clean + -rm -rf jbovlaste.xml jbovlaste2.xml + +#******* +# Basic prep +#******* + +cll.xml: $(chapters) + scripts/merge.sh $(test) $(chapters) + +cll_processed_pdf.xml: cll_processed_xhtml.xml xml/latex_preprocess.xsl + xsltproc --nonet --path . --novalid xml/latex_preprocess.xsl cll_processe= d_xhtml.xml > cll_processed_pdf.xml + +cll_processed_xhtml.xml: cll.xml xml/docbook2html_preprocess.xsl + xsltproc --stringparam format xhtml --nonet --path . --novalid xml/docboo= k2html_preprocess.xsl cll.xml > cll_processed_xhtml.xml + +#******* +# Many xhtml files +#******* +.PHONY: xhtml_web +xhtml_web: xhtml.done + mkdir -p ~/www/media/public/tmp + rm -rf ~/www/media/public/tmp/cll-xhtml + cp -pr xhtml ~/www/media/public/tmp/cll-xhtml + cp $(PWD)/docbook2html.css ~/www/media/public/tmp/cll-xhtml/docbook2html= .css + cp -pr $(PWD)/media ~/www/media/public/tmp/cll-xhtml/ + +.PHONY: xhtml +xhtml: xhtml.done +xhtml.done: cll_processed_xhtml.xml xml/docbook2html_config.xsl + rm -rf xhtml + mkdir xhtml + # FIXME: Consider doing something like this: -x /usr/share/sgml/docbook/x= sl-ns-stylesheets-1.76.1/fo/docbook.xsl + # So we know exactly what stylesheets we're getting + xmlto -m xml/docbook2html_config_no-sections.xsl -o xhtml/ xhtml cll_proc= essed_xhtml.xml 2>&1 | grep -v 'No localization exists for "jbo" or "". Usi= ng default "en".' + touch xhtml.done + +#******* +# Section xhtml files +#******* +.PHONY: xhtml_sections_web +xhtml_sections_web: xhtml_sections.done + mkdir -p ~/www/media/public/tmp + rm -rf ~/www/media/public/tmp/cll-xhtml-sections + cp -pr xhtml_sections ~/www/media/public/tmp/cll-xhtml-sections + cp $(PWD)/docbook2html.css ~/www/media/public/tmp/cll-xhtml-sections/doc= book2html.css + cp -pr $(PWD)/media ~/www/media/public/tmp/cll-xhtml-sections/media + +.PHONY: xhtml_sections +xhtml_sections: xhtml_sections.done +xhtml_sections.done: cll_processed_xhtml.xml xml/docbook2html_config.xsl + rm -rf xhtml_sections + mkdir xhtml_sections + # FIXME: Consider doing something like this: -x /usr/share/sgml/docbook/x= sl-ns-stylesheets-1.76.1/fo/docbook.xsl + # So we know exactly what stylesheets we're getting + xmlto -m xml/docbook2html_config_sections.xsl -o xhtml_sections/ --string= param chunk.section.depth=3D1 --stringparam chunk.first.sections=3D1 xhtml = cll_processed_xhtml.xml 2>&1 | grep -v 'No localization exists for "jbo" or= "". Using default "en".' + touch xhtml_sections.done + +#******* +# One XHTML file +#******* +.PHONY: xhtml_nochunks_web +xhtml_nochunks_web: xhtml-nochunks.done + mkdir -p ~/www/media/public/tmp/media + cp $(PWD)/docbook2html.css ~/www/media/public/tmp/docbook2html.css + cp $(PWD)/xhtml-nochunks/cll_processed_xhtml.html ~/www/media/public/tmp/= cll-xhtml-nochunks.html + cp -pr $(PWD)/media ~/www/media/public/tmp/ + +.PHONY: xhtml_nochunks +xhtml_nochunks: xhtml-nochunks.done +xhtml-nochunks.done: cll_processed_xhtml.xml xml/docbook2html_config.xsl + rm -rf xhtml-nochunks + mkdir xhtml-nochunks + ln -fs $(PWD)/docbook2html.css xhtml-nochunks/ + # FIXME: Consider doing something like this: -x /usr/share/sgml/docbook/x= sl-ns-stylesheets-1.76.1/fo/docbook.xsl + # So we know exactly what stylesheets we're getting + xmlto -m xml/docbook2html_config.xsl -o xhtml-nochunks/ xhtml-nochunks cl= l_processed_xhtml.xml 2>&1 | grep -v 'No localization exists for "jbo" or "= ". Using default "en".' + touch xhtml-nochunks.done + +#******* +# EPUB +#******* +.PHONY: epub +epub: cll.epub +cll.epub: xhtml.done + xvfb-run ebook-convert xhtml/index.html cll.epub + +.PHONY: epub_web +epub_web: epub + cp cll.epub ~/www/media/public/tmp/cll.epub + +#******* +# MOBI +#******* +.PHONY: mobi +mobi: cll.mobi +cll.mobi: xhtml.done + xvfb-run ebook-convert xhtml/index.html cll.mobi + +.PHONY: mobi_web +mobi_web: mobi + cp cll.mobi ~/www/media/public/tmp/cll.mobi + +#******* +# PDF +# +# We actually do need xetex (aka xalatex) here, for the IPA and +# other utf-8 issues +#******* +.PHONY: pdf +pdf: cll.pdf +cll.pdf: cll_processed_pdf.xml xml/dblatex_config.xsl + dblatex -T latex/cll -o cll.pdf -b xetex -p xml/dblatex_config.xsl cll_pr= ocessed_pdf.xml 2>&1 | grep -v 'default template used in programlisting or = screen' + +.PHONY: pdf_web +pdf_web: pdf + cp cll.pdf ~/www/media/public/tmp/cll.pdf diff --git a/chapters/01.xml b/chapters/01.xml new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2857811 --- /dev/null +++ b/chapters/01.xml @@ -0,0 +1,370 @@ + + Lojban As We Mangle It In Lojbanistan: About This Book + + The picture for chapter 1 + + + + + =20 +

+ What is Lojban? + + Logical Language = Grouprelation to Lojban Lojbanhistory= of Lojban (pronounced=20 + LOZH-bahn) is a constructed language. Previous versions= of the language were called=20 + Loglan by Dr. James Cooke Brown, who founded the Loglan= Project and started the development of the language in 1955. The goals for= the language were first described in the open literature in the article=20 + =20 + =20 + Loglan, publ= ished in=20 + Scientific American, June, = 1960. Made well-known by that article and by occasional references in scien= ce fiction (most notably in Robert Heinlein's novel=20 + =20 + The Moon Is A Harsh Mistress) = and computer publications, Loglan and Lojban have been built over four deca= des by dozens of workers and hundreds of supporters, led since 1987 by The = Logical Language Group (who are the publishers of this book). + Lojban<= secondary>features of There are thousands of artifi= cial languages (of which Esperanto is the best-known), but Loglan/Lojban ha= s been engineered to make it unique in several ways. The following are the = main features of Lojban: + + + Lojban is designed to be used by people in communication wit= h each other, and possibly in the future with computers. + + + Lojban is designed to be neutral between cultures. + + + Lojban grammar is based on the principles of predicate logic= . + + + Lojban has an unambiguous yet flexible grammar. + + + Lojban has phonetic spelling, and unambiguously resolves its= sounds into words. + + + Lojban is simple compared to natural languages; it is easy t= o learn. + + + Lojban's 1300 root words can be easily combined to form a vo= cabulary of millions of words. + + + Lojban is regular; the rules of the language are without exc= eptions. + + + Lojban attempts to remove restrictions on creative and clear= thought and communication. + + + Lojban has a variety of uses, ranging from the creative to t= he scientific, from the theoretical to the practical. + + + Lojban has been demonstrated in translation and in original = works of prose and poetry. + + +

+ What is this book? + goal of this book= this = bookgoal of reference grammar This= book is what is called a=20 + reference grammar. It attempts to expound the whole Loj= ban language, or at least as much of it as is understood at present. Lojban= is a rich language with many features, and an attempt has been made to dis= cover the functions of those features. The word=20 + =20 + discover is used advisedly; Lojban was not=20 + invented by any one person or committee. Often, grammat= ical features were introduced into the language long before their usage was= fully understood. Sometimes they were introduced for one reason, only to p= rove more useful for other reasons not recognized at the time. + By intention, this book is complete in description but not in ex= planation. For every rule in the formal Lojban grammar (given in=20 + ), there is a bit of explanation a= nd an example somewhere in the book, and often a great deal more than a bit= . In essence,=20 + gives a brief overview of the languag= e,=20 + gives the formal structure of the= language, and the chapters in between put semantic flesh on those formal b= ones. I hope that eventually more grammatical material founded on (or even = correcting) the explanations in this book will become available. + linguistic drift<= /primary> Lojban= stability of Nevertheless, the= publication of this book is, in one sense, the completion of a long period= of language evolution. With the exception of a possible revision of the la= nguage that will not even be considered until five years from publication d= ate, and any revisions of this book needed to correct outright errors, the = language described in this book will not be changing by deliberate act of i= ts creators any more. Instead, language change will take place in the form = of new vocabulary – Lojban does not yet have nearly the vocabulary it= needs to be a fully usable language of the modern world, as=20 + explains – and through the irr= egular natural processes of drift and (who knows?) native-speaker evolution= . (Teach your children Lojban!) You can learn the language described here w= ith assurance that (unlike previous versions of Lojban and Loglan, as well = as most other artificial languages) it will not be subject to further fiddl= ing by language-meisters. + this bookstructure of structure of this book It is pr= obably worth mentioning that this book was written somewhat piecemeal. Each= chapter began life as an explication of a specific Lojban topic; only late= r did these begin to clump together into a larger structure of words and id= eas. Therefore, there are perhaps not as many cross-references as there sho= uld be. However, I have attempted to make the index as comprehensive as pos= sible. + chapter titlesintent of jokes Lojbanistan Each chapter has = a descriptive title, often involving some play on words; this is an attempt= to make the chapters more memorable. The title of=20 + (which you are now reading), for exa= mple, is an allusion to the book=20 + English As We Speak It In Ireland, by P. W. Joyce, which is a sort of informal reference grammar of Hiber= no-English.=20 + =20 + Lojbanistan is both an imaginary country where Lojban i= s the native language, and a term for the actual community of Lojban-speake= rs, scattered over the world. Why=20 + =20 + mangle? As yet, nobody in the real Lojbanistan speaks t= he language at all well, by the standards of the imaginary Lojbanistan; tha= t is one of the circumstances this book is meant to help remedy. + =20 +

+ What are the typographical conventions of this book? + =20 + Each chapter is broken into numbered sections; each section cont= ains a mixture of expository text, numbered examples, and possibly tables.<= /para> + this bookexamples of examples in this book The reader= will notice a certain similarity in the examples used throughout the book.= One chapter after another rings the changes on the self-same sentences: + + + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>go to the store</primary><secondary>e= xample</secondary></indexterm> + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c1e3d1"/> + + + mi klama le zarci + I go-to that-which-I-describe-as-a store. + I go to the store. + + + will become wearisomely familiar before=20 + is reached. This method is delibe= rate; I have tried to use simple and (eventually) familiar examples whereve= r possible, to avoid obscuring new grammatical points with new vocabulary. = Of course, this is not the method of a textbook, but this book is not a tex= tbook (although people have learned Lojban from it and its predecessors). R= ather, it is intended both for self-learning (of course, at present would-b= e Lojban teachers must be self-learners) and to serve as a reference in the= usual sense, for looking up obscure points about the language. + examplesstructure of structure of examples example of examples It is useful to talk further about=20 + for what it illustrates abo= ut examples in this book. Examples usually occupy three lines. The first of= these is in Lojban, the second in a word-by-word literal translation of th= e Lojban into English, and the third in colloquial English. The second and = third lines are sometimes called the=20 + =20 + literal translation and the=20 + colloquial translation respectively. Sometimes, when cl= arity is not sacrificed thereby, one or both are omitted. If there is more = than one Lojban sentence, it generally means that they have the same meanin= g. + square bracketsuse of in notation Words are som= etimes surrounded by square brackets. In Lojban texts, these enclose option= al grammatical particles that may (in the context of the particular example= ) be either omitted or included. In literal translations, they enclose word= s that are used as conventional translations of specific Lojban words, but = don't have exactly the meanings or uses that the English word would suggest= . In=20 + =20 + , square brackets surround phonet= ic representations in the International Phonetic Alphabet. + =20 + grammatical categ= oriesuse of upper case for tablesform= at of Many of the tables, especially those placed a= t the head of various sections, are in three columns. The first column cont= ains Lojban words discussed in that section; the second column contains the= grammatical category (represented by an UPPER CASE Lojban word) to which t= he word belongs, and the third column contains a brief English gloss, not n= ecessarily or typically a full explanation. Other tables are explained in c= ontext. + technical terms A few Lojban words are used in this book as technical = terms. All of these are explained in=20 + =20 + , except for a few used only in single= chapters, which are explained in the introductory sections of those chapte= rs. +

+ Disclaimers + disclaimers It is necessary to add, alas, that the examples used in th= is book do not refer to any existing person, place, or institution, and tha= t any such resemblance is entirely coincidental and unintentional, and not = intended to give offense. + dictionarysuperior authority of When definition= s and place structures of gismu, and especially of lujvo, are given in this= book, they may differ from those given in the English-Lojban dictionary (w= hich, as of this writing, is not yet published). If so, the information giv= en in the dictionary supersedes whatever is given here. +

+ Acknowledgements and Credits + LLG this book= author of author of this book Although the bul= k of this book was written for the Logical Language Group (LLG) by John Cow= an, who is represented by the occasional authorial=20 + =20 + I, certain chapters were first written by others and th= en heavily edited by me to fit into this book. + this bookcontributors to contributors to this book In= particular:=20 + is a fusion of originally separate do= cuments, one by Athelstan, and one by Nora Tansky LeChevalier and Bob LeChe= valier;=20 + and=20 + were originally written by Bob = LeChevalier with contributions by Chuck Barton;=20 + was originally written (in much long= er form) by Nick Nicholas; the dialogue near the end of=20 + was contributed by Nora Tansk= y LeChevalier;=20 + and parts of=20 + were originally by Bob LeCheva= lier; and the YACC grammar in=20 + =20 + is the work of several hands, but= is primarily by Bob LeChevalier and Jeff Taylor. The BNF grammar, which is= also in=20 + , was originally written by me, th= en rewritten by Clark Nelson, and finally touched up by me again. + this bookcredits for credits for this book The resear= ch into natural languages from which parts of=20 + draw their material was performed b= y Ivan Derzhanski. LLG acknowledges his kind permission to use the fruits o= f his research. + =20 + picturescredits for credits for pictures The pictures= in this book were drawn by Nora Tansky LeChevalier, except for the picture= appearing in=20 + =20 + , which is by Sylvia Rutiser Ris= sell. + The index was made by Nora Tansky LeChevalier. + this bookreviewers of reviewers of this book I would = like to thank the following people for their detailed reviews, suggestions,= comments, and early detection of my embarrassing errors in Lojban, logic, = English, and cross-references: Nick Nicholas, Mark Shoulson, Veijo Vilva, C= olin Fine, And Rosta, Jorge Llambias, Iain Alexander, Paulo S. L. M. Barret= o, Robert J. Chassell, Gale Cowan, Karen Stein, Ivan Derzhanski, Jim Carter= , Irene Gates, Bob LeChevalier, John Parks-Clifford (also known as=20 + pc), and Nora Tansky LeChevalier. + Nick Nicholas (NSN) would like to thank the following Lojbanists= : Mark Shoulson, Veijo Vilva, Colin Fine, And Rosta, and Iain Alexander for= their suggestions and comments; John Cowan, for his extensive comments, hi= s exemplary trailblazing of Lojban grammar, and for solving the=20 + manskapi dilemma for NSN; Jorge Llambias, for his even = more extensive comments, and for forcing NSN to think more than he was incl= ined to; Bob LeChevalier, for his skeptical overview of the issue, his enco= uragement, and for scouring all Lojban text his computer has been burdened = with for lujvo; Nora Tansky LeChevalier, for writing the program converting= old rafsi text to new rafsi text, and sparing NSN from embarrassing errors= ; and Jim Carter, for his dogged persistence in analyzing lujvo algorithmic= ally, which inspired this research, and for first identifying the three luj= vo classes. + =20 + BrownJames Cooke Of course, the entire Loglan P= roject owes a considerable debt to James Cooke Brown as the language invent= or, and also to several earlier contributors to the development of the lang= uage. Especially noteworthy are Doug Landauer, Jeff Prothero, Scott Layson,= Jeff Taylor, and Bob McIvor. Final responsibility for the remaining errors= and infelicities is solely mine. + =20 +

+ Informal Bibliography + Loglan<= /indexterm> bibliography The founding document for the Loglan Project, of which t= his book is one of the products, is=20 + Loglan 1: A Logical Language b= y James Cooke Brown (4th ed. 1989, The Loglan Institute, Gainesville, Flori= da, U.S.A.). The language described therein is not Lojban, but is very clos= e to it and may be considered an ancestral version. It is regrettably neces= sary to state that nothing in this book has been approved by Dr. Brown, and= that the very existence of Lojban is disapproved of by him. + =20 + The logic of Lojban, such as it is, owes a good deal to the Amer= ican philosopher W. v.O. Quine, especially=20 + Word and Object (1960, M.I.T. = Press). Much of Quine's philosophical writings, especially on observation s= entences, reads like a literal translation from Lojban. + =20 + The theory of negation expounded in=20 + is derived from a reading of Laur= ence Horn's work=20 + A Natural History of Negation.= + Of course, neither Brown nor Quine nor Horn is in any way respon= sible for the uses or misuses I have made of their works. + =20 + books about Lojba= n Depending on just when you are reading this book, t= here may be three other books about Lojban available: a textbook, a Lojban/= English dictionary, and a book containing general information about Lojban.= You can probably get these books, if they have been published, from the sa= me place where you got this book. In addition, other books not yet foreseen= may also exist. + =20 +

+ Captions to Pictures + The following examples list the Lojban caption, with a translati= on, for the picture at the head of each chapter. If a chapter's picture has= no caption,=20 + (none) is specified instead. +

+ <link linkend=3D"chapter-about-picture">Chapter 1 Caption</li= nk> + + coi lojban. coi rodo + + + Greetings, O Lojban! Greetings, all-of you + +

+ <link linkend=3D"chapter-tour-picture">Chapter 2 Caption</lin= k> + + (none) + +

+ <link linkend=3D"chapter-phonology-picture">Chapter 3 Caption= </link> + + .i .ai .i .ai .o + + + [untranslatable] + +

+ <link linkend=3D"chapter-morphology-picture">Chapter 4 Captio= n</link> + + jbobliku + + + Lojbanic-blocks + +

+ <link linkend=3D"chapter-selbri-picture">Chapter 5 Caption</l= ink> + + (none) + +

+ <link linkend=3D"chapter-sumti-picture">Chapter 6 Caption</li= nk> + + lei re nanmu cu bevri le re nanmu + + + The-mass-of two men carry the two men + Two men (jointly) carry two men (both of them). + +

+ <link linkend=3D"chapter-anaphoric-cmavo-picture">Chapter 7 C= aption</link> + + ma drani danfu + .i di'e + + .i di'u + .i dei + .i ri + .i do'i + + + [What sumti] is-the-correct type-of-answer? + The-next-sentence. + The-previous-sentence. + This-sentence. + The-previous-sentence. + An-unspecified-utterance. + +

+ <link linkend=3D"chapter-relative-clauses-picture">Chapter 8 = Caption</link> + + ko viska re prenu poi bruna la santas. + + + [You!] see two persons who-are brothers-of Santa. + + +

+ <link linkend=3D"chapter-sumti-tcita-picture">Chapter 9 Capti= on</link> + + (none) + +

+ <link linkend=3D"chapter-tenses-picture">Chapter 10 Caption</= link> + + za'o klama + + + [superfective] come/go + Something goes (or comes) for too long. + +

+ <link linkend=3D"chapter-abstractions-picture">Chapter 11 Cap= tion</link> + + le si'o kunti + + + The concept-of emptiness + +

+ <link linkend=3D"chapter-lujvo-picture">Chapter 12 Caption</l= ink> + + (none) + +

+ <link linkend=3D"chapter-attitudinals-picture">Chapter 13 Cap= tion</link> + + .oi ro'i ro'a ro'o + + + [Pain!] [emotional] [social] [physical] + +

+ <link linkend=3D"chapter-connectives-picture">Chapter 14 Capt= ion</link> + + (none) + +

+ <link linkend=3D"chapter-negation-picture">Chapter 15 Caption= </link> + + mi na'e lumci le karce + + + I other-than wash the car + I didn't wash the car. + +

+ <link linkend=3D"chapter-quantifiers-picture">Chapter 16 Capt= ion</link> + + drata mupli pe'u .djan. + + + another example [please] John + Another example, John, please! + +

+ <link linkend=3D"chapter-letterals-picture">Chapter 17 Captio= n</link> + + zai xanlerfu by. ly. .obu .jy by. .abu ny. + + + + [Shift] hand-letters l o j b a n + "Lojban" in a manual alphabet + +

+ <link linkend=3D"chapter-mekso-picture">Chapter 18 Caption</l= ink> + + no no + + + 0 0 + +

+ <link linkend=3D"chapter-structure-picture">Chapter 19 Captio= n</link> + + (none) + +

+ <link linkend=3D"chapter-catalogue-picture">Chapter 20 Captio= n</link> + + (none) + +

+ <link linkend=3D"chapter-grammars-picture">Chapter 21 Caption= </link> + + (none) + +

+ Boring Legalities + Copyright =C2=A9 1997 by The Logical Language Group, Inc. All Ri= ghts Reserved. + Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of = this book, either in electronic or in printed form, provided the copyright = notice and this permission notice are preserved on all copies. + Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions o= f this book, provided that the modifications are clearly marked as such, an= d provided that the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the = terms of a permission notice identical to this one. + Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of thi= s book into another language, under the above conditions for modified versi= ons, except that this permission notice may be stated in a translation that= has been approved by the Logical Language Group, rather than in English. + The contents of=20 + are in the public domain. + For information, contact: The Logical Language Group, 2904 Beau = Lane, Fairfax VA 22031-1303 USA Telephone 703-385-0273. Electronic address:= =20 + llg-board@lojban.org<= /link>World Wide Web:=20 + http://www.lojban.org +

+ diff --git a/chapters/02.xml b/chapters/02.xml new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b7dcd2a --- /dev/null +++ b/chapters/02.xml @@ -0,0 +1,2284 @@ + + A Quick Tour of Lojban Grammar, With Diagrams + + The picture for chapter 2 + + + + +

+ The concept of the bridi + bridiconcept of This chapter gives diagrammed e= xamples of basic Lojban sentence structures. The most general pattern is co= vered first, followed by successive variations on the basic components of t= he Lojban sentence. There are many more capabilities not covered in this ch= apter, but covered in detail in later chapters, so this chapter is a=20 + quick tour of the material later covered more slowly th= roughout the book. It also introduces most of the Lojban words used to disc= uss Lojban grammar. + =20 + + + Let us consider John and Sam and three statements about them: + =20 + + =20 + <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>father</primary><secondary>ex= ample</secondary></indexterm> + <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>John and Sam</primary><second= ary>example</secondary></indexterm> +=20 + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e1d1"/> + + John is the father of Sam. + + + =20 + <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>hits</primary><secondary>exam= ple</secondary></indexterm> + <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>John and Sam</primary><second= ary>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e1d2"/> + + John hits Sam. + =20 + + + + <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>taller</primary><secondary>ex= ample</secondary></indexterm> + <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>John and Sam</primary><second= ary>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e1d3"/> + + John is taller than Sam. + =20 + + sumtirelation with bridi brivlarelation to bridi predicati= oncompared with bridi bridicompared w= ith predication predicationas a relationship relationshipactive/static/attributive compared = These examples all describe relationships between John and Sam. However, in= English, we use the noun=20 + =20 + father to describe a static relationship in=20 + , the verb=20 + hits to describe an active relationship in=20 + =20 + , and the adjective=20 + taller to describe an attributive relationship in=20 + =20 + . In Lojban we make no such = grammatical distinctions; these three sentences, when expressed in Lojban, = are structurally identical. The same part of speech is used to represent th= e relationship. In formal logic this whole structure is called a=20 + predication; in Lojban it is called a=20 + bridi, and the central part of speech is the=20 + selbri. Logicians refer to the things thus related as= =20 + arguments, while Lojbanists call them=20 + sumti. These Lojban terms will be used for the rest of = the book. + + + bridi (predicate) + ______________|__________________ + | | + John is the father of Sam + |____| |______________| |___| + | | | + sumti selbri sumti (argument) + + + + + + =20 + + + In a relationship, there are a definite number of things being related. I= n English, for example,=20 + give has three places: the donor, the recipient and the= gift. For example: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e1d4"/> + <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>give</primary><secondary>exam= ple</secondary></indexterm> + + John gives Sam the book. + + and + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e1d5"/> + <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>give</primary><secondary>exam= ple</secondary></indexterm> + + Sam gives John the book. + + mean two different things because the relative positions of=20 + John and=20 + Sam have been switched. Further, + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e1d6"/> + <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>give</primary><secondary>exam= ple</secondary></indexterm> + + The book gives John Sam. + + seems strange to us merely because the places are being filled b= y unorthodox arguments. The relationship expressed by=20 + give has not changed. + place structuredefinition of In Lojban, each se= lbri has a specified number and type of arguments, known collectively as it= s=20 + place structure. The simplest kind of selbri consists o= f a single root word, called a=20 + gismu, and the definition in a dictionary gives the pla= ce structure explicitly. The primary task of constructing a Lojban sentence= , after choosing the relationship itself, is deciding what you will use to = fill in the sumti places. + This book uses the Lojban terms=20 + bridi,=20 + sumti, and=20 + selbri, because it is best to come to understand them i= ndependently of the English associations of the corresponding words, which = are only roughly similar in meaning anyhow. + =20 + + double underscore notation= convention for Quick Tour chapter underscore notation for Quick Tour chapter notatio= n conventionsfor Quick Tour chapter The Lojban examples in this chapter (but not in the rest of the book)= use a single underline (---) under each sumti, and a double underline (=3D= =3D=3D) under each selbri, to help you to tell them apart. +

+ Pronunciation + pronunciationquick-tour version Detailed pronun= ciation and spelling rules are given in=20 + , but what follows will keep the = reader from going too far astray while digesting this chapter. + vowels<= secondary>pronunciation ofquick-tour version Lojban has six recognized vowels:=20 + a,=20 + e,=20 + i,=20 + o,=20 + u and=20 + y. The first five are roughly pronounced as=20 + a as in=20 + father,=20 + e as in=20 + let,=20 + i as in=20 + machine,=20 + o as in=20 + dome and=20 + u as in=20 + flute.=20 + y is pronounced as the sound called=20 + schwa, that is, as the unstressed=20 + a as in=20 + about or=20 + around. + consonantspronunciation ofquick-tour version Twelve consonants in Lojban are pronounced more or less = as their counterparts are in English:=20 + b,=20 + d,=20 + f,=20 + k,=20 + l,=20 + m,=20 + n,=20 + p,=20 + r,=20 + t,=20 + v and=20 + z. The letter=20 + c, on the other hand is pronounced as the=20 + sh in=20 + hush, while=20 + j is its voiced counterpart, the sound of the=20 + s in=20 + pleasure.=20 + g is always pronounced as it is in=20 + gift, never as in=20 + giant.=20 + s is as in=20 + sell, never as in=20 + rose. The sound of=20 + x is not found in English in normal words. It is = found as=20 + ch in Scottish=20 + loch, as=20 + j in Spanish=20 + junta, and as=20 + ch in German=20 + Bach; it also appears in the English in= terjection=20 + yecchh!. It gets easier to say as you practice it. The = letter=20 + r can be trilled, but doesn't have to be. + diphthongspronunciation ofquick-tour version The Lojban diphthongs=20 + ai,=20 + ei,=20 + oi, and=20 + au are pronounced much as in the English words= =20 + sigh,=20 + say,=20 + boy, and=20 + how. Other Lojban diphthongs begin with an=20 + i pronounced like English=20 + y (for example,=20 + io is pronounced=20 + yo) or else with a=20 + u pronounced like English=20 + w (for example,=20 + ua is pronounced=20 + wa). + period<= secondary>quick-tour version commaquick-tour version apostroph= equick-tour version Lojban als= o has three=20 + semi-letters: the period, the comma and the apostrophe.= The period represents a glottal stop or a pause; it is a required stoppage= of the flow of air in the speech stream. The apostrophe sounds just like t= he English letter=20 + =20 + h. Unlike a regular consonant, it is not found at the b= eginning or end of a word, nor is it found adjacent to a consonant; it is o= nly found between two vowels. The comma has no sound associated with it, an= d is used to separate syllables that might ordinarily run together. It is n= ot used in this chapter. + stress<= secondary>quick-tour version Stress falls on the ne= xt to the last syllable of all words, unless that vowel is=20 + y, which is never stressed; in such words the thi= rd-to-last syllable is stressed. If a word only has one syllable, then that= syllable is not stressed. + All Lojban words are pronounced as they are spelled: there are n= o silent letters. +

+ Words that can act as sumti + pro-sumtiquick-tour version Here is a short tab= le of single words used as sumti. This table provides examples only, not th= e entire set of such words, which may be found in=20 + . + + + mi + I/me, we/us + + + do + you + + + ti + this, these + + + ta + that, those + + + tu + that far away, those far away + + + zo'e + unspecified value (used when a sumti is unimportant o= r obvious) + + + Lojban sumti are not specific as to number (singular or plural),= nor gender (masculine/feminine/neutral). Such distinctions can be optional= ly added by methods that are beyond the scope of this chapter. + =20 + pointing cmavoquick-tour version The cmavo=20 + ti,=20 + ta, and=20 + tu refer to whatever the speaker is pointing at, and sh= ould not be used to refer to things that cannot in principle be pointed at.= + namesquick-tour version Names may also be used = as sumti, provided they are preceded with the word=20 + la: + + + la meris. + the one/ones named Mary + + + la djan. + the one/ones named John + + + Other Lojban spelling versions are possible for names from other= languages, and there are restrictions on which letters may appear in Lojba= n names: see=20 + for more information. +

+ Some words used to indicate selbri relations + selbri list for q= uick tour Here is a short table of some words used as= Lojban selbri in this chapter: + + + + vecnu + x1 (seller) sells x2 (goods) to x3 (buyer) for x4 (price)<= /td> + + + tavla + x1 (talker) talks to x2 (audience) about x3 (topic) in lan= guage x4 + + + sutra + x1 (agent) is fast at doing x2 (action) + + + blari'o + x1 (object/light source) is blue-green + + + melbi + x1 (object/idea) is beautiful to x2 (observer) by standard= x3 + + + cutci + x1 is a shoe/boot for x2 (foot) made of x3 (material) + + + bajra + x1 runs on x2 (surface) using x3 (limbs) in manner x4 (gai= t) + + + klama + x1 goes/comes to x2 (destination) from x3 (origin point) v= ia x4 (route) using x5 (means of transportation) + + + pluka + x1 pleases/is pleasing to x2 (experiencer) under condition= s x3 + + + + gerku + x1 is a dog of breed x2 + + + kurji + x1 takes care of x2 + + + kanro + x1 is healthy by standard x2 + + + + stali + x1 stays/remains with x2 + + + zarci + x1 is a market/store/shop selling x2 (products) operated b= y x3 (storekeeper) + + + x1notation conventionquick-tour version Each selbri (relation) has a specific rule that defines the r= ole of each sumti in the bridi, based on its position. In the table above, = that order was expressed by labeling the sumti positions as x1, x2, x3, x4,= and x5. + words not in the = dictionary Like the table in=20 + , this table is far from comple= te: in fact, no complete table can exist, because Lojban allows new words t= o be created (in specified ways) whenever a speaker or writer finds the exi= sting supply of words inadequate. This notion is a basic difference between= Lojban (and some other languages such as German and Chinese) and English; = in English, most people are very leery of using words that=20 + aren't in the dictionary. Lojbanists are encouraged to = invent new words; doing so is a major way of participating in the developme= nt of the language.=20 + explains how to make new words,= and=20 + explains how to give them appropriat= e meanings. +

+ Some simple Lojban bridi + bridiquick-tour version Let's look at a simple = Lojban bridi. The place structure of the gismu=20 + tavla is + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e5d1"/> + + x1 talks to x2 about x3 in language x4 + + where the=20 + x es with following numbers represent the various argum= ents that could be inserted at the given positions in the English sentence.= For example: + + + <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>engineering</primary><seconda= ry>example</secondary></indexterm> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e5d2"/> + + John talks to Sam about engineering in Lojban. + =20 + + =20 + + + has=20 + John in the x1 place,=20 + Sam in the x2 place,=20 + engineering in the x3 place, and=20 + =20 + Lojban in the x4 place, and could be paraphrased: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e5d3"/> + + Talking is going on, with speaker John and listener Sam and su= bject matter engineering and language Lojban. + + The Lojban bridi corresponding to=20 + will have the form + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e5d4"/> + + + + x1 + cu + tavla=20 + x2=20 + x3=20 + x4 + + + + cuuse ofquick-tour version= cuomis= sion ofquick-tour version The = word=20 + cu serves as a separator between any preceding sumti an= d the selbri. It can often be omitted, as in the following examples. + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e5d5"/> + + + + mi=20 + tavla=20 + do=20 + zo'e=20 + zo'e + + I talk to you about something in some language. + + =20 + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e5d6"/> + + + + do=20 + tavla=20 + mi=20 + ta=20 + zo'e + + You talk to me about that thing in a language. + + =20 + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e5d7"/> + + + + mi=20 + tavla=20 + zo'e=20 + tu=20 + ti + + I talk to someone about that thing yonder in this languag= e. + + + ( + is a bit unusual, as there = is no easy way to point to a language; one might point to a copy of this bo= ok, and hope the meaning gets across!) + ellipsisquick-tour version When there are one o= r more occurrences of the cmavo=20 + zo'e at the end of a bridi, they may be omitted, a proc= ess called=20 + ellipsis.=20 + + and=20 + may be expressed thus: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e5d8"/> + + + + mi=20 + tavla=20 + do + + I talk to you (about something in some language). + + =20 + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e5d9"/> + + + + do=20 + tavla=20 + mi=20 + ta + + You talk to me about that thing (in some language). + + + Note that=20 + is not subject to ellipsis = by this direct method, as the=20 + + zo'e in it is not at the end of the bridi. +

+ Variant bridi structure + sumti placementvariantquick-tour version Consider the sentence + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e6d1"/> + + + + mi + cu + vecnu + ti + ta + zo'e + + + seller-x1 + + sells + goods-sold-x2 + buyer-x3 + price-x4 + + + I + + sell + this + to that + for some price. + + I sell this-thing/these-things to that-buyer/those-buyers= . + (the price is obvious or unimportant) + + + + has one sumti (the x1) befo= re the selbri. It is also possible to put more than one sumti before the se= lbri, without changing the order of sumti: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e6d2"/> + + + + mi + ti =20 + cu + vecnu + ta + + + seller-x1 + goods-sold-x2 + + sells + buyer-x3 + + + I + this + + sell + to that. + + (translates as stilted or poetic English) + I this thing do sell to that buyer. + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e6d3"/> + + + + mi + ti + ta =20 + cu + vecnu + + + seller-x1 + goods-sold-x2 + buyer-x3 + + sells + + + I + this + to that + + sell + + (translates as stilted or poetic English) + I this thing to that buyer do sell. + + + + through=20 + mean the same thing. Usuall= y, placing more than one sumti before the selbri is done for style or for e= mphasis on the sumti that are out-of-place from their normal position. (Nat= ive speakers of languages other than English may prefer such orders.) + observativesquick-tour version If there are no = sumti before the selbri, then it is understood that the x1 sumti value is e= quivalent to=20 + zo'e; i.e. unimportant or obvious, and therefore not gi= ven. Any sumti after the selbri start counting from x2. + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e6d4"/> + + + + ta =20 + cu + melbi + + + object/idea-x1 + + is-beautiful=20 + to someone by some standard + + + That/Those + + is/are beautiful. + + That is beautiful. + Those are beautiful. + + + when the x1 is omitted, becomes: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e6d5"/> + + + + =20 + melbi + + + + unspecified-x1 + is-beautiful=20 + to someone by some standard + + Beautiful! + It's beautiful! + + + Omitting the x1 adds emphasis to the selbri relation, which has = become first in the sentence. This kind of sentence is termed an observativ= e, because it is often used when someone first observes or takes note of th= e relationship, and wishes to quickly communicate it to someone else. Commo= nly understood English observatives include=20 + =20 + =20 + Smoke! upon seeing smoke or smelling the odor, or=20 + Car! to a person crossing the street who might be in da= nger. Any Lojban selbri can be used as an observative if no sumti appear be= fore the selbri. + =20 + The word=20 + cu does not occur in an observative;=20 + =20 + cu is a separator, and there must be a sumti before the= selbri that needs to be kept separate for=20 + cu to be used. With no sumti preceding the selbri,=20 + cu is not permitted. Short words like=20 + cu which serve grammatical functions are called=20 + cmavo in Lojban. +

+ Varying the order of sumti + sumti reordering<= /primary>quick-tour version For one reas= on or another you may want to change the order, placing one particular sumt= i at the front of the bridi. The cmavo=20 + se, when placed before the last word of the selbri, wil= l switch the meanings of the first and second sumti places. So + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e7d1"/> + + + + mi + tavla + do + ti + + I talk to you about this. + + + has the same meaning as + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e7d2"/> + + + + do + se tavla + mi + ti + + You are talked to by me about this. + + + The cmavo=20 + te, when used in the same location, switches the meanin= gs of the first and the third sumti places. + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e7d3"/> + + + + mi + tavla + do + ti + + I talk to you about this. + + + has the same meaning as + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e7d4"/> + + + + ti + te tavla + do + mi + + This is talked about to you by me. + + + Note that only the first and third sumti have switched places; t= he second sumti has remained in the second place. + The cmavo=20 + ve and=20 + xe switch the first and fourth sumti places, and the fi= rst and fifth sumti places, respectively. These changes in the order of pla= ces are known as=20 + conversions, and the=20 + se,=20 + te,=20 + ve, and=20 + xe cmavo are said to convert the selbri. + More than one of these operators may be used on a given selbri a= t one time, and in such a case they are evaluated from left to right. Howev= er, in practice they are used one at a time, as there are better tools for = complex manipulation of the sumti places. See=20 + for details. + passive voice The effect is similar to what in English is called the= =20 + passive voice. In Lojban, the converted selbri has a ne= w place structure that is renumbered to reflect the place reversal, thus ha= ving effects when such a conversion is used in combination with other const= ructs such as=20 + =20 + =20 + le selbri [ku] (see=20 + ). +

+ The basic structure of longer utterances + People don't always say just one sentence. Lojban has a specifi= c structure for talk or writing that is longer than one sentence. The entir= ety of a given speech event or written text is called an utterance. The sen= tences (usually, but not always, bridi) in an utterance are separated by th= e cmavo=20 + ni'o and=20 + i. These correspond to a brief pause (or nothing at all= ) in spoken English, and the various punctuation marks like period, questio= n mark, and exclamation mark in written English. These separators prevent t= he sumti at the beginning of the next sentence from being mistaken for a tr= ailing sumti of the previous sentence. + =20 + The cmavo=20 + ni'o separates paragraphs (covering different topics of= discussion). In a long text or utterance, the topical structure of the tex= t may be indicated by multiple=20 + ni'o s, with perhaps=20 + ni'oni'oni'o used to indicate a chapter,=20 + ni'oni'o to indicate a section, and a single=20 + ni'o to indicate a subtopic corresponding to a single E= nglish paragraph. + The cmavo=20 + i separates sentences. It is sometimes compounded with = words that modify the exact meaning (the semantics) of the sentence in the = context of the utterance. (The cmavo=20 + xu, discussed in=20 + , is one such word – = it turns the sentence from a statement to a question about truth.) When mor= e than one person is talking, a new speaker will usually omit the=20 + i even though she/he may be continuing on the same topi= c. + It is still O.K. for a new speaker to say the=20 + i before continuing; indeed, it is encouraged for maxim= um clarity (since it is possible that the second speaker might merely be ad= ding words onto the end of the first speaker's sentence). A good translatio= n for=20 + i is the=20 + and used in run-on sentences when people are talking in= formally:=20 + I did this, and then I did that, and ..., and .... +

+ tanru + tanruquick-tour version When two gismu are adja= cent, the first one modifies the second, and the selbri takes its place str= ucture from the rightmost word. Such combinations of gismu are called=20 + tanru. For example, + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d1"/> + + + sutra tavla + + + has the place structure + + + <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>fast talker</primary><seconda= ry>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d2"/> + + x1 is a fast type-of talker to x2 about x3 in language x4 + x1 talks fast to x2 about x3 in language x4 + + =20 + + + tanru default groupingquick-tour version When three or m= ore gismu are in a row, the first modifies the second, and that combined me= aning modifies the third, and that combined meaning modifies the fourth, an= d so on. For example + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d3"/> + + + sutra tavla cutci + + + =20 + + + has the place structure + + + <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>fast-talker shoe</primary><se= condary>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d4"/> + + s1 is a fast-talker type of shoe worn by s2 of material s3 + + That is, it is a shoe that is worn by a fast talker rather than = a shoe that is fast and is also worn by a talker. + =20 + Note especially the use of=20 + type-of as a mechanism for connecting the English trans= lations of the two or more gismu; this convention helps the learner underst= and each tanru in its context. Creative interpretations are also possible, = however: + + + <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>runner shoe</primary><seconda= ry>example</secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d5"/> + + + bajra cutci + runner shoe + =20 + + + =20 + + + most probably refers to shoes suitable for runners, but might be interpre= ted in some imaginative instances as=20 + shoes that run (by themselves?). In general, however, t= he meaning of a tanru is determined by the literal meaning of its component= s, and not by any connotations or figurative meanings. Thus + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d6"/> + + + sutra tavla + fast-talker + + + would not necessarily imply any trickery or deception, unlike th= e English idiom, and a + + + <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Lepidoptera</primary><seconda= ry>example</secondary></indexterm> + <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>butterfly</primary><secondary= >social</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>=20 + <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>social butterfly</primary><se= condary>example</secondary></indexterm>=20 + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d7"/> + + + jikca toldi + social butterfly + + + =20 + + + must always be an insect with large brightly-colored wings, of the family= =20 + Lepidoptera. + =20 + tanruplace structure ofquick-tour version The place structure of a tanru is always that of the final = component of the tanru. Thus, the following has the place structure of=20 + klama: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d8"/> + + + + mi + cu + sutra klama + la meris. + + + I + + quickly-go + to Mary. + + + + tanru conversion<= /primary>effect on place structurequick-to= ur version With the conversion=20 + se klama as the final component of the tanru, t= he place structure of the entire selbri is that of=20 + se klama: the x1 place is the destination, and = the x2 place is the one who goes: + =20 + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d9"/> + + + + mi + cu + sutra + se klama + la meris. + + + I + + quickly + am-gone-to + by Mary. + + + + tanruand conversionquick-tour version<= /indexterm> The following example shows that there is more to conversion th= an merely switching places, though: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d10"/> + + + + la tam. + cu + melbi tavla + la meris. + + + Tom + + beautifully-talks + to Mary. + + + Tom + + is a beautiful-talker + to Mary. + + + + has the place structure of=20 + tavla, but note the two distinct interpretations. + Now, using conversion, we can modify the place structure order:<= /para> + =20 + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d11"/> + + + + la meris. + cu + melbi se tavla + la tam. + + + Mary + + is beautifully-talked-to + by Tom. + + + Mary + + is a beautiful-audience + for Tom. + + + + and we see that the modification has been changed so as to focus= on Mary's role in the bridi relationship, leading to a different set of po= ssible interpretations. + Note that there is no place structure change if the modifying te= rm is converted, and so less drastic variation in possible meanings: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d12"/> + <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>talker</primary><secondary>ex= ample</secondary></indexterm> + + + + la tam. + cu + tavla melbi + la meris. + + + Tom + + is talkerly-beautiful + to Mary. + + + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d13"/> + + + + la tam. + cu + se tavla melbi + la meris. + + + Tom + + is audiencely-beautiful + to Mary. + + + + and we see that the manner in which Tom is seen as beautiful by = Mary changes, but Tom is still the one perceived as beautiful, and Mary, th= e observer of beauty. +

+ Description sumti + =20 + + descriptionsquick-tour version Often we wish to talk abo= ut things other than the speaker, the listener and things we can point to. = Let's say I want to talk about a talker other than=20 + mi. What I want to talk about would naturally fit into = the first place of=20 + tavla. Lojban, it turns out, has an operator that pulls= this first place out of a selbri and converts it to a sumti called a=20 + description sumti. The description sumti=20 + le tavla ku means=20 + the talker, and may be used wherever any sumti may be u= sed. + For example, + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e10d1"/> + + + + mi + tavla + do + le tavla + ku + + + + means the same as + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e10d2"/> + + I talk to you about the talker + + where=20 + the talker is presumably someone other than me, though = not necessarily. + Similarly=20 + le sutra tavla ku is=20 + the fast talker, and=20 + =20 + le sutra te tavla ku is=20 + the fast subject of talk or=20 + the subject of fast talk. Which of these related meanin= gs is understood will depend on the context in which the expression is used= . The most plausible interpretation within the context will generally be as= sumed by a listener to be the intended one. + In many cases the word=20 + ku may be omitted. In particular, it is never necessary= in a description at the end of a sentence, so: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e10d3"/> + + + + mi + tavla + do + le tavla + + + I + talk-to + you + about-the talker + + + + means exactly the same thing as=20 + . + cuneed forquick-tour version There is a problem when we want to say=20 + The fast one is talking. The=20 + obvious translation=20 + le sutra tavla turns out to mean=20 + the fast talker, and has no selbri at all. To solve thi= s problem we can use the word=20 + =20 + cu, which so far has always been optional, in front of = the selbri. + The word=20 + cu has no meaning, and exists only to mark the beginnin= g of the selbri within the bridi, separating it from a previous sumti. It c= omes before any other part of the selbri, including other cmavo like=20 + se or=20 + te. Thus: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e10d4"/> + + + le sutra tavla + The fast talker + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e10d5"/> + + + + le sutra + cu + tavla + + + The fast one + + is talking. + + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e10d6"/> + + + le sutra se tavla + The fast talked-to one + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e10d7"/> + + + + le sutra + cu + se tavla + + + The fast one + + is talked to. + + + + KU selma'oquick-tour version kuquick-tour version Consider the following more complex example, with two= description sumti. + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e10d8"/> + + + + mi + cu + tavla + le vecnu + ku + le blari'o + ku + + + I + + talk-to + the seller + + about the blue-green-thing. + + + + + The sumti=20 + le vecnu contains the selbri=20 + vecnu, which has the=20 + seller in the x1 place, and uses it in this sentence to= describe a particular=20 + seller that the speaker has in mind (one that he or she= probably expects the listener will also know about). Similarly, the speake= r has a particular blue-green thing in mind, which is described using=20 + le to mark=20 + blari'o, a selbri whose first sumti is something blue-g= reen. + It is safe to omit both occurrences of=20 + ku in=20 + , and it is also safe to omi= t the=20 + cu. +

+ Examples of brivla + brivla<= secondary>types ofquick-tour version The simplest form of selbri is an individual word. A word which may = by itself express a selbri relation is called a=20 + brivla. The three types of brivla are gismu (root words= ), lujvo (compounds), and fu'ivla (borrowings from other languages). All ha= ve identical grammatical uses. So far, most of our selbri have been gismu o= r tanru built from gismu. + =20 + gismuquick-tour version gismu: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e11d1"/> + + + + mi =20 + cu + klama + ti + zo'e + zo'e + ta + + + Go-er + + goes + destination + origin + route + means. + + I go here (to this) using that means (from somewhere via = some route). + + + lujvoquick-tour version lujvo: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e11d2"/> + + + + ta=20 + cu + blari'o + + + That + + is-blue-green. + + + + fu'ivla= quick-tour version fu'ivla: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e11d3"/> + + + + ti=20 + cu + djarspageti + + + This + + is-spaghetti. + + + + + cmavo as selbriquick-tour version Some cmavo ma= y also serve as selbri, acting as variables that stand for another selbri. = The most commonly used of these is=20 + go'i, which represents the main bridi of the previous L= ojban sentence, with any new sumti or other sentence features being express= ed replacing the previously expressed ones. Thus, in this context: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e11d4"/> + + + + ta=20 + cu + go'i + + + That + + too/same-as-last selbri. + + That (is spaghetti), too. + + + +

+ The sumti=20 + <valsi>di'u</valsi> and=20 + <jbophrase>la'e di'u</jbophrase> + referencequick-tour version In English, I might= say=20 + The dog is beautiful, and you might reply=20 + This pleases me. How do you know what=20 + =20 + this refers to? Lojban uses different expressions to co= nvey the possible meanings of the English: + + + <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>beautiful dog</primary><secon= dary>example</secondary></indexterm> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e12d1"/> + + + + le gerku + ku + cu=20 + melbi + + The dog is beautiful. + + + The following three sentences all might translate as=20 + This pleases me. + =20 + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e12d2"/> + + + + ti + cu + pluka + mi + + This (the dog) pleases me. + + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e12d3"/> + + + + di'u + cu + pluka + mi + + This (the last sentence) pleases me (perhaps because it i= s grammatical or sounds nice). + + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e12d4"/> + + + + la'e di'u + cu + pluka + mi + + This (the meaning of the last sentence; i.e. that the dog= is beautiful) pleases me. + + + + pleases= =20 + uses one sumti to point to = or refer to another by inference. It is common to write=20 + la'edi'u as a single word; it is used more often than= =20 + =20 + di'u by itself. +

+ Possession + possessionquick-tour version=20 + Possession refers to the concept of specifying an objec= t by saying who it belongs to (or with). A full explanation of Lojban posse= ssion is given in=20 + . A simple means of expres= sing possession, however, is to place a sumti representing the possessor of= an object within the description sumti that refers to the object: specific= ally, between the=20 + le and the selbri of the description: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e13d1"/> + + + + le mi gerku + cu=20 + sutra + + + The of-me dog + + is fast. + + My dog is fast. + + + possession not ow= nershipquick-tour version In L= ojban, possession doesn't necessarily mean ownership: one may=20 + possess a chair simply by sitting on it, even though it= actually belongs to someone else. English uses possession casually in the = same way, but also uses it to refer to actual ownership or even more intima= te relationships:=20 + my arm doesn't mean=20 + some arm I own but rather=20 + the arm that is part of my body. Lojban has methods of = specifying all these different kinds of possession precisely and easily. +

+ Vocatives and commands + =20 + vocativesquick-tour version You may call someon= e's attention to the fact that you are addressing them by using=20 + doi followed by their name. The sentence + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e14d1"/> + + + doi djan. + + + means=20 + Oh, John, I'm talking to you. It also has the effect of= setting the value of=20 + do;=20 + do now refers to=20 + John until it is changed in some way in the conversatio= n. Note that=20 + is not a bridi, but it is a= legitimate Lojban sentence nevertheless; it is known as a=20 + vocative phrase. + =20 + Other cmavo can be used instead of=20 + doi in a vocative phrase, with a different significance= . For example, the cmavo=20 + =20 + coi means=20 + hello and=20 + co'o means=20 + good-bye. Either word may stand alone, they may follow = one another, or either may be followed by a pause and a name. (Vocative phr= ases with=20 + doi do not need a pause before the name.) + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e14d2"/> + + + coi. djan. + Hello, John. + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e14d3"/> + + + co'o. djan. + Good-bye, John. + + + imperativesquick-tour version commandsquick-tour vers= ion Commands are expressed in Lojban by a simple va= riation of the main bridi structure. If you say + + =20 + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e14d4"/> + + + + do + tavla + + + You + are-talking. + + + + you are simply making a statement of fact. In order to issue a c= ommand in Lojban, substitute the word=20 + ko for=20 + do. The bridi + + + <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Talk!</primary><secondary>exa= mple</secondary></indexterm> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e14d5"/> + + + + ko + tavla + + + + +=20 + + instructs the listener to do whatever is necessary to make=20 + true; it means=20 + Talk! Other examples: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e14d6"/> + + + + ko + sutra + + Be fast! + + + The=20 + ko need not be in the x1 place, but rather can occur an= ywhere a sumti is allowed, leading to possible Lojban commands that are ver= y unlike English commands: + =20 + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e14d7"/> + + + + mi + tavla + ko + + Be talked to by me. + Let me talk to you. + + + The cmavo=20 + ko can fill any appropriate sumti place, and can be use= d as often as is appropriate for the selbri: + + + <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Take care!</primary><secondar= y>example</secondary></indexterm> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e14d8"/> + + + + ko + kurji + ko + + + + and + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e14d9"/> + + + + ko + ko + kurji + + + + =20 + + + both mean=20 + You take care of you and=20 + Be taken care of by you, or to put it colloquially,=20 + Take care of yourself. +

+ Questions + questionsquick-tour version There are many kind= s of questions in Lojban: full explanations appear in=20 + and in various other= chapters throughout the book. In this chapter, we will introduce three kin= ds: sumti questions, selbri questions, and yes/no questions. + =20 + =20 + sumti questionsquick-tour version questionsquick-tour = version The cmavo=20 + ma is used to create a sumti question: it indicates tha= t the speaker wishes to know the sumti which should be placed at the locati= on of the=20 + ma to make the bridi true. It can be translated as=20 + Who? or=20 + What? in most cases, but also serves for=20 + When?,=20 + Where?, and=20 + Why? when used in sumti places that express time, locat= ion, or cause. For example: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d1"/> + + + + ma + tavla + do + mi + + + Who? + talks + to-you + about-me. + + Who is talking to you about me? + + + The listener can reply by simply stating a sumti: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d2"/> + + + la djan. + John (is talking to you about me). + + + Like=20 + ko,=20 + ma can occur in any position where a sumti is allowed, = not just in the first position: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d3"/> + + + + do + cu + tavla + ma + + + You + + talk + to what/whom? + + + + A=20 + ma can also appear in multiple sumti positions in one s= entence, in effect asking several questions at once. + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d4"/> + + + + ma + cu =20 + tavla + ma + + + What/Who + + talks + to what/whom? + + + + separate question= squick-tour version The two se= parate=20 + ma positions ask two separate questions, and can theref= ore be answered with different values in each sumti place. + =20 + bridi questionsquick-tour version selbri questionsquic= k-tour version The cmavo=20 + mo is the selbri analogue of=20 + ma. It asks the respondent to provide a selbri that wou= ld be a true relation if inserted in place of the=20 + mo: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d5"/> + + + + do + cu + mo + + + You + + are-what/do-what? + + + + A=20 + mo may be used anywhere a brivla or other selbri might.= Keep this in mind for later examples. Unfortunately, by itself,=20 + mo is a very non-specific question. The response to the= question in=20 + could be: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d6"/> + + + + mi + cu + melbi + + I am beautiful. + + + or: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d7"/> + + + + mi + cu + tavla + + I talk. + + + speaker-listener = cooperation Clearly,=20 + mo requires some cooperation between the speaker and th= e respondent to ensure that the right question is being answered. If contex= t doesn't make the question specific enough, the speaker must ask the quest= ion more specifically using a more complex construction such as a tanru (se= e=20 + ). + It is perfectly permissible for the respondent to fill in other = unspecified places in responding to a=20 + mo question. Thus, the respondent in=20 + could have also specified a= n audience, a topic, and/or a language in the response. + yes/no questions<= /primary>quick-tour version Finally, we = must consider questions that can be answered=20 + Yes or=20 + No, such as + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d8"/> + + Are you talking to me? + + Like all yes-or-no questions in English,=20 + may be reformulated as + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d9"/> + + Is it true that you are talking to me? + + In Lojban we have a word that asks precisely that question in p= recisely the same way. The cmavo=20 + xu, when placed in front of a bridi, asks whether that = bridi is true as stated. So + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d10"/> + + + + xu =20 + do + tavla + mi + + + Is-it-true-that + you + are-talking + to-me? + + + + is the Lojban translation of=20 + . + affirmative answe= rquick-tour version go'i with xuquick= -tour version The answer=20 + Yes may be given by simply restating the bridi without = the=20 + xu question word. Lojban has a shorthand for doing this= with the word=20 + go'i, mentioned in=20 + . Instead of a negative answer,= the bridi may be restated in such a way as to make it true. If this can be= done by substituting sumti, it may be done with=20 + =20 + go'i as well. For example: + + + <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>healthy</primary><secondary>e= xample</secondary></indexterm> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d11"/> + + + + xu + do + kanro + + Are you healthy? + + + =20 + + + can be answered with + + + <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>healthy</primary><secondary>e= xample</secondary></indexterm> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d12"/> + + + + mi + kanro + + I am healthy. + + + + or + + + <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>healthy</primary><secondary>e= xample</secondary></indexterm> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d13"/> + + + + go'i + + I am healthy. + + + + + + (Note that=20 + do to the questioner is=20 + mi to the respondent.) + + or + + + <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>healthy</primary><secondary>e= xample</secondary></indexterm> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d14"/> + + + + le tavla + cu + kanro + + The talker is healthy. + + + + or + + + <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>healthy</primary><secondary>e= xample</secondary></indexterm> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d15"/> + + + + le tavla + cu + go'i + + The talker is healthy. + + + + negative answerquick-tour version A general neg= ative answer may be given by=20 + =20 + na go'i.=20 + na may be placed before any selbri (but after the=20 + cu). It is equivalent to stating=20 + It is not true that ... before the bridi. It does not i= mply that anything else is true or untrue, only that that specific bridi is= not true. More details on negative statements are available in=20 + . +

+ Indicators + interjectionsquick-tour version attitudinal indicators= quick-tour version indicatorsquick-tour version Different cultures express emotions and attitudes with a vari= ety of intonations and gestures that are not usually included in written la= nguage. Some of these are available in some languages as interjections (i.e= . Aha!, Oh no!, Ouch!, Aahh!, etc.), but they vary greatly from culture to = culture. + =20 + Lojban has a group of cmavo known as=20 + attitudinal indicators which specifically covers this t= ype of commentary on spoken statements. They are both written and spoken, b= ut require no specific intonation or gestures. Grammatically they are very = simple: one or more attitudinals at the beginning of a bridi apply to the e= ntire bridi; anywhere else in the bridi they apply to the word immediately = to the left. For example: + =20 + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e16d1"/> + + + + .ie=20 + mi + cu + klama + + + Agreement! + I + + go. + + Yep! I'll go. + + =20 + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e16d2"/> + + + + .ei=20 + mi + cu + klama + + + Obligation! + I + + go. + + I should go. + + =20 + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e16d3"/> + + + + mi + cu + klama + le melbi + .ui + ku + + + I + + go + to-the beautiful-thing + and I am happy because it is the beautiful thing I'm goin= g to + + + + + but/and equivalen= ce met= alinguistic wordsquick-tour version discursives<= secondary>quick-tour version Not all indicators ind= icate attitudes. Discursives, another group of cmavo with the same grammati= cal rules as attitudinal indicators, allow free expression of certain kinds= of commentary about the main utterances. Using discursives allows a clear = separation of these so-called=20 + =20 + metalinguistic features from the underlying statements = and logical structure. By comparison, the English words=20 + =20 + but and=20 + also, which discursively indicate contrast or an added = weight of example, are logically equivalent to=20 + and, which does not have a discursive content. The aver= age English-speaker does not think about, and may not even realize, the par= adoxical idea that=20 + but basically means=20 + and. + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e16d4"/> + + + + mi + cu + klama + .i=20 + do + cu + stali + + + I + + go. + + You + + stay. + + + =20 + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e16d5"/> + + + + mi + cu + klama + .i + ji'a + do + cu + stali + + + I + + go. + + In addition, + you + + stay. + added weight + + + =20 + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e16d6"/> + + + + mi + cu + klama + .i + ku'i + do + cu + stali + + + I + + go. + + However, + you + + stay. + contrast + + + + evidentialsquick-tour version Another group of = indicators are called=20 + evidentials. Evidentials show the speaker's relationshi= p to the statement, specifically how the speaker came to make the statement= . These include=20 + =20 + =20 + za'a (I directly observe the relationship),=20 + =20 + pe'i (I believe that the relationship holds),=20 + =20 + ru'a (I postulate the relationship), and others. Many A= merican Indian languages use this kind of words. + =20 + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e16d7"/> + + + + + pe'i + do + cu + melbi + + + I opine! + You + + are beautiful. + + + =20 + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e16d8"/> + + + + + za'a + do + cu + melbi + + + I directly observe! + You + + are beautiful. + + + +

+ Tenses + time tensesquick-tour version tensesquick-tour versio= n In English, every verb is tagged for the grammati= cal category called tense: past, present, or future. The sentence + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e17d1"/> + + John went to the store + + necessarily happens at some time in the past, whereas + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e17d2"/> + + John is going to the store + + is necessarily happening right now. + sentencestenselessquick-tour version The Lojban sentence + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e17d3"/> + + + + la djan.=20 + cu + klama + le zarci + + + John + + goes/went/will-go + to-the store + + + + serves as a translation of either=20 + or=20 + , and of many other possible= English sentences as well. It is not marked for tense, and can refer to an= event in the past, the present or the future. This rule does not mean that= Lojban has no way of representing the time of an event. A close translatio= n of=20 + would be: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e17d4"/> + + + + la djan. + pu + klama + le zarci + + + John + [past] + goes + to-the store + + + + where the tag=20 + pu forces the sentence to refer to a time in the past. = Similarly, + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e17d5"/> + + + + la djan. + ca + klama + le zarci + + + John + [present] + goes + to-the store + + + + necessarily refers to the present, because of the tag=20 + ca. Tags used in this way always appear at the very beg= inning of the selbri, just after the=20 + cu, and they may make a=20 + cu unnecessary, since tags cannot be absorbed into tanr= u. Such tags serve as an equivalent to English tenses and adverbs. In Lojba= n, tense information is completely optional. If unspecified, the appropriat= e tense is picked up from context. + =20 + space tensesquick-tour version Lojban also exte= nds the notion of=20 + tense to refer not only to time but to space. The follo= wing example uses the tag=20 + vu to specify that the event it describes happens far a= way from the speaker: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e17d6"/> + + + + do + vu vecnu + zo'e + + + You + yonder sell + something-unspecified. + + + + In addition, tense tags (either for time or space) can be prefix= ed to the selbri of a description, producing a tensed sumti: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e17d7"/> + + + + le pu bajra + ku + cu + tavla + + + The earlier/former/past runner + + + talked/talks. + + + + (Since Lojban tense is optional, we don't know when he or she ta= lks.) + Tensed sumti with space tags correspond roughly to the English u= se of=20 + this or=20 + that as adjectives, as in the following example, which = uses the tag=20 + =20 + vi meaning=20 + nearby: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e17d8"/> + + + + le vi bajra + ku + cu + tavla + + + The nearby runner + + + talks. + + This runner talks. + + + Do not confuse the use of=20 + vi in=20 + with the cmavo=20 + ti, which also means=20 + this, but in the sense of=20 + this thing. + sumti with tenses= quick-tour version Furthermore= , a tense tag can appear both on the selbri and within a description, as in= the following example (where=20 + ba is the tag for future time): + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e17d9"/> + + + + le vi tavla + ku + cu + ba klama + + + The here talker + + + [future] goes. + + The talker who is here will go. + This talker will go. + + +

+ Lojban grammatical terms + =20 + grammatical terms= quick-tour version Here is a r= eview of the Lojban grammatical terms used in this chapter, plus some other= s used throughout this book. Only terms that are themselves Lojban words ar= e included: there are of course many expressions like=20 + =20 + indicator in=20 + that are not explained here. S= ee the Index for further help with these. + + + bridi: + + brididefinitionquick-tour version predication; the basic unit of Lojban expression; the main ki= nd of Lojban sentence; a claim that some objects stand in some relationship= , or that some single object has some property. + =20 + + + + sumti: + + sumtidefinitionquick-tour version argument; words identifying something which stands in a speci= fied relationship to something else, or which has a specified property. See= =20 + . + + + + selbri: + + selbridefinitionquick-tour version logical predicate; the core of a bridi; the word or words sp= ecifying the relationship between the objects referred to by the sumti. See= =20 + . + + + + cmavo: + + cmavodefinitionquick-tour version one of the Lojban parts of speech; a short word; a structural= word; a word used for its grammatical function. + =20 + + + + brivla: + + brivladefinitionquick-tour version one of the Lojban parts of speech; a content word; a predica= te word; can function as a selbri; is a gismu, a lujvo, or a fu'ivla. See= =20 + =20 + . + + + + gismu: + + gismudefinitionquick-tour version a root word; a kind of brivla; has associated rafsi. See=20 + . + + + + lujvo: + + lujvodefinitionquick-tour version a compound word; a kind of brivla; may or may not appear in a= dictionary; does not have associated rafsi. See=20 + and=20 + . + + + + fu'ivla: + + fu'ivladefinitionquick-tour version a borrowed word; a kind of brivla; may or may not appear in= a dictionary; copied in a modified form from some non-Lojban language; usu= ally refers to some aspect of culture or the natural world; does not have a= ssociated rafsi. See=20 + =20 + . + + + + rafsi: + + rafsidefinitionquick-tour version a word fragment; one or more is associated with each gismu; c= an be assembled according to rules in order to make lujvo; not a valid word= by itself. See=20 + . + + + + tanru: + + tanrudefinitionquick-tour version a group of two or more brivla, possibly with associated cmavo= , that form a selbri; always divisible into two parts, with the first part = modifying the meaning of the second part (which is taken to be basic). See= =20 + . + + + + selma'o: + + selma'odefinitionquick-tour version a group of cmavo that have the same grammatical use (can ap= pear interchangeably in sentences, as far as the grammar is concerned) but = differ in meaning or other usage. See=20 + . + + + +

+ diff --git a/chapters/03.xml b/chapters/03.xml new file mode 100644 index 0000000..bfb447c --- /dev/null +++ b/chapters/03.xml @@ -0,0 +1,2209 @@ + + The Hills Are Alive With The Sounds Of Lojban + + The picture for chapter 3 + + + + +

+ Orthography + orthographyrelation to pronunciation pronunciationrela= tion to orthography audio-visual isomorphism isomorphismaudio-vi= sual Lojban is designed so that any properly spoken= Lojban utterance can be uniquely transcribed in writing, and any properly = written Lojban can be spoken so as to be uniquely reproduced by another per= son. As a consequence, the standard Lojban orthography must assign to each = distinct sound, or phoneme, a unique letter or symbol. Each letter or symbo= l has only one sound or, more accurately, a limited range of sounds that ar= e permitted pronunciations for that phoneme. Some symbols indicate stress (= speech emphasis) and pause, which are also essential to Lojban word recogni= tion. In addition, everything that is represented in other languages by pun= ctuation (when written) or by tone of voice (when spoken) is represented in= Lojban by words. These two properties together are known technically as audio-visual isomorphism. + =20 + alphabetLojban Lojban alphabet Latin alphabet Lojban uses a= variant of the Latin (Roman) alphabet, consisting of the following letters= and symbols: + + ' + , + . + a + b + c + d + e + f + g + i + j + k + l + m + n + o + p + r + s + t + u + v + x + y + z + + omitting the letters=20 + h,=20 + q, and=20 + w. + alphabetic order<= /primary> The alphabetic order given above is that of the ASCII= coded character set, widely used in computers. By making Lojban alphabetic= al order the same as ASCII, computerized sorting and searching of Lojban te= xt is facilitated. + =20 + =20 + stress<= secondary>showing non-standard capital lettersuse of Capital letters are used only to represent non-standard = stress, which can appear only in the representation of Lojbanized names. Th= us the English name=20 + Josephine, as normally pronounced, is Lojbanized as=20 + DJOsefin., pronounced=20 + ['d=CA=92os=C9=9Bfin=CA=94]. (See=20 + for an explanation of the = symbols within square brackets.) Technically, it is sufficient to capitaliz= e the vowel letter, in this case=20 + =20 + O, but it is easier on the reader to capitalize t= he whole syllable. + Without the capitalization, the ordinary rules of Lojban stress = would cause the=20 + =20 + se syllable to be stressed. Lojbanized names are meant = to represent the pronunciation of names from other languages with as little= distortion as may be; as such, they are exempt from many of the regular ru= les of Lojban phonology, as will appear in the rest of this chapter. +

+ Basic Phonetics + bracketsuse in IPA notation phonetic alphabet IPA International Phonetic Alphabet (see = also IPA) Lojban pronunciations are defined using the= International Phonetic Alphabet, or IPA, a standard method of transcribing= pronunciations. By convention, IPA transcriptions are always within square= brackets: for example, the word=20 + =20 + cat is pronounced (in General American pronunciation)= =20 + =20 + [k=C3=A6t].=20 + contains a brief expl= anation of the IPA characters used in this chapter, with their nearest anal= ogues in English, and will be especially useful to those not familiar with = the technical terms used in describing speech sounds. + =20 + standard pronunci= ation = pronunciationstandard The stan= dard pronunciations and permitted variants of the Lojban letters are listed= in the table below. The descriptions have deliberately been made a bit amb= iguous to cover variations in pronunciation by speakers of different native= languages and dialects. In all cases except=20 + =20 + r the first IPA symbol shown represents the prefe= rred pronunciation; for=20 + r, all of the variations (and any other rhotic so= und) are equally acceptable. + + + + Letter + IPA + X-SAMPA + Description + + + + ' + [h] + [h] + an unvoiced glottal spirant + + + , + - + - + the syllable separator + + + . + [=CA=94] + [?] + a glottal stop or a pause + + + a + [a], [= =C9=91] + + [a], [A] + + an open vowel + + + b + [b] + [b] + a voiced bilabial stop + + + c + [=CA=83], [=CA=82] + + [S], [s`] + + an unvoiced coronal sibilant + + + d + [d] + [d] + a voiced dental/alveolar stop + + + e + [=C9=9B], [e] + + [E], [e] + + a front mid vowel + + + f + [f], [= =C9=B8] + + [f], [p\] + + an unvoiced labial fricative + + + g + [=C9=A1] + [g] + a voiced velar stop + + + i + [i] + [i] + a front close vowel + + + j + [=CA=92], [=CA=90] + + [Z], [z`] + + a voiced coronal sibilant + + + k + [k] + [k] + an unvoiced velar stop + + + l + [l], [l= =CC=A9] + + [l], [l=3D] + + a voiced lateral approximant (may be syllabic) + + + m + [m], [m= =CC=A9] + + [m], [m=3D] + + a voiced bilabial nasal (may be syllabic) + + + n + [n], [n= =CC=A9], [=C5=8B], [=C5=8B=CC=8D] + + [n], [n=3D], [N], [N=3D] + + a voiced dental or velar nasal (may be syllabic) + + + o + [o], [= =C9=94] + + [o], [O] + + a back mid vowel + + + p + [p] + [p] + an unvoiced bilabial stop + + + r + [r], [= =C9=B9], [=C9=BE], [=CA=80], [r=CC=A9], [=C9=B9=CC=A9], [=C9=BE=CC=A9], [=CA=80=CC=A9] + + [r], [r\], [4], [R\], [r=3D], [r\=3D], [4=3D]= , [R\=3D] + + a rhotic sound + + + s + [s] + [s] + an unvoiced alveolar sibilant + + + t + [t] + [t] + an unvoiced dental/alveolar stop + + + u + [u] + [u] + a back close vowel + + + v + [v], [= =CE=B2] + + [v], [B] + + a voiced labial fricative + + + x + [x] + [x] + an unvoiced velar fricative + + + y + [=C9=99] + [@] + a central mid vowel + + + z + [z] + [z] + a voiced alveolar sibilant + + + sounds<= secondary>clarity of clarity of sounds Lojban letterslist with= IPA pronunciation Lojban lettersIPA for pronouncing pronuncia= tionIPA for Lojban The Lojban = sounds must be clearly pronounced so that they are not mistaken for each ot= her. Voicing and placement of the tongue are the key factors in correct pro= nunciation, but other subtle differences will develop between consonants in= a Lojban-speaking community. At this point these are the only mandatory ru= les on the range of sounds. + rounded/unrounded= vowels Note in particular that Lojban vowels can be = pronounced with either rounded or unrounded lips; typically=20 + o and=20 + u are rounded and the others are not, as in Engli= sh, but this is not a requirement; some people round=20 + y as well. Lojban consonants can be aspirated or = unaspirated. Palatalizing of consonants, as found in Russian and other lang= uages, is not generally acceptable in pronunciation, though a following=20 + i may cause it. + sounds for letter= sLojban contrasted with English soundsdifficult The sounds represented by the letters=20 + c,=20 + g,=20 + j,=20 + s, and=20 + x require special attention for speakers of Engli= sh, either because they are ambiguous in the orthography of English (=20 + =20 + c,=20 + g,=20 + s), or because they are strikingly different in L= ojban (=20 + c,=20 + j,=20 + x). The English=20 + c represents three different sounds,=20 + [k] in=20 + cat and=20 + [s] in=20 + cent, as well as the=20 + [=CA=83] of=20 + ocean. Similarly, English=20 + g can represent=20 + [=C9=A1] as in=20 + go,=20 + [d=CA=92] as in=20 + gentle, and=20 + [=CA=92] as in the second "g" in=20 + garage (in some pronunciations). English=20 + s can be either=20 + [s] as in=20 + cats,=20 + [z] as in=20 + cards,=20 + [=CA=83] as in=20 + tension, or=20 + [=CA=92] as in=20 + measure. The sound of Lojban=20 + x doesn't appear in most English dialects at all.= + j-sound in Englis= hrepresentation in Lojban ch-sound in Englishrepresentation in Lojban ts-sound in Russianrepr= esentation in Lojban soundscomplex= There are two common English sounds that are found in Lojban but are not L= ojban consonants: the=20 + ch of=20 + church and the=20 + j of=20 + judge. In Lojban, these are considered two consonant so= unds spoken together without an intervening vowel sound, and so are represe= nted in Lojban by the two separate consonants:=20 + tc (IPA=20 + [t=CA=83]) and=20 + dj (IPA=20 + [d=CA=92]). In general, whether a comple= x sound is considered one sound or two depends on the language: Russian vie= ws=20 + ts as a single sound, whereas English, French, and Lojb= an consider it to be a consonant cluster. +

+ The Special Lojban Characters + charactersspecial The apostrophe, period, and c= omma need special attention. They are all used as indicators of a division = between syllables, but each has a different pronunciation, and each is used= for different reasons: + apostrophetype of letter in word-formation ' symboldef= inition (see also apostrophe) apostrophedefinition of The apostrophe represents a phoneme similar to a short,= breathy English=20 + h, (IPA=20 + [h]). The letter=20 + h is not used to represent this sound for two reasons: = primarily in order to simplify explanations of the morphology, but also bec= ause the sound is very common, and the apostrophe is a visually lightweight= representation of it. The apostrophe sound is a consonant in nature, but i= s not treated as either a consonant or a vowel for purposes of Lojban morph= ology (word-formation), which is explained in=20 + . In addition, the apostrophe vi= sually parallels the comma and the period, which are also used (in differen= t ways) to separate syllables. + unvoiced vowel gl= ideapostrophe as apostrophepurpose of= The apostrophe is included in Lojban only to enabl= e a smooth transition between vowels, while joining the vowels within a sin= gle word. In fact, one way to think of the apostrophe is as representing an= unvoiced vowel glide. + =20 + apostrophevariant of As a permitted variant, an= y unvoiced fricative other than those already used in Lojban may be used to= render the apostrophe: IPA=20 + [=CE=B8] is one possibility. The conveni= ence of the listener should be regarded as paramount in deciding to use a s= ubstitute for=20 + [h]. + pauserepresentation of in Lojban glottal stopas pause = in Lojban perioddefinition of The = period represents a mandatory pause, with no specified length; a glottal st= op (IPA=20 + =20 + [=CA=94]) is considered a pause of short= est length. A pause (or glottal stop) may appear between any two words, and= in certain cases – explained in detail in=20 + =20 + – must occur. In particular, = a word beginning with a vowel is always preceded by a pause, and a word end= ing in a consonant is always followed by a pause. + period<= secondary>optional Technically, the period is an op= tional reminder to the reader of a mandatory pause that is dictated by the = rules of the language; because these rules are unambiguous, a missing perio= d can be inferred from otherwise correct text. Periods are included only as= an aid to the reader. + period<= secondary>within a word A period also may be found = apparently embedded in a word. When this occurs, such a written string is n= ot one word but two, written together to indicate that the writer intends a= unitary meaning for the compound. It is not really necessary to use a spac= e between words if a period appears. + pausecontrasted with syllable break syllable breakcont= rasted with pause syllable breakrepresentation in Lojban comma= definition of The comma is use= d to indicate a syllable break within a word, generally one that is not obv= ious to the reader. Such a comma is written to separate syllables, but indi= cates that there must be no pause between them, in contrast to the period. = Between two vowels, a comma indicates that some type of glide may be necess= ary to avoid a pause that would split the two syllables into separate words= . It is always legal to use the apostrophe (IPA=20 + =20 + [h]) sound in pronouncing a comma. Howev= er, a comma cannot be pronounced as a pause or glottal stop between the two= letters separated by the comma, because that pronunciation would split the= word into two words. + =20 + commaoptional commamain use of= Otherwise, a comma is usually only used to clarify the presence of syllabi= c=20 + l,=20 + m,=20 + n, or=20 + r (discussed later). Commas are never required: n= o two Lojban words differ solely because of the presence or placement of a = comma. + periodexample of Here is a somewhat artificia= l example of the difference in pronunciation between periods, commas and ap= ostrophes. In the English song about Old MacDonald's Farm, the vowel string= which is written as=20 + ee-i-ee-i-o in English could be Lojbanized with periods= as: + + + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Old McDonald</primary><secondary>exam= ple</secondary></indexterm> + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e3d1"/> + + + .i.ai.i.ai.o + [=CA=94i =CA=94aj =CA=94i =CA=94aj =CA=94o] + Ee! Eye! Ee! Eye! Oh! + + + However, this would sound clipped, staccato, and unmusical compa= red to the English. Furthermore, although=20 + is a string of meaningful L= ojban words, as a sentence it makes very little sense. (Note the use of per= iods embedded within the written word.) + commaexample of If commas were used instead of = periods, we could represent the English string as a Lojbanized name, ending= in a consonant: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e3d2"/> + + + .i,ai,i,ai,on. + [=CA=94i jaj ji jaj jon=CA=94] + + + commavariant of The commas represent new syllab= le breaks, but prohibit the use of pauses or glottal stop. The pronunciatio= n shown is just one possibility, but closely parallels the intended English= pronunciation. + =20 + However, the use of commas in this way is risky to unambiguous i= nterpretation, since the glides might be heard by some listeners as diphtho= ngs, producing something like + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e3d3"/> + + + .i,iai,ii,iai,ion. + + + which is technically a different Lojban name. Since the intent w= ith Lojbanized names is to allow them to be pronounced more like their nati= ve counterparts, the comma is allowed to represent vowel glides or some non= -Lojbanic sound. Such an exception affects only spelling accuracy and the a= bility of a reader to replicate the desired pronunciation exactly; it will = not affect the recognition of word boundaries. + apostropheas preferable over comma in names Sti= ll, it is better if Lojbanized names are always distinct. Therefore, the ap= ostrophe is preferred in regular Lojbanized names that are not attempting t= o simulate a non-Lojban pronunciation perfectly. (Perfection, in any event,= is not really achievable, because some sounds simply lack reasonable Lojba= nic counterparts.) + If apostrophes were used instead of commas in=20 + , it would appear as: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e3d4"/> + + + .i'ai'i'ai'on. + [=CA=94i hai hi hai hon=CA=94] + + + apostropheexample of which preserves the rhythm= and length, if not the exact sounds, of the original English. +

+ Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants + diphthongsdefinition of There exist 16 diphthon= gs in the Lojban language. A diphthong is a vowel sound that consists of tw= o elements, a short vowel sound and a glide, either a labial (IPA=20 + [w]) or palatal (IPA=20 + [j]) glide, that either precedes (an on-= glide) or follows (an off-glide) the main vowel. Diphthongs always constitu= te a single syllable. + vowels<= secondary>contrasted with consonants consonantscontrasted = with vowels For Lojban purposes, a vowel sound is a= relatively long speech-sound that forms the nucleus of a syllable. Consona= nt sounds are relatively brief and normally require an accompanying vowel s= ound in order to be audible. Consonants may occur at the beginning or end o= f a syllable, around the vowel, and there may be several consonants in a cl= uster in either position. Each separate vowel sound constitutes a distinct = syllable; consonant sounds do not affect the determination of syllables. + vowels<= secondary>definition of The six Lojban vowels are= =20 + a,=20 + e,=20 + i,=20 + o,=20 + u, and=20 + y. The first five vowels appear freely in all kin= ds of Lojban words. The vowel=20 + y has a limited distribution: it appears only in = Lojbanized names, in the Lojban names of the letters of the alphabet, as a = glue vowel in compound words, and standing alone as a space-filler word (li= ke English=20 + =20 + uh or=20 + er). + diphthongslist of diphthongsIPA for The Lojban diphthongs are shown in the table below. (Variant pronunci= ations have been omitted, but are much as one would expect based on the var= iant pronunciations of the separate vowel letters:=20 + ai may be pronounced=20 + [=C9=91j], for example.) + + + + Letters + IPA + Description + + + + + ai =20 + [aj] + an open vowel with palatal off-glide + + + ei =20 + [=C9=9Bj] + a front mid vowel with palatal off-glide + + + oi =20 + [oj] + a back mid vowel with palatal off-glide + + + au =20 + [aw] + an open vowel with labial off-glide + + + ia =20 + [ja] + an open vowel with palatal on-glide + + + ie =20 + [j=C9=9B] + a front mid vowel with palatal on-glide + + + ii =20 + [ji] + a front close vowel with palatal on-glide + + + io =20 + [jo] + a back mid vowel with palatal on-glide + + + iu =20 + [ju] + a back close vowel with palatal on-glide + + + ua =20 + [wa] + an open vowel with labial on-glide + + + ue =20 + [w=C9=9B] + a front mid vowel with labial on-glide + + + ui =20 + [wi] + a front close vowel with labial on-glide + + + uo =20 + [wo] + a back mid vowel with labial on-glide + + + uu =20 + [wu] + a back close vowel with labial on-glide + + + iy =20 + [j=C9=99] + a central mid vowel with palatal on-glide + + + uy =20 + [w=C9=99] + a central mid vowel with labial on-glide + + + (Approximate English equivalents of most of these diphthongs exi= st: see=20 + for examples.) + diphthongsclassification of The first four diph= thongs above (=20 + ai,=20 + ei,=20 + oi, and=20 + au, the ones with off-glides) are freely used i= n most types of Lojban words; the ten following ones are used only as stand= -alone words and in Lojbanized names and borrowings; and the last two (=20 + =20 + iy and=20 + uy) are used only in Lojbanized names. + syllabic consonan= ts con= sonantssyllabic The syllabic c= onsonants of Lojban,=20 + =20 + [l=CC=A9],=20 + [m=CC=A9],=20 + [n=CC=A9], and=20 + [r=CC=A9], are variants of the non-sylla= bic=20 + [l],=20 + [m],=20 + [n], and=20 + [r] respectively. They normally have onl= y a limited distribution, appearing in Lojban names and borrowings, althoug= h in principle any=20 + =20 + l,=20 + m,=20 + n, or=20 + r may be pronounced syllabically. If a syllabic c= onsonant appears next to a=20 + =20 + l,=20 + m,=20 + n, or=20 + r that is not syllabic, it may not be clear which= is which: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e4d1"/> + + + brlgan. + [br=CC=A9l gan] + or + [brl=CC=A9 gan] + + + is a hypothetical Lojbanized name with more than one valid pronu= nciation; however it is pronounced, it remains the same word. + =20 + +Earlexample + + syllabic consonantsfinal in word Syllabic consonants are= treated as consonants rather than vowels from the standpoint of Lojban mor= phology. Thus Lojbanized names, which are generally required to end in a co= nsonant, are allowed to end with a syllabic consonant. An example is=20 + =20 + rl., which is an approximation of the English name=20 + Earl, and has two syllabic consonants. + =20 + =20 + syllabic consonan= tseffect on stress stresseffect of sy= llabic consonants on Syllables with syllabic conson= ants and no vowel are never stressed or counted when determining which syll= ables to stress (see=20 + =20 + ). +

+ Vowel Pairs + vowel pairsuse of apostrophe in apostropheuse in vowel= pairs vowel pairsdefinition of Lo= jban vowels also occur in pairs, where each vowel sound is in a separate sy= llable. These two vowel sounds are connected (and separated) by an apostrop= he. Lojban vowel pairs should be pronounced continuously with the=20 + =20 + [h] sound between (and not by a glottal = stop or pause, which would split the two vowels into separate words). + =20 + diphthongscontrasted with vowel pairs vowel pairscontr= asted with diphthongs All vowel combinations are pe= rmitted in two-syllable pairs with the apostrophe separating them; this inc= ludes those which constitute diphthongs when the apostrophe is not included= . + vowel pairslist of The Lojban vowel pairs are:<= /para> + =20 + + a'a + a'e + a'i + a'o + a'u + a'y + =20 + =20 + =20 + e'a + e'e + e'i + e'o + e'u + e'y + =20 + =20 + =20 + i'a + i'e + i'i + i'o + i'u + i'y + =20 + o'a + o'e + o'i + o'o + o'u + o'y + =20 + =20 + u'a + u'e + u'i + u'o + u'u + u'y + =20 + y'a + y'e + y'i + y'o + y'u + y'y + + vowel pairsinvolving y Vowel pairs involving=20 + y appear only in Lojbanized names. They could app= ear in cmavo (structure words), but only=20 + =20 + .y'y. is so used – it is the Lojban name of the a= postrophe letter (see=20 + ). + vowel pairsgrouping of When more than two vowel= s occur together in Lojban, the normal pronunciation pairs vowels from the = left into syllables, as in the Lojbanized name: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e5d1"/> + + + meiin. + mei,in. + + + + contains the diphthong=20 + ei followed by the vowel=20 + i. In order to indicate a different grouping, the= comma must always be used, leading to: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e5d2"/> + + + me,iin. + + + which contains the vowel=20 + e followed by the diphthong=20 + ii. In rough English representation,=20 + is=20 + May Een, whereas=20 + is=20 + Meh Yeen. +

+ Consonant Clusters + consonanteffect on syllable count consonantdefinition<= /secondary> A consonant sound is a relatively brief speech-soun= d that precedes or follows a vowel sound in a syllable; its presence either= preceding or following does not add to the count of syllables, nor is a co= nsonant required in either position for any syllable. Lojban has seventeen = consonants: for the purposes of this section, the apostrophe is not counted= as a consonant. + consonantsvoicing of consonantsvoiced/unvoiced equival= ents An important distinction dividing Lojban conso= nants is that of voicing. The following table shows the unvoiced consonants= and the corresponding voiced ones: + =20 + + + + UNVOICED + VOICED + + + + p + b + + + t + d + + + k + g + + + f + v + + + c + j + + + s + z + + + x + - + + + The consonant=20 + x has no voiced counterpart in Lojban. The remain= ing consonants,=20 + l,=20 + m,=20 + n, and=20 + r, are typically pronounced with voice, but can b= e pronounced unvoiced. + consonant cluster= scontrasted with single consonants consonant clusterscontrasted with doubled consonants = doubled consonants= contrasted with consonant clusters doubled consonantscontrasted with single consonants single consonantsc= ontrasted with consonant clusters single consonantscontra= sted with doubled consonants consonant clustersdefinition = of Consonant sounds occur in languages as single co= nsonants, or as doubled, or as clustered combinations. Single consonant sou= nds are isolated by word boundaries or by intervening vowel sounds from oth= er consonant sounds. Doubled consonant sounds are either lengthened like=20 + [s] in English=20 + hiss, or repeated like=20 + [k] in English=20 + backcourt. Consonant clusters consist of two or more si= ngle or doubled consonant sounds in a group, each of which is different fro= m its immediate neighbor. In Lojban, doubled consonants are excluded altoge= ther, and clusters are limited to two or three members, except in Lojbanize= d names. + =20 + consonantsposition of Consonants can occur in t= hree positions in words: initial (at the beginning), medial (in the middle)= , and final (at the end). In many languages, the sound of a consonant varie= s depending upon its position in the word. In Lojban, as much as possible, = the sound of a consonant is unrelated to its position. In particular, the c= ommon American English trait of changing a=20 + t between vowels into a=20 + d or even an alveolar tap (IPA=20 + [=C9=BE]) is unacceptable in Lojban. + + consonantsfinal consonantsrestrictions on<= /indexterm> Lojban imposes no restrictions on the appearance of single cons= onants in any valid consonant position; however, no consonant (including sy= llabic consonants) occurs final in a word except in Lojbanized names. + =20 + consonant pairsrestrictions on Pairs of consona= nts can also appear freely, with the following restrictions: + + + It is forbidden for both consonants to be the same, as this = would violate the rule against double consonants. + + + voiced/unvoic= ed consonantsrestrictions on I= t is forbidden for one consonant to be voiced and the other unvoiced. The c= onsonants + l,=20 + m,=20 + n, and=20 + r are exempt from this restriction. As a resu= lt,=20 + bf is forbidden, and so is=20 + sd, but both=20 + fl and=20 + vl, and both=20 + ls and=20 + lz, are permitted. + + + + It is forbidden for both consonants to be drawn from the set= =20 + c,=20 + j,=20 + s,=20 + z. + + + + The specific pairs=20 + cx,=20 + kx,=20 + xc,=20 + xk, and=20 + mz are forbidden. + + + + yuse in avoiding forbidden consonant pairs Th= ese rules apply to all kinds of words, even Lojbanized names. If a name wou= ld normally contain a forbidden consonant pair, a=20 + y can be inserted to break up the pair: + + + + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>James</primary><secondary>example</se= condary></indexterm> + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e6d1"/> + + + djeimyz. + [d=CA=92=C9=9Bj m=C9=99z=CA=94] + James + + + The regular English pronunciation of=20 + James, which is=20 + [d=CA=92=C9=9Bjmz], would Lojbanize as= =20 + djeimz., which contains a forbidden c= onsonant pair. +

+ Initial Consonant Pairs + consonant pairsinitial The set of consonant pai= rs that may appear at the beginning of a word (excluding Lojbanized names) = is far more restricted than the fairly large group of permissible consonant= pairs described in=20 + =20 + . Even so, it is more than English= allows, although hopefully not more than English-speakers (and others) can= learn to pronounce. + initial consonant= pairslist of There are just 4= 8 such permissible initial consonant pairs, as follows: + + + bl + br + + + + + + + + + cf + ck + cl + cm + cn + cp + cr + ct + + + dj + dr + dz + + + fl + fr + + + gl + gr + + + jb + jd + jg + jm + jv + + + kl + kr + + + ml + mr + + + pl + pr + + + sf + sk + sl + sm + sn + sp + sr + st + + + tc + tr + ts + + + vl + vr + + + xl + xr + + + zb + zd + zg + zm + zv + + + Lest this list seem almost random, a pairing of voiced and unvoi= ced equivalent vowels will show significant patterns which may help in lear= ning: + + + pl + pr + + + + + + + + + fl + fr + + + bl + br + + + + + + + + + vl + vr + + + + + + cp + cf + + + ct + ck + cm + cn + + + cl + cr + + + jb + jv + + + jd + jg + jm + + + sp + sf + + + st + sk + sm + sn + + + sl + sr + + + zb + zv + + + zd + zg + zm + + + + + + tc + tr + + + ts + + + + + + kl + kr + + + dj + dr + + + dz + + + + + + gl + gr + + + + + + ml + mr + + + + + + + + + xl + xr + + + unvoiced consonan= tscontrasted with voiced in allowable consonant pairs<= /secondary> voic= ed consonantscontrasted with unvoiced in allowable con= sonant pairs Note that if both consonants of an ini= tial pair are voiced, the unvoiced equivalent is also permissible, and the = voiced pair can be pronounced simply by voicing the unvoiced pair. (The con= verse is not true:=20 + cn is a permissible initial pair, but=20 + jn is not.) + consonant triples= Consonant triples can occur medially in Lojban words= . They are subject to the following rules: + + + consonant tri= plesrestrictions on The first = two consonants must constitute a permissible consonant pair; + + + The last two consonants must constitute a permissible initia= l consonant pair; + + + The triples=20 + ndj,=20 + ndz,=20 + ntc, and=20 + nts are forbidden. + + + consonant cluster= smore than three consonants in= Lojbanized names can begin or end with any permissible consonant pair, not= just the 48 initial consonant pairs listed above, and can have consonant t= riples in any location, as long as the pairs making up those triples are pe= rmissible. In addition, names can contain consonant clusters with more than= three consonants, again requiring that each pair within the cluster is val= id. + =20 + =20 + =20 + =20 + =20 +

+ Buffering Of Consonant Clusters + vowelbuffer buffer vowel consonant clustersbuffering of Many languages do not have consonant clusters at all, a= nd even those languages that do have them often allow only a subset of the = full Lojban set. As a result, the Lojban design allows the use of a buffer = sound between consonant combinations which a speaker finds unpronounceable.= This sound may be any non-Lojbanic vowel which is clearly separable by the= listener from the Lojban vowels. Some possibilities are IPA=20 + [=C9=AA],=20 + [=C9=A8],=20 + [=CA=8A], or even=20 + [=CA=8F], but there probably is no unive= rsally acceptable buffer sound. When using a consonant buffer, the sound sh= ould be made as short as possible. Two examples showing such buffering (we = will use=20 + [=C9=AA] in this chapter) are: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e8d1"/> + + + vrusi + [=CB=88vru si] + or + [v=C9=AA =CB=88ru si] + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e8d2"/> + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Amsterdam</primary><secondary>example= </secondary></indexterm> + + + + + .AMsterdam. =20 + [=CA=94am ster dam=CA=94] + or + [=CB=88=CA=94a m=C9=AA s=C9=AA t=C9=9B r=C9=AA da m=C9=AA=CA= =94] + + + stresseffect of buffer vowel on buffer voweland stre= ss When a buffer vowel is used, it splits each buff= ered consonant into its own syllable. However, the buffering syllables are = never stressed, and are not counted in determining stress. They are, in eff= ect, not really syllables to a Lojban listener, and thus their impact is ig= nored. + =20 + Here are more examples of unbuffered and buffered pronunciations= : + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e8d3"/> + + + klama =20 + [=CB=88kla ma] + [k=C9=AA =CB=88la ma] + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e8d4"/> + + + xapcke =20 + [=CB=88xap =CA=83k=C9=9B] + [=CB=88xa p=C9=AA =CA=83k=C9=9B] + [=CB=88xa p=C9=AA =CA=83=C9=AA k=C9=9B] + + + In=20 + , we see that buffering vowe= ls can be used in just some, rather than all, of the possible places: the s= econd pronunciation buffers the=20 + pc consonant pair but not the=20 + ck. The third pronunciation buffers both. + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e8d5"/> + + + ponyni'u + [po n=C9=99 'ni hu] + + + y soundcontrasted with vowel buffer vowel buffercont= rasted with y sound=20 + cannot contain any buffer= ing vowel. It is important not to confuse the vowel=20 + y, which is pronounced=20 + [=C9=99], with the buffer, which has a v= ariety of possible pronunciations and is never written. Consider the contra= st between + + + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>bone bread</primary><secondary>exampl= e</secondary></indexterm> + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e8d6"/> + + + bongynanba + [bo=C5=8B g=C9=99 =CB=88nan ba] + + + an unlikely Lojban compound word meaning=20 + bone bread (note the use of=20 + =20 + [=C5=8B] as a representative of=20 + n before=20 + g) and + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e8d7"/> + + + bongnanba + [bo=C5=8B =CB=88gnan ba] + + + a possible borrowing from another language (Lojban borrowings ca= n only take a limited form). If=20 + =20 + =20 + were pronounced with buffer= ing, as + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e8d8"/> + + + [bo=C5=8B g=C9=AA =CB=88nan ba] + + + it would be very similar to=20 + . Only a clear distinction b= etween=20 + y and any buffering vowel would keep the two word= s distinct. + buffer vowelshortening of vowelslength of<= /indexterm> Since buffering is done for the benefit of the speaker in order= to aid pronounceability, there is no guarantee that the listener will not = mistake a buffer vowel for one of the six regular Lojban vowels. The buffer= vowel should be as laxly pronounced as possible, as central as possible, a= nd as short as possible. Furthermore, it is worthwhile for speakers who use= buffers to pronounce their regular vowels a bit longer than usual, to avoi= d confusion with buffer vowels. The speakers of many languages will have tr= ouble correctly hearing any of the suggested buffer vowels otherwise. By th= is guideline,=20 + =20 + would be pronounced + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e8d9"/> + + + [bo=CB=90=C5=8B g=C9=AA =CB=88na=CB=90n ba=CB=90] + + + with lengthened vowels. +

+ Syllabication And Stress + syllabicationdefinition of A Lojban word has on= e syllable for each of its vowels, diphthongs, and syllabic consonants (ref= erred to simply as=20 + =20 + vowels for the purposes of this section.) Syllabication= rules determine which of the consonants separating two vowels belong to th= e preceding vowel and which to the following vowel. These rules are convent= ional only; the phonetic facts of the matter about how utterances are sylla= bified in any language are always very complex. + syllabicationrules for A single consonant alway= s belongs to the following vowel. A consonant pair is normally divided betw= een the two vowels; however, if the pair constitute a valid initial consona= nt pair, they are normally both assigned to the following vowel. A consonan= t triple is divided between the first and second consonants. Apostrophes an= d commas, of course, also represent syllable breaks. Syllabic consonants us= ually appear alone in their syllables. + syllabicationand names It is permissible to var= y from these rules in Lojbanized names. For example, there are no definitiv= e rules for the syllabication of names with consonant clusters longer than = three consonants. The comma is used to indicate variant syllabication or to= explicitly mark normal syllabication. + =20 + =20 + =20 + syllabicationexamples of Here are some examples= of Lojban syllabication: + =20 + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d1"/> + + + pujenaicajeba + pu,je,nai,ca,je,ba + + + This word has no consonant pairs and is therefore syllabified be= fore each medial consonant. + =20 + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d2"/> + + + ninmu + nin,mu + + + This word is split at a consonant pair. + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d3"/> + + + fitpri + fit,pri + + + This word is split at a consonant triple, between the first two = consonants of the triple. + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d4"/> + + + sairgoi + sair,goi + sai,r,goi + =20 + + + This word contains the consonant pair=20 + rg; the=20 + r may be pronounced syllabically or not. + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d5"/> + + + klezba + klez,ba + kle,zba + + + This word contains the permissible initial pair=20 + zb, and so may be syllabicated either between= =20 + z and=20 + b or before=20 + zb. + stressed vowelcompared with stressed syllable = stressed syllablecompared with stressed vowel stressdefinition of<= /secondary> Stress is a relatively louder pronunciation of one = syllable in a word or group of words. Since every syllable has a vowel soun= d (or diphthong or syllabic consonant) as its nucleus, and the stress is on= the vowel sound itself, the terms=20 + stressed syllable and=20 + stressed vowel are largely interchangeable concepts. + stress<= secondary>rules for Most Lojban words are stressed = on the next-to-the-last, or penultimate, syllable. In counting syllables, h= owever, syllables whose vowel is=20 + y or which contain a syllabic consonant (=20 + =20 + l,=20 + m,=20 + n, or=20 + r) are never counted. (The Lojban term for penult= imate stress is=20 + da'amoi terbasna.) Similarly, syllables created= solely by adding a buffer vowel, such as=20 + [=C9=AA], are not counted. + stress<= secondary>levels of There are actually three levels= of stress – primary, secondary, and weak. Weak stress is the lowest = level, so it really means no stress at all. Weak stress is required for syl= lables containing=20 + y, a syllabic consonant, or a buffer vowel. + namesstress on brivlastress on= cmavos= tress on stressprimary Primary str= ess is required on the penultimate syllable of Lojban content words (called= =20 + brivla). Lojbanized names may be stressed on any syllab= le, but if a syllable other than the penultimate is stressed, the syllable = (or at least its vowel) must be capitalized in writing. Lojban structural w= ords (called=20 + cmavo) may be stressed on any syllable or none at all. = However, primary stress may not be used in a syllable just preceding a briv= la, unless a pause divides them; otherwise, the two words may run together.= + stress<= secondary>secondary Secondary stress is the optiona= l and non-distinctive emphasis used for other syllables besides those requi= red to have either weak or primary stress. There are few rules governing se= condary stress, which typically will follow a speaker's native language hab= its or preferences. Secondary stress can be used for contrast, or for empha= sis of a point. Secondary stress can be emphasized at any level up to prima= ry stress, although the speaker must not allow a false primary stress in br= ivla, since errors in word resolution could result. + The following are Lojban words with stress explicitly shown: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d6"/> + + + dikyjvo + DI,ky,jvo + + + (In a fully-buffered dialect, the pronunciation would be:=20 + ['di k=C9=99 =CA=92=C9=AA vo].) Note tha= t the syllable=20 + ky is not counted in determining stress. The vowel=20 + y is never stressed in a normal Lojban context. + + + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Armstrong</primary><secondary>example= </secondary></indexterm> + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d7"/> + + + .armstrong. + .ARM,strong. + + + This is a Lojbanized version of the name=20 + Armstrong. The final=20 + =20 + g must be explicitly pronounced. With full buffer= ing, the name would be pronounced: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d8"/> + + + [=CB=88=CA=94a r=C9=AA m=C9=AA s=C9=AA t=C9=AA ro n=C9=AA g= =C9=AA=CA=94] + + + However, there is no need to insert a buffer in every possible p= lace just because it is inserted in one place: partial buffering is also ac= ceptable. In every case, however, the stress remains in the same place: on = the first syllable. + -ngLojban contrasted with English The English p= ronunciation of=20 + Armstrong, as spelled in English, is not correct by Loj= ban standards; the letters=20 + =20 + ng in English represent a velar nasal (IPA=20 + [=C5=8B]) which is a single consonant. I= n Lojban,=20 + ng represents two separate consonants that mu= st both be pronounced; you may not use=20 + [=C5=8B] to pronounce Lojban=20 + ng, although=20 + [=C5=8Bg] is acceptable. English speaker= s are likely to have to pronounce the ending with a buffer, as one of the f= ollowing: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d9"/> + + + [=CB=88=CA=94arm stron g=C9=AA=CA=94] + or + [=CB=88=CA=94arm stro=C5=8B g=C9=AA=CA=94] + or even + [=CB=88=CA=94arm stro n=C9=AAg=CA=94] + + + The normal English pronunciation of the name=20 + Armstrong could be Lojbanized as: + =20 + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d10"/> + + + .ARMstron. + + + since Lojban=20 + n is allowed to be pronounced as the velar nasal= =20 + [=C5=8B]. + Here is another example showing the use of=20 + y: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d11"/> + + + bisydja + BI,sy,dja + BI,syd,ja + + + This word is a compound word, or lujvo, built from the two affix= es=20 + bis and=20 + dja. When they are joined, an impermissible consonant p= air results:=20 + sd. In accordance with the algorithm for maki= ng lujvo, explained in=20 + , a=20 + y is inserted to separate the impermissible conso= nant pair; the=20 + y is not counted as a syllable for purposes of st= ress determination. + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d12"/> + + + da'udja + da'UD,ja + da'U,dja + + + These two syllabications sound the same to a Lojban listener &= ndash; the association of unbuffered consonants in syllables is of no impor= t in recognizing the word. + + + <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>syllabication</primary><secon= dary>variants of</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d13"/> + + + e'u bridi + e'u BRI,di + E'u BRI,di + e'U.BRI,di + + + In=20 + ,=20 + e'u is a cmavo and=20 + bridi is a brivla. Either of the first two pronunciatio= ns is permitted: no primary stress on either syllable of=20 + e'u, or primary stress on the first syllable. The third= pronunciation, which places primary stress on the second syllable of the c= mavo, requires that – since the following word is a brivla – th= e two words must be separated by a pause. Consider the following two cases:= + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d14"/> + + + le re nobli prenu + le re NObli PREnu + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d15"/> + + + le re no bliprenu + le re no bliPREnu + + + If the cmavo=20 + no in=20 + were to be stressed, the ph= rase would sound exactly like the given pronunciation of=20 + , which is unacceptable in L= ojban: a single pronunciation cannot represent both. +

+ IPA For English Speakers + IPA pronunciation= description television Received Pronunciation General American There are many dialects of English, thus making it difficu= lt to define the standardized symbols of the IPA in terms useful to every r= eader. All the symbols used in this chapter are repeated here, in more or l= ess alphabetical order, with examples drawn from General American. In addit= ion, some attention is given to the Received Pronunciation of (British) Eng= lish. These two dialects are referred to as GA and RP respectively. Speaker= s of other dialects should consult a book on phonetics or their local telev= ision sets. + =20 + =20 + =20 + + + [=CB=88] + + An IPA indicator of primary stress; the syllable which fol= lows=20 + [=CB=88] receives primary stress.<= /para> + + + + [=CA=94] + + An allowed variant of Lojban=20 + .. This sound is not usually considered par= t of English. It is the catch in your throat that sometimes occurs prior to= the beginning of a word (and sometimes a syllable) which starts with a vow= el. In some dialects, like Cockney and some kinds of American English, it i= s used between vowels instead of=20 + t:=20 + bottle + [bo=CA=94l=CC=A9]. The English int= erjection=20 + uh-oh! almost always has it between the syllables= . + + + + [=CB=90] + + A symbol indicating that the previous vowel is to be spoke= n for a longer time than usual. Lojban vowels can be pronounced long in ord= er to make a greater contrast with buffer vowels. + + + + [a] + + The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 + a. This sound doesn't occur in GA, but soun= ds somewhat like the=20 + ar of=20 + park, as spoken in RP or New England American. It= is pronounced further forward in the mouth than=20 + [=C9=91]. + + + + [=C9=91] + + An allowed variant of Lojban=20 + a. The=20 + a of GA=20 + father. The sound=20 + [a] is preferred because GA speake= rs often relax an unstressed=20 + [=C9=91] into a schwa=20 + [=C9=99], as in the usual pronunci= ations of=20 + about and=20 + sofa. Because schwa is a distinct vowel in Lojban= , English speakers must either learn to avoid this shift or to use=20 + [a] instead: the Lojban word for= =20 + sofa is=20 + sfofa, pronounced=20 + [sfofa] or=20 + [sfof=C9=91] but never=20 + [sfof=C9=99] which would be the no= n-word=20 + sfofy. + + + + [=C3=A6] + + Not a Lojban sound. The=20 + a of English=20 + cat. + + + + [b] + + The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 + b. As in English=20 + boy,=20 + sober, or=20 + job. + + + + [=CE=B2] + + An allowed variant of Lojban=20 + v. Not an English sound; the Spanish=20 + b or=20 + v between vowels. This sound shou= ld not be used for Lojban=20 + b. + + + + [d] + + The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 + d. As in English=20 + dog,=20 + soda, or=20 + mad. + + + + [=C9=9B] + + The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 + e. The=20 + e of English=20 + met. + + + + [e] + + An allowed variant of Lojban=20 + e. This sound is not found in English, but = is the Spanish=20 + e, or the tense=20 + e of Italian. The vowel of Englis= h=20 + say is similar except for the off-glide: you can = learn to make this sound by holding your tongue steady while saying the fir= st part of the English vowel. + + + + [=C9=99] + + The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 + y. As in the=20 + a of English=20 + sofa or=20 + about. Schwa is generally unstressed in Lojban, a= s it is in English. It is a totally relaxed sound made with the tongue in t= he middle of the mouth. + + + + [f] + + The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 + f. As in=20 + fee,=20 + loafer, or=20 + chef. + + + + [=C9=B8] + + An allowed variant of Lojban=20 + f. Not an English sound; the Japanese=20 + + f sound. + + + + [g] + + The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 + g. As in English=20 + go,=20 + eagle, or=20 + dog. + + + + [h] + + The preferred pronunciation of the Lojban apostrophe sound= . As in English=20 + aha or the second "h" in=20 + oh, hello. + + + + [i] + + The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 + i. Essentially like the English vowel of=20 + pizza or=20 + machine, although the English vowel is sometimes = pronounced with an off-glide, which should not be present in Lojban. + + + + [=C9=AA] + + A possible Lojban buffer vowel. The=20 + =20 + i of English=20 + bit. + + + + [=C9=A8] + + A possible Lojban buffer vowel. The=20 + =20 + u of=20 + just in some varieties of GA, those which make th= e word sound more or less like=20 + jist. Also Russian=20 + y as in=20 + byt' (to be); like a schwa=20 + [=C9=99], but higher in the mouth.= + + + + [j] + + Used in Lojban diphthongs beginning or ending with=20 + i. Like the=20 + y in English=20 + yard or=20 + say. + + + + [k] + + The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 + k. As in English=20 + kill,=20 + token, or=20 + flak. + + + + [l] + + The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 + l. As in English=20 + low,=20 + nylon, or=20 + excel. + + + + [l=CC=A9] + + The syllabic version of Lojban=20 + l, as in English=20 + bottle or=20 + middle. + + + + [m] + + The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 + m. As in English=20 + me,=20 + humor, or=20 + ham. + + + + [m=CC=A9] + + The syllabic version of Lojban=20 + m. As in English=20 + catch 'em or=20 + bottom. + + + + [n] + + The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 + n. As in English=20 + no,=20 + honor, or=20 + son. + + + + [n=CC=A9] + + The syllabic version of Lojban=20 + n. As in English=20 + button. + + + + [=C5=8B] + + An allowed variant of Lojban=20 + n, especially in Lojbanized names and befor= e=20 + g or=20 + k. As in English=20 + sing or=20 + singer (but not=20 + finger or=20 + danger). + + + + [=C5=8B=CC=8D] + + An allowed variant of Lojban syllabic=20 + n, especially in Lojbanized names. + + + + [o] + + The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 + o. As in the French=20 + haute (cuisine) or Spanish=20 + como. There is no exact English e= quivalent of this sound. The nearest GA equivalent is the=20 + o of=20 + dough or=20 + joke, but it is essential that the off-glide (a= =20 + [w]-like sound) at the end of the = vowel is not pronounced when speaking Lojban. The RP sound in these words i= s=20 + [=C9=99w] in IPA terms, and has no= =20 + [o] in it at all; unless you can s= peak with a Scots, Irish, or American accent, you may have trouble with thi= s sound. + + + + [=C9=94] + + An allowed variant of Lojban=20 + o, especially before=20 + r. This sound is a shortened form of the=20 + aw in GA=20 + dawn (for those people who don't pronounce=20 + dawn and=20 + Don alike; if you do, you may have trouble with t= his sound). In RP, but not GA, it is the=20 + o of=20 + hot. + + + + [p] + + The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 + p. As in English=20 + pay,=20 + super, or=20 + up. + + + + [r] + + One version of Lojban=20 + r. Not an English sound. The Spanish=20 + rr and the Scots=20 + r, a tongue-tip trill. + + + + [=C9=B9] + + One version of Lojban=20 + r. As in GA=20 + right,=20 + baron, or=20 + car. Not found in RP. + + + + [=C9=BE] + + One version of Lojban=20 + r. In GA, appears as a variant of=20 + t or=20 + d in the words=20 + metal and=20 + medal respectively. A tongue-tip flap. + + + + [=CA=80] + + One version of Lojban=20 + r. Not an English sound. The French or Germ= an=20 + r in + reine or=20 + rot respectively. A uvular trill.= + + + + + [r=CC=A9],=20 + [=C9=B9=CC=A9],=20 + [=C9=BE=CC=A9],=20 + [=CA=80=CC=A9] + + are syllabic versions of the above.=20 + [=C9=B9=CC=A9] appears in the GA (= but not RP) pronunciation of=20 + bird. + + + + [s] + + The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 + s. As in English=20 + so,=20 + basin, or=20 + yes. + + + + [=CA=83] + + The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 + c. The=20 + sh of English=20 + ship,=20 + ashen, or=20 + dish. + + + + [=CA=82] + + An allowed variant of Lojban=20 + s. Not an English sound. The Hindi retrofle= x=20 + s with dot below, or Klingon=20 + S. + + + + [t] + + The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 + t. As in English=20 + tea,=20 + later, or=20 + not. It is important to avoid the GA habit of pro= nouncing the=20 + t between vowels as=20 + [d] or=20 + [=C9=BE]. + + + + [=CE=B8] + + Not normally a Lojban sound, but a possible variant of Loj= ban=20 + '. The=20 + th of English=20 + thin (but not=20 + then). + + + + [v] + + The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 + v. As in English=20 + voice,=20 + savor, or=20 + live. + + + + [w] + + Used in Lojban diphthongs beginning or ending with=20 + u. Like the=20 + w in English=20 + wet + [w=C9=9Bt] or=20 + cow + [k=C9=91w]. + + + + [x] + + The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 + x. Not normally an English sound, but used = in some pronunciations of=20 + loch and=20 + Bach;=20 + gh in Scots=20 + might and=20 + night. The German=20 + Ach-Laut. To pronounce=20 + [x], force air through your throat= without vibrating your vocal chords; there should be lots of scrape. + + + + [=CA=8F] + + A possible Lojban buffer vowel. Not an English sound: the= =20 + =20 + =C3=BC of German=20 + h=C3=BCbsch. + + + + [z] + + The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 + z. As in English=20 + zoo,=20 + hazard, or=20 + fizz. + + + + [=CA=92] + + The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 + j. The=20 + si of English=20 + vision, or the consonant at the end of GA=20 + garage. + + + + [=CA=90] + + An allowed variant of Lojban=20 + z. Not an English sound. The voiced version= of=20 + [=CA=82]. + + + +

+ English Analogues For Lojban Diphthongs + diphthongsEnglish analogues of Here is a list o= f English words that contain diphthongs that are similar to the Lojban diph= thongs. This list does not constitute an official pronunciation guide; it i= s intended as a help to English-speakers. + + + + Lojban + English + + + + ai =20 + pie + + + ei =20 + pay + + + oi =20 + boy + + + au =20 + cow + + + ia =20 + yard + + + ie =20 + yes + + + ii =20 + ye + + + io =20 + yodel (in GA only) + + + iu =20 + unicorn or few + + + ua =20 + suave + + + ue =20 + wet + + + ui =20 + we + + + uo =20 + woe (in GA only) + + + uu =20 + woo + + + iy =20 + million (the io part, that i= s) + + + uy =20 + was (when unstressed) + + +

+ Oddball Orthographies + orthographynon-standard The following notes des= cribe ways in which Lojban has been written or could be written that differ= from the standard orthography explained in the rest of this chapter. Nobod= y needs to read this section except people with an interest in the obscure.= Technicalities are used without explanation or further apology. + =20 + There exists an alternative orthography for Lojban, which is des= igned to be as compatible as possible (but no more so) with the orthography= used in pre-Lojban versions of Loglan. The consonants undergo no change, e= xcept that=20 + =20 + x is replaced by=20 + h. The individual vowels likewise remain unchange= d. However, the vowel pairs and diphthongs are changed as follows: + =20 + + + + ai,=20 + ei,=20 + oi,=20 + au become=20 + ai,=20 + ei,=20 + oi,=20 + ao. + + + + + ia through=20 + iu and=20 + ua through=20 + uu remain unchanged. + + + + + a'i,=20 + =20 + e'i,=20 + o'i and=20 + =20 + a'o become=20 + =20 + a,i,=20 + e,i,=20 + o,i and=20 + a,o. + + + + + i'a through=20 + i'u and=20 + u'a through=20 + u'u are changed to=20 + =20 + ia through=20 + iu and=20 + ua through=20 + uu in lujvo and cmavo other than attitudi= nals, but become=20 + i,a through=20 + i,u and=20 + u,a through=20 + u,u in names, fu'ivla, and attitudinal cm= avo. + + + + All other vowel pairs simply drop the apostrophe. + =20 + + + The result of these rules is to eliminate the apostrophe altoget= her, replacing it with comma where necessary, and otherwise with nothing. I= n addition, names and the cmavo=20 + i are capitalized, and irregular stress is marked with = an apostrophe (now no longer used for a sound) following the stressed sylla= ble. + =20 + =20 + Three points must be emphasized about this alternative orthograp= hy: + =20 + + + non-standard = orthographiescaveat It is not = standard, and has not been used. + + + It does not represent any changes to the standard Lojban pho= nology; it is simply a representation of the same phonology using a differe= nt written form. + + + It was designed to aid in a planned rapprochement between th= e Logical Language Group and The Loglan Institute, a group headed by James = Cooke Brown. The rapprochement never took place. + =20 + + + non-standard orth= ographiesCyrillic There also e= xists a Cyrillic orthography for Lojban which was designed when the introdu= ctory Lojban brochure was translated into Russian. It uses the=20 + =D0=B0,=20 + =D0=B1,=20 + =D0=B2,=20 + =D0=B3,=20 + =D0=B4,=20 + =D0=B5,=20 + =D0=B6,=20 + =D0=B7,=20 + =D0=B8,=20 + =D0=BA,=20 + =D0=BB,=20 + =D0=BC,=20 + =D0=BD,=20 + =D0=BE,=20 + =D0=BF,=20 + =D1=80,=20 + =D1=81,=20 + =D1=82,=20 + =D1=83,=20 + =D1=84,=20 + =D1=85, and=20 + =D1=88 in the obvious ways. The Latin letter=20 + y is mapped onto the hard sign=20 + =D1=8A, as in Bulgarian. The apostrophe, comma, and per= iod are unchanged. Diphthongs are written as vowel pairs, as in the Roman r= epresentation. + Tolkien= and non-standard Lojban orthography non-standard orthographiesTengwar Finally, an orthography usin= g the Tengwar of F=C3=A9anor, a fictional orthography invented by J. R. R. = Tolkien and described in the Appendixes to=20 + =20 + =20 + The Lord Of The Rings, has bee= n devised for Lojban. The following mapping, which closely resembles that u= sed for Westron, will be meaningful only to those who have read those appen= dixes. In brief, the tincot=C3=A9ma and parmat=C3=A9ma are used in the conv= entional ways; the calmat=C3=A9ma represents palatal consonants, and the qu= esset=C3=A9ma represents velar consonants. + =20 + + + tinco + t + + + calma =20 + - + + + ando + d + + + anga =20 + - + + + thule =20 + - + + + harma + c + + + anto =20 + - + + + anca + j + + + numen + n + + + noldo =20 + - + + + ore + r + + + anna + i + + + parma + p + + + quesse + k + + + umbar + b + + + ungwe + g + + + formen + f + + + hwesta + x + + + ampa + v + + + unque + - + + + malta + m + + + nwalme + - + + + vala + u + + + vilya + - + + + + The letters=20 + vala and=20 + anna are used for=20 + u and=20 + i only when those letters are used to represent g= lides. Of the additional letters,=20 + r,=20 + l,=20 + s, and=20 + z are written with=20 + r=C3=B3men,=20 + lambe,=20 + silme, and=20 + =C3=A1re/=20 + esse respectively; the inverted forms = are used as free variants. + Lojban, like Quenya, is a vowel-last language, so tehtar are rea= d as following the tengwar on which they are placed. The conventional tehta= r are used for the five regular vowels, and the dot below for y. The Lojban apostrophe is represented by = halla. There is no equivalent of the Lojban comma or period. +

+ diff --git a/chapters/04.xml b/chapters/04.xml new file mode 100644 index 0000000..103fd92 --- /dev/null +++ b/chapters/04.xml @@ -0,0 +1,3214 @@ + + The Shape Of Words To Come: Lojban Morphology + + The picture for chapter 4 + + + + + =20 +

+ Introductory + word formsin Lojban (see also morphology) morphologydef= inition morphologysimplicity of Mo= rphology is the part of grammar that deals with the form of words. Lojban's= morphology is fairly simple compared to that of many languages, because Lo= jban words don't change form depending on how they are used. English has on= ly a small number of such changes compared to languages like Russian, but i= t does have changes like=20 + boys as the plural of=20 + =20 + boy, or=20 + walked as the past-tense form of=20 + walk. To make plurals or past tenses in Lojban, you add= separate words to the sentence that express the number of boys, or the tim= e when the walking was going on. + word formsas related to grammatical uses derivational morphology<= secondary>definition morphologyderivational However, Lojban does have what is called=20 + derivational morphology: the capability of building new= words from old words. In addition, the form of words tells us something ab= out their grammatical uses, and sometimes about the means by which they ent= ered the language. Lojban has very orderly rules for the formation of words= of various types, both the words that already exist and new words yet to b= e created by speakers and writers. + =20 + morphologyconventions for A stream of Lojban so= unds can be uniquely broken up into its component words according to specif= ic rules. These so-called=20 + morphology rules are summarized in this chapter. (Howev= er, a detailed algorithm for breaking sounds into words has not yet been fu= lly debugged, and so is not presented in this book.) First, here are some c= onventions used to talk about groups of Lojban letters, including vowels an= d consonants. + =20 + + + yconsidered not to be a vowel for morphological discussions V= as a symbol for a single vowel morphologysymbol= ic conventions for discussing V represents any sing= le Lojban vowel except=20 + y; that is, it represents=20 + a,=20 + e,=20 + i,=20 + o, or=20 + u. + + + VV stringas a symbol for a double vowel VV = represents either a diphthong, one of the following: + + ai + ei + oi + au + + or a two-syllable vowel pair with an apostrophe separating the vow= els, one of the following: + + a'a + a'e + a'i + a'o + a'u + =20 + e'a + e'e + e'i + e'o + e'u + =20 + i'a + i'e + i'i + i'o + i'u + =20 + o'a + o'e + o'i + o'o + o'u + =20 + u'a + u'e + u'i + u'o + u'u + + + + + apostropheas not a consonant for morphological discussions syllabic ras a consonant for morphological discussions= syllabic nas a consonant for morphological discussions syllabic mas a consonant for morphological discussions syllabic l<= secondary>considered as a consonant for morphological discussions C stringas a symbol for a single consonant = C represents a single Lojban consonant, not including the apostrophe, one o= f + + b=20 + c=20 + d=20 + f=20 + g=20 + j=20 + k=20 + l=20 + m=20 + n=20 + p=20 + r=20 + s=20 + t=20 + v=20 + x + or z + + . Syllabic l, m, n, and r always count as consonants for = the purposes of this chapter. + + + + CC stringas a symbol for a permissible initial consonant pair CC represents two adjacent consonants of type C which co= nstitute one of the 48 permissible initial consonant pairs:=20 + + + bl br + cf ck cl cm cn cp cr ct + dj dr dz + fl fr + gl gr + jb jd jg jm jv + kl kr + ml mr + pl pr + sf sk sl sm sn sp sr st + tc tr ts + vl vr=20 + xl xr + zb zd zg zm zv + + + + C/C stringas a symbol for a permissible consonant pair<= /indexterm> C/C represents two adjacent consonants which constitute one of = the permissible consonant pairs (not necessarily a permissible initial cons= onant pair). The permissible consonant pairs are explained in . In brief, any consonant pair is permissible unless= it: contains two identical letters, contains both a voiced (excluding r, l, m, n) and an unvoiced consonant, or is one of certain specified = forbidden pairs. + + + + C/CC stringas a symbol for a consonant triple C/CC represents a consonant triple. The first two consonants must consti= tute a permissible consonant pair; the last two consonants must constitute = a permissible initial consonant pair. + + + brivla<= secondary>as one of the 3 basic word classes cmeneas one o= f the 3 basic word classes cmavoas one of the 3 basic word= classes parts of speech word classes Lojban has three basic wo= rd classes – parts of speech – in contrast to the eight that ar= e traditional in English. These three classes are called cmavo, brivla, and= cmene. Each of these classes has uniquely identifying properties – a= n arrangement of letters that allows the word to be uniquely and unambiguou= sly recognized as a separate word in a string of Lojban, upon either readin= g or hearing, and as belonging to a specific word-class. + =20 + =20 + They are also functionally different: cmavo are the structure wo= rds, corresponding to English words like=20 + =20 + and,=20 + if,=20 + the and=20 + to; brivla are the content words, corresponding to Engl= ish words like=20 + come,=20 + red,=20 + doctor, and=20 + freely; cmene are proper names, corresponding to Englis= h=20 + James,=20 + Afghanistan, and=20 + Pope John Paul II. +

+ cmavo + punctuation marks= cmavo as Lojban equivalents <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">numberscm= avo as Lojban equivalents prepositionscmavo as Lojban equi= valents conjunctionscmavo as Lojban equivalents articlescmavo as Lojban equivalents structure words selma'odefinition = cmavodefinition The f= irst group of Lojban words discussed in this chapter are the cmavo. They ar= e the structure words that hold the Lojban language together. They often ha= ve no semantic meaning in themselves, though they may affect the semantics = of brivla to which they are attached. The cmavo include the equivalent of E= nglish articles, conjunctions, prepositions, numbers, and punctuation marks= . There are over a hundred subcategories of cmavo, known as selma'o<= /valsi>, each having a specifically defined grammatical usage. The various = selma'o are discussed throughout=20 + to=20 + and summarized in=20 + . + cmavostructure of Standard cmavo occur in four = forms defined by their word structure. Here are some examples of the variou= s forms: + + + V-form + .a + .e + .i + .o + .u + + + CV-form + ba + ce + di + fo + gu + + + VV-form + .au + .ei + .ia + o'u + u'e + + + CVV-form + ki'a + pei + mi'o + coi + cu'u + + + In addition, there is the cmavo=20 + .y. (remember that=20 + y is not a V), which must have pauses before and = after it. + cmavolack of relation of form to grammatical use experimental cmavoforms for cmavofor experimental use cmavosimple A simple cmavo thus has the pro= perty of having only one or two vowels, or of having a single consonant fol= lowed by one or two vowels. Words consisting of three or more vowels in a r= ow, or a single consonant followed by three or more vowels, are also of cma= vo form, but are reserved for experimental use: a few examples are=20 + + + + <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>girls' school</primary><secon= dary>little</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e3d1"/> + + That's a little girls' school. + + What does it mean? Two possible readings are: + + + <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>girls' school</primary><secon= dary>little</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e3d2"/> + + That's a little school for girls. + + + + <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>girls' school</primary><secon= dary>little</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e3d3"/> + + That's a school for little girls. + + speech rhythmfor grouping in English This ambig= uity is quite different from the simple tanru ambiguity described in=20 + . We understand that=20 + girls' school means=20 + a school where girls are the students, and not=20 + a school where girls are the teachers or=20 + a school which is a girl (!). Likewise, we understand t= hat=20 + little girl means=20 + girl who is small. This is an ambiguity of grouping. Is= =20 + girls' school to be taken as a unit, with=20 + little specifying the type of girls' school? Or is=20 + little girl to be taken as a unit, specifying the type = of school? In English speech, different tones of voice, or=20 + exaggerated speech rhythm showing the grouping, are used to make the d= istinction; English writing usually leaves it unrepresented. + =20 + Lojban makes no use of tones of voice for any purpose; explici= t words are used to do the work. The cmavo=20 + bo (which belongs to selma'o BO) may be placed between = the two brivla which are most closely associated. Therefore, a Lojban trans= lation of=20 + would be: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e3d4"/> + + + ta cmalu nixli bo ckule + That is-a-small girl [] school. + + + might be translated:<= /para> + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e3d5"/> + + + ta cmalu bo nixli ckule + That is-a-small [] girl school. + + + The=20 + bo is represented in the literal translation by a hyphe= n because in written English a hyphen is sometimes used for the same purpos= e:=20 + a big dog-catcher would be quite different from a=20 + big-dog catcher (presumably someone who catches only bi= g dogs). + tanru nested with= in tanru Analysis of=20 + and=20 + reveals a tanru nested with= in a tanru. In=20 + , the main tanru has a selta= u of=20 + cmalu and a tertau of=20 + nixli bo ckule; the tertau is itself a tanru wi= th=20 + nixli as the seltau and=20 + ckule as the tertau. In=20 + , on the other hand, the sel= tau is=20 + cmalu bo nixli (itself a tanru), whereas the te= rtau is=20 + ckule.=20 + This structure of tanru nested within tanru forms the basis for all th= e more complex types of selbri that will be explained below. + What about=20 + ? What does it mean? + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e3d6"/> + + + ta cmalu nixli ckule + That is-a-small girl school. + + + tanrudefault left-grouping of left-grouping ruledefin= ition of The rules of Lojban do not leave this sent= ence ambiguous, as the rules of English do with=20 + . The choice made by the lan= guage designers is to say that=20 + means the same as=20 + . This is true no matter wha= t three brivla are used: the leftmost two are always grouped together. This= rule is called the=20 + left-grouping rule. Left-grouping in seemingly ambiguou= s structures is quite common – though not universal – in other = contexts in Lojban. + Another way to express the English meaning of=20 + and=20 + , using parentheses to mark = grouping, is: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e3d7"/> + + + ta cmalu [] nixli bo ckule + That is-a-small type-of (girl type-of school). + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e3d8"/> + + + ta cmalu bo nixli [] ckule + That is-a-(small type-of girl) type-of school. + + + Because=20 + type-of is implicit in the Lojban tanru form, it has no= Lojban equivalent. + Note: It is perfectly legal, though pointless, to insert=20 + bo into a simple tanru: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e3d9"/> + + + ta klama bo jubme + That is-a-goer [] table. + + + is a legal Lojban bridi that means exactly the same thing as=20 + , and is ambiguous in exactl= y the same ways. The cmavo=20 + bo serves only to resolve grouping ambiguity: it says n= othing about the more basic ambiguity present in all tanru. +

+ +

+ Complex tanru grouping + =20 + tanru groupingcomplex If one element of a tanru= can be another tanru, why not both elements? + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e4d1"/> + + + do mutce bo barda gerku bo kavbu + You are-a-(very type-of large) (dog type-of capturer). + You are a very large dog-catcher. + + + In=20 + , the selbri is a tanru with= seltau=20 + mutce bo barda and tertau=20 + gerku bo kavbu. It is worth emphasizing once ag= ain that this tanru has the same fundamental ambiguity as all other Lojban = tanru: the sense in which the=20 + dog type-of capturer is said to be=20 + very type-of large is not precisely specified. Presumab= ly it is his body which is large, but theoretically it could be one of his = other properties. + pretty<= secondary>English ambiguity of We will now justify = the title of this chapter by exploring the ramifications of the phrase=20 + pretty little girls' school, an expansion of the tanru = used in=20 + =20 + to four brivla. (Although= this example has been used in the Loglan Project almost since the beginnin= g – it first appeared in Quine's book=20 + Word and Object (1960) –= it is actually a mediocre example because of the ambiguity of English=20 + pretty; it can mean=20 + beautiful, the sense intended here, or it can mean=20 + very. Lojban=20 + melbi is not subject to this ambiguity: it means only= =20 + beautiful.) + Here are four ways to group this phrase: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e4d2"/> + + + ta melbi cmalu nixli ckule + That is-a-((pretty type-of little) type-of girl) type-of sc= hool. + That is a school for girls who are beautifully small. + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e4d3"/> + + + ta melbi cmalu nixli bo ckule + That is-a-(pretty type-of little) (girl type-of school). + That is a girls' school which is beautifully small. + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e4d4"/> + + + ta melbi cmalu bo nixli ckule + That is-a-(pretty type-of (little type-of girl)) type-of sc= hool. + That is a school for small girls who are beautiful. + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e4d5"/> + + + ta melbi cmalu bo nixli bo ckule + That is-a-pretty type-of (little type-of (girl type-of scho= ol)). + That is a small school for girls which is beautiful. + + + bofor right-grouping in tanru tanru groupingwith bo right= -grouping in tanruwith bo right-grouping ruledefinition of=20 + uses a construction which h= as not been seen before:=20 + cmalu bo nixli bo ckule, with two consecutive u= ses of=20 + bo between brivla. The rule for multiple=20 + bo constructions is the opposite of the rule when no=20 + bo is present at all: the last two are grouped together= . Not surprisingly, this is called the=20 + right-grouping rule, and it is associated with every us= e of=20 + =20 + bo in the language. Therefore, + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e4d6"/> + + + ta cmalu bo nixli bo ckule + That is-a-little type-of (girl type-of school). + + + means the same as=20 + , not=20 + . This rule may seem peculia= r at first, but one of its consequences is that=20 + bo is never necessary between the first two elements of= any of the complex tanru presented so far: all of=20 + through=20 + could have=20 + bo inserted between=20 + melbi and=20 + cmalu with no change in meaning. +

+ +

+ Complex tanru with=20 + <valsi>ke</valsi> and=20 + <valsi>ke'e</valsi> + =20 + The following cmavo are discussed in this section: + + + ke + KE + start grouping + + + ke'e + KEhE + end grouping + + + tanru groupingwith ke grouping parentheses There is, = in fact, a fifth grouping of=20 + pretty little girls' school that cannot be expressed wi= th the resources explained so far. To handle it, we must introduce the grou= ping parentheses cmavo,=20 + =20 + =20 + ke and=20 + ke'e (belonging to selma'o KE and KEhE respectively). A= ny portion of a selbri sandwiched between these two cmavo is taken to be a = single tanru component, independently of what is adjacent to it. Thus,=20 + can be rewritten in any of = the following ways: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e5d1"/> + + + ta ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ckule + That is-a-( pretty little ) girl school. + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e5d2"/> + + + ta ke ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ke'e ckule + That is-a-( ( pretty little ) girl ) school. + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e5d3"/> + + + ta ke ke ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ke'e ckule ke'e + That is-a-( ( ( pretty little ) girl ) school ). + + + Even more versions could be created simply by placing any number= of=20 + ke cmavo at the beginning of the selbri, and a like num= ber of=20 + ke'e cmavo at its end. Obviously, all of these are a wa= ste of breath once the left-grouping rule has been grasped. However, the fo= llowing is equivalent to=20 + and may be easier to unders= tand: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e5d4"/> + + + ta melbi ke cmalu nixli ke'e ckule + That is-a-( pretty type-of ( little type-of girl ) ) type-o= f school. + + + Likewise, a=20 + ke and=20 + ke'e version of=20 + would be: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e5d5"/> + + + ta melbi cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e] + That is-a-(pretty type-of little) ( girl type-of school ).<= /gloss> + + + The final=20 + ke'e is given in square brackets here to indicate that = it can be elided. It is always possible to elide=20 + =20 + ke'e at the end of the selbri, making=20 + as terse as=20 + . + Now how about that fifth grouping? It is + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e5d6"/> + + + ta melbi ke cmalu nixli ckule [ke'e] + That is-a-pretty type-of ( ( little type-of girl ) type-of = school ). + That is a beautiful school for small girls. + + + + is distinctly different i= n meaning from any of Examples 4.2 through 4.5. Note that within the=20 + ke…ke'e parentheses, the left-g= rouping rule is applied to=20 + cmalu nixli ckule. + tanru groupingwith ke and bo=20 + It is perfectly all right to mix=20 + bo and=20 + ke…ke'e in a single selbri. For i= nstance,=20 + , which in pure=20 + ke…ke'e form is + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e5d7"/> + + + ta melbi ke cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e] [ke'e] + That is-a-pretty type-of ( little type-of ( girl type-of sc= hool ) ). + + + can equivalently be expressed as: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e5d8"/> + + + ta melbi ke cmalu nixli bo ckule [ke'e] + That is-a-pretty type-of ( little type-of ( girl type-of sc= hool ) ). + + + and in many other different forms as well. +

+ +

+ Logical connection within tanru + The following cmavo are discussed in this section: + + + je + JA + tanru logical and + + + ja + JA + tanru logical or + + + joi + JOI + mixed mass and + + + gu'e + GUhA + tanru forethought logical and + + + gi + GI + forethought connection separator + + + Consider the English phrase=20 + big red dog. How shall this be rendered as a Lojban tan= ru? The naive attempt: + =20 + + + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>big red dog</primary><secondary>examp= le</secondary></indexterm> + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d1"/> + + + barda xunre gerku + (big type-of red) type-of dog + + + will not do, as it means a dog whose redness is big, in whatever= way redness might be described as=20 + big. Nor is + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d2"/> + + + barda xunre bo gerku + big type-of (red type-of dog) + + + adjective orderin= g much better. After all, the straightforward underst= anding of the English phrase is that the dog is big as compared with other = dogs, not merely as compared with other red dogs. In fact, the bigness and = redness are independent properties of the dog, and only obscure rules of En= glish adjective ordering prevent us from saying=20 + =20 + red big dog. + logical connectiv= esin tanru The Lojban approach= to this problem is to introduce the cmavo=20 + je, which is one of the many equivalents of English=20 + and. A big red dog is one that is both big and red, and= we can say: + =20 + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d3"/> + + + barda je xunre gerku + (big and red) type-of dog + + + Of course, + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d4"/> + + + xunre je barda gerku + (red and big) type-of dog + + + logical connectiv= es in tanrueffect on tanru grouping is equally satisfactory and means the same thing. As these examples i= ndicate, joining two brivla with=20 + je makes them a unit for tanru purposes. However, expli= cit grouping with=20 + bo or=20 + ke…ke'e associates brivla more cl= osely than=20 + je does: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d5"/> + + + barda je pelxu bo xunre gerku + barda je ke pelxu xunre ke'e gerku + (big and (yellow type-of red)) dog + big yellowish-red dog + + + With no grouping indicators, we get: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d6"/> + + + barda je pelxu xunre gerku + ((big and yellow) type-of red) type-of dog + biggish- and yellowish-red dog + + + which again raises the question of=20 + : what does=20 + biggish-red mean? + logical connectiv= es in tanruusefulness of Unlik= e=20 + bo and=20 + ke…ke'e,=20 + je is useful as well as merely legal within simple tanr= u. It may be used to partly resolve the ambiguity of simple tanru: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d7"/> + + + ta blanu je zdani + that is-blue and is-a-house + + + definitely refers to something which is both blue and is a house= , and not to any of the other possible interpretations of simple=20 + blanu zdani. Furthermore,=20 + blanu zdani refers to something which is blue i= n the way that houses are blue;=20 + blanu je zdani has no such implication – = the blueness of a=20 + blanu je zdani is independent of its houseness.= + With the addition of=20 + je, many more versions of=20 + pretty little girls' school are made possible: see=20 + =20 + for a complete lis= t. + A subtle point in the semantics of tanru like=20 + needs special elucidation. = There are at least two possible interpretations of: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d8"/> + + + ta melbi je nixli ckule + That is-a-(beautiful and girl) type-of school. + + + It can be understood as: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d9"/> + + That is a girls' school and a beautiful school. + + or as: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d10"/> + + That is a school for things which are both girls and beautiful= . + + logical connectiv= es in tanruambiguity of The in= terpretation specified by=20 + treats the tanru as a sort = of abbreviation for: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d11"/> + + + ta ke melbi ckule ke'e je ke nixli ckule [ke'e] + That is-a-( beautiful type-of school ) and ( girl type-of s= chool ) + + + whereas the interpretation specified by=20 + does not. This is a kind of= semantic ambiguity for which Lojban does not compel a firm resolution. The= way in which the school is said to be of type=20 + beautiful and girl may entail that it is separately a b= eautiful school and a girls' school; but the alternative interpretation, th= at the members of the school are beautiful and girls, is also possible. Sti= ll another interpretation is: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d12"/> + + That is a school for beautiful things and also for girls. + + so while the logical connectives help to resolve the meaning of = tanru, they by no means compel a single meaning in and of themselves. + logical connectiv= es in tanrueffect on formal logical manipulations In general, logical connectives within tanru cannot und= ergo the formal manipulations that are possible with the related logical co= nnectives that exist outside tanru; see=20 + for further details. + The logical connective=20 + je is only one of the fourteen logical connectives that= Lojban provides. Here are a few examples of some of the others: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d13"/> + + + le bajra cu jinga ja te jinga + the runner(s) is/are winner(s) or loser(s). + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d14"/> + + + blanu naja lenku skapi + (blue only-if cold) skin + skin which is blue only if it is cold + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d15"/> + + + xamgu jo tordu nuntavla + (good if-and-only-if short) speech + speech which is good if (and only if) it is short + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d16"/> + + + vajni ju pluka nuntavla + (important whether-or-not pleasing) event-of-talking + speech which is important, whether or not it is pleasing<= /natlang> + + + In=20 + ,=20 + ja is grammatically equivalent to=20 + je but means=20 + or (more precisely,=20 + and/or). Likewise,=20 + naja means=20 + only if in=20 + ,=20 + jo means=20 + if and only if in=20 + , and=20 + ju means=20 + whether or not in=20 + . + multiple logical = connectiveswithin tanru Now co= nsider the following example: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d17"/> + + + ricfu je blanu jabo crino + rich and (blue or green) + + + tanru grouping wi= th JA+BOeffect on tanru grouping which illustrates a new grammatical feature: the use of both=20 + ja and=20 + bo between tanru components. The two cmavo combine to f= orm a compound whose meaning is that of=20 + ja but which groups more closely;=20 + jabo is to=20 + =20 + ja as plain=20 + bo is to no cmavo at all. However, both=20 + ja and=20 + jabo group less closely than=20 + =20 + bo does: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d18"/> + + + ricfu je blanu jabo crino bo blanu + rich and (blue or green - blue) + rich and (blue or greenish-blue) + + + An alternative form of=20 + is: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d19"/> + + + ricfu je ke blanu ja crino [ke'e] + rich and (blue or green) + + + non-logical conne= ctiveswithin tanru In addition= to the logical connectives, there are also a variety of non-logical connec= tives, grammatically equivalent to the logical ones. The only one with a we= ll-understood meaning in tanru contexts is=20 + joi, which is the kind of=20 + and that denotes a mixture: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d20"/> + + + ti blanu joi xunre bolci + This is-a-(blue and red) ball. + =20 + + + The ball described is neither solely red nor solely blue, but pr= obably striped or in some other way exhibiting a combination of the two col= ors.=20 + is distinct from: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d21"/> + + + ti blanu xunre bolci + This is a bluish-red ball + + + which would be a ball whose color is some sort of purple tending= toward red, since=20 + xunre is the more important of the two components. On t= he other hand, + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d22"/> + + + ti blanu je xunre bolci + This is a (blue and red) ball + =20 + + + is probably self-contradictory, seeming to claim that the ball i= s independently both blue and red at the same time, although some sensible = interpretation may exist. + =20 + forethought logic= al connectiveswithin tanru Fin= ally, just as English=20 + and has the variant form=20 + both ... and, so=20 + je between tanru components has the variant form=20 + gu'e…gi, where=20 + gu'e is placed before the components and=20 + gi between them: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d23"/> + + + gu'e barda gi xunre gerku + (both big and red) type-of dog + + + is equivalent in meaning to=20 + . For each logical connectiv= e related to=20 + je, there is a corresponding connective related to=20 + gu'e…gi in a systematic way. + forethought logic= al connectives in tanrueffect on tanru grouping The portion of a=20 + gu'e…gi construction before the= =20 + gi is a full selbri, and may use any of the selbri reso= urces including=20 + je logical connections. After the=20 + gi, logical connections are taken to be wider in scope = than the=20 + gu'e…gi, which has in effect the = same scope as=20 + bo: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d24"/> + + + gu'e barda je xunre gi gerku ja mlatu + (both (big and red) and dog) or cat + something which is either big, red, and a dog, or else a = cat + + + leaves=20 + mlatu outside the=20 + gu'e…gi construction. The scope o= f the=20 + gi arm extends only to a single brivla or to two or mor= e brivla connected with=20 + bo or=20 + ke…ke'e. +

+ +

+ Linked sumti: <valsi>be</valsi>-<valsi>bei</valsi>-<valsi>be'o<= /valsi> + The following cmavo are discussed in this section: + + + be + BE + linked sumti marker + =20 + + + bei + BEI + linked sumti separator + =20 + + + be'o + BEhO + linked sumti terminator + =20 + + + The question of the place structures of selbri has been glossed = over so far. This chapter does not attempt to treat place structure issues = in detail; they are discussed in=20 + . One grammatical structure rel= ated to places belongs here, however. In simple sentences such as=20 + , the place structure of the se= lbri is simply the defined place structure of the gismu + mamta. What about more complex selbri? + tanruplace structures of For tanru, the place s= tructure rule is simple: the place structure of a tanru is always the place= structure of its tertau. Thus, the place structure of=20 + blanu zdani is that of=20 + zdani: the x1 place is a house or nest, and the x2 plac= e is its occupants. + What about the places of=20 + blanu? Is there any way to get them into the act? In fa= ct,=20 + blanu has only one place, and this is merged, as it wer= e, with the x1 place of=20 + zdani. It is whatever is in the x1 place that is being = characterized as blue-for-a-house. But if we replace=20 + blanu with=20 + xamgu, we get: + + + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>good house</primary><secondary>exampl= e</secondary></indexterm> + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d1"/> + + + ti xamgu zdani + This is-a-good house. + =20 + This is a good (for someone, by some standard) house. + + + Since=20 + xamgu has three places (x1, the good thing; x2, the per= son for whom it is good; and x3, the standard of goodness),=20 + necessarily omits informati= on about the last two: there is no room for them. Room can be made, however= ! + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d2"/> + + + ti xamgu be do bei mi [be'o] zdani + This is-a-good (for you by-standard me) house. + This is a house that is good for you by my standards. + + + linked sumtiin tanru seltaufilling sumti places in Here, the gismu=20 + xamgu has been followed by the cmavo=20 + be (of selma'o BE), which signals that one or more sumt= i follows. These sumti are not part of the overall bridi place structure, b= ut fill the places of the brivla they are attached to, starting with x2. If= there is more than one sumti, they are separated by the cmavo=20 + bei (of selma'o BEI), and the list of sumti is terminat= ed by the elidable terminator=20 + be'o (of selma'o BEhO). + linked sumtidefinition Grammatically, a brivla = with sumti linked to it in this fashion plays the same role in tanru as a s= imple brivla. To illustrate, here is a fully fleshed-out version of=20 + , with all places filled in:= + + + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Brooklyn</primary><secondary>example<= /secondary></indexterm> + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d3"/> + + + ti cmalu be le ka canlu bei lo'e ckule be'o + This is a small (in-dimension the property-of volume by-sta= ndard the-typical school) + + + nixli be li mu bei lo merko be'o bo ckule + (girl (of-years the-number five by-standard some American-t= hing) school) + + + la bryklyn. loi pemci + in-Brooklyn with-subject poems + + + le mela nu,IORK. prenu le jecta + for-audience New-York persons with-operator the state. + + This is a school, small in volume compared to the typical scho= ol, pertaining to five-year-old girls (by American standards), in Brooklyn,= teaching poetry to the New York community and operated by the state. + + Here the three places of=20 + cmalu, the three of=20 + nixli, and the four of=20 + ckule are fully specified. Since the places of=20 + ckule are the places of the bridi as a whole, it was no= t necessary to link the sumti which follow=20 + ckule. It would have been legal to do so, however: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d4"/> + + + mi klama be le zarci bei le zdani [be'o] + I go (to-the market from-the house). + + + means the same as + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d5"/> + + + mi klama le zarci le zdani + I go to-the market from-the house. + + + tanruplace structures of No matter how complex = a tanru gets, the last brivla always dictates the place structure: the plac= e structure of + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d6"/> + + + melbi je cmalu nixli bo ckule + a (pretty and little) (girl school) + a school for girls which is both beautiful and small + + + is simply that of=20 + ckule. (The sole exception to this rule is discussed in= =20 + .) + FA tags and linke= d sumti linked sumti and FA tags It is possible to precede = linked sumti by the place structure ordering tags=20 + =20 + fe,=20 + fi,=20 + fo, and=20 + fu (of selma'o FA, discussed further in=20 + ), which serve to explicitly specify the= x2, x3, x4, and x5 places respectively. Normally, the place following the= =20 + be is the x2 place and the other places follow in order= . If it seems convenient to change the order, however, it can be accomplish= ed as follows: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d7"/> + + + ti xamgu be fi mi bei fe do [be'o] zdani + This is-a-good ( by-standard me for you ) house. + + + which is equivalent in meaning to=20 + . Note that the order of=20 + be,=20 + bei, and=20 + be'o does not change; only the inserted=20 + fi tells us that=20 + mi is the x3 place (and correspondingly, the inserted= =20 + fe tells us that=20 + do is the x2 place). Changing the order of sumti is oft= en done to match the order of another language, or for emphasis or rhythm.<= /para> + Of course, using FA cmavo makes it easy to specify one place whi= le omitting a previous place: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d8"/> + + + ti xamgu be fi mi [be'o] zdani + This is-a-good (by-standard me) house. + This is a good house by my standards. + =20 + + + sumti tcita and t= ense tags tense tags and sumti tcita sumti tcita and modal tags = modal tags and sumti tcita sumti tc= ita and linked sumti linked sumti and sumti tcita Similarly= , sumti labeled by modal or tense tags can be inserted into strings of link= ed sumti just as they can into bridi: + =20 + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d9"/> + + + ta blanu be ga'a mi [be'o] zdani + That is-a-blue (to-observer me) house. + That is a blue, as I see it, house. + + + The meaning of=20 + is slightly different from:= + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d10"/> + + + ta blanu zdani ga'a mi + That is-a-blue house to-observer me. + That is a blue house, as I see it. + + + See discussions in=20 + of modals and in=20 + of tenses for more explanations. + be'oeffect of relative clauses on elidability of relative clauses= effect on elidability of be'o be'oelidability o= f el= idability of be'o The terminator=20 + be'o is almost always elidable: however, if the selbri = belongs to a description, then a relative clause following it will attach t= o the last linked sumti unless=20 + =20 + be'o is used, in which case it will attach to the outer= description: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d11"/> + + + le xamgu be do noi barda cu zdani + The good-thing for you (who are-large) is-a-house. + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d12"/> + + + le xamgu be do be'o noi barda cu zdani + The (good-thing for you) (which is-large) is-a-house + + + (Relative clauses are explained in=20 + .) + be'oeffect of ku on elidability of kueffect on elidabi= lity of be'o In other cases, however,=20 + be'o cannot be elided if=20 + ku has also been elided: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d13"/> + + + le xamgu be le ctuca [ku] be'o zdani + the good (for the teacher) house + + + requires either=20 + ku or=20 + be'o, and since there is only one occurrence of=20 + be, the=20 + be'o must match it, whereas it may be confusing which o= ccurrence of=20 + le the=20 + ku terminates (in fact the second one is correct). +

+ +

+ Inversion of tanru:=20 + <valsi>co</valsi> + The following cmavo is discussed in this section: + + + co + CO + tanru inversion marker + =20 + + + tanru inversion The standard order of Lojban tanru, whereby the modifi= er precedes what it modifies, is very natural to English-speakers: we talk = of=20 + blue houses, not of=20 + houses blue. In other languages, however, such matters = are differently arranged, and Lojban supports this reverse order (tertau be= fore seltau) by inserting the particle=20 + co.=20 + and=20 + mean exactly the same thing= : + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d1"/> + + + ta blanu zdani + That is-a-blue type-of-house. + That is a blue house. + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d2"/> + + + ta zdani co blanu + That is-a-house of-type blue. + That is a blue house. + + + seltau<= secondary>definition tertaudefinition tanru inversiondefinition This change is called=20 + tanru inversion. In tanru inversion, the element before= =20 + =20 + co (=20 + zdani in=20 + ) is the tertau, and the ele= ment following=20 + co (=20 + blanu) in=20 + ) is the seltau. + place structure a= nd tanru inversion tanru inversion and place structure The = meaning, and more specifically, the place structure, of a tanru is not affe= cted by inversion: the place structure of=20 + zdani co blanu is still that of=20 + zdani. However, the existence of inversion in a selbri = has a very special effect on any sumti which follow that selbri. Instead of= being interpreted as filling places of the selbri, they actually fill the = places (starting with x2) of the seltau. In=20 + , we saw how to fill interior plac= es with=20 + be…bei…be'o= , and in fact=20 + and=20 + have the same meaning: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d3"/> + + + mi klama be le zarci bei le zdani be'o troci + I am-a-(goer to the market from the house) type-of trier. + I try to go to the market from the house. + =20 + + + + + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>try to go</primary><secondary>example= </secondary></indexterm> + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d4"/> + + + mi troci co klama le zarci le zdani + I am-a-trier of-type (goer to-the market from-the house). + I try to go to the market from the house. + =20 + + + + is a less deeply nested con= struction, requiring fewer cmavo. As a result it is probably easier to unde= rstand. + Note that in Lojban=20 + trying to go is expressed using=20 + troci as the tertau. The reason is that=20 + trying to go is a=20 + going type of trying, not a=20 + trying type of going. The trying is more fundamental th= an the going – if the trying fails, we may not have a going at all. + inverted tanrueffect on sumti after the selbri = inverted tanrueffect on sumti before the selbri unfilled places of inverted tanru Any sumti which precede a selbri with an inverted tanru f= ill the places of the selbri (i.e., the places of the tertau) in the ordina= ry way. In=20 + =20 + ,=20 + mi fills the x1 place of=20 + troci co klama, which is the x1 place of=20 + troci. The other places of the selbri remain unfilled. = The trailing sumti=20 + le zarci and=20 + le zdani do not occupy selbri places, despite a= ppearances. + As a result, the regular mechanisms (involving selma'o VOhA and = GOhI, explained in=20 + ) for referring to individu= al sumti of a bridi cannot refer to any of the trailing places of=20 + , because they are not reall= y=20 + sumti of the bridi at all. + tanru inversionwhere allowed tanru inversionin compl= ex tanru When inverting a more complex tanru, it is= possible to invert it only at the most general modifier-modified pair. The= only possible inversion of=20 + , for instance, is: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d5"/> + + + ta nixli [bo] ckule co cmalu + That (is-a-girl type-of school) of-type little. + That's a girls' school which is small. + + + tanru groupingeffect of tanru inversion on tanru inversioneffect on tanru grouping=20 + Note that the=20 + bo of=20 + is optional in=20 + , because=20 + co groups more loosely than any other cmavo used in tan= ru, including none at all. Not even=20 + ke…ke'e parentheses can encompass= a=20 + co: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d6"/> + + + ta cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e] co melbi + That is-a-(little type-of (girl type-of school)) of-type pr= etty. + That's a small school for girls which is beautiful. + + + tanru inversionrule for removing In=20 + , the=20 + ke'e is automatically inserted before the=20 + co rather than at its usual place at the end of the sel= bri. As a result, there is a simple and mechanical rule for removing=20 + co from any selbri: change=20 + A co B to=20 + ke B ke'e A. (At the same time, any sumti following the= selbri must be transformed into=20 + be…bei…be'o= form and attached following B.) Therefore, + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d7"/> + + + ckule co melbi nixli + school of-type pretty girl + school for beautiful girls + + + means the same as: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d8"/> + + + ke melbi nixli ke'e ckule + (pretty girl) school + + + multiple tanru in= versioneffect on grouping tanru inversionmultiple Multiple=20 + co cmavo can appear within a selbri, indicating multipl= e inversions: a right-grouping rule is employed, as for=20 + =20 + bo. The above rule can be applied to interpret such sel= bri, but all=20 + co cmavo must be removed simultaneously: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d9"/> + + + ckule co nixli co cmalu + school of-type (girl of-type little) + + + becomes formally + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d10"/> + + + ke ke cmalu ke'e nixli ke'e ckule + ( (little) girl ) school + + + which by the left-grouping rule is simply + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d11"/> + + + cmalu nixli ckule + little girl school + school for little girls + + + As stated above, the selbri places, other than the first, of + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d12"/> + + + mi klama co sutra + I am-a-goer of-type quick + I go quickly + + + cannot be filled by placing sumti after the selbri, because any = sumti in that position fill the places of=20 + sutra, the seltau. However, the tertau places (which me= ans in effect the selbri places) can be filled with=20 + be: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d13"/> + + + mi klama be le zarci be'o co sutra + I am-a-goer (to the store) of-type quick. + I go to the store quickly. + + +

+ +

+ Other kinds of simple selbri + The following cmavo are discussed in this section: + + + go'i + GOhA + repeats the previous bridi + + + du + GOhA + equality + + + nu'a + NUhA + math operator to selbri + + + moi + MOI + changes number to ordinal selbri + =20 + + + mei + MOI + changes number to cardinal selbri + =20 + + + nu + NU + event abstraction + =20 + + + kei + KEI + terminator for NU + + + equivalents to br= ivla b= rivla equivalents So far we have only discussed brivl= a and tanru built up from brivla as possible selbri. In fact, there are a f= ew other constructions in Lojban which are grammatically equivalent to briv= la: they can be used either directly as selbri, or as components in tanru. = Some of these types of simple selbri are discussed at length in=20 + ,=20 + , and=20 + ; but for completeness these types ar= e mentioned here with a brief explanation and an example of their use in se= lbri. + tanruwith GOhA selbriwith GOhA= GOhA selma'oas component in tanru GOhA selma'oas selbri The cmavo of selma'o GOhA (with one exception) serve as pro= -bridi, providing a reference to the content of other bridi; none of them h= as a fixed meaning. The most commonly used member of GOhA is probably=20 + go'i, which amounts to a repetition of the previous bri= di, or part of it. If I say: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d1"/> + + + la djan. klama le zarci + John goes-to the market. + + + you may retort: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d2"/> + + + la djan. go'i troci + John [repeat last] are-a-tryer + John tries to. + + + + is short for: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d3"/> + + + la djan. klama be le zarci be'o troci + John is-a-goer (to the market) type-of trier. + + + because the whole bridi of=20 + has been packaged up into t= he single word=20 + go'i and inserted into=20 + . + duas an exception within GOhA selma'o The excep= tional member of GOhA is=20 + du, which represents the relation of identity. Its plac= e structure is: + x1 is identical with x2, x3, ... + for as many places as are given. More information on selma'o GOh= A is available in=20 + . + tanrucontaining mathematical expressions mathematical expressions in tanru<= /primary> Lojban mathematical expressions (mekso) can be incorp= orated into selbri in two different ways. Mathematical operators such as=20 + =20 + su'i, meaning=20 + plus, can be transformed into selbri by prefixing them = with=20 + nu'a (of selma'o NUhA). The resulting place structure i= s: + x1 is the result of applying (the operator) to ar= guments x2, x3, etc. + for as many arguments as are required. (The result goes in the x= 1 place because the number of following places may be indefinite.) For exam= ple: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d4"/> + + + li vo nu'a su'i li re li re + The-number 4 is-the-sum-of the-number 2 and-the-number 2. + + + A possible tanru example might be: + + + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>addition problems</primary><secondary= >example</secondary></indexterm> + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d5"/> + + + mi jimpe tu'a loi nu'a su'i nabmi + I understand something-about the-mass-of is-the-sum-of prob= lems. + I understand addition problems. + =20 + + + MOI selma'o More usefully, it is possible to combine a mathemati= cal expression with a cmavo of selma'o MOI to create one of various numeric= al selbri. Details are available in=20 + =20 + . Here are a few tanru: + + + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Preem Palver</primary><secondary>exam= ple</secondary></indexterm> + +=20 + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d6"/> + + + la prim. palvr. pamoi cusku + Preem Palver is-the-1-th speaker. + =20 + Preem Palver is the first speaker. + =20 + + + + + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>two brothers</primary><secondary>exam= ple</secondary></indexterm> + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d7"/> + + + la an,iis. joi la .asun. bruna remei + Anyi massed-with Asun are-a-brother type-of-twosome. + Anyi and Asun are two brothers. + =20 + =20 + + + NU selma'o Finally, an important type of simple selbri which is= not a brivla is the abstraction. Grammatically, abstractions are simple: a= cmavo of selma'o NU, followed by a bridi, followed by the elidable termina= tor=20 + kei of selma'o KEI. Semantically, abstractions are an e= xtremely subtle and powerful feature of Lojban whose full ramifications are= documented in=20 + . A few examples: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d8"/> + + + ti nu zdile kei kumfa + This is-an-event-of amusement room. + This is an amusement room. + + + abstraction bridi= contrasted with component non-abstraction bridi in mea= ning=20 + is quite distinct in meanin= g from: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d9"/> + + + ti zdile kumfa + This is-an-amuser room. + + + which suggests the meaning=20 + a room that amuses someone. +

+ +

+ selbri based on sumti: <valsi>me</valsi> + The following cmavo are discussed in this section: + + + me + ME + changes sumti to simple selbri + + + me'u + MEhU + terminator for me + + + meplace structure of conversion of sumti into selbri = sumti into selbri<= /indexterm> selbri from sumt= i A sumti can be made into a simple selbri by precedi= ng it with=20 + me (of selma'o ME) and following it with the elidable t= erminator=20 + me'u (of selma'o MEhU). This makes a selbri with the pl= ace structure + x1 is one of the referents of [the sumti]<= /quote> + which is true of the thing, or things, that are the referents of= the sumti, and not of anything else. For example, consider the sumti + + + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Three Kings</primary><secondary>examp= le</secondary></indexterm> + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d1"/> + + + le ci nolraitru + the three noblest-governors + the three kings + + + If these are understood to be the Three Kings of Christian tra= dition, who arrive every year on January 6, then we may say: + =20 + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d2"/> + + + la BALtazar. cu me le ci nolraitru + Balthazar is one-of-the-referents-of=20 + the three kings. + Balthazar is one of the three kings. + + + and likewise + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d3"/> + + + la kaspar. cu me le ci nolraitru + Caspar is one of the three kings. + + + and + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d4"/> + + + la melxi,or. cu me le ci nolraitru + Melchior is one of the three kings. + + + ducompared with me in effect mecompared with du in e= ffect me/du equivalence If the sumti refers to a single o= bject, then the effect of=20 + me is much like that of=20 + du: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d5"/> + + + do du la djan. + You are-identical-with the-one-called John.<= /gloss> + You are John. + + + means the same as + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d6"/> + + + do me la djan. + You are-the-referent-of=20 + the-one-called John. + You are John. + + + meused with names It is common to use=20 + me selbri, especially those based on name sumti using= =20 + la, as seltau. For example: + + + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Chrysler</primary><secondary>example<= /secondary></indexterm> + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d7"/> + + + ta me lai kraislr. [me'u] karce + That (is-a-referent of=20 + the-mass-called Chrysler) car. + =20 + That is a Chrysler car. + =20 + + + logical connect= ivesrelative precedence with me'u me'urelative precedence with logical connectives elidability of me'u The elidable terminator=20 + me'u can usually be omitted. It is absolutely required = only if the=20 + me selbri is being used in an indefinite description (a= type of sumti explained in=20 + =20 + =20 + ), and if the indef= inite description is followed by a relative clause (explained in=20 + =20 + =20 + ) or a sumti logical conne= ctive (explained in=20 + ). Without a=20 + me'u, the relative clause or logical connective would a= ppear to belong to the sumti embedded in the=20 + me expression. Here is a contrasting pair of sentences:= + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d8"/> + + + re me le ci nolraitru .e la djan. [me'u] cu blabi + Two of the group=20 + the three kings and John are white. + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d9"/> + + + re me le ci nolraitru me'u .e la djan. cu blabi + Two of the three kings, and John, are white. + + + In=20 + the=20 + me selbri covers the three kings plus John, and the ind= efinite description picks out two of them that are said to be white: we can= not say which two. In=20 + =20 + =20 + , though, the=20 + me selbri covers only the three kings: two of them are = said to be white, and so is John. + Finally, here is another example requiring=20 + me'u: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d10"/> + + + ta me la'e le se cusku be do me'u cukta + That is-a-(what-you-said) type of book. + That is the kind of book you were talking about. + + + There are other sentences where either=20 + me'u or some other elidable terminator must be expresse= d: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d11"/> + + + le me le ci nolraitru [ku] me'u nunsalci + the (the three kings) type-of-event-of-celebrating + the Three Kings celebration + =20 + + + requires either=20 + ku or=20 + me'u to be explicit, and (as with=20 + be'o in=20 + ) the=20 + me'u leaves no doubt which cmavo it is paired with. +

+ +

+ Conversion of simple selbri + xe<= /indexterm> ve= te se SE selma'= o plac= e structurere-ordering by conversion conversion<= secondary>definition tanru and conversion conversion and tanru = Conversion is the process of changing a selbri so that its places appear in= a different order. This is not the same as labeling the sumti with the cma= vo of FA, as mentioned in=20 + , and then rearranging the order i= n which the sumti are spoken or written. Conversion transforms the selbri i= nto a distinct, though closely related, selbri with renumbered places. + In Lojban, conversion is accomplished by placing a cmavo of selm= a'o SE before the selbri: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e11d1"/> + + + mi prami do + I love you. + + + is equivalent in meaning to: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e11d2"/> + + + do se prami mi + You [swap x1 and x2] love me. + You are loved by me. + + + Conversion is fully explained in=20 + . For the purposes of this chapter, the = important point about conversion is that it applies only to the following s= imple selbri. When trying to convert a tanru, therefore, it is necessary to= be careful! Consider=20 + : + + + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>walk to market</primary><secondary>ex= ample</secondary></indexterm> + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e11d3"/> + + + la .alis. cu cadzu klama le zarci + Alice is-a-walker type-of goer to-the market. + Alice walkingly goes to the market. + Alice walks to the market. + + + To convert this sentence so that=20 + le zarci is in the x1 place, one correct way is= : + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e11d4"/> + + + le zarci cu se ke cadzu klama [ke'e] la .alis. + The market is-a-[swap x1/x2] (walker type-of goer) Alice. + The market is-walkingly gone-to by-Alice. + + + kefor conversion of tanru conversion with ke The=20 + ke…ke'e brackets cause the entire= tanru to be converted by the=20 + se, which would otherwise convert only=20 + cadzu, leading to: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e11d5"/> + + + le zarci cu se cadzu klama la .alis. + The market (is-a-[swap x1/x2] walker) type-of goer to Alice= . + The market is-a-walking-surface type-of goer to Alice. + + + whatever that might mean. An alternative approach, since the pla= ce structure of=20 + cadzu klama is that of=20 + klama alone, is to convert only the latter: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e11d6"/> + + + le zarci cu cadzu se klama la .alis. + The market walkingly is-gone-to by-Alice. + + + But the tanru in=20 + may or may not have the sam= e meaning as that in=20 + ; in particular, because=20 + cadzu is not converted, there is a suggestion that alth= ough Alice is the goer, the market is the walker. With a different sumti as= x1, this seemingly odd interpretation might make considerable sense: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e11d7"/> + + + la djan. cu cadzu se klama la .alis + John walkingly is-gone-to by Alice + + + suggests that Alice is going to John, who is a moving target. + tense conversion<= /primary>with jai jaifor modal conversion There is an alternative type of conversion, using the cm= avo=20 + jai of selma'o JAI optionally followed by a modal or te= nse construction. Grammatically, such a combination behaves exactly like co= nversion using SE. More details can be found in=20 + . +

+ +

+ Scalar negation of selbri + selbri<= secondary>scalar negation of scalar negationeffect on selb= ri Negation is too large and complex a topic to exp= lain fully in this chapter; see=20 + . In brief, there are two main typ= es of negation in Lojban. This section is concerned with so-called=20 + scalar negation, which is used to state that a true rel= ation between the sumti is something other than what the selbri specifies. = Scalar negation is expressed by cmavo of selma'o NAhE: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d1"/> + + + la .alis. cu na'e ke cadzu klama [ke'e] le zarci + Alice non- (walkingly goes) to-the market. + Alice other-than (walkingly goes) to-the market. + Alice doesn't walk to the market. + + + kefor expanding scope of scalar negation meanin= g that Alice's relationship to the market is something other than that of w= alking there. But if the=20 + ke were omitted, the result would be: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d2"/> + + + la .alis. cu na'e cadzu klama le zarci + Alice non- walkingly goes to-the market. + Alice doesn't walk to the market. + + + meaning that Alice does go there in some way (=20 + klama is not negated), but by a means other than that o= f walking.=20 + negates both=20 + cadzu and=20 + klama, suggesting that Alice's relation to the market i= s something different from walkingly-going; it might be walking without goi= ng, or going without walking, or neither. + Of course, any of the simple selbri types explained in=20 + may be used in place of brivl= a in any of these examples: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d3"/> + + + la djonz. cu na'e pamoi cusku + Jones is non-1st speaker + Jones is not the first speaker. + + + Since only=20 + pamoi is negated, an appropriate inference is that he i= s some other kind of speaker. + negationcomplex examples complex negationexamples Here is an assortment of more complex examples showing = the interaction of scalar negation with=20 + bo grouping,=20 + ke and=20 + ke'e grouping, logical connection, and sumti linked wit= h=20 + be and=20 + bei: + na'econtrasted with na'e ke + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d4"/> + + + mi na'e sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o klama le zarci + I ( (non-quickly) ( walking using the arms) ) go-to the mar= ket. + I go to the market, walking using my arms other than quic= kly. + + + In=20 + ,=20 + na'e negates only=20 + sutra. Contrast=20 + : + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d5"/> + + + mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka [be'o] ke'e klama le za= rci + I non- ( quickly (walking using the arms) ) go-to the marke= t. + I go to the market, other than by walking quickly on my a= rms. + + + Now consider=20 + and=20 + , which are equivalent in me= aning, but use=20 + ke grouping and=20 + bo grouping respectively: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d6"/> + + + mi sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o je masno klama le zarci + I (quickly – (walking using the arms) and slowly) go-= to the market. + I go to the market, both quickly walking using my arms an= d slowly. + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d7"/> + + + mi ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka [be'o] ke'e je masno klama l= e zarci + I ( (quickly (walking using the arms) ) and slowly) go-to t= he market. + I go to the market, both quickly walking using my arms an= d slowly. + + + However, if we place a=20 + na'e at the beginning of the selbri in both=20 + and=20 + , we get different results:<= /para> + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d8"/> + + + mi na'e sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o je masno klama le zar= ci + I ( (non- quickly) - (walking using the arms) and slowly) g= o-to the market. + I go to the market, both walking using my arms other than= quickly, and also slowly. + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d9"/> + + + mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka [be'o] ke'e je masno kl= ama le zarci + I (non-(quickly (walking using the arms) ) and slowly) go-t= o the market. + I go to the market, both other than quickly walking using= my arms, and also slowly. + + + The difference arises because the=20 + na'e in=20 + negates the whole construct= ion from=20 + ke to=20 + ke'e, whereas in=20 + it negates=20 + sutra alone. + perils of omittin= g terminators <= primary>omitting terminatorsperils of Beware of omitting terminators in these complex examples! If the ex= plicit=20 + =20 + ke'e is left out in=20 + , it is transformed into: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d10"/> + + + mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o je masno klama [ke= 'e] le zarci + I non-(quickly ( (walking using the arms) ) and slowly) go-= to) the market. + I do something other than quickly both going to the market = walking + using my arms and slowly going to the market. + + + And if both=20 + ke'e and=20 + be'o are omitted, the results are even sillier: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d11"/> + + + mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka je masno klama [be'o] [= ke'e] le zarci + I non-(quickly walk on my (arm-type and slow) goers) on the= market. + I do something other than quickly walking using the goers= , both arm-type and slow, relative-to the market. + + + In=20 + , everything after=20 + be is a linked sumti, so the place structure is that of= =20 + =20 + cadzu, whose x2 place is the surface walked upon. It is= less than clear what an=20 + arm-type goer might be. Furthermore, since the x3 place= has been occupied by the linked sumti, the=20 + =20 + le zarci following the selbri falls into the no= nexistent x4 place of=20 + cadzu. As a result, the whole example, though grammatic= al, is complete nonsense. (The bracketed Lojban words appear where a fluent= Lojbanist would understand them to be implied.) + na'ebefore gu'e Finally, it is also possible to= place=20 + na'e before a=20 + gu'e…gi logically connected tanru= construction. The meaning of this usage has not yet been firmly establishe= d. +

+ +

+ Tenses and bridi negation + A bridi can have cmavo associated with it which specify the time= , place, or mode of action. For example, in + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e13d1"/> + + + mi pu klama le zarci + I [past] go to-the market. + I went to the market. + + + the cmavo=20 + pu specifies that the action of the speaker going to th= e market takes place in the past. Tenses are explained in full detail in=20 + . Tense is semantically a property o= f the entire bridi; however, the usual syntax for tenses attaches them at t= he front of the selbri, as in=20 + . There are alternative ways= of expressing tense information as well. Modals, which are explained in=20 + , behave in the same way as ten= ses. + Similarly, a bridi may have the particle=20 + na (of selma'o NA) attached to the beginning of the sel= bri to negate the bridi. A negated bridi expresses what is false without sa= ying anything about what is true. Do not confuse this usage with the scalar= negation of=20 + . For example: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e13d2"/> + + + la djonz. na pamoi cusku + Jones (Not!) is-the-first speaker + It is not true that Jones is the first speaker. + Jones isn't the first speaker. + + + Jones may be the second speaker, or not a speaker at all;=20 + doesn't say. There are othe= r ways of expressing bridi negation as well; the topic is explained fully i= n=20 + . + bridi negationrelative order with tense tenserelative = order with bridi negation Various combinations of t= ense and bridi negation cmavo are permitted. If both are expressed, either = order is permissible with no change in meaning: + =20 + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e13d3"/> + + + mi na pu klama le zarci + mi pu na klama le zarci + It is false that I went to the market. + I didn't go to the market. + + + bridi negationmultiple It is also possible to h= ave more than one=20 + na, in which case pairs of=20 + na cmavo cancel out: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e13d4"/> + + + mi na na klama le zarci + It is false that it is false that I go to the market. + I go to the market. + + + tense and namultiple na and tensemultiple<= /indexterm> It is even possible, though somewhat pointless, to have multipl= e=20 + na cmavo and tense cmavo mixed together, subject to the= limitation that two adjacent tense cmavo will be understood as a compound = tense, and must fit the grammar of tenses as explained in=20 + =20 + =20 + =20 + . + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e13d5"/> + + + mi na pu na ca klama le zarci + I [not] [past] [not] [present] go to-the market + It is not the case that in the past it was not the case tha= t in the present I went to the market. + I didn't not go to the market. + I went to the market. + + + negation cmavoposition relative to selbri modal cmavop= osition relative to selbri tense cmavoposition relative to= selbri Tense, modal, and negation cmavo can appear= only at the beginning of the selbri. They cannot be embedded within it. + =20 +

+ +

+ Some types of asymmetrical tanru + =20 + tanruasymmetrical asymmetrical tanru This section and= =20 + contain some example tanru= classified into groups based on the type of relationship between the modif= ying seltau and the modified tertau. All the examples are paralleled by com= pounds actually observed in various natural languages. In the tables which = follow, each group is preceded by a brief explanation of the relationship. = The tables themselves contain a tanru, a literal gloss, an indication of th= e languages which exhibit a compound analogous to this tanru, and (for thos= e tanru with no English parallel) a translation. + languagesabbreviations for Here are the 3-lette= r abbreviations used for the various languages (it is presumed to be obviou= s whether a compound is found in English or not, so English is not explicit= ly noted): + + + Aba + Abazin + + + Chi + Chinese + + + Ewe + Ewe + + + Fin + Finnish + + + Geo + Georgian + + + Gua + Guarani + + + Hop + Hopi + + + Hun + Hungarian + + + Imb + Imbabura Quechua + + + Kar + Karaitic + + + Kaz + Kazakh + + + Kor + Korean + + + Mon + Mongolian + + + Qab + Qabardian + + + Que + Quechua + + + Rus + Russian + + + Skt + Sanskrit + + + Swe + Swedish + + + Tur + Turkish + + + Udm + Udmurt + + + Any lujvo or fu'ivla used in a group are glossed at the end of t= hat group. + asymmetrical tanr= udefinition The tanru discusse= d in this section are asymmetrical tanru; that is, ones in which the order = of the terms is fundamental to the meaning of the tanru. For example,=20 + =20 + junla dadysli, or=20 + clock pendulum, is the kind of pendulum used in a clock= , whereas=20 + dadysli junla, or=20 + pendulum clock, is the kind of clock that employs a pen= dulum. Most tanru are asymmetrical in this sense. Symmetrical tanru are dis= cussed in=20 + . + asymmetrical tanr= u typesobject-of-action + action The tertau represents an action, and the seltau then represents the obje= ct of that action: + + + pinsi nunkilbra + pencil sharpener + Hun + + + zgike nunctu + music instruction + Hun + + + mirli nunkalte + deer hunting + Hun + + + finpe nunkalte + fish hunting + Tur,Kor,Udm,Aba + fishing + + + smacu terkavbu + mousetrap + Tur,Kor,Hun,Udm,Aba + + + zdani turni + house ruler + Kar + host + + + zerle'a nunte'a + thief fear + Skt + fear of thieves + + + cevni zekri + god crime + Skt + offense against the gods + + + + + nunkilbra + sharpness-apparatus + + + nunctu + event-of-teaching + + + nunkalte + event-of-hunting + + + terkavbu + trap + + + zerle'a + crime-taker + + + nunte'a + event-of-fearing + + + asymmetrical tanr= u typeselements-in-set + set T= he tertau represents a set, and the seltau the type of the elements contain= ed in that set: + + + zdani lijgri + house row + + + selci lamgri + cell block + + + karda mulgri + card pack + Swe + + + rokci derxi + stone heap + Swe + + + tadni girzu + student group + Hun + + + remna girzu + human-being group + Qab + group of people + + + cpumi'i lijgri + tractor column + Qab + + + cevni jenmi + god army + Skt + + + cevni prenu + god folk + Skt + + + + + lijgri + line-group + + + lamgri + adjacent-group + + + mulgri + complete-group + + + cpumi'i + pull-machine + + + asymmetrical tanr= u typesset + element-of-set Co= nversely: the tertau is an element, and the seltau represents a set in whic= h that element is contained. Implicitly, the meaning of the tertau is restr= icted from its usual general meaning to the specific meaning appropriate fo= r elements in the given set. Note the opposition between=20 + zdani linji in the previous group, and=20 + linji zdani in this one, which shows why this k= ind of tanru is called=20 + asymmetrical. + + + carvi dirgo + raindrop + Tur,Kor,Hun,Udm,Aba + + + linji zdani + row house + + + asymmetrical tanr= u typesobject + component/detail The seltau specifies an object and the tertau a component or detail of t= hat object; the tanru as a whole refers to the detail, specifying that it i= s a detail of that whole and not some other. + + + junla dadysli + clock pendulum + Hun + + + purdi vorme + garden door + Qab + + + purdi bitmu + garden wall + Que + + + moklu skapi + mouth skin + Imb + lips + + + nazbi kevna + nose hole + Imb + nostril + + + karce xislu + automobile wheel + Chi + + + jipci pimlu + chicken feather + Chi + + + vinji rebla + airplane tail + Chi + + + + + dadysli + hang-oscillator + + + asymmetrical tanr= u typescharacteristic/detail + object Conversely: the seltau specifies a characteristic or important deta= il of the object described by the tertau; objects described by the tanru as= a whole are differentiated from other similar objects by this detail. + + + pixra cukta + picture book + + + kerfa silka + hair silk + Kar + velvet + + + plise tapla + apple cake + Tur + + + dadysli junla + pendulum clock + Hun + + + + + dadysli + hang-oscillator + + + asymmetrical tanr= u typesgeneral-class + sub-class The tertau specifies a general class of object (a genus), and the seltau= specifies a sub-class of that class (a species): + + + ckunu tricu + pine tree + Hun,Tur,Hop + + + asymmetrical tanr= u typespossessor + object The = tertau specifies an object of possession, and the seltau may specify the po= ssessor (the possession may be intrinsic or otherwise). In English, these c= ompounds have an explicit possessive element in them:=20 + lion's mane,=20 + child's foot,=20 + noble's cow. + + + cinfo kerfa + lion mane + Kor,Tur,Hun,Udm,Qab + + + verba jamfu + child foot + Swe + + + nixli tuple + girl leg + Swe + + + cinfo jamfu + lion foot + Que + + + danlu skapi + animal skin + Ewe + + + ralju zdani + chief house + Ewe + + + jmive munje + living world + Skt + + + nobli bakni + noble cow + Skt + + + nolraitru ralju + king chief + Skt + emperor + + + + + nolraitru + nobly-superlative-ruler + + + asymmetrical tanr= u typesinhabitant + habitat Th= e tertau specifies a habitat, and the seltau specifies the inhabitant: + + + lanzu tumla + family land + + + asymmetrical tanr= u typeseffect + causative agent The tertau specifies a causative agent, and the seltau specifies the effe= ct of that cause: + + + kalselvi'i gapci + tear gas + Hun + + + terbi'a jurme + disease germ + Tur + + + fenki litki + crazy liquid + Hop + whisky + + + pinca litki + urine liquid + Hop + beer + + + + + kalselvi'i + eye-excreted-thing + + + terbi'a + disease + + + asymmetrical tanr= u typescause + effect Converse= ly: the tertau specifies an effect, and the seltau specifies its cause. + + + djacu barna + water mark + Chi + + + asymmetrical tanr= u typespurpose-of-instrument + instrument<= /indexterm> The tertau specifies an instrument, and the seltau specifies th= e purpose of that instrument: + + + taxfu dadgreku + garment rack + Chi + + + tergu'i ti'otci + lamp shade + Chi + + + xirma zdani + horse house + Chi + stall + + + nuzba tanbo + news board + Chi + bulletin board + + + + + dadgreku + hang-frame + + + tergu'i + source of illumination + + + ti'otci + shadow-tool + + + asymmetrical tanr= u typesobject-of-purpose-of-instrument + instrument More vaguely: the tertau specifies an instrument, and= the seltau specifies the object of the purpose for which that instrument i= s used: + + + cpina rokci + pepper stone + Que + stone for grinding pepper + + + jamfu djacu + foot water + Skt + water for washing the feet + + + grana mudri + post wood + Skt + wood for making a post + + + moklu djacu + mouth water + Hun + water for washing the mouth + + + lanme gerku + sheep dog + + dog for working sheep + + + asymmetrical tanr= u typessource + product The te= rtau specifies a product from some source, and the seltau specifies the sou= rce of the product: + + + moklu djacu + mouth water + Aba,Qab + saliva + + + ractu mapku + rabbit hat + Rus + + + jipci sovda + chicken egg + Chi + + + sikcurnu silka + silkworm silk + Chi + + + mlatu kalci + cat feces + Chi + + + bifce lakse + bee wax + Chi + beeswax + + + cribe rectu + bear meat + Tur,Kor,Hun,Udm,Aba + + + solxrula grasu + sunflower oil + Tur,Kor,Hun,Udm,Aba + + + bifce jisra + bee juice + Hop + honey + + + tatru litki + breast liquid + Hop + milk + + + kanla djacu + eye water + Kor + tear + + + + + sikcurnu + silk-worm + + + solxrula + solar-flower + + + asymmetrical tanr= u typesproduct + source Conver= sely: the tertau specifies the source of a product, and the seltau specifie= s the product: + + + silna jinto + salt well + Chi + + + kolme terkakpa + coal mine + Chi + + + ctile jinto + oil well + Chi + + + + + terkakpa + source of digging + + + asymmetrical tanr= u typessource-material + object The tertau specifies an object, and the seltau specifies the material fro= m which the object is made. This case is especially interesting, because th= e referent of the tertau may normally be made from just one kind of materia= l, which is then overridden in the tanru. + + + rokci cinfo + stone lion + + + snime nanmu + snow man + Hun + + + kliti cipni + clay bird + + + blaci kanla + glass eye + Hun + + + blaci kanla + glass eye + Que + spectacles + + + solji sicni + gold coin + Tur + + + solji junla + gold watch + Tur,Kor,Hun + + + solji djine + gold ring + Udm,Aba,Que + + + rokci zdani + stone house + Imb + + + mudri zdani + wood house + Ewe + wooden house + + + rokci bitmu + stone wall + Ewe + + + solji carce + gold chariot + Skt + + + mudri xarci + wood weapon + Skt + wooden weapon + + + cmaro'i dargu + pebble road + Chi + + + sudysrasu cutci + straw shoe + Chi + + + + + cmaro'i + small-rock + + + sudysrasu + dry-grass + + + Note: the two senses of=20 + blaci kanla can be discriminated as: + + + blaci kanla bo tarmi + glass (eye shape) + glass eye + + + blaci kanla bo sidju + glass (eye helper) + spectacles + + + asymmetrical tanr= u typesobject-measured + standard-object The tertau specifies a typical object used to measure a quantity= and the seltau specifies something measured. The tanru as a whole refers t= o a given quantity of the thing being measured. English does not have compo= unds of this form, as a rule. + + + tumla spisa + land piece + Tur + piece of land + + + tcati kabri + tea cup + Kor,Aba + cup of tea + + + nanba spisa + bread piece + Kor + piece of bread + + + bukpu spisa + cloth piece + Udm,Aba + piece of cloth + + + djacu calkyguzme + water calabash + Ewe + calabash of water + + + + + calkyguzme + shell-fruit, calabash + + + asymmetrical tanr= u typesoverriding-property + object-with-implicit-prop= erties The tertau specifies an object with certain = implicit properties, and the seltau overrides one of those implicit propert= ies: + + + kensa bloti + spaceship + + + bakni verba + cattle child + Ewe + calf + + + asymmetrical tanr= u typeswhole + part The seltau= specifies a whole, and the tertau specifies a part which normally is assoc= iated with a different whole. The tanru then refers to a part of the seltau= which stands in the same relationship to the whole seltau as the tertau st= ands to its typical whole. + + + kosta degji + coat finger + Hun + coat sleeve + + + denci genja + tooth root + Imb + + + tricu stedu + tree head + Imb + treetop + + + asymmetrical tanr= u typesproduct + producer The = tertau specifies the producer of a certain product, and the seltau specifie= s the product. In this way, the tanru as a whole distinguishes its referent= s from other referents of the tertau which do not produce the product. + + + silka curnu + silkworm + Tur,Hun,Aba + + + asymmetrical tanr= u typesobject-giving-characteristic + other-object The tertau specifies an object, and the seltau specifi= es another object which has a characteristic property. The tanru as a whole= refers to those referents of the tertau which possess the property. + + + sonci manti + soldier ant + + + ninmu bakni + woman cattle + Imb + cow + + + mamta degji + mother finger + Imb + thumb + + + cifnu degji + baby finger + Imb + pinky + + + pacraistu zdani + hell house + Skt + + + fagri dapma + fire curse + Skt + curse destructive as fire + + + + + pacraistu + evil-superlative-site + + + asymmetrical tanr= u typessimilar-appearance-object + object<= /indexterm> As a particular case (when the property is that of resemblance)= : the seltau specifies an object which the referent of the tanru resembles.= + + + grutrceraso jbama + cherry bomb + + + solji kerfa + gold hair + Hun + golden hair + + + kanla djacu + eye water + Kar + spring + + + bakni rokci + bull stone + Mon + boulder + + + + + grutrceraso + fu'ivla for cherry based on Linnean= name + + + asymmetrical tanr= u typestypical-place + object = The seltau specifies a place, and the tertau an object characteristically l= ocated in or at that place. + + + ckana boxfo + bed sheet + Chi + + + mrostu mojysu'a + tomb monument + Chi + tombstone + + + jubme tergusni + table lamp + Chi + + + foldi smacu + field mouse + Chi + + + briju ci'ajbu + office desk + Chi + + + rirxe xirma + river horse + Chi + hippopotamus + + + xamsi gerku + sea dog + Chi + seal + + + cagyce'u zdani + village house + Skt + + + + + mrostu + dead-site + + + mojysu'a + remember-structure + + + ci'ajbu + write-table + + + cagyce'u + farm-community + + + asymmetrical tanr= u typesobject + place-sold Spe= cifically: the tertau is a place where the seltau is sold or made available= to the public. + + + cidja barja + food bar + Chi + restaurant + + + cukta barja + book bar + Chi + library + + + asymmetrical tanr= u typeslocus-of-application + object The seltau specifies the locus of application of the tertau. + + + kanla velmikce + eye medicine + Chi + + + jgalu grasu + nail oil + Chi + nail polish + + + denci pesxu + tooth paste + Chi + + + + + velmikce + treatment used by doctor + + + asymmetrical tanr= u typesactivity + implement-used The tertau specifies an implement used in the activity denoted by the se= ltau. + + + me la pinpan. bolci + Ping-Pong ball + Chi + + + asymmetrical tanr= u typesundesired-object + protection-object The tertau specifies a protective device against the undesira= ble features of the referent of the seltau. + + + carvi mapku + rain cap + Chi + + + carvi taxfu + rain garment + Chi + raincoat + + + vindu firgai + poison mask + Chi + gas mask + + + + + firgai + face-cover + + + asymmetrical tanr= u typesobject + usual-container The tertau specifies a container characteristically used to hold the refe= rent of the seltau. + + + cukta vasru + book vessel + Chi + satchel + + + vanju kabri + wine cup + Chi + + + spatrkoka lanka + coca basket + Que + + + rismi dakli + rice bag + Ewe,Chi + + + tcati kabri + tea cup + Chi + + + ladru botpi + milk bottle + Chi + + + rismi patxu + rice pot + Chi + + + festi lante + trash can + Chi + + + bifce zdani + bee house + Kor + beehive + + + cladakyxa'i zdani + sword house + Kor + sheath + + + manti zdani + ant nest + Gua + anthill + + + + + spatrkoka + fu'ivla for coca + + + cladakyxa'i + (long-knife)-weapon + + + asymmetrical tanr= u typescharacteristic-time + event The seltau specifies the characteristic time of the event specified by= the tertau. + + + vensa djedi + spring day + Chi + + + crisa citsi + summer season + Chi + + + cerni bumru + morning fog + Chi + + + critu lunra + autumn moon + Chi + + + dunra nicte + winter night + Chi + + + nicte ckule + night school + Chi + + + asymmetrical tanr= u typesenergy-source + powered= The seltau specifies a source of energy for the referent of the tertau. + + + dikca tergusni + electric lamp + Chi + + + ratni nejni + atom energy + Chi + + + brife molki + windmill + Tur,Kor,Hun,Udm,Aba + + + + + tergusni + illumination-source + + + asymmetrical tanr= u typesmiscellaneous Finally, = some tanru which don't fall into any of the above categories. + + + ladru denci + milk tooth + Tur,Hun,Udm,Qab + + + kanla denci + eye tooth + + + It is clear that=20 + tooth is being specified, and that=20 + milk and=20 + eye act as modifiers. However, the relationship between= =20 + ladru and=20 + denci is something like=20 + tooth which one has when one is drinking milk from one's mother= , a relationship certainly present nowhere except in this particula= r concept. As for=20 + kanla denci, the relationship is not only not p= resent on the surface, it is hardly possible to formulate it at all. +

+ Some types of symmetrical tanru + =20 + symmetrical tanru= This section deals with symmetrical tanru, where ord= er is not important. Many of these tanru can be expressed with a logical or= non-logical connective between the components. + =20 + symmetrical tanru= typesboth separately true The= tanru may refer to things which are correctly specified by both tanru comp= onents. Some of these instances may also be seen as asymmetrical tanru wher= e the seltau specifies a material. The connective=20 + =20 + je is appropriate: + + + cipnrstrigi pacru'i + owl demon + Skt + + + nolraitru prije + royal sage + Skt + + + remna nakni + human-being male + Qab + man + + + remna fetsi + human-being female + Qab + woman + + + sonci tolvri + soldier coward + Que + + + panzi nanmu + offspring man + Ewe + son + + + panzi ninmu + offspring woman + Ewe + daughter + + + solji sicni + gold coin + Tur + + + solji junla + gold watch + Tur,Kor,Hun + + + solji djine + gold ring + Udm,Aba,Que + + + rokci zdani + stone house + Imb + + + mudri zdani + wooden house + Ewe + + + rokci bitmu + stone wall + Ewe + + + solji carce + gold chariot + Skt + + + mudri xarci + wooden weapon + Skt + + + zdani tcadu + home town + Chi + + + + + cipnrstrigi + fu'ivla for owl based on Linnean na= me + + + pacru'i + evil-spirit + + + tolvri + opposite-of-brave + + + symmetrical tanru= typesone or other true The ta= nru may refer to all things which are specified by either of the tanru comp= onents. The connective=20 + ja is appropriate: + + + nunji'a nunterji'a + victory defeat + Skt + victory or defeat + + + donri nicte + day night + Skt + day and night + + + lunra tarci + moon stars + Skt + moon and stars + + + patfu mamta + father mother + Imb,Kaz,Chi + parents + + + tuple birka + leg arm + Kaz + extremity + + + nuncti nunpinxe + eating drinking + Udm + cuisine + + + bersa tixnu + son daughter + Chi + children + + + + + nunji'a + event-of-winning + + + nunterji'a + event-of-losing + + + nuncti + event-of-eating + + + nunpinxe + event-of-drinking + + + symmetrical tanru= typesusing more inclusive class Alternatively, the tanru may refer to things which are specified by eith= er of the tanru components or by some more inclusive class of things which = the components typify: + + + curnu jalra + worm beetle + Mon + insect + + + jalra curnu + beetle worm + Mon + insect + + + kabri palta + cup plate + Kaz + crockery + + + jipci gunse + hen goose + Qab + housefowl + + + xrula tricu + flower tree + Chi + vegetation + + + symmetrical tanru= typesusing crucial/typical parts The tanru components specify crucial or typical parts of the referent o= f the tanru as a whole: + + + tumla vacri + land air + Fin + world + + + moklu stedu + mouth head + Aba + face + + + sudysrasu cunmi + hay millet + Qab + agriculture + + + gugde ciste + state system + Mon + politics + + + prenu so'imei + people multitude + Mon + masses + + + djacu dertu + water earth + Chi + climate + + + + + sudysrasu + dry-grass + + + so'imei + manysome + + +

+ + <quote>Pretty little girls' school</quote>: forty ways to say it</titl= e> + <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>pretty little gir= ls' school</primary><secondary>forty ways</secondary></indexterm> The follo= wing examples show every possible grouping arrangement of=20 + <jbophrase>melbi cmalu nixli ckule</jbophrase> using=20 + <valsi>bo</valsi> or=20 + <valsi>ke</valsi>…<valsi>ke'e</valsi> for grouping and=20 + <valsi>je</valsi> or=20 + <valsi>je</valsi><valsi>bo</valsi> for logical connection. Most of the= se are definitely not plausible interpretations of the English phrase=20 + <quote>pretty little girls' school</quote>, especially those which des= cribe something which is both a girl and a school.</para> + <para>Examples <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qjmr"/>, <xref linke= nd=3D"example-random-id-qjNi"/>, <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qjog"/>= , <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qjop"/>, and <xref linkend=3D"example-= random-id-tz0L"/> are repeated here as Examples <xref linkend=3D"example-ra= ndom-id-qjzw"/>, <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qKaM"/>, <xref linkend= =3D"example-random-id-qKfX"/>, <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qKmg"/>, = and <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qKPQ"/> respectively. +  + The seven examples following each of these share the same grouping= pattern, but differ in the presence or absence of=20 + <valsi>je</valsi> at each possible site. Some of the examples have mor= e than one Lojban version. In that case, they differ only in grouping mecha= nism, and are always equivalent in meaning.</para> + <para>The logical connective=20 + <valsi>je</valsi> is associative: that is,=20 + <quote>A and (B and C)</quote> is the same as=20 + <quote>(A and B) and C</quote>. Therefore, some of the examples have t= he same meaning as others. In particular, <xref linkend=3D"example-random-i= d-qKAG"/>, <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qKFA"/>, <xref linkend=3D"exa= mple-random-id-qKLN"/>, <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qKpo"/>, and <xr= ef linkend=3D"example-random-id-qKU6"/> all have the same meaning because a= ll four brivla are logically connected and the grouping is simply irrelevan= t. +  + Other equivalent forms are noted in the examples themselves. However, = if=20 + =20 + <valsi>je</valsi> were replaced by=20 + <valsi>naja</valsi> or=20 + <valsi>jo</valsi> or most of the other logical connectives, the meanin= gs would become distinct.</para> + <para>It must be emphasized that, because of the ambiguity of all tanr= u, the English translations are by no means definitive – they represe= nt only one possible interpretation of the corresponding Lojban sentence.</= para> + <example xml:id=3D"example-random-id-qjzw" role=3D"interlinear-gloss-e= xample"> + <title> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d1"/> + + + melbi cmalu nixli ckule + ((pretty type-of little) type-of girl) type-of school + school for girls who are beautifully small + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d2"/> + + + melbi je cmalu nixli ckule + ((pretty and little) type-of girl) type-of school + school for girls who are beautiful and small + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d3"/> + + + melbi bo cmalu je nixli ckule + ((pretty type-of little) and girl) type-of school + school for girls and for beautifully small things + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d4"/> + + + ke melbi cmalu nixli ke'e je ckule + ((pretty type-of little) type-of girl) and school + thing which is a school and a beautifully small girl + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d5"/> + + + melbi je cmalu je nixli ckule + ((pretty and little) and girl) type-of school + school for things which are beautiful, small, and girls + Note: same as + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d6"/> + + + melbi bo cmalu je nixli je ckule + ((pretty type-of little) and girl) and school + thing which is beautifully small, a school, and a girl + Note: same as + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d7"/> + + + ke melbi je cmalu nixli ke'e je ckule + ((pretty and little) type-of girl) and school + thing which is a school and a girl who is both beautiful = and small + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d8"/> + + + melbi je cmalu je nixli je ckule + ((pretty and little) and girl) and school + thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d9"/> + + + melbi cmalu nixli bo ckule + (pretty type-of little) type-of (girl type-of school) + girls' school which is beautifully small + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d10"/> + + + melbi je cmalu nixli bo ckule + (pretty and little) type-of (girl type-of school) + girls' school which is beautiful and small + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d11"/> + + + melbi cmalu nixli je ckule + (pretty type-of little) type-of (girl and school) + something which is a girl and a school which is beautiful= ly small + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d12"/> + + + melbi bo cmalu je nixli bo ckule + (pretty type-of little) and (girl type-of school) + something which is beautifully small and a girls' school<= /natlang> + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d13"/> + + + melbi je cmalu nixli je ckule + (pretty and little) type-of (girl and school) + a pretty and little type of thing which is both a girl an= d a school + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d14"/> + + + melbi bo cmalu je nixli jebo ckule + (pretty type-of little) and (girl and school) + thing which is beautifully small, a school, and a girl + + + Note: same as + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d15"/> + + + melbi jebo cmalu je nixli bo ckule + (pretty and little) and (girl type-of school) + thing which is beautiful and small and a girl's school + + + Note: same as + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d16"/> + + + melbi jebo cmalu je nixli jebo ckule + (pretty and little) and (girl and school) + thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d17"/> + + + melbi cmalu bo nixli ckule + (pretty type-of (little type-of girl)) type-of school + school for beautiful girls who are small + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d18"/> + + + melbi cmalu je nixli ckule + (pretty type-of (little and girl)) type-of school + school for beautiful things which are small and are girls= + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d19"/> + + + melbi je cmalu bo nixli ckule + (pretty and (little type-of girl)) type-of school + school for things which are beautiful and are small girls= + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d20"/> + + + ke melbi cmalu bo nixli ke'e je ckule + melbi bo cmalu bo nixli je ckule + (pretty type-of (little type-of girl)) and school + thing which is a school and a small girl who is beautiful= + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d21"/> + + + melbi je cmalu jebo nixli ckule + (pretty and (little and girl)) type-of school + school for things which are beautiful, small, and girls + + + Note: same as + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d22"/> + + + melbi je cmalu bo nixli je ckule + (pretty and (little type-of girl)) and school + thing which is beautiful, a small girl, and a school + + + Note: same as + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d23"/> + + + ke melbi cmalu je nixli ke'e je ckule + (pretty type-of (little and girl)) and school + thing which is beautifully small, a beautiful girl, and a= school + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d24"/> + + + melbi je cmalu jebo nixli je ckule + (pretty and (little and girl)) and school + thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d25"/> + + + melbi cmalu bo nixli bo ckule + melbi ke cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e] [ke'e] + pretty type-of (little type-of (girl type-of school)) + small school for girls which is beautiful + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d26"/> + + + melbi ke cmalu nixli je ckule [ke'e] + pretty type-of (little type-of (girl and school)) + small thing, both a girl and a school, which is beautiful= + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d27"/> + + + melbi cmalu je nixli bo ckule + pretty type-of (little and (girl type-of school)) + thing which is beautifully small and a girls' school that= is beautiful + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d28"/> + + + melbi je cmalu bo nixli bo ckule + melbi je ke cmalu nixli bo ckule [ke'e] + melbi je ke cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e] [ke'e] + pretty and (little type-of (girl type-of school)) + thing which is beautiful and a small type of girls' schoo= l + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d29"/> + + + melbi cmalu je nixli jebo ckule + melbi cmalu je ke nixli je ckule [ke'e] + pretty type-of (little and (girl and school)) + thing which is beautifully small, a beautiful girl, and a= beautiful school + + + Note: same as + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d30"/> + + + melbi je cmalu jebo nixli bo ckule + melbi je ke cmalu je nixli bo ckule [ke'e] + pretty and (little and (girl type-of school)) + thing which is beautiful, small and a girls' school + + + Note: same as + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d31"/> + + + melbi je ke cmalu nixli je ckule [ke'e] + pretty and (little type-of (girl and school)) + beautiful thing which is a small girl and a small school<= /natlang> + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d32"/> + + + melbi jebo cmalu jebo nixli jebo ckule + pretty and (little and (girl and school)) + thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d33"/> + + + melbi ke cmalu nixli ckule [ke'e] + pretty type-of ((little type-of girl) type-of school) + beautiful school for small girls + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d34"/> + + + melbi ke cmalu je nixli ckule [ke'e] + pretty type-of ((little and girl) type-of school + beautiful school for things which are small and are girls= + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d35"/> + + + melbi ke cmalu bo nixli je ckule [ke'e] + pretty type-of ((little type-of girl) and school) + beautiful thing which is a small girl and a school + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d36"/> + + + melbi je ke cmalu nixli ckule [ke'e] + pretty and ((little type-of girl) type-of school) + thing which is beautiful and a school for small girls + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d37"/> + + + melbi cmalu je nixli je ckule + pretty type-of ((little and girl) and school) + thing which is beautifully small, a beautiful girl, and a= beautiful school + + + Note: same as + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d38"/> + + + melbi je ke cmalu bo nixli je ckule [ke'e] + pretty and ((little type-of girl) and school) + thing which is beautiful, a small girl and a school + + + Note: same as + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d39"/> + + + melbi je ke cmalu je nixli ckule [ke'e] + pretty and ((little and girl) type-of school) + thing which is beautiful and is a small school and a girl= s' school + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d40"/> + + + melbi je ke cmalu je nixli je ckule [ke'e] + pretty and ((little and girl) and school) + thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school + + +

+ =20 + diff --git a/chapters/06.xml b/chapters/06.xml new file mode 100644 index 0000000..59acd47 --- /dev/null +++ b/chapters/06.xml @@ -0,0 +1,2205 @@ + + To Speak Of Many Things: The Lojban sumti + + The picture for chapter 6 + + + + + +

+ The five kinds of simple sumti + =20 + sumtidefinition simple sumti If you understand anythi= ng about Lojban, you know what a sumti is by now, right? An argument, one o= f those things that fills the places of simple Lojban sentences like: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e1d1"/> + + + mi klama le zarci + I go-to the market + + + pro-sumticontrasted with description In=20 + ,=20 + mi and=20 + le zarci are the sumti. It is easy to see that = these two sumti are not of the same kind:=20 + mi is a pro-sumti (the Lojban analogue of a pronoun) re= ferring to the speaker, whereas=20 + le zarci is a description which refers to somet= hing described as being a market. + sumtikinds of There are five kinds of simple su= mti provided by Lojban: + =20 + + + gadridefinition sumtidescriptions as descriptions like=20 + le zarci, which usually begin with a descri= ptor (called a=20 + gadri in Lojban) such as=20 + =20 + le; + + + sumtipro-sumti as pro-sumti, such as=20 + mi; + + + sumtinames as names, such as=20 + la lojban., which usually begin with=20 + la; + + + sumtiquotations as quotations, which begin w= ith=20 + lu,=20 + le'u,=20 + zo, or=20 + zoi; + + + sumtinumbers as pure numbers, which usually = begin with=20 + li. + + + Here are a few examples of each kind of sumti: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e1d2"/> + + + e'osai ko sarji la lojban. + Please support Lojban! + + + + exhibits=20 + ko, a pro-sumti; and=20 + la lojban., a name. + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e1d3"/> + + + mi cusku lu e'osai li'u le tcidu + I express=20 + Please! to-the reader. + + + le li'u <= indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported">lu = =20 + exhibits=20 + mi, a pro-sumti;=20 + lu e'osai li'u, a quotation; and=20 + le tcidu, a description. + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e1d4"/> + + + ti mitre li ci + This measures-in-meters the-number three. + This is three meters long. + + + li =20 + exhibits=20 + ti, a pro-sumti; and=20 + li ci, a number. + Most of this chapter is about descriptions, as they have the mos= t complicated syntax and usage. Some attention is also given to names, whic= h are closely interwoven with descriptions. Pro-sumti, numbers, and quotati= ons are described in more detail in=20 + ,=20 + , and=20 + respectively, so this chapter on= ly gives summaries of their forms and uses. See=20 + through=20 + for these summaries. +

+ The three basic description types + descriptionstypes of The following cmavo are di= scussed in this section: + + + le + LE + the, the one(s) described as + + + lo + LE + some, some of those which really are + + + la + LA + the one(s) named + + + ku + KU + elidable terminator for LE, LA + + + selbri<= secondary>as part of description descriptoras part of de= scription descriptionscomponents of descriptionstypes of The syntax of descriptions is fairl= y complex, and not all of it can be explained within the confines of this c= hapter: relative clauses, in particular, are discussed in=20 + . However, most descriptio= ns have just two components: a descriptor belonging to selma'o LE or LA, an= d a selbri. (The difference between selma'o LE and selma'o LA is not import= ant until=20 + .) Furthermore, the selbri is often j= ust a single brivla. Here is an elementary example: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d1"/> + + + le zarci + one-or-more-specific-things-each-of-which-I-describe-as bei= ng-a-market + the market + + + lecompared with English the The long gloss for= =20 + le is of course far too long to use most of the time, a= nd in fact=20 + =20 + le is quite close in meaning to English=20 + the. It has particular implications, however, which=20 + the does not have. + descriptionsimportance of selbri first place in= descriptorspurpose of The general purpose of all descript= ors is to create a sumti which might occur in the x1 place of the selbri be= longing to the description. Thus=20 + le zarci conveys something which might be found= in the x1 place of=20 + zarci, namely a market. + leand truth of selbri leand specificity leimplications of The specific purpose of=20 + le is twofold. First, it indicates that the speaker has= one or more specific markets in mind (whether or not the listener knows wh= ich ones they are). Second, it also indicates that the speaker is merely de= scribing the things he or she has in mind as markets, without being committ= ed to the truth of that description. + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d2"/> + + + le zarci cu barda + One-or-more-specific-things-which-I-describe as mark= ets is/are-big. + The market is big. + The markets are big. + + + plurals= Lojban contrasted with English in necessity of marking Note that English-speakers must state whether a reference to= markets is to just one (=20 + the market) or to more than one (=20 + the markets). Lojban requires no such forced choice, so= both colloquial translations of=20 + are valid. Only the context= can specify which is meant. (This rule does not mean that Lojban has no wa= y of specifying the number of markets in such a case: that mechanism is exp= lained in=20 + .) + Now consider the following strange-looking example: + + + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>The men are women</primary><secondary= >example</secondary></indexterm> + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d3"/> + + + le nanmu cu ninmu + One-or-more-specific-things-which-I-describe as men<= /quote> are women. + The man is a woman. + The men are women. + =20 + + + lein false-to-fact descriptions=20 + is not self-contradictory i= n Lojban, because=20 + le nanmu merely means something or other which,= for my present purposes, I choose to describe as a man, whether or not it = really is a man. A plausible instance would be: someone we had assumed to b= e a man at a distance turned out to be actually a woman on closer observati= on.=20 + =20 + is what I would say to poin= t out my observation to you. + =20 + descriptionsspecific specific descriptions In all des= criptions with=20 + le, the listener is presumed to either know what I have= in mind or else not to be concerned at present (perhaps I will give more i= dentifying details later). In particular, I might be pointing at the suppos= ed man or men:=20 + would then be perfectly int= elligible, since=20 + le nanmu merely clarifies that I am pointing at= the supposed man, not at a landscape, or a nose, which happens to lie in t= he same direction. + loimplications of descriptionsnon-specific<= /indexterm> non-specific des= criptions The second descriptor dealt with in this se= ction is=20 + lo. Unlike=20 + le,=20 + lo is nonspecific: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d4"/> + + + lo zarci + one-or-more-of-all-the-things-which-really are-markets + a market + some markets + + + loand truth of selbri locontrasted with le in truth re= quirement lecontrasted with lo in truth requirement lecontrasted with lo in specificity locontraste= d with le in specificity Again, there are two collo= quial English translations. The effect of using=20 + lo in=20 + is to refer generally to on= e or more markets, without being specific about which. Unlike=20 + le zarci,=20 + lo zarci must refer to something which actually= is a market (that is, which can appear in the x1 place of a truthful bridi= whose selbri is=20 + zarci). Thus + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d5"/> + + + lo nanmu cu ninmu + Some man is a woman. + Some men are women. + + + must be false in Lojban, given that there are no objects in the = real world which are both men and women. Pointing at some specific men or w= omen would not make=20 + =20 + true, because those specifi= c individuals are no more both-men-and-women than any others. In general,= =20 + lo refers to whatever individuals meet its description.= + lause with descriptions contrasted with use before Lojbanized names lecompared with la in specificity lacompared = with le in specificity laimplications of The last descriptor of this section is=20 + la, which indicates that the selbri which follows it ha= s been dissociated from its normal meaning and is being used as a name. Lik= e=20 + le descriptions,=20 + la descriptions are implicitly restricted to those I ha= ve in mind. (Do not confuse this use of=20 + la with its use before regular Lojbanized names, which = is discussed in=20 + .) For example: + + + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>bear wrote story</primary><secondary>= example</secondary></indexterm> + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d6"/> + + + la cribe pu finti le lisri + The-one-named=20 + bear [past] creates the story. + Bear wrote the story. + + + naming predicate In=20 + ,=20 + la cribe refers to someone whose naming predica= te is=20 + =20 + cribe, i.e.=20 + Bear. In English, most names don't mean anything, or at= least not anything obvious. The name=20 + Frank coincides with the English word=20 + frank, meaning=20 + honest, and so one way of translating=20 + Frank ate some cheese into Lojban would be: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d7"/> + + + la stace pu citka lo cirla + The-one-called Honest/Frank [past] eats some= cheese. + + + English-speakers typically would not do this, as we tend to be m= ore attached to the sound of our names than their meaning, even if the mean= ing (etymological or current) is known. Speakers of other languages may fee= l differently. (In point of fact,=20 + Frank originally meant=20 + the free one rather than=20 + the honest one.) + lacontrasted with le in implications It is impo= rtant to note the differences between=20 + and the following: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d8"/> + + + le cribe pu finti le lisri + One-or-more-specific-things-which-I-describe-as a-bear [pas= t] creates the story. + The bear(s) wrote the story. + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d9"/> + + + lo cribe pu finti le lisri + One-or-more-of-the-things-which-really are-bears [past] cre= ates the story. + A bear wrote the story. + Some bears wrote the story. + + + lacontrasted with lo in implications=20 + is about a specific bear or= bearlike thing(s), or thing(s) which the speaker (perhaps whimsically or m= etaphorically) describes as a bear (or more than one);=20 + is about one or more of the= really existing, objectively defined bears. In either case, though, each o= f them must have contributed to the writing of the story, if more than one = bear (or=20 + bear) is meant. + descriptions with= loteddy bear contrasted with real bear (The notion of a=20 + really existing, objectively defined bear raises certai= n difficulties. Is a panda bear a=20 + real bear? How about a teddy bear? In general, the answ= er is=20 + yes. Lojban gismu are defined as broadly as possible, a= llowing tanru and lujvo to narrow down the definition. There probably are n= o necessary and sufficient conditions for defining what is and what is not = a bear that can be pinned down with complete precision: the real world is f= uzzy. In borderline cases,=20 + =20 + le may communicate better than=20 + lo.) + So while=20 + could easily be true (there= is a real writer named=20 + Greg Bear), and=20 + could be true if the speake= r is sufficiently peculiar in what he or she describes as a bear,=20 + is certainly false. + Similarly, compare the following two examples, which are analogo= us to=20 + and=20 + respectively: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d10"/> + + + le remna pu finti le lisri + The human being(s) wrote the story. + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d11"/> + + + lo remna pu finti le lisri + A human being wrote the story. + Some human beings wrote the story. + + + locontrasted with le in implications lecontrasted with= lo in implications=20 + says who the author of the = story is: one or more particular human beings that the speaker has in mind.= If the topic of conversation is the story, then=20 + identifies the author as so= meone who can be pointed out or who has been previously mentioned; whereas = if the topic is a person, then=20 + le remna is in effect a shorthand reference to = that person.=20 + merely says that the author= is human. + kuuses of = cueffect on elidability of ku kueffect of following selbri on elidability of <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">kuas elid= able terminator for descriptions The elidable termi= nator for all descriptions is=20 + ku. It can almost always be omitted with no danger of a= mbiguity. The main exceptions are in certain uses of relative clauses, whic= h are discussed in=20 + , and in the case of a descript= ion immediately preceding the selbri. In this latter case, using an explici= t=20 + cu before the selbri makes the=20 + ku unnecessary. There are also a few other uses of=20 + ku: in the compound negator=20 + naku (discussed in=20 + ) and to terminate place-struct= ure, tense, and modal tags that do not have associated sumti (discussed in= =20 + and=20 + ). +

+ Individuals and masses + The following cmavo are discussed in this section: + + + lei + LE + the mass I describe as + + + loi + LE + part of the mass of those which really are + + + lai + LA + the mass of those named + + + sumtifor set objects sumtifor mass objects= sumti= for individual objects sumticlassified by type= s of objects referred to All Lojban sumti are class= ified by whether they refer to one of three types of objects, known as=20 + individuals,=20 + masses, and=20 + sets. The term=20 + individual is misleading when used to refer to more tha= n one object, but no less-confusing term has as yet been found. All the des= criptions in=20 + and=20 + refer to individuals, wh= ether one or more than one. Consider the following example: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e3d1"/> + + + le prenu cu bevri le pipno + One-or-more-of-those-I-describe-as persons carry the piano.= + =20 + The person(s) carry the piano. + =20 + + + (Of course the second=20 + le should really get the same translation as the first,= but I am putting the focus of this discussion on the first=20 + le, the one preceding=20 + prenu. I will assume that there is only one piano under= discussion.) + individual object= smultiple multiple individual objects= meaning of lemeaning of in the plural plurals with lemeaning of Suppose the context of=20 + is such that you can determ= ine that I am talking about three persons. What am I claiming? I am claimin= g that each of the three persons carried the piano. This claim can be true = if the persons carried the piano one at a time, or in turns, or in a variet= y of other ways. But in order for=20 + to be true, I must be willi= ng to assert that person 1 carried the piano, and that person 2 carried the= piano, and that person 3 carried the piano. + But suppose I am not willing to claim that. For in fact pianos a= re heavy, and very few persons can carry a piano all by themselves. The mos= t likely factual situation is that person 1 carried one end of the piano, a= nd person 2 the other end, while person 3 either held up the middle or else= supervised the whole operation without actually lifting anything. The corr= ect way of expressing such a situation in Lojban is: + + + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>piano-moving</primary><secondary>exam= ple</secondary></indexterm> + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e3d2"/> + + + lei prenu cu bevri le pipno + The-mass-of-one-or-more-of-those-I-describe-as persons carr= y the piano. + =20 + + + mass objectand logical reasoning mass objectproperties = of m= ultiple individual objectscontrasted with mass object<= /secondary> mass= objectcontrasted with multiple individual objects Here the same three persons are treated not as individ= uals, but as a so-called=20 + mass entity, or just=20 + mass. A mass has the properties of each individual whic= h composes it, and may have other properties of its own as well. This can l= ead to apparent contradictions. Thus suppose in the piano-moving example ab= ove that person 1 has fair skin, whereas person 2 has dark skin. Then it is= correct to say that the person-mass has both fair skin and dark skin. Usin= g the mass descriptor=20 + =20 + lei signals that ordinary logical reasoning is not appl= icable: contradictions can be maintained, and all sorts of other peculiarit= ies may exist. However, we can safely say that a mass inherits only the com= ponent properties that are relevant to it; it would be ludicrous to say tha= t a mass of two persons is of molecular dimensions, simply because some of = the parts (namely, the molecules) of the persons are that small. + laias mass counterpart of lai loias mass counterpart = of lo The descriptors=20 + loi and=20 + lai are analogous to=20 + lo and=20 + la respectively, but refer to masses either by property= (=20 + loi) or by name (=20 + lai). A classic example of=20 + loi use is: + + + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>lions in Africa</primary><secondary>e= xample</secondary></indexterm> + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e3d3"/> + + + loi cinfo cu xabju le fi'ortu'a + Part-of-the-mass-of-those-which-really are-lions dwell in-t= he African-land. + The lion dwells in Africa. + Lions dwell in Africa. + + + loicontrasted with lei in specificity leicontrasted wit= h loi in specificity The difference between=20 + lei and=20 + loi is that=20 + lei cinfo refers to a mass of specific individu= als which the speaker calls lions, whereas=20 + loi cinfo refers to some part of the mass of al= l those individuals which actually are lions. The restriction to=20 + some part of the mass allows statements like=20 + to be true even though some= lions do not dwell in Africa – they live in various zoos around the = world. On the other hand,=20 + doesn't actually say that m= ost lions live in Africa: equally true is + + + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Englishman in Africa</primary><second= ary>example</secondary></indexterm> + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e3d4"/> + + + loi glipre cu xabju le fi'ortu'a + Part-of-the-mass-of-those-which-really are-English-persons = dwell in-the African-land. + The English dwell in Africa. + + + since there is at least one English person living there.=20 + explains another method of saying wha= t is usually meant by=20 + The lion lives in Africa which does imply that living i= n Africa is normal, not exceptional, for lions. + mass objectspeculiarities of English translation of Note that the Lojban mass articles are sometimes translated by English= plurals (the most usual case), sometimes by English singulars (when the si= ngular is used to express typicalness or abstraction), and sometimes by sin= gulars with no article: + =20 + =20 + + + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>butter is soft</primary><secondary>ex= ample</secondary></indexterm> + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e3d5"/> + + + loi matne cu ranti + =20 + Part-of-the-mass-of-that-which-really is-a-quantity-of-butt= er is-soft. + Butter is soft. + + + mass objectas dependent on intention Of course, = some butter is hard (for example, if it is frozen butter), so the=20 + part-of implication of=20 + loi becomes once again useful. The reason this mechanis= m works is that the English words like=20 + butter, which are seen as already describing masses, ar= e translated in Lojban by non-mass forms. The place structure of=20 + matne is=20 + =20 + x1 is a quantity of butter from source x2, so the singl= e English word=20 + butter is translated as something like=20 + a part of the mass formed from all the quantities of butter tha= t exist. (Note that the operation of forming a mass entity does not= imply, in Lojban, that the components of the mass are necessarily close to= one another or even related in any way other than conceptually. Masses are= formed by the speaker's intention to form a mass, and can in principle con= tain anything.) + mass nameuse of The mass name descriptor=20 + =20 + =20 + lai is used in circumstances where we wish to talk abou= t a mass of things identified by a name which is common to all of them. It = is not used to identify a mass by a single name peculiar to it. Thus the ma= ss version of=20 + , + + + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Bears wrote book</primary><secondary>= example</secondary></indexterm> + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e3d6"/> + + + lai cribe pu finti le vi cukta + The-mass-of-those-named=20 + bear [past] creates the nearby book. + The Bears wrote this book. + + + laicontrasted with la in implications lacontrasted with= lai in implications in a context where=20 + la cribe would be understood as plural, would m= ean that either Tom Bear or Fred Bear (to make up some names) might have wr= itten the book, or that Tom and Fred might have written it as collaborators= . Using=20 + =20 + la instead of=20 + lai in=20 + would give the implication = that each of Tom and Fred, considered individually, had written it. +

+ Masses and sets + The following cmavo are discussed in this section: + + + le'i + LE + the set described as + + + lo'i + LE + the set of those which really are + + + la'i + LA + the set of those named + + + masscompared with set as abstract of multiple individuals setcompared with mass as abstract of multiple individuals masscontrasted with set in attribution of component properties setcontrasted with mass in attribution of component properties Having said so much about masses, let us turn to sets.= Sets are easier to understand than masses, but are more rarely used. Like = a mass, a set is an abstract object formed from a number of individuals; ho= wever, the properties of a set are not derived from any of the properties o= f the individuals that compose it. + la'ias set counterpart of lai lo'ias set counterpart = of loi le'ias set counterpart of lei sets= properties of cardinalitydefinition cardinalityproperty of sets membershipproperty of sets inclusionproperty of sets Sets have proper= ties like cardinality (how many elements in the set), membership (the relat= ionship between a set and its elements), and set inclusion (the relationshi= p between two sets, one of which – the superset – contains all = the elements of the other – the subset). The set descriptors=20 + =20 + =20 + =20 + le'i,=20 + lo'i and=20 + la'i correspond exactly to the mass descriptors=20 + lei,=20 + loi, and=20 + lai except that normally we talk of the whole of a set,= not just part of it. Here are some examples contrasting=20 + lo,=20 + loi, and=20 + lo'i: + + + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>rats are brown</primary><secondary>ex= ample</secondary></indexterm> + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e4d1"/> + + + lo ratcu cu bunre + One-or-more-of-those-which-really-are rats are-brown. + Some rats are brown. + =20 + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e4d2"/> + + + loi ratcu cu cmalu + Part-of-the-mass-of-those-which-really-are rats are-small.<= /gloss> + Rats are small. + + + lo'icontrasted with lo and loi loicontrasted with lo a= nd lo'i locontrasted with loi and lo'i + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e4d3"/> + + + lo'i ratcu cu barda + The-set-of rats is-large. + There are a lot of rats. + + + The mass of rats is small because at least one rat is small; the= mass of rats is also large; the set of rats, though, is unquestionably lar= ge – it has billions of members. The mass of rats is also brown, sinc= e some of its components are; but it would be incorrect to call the set of = rats brown – brown-ness is not the sort of property that sets possess= . + =20 + setsuse in Lojban place structure Lojban speake= rs should generally think twice before employing the set descriptors. Howev= er, certain predicates have places that require set sumti to fill them. For= example, the place structure of=20 + fadni is: + x1 is ordinary/common/typical/usual in property x= 2 among the members of set x3 + Why is it necessary for the x3 place of=20 + fadni to be a set? Because it makes no sense for an ind= ividual to be typical of another individual: an individual is typical of a = group. In order to make sure that the bridi containing=20 + fadni is about an entire group, its x3 place must be fi= lled with a set: + + + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>typical Lojban user</primary><seconda= ry>example</secondary></indexterm> + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e4d4"/> + + + mi fadni zo'e lo'i lobypli + I am-ordinary among the-set-of Lojban-users. + I am a typical Lojban user. + =20 + + + Note that the x2 place has been omitted; I am not specifying in = exactly which way I am typical – whether in language knowledge, or ag= e, or interests, or something else. If=20 + lo'i were changed to=20 + lo in=20 + , the meaning would be somet= hing like=20 + I am typical of some Lojban user, which is nonsense. +

+ Descriptors for typical objects + =20 + The following cmavo are discussed in this section: + + + lo'e + LE + the typical + + + le'e + LE + the stereotypical + =20 + + + As promised in=20 + , Lojban has a method for discrimina= ting between=20 + the lion who lives in Africa and=20 + the Englishman who, generally speaking, doesn't live in= Africa even though some Englishmen do. The descriptor=20 + lo'e means=20 + the typical, as in + + + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>lion in Africa</primary><secondary>ex= ample</secondary></indexterm> + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e5d1"/> + + + lo'e cinfo cu xabju le fi'ortu'a + The-typical lion dwells-in the African-land. + The lion dwells in Africa. + + + typical objectsand instantiation typical objectsdetermi= ning characteristics of What is this=20 + typical lion? Surely it is not any particular lion, bec= ause no lion has all of the=20 + typical characteristics, and (worse yet) some character= istics that all real lions have can't be viewed as typical. For example, al= l real lions are either male or female, but it would be bizarre to suppose = that the typical lion is either one. So the typical lion has no particular = sex, but does have a color (golden brown), a residence (Africa), a diet (ga= me), and so on. Likewise we can say that + + + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>typical Englishman</primary><secondar= y>example</secondary></indexterm> + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e5d2"/> + + + lo'e glipre cu xabju le fi'ortu'a na.e le gligugde + The-typical English-person dwells-in the African-land (Not!= ) and the English-country. + The typical English person dwells not in Africa but in En= gland. + + + le'irelationship to le'e le'erelationship to le'i lo'irelationship to lo'e lo'erelationship to l= o'i The relationship between=20 + lo'e cinfo and=20 + lo'i cinfo may be explained thus: the typical l= ion is an imaginary lion-abstraction which best exemplifies the set of lion= s. There is a similar relationship between=20 + le'e and=20 + le'i: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e5d3"/> + + + le'e xelso merko cu gusta ponse + The-stereotypical Greek-type-of American is-a-restaurant-ty= pe-of owner. + =20 + Lots of Greek-Americans own restaurants. + =20 + + + stereotypicalcompared with typical typicalcompared with= stereotypical stereotypicalas not derogatory in Lojban Greek-= Americans own restaurants stereotypical objects Here we are= concerned not with the actual set of Greek-Americans, but with the set of = those the speaker has in mind, which is typified by one (real or imaginary)= who owns a restaurant. The word=20 + stereotypical is often derogatory in English, but=20 + =20 + le'e need not be derogatory in Lojban: it simply sugges= ts that the example is typical in the speaker's imagination rather than in = some objectively agreed-upon way. Of course, different speakers may disagre= e about what the features of=20 + the typical lion are (some would include having a short= intestine, whereas others would know nothing of lions' intestines), so the= distinction between=20 + lo'e cinfo and=20 + le'e cinfo may be very fine. + Furthermore, + + + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Hollywood</primary><secondary>example= </secondary></indexterm> + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e5d4"/> + + + le'e skina cu se finti ne'i la xali,uyd. + The-stereotypical movie is-invented in Hollywood. + =20 + =20 + + + is probably true to an American, but might be false (not the ste= reotype) to someone living in India or Russia. + + +typical Smithexa= mple + + name equivalent for typicalrationale for lack of Note that there is no naming equivalent of=20 + lo'e and=20 + le'e, because there is no need, as a rule, for a=20 + typical George or a=20 + typical Smith. People or things who share a common name= do not, in general, have any other common attributes worth mentioning. + =20 +

+ Quantified sumti + The following cmavo are discussed in this section: + + + ro + PA + all of/each of + + + su'o + PA + at least (one of) + + + Quantifiers tell us how many: in the case of quantifiers with su= mti, how many things we are talking about. In Lojban, quantifiers are expre= ssed by numbers and mathematical expressions: a large topic discussed in so= me detail in=20 + =20 + . For the purposes of this chapter, a= simplified treatment will suffice. Our examples will employ either the sim= ple Lojban numbers=20 + pa,=20 + re,=20 + ci,=20 + vo, and=20 + mu, meaning=20 + one,=20 + two,=20 + three,=20 + four,=20 + five respectively, or else one of four special quantifi= ers, two of which are discussed in this section and listed above. These fou= r quantifiers are important because every Lojban sumti has either one or tw= o of them implicitly present in it – which one or two depends on the = particular kind of sumti. There is more explanation of implicit quantifiers= later in this section. (The other two quantifiers,=20 + piro and=20 + pisu'o, are explained in=20 + =20 + .) + Every Lojban sumti may optionally be preceded by an explicit qua= ntifier. The purpose of this quantifier is to specify how many of the thing= s referred to by the sumti are being talked about. Here are some simple exa= mples contrasting sumti with and without explicit quantifiers: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e6d1"/> + + + do cadzu le bisli + You walk-on the ice. + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e6d2"/> + + + re do cadzu le bisli + Two-of you walk-on the ice. + + + The difference between=20 + and=20 + is the presence of the expl= icit quantifier=20 + re in the latter example. Although=20 + re by itself means=20 + two, when used as a quantifier it means=20 + two-of. Out of the group of listeners (the number of wh= ich isn't stated), two (we are not told which ones) are asserted to be=20 + walkers on the ice. Implicitly, the others (if any) are= not walkers on the ice. In Lojban, you cannot say=20 + I own three shoes if in fact you own four shoes. Number= s need never be specified, but if they are specified they must be correct.<= /para> + (This rule does not mean that there is no way to specify a numbe= r which is vague. The sentence + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e6d3"/> + + + mi ponse su'o ci cutci + I possess at-least three shoes. + + + is true if you own three shoes, or four, or indeed any larger nu= mber. More details on vague numbers appear in the discussion of mathematica= l expressions in=20 + =20 + =20 + .) + Now consider=20 + again. How many of the list= eners are claimed to walk on the ice? The answer turns out to be: all of th= em, however many that is. So=20 + and=20 + : + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e6d4"/> + + + ro do cadzu le bisli + All-of you walk-on the ice. + + + sumtias having implicit quantifiers quantifierswith su= mti turn out to mean exactly the same thing. This i= s a safe strategy, because if one of my listeners doesn't turn out to be wa= lking on the ice, I can safely claim that I didn't intend that person to be= a listener! And in fact, all of the personal pro-sumti such as=20 + =20 + mi and=20 + mi'o and=20 + ko obey the same rule. We say that personal pro-sumti h= ave a so-called=20 + =20 + implicit quantifier of=20 + ro (all). This just means that if no quantifier is give= n explicitly, the meaning is the same as if the implicit quantifier had bee= n used. + =20 + implicit quantifi= eron quotationsdiscussion of Not all sumti have=20 + ro as the implicit quantifier, however. Consider the qu= otation in: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e6d5"/> + + + mi cusku lu do cadzu le bisli li'u + I express [quote] you walk-on the ice [unquote]. + I say,=20 + You walk on the ice. + + + What is the implicit quantifier of the quotation=20 + lu do cadzu le bisli li'u? Surely not=20 + ro. If=20 + ro were supplied explicitly, thus: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e6d6"/> + + + mi cusku ro lu do cadzu le bisli li'u + I express all-of [quote] you walk-on the ice [unquote]. + + + the meaning would be something like=20 + I say every occurrence of the sentence 'You walk on the ice'. Of course I don't say every occurrence of it, only some occurrences.= One might suppose that=20 + means that I express exactl= y one occurrence, but it is more Lojbanic to leave the number unspecified, = as with other sumti. We can say definitely, however, that I say it at least= once. + The Lojban cmavo meaning=20 + at least is=20 + su'o, and if no ordinary number follows,=20 + su'o means=20 + at least once. (See=20 + for the use of=20 + su'o with an ordinary number). Therefore, the explicitl= y quantified version of=20 + is + implicit quantifi= erfor quotations quotationsimplicit q= uantifier for su'oas implicit quantifier for quotations + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e6d7"/> + + + mi cusku su'o lu do cadzu le bisli li'u + I express at-least-one-of [quote] you walk-on the ice [unqu= ote]. + I say one or more instances of=20 + You walk on the ice. + I say=20 + You walk on the ice. + + + If an explicit ordinary number such as=20 + re were to appear, it would have to convey an exact exp= ression, so + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e6d8"/> + + + mi cusku re lu do cadzu le bisli li'u + I express two-of [quote] you walk-on the ice [unquote]. + + + means that I say the sentence exactly twice, neither more nor le= ss. +

+ Quantified descriptions + The following cmavo are discussed in this section: + + + piro + PA + the whole of + pisu'o + PA + a part of + + + quantificationbefore description sumti compared with before non-descrip= tion sumti Like other sumti, descriptions can be qu= antified. When a quantifier appears before a description, it has the same m= eaning as one appearing before a non-description sumti: it specifies how ma= ny things, of all those referred to by the description, are being talked ab= out in this particular bridi. Suppose that context tells us that=20 + le gerku refers to three dogs. Then we can say = that exactly two of them are white as follows: + + + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>two dogs are white</primary><secondar= y>example</secondary></indexterm> + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e7d1"/> + + + re le gerku cu blabi + Two-of the dogs are-white. + Two of the dogs are white. + + + inner quantifiereffect of on meaning outer quantifieref= fect of on meaning inner quantifiercontrasted with outer q= uantifier outer quantifiercontrasted with inner quantifier= inn= er quantifierdefinition outer quantifierdefinition When discussing descriptions, this or= dinary quantifier is called an=20 + outer quantifier, since it appears outside the descript= ion. But there is another possible location for a quantifier: between the d= escriptor and the selbri. This quantifier is called an=20 + inner quantifier, and its meaning is quite different: i= t tells the listener how many objects the description selbri characterizes.= + For example, the context of=20 + supposedly told us that=20 + le gerku referred to some three specific dogs. = This assumption can be made certain with the use of an explicit inner quant= ifier: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e7d2"/> + + + re le ci gerku cu blabi + Two-of the three dogs are-white. + Two of the three dogs are white. + + + (As explained in the discussion of=20 + , simple numbers like those = in=20 + must be exact: it therefore= follows that the third dog cannot be white.) + inner quantifier<= /primary>explicit You may also specify a= n explicit inner quantifier and leave the outer quantifier implicit: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e7d3"/> + + + le ci gerku cu blabi + The three dogs are-white. + The three dogs are white. + + + outer quantifier<= /primary>implicit on descriptors inner quantifierimplicit on descriptors descriptorsimplicit quantifiers = for There are rules for each of the 11 descriptors = specifying what the implicit values for the inner and outer quantifiers are= . They are meant to provide sensible default values when context is absent,= not necessarily to prescribe hard and fast rules. The following table list= s the implicit values: + + + + le: + ro le su'o + all of the at-least-one described as + + + lo: + su'o lo ro + at least one of all of those which really are + + + la: + ro la su'o + all of the at least one named + + + lei: + pisu'o lei su'o + some part of the mass of the at-least-one described as + + + loi: + pisu'o loi ro + some part of the mass of all those that really are + + + lai: + pisu'o lai su'o + some part of the mass of the at-least-one named + + + le'i: + piro le'i su'o + the whole of the set of the at-least-one described as + + + lo'i: + piro lo'i ro + the whole of the set of all those that really are + + + la'i: + piro la'i su'o + the whole of the set of the at-least-one named + + + le'e: + ro le'e su'o + all the stereotypes of the at-least-one described as + + + lo'e: + su'o lo'e ro + at least one of the types of all those that really are + + + le-series cmavoas encompassing le-series and la-series descriptors for = quantification discussion le-series cmavodefinition la-series = descriptorscompared with le-series in implicit quantif= ication le-series descriptorscompared with la-series in im= plicit quantification When examined for the first t= ime, this table looks dreadfully arbitrary. In fact, there are quite a few = regularities in it. First of all, the la-series (that is, the descriptors= =20 + la,=20 + lai, and=20 + la'i) and the le-series (that is, the descriptors=20 + le,=20 + lei,=20 + le'i, and=20 + le'e) always have corresponding implicit quantifiers, s= o we may subsume the la-series under the le-series for the rest of this dis= cussion:=20 + le-series cmavo will refer to both the le-series proper= and to the la-series. + =20 + le-series cmavorule for implicit inner quantifier lo-series cmavo= rule for implicit inner quantifier The r= ule for the inner quantifier is very simple: the lo-series cmavo (namely,= =20 + =20 + lo,=20 + loi,=20 + lo'i, and=20 + lo'e) all have an implicit inner quantifier of=20 + ro, whereas the le-series cmavo all have an implicit in= ner quantifier of=20 + =20 + su'o. + le-series cmavorationale for implicit inner quantifier lo-series cmavorationale for implicit inner quantifier Why? Because lo-series descriptors always refer to all of the things w= hich really fit into the x1 place of the selbri. They are not restricted by= the speaker's intention. Descriptors of the le-series, however, are so res= tricted, and therefore talk about some number, definite or indefinite, of o= bjects the speaker has in mind – but never less than one. + massesrule for implicit outer quantifier setsrule for i= mplicit outer quantifier Understanding the implicit= outer quantifier requires rules of greater subtlety. In the case of mass a= nd set descriptors, a single rule suffices for each: reference to a mass is= implicitly a reference to some part of the mass; reference to a set is imp= licitly a reference to the whole set. Masses and sets are inherently singul= ar objects: it makes no sense to talk about two distinct masses with the sa= me components, or two distinct sets with the same members. Therefore, the l= argest possible outer quantifier for either a set description or a mass des= cription is=20 + piro, the whole of it. + plural massespossible use for (Pedantically, it= is possible that the mass of water molecules composing an ice cube might b= e thought of as different from the same mass of water molecules in liquid f= orm, in which case we might talk about=20 + re lei djacu, two masses of the water-bits I ha= ve in mind.) + pisu'oexplanation of meaning piroexplanation of meaning= Why=20 + pi-? It is the Lojban cmavo for the deci= mal point. Just as=20 + =20 + pimu means=20 + .5, and when used as a quantif= ier specifies a portion consisting of five tenths of a thing,=20 + piro means a portion consisting of the all-ness –= the entirety – of a thing. Similarly,=20 + pisu'o specifies a portion consisting of at least one p= art of a thing, i.e. some of it. + =20 + portion= on set contrasted with on individual outer quantifiersfor expressing subsets subsetsexpressing with outer= quantifiers Smaller quantifiers are possible for s= ets, and refer to subsets. Thus=20 + =20 + pimu le'i nanmu is a subset of the set of men I= have in mind; we don't know precisely which elements make up this subset, = but it must have half the size of the full set. This is the best way to say= =20 + half of the men; saying=20 + pimu le nanmu would give us a half-portion of o= ne of them instead! Of course, the result of=20 + pimu le'i nanmu is still a set; if you need to = refer to the individuals of the subset, you must say so (see=20 + lu'a in=20 + =20 + ). + loimplicit outer quantifier for leimplicit outer quant= ifier for individual descriptorsdifferent implicit outer q= uantifiers among outer quantifiersrationale for difference= s in implicit quantifier on descriptors The case of= outer quantifiers for individual descriptors (including=20 + le,=20 + lo,=20 + la, and the typical descriptors=20 + le'e and=20 + lo'e) is special. When we refer to specific individuals= with=20 + le, we mean to refer to all of those we have in mind, s= o=20 + ro is appropriate as the implicit quantifier, just as i= t is appropriate for=20 + do. Reference to non-specific individuals with=20 + lo, however, is typically to only some of the objects w= hich can be correctly described, and so=20 + su'o is the appropriate implicit quantifier, just as fo= r quotations. + locontrasted with le in implicit quantification= lecont= rasted with lo in implicit quantification From the = English-speaking point of view, the difference in structure between the fol= lowing example using=20 + le: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e7d4"/> + + + [ro] le ci gerku cu blabi + [All-of] those-described-as three dogs are-white. + The three dogs are white. + + + and the corresponding form with=20 + lo: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e7d5"/> + + + ci lo [ro] gerku cu blabi + Three-of those-which-are [all] dogs are-white. + Three dogs are white. + + + looks very peculiar. Why is the number=20 + ci found as an inner quantifier in=20 + and as an outer quantifier = in=20 + ? The number of dogs is the = same in either case. The answer is that the=20 + ci in=20 + is part of the specificatio= n: it tells us the actual number of dogs in the group that the speaker has = in mind. In=20 + , however, the dogs referred= to by=20 + ... lo gerku are all the dogs that exist: the o= uter quantifier then restricts the number to three; which three, we cannot = tell. The implicit quantifiers are chosen to avoid claiming too much or too= little: in the case of=20 + le, the implicit outer quantifier=20 + ro says that each of the dogs in the restricted group i= s white; in the case of=20 + lo, the implicit inner quantifier simply says that thre= e dogs, chosen from the group of all the dogs there are, are white. + lo-series descrip= tioncaution on exact numbers as inner quantifiers on Using exact numbers as inner quantifiers in lo-serie= s descriptions is dangerous, because you are stating that exactly that many= things exist which really fit the description. So examples like + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e7d6"/> + + + [so'o] lo ci gerku cu blabi + =20 + [some-of] those-which-really-are three dogs are-white + + + are semantically anomalous;=20 + claims that some dog (or do= gs) is white, but also that there are just three dogs in the universe! + Nevertheless, inner quantifiers are permitted on=20 + lo descriptors for consistency's sake, and may occasion= ally be useful. + Note that the inner quantifier of=20 + le, even when exact, need not be truthful:=20 + le ci nanmu means=20 + what I describe as three men, not=20 + three of what I describe as men. This follows from the = rule that what is described by a=20 + le description represents the speaker's viewpoint rathe= r than the objective way things are. +

+ Indefinite descriptions + descriptorsomission of loomission of By a quirk of Lojban syntax, it is possible to omit the descriptor= =20 + lo, but never any other descriptor, from a description = like that of=20 + ; namely, one which has an e= xplicit outer quantifier but no explicit inner quantifier. The following ex= ample: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e8d1"/> + + + ci gerku [ku] cu blabi + Three dogs are white. + + + indefinite descri= ptiondefinition omission of descriptoreffect on ku kueffect on of omitting descriptor is equivalent in meaning to=20 + . Even though the descriptor= is not present, the elidable terminator=20 + ku may still be used. The name=20 + indefinite description for this syntactic form is histo= rically based: of course, it is no more and no less indefinite than its cou= nterpart with an explicit=20 + =20 + =20 + lo. Indefinite descriptions were introduced into the la= nguage in order to imitate the syntax of English and other natural language= s. + inner quantifier<= /primary>in indefinite description outer quantifierin indefinite description indefinite descriptionas pro= hibiting explicit inner quantifier indefinite descriptiona= s needing explicit outer quantifier Indefinite desc= riptions must fit this mold exactly: there is no way to make one which does= not have an explicit outer quantifier (thus=20 + *gerku cu blabi is ungrammatica= l), or which has an explicit inner quantifier (thus=20 + *reboi ci gerku cu blabi is als= o ungrammatical –=20 + re ci gerku cu blabi is fine, but means=20 + 23 dogs are white). + Note:=20 + also contains an indefinite= description, namely=20 + =20 + =20 + su'o ci cutci; another version of that example = using an explicit=20 + lo would be: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e8d2"/> + + + mi ponse su'o ci lo cutci + I possess at-least three things-which-really-are shoes + I own three (or more) shoes. + + +

+ sumti-based descriptions + As stated in=20 + , most descriptions consi= st of just a descriptor and a selbri. (In this chapter, the selbri have alw= ays been single gismu, but of course any selbri, however complex, can be em= ployed in a description. The syntax and semantics of selbri are explained i= n=20 + .) In the intervening sections, inne= r and outer quantifiers have been added to the syntax. Now it is time to di= scuss a description of a radically different kind: the sumti-based descript= ion. + =20 + sumti-based descr= iptionouter quantifier on sumti-based descriptioninner quantifier on sumti-based descriptiondef= inition A sumti-based description has a sumti where= the selbri would normally be, and the inner quantifier is required –= it cannot be implicit. An outer quantifier is permitted but not required.<= /para> + =20 + A full theory of sumti-based descriptions has yet to be worked o= ut. One common case, however, is well understood. Compare the following: + + =20 + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>the two of you</primary><secondary>ex= ample</secondary></indexterm> + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e9d1"/> + + + re do cu nanmu + Two-of you are-men. + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e9d2"/> +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>the two of you</primary><secondary>ex= ample</secondary></indexterm> + + + le re do cu nanmu + The two-of you are men. + + + + simply specifies that of = the group of listeners, size unknown, two are men.=20 + , which has the sumti-base= d description=20 + =20 + le re do, says that of the two listeners, all= (the implicit outer quantifier=20 + ro) are men. So in effect the inner quantifier=20 + re gives the number of individuals which the inner su= mti=20 + =20 + do refers to. + Here is another group of examples: + + =20 + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>three bears</primary><secondary>examp= le</secondary></indexterm> + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e9d3"/> + + + re le ci cribe cu bunre + Two-of the three bears are-brown. + =20 + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e9d4"/> +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>three bears</primary><secondary>examp= le</secondary></indexterm> + + + le re le ci cribe cu bunre + The two-of the three bears are-brown. + =20 + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e9d5"/> +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>three bears</primary><secondary>examp= le</secondary></indexterm> + + + pa le re le ci cribe cu bunre + One-of the two-of the three bears are-brown. + =20 + + + sumti-based descri= ptions with leas increasing restricting to in-mind In each case,=20 + le ci cribe restricts the bears (or alleged bea= rs) being talked of to some group of three which the speaker has in mind.= =20 + says that two of them (whic= h two is not stated) are brown.=20 + says that a specific pair o= f them are brown.=20 + says that of a specific pai= r chosen from the original three, one or the other of that pair is brown. +

+ sumti qualifiers + The following cmavo are discussed in this section: + sumti qualifiers<= /primary>list of + + + la'e + LAhE + something referred to by + + + lu'e + LAhE + a reference to + + + tu'a + LAhE + an abstraction involving + + + lu'a + LAhE + an individual/member/component of + + + lu'i + LAhE + a set formed from + + + lu'o + LAhE + a mass formed from + + + vu'i + LAhE + a sequence formed from + + + na'ebo + NAhE+BO + something other than + + + to'ebo + NAhE+BO + the opposite of + + + no'ebo + NAhE+BO + the neutral form of + + + je'abo + NAhE+BO + that which indeed is + =20 + + lu'u + LUhU + elidable terminator for LAhE and NAhE+BO + + + Well, that's quite a list of cmavo. What are they all about? + lu'uas elidable terminator for qualified sumti = sumti qualifierselidable terminator for qualified sumti sumti qualifiersexternal syntax of sumti qualifiersinternal syntax o= f NA= hE selma'o LAhE selma'o The above cmavo and compound cmavo = are called the=20 + sumti qualifiers. All of them are either single cmavo o= f selma'o LAhE, or else compound cmavo involving a scalar negation cmavo of= selma'o NAhE immediately followed by=20 + =20 + bo of selma'o BO. Syntactically, you can prefix a sumti= qualifier to any sumti and produce another simple sumti. (You may need to = add the elidable terminator=20 + =20 + lu'u to show where the qualified sumti ends.) + =20 + sumti qualifiers<= /primary>as short forms for common special cases Semantically, sumti qualifiers represent short forms of certain co= mmon special cases. Suppose you want to say=20 + I see 'The Red Pony', where=20 + =20 + The Red Pony is the title of a book. How about: + =20 + unqualified sumti<= /primary>contrasted with qualified sumti= qualified sumticontrasted with unqualified sumti + + =20 + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Red Pony</primary><secondary>example<= /secondary></indexterm> + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d1"/> + + + mi viska lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u + I see [quote] the red small-horse [unquote]. + + + But=20 + doesn't work: it says that = you see a piece of text=20 + The Red Pony. That might be all right if you were looki= ng at the cover of the book, where the words=20 + =20 + The Red Pony are presumably written. (More precisely, w= here the words=20 + =20 + le xunre cmaxirma are written – but we ma= y suppose the book has been translated into Lojban.) + What you really want to say is: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d2"/> +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Red Pony</primary><secondary>example<= /secondary></indexterm> + + + mi viska le selsinxa be lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u + I see the thing-represented-by [quote] the red small-horse = [unquote]. + + + The x2 place of=20 + selsinxa (the x1 place of=20 + sinxa) is a sign or symbol, and the x1 place of=20 + selsinxa (the x2 place of=20 + sinxa) is the thing represented by the sign.=20 + allows us to use a symbol (= namely the title of a book) to represent the thing it is a symbol of (namel= y the book itself). + This operation turns out to be needed often enough that it's use= ful to be able to say: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d3"/> + + + mi viska la'e lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u [lu'u] + =20 + =20 + I see the-referent-of [quote] the red small-horse [unquote]= . + + + referent= referring to with la'e la'eeffect of on meanin= g de= referencing a pointerwith la'e= la'eas= short for le selsinxa be So= when=20 + la'e is prefixed to a sumti referring to a symbol, it p= roduces a sumti referring to the referent of that symbol. (In computer jarg= on,=20 + =20 + la'e dereferences a pointer.) + By introducing a sumti qualifier, we correct a false sentence (= =20 + ), which too closely resembl= es its literal English equivalent, into a true sentence (=20 + ), without having to change = it overmuch; in particular, the structure remains the same. Most of the use= s of sumti qualifiers are of this general kind. + symbolreferring to with lu'e lu'eeffect of on meaning The sumti qualifier=20 + lu'e provides the converse operation: it can be prefixe= d to a sumti referring to some thing to produce a sumti referring to a sign= or symbol for the thing. For example, + lu'eas short for le sinxa be + + + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>title of book</primary><secondary>exa= mple</secondary></indexterm> + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d4"/> + + + mi pu cusku lu'e le vi cukta + I [past] express a-symbol-for the nearby book. + I said the title of this book. + + + The equivalent form not using a sumti qualifier would be: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d5"/> +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>title of book</primary><secondary>exa= mple</secondary></indexterm> + + + mi pu cusku le sinxa be le vi cukta + I [past] express the symbol-for the nearby book. + + + which is equivalent to=20 + , but longer. + sequence= contrasted with set vu'iuse for creating sequen= ce t= u'ause for forming abstractions vu'ie= ffect of on meaning lu'oeffect of on meaning lu'ieffect of on meaning lu'aeffect of on meaning tu'aeffect of on meaning The other sum= ti qualifiers follow the same rules. The cmavo=20 + tu'a is used in forming abstractions, and is explained = more fully in=20 + . The triplet=20 + lu'a,=20 + =20 + lu'i, and=20 + =20 + lu'o convert between individuals, sets, and masses;=20 + =20 + vu'i belongs to this group as well, but creates a seque= nce, which is similar to a set but has a definite order. (The set of John a= nd Charles is the same as the set of Charles and John, but the sequences ar= e different.) Here are some examples: + =20 + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d6"/> + + + mi troci tu'a le vorme + I try some-abstraction-about the door. + I try (to open) the door. + + + tu'aas being deliberately vague=20 + might mean that I try to do= something else involving the door; the form is deliberately vague. + Most of the following examples make use of the cmavo=20 + ri, belonging to selma'o KOhA. This cmavo means=20 + the thing last mentioned; it is equivalent to repeating= the immediately previous sumti (but in its original context). It is explai= ned in more detail in=20 + . + + =20 + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>set of rats</primary><secondary>examp= le</secondary></indexterm> + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d7"/> + + + lo'i ratcu cu barda .iku'i lu'a ri cmalu + =20 + The-set-of rats is-large. But some-members-of it-last-menti= oned is-small. + The set of rats is large, but some of its members are sma= ll. + =20 + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d8"/> +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>set of rats</primary><secondary>examp= le</secondary></indexterm> + + + lo ratcu cu cmalu .iku'i lu'i ri barda + =20 + Some rats are-small. But the-set-of them-last-mentioned is-= large. + Some rats are small, but the set of rats is large. + =20 + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d9"/> +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>set of rats</primary><secondary>examp= le</secondary></indexterm> + + + mi ce do girzu .i lu'o ri gunma .i vu'i ri porsi + I in-a-set-with you are-a-set. The-mass-of it-last-mentione= d is-a-mass. The-sequence-of it-last-mentioned is-a-sequence + The set of you and me is a set. The mass of you and me is= a mass. The sequence of you and me is a sequence. + + + (Yes, I know these examples are a bit silly. This set was introd= uced for completeness, and practical examples are as yet hard to come by.)<= /para> + negation sumti qu= alifiersmeanings of sumti qualifiersf= or negation Finally, the four sumti qualifiers form= ed from a cmavo of NAhE and=20 + bo are all concerned with negation, which is discussed = in detail in=20 + . Here are a few examples of negat= ion sumti qualifiers: + =20 + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d10"/> + + + mi viska na'ebo le gerku + =20 + I see something-other-than the dog. + + + + This compound,=20 + na'ebo, is the most common of the four negation= sumti qualifiers. The others usually only make sense in the context of rep= eating, with modifications, something already referred to: + =20 + =20 + + + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>lukewarm food</primary><secondary>exa= mple</secondary></indexterm> + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d11"/> + + + mi nelci loi glare cidja .ije do nelci to'ebo ri .ije la djei= n. nelci no'ebo ra + I like part-of-the-mass-of hot-type-of food. And you like t= he-opposite-of the-last-mentioned. And Jane likes the-neutral-value-of some= thing-mentioned. + I like hot food, and you like cold food, and Jane likes l= ukewarm food. + =20 + + + (In=20 + , the sumti=20 + ra refers to some previously mentioned sumti other than= that referred to by=20 + ri. We cannot use=20 + ri here, because it would signify=20 + la djein., that being the most recent sumti ava= ilable to=20 + ri. See more detailed explanations in=20 + .) +

+ The syntax of vocative phrases + vocative phrases<= /primary>as a free modifier Vocative phrases are not sumti, but are explained in this chapter becaus= e their syntax is very similar to that of sumti. Grammatically, a vocative = phrase is one of the so-called=20 + =20 + free modifiers of Lojban, along with subscripts, parent= heses, and various other constructs explained in=20 + =20 + . They can be placed after many, = but not all, constructions of the grammar: in general, after any elidable t= erminator (which, however, must not then be elided!), at the beginnings and= ends of sentences, and in many other places. + vocative phrasepurpose of The purpose of a voca= tive phrase is to indicate who is being addressed, or to indicate to that p= erson that he or she ought to be listening. A vocative phrase begins with a= cmavo of selma'o COI or DOI, all of which are explained in more detail in= =20 + =20 + . Sometimes that is all the= re is to the phrase: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d1"/> + + + coi + [greetings] + Hello. + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d2"/> + + + je'e + =20 + [acknowledgement] + Uh-huh. + Roger! + + + vocative wordphrase following In these cases, t= he person being addressed is obvious from the context. However, a vocative = word (more precisely, one or more cmavo of COI, possibly followed by=20 + doi, or else just=20 + doi by itself) can be followed by one of several kinds = of phrases, all of which are intended to indicate the addressee. The most c= ommon case is a name: + coi + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d3"/> + + + coi. djan. + Hello, John. + + + A pause is required (for morphological reasons) between a member= of COI and a name. You can use=20 + doi instead of a pause: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d4"/> + + + coi doi djan. + Hello, John. + + + means exactly the same thing and does not require a pause. Usin= g=20 + doi by itself is like just saying someone's name to att= ract his or her attention: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d5"/> + + + doi djan. + John! + + + vocative phraseimplicit descriptor on vocative phrasew= ith sumti without descriptor vocative phraseforms of In place of a name, a description may appear, lacking it= s descriptor, which is understood to be=20 + le: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d6"/> + + + coi xunre pastu nixli + Hello, (red-type-of dress)-type-of girl. + Hello, girl with the red dress! + + + vocative phraseexplicit quantifiers prohibited on vocative phrase= implicit quantifiers on The listener nee= d not really be a=20 + xunre pastu nixli, as long as she understands h= erself correctly from the description. (Actually, only a bare selbri can ap= pear; explicit quantifiers are forbidden in this form of vocative, so the i= mplicit quantifiers=20 + su'o le ro are in effect.) + Finally, a complete sumti may be used, the most general case. + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d7"/> + + + co'o la bab. .e la noras. + Goodbye, Bob and Nora. + + + vocative phrasewith complete sumti=20 + is thus the same as: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d8"/> + + + coi le xunre pastu nixli + Hello, the-one-described-as red-dress girl! + + + and=20 + is the same as: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d9"/> + + + doi la djan. + The-one-named John! + + + vocative phrase t= erminatorelidability of vocative phraseelidable terminator for Finally, the elidable ter= minator for vocative phrases is=20 + do'u (of selma'o DOhU), which is rarely needed except w= hen a simple vocative word is being placed somewhere within a bridi. It may= also be required when a vocative is placed between a sumti and its relativ= e clause, or when there are a sequence of so-called=20 + =20 + free modifiers (vocatives, subscripts, utterance ordina= ls – see=20 + – metalinguistic comments &nda= sh; see=20 + – or reciprocals –= see + ) which must be properly separate= d. + vocative phraseeffect of position on meaning Th= e meaning of a vocative phrase that is within a sentence is not affected by= its position in the sentence: thus=20 + =20 + and=20 + mean the same thing: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d10"/> + + + doi djan. ko klama mi + John, come to me! + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d11"/> + + + ko klama mi doi djan. + Come to me, John! + + + As usual for this chapter, the full syntax of vocative phrases h= as not been explained: relative clauses, discussed in=20 + , make for more possibilit= ies. +

+ Lojban names + Names have been used freely as sumti throughout this chapter wit= hout too much explanation. The time for the explanation has now come. + name wordsrecognition of namestwo kinds of= First of all, there are two different kinds of things usually = called=20 + names when talking about Lojban. The naming predicates = of=20 + are just ordinary predic= ates which are being used in a special sense. In addition, though, there is= a class of Lojban words which are used only to name things: these can be r= ecognized by the fact that they end in a consonant followed by a pause. Som= e examples: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e12d1"/> + + + djan. meris. djein. .alis. + John. Mary. Jane. Alice. + + + (Note that=20 + .alis. begins as well as ends with a pause, because a= ll Lojban words beginning with a vowel must be preceded by a pause. See=20 + for more information.) + nameswith LA descriptor namesin vocative phrase namesuses of Names of this kind have two= basic uses in Lojban: when used in a vocative phrase (see=20 + =20 + ) they indicate who the lis= tener is or should be. When used with a descriptor of selma'o LA, namely=20 + la,=20 + lai, or=20 + la'i, they form sumti which refer to the persons or thi= ngs known by the name. + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e12d2"/> + + + la djonz. klama le zarci + Jones goes to-the store. + The Joneses go to-the store. + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e12d3"/> + + + lai djonz. klama le zarci + The-mass-of Joneses go to-the store. + The Joneses go to the store. + + + In=20 + , the significance is that a= ll the persons (perhaps only one) I mean to refer to by the name=20 + djonz. are going to the store. In=20 + , the Joneses are massified,= and only some part of them needs to be going. Of course, by=20 + djonz. I can mean whomever I want: that person need n= ot use the name=20 + djonz. at all. + LA selma'ocontrasted with LE in use of name-words LE selma'ocontrasted with LA in use of name-words The s= umti in=20 + and=20 + operate exactly like the si= milar uses of=20 + la and=20 + lai in=20 + and=20 + respectively. The only diff= erence is that these descriptors are followed by Lojban name-words. And in = fact, the only difference between descriptors of selma'o LA (these three) a= nd of selma'o LE (all the other descriptors) is that the former can be foll= owed by name-words, whereas the latter cannot. + =20 + doieffect on necessity for pause before name-word LA selma'oeffect on necessity for pause before name-word= name-wordspause requirements before name-wordslimitations on There are certain limitations on the form of name-word= s in Lojban. In particular, they cannot contain the letter-sequences (or so= und-sequences)=20 + =20 + la,=20 + lai, or=20 + doi unless a consonant immediately precedes within the = name. Reciprocally, every name not preceded by=20 + la,=20 + lai,=20 + la'i, or=20 + doi must be preceded by a pause instead: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e12d4"/> + + + coi .djan. + Hello, John. + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e12d5"/> + + + zo .djan. cmene mi + The-word John is-the-name-of me. + My name is John. + + + In=20 + and=20 + ,=20 + .djan. appears with a pause before it as well as afte= r it, because the preceding word is not one of the four special cases. Thes= e rules force names to always be separable from the general word-stream. + namesmultiple Unless some other rule prevents i= t (such as the rule that=20 + zo is always followed by a single word, which is quoted= ), multiple names may appear wherever one name is permitted, each with its = terminating pause: + + + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Newport News</primary><secondary>exam= ple</secondary></indexterm> + + + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>John Paul Jones</primary><secondary>e= xample</secondary></indexterm> + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e12d6"/> + + + doi djan. pol. djonz. le bloti cu klama fi la niuport. niuz.<= /jbo> + John Paul Jones, the boat comes (to somewhere) from Newpo= rt News. + =20 + =20 + + + name-wordspermissible consonant combinations A n= ame may not contain any consonant combination that is illegal in Lojban wor= ds generally: the=20 + impermissible consonant clusters of Lojban morphology (= explained in=20 + =20 + =20 + ). Thus=20 + djeimz. is not a valid version of=20 + James (because=20 + mz is invalid):=20 + djeimyz will suffice. Similarly,=20 + la may be replaced by=20 + ly,=20 + lai by=20 + ly'i,=20 + doi by=20 + do'i or=20 + dai. Here are a few examples: + =20 + +Doyleexample + +Lyraexample =20 +Lottieexample =20 + + + Doyle + *doi,l + do'il or dai,l + =20 + + + Lyra + *lairas + ly'iras + + + Lottie + *latis + LYtis. or lotis. + + + (American pronunciation) + + + + + +namesus= ing rafsi Names may be borrowed from other language= s or created arbitrarily. Another common practice is to use one or more raf= si, arranged to end with a consonant, to form a name: thus the rafsi=20 + loj- for=20 + logji (logical) and=20 + ban- for=20 + bangu (language) unite to form the name of this languag= e: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e12d7"/> + + + lojban. + Lojban + + + names from vowel-= final basecommonly used consonant endings<= /indexterm> names<= secondary>borrowing from other languages When borro= wing names from another language which end in a vowel, or when turning a Lo= jban brivla (all of which end in vowels) into a name, the vowel may be remo= ved or an arbitrary consonant added. It is common (but not required) to use= the consonants=20 + =20 + s or=20 + n when borrowing vowel-final names from English; speake= rs of other languages may wish to use other consonant endings. + =20 + names with laimplicit quantifier for The implic= it quantifier for name sumti of the form=20 + la followed by a name is=20 + su'o, just as for=20 + la followed by a selbri. +

+ Pro-sumti summary + pro-sumticlasses of The Lojban pro-sumti are th= e cmavo of selma'o KOhA. They fall into several classes: personal, definabl= e, quantificational, reflexive, back-counting, indefinite, demonstrative, m= etalinguistic, relative, question. More details are given in=20 + ; this section mostly dupli= cates information found there, but adds material on the implicit quantifier= of each pro-sumti. + pro-sumtiimplicit quantifier for The following e= xamples illustrate each of the classes. Unless otherwise noted below, the i= mplicit quantification for pro-sumti is=20 + ro (all). In the case of pro-sumti which refer to other= sumti, the=20 + ro signifies=20 + all of those referred to by the other sumti: thus it is= possible to restrict, but not to extend, the quantification of the other s= umti. + personal pro-sumt= i Personal pro-sumti (=20 + mi,=20 + do,=20 + mi'o,=20 + mi'a,=20 + =20 + ma'a,=20 + =20 + do'o,=20 + =20 + ko) refer to the speaker or the listener or both, with = or without third parties: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d1"/> + + + mi prami do + I love you. + + + personal pro-sumt= iimplicit quantifier for The p= ersonal pro-sumti may be interpreted in context as either representing indi= viduals or masses, so the implicit quantifier may be=20 + =20 + pisu'o rather than=20 + =20 + ro: in particular,=20 + mi'o,=20 + mi'a,=20 + =20 + ma'a, and=20 + =20 + do'o specifically represent mass combinations of the in= dividuals (you and I, I and others, you and I and others, you and others) t= hat make them up. + =20 + definable pro-sum= ti Definable pro-sumti (=20 + ko'a,=20 + ko'e,=20 + ko'i,=20 + ko'o,=20 + ko'u,=20 + fo'a,=20 + =20 + fo'e,=20 + fo'i,=20 + fo'o,=20 + fo'u) refer to whatever the speaker has explicitly made= them refer to. This reference is accomplished with=20 + goi (of selma'o GOI), which means=20 + defined-as. + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d2"/> + + + le cribe goi ko'a cu xekri .i ko'a citka le smacu + The bear defined-as it-1 is-black. It-1 eats the mouse. + + + quantificational = pro-sumti Quantificational pro-sumti (=20 + da,=20 + de,=20 + di) are used as variables in bridi involving predicate = logic: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d3"/> + + + ro da poi prenu cu prami pa de poi finpe + All somethings-1 which-are persons love one something-2 whi= ch-is a-fish. + All persons love a fish (each his/her own). + + + quantificational = pro-sumtiimplicit quantification rules (This is not the same as=20 + All persons love a certain fish; the difference between= the two is one of quantifier order.) The implicit quantification rules for= quantificational pro-sumti are particular to them, and are discussed in de= tail in=20 + =20 + . Roughly speaking, the quantif= ier is=20 + su'o (at least one) when the pro-sumti is first used, a= nd=20 + ro (all) thereafter. + reflexive pro-sum= ti Reflexive pro-sumti (=20 + vo'a,=20 + vo'e,=20 + vo'i,=20 + vo'o,=20 + vo'u) refer to the same referents as sumti filling othe= r places in the same bridi, with the effect that the same thing is referred= to twice: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d4"/> + + + le cribe cu batci vo'a + The bear bites what-is-in-the-x1-place. + The bear bites itself. + + + back-counting pro= -sumti Back-counting pro-sumti (=20 + ri,=20 + ra,=20 + ru) refer to the referents of previous sumti counted ba= ckwards from the pro-sumti: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d5"/> + + + mi klama la frankfurt. ri + I go to-Frankfurt from-the-referent-of-the-last-sumti + I go from Frankfurt to Frankfurt (by some unstated route)= . + + + indefinite pro-su= mti Indefinite pro-sumti (=20 + zo'e,=20 + zu'i,=20 + =20 + zi'o) refer to something which is unspecified: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d6"/> + + + mi klama la frankfurt. zo'e zo'e zo'e + I go to-Frankfurt from-unspecified via-unspecified by-means= -unspecified. + + + indefinite pro-su= mtiimplicit quantifier for The= implicit quantifier for indefinite pro-sumti is, well, indefinite. It migh= t be=20 + =20 + ro (all) or=20 + su'o (at least one) or conceivably even=20 + no (none), though=20 + no would require a very odd context indeed. + demonstrative pro= -sumti Demonstrative pro-sumti (=20 + ti,=20 + ta,=20 + tu) refer to things pointed at by the speaker, or when = pointing is not possible, to things near or far from the speaker: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d7"/> + + + ko muvgau ti ta tu + You [imperative] move this-thing from-that-nearby-place to-= that-further-away-place. + Move this from there to over there! + + + metalinguistic pr= o-sumti Metalinguistic pro-sumti (=20 + di'u,=20 + de'u,=20 + =20 + da'u,=20 + =20 + di'e,=20 + =20 + de'e,=20 + =20 + da'e,=20 + =20 + dei,=20 + do'i) refer to spoken or written utterances, either pre= ceding, following, or the same as the current utterance. + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d8"/> + + + li re su'i re du li vo .i la'e di'u jetnu + The-number two plus two equals the-number four. The-referen= t-of the-previous-utterance is-true. + + + metalinguistic pr= o-sumtiimplicit quantifier for= The implicit quantifier for metalinguistic pro-sumti is=20 + =20 + su'o (at least one), because they are considered analog= ous to=20 + lo descriptions: they refer to things which really are = previous, current, or following utterances. + relative pro-sumt= i The relative pro-sumti (=20 + =20 + ke'a) is used within relative clauses (see=20 + for a discussion of relat= ive clauses) to refer to whatever sumti the relative clause is attached to.= + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d9"/> + + + mi viska le mlatu ku poi zo'e zbasu ke'a loi slasi + I see the cat(s) such-that something-unspecified makes it/t= hem (the cats) from-a-mass-of plastic. + I see the cat(s) made of plastic. + + + question pro-sumt= i The question pro-sumti (=20 + =20 + ma) is used to ask questions which request the listener= to supply a sumti which will make the question into a truth: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d10"/> + + + do klama ma + You go to-what-sumti? + Where are you going? + + + question pro-sumt= iimplicit quantifier for The i= mplicit quantifier for the question pro-sumti is=20 + =20 + su'o (at least one), because the listener is only being= asked to supply a single answer, not all correct answers. + definable pro-sum= tisequences of lerfu words as = In addition, sequences of lerfu words (of selma'o BY and related selma'o) c= an also be used as definable pro-sumti. + =20 +

+ Quotation summary + quotationfour kinds There are four kinds of quo= tation in Lojban: text quotation, words quotation, single-word quotation, n= on-Lojban quotation. More information is provided in . + text quotationas internally grammatical text quotations= yntax of Text quotations are preceded by=20 + lu and followed by=20 + li'u, and are an essential part of the surrounding text= : they must be grammatical Lojban texts. + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e14d1"/> + + + mi cusku lu mi'e djan. li'u + I say the-text [quote] I-am John [unquote]. + I say I'm John. + + + word quotationinternal grammar of word quotationas mor= phologically valid Words quotations are quotations = of one or more Lojban words. The words need not mean anything, but they mus= t be morphologically valid so that the end of the quotation can be discerne= d. + le'u lo'u + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e14d2"/> + + + mi cusku lo'u li mi le'u + I say the-words [quote] li mi [unquote]. + I say li mi= . + + + Note that the translation of=20 + does not translate the Lojb= an words, because they are not presumed to have any meaning (in fact, they = are ungrammatical). + single-word quota= tion Single-word quotation quotes a single Lojban wor= d. Compound cmavo are not allowed. + =20 + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e14d3"/> + + + mi cusku zo .ai + I say the-word=20 + ai. + + + non-Lojban quotat= ion Non-Lojban quotation can quote anything, Lojban o= r not, even non-speech such as drum talk, whistle words, music, or belching= . A Lojban word which does not appear within the quotation is used before a= nd after it to set it off from the surrounding Lojban text. + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e14d4"/> + + + mi cusku zoi kuot. I'm John .kuot + I say=20 + I'm John. + + + quotationimplicit quantifier for The implicit q= uantifier for all types of quotation is=20 + su'o (at least one), because quotations are analogous t= o=20 + lo descriptions: they refer to things which actually ar= e words or sequences of words. +

+ Number summary + number sumtiwith li number sumtisyntax of The sumti which refer to numbers consist of the cmavo=20 + li (of selma'o LI) followed by an arbitrary Lojban meks= o, or mathematical expression. This can be anything from a simple number up= to the most complicated combination of numbers, variables, operators, and = so on. Much more information on numbers is given in=20 + . Here are a few examples of increasi= ng complexity: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e15d1"/> + + + li vo + the-number four +

4

+ + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e15d2"/> + + + li re su'i re + the-number two plus two +

2 + 2

+ + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e15d3"/> + + + li .abu bopi'i xy. bote'a re su'i by. bopi'i xy. su'i cy. + the-number a times x to-power 2 plus b times x plus c +

ax 2 + bx + c

+ + + number sumtiwith li contrasted with me'o number sumtiw= ith me'o contrasted with li LI selma'o me'o number sumtiwith me'o An alternative to=20 + li is=20 + me'o, also of selma'o LI. Number expressions beginning = with=20 + me'o refer to the actual expression, rather than its va= lue. Thus=20 + and=20 + above have the same meaning= , the number four, whereas + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e15d4"/> + + + me'o vo + the-expression four + 4 + + + and + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e15d5"/> + + + me'o re su'i re + the-expression two plus two + 2+2 + + + refer to different pieces of text. + mathematical expr= essionsimplicit quantifier for= numbersimplicit quantifier for The implicit quantifier fo= r numbers and mathematical expressions is=20 + =20 + su'o, because these sumti are analogous to=20 + lo descriptions: they refer to things which actually ar= e numbers or pieces of text. In the case of numbers (with=20 + li), this is a distinction without a difference, as the= re is only one number which is 4; but there are many texts=20 + 4, as many as there are documents in which that numeral= appears. +

+ diff --git a/chapters/07.xml b/chapters/07.xml new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5eb8394 --- /dev/null +++ b/chapters/07.xml @@ -0,0 +1,2424 @@ + + Brevity Is The Soul Of Language: Pro-sumti And Pro-bridi + + + The picture for chapter 7 + + + + + +

+ What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for? + pronouns in Engli= shas noun abbreviations Speake= rs of Lojban, like speakers of other languages, require mechanisms of abbre= viation. If every time we referred to something, we had to express a comple= te description of it, life would be too short to say what we have to say. I= n English, we have words called=20 + pronouns which allow us to replace nouns or noun phrase= s with shorter terms. An English with no pronouns might look something like= this: + =20 + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e1d1"/> + + Speakers of Lojban, like speakers of other languages, require = mechanisms of abbreviation. If every time speakers of Lojban referred to a = thing to which speakers of Lojban refer, speakers of Lojban had to express = a complete description of what speakers of Lojban referred to, life would b= e too short to say what speakers of Lojban have to say. + + pronouns in Engli= shas independent of abbreviations Speakers of this kind of English would get mightily sick of talking. Fu= rthermore, there are uses of pronouns in English which are independent of a= bbreviation. There is all the difference in the world between: + =20 + + =20 + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>shook stick</primary><secondary>examp= le</secondary></indexterm> + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e1d2"/> + + John picked up a stick and shook it. + + and + + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>shook stick</primary><secondary>examp= le</secondary></indexterm> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e1d3"/> + + John picked up a stick and shook a stick. + + + does not imply that the t= wo sticks are necessarily the same, whereas=20 + requires that they are. + GOhA selma'o<= /primary> pro-su= mtiseries pro-sumticompared to pro-br= idi as means of abbreviation pro-bridicompared to pro-sumt= i as means of abbreviation pro-brididefinition= pro-sumtidefinition pro-sumticompared to pronouns in= usage as abbreviations pronounscompared to pro-sumti in u= sage as abbreviations In Lojban, we have sumti rath= er than nouns, so our equivalent of pronouns are called by the hybrid term= =20 + =20 + pro-sumti. A purely Lojban term would be=20 + sumti cmavo: all of the pro-sumti are cmavo bel= onging to selma'o KOhA. In exactly the same way, Lojban has a group of cmav= o (belonging to selma'o GOhA) which serve as selbri or full bridi. These ma= y be called=20 + pro-bridi or=20 + bridi cmavo. This chapter explains the uses of = all the members of selma'o KOhA and GOhA. They fall into a number of groups= , known as series: thus, in selma'o KOhA, we have among others the mi-serie= s, the ko'a-series, the da-series, and so on. In each section, a series of = pro-sumti is explained, and if there is a corresponding series of pro-bridi= , it is explained and contrasted. Many pro-sumti series don't have pro-brid= i analogues, however. + antecedent of pro= -brididefinition referent of pro-brididefinition <= primary>antecedent of pro-sumtidefinition<= /indexterm> referent of pro-= sumtidefinition A few technica= l terms: The term=20 + =20 + referent means the thing to which a pro-sumti (by exten= sion, a pro-bridi) refers. If the speaker of a sentence is James, then the = referent of the word=20 + I is James. On the other hand, the term=20 + antecedent refers to a piece of language which a pro-su= mti (or pro-bridi) implicitly repeats. In + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e1d4"/> + + John loves himself + + the antecedent of=20 + himself is=20 + John; not the person, but a piece of text (a name, in t= his case). John, the person, would be the referent of=20 + himself. Not all pro-sumti or pro-bridi have antecedent= s, but all of them have referents. +

+ Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series + The following cmavo are discussed in this section: + + + mi + KOhA + mi-series + I, me + + + do + KOhA + mi-series + you + + + mi'o + KOhA + mi-series + you and I + + + mi'a + KOhA + mi-series + I and others, we but not you + + + ma'a + KOhA + mi-series + you and I and others + + + do'o + KOhA + mi-series + you and others + + + ko + KOhA + mi-series + you-imperative + + + + +foreman of a juryexample + + personal pronounswith mi-series for I/you pro-sumtifor listener= (s) = pro-sumtifor speaker(s) pro-sumtimi-s= eries mi-seriesof pro-sumti The mi= -series of pro-sumti refer to the speaker, the listener, and others in vari= ous combinations.=20 + mi refers to the speaker and perhaps others for whom th= e speaker speaks; it may be a Lojbanic mass.=20 + do refers to the listener or listeners. Neither=20 + mi nor=20 + do is specific about the number of persons referred to;= for example, the foreman of a jury may refer to the members of the jury as= =20 + =20 + mi, since in speaking officially he represents all of t= hem. + COI selma'o COI sel= ma'oeffect on referent of "do" COI selma'oeffect on r= eferent of "mi" The referents of=20 + mi and=20 + do are usually obvious from the context, but may be ass= igned by the vocative words of selma'o COI, explained in=20 + . The vocative=20 + mi'e assigns=20 + mi, whereas all of the other vocatives assign=20 + do. + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e2d1"/> + + + mi'e djan. doi frank. mi cusku lu mi bajra li'u do + I-am John, O Frank, I express [quote] I run [unquote] to-yo= u + I am John, Frank; I tell you=20 + I run. + + + pro-sumtifor listeners and/or speakers and/or others The cmavo=20 + mi'o,=20 + mi'a,=20 + =20 + ma'a, and=20 + =20 + do'o express various combinations of the speaker and/or= the listener and/or other people: + =20 + + + + mi'o includes only the speaker and the listener but= no one else; + + + + mi'a includes the speaker and others but excludes t= he listener; + =20 + + + + do'o includes the listener and others but excludes = the speaker; + =20 + + + + ma'a includes all three: speaker, listener, others.= + =20 + + + pro-sumti for spe= aker/listener/othersas masses = pro-sumti for speaker/listen= er/othersrelation to joi All o= f these pro-sumti represent masses. For example,=20 + mi'o is the same as=20 + mi joi do, the mass of me and you considered jo= intly. + pro-sumti for "we"contrasted with English "we" English "we"contrasted with Lojban pro-sumti for "we" In English,=20 + we can mean=20 + mi or=20 + mi'o or=20 + mi'a or even=20 + =20 + ma'a, and English-speakers often suffer because they ca= nnot easily distinguish=20 + =20 + mi'o from=20 + mi'a: + =20 + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e2d2"/> + + We're going to the store. + + Does this include the listener or not? There's no way to be sure= . + kouse for commands kouse for imperatives imperativeswith ko commandswith ko Finally, the cmavo=20 + ko is logically equivalent to=20 + do; its referent is the listener. However, its use alte= rs an assertion about the listener into a command to the listener to make t= he assertion true: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e2d3"/> + + + do klama le zarci + You go to-the store. + + + becomes: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e2d4"/> + + + ko klama le zarci + You [imperative] go to-the store. + Make you go to the store true! + Go to the store! + + + koin later selbri place in imperative imperativesEngli= sh contrasted with Lojban in presence of subject of command In English, the subject of a command is omitted, but in Lojban, th= e word=20 + ko must be used. However,=20 + ko does not have to appear in the x1 place: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e2d5"/> + + + mi viska ko + I see you [imperative] + Make=20 + I see you true! + Be seen by me! + + + koin sub-clause of main bridi In=20 + , it is necessary to make th= e verb passive in English in order to convey the effect of=20 + ko in the x2 place. Indeed,=20 + ko does not even have to be a sumti of the main bridi:<= /para> + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e2d6"/> + + + mi viska le prenu poi prami ko + I see the person that loves you [imperative] + Make=20 + I see the person that loves you true! + Be such that the person who loves you is seen by me! + Show me the person who loves you! + + + mi-series pro-sum= tilack of pro-bridi equivalent= As mentioned in=20 + , some pro-sum= ti series have corresponding pro-bridi series. However, there is no equival= ent of the mi-series among pro-bridi, since a person isn't a relationship.<= /para> +

+ Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series + The following cmavo are discussed in this section: + + + ti + KOhA + ti-series + this here, a nearby object + + + ta + KOhA + ti-series + that there, a medium-distant object + + + tu + KOhA + ti-series + that yonder, a far-distant object + + + pro-sumtiti-series ti-series pro-sumtias pointing refe= rents only this/that in Englishcompared with ti-series pro= -sumti ti-series pro-sumticompared with English this/that<= /secondary> demo= nstrative pro-sumti pointingreference by It is often useful to refer to things by pointing to them or by some r= elated non-linguistic mechanism. In English, the words=20 + this and=20 + that serve this function among others:=20 + this refers to something pointed at that is near the sp= eaker, and=20 + that refers to something further away. The Lojban pro-s= umti of the ti-series serve the same functions, but more narrowly. The cmav= o=20 + ti,=20 + ta, and=20 + tu provide only the pointing function of=20 + this and=20 + that; they are not used to refer to things that cannot = be pointed at. + ti-series pro-sum= ti3 degrees of distance with = tuarchai= c English yon as equivalent of yonas archaic English equiv= alent of tu There are three pro-sumti of the ti-ser= ies rather than just two because it is often useful to distinguish between = objects that are at more than two different distances. Japanese, among othe= r languages, regularly does this. Until the 16th century, English did too; = the pronoun=20 + that referred to something at a medium distance from th= e speaker, and the now-archaic pronoun=20 + yon to something far away. + =20 + ti-series pro-sum= tiproblems in written text ti-series pro-sumticonversational convention for In conversat= ion, there is a special rule about=20 + ta and=20 + tu that is often helpful in interpreting them. When use= d contrastingly,=20 + ta refers to something that is near the listener, where= as=20 + tu refers to something far from both speaker and listen= er. This makes for a parallelism between=20 + ti and=20 + mi, and=20 + ta and=20 + do, that is convenient when pointing is not possible; f= or example, when talking by telephone. In written text, on the other hand, = the meaning of the ti-series is inherently vague; is the writer to be taken= as pointing to something, and if so, to what? In all cases, what counts as= =20 + near and=20 + far away is relative to the current situation. + thispronoun expression with ti tias pronoun expression= for English this thisadjective usage contrasted with pron= oun usage thispronoun usage contrasted with adjective usag= e It is important to distinguish between the Englis= h pronoun=20 + this and the English adjective=20 + this as in=20 + this boat. The latter is not represented in Lojban by= =20 + =20 + ti: + + + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>this boat</primary><secondary>example= </secondary></indexterm> + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e3d1"/> + + + le ti bloti + the this boat + =20 + + + thisadjective expression with vi vias adjective express= ion for English this does not mean=20 + this boat but rather=20 + =20 + this one's boat,=20 + the boat associated with this thing, as explained in=20 + . A correct Lojban transla= tion of=20 + is + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e3d2"/> +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>this boat</primary><secondary>example= </secondary></indexterm> + + + le vi bloti + the here boat + the nearby boat + + + using a spatial tense before the selbri=20 + bloti to express that the boat is near the speaker. (Te= nses are explained in full in=20 + .) Another correct translation would= be: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e3d3"/> +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>this boat</primary><secondary>example= </secondary></indexterm> + + + ti noi bloti + =20 + this-thing which-incidentally is-a-boat + + + ti-series pro-sum= tilack of pro-bridi equivalent= thisad= jective expression with ti noi ti noias adjective expressi= on for this There are no demonstrative pro-bridi to= correspond to the ti-series: you can't point to a relationship. +

+ Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series + The following cmavo are discussed in this section: + + + di'u + KOhA + di'u-series + the previous utterance + + + de'u + KOhA + di'u-series + an earlier utterance + + + + da'u + KOhA + di'u-series + a much earlier utterance + + + + di'e + KOhA + di'u-series + the next utterance + + + + de'e + KOhA + di'u-series + a later utterance + + + + da'e + KOhA + di'u-series + a much later utterance + + + + dei + KOhA + di'u-series + this very utterance + + + do'i + KOhA + di'u-series + some utterance + + + pro-sumtidi'u-series thisas utterance reference in Eng= lish di'u-series pro-sumti utterance pro-sumti (see also di'u-series pro-sumti) pro-sumti f= or utterances The cmavo of the di'u-series enable us = to talk about things that have been, are being, or will be said. In English= , it is normal to use=20 + this and=20 + that for this (indeed, the immediately preceding=20 + this is an example of such a usage): + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e4d1"/> + + You don't like cats. + That is untrue. + + Here=20 + that does not refer to something that can be pointed to= , but to the preceding sentence=20 + You don't like cats. In Lojban, therefore,=20 + is rendered: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e4d2"/> + + + do na nelci loi mlatu .i di'u jitfa jufra + You (Not!) like the-mass-of cats. The-previous-utterance is= -a-false-sentence. + + + ti-series pro-sum= ticontrasted with di'u-series pro-sumti di'ucontrasted with ta tacontrasted with di'u Using=20 + ta instead of=20 + di'u would cause the listener to look around to see wha= t the speaker of the second sentence was physically pointing to. + As with=20 + ti,=20 + ta, and=20 + tu, the cmavo of the di'u-series come in threes: a clos= e utterance, a medium-distance utterance, and a distant utterance, either i= n the past or in the future. It turned out to be impossible to use the=20 + i/=20 + a/=20 + u vowel convention of the demonstratives in=20 + without causing collisions with = other cmavo, and so the di'u-series has a unique=20 + i/=20 + e/=20 + a convention in the first vowel of the cmavo. + Most references in speech are to the past (what has already bee= n said), so=20 + di'e,=20 + =20 + de'e, and=20 + =20 + da'e are not very useful when speaking. In writing, the= y are frequently handy: + =20 + + + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Simon says</primary><secondary>exampl= e</secondary></indexterm> + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e4d3"/> + + + la saimn. cusku di'e + =20 + Simon expresses the-following-utterance. + Simon says: + =20 + + + + would typically be follow= ed by a quotation. Note that although presumably the quotation is of someth= ing Simon has said in the past, the quotation utterance itself would appear= after=20 + , and so=20 + di'e is appropriate. + =20 + The remaining two cmavo,=20 + dei and=20 + do'i, refer respectively to the very utterance that the= speaker is uttering, and to some vague or unspecified utterance uttered by= someone at some time: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e4d4"/> + + + dei jetnu jufra + This-utterance is-a-true-sentence. + What I am saying (at this moment) is true. + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e4d5"/> + + + do'i jetnu jufra + Some-utterance is-a-true-sentence. + That's true (where=20 + that is not necessarily what was just said). + + + The cmavo of the di'u-series have a meaning that is relative to = the context. The referent of=20 + dei in the current utterance is the same as the referen= t of=20 + di'u in the next utterance. The term=20 + utterance is used rather than=20 + sentence because the amount of speech or written text r= eferred to by any of these words is vague. Often, a single bridi is intende= d, but longer utterances may be thus referred to. + Note one very common construction with=20 + di'u and the cmavo=20 + la'e (of selma'o LAhE; see=20 + ) which precedes a sumti a= nd means=20 + the thing referred to by (the sumti): + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e4d6"/> + + + mi prami la djein. .i mi nelci la'e di'u + I love Jane. And I like the-referent-of the-last-utterance.= + I love Jane, and I like that. + + + la'edi'ucontrasted with di'u di'ucontrasted with la'= edi'u The effect of=20 + la'e di'u in=20 + is that the speaker likes, = not the previous sentence, but rather the state of affairs referred to by t= he previous sentence, namely his loving Jane. This cmavo compound is often = written as a single word:=20 + la'edi'u. It is important not to mix up=20 + =20 + di'u and=20 + la'edi'u, or the wrong meaning will generally result: + =20 + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e4d7"/> + + + mi prami la djein. .i mi nelci di'u + I love Jane. And I like the-last-utterance. + + + says that the speaker likes one of his own sentences. + There are no pro-bridi corresponding to the di'u-series. +

+ Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the bro= da-series + The following cmavo and gismu are discussed in this section: + =20 + + + ko'a + KOhA + ko'a-series + it-1 + + + ko'e + KOhA + ko'a-series + it-2 + + + ko'i + KOhA + ko'a-series + it-3 + + + ko'o + KOhA + ko'a-series + it-4 + + + ko'u + KOhA + ko'a-series + it-5 + + + fo'a + KOhA + ko'a-series + it-6 + + + + fo'e + KOhA + ko'a-series + it-7 + + + fo'i + KOhA + ko'a-series + it-8 + + + fo'o + KOhA + ko'a-series + it-9 + + + fo'u + KOhA + ko'a-series + it-10 + + + broda + BRIVLA + broda-series + is-thing-1 + + + brode + BRIVLA + broda-series + is-thing-2 + + + brodi + BRIVLA + broda-series + is-thing-3 + + + brodo + BRIVLA + broda-series + is-thing-4 + + + brodu + BRIVLA + broda-series + is-thing-5 + + + goi + GOI + pro-sumti assignment + + + + cei + CEI + pro-bridi assignment + + + + ko'a-series pro-s= umti p= ro-sumtiko'a-series personal pronouns= with ko'a-series for he/she/it/they The discussion = of personal pro-sumti in=20 + =20 + may have seemed incomplete. In E= nglish, the personal pronouns include not only=20 + =20 + I and=20 + you but also=20 + he,=20 + she,=20 + it, and=20 + they. Lojban does have equivalents of this latter group= : in fact, it has more of them than English does. However, they are organiz= ed and used very differently. + ko'a-series pro-s= umtias assignable personal pronouns for he/she/it/theyEnglish contrasted with Lojban in organization= There are ten cmavo in the ko'a-series, and they may be assign= ed freely to any sumti whatsoever. The English word=20 + he can refer only to males,=20 + she only to females (and ships and a few other things),= =20 + it only to inanimate things, and=20 + they only to plurals; the cmavo of the ko'a-series have= no restrictions at all. Therefore, it is almost impossible to guess from t= he context what ko'a-series cmavo might refer to if they are just used free= ly: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e5d1"/> + + + la .alis. klama le zarci .i ko'a blanu + Alice goes-to the store. It-1 is-blue. + + + The English gloss=20 + it-1, plus knowledge about the real world, would tend t= o make English-speakers believe that=20 + =20 + ko'a refers to the store; in other words, that its ante= cedent is=20 + le zarci. To a Lojbanist, however,=20 + la .alis. is just as likely an antecedent, in w= hich case=20 + means that Alice, not the s= tore, is blue. + ko'a-series pro-s= umtiassigning with goi To avoi= d this pitfall, Lojban employs special syntax, using the cmavo=20 + goi: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e5d2"/> + + + la .alis. klama le zarci .i ko'a goi la .alis. cu blanu + Alice goes-to the store. It-1, also-known-as Alice, is-blue= . + + + ko'a-series pro-s= umtiassignment with goi as symmetrical Syntactically,=20 + goi la .alis. is a relative phrase (relative ph= rases are explained in=20 + ). Semantically, it says t= hat=20 + ko'a and=20 + la .alis. refer to the same thing, and furtherm= ore that this is true because=20 + ko'a is being defined as meaning=20 + la .alis.. It is equally correct to say: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e5d3"/> + + + la .alis. klama le zarci .i la .alis. goi ko'a cu blanu + Alice goes-to the store. Alice, also-known-as it-1, is-blue= . + + + in other words,=20 + goi is symmetrical. There is a terminator,=20 + ge'u (of selma'o GEhU), which is almost always elidable= . The details are in=20 + . + goi assignment of= ko'a-series pro-sumtiuse in speech contrasted with wr= iting The afterthought form of=20 + goi shown in=20 + and=20 + is probably most common in = speech, where we do not know until part way through our utterance that we w= ill want to refer to Alice again. In writing, though,=20 + ko'a may be assigned at the point where Alice is first = mentioned. An example of this forethought form of=20 + goi is: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e5d4"/> + + + la .alis. goi ko'a klama le zarci .i ko'a cu blanu + Alice, also-known-as it-1, goes-to the store. It-1 is-blue.= + + + =20 +hereafter known asexample + legal jargon= example=20 + + Again, ko'a goi la .alis. would have been entir= ely acceptable in=20 + . This last form is reminisc= ent of legal jargon: The party of the first part, hereafter known as= Buyer, .... + =20 + pro-bridias abbreviation for bridi broda-series for pro-bridicompared with ko'a-series for pro-sumti ko'a-series for pro-sumticompared with broda-series for pro-bridi pro-bridibroda-series broda-series pro-bridi Just as the ko'= a-series of pro-sumti allows a substitute for a sumti which is long or comp= lex, or which for some other reason we do not want to repeat, so the broda-= series of pro-bridi allows a substitute for a selbri or even a whole bridi:= + + + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>thingy</primary><secondary>example</s= econdary></indexterm> + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e5d5"/> + + + ti slasi je mlatu bo cidja lante gacri cei broda .i le crino = broda cu barda .i le xunre broda cu cmalu + These are plastic cat-food can covers or thingies. The gr= een thingy is large. The red thingy is small. + + + broda-series pro-= bridiword-form rationale ceifor broda= -series pro-bridi assignment broda-series pro-bridiassigni= ng with cei <= primary>goi for ko'a-series assignmentcompared with ce= i for broda-series assignment cei for broda-series assignmentcompared with goi for ko'a-series assignment antecedent= for pro-bridi The pro-bridi=20 + broda has as its antecedent the selbri=20 + slasi je mlatu bo cidja lante gacri. The cmavo= =20 + cei performs the role of=20 + =20 + goi in assigning=20 + broda to this long phrase, and=20 + broda can then be used just like any other brivla. (In = fact,=20 + broda and its relatives actually=20 + are brivla: they are gismu in morphology, althoug= h they behave exactly like the members of selma'o GOhA. The reasons for usi= ng gismu rather than cmavo are buried in the Loglan Project's history.) + antecedentfor pro-bridi as full bridi Note that= pro-bridi are so called because, even though they have the grammar of selb= ri, their antecedents are whole bridi. In the following rather contrived ex= ample, the antecedent of=20 + brode is the whole bridi=20 + mi klama le zarci: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e5d6"/> + + + mi klama cei brode le zarci .i do brode + =20 + I go-to (which-is claim-1) the store. You claim-1. + I go to the store. You, too. + + + pro-bridioverriding sumti of antecedent bridi for In the second bridi,=20 + do brode means=20 + do klama le zarci, because=20 + brode carries the x2 sumti of=20 + mi klama le zarci along with it. It also potent= ially carries the x1 sumti as well, but the explicit x1 sumti=20 + do overrides the=20 + mi of the antecedent bridi. Similarly, any tense or neg= ation that is present in the antecedent is also carried, and can be overrid= den by explicit tense or negation cmavo on the pro-bridi. These rules hold = for all pro-bridi that have antecedents. + =20 + broda-series pro-= bridiwith no assignment broda-series pro-bridiuse as abstract pattern broda-series pro-bridiu= se as sample gismu Another use of=20 + broda and its relatives, without assignment, is as=20 + sample gismu: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e5d7"/> + + + broda ke brode brodi + a thing-1 type of (thing-2 type-of thing-3) + + + represents an abstract pattern, a certain kind of tanru. (Histor= ically, this use was the original one.) + lerfu as pro-sumt= iimplicit assignment of antecedent ko'a-series pro-sumticontrasted with lerfu as pro-sumti in explicit assignmen= t of lerfu as pro-sumticontrasted with ko'a-series in expl= icit assignment of pro-sumtilerfu as lerfuas assignable pro-sumti As is explained in=20 + , the words for Lojban lett= ers, belonging to selma'o BY and certain related selma'o, are also usable a= s assignable pro-sumti. The main difference between letter pro-sumti and ko= 'a-series pro-sumti is that, in the absence of an explicit assignment, lett= ers are taken to refer to the most recent name or description sumti beginni= ng with the same letter: + =20 + =20 + =20 + =20 + =20 + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e5d8"/> + + + mi viska le gerku .i gy. cusku zo arf. + I see the dog. D expresses the-word=20 + Arf!. + + + goiuse in assigning lerfu as pro-sumti lerfu as pro-sumtiexplicit assignment of antecedent The Lojban wor= d=20 + gerku begins with=20 + g, so the antecedent of=20 + gy., the cmavo for the letter=20 + g, must be=20 + le gerku. In the English translation, we use th= e same principle to refer to the dog as=20 + D. Of course, in case of ambiguity,=20 + goi can be used to make an explicit assignment. + namesassigning with goi goiuse in assigning name Furthermore,=20 + goi can even be used to assign a name: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e5d9"/> + + + le ninmu goi la sam. cu klama le zarci + The woman also-known-as Sam goes to-the store. + The woman, whom I'll call Sam, goes to the store. + + + This usage does not imply that the woman's name is Sam, or even = that the speaker usually calls the woman=20 + Sam.=20 + Sam is simply a name chosen, as if at random, for use i= n the current context only. +

+ Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-s= eries + The following cmavo are discussed in this section: + + + ri + KOhA + ri-series + (repeats last sumti) + + + ra + KOhA + ri-series + (repeats previous sumti) + + + ru + KOhA + ri-series + (repeats long-ago sumti) + + + + go'i + GOhA + go'i-series + (repeats last bridi) + + + go'a + GOhA + go'i-series + (repeats previous bridi) + + + + go'u + GOhA + go'i-series + (repeats long-ago bridi) + + + + go'e + GOhA + go'i-series + (repeats last-but-one bridi) + + + + go'o + GOhA + go'i-series + (repeats future bridi) + + + + nei + GOhA + go'i-series + (repeats current bridi) + + + + no'a + GOhA + go'i-series + (repeats outer bridi) + + + + + ra'o + RAhO + pro-cmavo update + + + The term=20 + anaphora literally means=20 + =20 + repetition, but is used in linguistics to refer to pron= ouns whose significance is the repetition of earlier words, namely their an= tecedents. Lojban provides three pro-sumti anaphora,=20 + =20 + ri,=20 + ra, and=20 + ru; and three corresponding pro-bridi anaphora,=20 + =20 + go'i,=20 + go'a, and=20 + =20 + go'u. These cmavo reveal the same vowel pattern as the = ti-series, but the=20 + =20 + distances referred to are not physical distances, but d= istances from the anaphoric cmavo to its antecedent. + The cmavo=20 + ri is the simplest of these; it has the same referent a= s the last complete sumti appearing before the=20 + ri: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d1"/> + + + la .alis. sipna le ri kumfa + Alice sleeps-in the of-[repeat last sumti] room. + Alice sleeps in her room. + + + The=20 + ri in=20 + is equivalent to repeating = the last sumti, which is=20 + la .alis., so=20 + is equivalent to: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d2"/> + + + la .alis. sipna le la .alis. kumfa + Alice sleeps-in the of-Alice room. + Alice sleeps in Alice's room. + + + Note that=20 + ri does not repeat=20 + le ri kumfa, because that sumti is not yet comp= lete when=20 + ri appears. This prevents=20 + ri from getting entangled in paradoxes of self-referenc= e. (There are plenty of other ways to do that!) Note also that sumti within= other sumti, as in quotations, abstractions, and the like, are counted in = the order of their beginnings; thus a lower level sumti like=20 + la alis. in=20 + is considered to be more re= cent than a higher level sumti that contains it. + Certain sumti are ignored by=20 + ri; specifically, most of the other cmavo of KOhA, and = the almost-grammatically-equivalent lerfu words of selma'o BY. It is simple= r just to repeat these directly: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d3"/> + + + mi prami mi + I love me. + I love myself. + + + However, the cmavo of the ti-series can be picked up by=20 + ri, because you might have changed what you are pointin= g at, so repeating=20 + ti may not be effective. Likewise,=20 + ri itself (or rather its antecedent) can be repeated by= a later=20 + ri; in fact, a string of=20 + ri cmavo with no other intervening sumti always all rep= eat the same sumti: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d4"/> + + + la djan. viska le tricu .i ri se jadni le ri jimca + John sees the tree. [repeat last] is-adorned-by the of-[rep= eat last] branch. + John sees the tree. It is adorned by its branches. + + + Here the second=20 + ri has as antecedent the first=20 + ri, which has as antecedent=20 + le tricu. All three refer to the same thing: a = tree. + To refer to the next-to-last sumti, the third-from-last sumti, a= nd so on,=20 + ri may be subscripted (subscripts are explained in=20 + ): + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d5"/> + + + lo smuci .i lo forca .i la rik. pilno rixire .i la .alis. pil= no riximu + A spoon. A fork. Rick uses [repeat next-to-last]. Alice use= s [repeat fifth-from-last]. + + + Here=20 + rixire, or=20 + ri-sub-2, skips=20 + la rik. to reach=20 + lo forca. In the same way,=20 + riximu, or=20 + ri-sub-5, skips=20 + la .alis.,=20 + rixire,=20 + la rik., and=20 + lo forca to reach=20 + lo smuci. As can clearly be seen, this procedur= e is barely practicable in writing, and would break down totally in speech.= + Therefore, the vaguer=20 + ra and=20 + ru are also provided. The cmavo=20 + ra repeats a recently used sumti, and=20 + ru one that was further back in the speech or text. The= use of=20 + ra and=20 + ru forces the listener to guess at the referent, but ma= kes life easier for the speaker. Can=20 + ra refer to the last sumti, like=20 + ri? The answer is no if=20 + ri has also been used. If=20 + ri has not been used, then=20 + ra might be the last sumti. Likewise, if=20 + ra has been used, then any use of=20 + ru would repeat a sumti earlier than the one=20 + ra is repeating. A more reasonable version of Example <= xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-Lc2y"/>, but one that depends more on con= text, is: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d6"/> + + + lo smuci .i lo forca .i la rik. pilno ra .i la .alis. pilno r= u + A spoon. A fork. Rick uses [some previous thing]. Alice use= s [some more remote thing]. + + + In=20 + , the use of=20 + ra tells us that something other than=20 + la rik. is the antecedent;=20 + lo forca is the nearest sumti, so it is probabl= y the antecedent. Similarly, the antecedent of=20 + ru must be something even further back in the utterance= than=20 + lo forca, and=20 + lo smuci is the obvious candidate. + The meaning of=20 + ri must be determined every time it is used. Since=20 + ra and=20 + ru are more vaguely defined, they may well retain the s= ame meaning for a while, but the listener cannot count on this behavior. To= make a permanent reference to something repeated by=20 + ri,=20 + ra, or=20 + ru, use=20 + goi and a ko'a-series cmavo: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d7"/> + + + la .alis. klama le zarci .i ri goi ko'a blanu + Alice goes-to the store. It-last-mentioned also-known-as it= -1 is-blue. + + + allows the store to be referred to henceforth as=20 + ko'a without ambiguity.=20 + is equivalent to=20 + and eliminates any possibil= ity of=20 + ko'a being interpreted by the listener as referring to = Alice. + answers= go'i for yes/no questions questionsanswering wi= th go'i go'ias affirmative answer to yes/no question go'i-seri= es pro-bridieffect of sumti of referent bridi on go'i-seri= es pro-bridias main-bridi anaphora only go'i-series pro-br= idieffect of sub-clauses on <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">go'i-series pro-bridireferent of go'i-series pro-bridicompared with= ri-series pro-sumti in rules of reference go'i-series pro-bridi ri-series pro-sumti<= /primary> anapho= rapro-bridi go'i-series as anaphorapr= o-sumti ri-series as pronounsas anaphora anaphoradefinition The cmavo=20 + go'i,=20 + go'a, and=20 + =20 + go'u follow exactly the same rules as=20 + =20 + ri,=20 + ra, and=20 + ru, except that they are pro-bridi, and therefore repea= t bridi, not sumti – specifically, main sentence bridi. Any bridi tha= t are embedded within other bridi, such as relative clauses or abstractions= , are not counted. Like the cmavo of the broda-series, the cmavo of the go'= i-series copy all sumti with them. This makes=20 + go'i by itself convenient for answering a question affi= rmatively, or for repeating the last bridi, possibly with new sumti: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d8"/> + + + xu zo djan. cmene do .i go'i + [True-false?] The-word=20 + John is-the-name of you? [repeat last bridi]. + Is John your name? Yes. + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d9"/> + + + mi klama le zarci .i do go'i + I go-to the store. You [repeat last bridi]. + I go to the store. You, too. + + + cei= go'i-series pro= -bridiassigning for permanent reference Note that=20 + means the same as=20 + , but without the bother of = assigning an actual broda-series word to the first bridi. For long-term ref= erence, use=20 + go'i cei broda or the like, analogously to=20 + =20 + ri goi ko'a in=20 + . + The remaining four cmavo of the go'i-series are provided for co= nvenience or for achieving special effects. The cmavo=20 + go'e means the same as=20 + =20 + go'ixire: it repeats the last bridi but one. Th= is is useful in conversation: + =20 + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d10"/> + + + A: mi ba klama le zarci B: mi nelci le si'o mi go'i A: do go'= e + =20 + A: I [future] go-to the store. B: I like the concept-of I [= repeat last bridi]. A: You [repeat last bridi but one]. + A: I am going to the store. B: I like the idea of my goin= g. A: You'll go, too. + + + Here B's sentence repeats A's within an abstraction (explained i= n ):=20 + le si'o mi go'i means=20 + le si'o mi klama le zarci. Why must B use the w= ord=20 + mi explicitly to replace the x1 of=20 + mi klama le zarci, even though it looks like=20 + mi is replacing=20 + mi? Because B's=20 + mi refers to B, whereas A's=20 + mi refers to A. If B said: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d11"/> + + + mi nelci le si'o go'i + + + that would mean: +

+ I like the idea of your going to the store. +

+ The repetition signalled by=20 + go'i is not literally of words, but of concepts. Finall= y, A repeats her own sentence, but with the x1 changed to=20 + do, meaning B. Note that in=20 + , the tense=20 + ba (future time) is carried along by both=20 + go'i and=20 + go'e. + =20 + Descriptions based on go'i-series cmavo can be very useful for r= epeating specific sumti of previous bridi: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d12"/> + + + le xekri mlatu cu klama le zarci .i le go'i cu cadzu le bisli= + The black cat goes-to the store. That-described-as-the-x1-p= lace-of [repeat last bridi] walks-on the ice. + The black cat goes to the store. It walks on the ice. + =20 + + + Here the=20 + go'i repeats=20 + le xekri mlatu cu klama le zarci, and since=20 + le makes the x1 place into a description, and the x1 pl= ace of this bridi is=20 + le xekri mlatu,=20 + le go'i means=20 + le xekri mlatu. + The cmavo=20 + go'o,=20 + =20 + nei, and=20 + =20 + no'a have been little used so far. They repeat respecti= vely some future bridi, the current bridi, and the bridi that encloses the = current bridi (=20 + =20 + no'a, unlike the other members of the go'i- series, can= repeat non-sentence bridi). Here are a few examples: + =20 + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d13"/> + + + mi nupre le nu mi go'o .i ba dunda le djini le bersa .i ba du= nda le zdani le tixnu + I promise the event-of I [repeat future bridi] [Future] giv= e the money to-the son [Future] give the house to-the daughter + I promise to do the following: Give the money to my son. = Give the house to my daughter. + + + (Note: The Lojban does not contain an equivalent of the=20 + my in the colloquial English; it leaves the fact that i= t is the speaker's son and daughter that are referred to implicit. To make = the fact explicit, use=20 + le bersa/tixnu be mi.) + For good examples of=20 + nei and=20 + =20 + no'a, we need nested bridi contexts: + =20 + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d14"/> + + + mi se pluka le nu do pensi le nu nei kei pu le nu do zukte + =20 + I am-pleased-by the event-of (you think-about (the event-of= [main bridi]) before the-event of (your acting). + I am pleased that you thought about whether I would be pl= eased (about ...) before you acted. + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d15"/> + + + mi ba klama ca le nu do no'a + =20 + I [future] go [present] the event-of you [repeats outer bri= di] + I will go when you do. + + + go'i ra'ocontrasted with go'i Finally,=20 + ra'o is a cmavo that can be appended to any go'i-series= cmavo, or indeed any cmavo of selma'o GOhA, to signal that pro-sumti or pr= o-bridi cmavo in the antecedent are to be repeated literally and reinterpre= ted in their new context. Normally, any pro-sumti used within the anteceden= t of the pro-bridi keep their meanings intact. In the presence of=20 + ra'o, however, their meanings must be reinterpreted wit= h reference to the new environment. If someone says to you: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d16"/> + + + mi ba lumci lemi karce + I will wash my car. + + + you might reply either: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d17"/> + + + mi go'i + I will wash your car. + + + or: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d18"/> + + + mi go'i ra'o + =20 + I will wash my car. + + + The=20 + ra'o forces the second=20 + mi from the original bridi to mean the new speaker rath= er than the former speaker. This means that=20 + go'e ra'o would be an acceptable alternative to= =20 + =20 + do go'e in B's statement in=20 + =20 + . + go'i-series pro-b= ridiin quotations ri-series pro-sumti= in quotations The anaphoric pro-sumti of this secti= on can be used in quotations, but never refer to any of the supporting text= outside the quotation, since speakers presumably do not know that they may= be quoted by someone else. + =20 + go'i-series pro-b= ridiin quotation series ri-series pro-sumtiin quotation series However, a=20 + ri-series or=20 + go'a-series reference within a quotation can re= fer to something mentioned in an earlier quotation if the two quotations ar= e closely related in time and context. This allows a quotation to be broken= up by narrative material without interfering with the pro-sumti within it.= Here's an example: + =20 + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d19"/> + + + la djan. cusku lu mi klama le zarci li'u .i la .alis. cusku l= u mi go'i li'u + John says [quote] I go-to the store [unquote]. Alice says [= quote] I [repeat] [unquote]. + John says, I am going to the store. Alice = says, Me too. + + + go'i-series pro-b= ridiin narrative about quotation ri-series pro-sumtiin narrative about quotation Of cour= se, there is no problem with narrative material referring to something with= in a quotation: people who quote, unlike people who are quoted, are aware o= f what they are doing. +

+ Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'= e-series + =20 + =20 + The following cmavo are discussed in this section: + + + zo'e + KOhA + zo'e-series + the obvious value + + + + zu'i + KOhA + zo'e-series + the typical value + + + + + + zi'o + KOhA + zo'e-series + the nonexistent value + + + + + co'e + GOhA + co'e-series + has the obvious relationship + + + + typical valuecontrasted with elliptical value for sumti elliptical valuecontrasted with typical value for sumti elliptical sumti zo'eas place-holder for sumti elliptical pro-bridi indefinite pro-bridi pro-sumt= iunspecified elliptical pro-sumti = indefinite pro-sumti co'e-series pr= o-bridi zo'e-series pro-sumti The cmavo of the zo'e-series = represent indefinite, unspecified sumti. The cmavo=20 + =20 + =20 + zo'e represents an elliptical value for this sumti plac= e; it is the optional spoken place holder when a sumti is skipped without b= eing specified. Note that the elliptical value is not always the typical va= lue. The properties of ellipsis lead to an elliptical sumti being defined a= s=20 + =20 + =20 + =20 + =20 + =20 + whatever I want it to mean but haven't bothered to figure out, = or figure out how to express. + typical sumti pro-sumti= typical The cmavo=20 + zu'i, on the other hand, represents the typical value f= or this place of this bridi: + =20 + =20 + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e7d1"/> + + + mi klama le bartu be le zdani le nenri be le zdani zu'i zu'i<= /jbo> + I go to-the outside of the house from-the inside of the hou= se [by-typical-route] [by-typical-means] + + + In=20 + , the first=20 + zu'i probably means something like=20 + =20 + by the door, and the second=20 + zu'i probably means something like=20 + =20 + on foot, those being the typical route and means for le= aving a house. On the other hand, if you are at the top of a high rise duri= ng a fire, neither=20 + zu'i is appropriate. It's also common to use=20 + =20 + zu'i in=20 + =20 + by standard places. + irrelevantspecifying of sumti place sumtiirrelevant to= relationship zi'o Finally, the cmavo=20 + zi'o represents a value which does not even exist. When= a bridi fills one of its places with=20 + zi'o, what is really meant is that the selbri has a pla= ce which is irrelevant to the true relationship the speaker wishes to expre= ss. For example, the place structure of=20 + =20 + zbasu is: + actor x1 makes x2 from materials x3 + =20 + +living thingsexa= mple + + Consider the sentence +

+ Living things are made from cells. +

+ This cannot be correctly expressed as: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e7d2"/> + + + loi jmive cu se zbasu [zo'e] fi loi selci + The-mass-of living-things is-made [by-something] from the-m= ass-of cells + + + because the=20 + zo'e, expressed or understood, in=20 + indicates that there is sti= ll a=20 + maker in this relationship. We do not generally suppose= , however, that someone=20 + makes living things from cells. The best answer is prob= ably to find a different selbri, one which does not imply a=20 + =20 + maker: however, an alternative strategy is to use=20 + zi'o to eliminate the maker place: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e7d3"/> + + + loi jmive cu se zbasu zi'o loi selci + The-mass-of living-things is-made [without-maker] from the-= mass-of cells. + + + zi'oas creating new selbri Note: The use of=20 + zi'o to block up, as it were, one place of a selbri act= ually creates a new selbri with a different place structure. Consider the f= ollowing examples: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e7d4"/> + + + mi zbasu le dinju loi mudri + I make the building from-some-of-the-mass-of wood. + I make the building out of wood. + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e7d5"/> + + + zi'o zbasu le dinju loi mudri + [without-maker] makes the building from-some-of-the-mass-of= wood. + The building is made out of wood. + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e7d6"/> + + + mi zbasu zi'o loi mudri + I make [without-thing-made] from-some-of-the-mass-of wood.<= /gloss> + I build using wood. + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e7d7"/> + + + mi zbasu le dinju zi'o + I make the building [without-material]. + I make the building. + + + If=20 + is true, then=20 + through=20 + must be true also. However,= =20 + does not correspond to any = sentence with three regular (non-=20 + zi'o) sumti. + co'eas selbri place-holder selbriomitting with co'e The pro-bridi=20 + co'e (which by itself constitutes the co'e-series of se= lma'o GOhA) represents the elliptical selbri. Lojban grammar does not allow= the speaker to merely omit a selbri from a bridi, although any or all sumt= i may be freely omitted. Being vague about a relationship requires the use = of=20 + =20 + co'e as a selbri place-holder: + =20 + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e7d8"/> + + + mi troci le nu mi co'e le vorme + =20 + I try the event-of my [doing-the-obvious-action] to-the doo= r. + I try the door. + =20 + + + The English version means, and the Lojban version probably means= , that I try to open the door, but the relationship of opening is not actua= lly specified; the Lojbanic listener must guess it from context. Lojban, un= like English, makes it clear that there is an implicit action that is not b= eing expressed. + co'erationale for word form The form of=20 + co'e was chosen to resemble=20 + =20 + zo'e; the cmavo=20 + do'e of selma'o BAI (see=20 + =20 + ) also belongs to the same group of cma= vo. + zo'e-seriescompared with do'i as indefinite pro-sumti do'icompared with zo'e-series as indefinite pro-sumti Note that=20 + do'i, of the di'u-series, is also a kind of indefinite = pro-sumti: it is indefinite in referent, but is restricted to referring onl= y to an utterance. + =20 +

+ Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series + =20 + =20 + The following cmavo are discussed in this section: + + + vo'a + KOhA + vo'a-series + x1 of this bridi + + + vo'e + KOhA + vo'a-series + x2 of this bridi + + + vo'i + KOhA + vo'a-series + x3 of this bridi + + + vo'o + KOhA + vo'a-series + x4 of this bridi + + + vo'u + KOhA + vo'a-series + x5 of this bridi + + + + soi + SOI + + reciprocity + + + + + + se'u + SEhU + + soi terminator + + + reciprocal pro-su= mti re= flexive pro-sumti pro-sumtireferring to place of same bridi = with vo'a-series pro-sumtivo'a-series anaphorapro-sumti vo'a-series as The cmavo of the vo'a= -series are pro-sumti anaphora, like those of the ri-series, but have a spe= cific function. These cmavo refer to the other places of the same bridi; th= e five of them represent up to five places. The same vo'a-series cmavo mean= different things in different bridi. Some examples: + =20 + + + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>wash self</primary><secondary>example= </secondary></indexterm> + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e8d1"/> + + + mi lumci vo'a + I wash myself + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e8d2"/> + + + mi klama le zarci vo'e + I go to the store from itself [by some route unspecified]= . + + + pro-sumtireferring to place of different bridi with go'i-series To refer to places of neighboring bridi, constructions lik= e=20 + le se go'i ku do the job: this refers to the 2n= d place of the previous main bridi, as explained in=20 + . + vice versaEnglishexpressing with vo'a-series pro-= sumti and soi = vo'a-series pro-sumtiuse in expressing recipr= ocity with soi soiuse in expressing reciprocity with vo'a-= series pro-sumti reciprocityexpressing with vo'a-series pr= o-sumti and soi The cmavo of the vo'a-series are al= so used with=20 + soi (of selma'o SOI) to precisely express reciprocity, = which in English is imprecisely expressed with a discursive phrase like=20 + =20 + =20 + vice versa: + + + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>vice versa</primary><secondary>exampl= e</secondary></indexterm> + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e8d3"/> + + + mi prami do soi vo'a vo'e + I love you [reciprocity] [x1 of this bridi] [x2 of this bri= di]. + =20 + =20 + I love you and vice versa (swapping=20 + I and=20 + you). + + + soi with one follo= wing sumticonvention The signi= ficance of=20 + soi vo'a vo'e is that the bridi is still true e= ven if the x1 (specified by=20 + vo'a) and the x2 (specified by=20 + vo'e) places are interchanged. If only a single sumti f= ollows=20 + soi, then the sumti immediately preceding=20 + soi is understood to be one of those involved: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e8d4"/> +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>vice versa</primary><secondary>exampl= e</secondary></indexterm> + + + mi prami do soi vo'a + I love you [reciprocity] [x1 of this bridi]. = =20 + + + again involves the x1 and x2 places. + soiuse in expressing reciprocity reciprocityexpressing= with soi Of course, other places can be involved, = and other sumti may be used in place of vo'a-series cmavo, provided those o= ther sumti can be reasonably understood as referring to the same things men= tioned in the bridi proper. Here are several examples that mean the same th= ing: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e8d5"/> +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>vice versa</primary><secondary>exampl= e</secondary></indexterm> + + + + mi bajykla ti ta soi vo'e + mi bajykla ti ta soi vo'e vo'i + soi vo'e vo'i mi bajykla ti ta + I runningly-go to this from that and vice versa (to that fr= om this). + + + se'uelidability considerations se'uas elidable termina= tor for soi The elidable terminator for=20 + soi is=20 + se'u (selma'o SEhU), which is normally needed only if t= here is just one sumti after the=20 + soi, and the=20 + soi construction is not at the end of the bridi. Constr= uctions using=20 + soi are free modifiers, and as such can go almost anywh= ere. Here is an example where=20 + =20 + se'u is required: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e8d6"/> +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>vice versa</primary><secondary>exampl= e</secondary></indexterm> + + + mi bajykla ti soi vo'i se'u ta + I runningly-go to-this [reciprocity] [x3 of this bridi] fro= m-that + I run to this from that and vice versa. + + +

+ sumti and bridi questions:=20 + =20 + <valsi>ma</valsi> and=20 + <valsi>mo</valsi> + The following cmavo are discussed in this section: + + + ma + KOhA + sumti question + + + mo + GOhA + bridi question + + + questionssumti maas sumti question Lojban questions are more fully explained in=20 + , but=20 + ma and=20 + mo are listed in this chapter for completeness. The cma= vo=20 + ma asks for a sumti to make the bridi true: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e9d1"/> + + + do klama ma + You go to-what-destination? + Where are you going? + + + go'icompared with mo in overriding of arguments= mocomp= ared with go'i in overriding of arguments questionsselbri<= /secondary> moas selbri question The cmavo=20 + mo, on the other hand, asks for a selbri which makes th= e question bridi true. If the answer is a full bridi, then the arguments of= the answer override the arguments in the question, in the same manner as t= he go'i-series cmavo. A simple example is: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e9d2"/> + + + do mo + What predicate is true as applied to you? + How are you? + What are you doing? + What are you? + + + + is a truly pregnant questio= n that will have several meanings depending on context. + (One thing it probably does not mean is=20 + Who are you? in the sense=20 + What is your name/identity?, which is better expressed = by: + + + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>what is your name</primary><secondary= >example</secondary></indexterm> + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e9d3"/> + + + ma cmene do + What sumti is-the-name-of you? + What is your name? + + + or even + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e9d4"/> + + + doi ma + O [what sumti?] + + + which uses the vocative=20 + doi to address someone, and simultaneously asks who the= someone is.) + =20 + A further example of=20 + mo: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e9d5"/> + + + lo mo prenu cu darxi do .i barda + A [what selbri?] type-of person hit you? (Observative:) A b= ig thing. + Which person hit you? The big one. + + + multiple moas multiple questions multiple maas multipl= e questions <= primary>multiple questions in one bridiexpressing When=20 + ma or=20 + mo is repeated, multiple questions are being asked simu= ltaneously: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e9d6"/> + + + ma djuno ma + [What sumti] knows [what sumti]? + Who knows what? + + +

+ Relativized pro-sumti:=20 + <valsi>ke'a</valsi> + The following cmavo are discussed in this section: + + + ke'a + KOhA + relativized sumti + =20 + + + relative clauses<= /primary>use of ke'a for referral to relativized sumti in ke'afor relativized sumti in relative clauses pro-sumtifor relativized sumti in relative clauses T= his pro-sumti is used in relative clauses (explained in=20 + ) to indicate how the sumt= i being relativized fits within the clause. For example: + + + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>cat of plastic</primary><secondary>ex= ample</secondary></indexterm> + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e10d1"/> + + + mi catlu lo mlatu poi [zo'e] zbasu ke'a lei slasi + I see a cat such-that something-unspecified makes the-thing= -being-relativized [the cat] from-some-mass-of plastic. + I see a cat made of plastic. + + + ke'aambiguity when omitted If=20 + ke'a were omitted from=20 + , it might be confused with:= + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e10d2"/> + + + mi catlu lo mlatu poi [ke'a] zbasu lei slasi + I see a cat such-that the-thing-being-relativized [the cat]= makes a-mass-of plastic + I see a cat that makes plastic. + + + ricontrasted with ke'a in relative clauses ke'acontras= ted with ri in relative clauses The anaphora cmavo= =20 + =20 + ri cannot be used in place of=20 + ke'a in=20 + and=20 + , because the relativized su= mti is not yet complete when the=20 + =20 + ke'a appears. + subscriptson ke'a for nested relative clauses = ke'asubs= cripting for nested relative clauses ke'aand abstract desc= riptions Note that=20 + ke'a is used only with relative clauses, and not with o= ther embedded bridi such as abstract descriptions. In the case of relative = clauses within relative clauses,=20 + ke'a may be subscripted to make the difference clear (s= ee=20 + ). +

+ Abstraction focus pro-sumti:=20 + <valsi>ce'u</valsi> + The following cmavo are discussed in this section: + + + ce'u + KOhA + abstraction focus + + + The cmavo=20 + ce'u is used within abstraction bridi, particularly pro= perty abstractions introduced by the cmavo=20 + =20 + ka. Abstractions, including the uses of=20 + ce'u, are discussed in full in=20 + . + ce'uuse in specifying sumti place of property in abstraction property abstr= actionspecifying sumti place of property with ce'u In brief: Every property abstraction specifies a prope= rty of one of the sumti in it; that sumti place is filled by using=20 + =20 + =20 + ce'u. This convention enables us to distinguish clearly= between: + + + =20 + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>happiness</primary><secondary>example= </secondary></indexterm> + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e11d1"/> + + + le ka ce'u gleki + the property-of (X being-happy) + the property of being happy + happiness + =20 + + + and + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e11d2"/> + + + le ka gleki ce'u + the property-of (being-happy about-X) + the property of being that which someone is happy about + + +

+ Bound variable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the da-series and the b= u'a-series + The following cmavo are discussed in this section: + + + da + KOhA + da-series + something-1 + + + de + KOhA + da-series + something-2 + + + di + KOhA + da-series + something-3 + + + + bu'a + GOhA + bu'a-series + some-predicate-1 + + + bu'e + GOhA + bu'a-series + some-predicate-2 + + + + bu'i + GOhA + bu'a-series + some-predicate-3 + + + + bu'a-series pro-s= umtifor bound variables da-series pro-sumtifor bound variables Bound variables belong to= the predicate-logic part of Lojban, and are listed here for completeness o= nly. Their semantics is explained in=20 + . It is worth mentioning that t= he Lojban translation of=20 + is: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e12d1"/> + + + la djan. cu lafti da poi grana ku'o gi'e desygau da + John raised something-1 which is-a-stick and shake-did some= thing-1. + John picked up a stick and shook it. + + +

+ Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling + The following cmavo are discussed in this section: + + + da'o + =20 + DAhO + cancel all pro-sumti/pro-bridi + + + pro-bridi assignm= entstability of pro-sumti assignments= tability of How long does a pro-sumti or pro-bridi = remain stable? In other words, once we know the referent of a pro-sumti or = pro-bridi, how long can we be sure that future uses of the same cmavo have = the same referent? The answer to this question depends on which series the = cmavo belongs to. + bound variable pr= o-sumtistability of assignable pro-sumtiexplicit cancellation of by rebinding assignable pro-sumtistability of personal pro-sumtistability of= personal pro-su= mtiimplicit cancellation of by change of speaker/liste= ner Personal pro-sumti are stable until there is a = change of speaker or listener, possibly signaled by a vocative. Assignable = pro-sumti and pro-bridi last indefinitely or until rebound with=20 + goi or=20 + cei. Bound variable pro-sumti and pro-bridi also genera= lly last until re-bound; details are available in=20 + =20 + . + anaphoric pro-bri= distability of anaphoric pro-sumtista= bility of ke'astability of reflexive pro-sumtistability of utterance pro-sumtistability of Utterance pro-sumti are stable only within the utterance in= which they appear; similarly, reflexive pro-sumti are stable only within t= he bridi in which they appear; and=20 + =20 + ke'a is stable only within its relative clause. Anaphor= ic pro-sumti and pro-bridi are stable only within narrow limits depending o= n the rules for the particular cmavo. + indefinite pro-br= idistability of indefinite pro-sumtis= tability of <= primary>demonstrative pro-sumtistability of Demonstrative pro-sumti, indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi, = and sumti and bridi questions potentially change referents every time they = are used. + =20 + =20 + da'osyntax of da'ofor cancellation of pro-sumti/pro-br= idi assignment cancellation of pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignmentwith da'o = pro-bridi assignmentexplicit cancellation of = with da'o pro-sumti assignmentexplicit cancellation of wit= h da'o However, there are ways to cancel all pro-su= mti and pro-bridi, so that none of them have known referents. (Some, such a= s=20 + mi, will acquire the same referent as soon as they are = used again after the cancellation.) The simplest way to cancel everything i= s with the cmavo=20 + da'o of selma'o DAhO, which is used solely for this pur= pose; it may appear anywhere, and has no effect on the grammar of texts con= taining it. One use of=20 + =20 + da'o is when entering a conversation, to indicate that = one's pro-sumti assignments have nothing to do with any assignments already= made by other participants in the conversation. + =20 + pro-bridi assignm= entno'i effect on pro-sumti assignmentno'i effect on no'ieffect on pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignme= nts = ni'oeffect on pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignments In addition, the cmavo=20 + ni'o and=20 + no'i of selma'o NIhO, which are used primarily to indic= ate shifts in topic, may also have the effect of canceling pro-sumti and pr= o-bridi assignments, or of reinstating ones formerly in effect. More explan= ations of NIhO can be found in=20 + . +

+ The identity predicate: du + =20 + The following cmavo is discussed in this section: + + + du + GOhA + identity + + + identity predicat= e The cmavo=20 + du has the place structure: + x1 is identical with x2, x3, ... + durationale for selection of selma'o for and ap= pears in selma'o GOhA for reasons of convenience: it is not a pro-bridi.=20 + du serves as mathematical=20 + =3D, and outside mathematical contexts is used for defi= ning or identifying. Mathematical examples may be found in=20 + . + mintucontrasted with du ducontrasted with mintu The main difference between + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e14d1"/> + + + ko'a du le nanmu + It-1 is-identical-to the man + + + and + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e14d2"/> + + + ko'a mintu le nanmu + =20 + It-1 is-the-same-as the man + + + dumeaning of is this defining nature.=20 + presumes that the speaker i= s responding to a request for information about what=20 + ko'a refers to, or that the speaker in some way feels t= he need to define=20 + ko'a for later reference. A bridi with=20 + du is an identity sentence, somewhat metalinguistically= saying that all attached sumti are representations for the same referent. = There may be any number of sumti associated with=20 + du, and all are said to be identical. + + , however, predicates; it = is used to make a claim about the identity of=20 + ko'a, which presumably has been defined previously. + dunlicontrasted with du ducontrasted with dunli duderivation of Note:=20 + du historically is derived from=20 + dunli, but=20 + =20 + dunli has a third place which=20 + =20 + du lacks: the standard of equality. +

+ lujvo based on pro-sumti + pro-sumtirafsi for rafsibased on pro-sumti= There exist rafsi allocated to a few cmavo of selma'o KOhA, bu= t they are rarely used. (See=20 + for a complete list.) The obv= ious way to use them is as internal sumti, filling in an appropriate place = of the gismu or lujvo to which they are attached; as such, they usually sta= nd as the first rafsi in their lujvo. + =20 + +you-talkexample<= /secondary> + + pro-sumti rafsi<= secondary>effect of on place structure of lujvo lujvopro-s= umti rafsi effect on place structure of Thus=20 + donta'a, meaning=20 + you-talk, would be interpreted as=20 + tavla be do, and would have the place structure= + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e15d1"/> + + t1 talks to you about subject t3 in language t4= + + since t2 (the addressee) is already known to = be=20 + do. + =20 + +you-cmavoexample= + + On the other hand, the lujvo=20 + donma'o, literally=20 + you-cmavo, which means=20 + =20 + a second person personal pronoun, would be interpreted = as=20 + cmavo be zo do, and have the place structure: + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e15d2"/> + + c1 is a second person pronoun in language c4 + + + since both the c2 place (the grammatical clas= s) and the c3 place (the meaning) are obvious from the c= ontext=20 + do. + pro-sumti rafsianticipated use of for abbreviating inconvenient forms An anticipated use of rafsi for cmavo in the=20 + =20 + fo'a series is to express lujvo which can't be expresse= d in a convenient rafsi form, because they are too long to express, or are = formally inconvenient (fu'ivla, cmene, and so forth.) An example would be:<= /para> + =20 + =20 + =20 + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e15d3"/> + + + fo'a goi le kulnrsu,omi .i lo fo'arselsanga + x6 stands for Finnish-culture. An x6-song. + + + =20 + =20 +beverageexample<= /secondary> + + zi'o rafsieffect of on place structure of lujvo lujvozi'o rafsi= effect on place structure of Finally, lujvo involv= ing=20 + zi'o are also possible, and are fully discussed in=20 + . In brief, the convention is to use = the rafsi for + zi'o as a prefix immediately followed by the rafsi for = the number of the place to be deleted. Thus, if we consider a beverage (som= ething drunk without considering who, if anyone, drinks it) as a=20 + + + se pinxe be zi'o, the lujvo corresponding to th= is is=20 + zilrelselpinxe (deleting the second place of=20 + se pinxe). Deleting the x1 place in this fashio= n would move all remaining places up by one. This would mean that=20 + zilpavypinxe has the same place structure as=20 + zilrelselpinxe, and=20 + lo zilpavypinxe, like=20 + lo zilrelselpinxe, refers to a beverage, and no= t to a non-existent drinker. + + pro-bridi rafsias producing context-dependent meanings The pro-bridi=20 + co'e,=20 + + du, and=20 + bu'a also have rafsi, which can be used just as if they= were gismu. The resulting lujvo have (except for=20 + du-based lujvo) highly context-dependent meanin= gs. +

+ KOhA cmavo by series + mi-series + + + mi + I (rafsi: mib) + + + do + you (rafsi: don and doi= ) + + + mi'o + you and I + + + mi'a + I and others, we but not you + + + ma'a + you and I and others + + + do'o + you and others + + + ko + you-imperative + + + + ti-series + + + ti + this here; something nearby (rafsi: tif) + + + ta + that there; something distant (rafsi: taz) + + + tu + that yonder; something far distant (rafsi: tuf= ) + + + + di'u-series + + + di'u + the previous utterance + + + de'u + an earlier utterance + + + da'u + a much earlier utterance + + + di'e + the next utterance + + + de'e + a later utterance + + + da'e + a much later utterance + + + dei + this very utterance + + + do'i + some utterance + + + + ko'a-series + + + ko'a + it-1; 1st assignable pro-sumti + + + ko'e + it-2; 2nd assignable pro-sumti + + + ko'i + it-3; 3rd assignable pro-sumti + + + ko'o + it-4; 4th assignable pro-sumti + + + ko'u + it-5; 5th assignable pro-sumti + + + fo'a + it-6; 6th assignable pro-sumti (rafsi: fo'a) + + + fo'e + it-7; 7th assignable pro-sumti (rafsi: fo'e) + + + fo'i + it-8; 8th assignable pro-sumti (rafsi: fo'i) + + + fo'o + it-9; 9th assignable pro-sumti + + + fo'u + it-10; 10th assignable pro-sumti + + + + ri-series + + + ri + (repeats the last sumti) + + + ra + (repeats a previous sumti) + + + ru + (repeats a long-ago sumti) + + + + zo'e-series + + + + zo'e + the obvious value + + + zu'i + the typical value + + + zi'o + the nonexistent value (rafsi: zil) + + + + vo'a-series + + + vo'a + x1 of this bridi + + + vo'e + x2 of this bridi + + + vo'i + x3 of this bridi + + + vo'o + x4 of this bridi + + + vo'u + x5 of this bridi + + + + da-series + + + da + something-1 (rafsi: dav/dza) + + + de + something-2 + + + di + something-3 + + + + others: + + + ke'a + relativized sumti + + + ma + sumti question + + + ce'u + abstraction focus + + +

+ GOhA and other pro-bridi by series + + broda-series (not GOhA): + + + broda + is-1; 1st assignable pro-bridi + + + brode + is-2; 2nd assignable pro-bridi + + + brodi + is-3; 3rd assignable pro-bridi + + + brodo + is-4; 4th assignable pro-bridi + + + brodu + is-5; 5th assignable pro-bridi + + + + go'i-series + + + go'i + (repeats the last bridi) + + + go'a + (repeats a previous bridi) + + + go'u + (repeats a long-ago bridi) + + + go'e + (repeats the last-but-one bridi) + + + go'o + (repeats a future bridi) + + + nei + (repeats the current bridi) + + + no'a + (repeats the next outer bridi) + + + + bu'a-series + + + bu'a + some-predicate-1 (rafsi: bul) + + + bu'e + some-predicate-2 + + + bu'i + some-predicate-3 + + + + others: + + + co'e + has the obvious relationship (rafsi: com/co'e) + + + mo + bridi question + + + du + identity: x1 is identical to= x2, x3 ... + + dub + du'o + + +

+ Other cmavo discussed in this chapter + + + goi + GOI + pro-sumti assignment (ko'a-series) + + + cei + CEI + pro-bridi assignment (broda-series) + + + ra'o + RAhO + pro-sumti/pro-bridi update + + + soi + SOI + reciprocity + + + se'u + SEhU + soi terminator + + + da'o + DAhO + cancel all pro-sumti/pro-bridi + + +

+ diff --git a/chapters/08.xml b/chapters/08.xml new file mode 100644 index 0000000..25d7cdc --- /dev/null +++ b/chapters/08.xml @@ -0,0 +1,1579 @@ + + Relative Clauses, Which Make sumti Even More Complicated + + The picture for chapter 8 + + + + + +

+ What are you pointing at? + The following cmavo are discussed in this section: + + + poi + NOI + restrictive relative clause introducer + =20 + + + ke'a + GOhA + relative pro-sumti + =20 + + + ku'o + KUhO + relative clause terminator + + + Let us think about the problem of communicating what it is that = we are pointing at when we are pointing at something. In Lojban, we can ref= er to what we are pointing at by using the pro-sumti=20 + ti if it is nearby, or=20 + ta if it is somewhat further away, or=20 + tu if it is distant. (Pro-sumti are explained in full i= n=20 + .) + referenceambiguity of ti/ta/tu However, even wi= th the assistance of a pointing finger, or pointing lips, or whatever may b= e appropriate in the local culture, it is often hard for a listener to tell= just what is being pointed at. Suppose one is pointing at a person (in par= ticular, in the direction of his or her face), and says: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e1d1"/> + + + ti cu barda + This-one is-big. + + + What is the referent of=20 + ti? Is it the person? Or perhaps it is the person's nos= e? Or even (for=20 + ti can be plural as well as singular, and mean=20 + =20 + these ones as well as=20 + this one) the pores on the person's nose? + referenceuse of relative clause for relative clauseuse = for reference To help solve this problem, Lojban us= es a construction called a=20 + relative clause. Relative clauses are usually attached = to the end of sumti, but there are other places where they can go as well, = as explained later in this chapter. A relative clause begins with a word of= selma'o NOI, and ends with the elidable terminator=20 + ku'o (of selma'o KUhO). As you might suppose,=20 + noi is a cmavo of selma'o NOI; however, first we will d= iscuss the cmavo=20 + poi, which also belongs to selma'o NOI. + ke'aas referent for relativized sumti referenceto relat= ivized sumti with ke'a relativized sumtidefinition poisyntax of In between the=20 + poi and the=20 + ku'o appears a full bridi, with the same syntax as any = other bridi. Anywhere within the bridi of a relative clause, the pro-sumti= =20 + ke'a (of selma'o KOhA) may be used, and it stands for t= he sumti to which the relative clause is attached (called the=20 + relativized sumti). Here are some examples before we go= any further: + =20 + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e1d2"/> + <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>big person</primary><secondary>exam= ple</secondary></indexterm> =20 + + + ti poi ke'a prenu ku'o cu barda + This-thing such-that-(IT is-a-person) is-large. + This thing which is a person is big. + This person is big. + + + + =20 +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>big nose</primary><secondary>example<= /secondary></indexterm> + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e1d3"/> + + + ti poi ke'a nazbi ku'o cu barda + This-thing such-that-(IT is-a-nose) is-large. + This thing which is a nose is big. + This nose is big. + + + + + <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>big nose-pores</primary><secondary>= example</secondary></indexterm> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e1d4"/> + + + ti poi ke'a nazbi kapkevna ku'o cu barda + This-thing such-that-(IT is-a-nose-type-of skin-hole) is-bi= g. + These things which are nose-pores are big. + These nose-pores are big. + + + =20 + +ITas no= tation convention in relative clause chapter In the= literal translations throughout this chapter, the word=20 + IT, capitalized, is used to represent the cmavo=20 + ke'a. In each case, it serves to represent the sumti (i= n=20 + through=20 + , the cmavo=20 + ti) to which the relative clause is attached. + ke'anon-initial place use in relative clause Of= course, there is no reason why=20 + ke'a needs to appear in the x1 place of a relative clau= se bridi; it can appear in any place, or indeed even in a sub-bridi within = the relative clause bridi. Here are two more examples: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e1d5"/> + + + tu poi le mlatu pu lacpu ke'a ku'o cu ratcu + That-distant-thing such-that (the cat [past] drags IT) is-a= -rat. + That thing which the cat dragged is a rat. + What the cat dragged is a rat. + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e1d6"/> + + + ta poi mi djica le nu mi ponse ke'a [kei] ku'o cu bloti + That-thing such-that( I desire the event-of( I own IT ) ) i= s-a-boat. + That thing that I want to own is a boat. + + + In=20 + ,=20 + ke'a appears in an abstraction clause (abstractions are= explained in=20 + ) within a relative clause. + relative clauseeffect of omission of ke'a on= ke'a<= secondary>effect of omission of Like any sumti,=20 + ke'a can be omitted. The usual presumption in that case= is that it then falls into the x1 place: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e1d7"/> + + + ti poi nazbi cu barda + This-thing which is-a-nose is-big. + + + almost certainly means the same thing as=20 + . However,=20 + ke'a can be omitted if it is clear to the listener that= it belongs in some place other than x1: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e1d8"/> + + + tu poi le mlatu pu lacpu cu ratcu + That-distant-thing which the cat [past] drags is-a-rat + + + is equivalent to=20 + . + ku'oelidability for relative clauses As stated = before,=20 + ku'o is an elidable terminator, and in fact it is almos= t always elidable. Throughout the rest of this chapter,=20 + ku'o will not be written in any of the examples unless = it is absolutely required: thus,=20 + can be written: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e1d9"/> + + + ti poi prenu cu barda + That which is-a-person is-big. + That person is big. + + + poidiscussion of translation without any change= in meaning. Note that=20 + poi is translated=20 + which rather than=20 + such-that when=20 + ke'a has been omitted from the x1 place of the relative= clause bridi. The word=20 + which is used in English to introduce English relative = clauses: other words that can be used are=20 + who and=20 + that, as in: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e1d10"/> + + I saw a man who was going to the store. + + and + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e1d11"/> + + The building that the school was located in is large. + + In=20 + the relative clause is=20 + who was going to the store, and in=20 + it is=20 + that the school was located in. Sometimes=20 + who,=20 + which, and=20 + that are used in literal translations in this chapter i= n order to make them read more smoothly. +

+ Incidental relative clauses + The following cmavo is discussed in this section: + + + noi + NOI + incidental relative clause introducer + =20 + + + relative clausesrestricted contrasted with incidental non-restrictive relati= ve clausedefinition (see also incidental relative clau= se) = incidental relative clausedefinition restrictive relative = clausedefinition relative clauserestr= ictive (see also restrictive relative clause) relative clauseskinds of There are two basic kinds of relative = clauses: restrictive relative clauses introduced by=20 + =20 + poi, and incidental (sometimes called simply=20 + non-restrictive) relative clauses introduced by=20 + noi. The difference between restrictive and incidental = relative clauses is that restrictive clauses provide information that is es= sential to identifying the referent of the sumti to which they are attached= , whereas incidental relative clauses provide additional information which = is helpful to the listener but is not essential for identifying the referen= t of the sumti. All of the examples in=20 + are restrictive relative clauses: the = information in the relative clause is essential to identification. (The tit= le of this chapter, though, uses an incidental relative clause.) + =20 + =20 + Consider the following examples: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e2d1"/> + + + le gerku poi blanu cu barda + The dog which is-blue is-large. + The dog which is blue is large. + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e2d2"/> + + + le gerku noi blanu cu barda + The dog incidentally-which is-blue is-large. + The dog, which is blue, is large. + + + In=20 + , the information conveyed b= y=20 + poi blanu is essential to identifying the dog i= n question: it restricts the possible referents from dogs in general to dog= s that are blue. This is why=20 + poi relative clauses are called restrictive. In=20 + , on the other hand, the dog= which is referred to has presumably already been identified clearly, and t= he relative clause=20 + noi blanu just provides additional information = about it. (If in fact the dog hasn't been identified clearly, then the rela= tive clause does not help identify it further.) + incidental relati= ve clauseas a parenthetical device commaeffect on relative clause in English relative clausesef= fect of commas in English relative clausesrestricted contr= asted with incidental in English expression In Engl= ish, the distinction between restrictive and incidental relative clauses is= expressed in writing by surrounding incidental, but not restrictive, claus= es with commas. These commas are functioning as parentheses, because incide= ntal relative clauses are essentially parenthetical. This distinction in pu= nctuation is represented in speech by a difference in tone of voice. In add= ition, English restrictive relative clauses can be introduced by=20 + =20 + =20 + that as well as=20 + which and=20 + who, whereas incidental relative clauses cannot begin w= ith=20 + that. Lojban, however, always uses the cmavo=20 + poi and=20 + noi rather than punctuation or intonation to make the d= istinction. + Here are more examples of incidental relative clauses: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e2d3"/> + + + mi noi jdice cu zvati + I who-incidentally am-a-judge am-at [some-place]. + I, a judge, am present. + + + In this example,=20 + mi is already sufficiently restricted, and the addition= al information that I am a judge is being provided solely for the listener'= s edification. + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e2d4"/> + + + xu do viska le mi karce noi blabi + [True?] You see my car incidentally-which is-white. + Do you see my car, which is white? + + + In=20 + , the speaker is presumed to= have only one car, and is providing incidental information that it is whit= e. (Alternatively, he or she might have more than one car, since=20 + le karce can be plural, in which case the incid= ental information is that each of them is white.) Contrast=20 + =20 + with a restrictive relative= clause: + =20 + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e2d5"/> + + + xu do viska le mi karce poi blabi + [True?] You see my car which is-white. + Do you see my car that is white? + Do you see my white car? + + + relative clausecompared with tanru Here the spe= aker probably has several cars, and is restricting the referent of the sumt= i=20 + le mi karce (and thereby the listener's attenti= on) to the white one only.=20 + means much the same as=20 + , which does not use a relat= ive clause: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e2d6"/> + + + xu do viska le mi blabi karce + [True?] You see my white car. + Do you see my car, the white one? + + + relative clausecontrasted with tanru So a restr= ictive relative clause attached to a description can often mean the same as= a description involving a tanru. However,=20 + =20 + blabi karce, like all tanru, is somewhat vague:= in principle, it might refer to a car which carries white things, or even = express some more complicated concept involving whiteness and car-ness; the= restrictive relative clause of=20 + =20 + can only refer to a car whi= ch is white, not to any more complex or extended concept. +

+ Relative phrases + The following cmavo are discussed in this section: + + + pe + GOI + restrictive association + + + po + GOI + restrictive possession + + + po'e + =20 + GOI + restrictive intrinsic possession + =20 + =20 + + + po'u + GOI + restrictive identification + + + ne + GOI + incidental association + =20 + + + no'u + =20 + GOI + incidental identification + =20 + =20 + + + ge'u + GEhU + relative phrase terminator + + + relative phraseas an abbreviation of a common relative clause relative phra= sesyntax of relative phraserational= e for There are types of relative clauses (those wh= ich have a certain selbri) which are frequently wanted in Lojban, and can b= e expressed using a shortcut called a relative phrase. Relative phrases are= introduced by cmavo of selma'o GOI, and consist of a GOI cmavo followed by= a single sumti. + loose association<= /primary>expressing with pe peas loose associat= ion = pecompared with poi ke'a srana<= /secondary> Here is an example of=20 + pe, plus an equivalent sentence using a relative clause= : + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d1"/> + + + le stizu pe mi cu blanu + The chair associated-with me is-blue. + My chair is blue. + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d2"/> + + + le stizu poi ke'a srana mi cu blanu + The chair such-that( IT is-associated-with me) is-blue. + + + In=20 + and=20 + , the link between the chair= and the speaker is of the loosest kind. + specificityexpressing with po possessionexpressing wi= th po poas restrictive possession = pocompa= red with poi ke'a se steci srana Here is an example of=20 + po: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d3"/> + + + le stizu po mi cu xunre + The chair specific-to me is red. + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d4"/> + + + le stizu poi ke'a se steci srana mi cu xunre + The chair such-that (IT is-specifically associated-with me)= is-red. + + + pocontrasted with pe pecontrasted with po<= /indexterm>=20 + and=20 + contrast with=20 + and=20 + : the chair is more permanen= tly connected with the speaker. A plausible (though not the only possible) = contrast between=20 + and=20 + is that=20 + pe mi would be appropriate for a chair the spea= ker is currently sitting on (whether or not the speaker owned that chair), = and=20 + po mi for a chair owned by the speaker (whether= or not he or she was currently occupying it). + pocontrasted with English possession As a result, the relationship expressed between two sumti by=20 + po is usually called=20 + possession, although it does not necessarily imply owne= rship, legal or otherwise. The central concept is that of specificity (=20 + =20 + steci in Lojban). + inalienable posses= sionexpressing with po'e intrinsic possessionexpressing with po'e possessionintrinsicexpressing with po'e po'eas intrinsic possessio= n po= 'ecompared with poi ke'a jinzi ke se steci = srana Here is an example of=20 + po'e, as well as another example of=20 + =20 + po: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d5"/> + + + le birka po'e mi cu spofu + =20 + The arm intrinsically-possessed-by me is-broken + + + + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>person's arm</primary><secondary>exam= ple</secondary></indexterm> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d6"/> + + + le birka poi jinzi ke se steci srana mi cu spofu + The arm which is-intrinsically (specifically associated-wit= h) me is-broken. + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d7"/> + + + le botpi po mi cu spofu + The bottle specific-to me is-broken + + + =20 + + + alienable possessiondefinition extrinsic possessiondefinition inali= enable possessiondefinition <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">intrinsic possession= definition pocontrasted with po'e po'econtrasted with po=20 + and=20 + on the one hand, and=20 + on the other, illustrate th= e contrast between two types of possession called=20 + intrinsic and=20 + extrinsic, or sometimes=20 + inalienable and=20 + =20 + alienable, respectively. Something is intrinsically (or= inalienably) possessed by someone if the possession is part of the possess= or, and cannot be changed without changing the possessor. In the case of=20 + , people are usually taken t= o intrinsically possess their arms: even if an arm is cut off, it remains t= he arm of that person. (If the arm is transplanted to another person, howev= er, it becomes intrinsically possessed by the new user, though, so intrinsi= c possession is a matter of degree.) + =20 + =20 + inalienabledistinguishing from alienable By con= trast, the bottle of=20 + can be given away, or throw= n away, or lost, or stolen, so it is possessed extrinsically (alienably). T= he exact line between intrinsic and extrinsic possession is culturally depe= ndent. The U.S. Declaration of Independence speaks of the=20 + =20 + inalienable rights of men, but just what those rights a= re, and even whether the concept makes sense at all, varies from culture to= culture. + =20 + Note that=20 + can also be expressed witho= ut a relative clause: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d8"/> + + + le birka be mi cu spofu + The arm of-body me is broken + + + intrinsic possess= ionexpressing by using place in some selbri reflecting the fact that the gismu=20 + birka has an x2 place representing the body to which th= e arm belongs. Many, but not all, cases of intrinsic possession can be thus= covered without using=20 + =20 + =20 + po'e by placing the possessor into the appropriate plac= e of the description selbri. + =20 + Here is an example of=20 + po'u: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d9"/> + + + le gerku po'u le mi pendo cu cinba mi + The dog which-is my friend kisses me. + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d10"/> + + + le gerku poi du le mi pendo cu cinba mi + The dog which =3D my friend kisses me. + + + identityexpressing with po'u po'uas identity po'ucompared with poi ke'a du<= /indexterm> The cmavo=20 + po'u does not represent possession at all, but rather i= dentity. (Note that it means=20 + poi du and its form was chosen to suggest the r= elationship.) + In=20 + , the use of=20 + po'u tells us that=20 + le gerku and=20 + le mi pendo represent the same thing. Consider = the contrast between=20 + and: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d11"/> + + + le mi pendo po'u le gerku cu cinba mi + My friend which-is the dog kisses me. + + + po'urelative phrase of contrasted with relativized sumti of= The facts of the case are the same, but the listener's knowled= ge about the situation may not be. In=20 + , the listener is presumed n= ot to understand which dog is meant by=20 + le gerku, so the speaker adds a relative phrase= clarifying that it is the particular dog which is the speaker's friend. + + , however, assumes that the = listener does not know which of the speaker's friends is referred to, and s= pecifies that it is the friend that is the dog (which dog is taken to be ob= vious). Here is another example of the same contrast: + + + <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>New York city</primary><secondary>e= xample</secondary></indexterm> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d12"/> + + + le tcadu po'u la nu,iork + The city of New York [not another city] + + + + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>New York state</primary><secondary>ex= ample</secondary></indexterm> + <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>New York city</primary><secondary>e= xample</secondary></indexterm> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d13"/> + + + la nu,iork po'u le tcadu + New York the city (not the state or some other New York)<= /natlang> + + + =20 + + + possessed in relative phra= sescompared with possessor possessor in relative phrasescompared with possessed The prin= ciple that the possessor and the possessed may change places applies to all= the GOI cmavo, and allows for the possibility of odd effects: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d14"/> + <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>friend's cup</primary><secondary>ex= ample</secondary></indexterm>=20 + + + le kabri pe le mi pendo cu cmalu + The cup associated-with my friend is small. + My friend's cup is small + =20 + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d15"/> +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>cup's friend</primary><secondary>exam= ple</secondary></indexterm> + + + le mi pendo pe le kabri cu cmalu + My friend associated-with the cup is small. + My friend, the one with the cup, is small. + + + =20 + + + is useful in a context whic= h is about my friend, and states that his or her cup is small, whereas=20 + is useful in a context that= is primarily about a certain cup, and makes a claim about=20 + my friend of the cup, as opposed to some other friend o= f mine. Here the cup appears to=20 + possess the person! English can't even express this rel= ationship with a possessive –=20 + the cup's friend of mine looks like nonsense – bu= t Lojban has no trouble doing so. + =20 + incidental identif= icationexpressing with no'u <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">incidental associationexpressing with ne po'ucompared with no'u pecompared with ne no'ucompared with po'u<= /secondary> necompared with pe Finally, the cm= avo=20 + ne and=20 + no'u stand to=20 + =20 + pe and=20 + po'u, respectively, as=20 + noi does to=20 + poi- they provide incidental information: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d16"/> + + + le blabi gerku ne mi cu batci do + The white dog, incidentally-associated-with me, bites you.<= /gloss> + The white dog, which is mine, bites you. + + + In=20 + , the white dog is already f= ully identified (after all, presumably the listener knows which dog bit him= or her!). The fact that it is yours is merely incidental to the main bridi= claim. + po'ucontrasted with no'u no'ucontrasted with po'u Distinguishing between=20 + po'u and=20 + no'u can be a little tricky. Consider a room with sever= al men in it, one of whom is named Jim. If you don't know their names, I mi= ght say: + =20 + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d17"/> + + + le nanmu no'u la djim. cu terpemci + =20 + The man, incidentally-who-is Jim, is-a-poet. + The man, Jim, is a poet. + + + Here I am saying that one of the men is a poet, and incidentally= telling you that he is Jim. But if you do know the names, then + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d18"/> + + + le nanmu po'u la djim. cu terpemci + The man who-is Jim is-a-poet. + The man Jim is a poet. + + + is appropriate. Now I am using the fact that the man I am speaki= ng of is Jim in order to pick out which man I mean. + possessionLojban usage compared with French and German in omission/incl= usion possessionLojban usage contrasted with English in om= ission/inclusion It is worth mentioning that Englis= h sometimes over-specifies possession from the Lojban point of view (and th= e point of view of many other languages, including ones closely related to = English). The idiomatic English sentence + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d19"/> + + The man put his hands in his pockets. + + seems strange to a French- or German-speaking person: whose pock= ets would he put his hands into? and even odder, whose hands would he put i= nto his pockets? In Lojban, the sentence + + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>hands in pockets</primary><secondary>= example</secondary></indexterm> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d20"/> + + + le nanmu cu punji le xance le daski + The man puts the hand at-locus-the pocket. + + + =20 + + + is very natural. Of course, if the man is in fact putting his hands into = another's pockets, or another's hands into his pockets, the fact can be spe= cified. + goirationale for non-inclusion in relative clause chapter ge'ueffect of following logical connective on elidability logical connectiv= eseffect on elidability of ge'u from preceding relativ= e phrase ge'uelidability of from relative phrases Finally, the elidable terminator for GOI cmavo is=20 + ge'u of selma'o GEhU; it is almost never required. Howe= ver, if a logical connective immediately follows a sumti modified by a rela= tive phrase, then an explicit=20 + ge'u is needed to allow the connective to affect the re= lativized sumti rather than the sumti of the relative phrase. (What about t= he cmavo after which selma'o GOI is named? It is discussed in=20 + =20 + , as it is not semantical= ly akin to the other kinds of relative phrases, although the syntax is the = same.) +

+ Multiple relative clauses:=20 + <valsi>zi'e</valsi> + + + zi'e + ZIhE + relative clause joiner + + + multiple relative= clausesattaching with zi'e So= metimes it is necessary or useful to attach more than one relative clause t= o a sumti. This is made possible in Lojban by the cmavo=20 + zi'e (of selma'o ZIhE), which is used to join one or mo= re relative clauses together into a single unit, thus making them apply to = the same sumti. For example: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e4d1"/> + + + le gerku poi blabi zi'e poi batci le nanmu cu klama + The dog which is white and which bites the man goes. + + + zi'ecompared with English and <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">zi'econtr= asted with logical connectives The most usual trans= lation of=20 + zi'e in English is=20 + and, but=20 + zi'e is not really a logical connective: unlike most of= the true logical connectives (which are explained in=20 + ), it cannot be converted into = a logical connection between sentences. + relative phraseconnecting to relative clause with zi'e relative clauseconnecting to relative phrase with zi'e multiple relative claus= esconnecting different kinds with zi'e It is perfectly correct to use=20 + zi'e to connect relative clauses of different kinds: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e4d2"/> + + + le gerku poi blabi zi'e noi le mi pendo cu ponse ke'a cu klam= a + The dog that-is (white) and incidentally-such-that (my frie= nd owns IT) goes. + The dog that is white, which my friend owns, is going. + + + In=20 + , the restrictive clause=20 + poi blabi specifies which dog is referred to, b= ut the incidental clause=20 + noi le mi pendo cu ponse is mere incidental inf= ormation: the listener is supposed to already have identified the dog from = the=20 + poi blabi. Of course, the meaning (though not n= ecessarily the emphasis) is the same if the incidental clause appears first= . + zi'euse in connecting relative phrase/clause to relative phrase/clause<= /secondary> It is also possible to connect relative phrases wit= h=20 + zi'e, or a relative phrase with a relative clause: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e4d3"/> + + + le botpi po mi zi'e poi blanu cu spofu + The bottle specific-to me and which-is blue is-broken. + My blue bottle is broken. + + + Note that if the colloquial translation of=20 + were=20 + My bottle, which is blue, is broken, then=20 + noi rather than=20 + poi would have been correct in the Lojban version, sinc= e that version of the English implies that you do not need to know the bott= le is blue. As written,=20 + suggests that I probably ha= ve more than one bottle, and the one in question needs to be picked out as = the blue one. + + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>my chair</primary><secondary>example<= /secondary></indexterm> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e4d4"/> + + + mi ba zutse le stizu pe mi zi'e po do zi'e poi xunre + I [future] sit-in the chair associated-with me and specific= -to you and which-is red. + I will sit in my chair (really yours), the red one. + =20 + + + =20 + + +=20 + illustrates that more than = two relative phrases or clauses can be connected with=20 + zi'e. It almost defies colloquial translation because o= f the very un-English contrast between=20 + pe mi, implying that the chair is temporarily c= onnected with me, and=20 + po do, implying that the chair has a more perma= nent association with you. (Perhaps I am a guest in your house, in which ca= se the chair would naturally be your property.) + Here is another example, mixing a relative phrase and two relati= ve clauses, a restrictive one and a non-restrictive one: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e4d5"/> + + + mi ba citka le dembi pe mi zi'e poi cpana le mi palta zi'e no= i do dunda ke'a mi + I [future] eat the beans associated-with me and which are-u= pon my plate and which-incidentally you gave IT to-me. + I'll eat my beans that are on my plate, the ones you gave= me. + =20 + + +

+ Non-veridical relative clauses:=20 + <valsi>voi</valsi> + + + voi + NOI + non-veridical relative clause introducer + + + There is another member of selma'o NOI which serves to introduce= a third kind of relative clause:=20 + voi. Relative clauses introduced by=20 + voi are restrictive, like those introduced by=20 + poi. However, there is a fundamental difference between= =20 + poi and=20 + voi relative clauses. A=20 + poi relative clause is said to be veridical, in the sam= e sense that a description using=20 + lo or=20 + loi is: it is essential to the interpretation that the = bridi actually be true. For example: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e5d1"/> + + + le gerku poi blabi cu klama + The dog which is-white goes. + + + it must actually be true that the dog is white, or the sentence = constitutes a miscommunication. If there is a white dog and a brown dog, an= d the speaker uses=20 + le gerku poi blabi to refer to the brown dog, t= hen the listener will not understand correctly. However, + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e5d2"/> + + + le gerku voi blabi cu klama + The dog which-I-describe-as white goes. + + + puts the listener on notice that the dog in question may not act= ually meet objective standards (whatever they are) for being white: only th= e speaker can say exactly what is meant by the term. In this way,=20 + voi is like=20 + le; the speaker's intention determines the meaning. + As a result, the following two sentences + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e5d3"/> + + + le nanmu cu ninmu + That-which-I-describe-as a-man is-a-woman. + The=20 + guy is actually a gal. + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e5d4"/> + + + ti voi nanmu cu ninmu + This-thing which-I-describe-as a-man is-a-woman. + + + mean essentially the same thing (except that=20 + involves pointing thanks to= the use of=20 + ti, whereas=20 + doesn't), and neither one i= s self-contradictory: it is perfectly all right to describe something as a = man (although perhaps confusing to the listener) even if it actually is a w= oman. +

+ Relative clauses and descriptors + So far, this chapter has described the various kinds of relative= clauses (including relative phrases). The list is now complete, and the re= st of the chapter will be concerned with the syntax of sumti that include r= elative clauses. So far, all relative clauses have appeared directly after = the sumti to which they are attached. This is the most common position (and= originally the only one), but a variety of other placements are also possi= ble which produce a variety of semantic effects. + There are actually three places where a relative clause can be a= ttached to a description sumti: after the descriptor (=20 + le,=20 + lo, or whatever), after the embedded selbri but before = the elidable terminator (which is=20 + ku), and after the=20 + ku. The relative clauses attached to descriptors that w= e have seen have occupied the second position. Thus=20 + , if written out with all el= idable terminators, would appear as: + =20 + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d1"/> + + + le gerku poi blabi ku'o ku cu klama vau + The (dog which (is-white) ) goes. + The dog which is white is going. + + + Here=20 + ku'o is the terminator paired with=20 + poi and=20 + ku with=20 + le, and=20 + vau is the terminator of the whole bridi. + When a simple descriptor using=20 + le, like=20 + le gerku, has a relative clause attached, it is= purely a matter of style and emphasis where the relative clause should go.= Therefore, the following examples are all equivalent in meaning to=20 + : + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d2"/> + + + le poi blabi ku'o gerku cu klama + The such-that (it-is-white) dog goes. + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d3"/> + + + le gerku ku poi blabi cu klama + The (dog) which is-white goes. + + + + will seem most natural to= speakers of languages like English, which always puts relative clauses aft= er the noun phrases they are attached to;=20 + , on the other hand, may s= eem more natural to Finnish or Chinese speakers, who put the relative claus= e first. Note that in=20 + , the elidable terminator= =20 + ku'o must appear, or the selbri of the relative claus= e (=20 + blabi) will merge with the selbri of the description = (=20 + gerku), resulting in an ungrammatical sentence. The p= urpose of the form appearing in=20 + will be apparent shortly. + As is explained in detail in=20 + , two different num= bers (known as the=20 + inner quantifier and the=20 + outer quantifier) can be attached to a description. The= inner quantifier specifies how many things the descriptor refers to: it ap= pears between the descriptor and the description selbri. The outer quantifi= er appears before the descriptor, and specifies how many of the things refe= rred to by the descriptor are involved in this particular bridi. In the fol= lowing example, + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d4"/> + + + re le mu prenu cu klama le zarci + Two-of the five persons go to-the market. + Two of the five people [that I have in mind] are going to= the market. + =20 + + + + mu is the inner quantifier and=20 + re is the outer quantifier. Now what is meant by atta= ching a relative clause to the sumti=20 + re le mu prenu? Suppose the relative clause i= s=20 + poi ninmu (meaning=20 + who are women). Now the three possible attachment point= s discussed previously take on significance. + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d5"/> + + + re le poi ninmu ku'o mu prenu cu klama le zarci + Two of the such-that([they] are-women) five persons go to-t= he market. + Two women out of the five persons go to the market. + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d6"/> + + + re le mu prenu poi ninmu [ku] cu klama le zarci + Two of the (five persons which are-women) go to-the market.= + Two of the five women go to the market. + =20 + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d7"/> + + + re le mu prenu ku poi ninmu cu klama le zarci + (Two of the five persons) which are-women go to-the market.= + Two women out of the five persons go to the market. + + + As the parentheses show,=20 + means that all five of the = persons are women, whereas=20 + means that the two who are = going to the market are women. How do we remember which is which? If the re= lative clause comes after the explicit=20 + ku, as in=20 + , then the sumti as a whole = is qualified by the relative clause. If there is no=20 + ku, or if the relative clause comes before an explicit= =20 + ku, then the relative clause is understood to apply to = everything which the underlying selbri applies to. + What about=20 + ? By convention, it means th= e same as=20 + , and it requires no=20 + ku, but it does typically require a=20 + ku'o instead. Note that the relative clause comes befor= e the inner quantifier. + When=20 + le is the descriptor being used, and the sumti has no e= xplicit outer quantifier, then the outer quantifier is understood to be=20 + ro (meaning=20 + all), as is explained in=20 + . Thus=20 + le gerku is taken to mean=20 + all of the things I refer to as dogs, possibly all one = of them. In that case, there is no difference between a relative clause aft= er the=20 + ku or before it. However, if the descriptor is=20 + lo, the difference is quite important: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d8"/> + + + lo prenu ku noi blabi cu klama le zarci + (Some persons) incidentally-which are-white go to-the marke= t. + Some people, who are white, go to the market. + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d9"/> + + + lo prenu noi blabi [ku] cu klama le zarci + Some (persons incidentally-which are-white) go to-the marke= t. + Some of the people, who by the way are white, go to the m= arket. + + + Both=20 + and=20 + tell us that one or more pe= rsons are going to the market. However, they make very different incidental= claims. Now, what does=20 + lo prenu noi blabi mean? Well, the default inne= r quantifier is=20 + ro (meaning=20 + all), and the default outer quantifier is=20 + su'o (meaning=20 + at least one). Therefore, we must first take all person= s, then choose at least one of them. That one or more people will be going.= + =20 + In=20 + , the relative clause descri= bed the sumti once the outer quantifier was applied: one or more people, wh= o are white, are going. But in=20 + , the relative clause actual= ly describes the sumti before the outer quantification is applied, so that = it ends up meaning=20 + First take all persons – by the way, they're all white. But not all people are white, so the incidental claim being made her= e is false. + =20 + relative clauses = on losyntax suggestion The saf= e strategy, therefore, is to always use=20 + ku when attaching a=20 + noi relative clause to a=20 + lo descriptor. Otherwise we may end up claiming far too= much. + relative clauses = and namesplacement considerations relative clauseson names relative clausesas part of name relative= clausesimpact of la on placement When the descriptor is=20 + la, indicating that what follows is a selbri used for n= aming, then the positioning of relative clauses has a different significanc= e. A relative clause inside the=20 + ku, whether before or after the selbri, is reckoned par= t of the name; a relative clause outside the=20 + ku is not. Therefore, + + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>afraid of horse</primary><secondary>e= xample</secondary></indexterm> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d10"/> + + + mi viska la nanmu poi terpa le ke'a xirma [ku] + I see that-named (=20 + man which fears the of-IT horse). + I see Man Afraid Of His Horse. + + + =20 + + + says that the speaker sees a person with a particular name, who does not = necessarily fear any horses, whereas + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d11"/> + + + mi viska la nanmu ku poi terpa le ke'a xirma. + I see that-named(=20 + Man) which fears the of-IT horse. + I see the person named=20 + Man who is afraid of his horse. + + + refers to one (or more) of those named=20 + Man, namely the one(s) who are afraid of their horses.<= /para> + relative clauses = and indefinite sumtiplacement considerations relative clau= sesimpact of indefinite sumti on placement= Finally, so-called indefinite sumti like=20 + =20 + =20 + re karce, which means almost the same as=20 + re lo karce (which in turn means the same as=20 + re lo ro karce), can have relative clauses atta= ched; these are taken to be of the outside-the-=20 + ku variety. Here is an example: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d12"/> + + + mi ponse re karce [ku] poi xekri + I possess two cars which-are black. + + + relative clauses = on indefinite sumtisyntax considerations relative clauses<= /primary>syntax with indefinite sumti Th= e restrictive relative clause only affects the two cars being affected by t= he main bridi, not all cars that exist. It is ungrammatical to try to place= a relative clause within an indefinite sumti (that is, before an explicitl= y expressed terminating=20 + =20 + =20 + =20 + ku.) Use an explicit=20 + lo instead. +

+ Possessive sumti + possessive sumticompared with relative phrase <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">relative phrasecompared with possessive sumti sumtibetween descript= or and description selbri In=20 + through=20 + , the sumti=20 + le mi karce appears, glossed as=20 + my car. Although it might not seem so, this sumti actua= lly contains a relative phrase. When a sumti appears between a descriptor a= nd its description selbri, it is actually a=20 + pe relative phrase. So + + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>my</primary><secondary>example</secon= dary></indexterm> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e7d1"/> + + + le mi karce cu xunre + My car is-red. + + + =20 + + + and + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e7d2"/> + + + le pe mi karce cu xunre + The (associated-with me) car is-red. + + + mean exactly the same thing. Furthermore, since there are no spe= cial considerations of quantifiers here, + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e7d3"/> + + + le karce pe mi cu xunre + The car associated-with me is-red. + + + possessor sumtidefinition possessive sumtidefinition means the same thing as well. A sumti like the one i= n=20 + is called a=20 + possessive sumti. Of course, it does not really indicat= e possession in the sense of ownership, but like=20 + =20 + pe relative phrases, indicates only weak association; y= ou can say=20 + le mi karce even if you've only borrowed it for= the night. (In English,=20 + my car usually means=20 + le karce po mi, but we do not have the same sen= se of possession in=20 + my seat on the bus; Lojban simply makes the weaker sens= e the standard one.) The inner sumti,=20 + =20 + mi in=20 + , is correspondingly called = the=20 + possessor sumti. + relative clauses = and possessive sumtidevelopment history possessive sumti a= nd relative clausesdevelopment history Historically, possessive sumti existed before any other kind of re= lative phrase or clause, and were retained when the machinery of relative p= hrases and clauses as detailed in this chapter so far was slowly built up. = When preposed relative clauses of the=20 + =20 + type were devised, possessi= ve sumti were most easily viewed as a special case of them. + =20 + numbers= as possessive sumti quotationsas possessive sum= ti d= escriptionsas possessive sumti= namesa= s possessive sumti pro-sumtias possessive sumti relative phras= escontrasted with possessive sumti in complexity allow= ed p= ossessive sumticontrasted with relative phrases in com= plexity allowed possessive sumtisyntax allowed= Although any sumti, however complex, can appear in a full-fled= ged relative phrase, only simple sumti can appear as possessor sumti, witho= ut a=20 + =20 + pe. Roughly speaking, the legal possessor sumti are: pr= o-sumti, quotations, names and descriptions, and numbers. In addition, the = possessor sumti may not be preceded by a quantifier, as such a form would b= e interpreted as the unusual=20 + descriptor + quantifier + sumti type of description. Al= l these sumti forms are explained in full in=20 + . + Here is an example of a description used in a possessive sumti:<= /para> + =20 + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e7d4"/> + + + le le nanmu ku karce cu blanu + The (associated-with-the man) car is blue. + The man's car is blue. + + + possessive sumti<= /primary>effect on elidability of ku kueffect o= f possessive sumti on elidability of Note the expli= cit=20 + ku at the end of the possessor sumti, which prevents th= e selbri of the possessor sumti from merging with the selbri of the main de= scription sumti. Because of the need for this=20 + ku, the most common kind of possessor sumti are pro-sum= ti, especially personal pro-sumti, which require no elidable terminator. De= scriptions are more likely to be attached with relative phrases. + =20 + And here is a number used as a possessor sumti: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e7d5"/> +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>juror 5</primary><secondary>example</= secondary></indexterm> + + + le li mu jdice se bende + The of-the-number-five judging team-member + Juror number 5 + + + =20 + + + which is not quite the same as=20 + the fifth juror; it simply indicates a weak association= between the particular juror and the number 5. + possessive sumti = with relative clauseseffect of placement relative clauses = with possessive sumtieffect of placement possessive sumti<= /primary>with relative clauses on possessive sumti possessive sumti<= /primary>relative clauses on relative clauseson= possessive sumti A possessive sumti may also have = regular relative clauses attached to it. This would need no comment if it w= ere not for the following special rule: a relative clause immediately follo= wing the possessor sumti is understood to affect the possessor sumti, not t= he possessive. For example: + =20 + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e7d6"/> + + + le mi noi sipna vau karce cu na klama + The of-me incidentally-which-(is-sleeping) car isn't going.= + + + means that my car isn't going; the incidental claim of=20 + noi sipna applies to me, not my car, however. I= f I wanted to say that the car is sleeping (whatever that might mean) I wou= ld need: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e7d7"/> + + + le mi karce poi sipna cu na klama + The of-me car which sleeps isn't going. + + + ku'oeffect of vau on elidability vaueffect on elidabil= ity ku'o Note that=20 + uses=20 + vau rather than=20 + ku'o at the end of the relative clause: this terminator= ends every simple bridi and is almost always elidable; in this case, thoug= h, it is a syllable shorter than the equally valid alternative,=20 + =20 + ku'o. +

+ Relative clauses and complex sumti:=20 + <valsi>vu'o</valsi> + The following cmavo is discussed in this section: + + + vu'o + VUhO + relative clause attacher + + + Normally, relative clauses attach only to simple sumti or parts = of sumti: pro-sumti, names and descriptions, pure numbers, and quotations. = An example of a relative clause attached to a pure number is: + =20 + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d1"/> + <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>irrational number</primary><s= econdary>example</secondary></indexterm> + + + li pai noi na'e frinu namcu + The-number pi, incidentally-which is-a-non- fraction number= + The irrational number pi + =20 + + + =20 + + + relative clauses= on quotation relative clauseson number And here is an incidental relative clause attached to a quo= tation: + =20 + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d2"/> + + + lu mi klama le zarci li'u noi mi cusku ke'a cu jufra + [quote] I go to-the market [unquote] incidentally-which-(I = express IT) is-a-sentence. + + I'm going to the market, which I'd said, is a sente= nce. + + + which may serve to identify the author of the quotation or some = other relevant, but subsidiary, fact about it. All such relative clauses ap= pear only after the simple sumti, never before it. + =20 + NAhE selma'o<= /primary> NAhE s= elma'oeffect of relative clause placement with LAhE selma'= oeffect of relative clause placement with<= /indexterm> relative clauses= and NAhEplacement considerations relative clausesimpact of NAhE on placement relative clauses and LAhEplacement considerations relative clausesimpact = of LAhE on placement In addition, sumti with attach= ed sumti qualifiers of selma'o LAhE or NAhE+BO (which are explained in deta= il in=20 + =20 + ) can have a relative clau= se appearing after the qualifier and before the qualified sumti, as in: + + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>red pony</primary><secondary>example<= /secondary></indexterm> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d3"/> + + + la'e poi tolcitno vau lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u cu zvati le v= u kumfa + A-referent-of (which is-old) [quote] The Red Small-horse [u= nquote] is-at the [far distance] room. + An old=20 + The Red Pony is in the far room. + =20 + + + + + +=20 + is a bit complex, and may n= eed some picking apart. The quotation=20 + lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u means the string of w= ords=20 + The Red Pony. If the=20 + =20 + la'e at the beginning of the sentence were omitted,=20 + would claim that a certain = string of words is in a room distant from the speaker. But obviously a stri= ng of words can't be in a room! The effect of the=20 + la'e is to modify the sumti so that it refers not to th= e words themselves, but to the referent of those words, a novel by John Ste= inbeck (presumably in Lojban translation). The particular copy of=20 + The Red Pony is identified by the restrictive relative = clause.=20 + =20 + =20 + means exactly the same as:<= /para> + + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>red pony</primary><secondary>example<= /secondary></indexterm> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d4"/> + + + la'e lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u lu'u poi to'ercitno cu zvati l= e vu kumfa + A-referent-of ([quote] The Red Small-horse [unquote]) which= is-old is-at the [far distance] room. + + + and the two sentences can be considered stylistic variants. Note= the required=20 + lu'u terminator, which prevents the relative clause fro= m attaching to the quotation itself: we do not wish to refer to an old quot= ation! + =20 + relative clauses<= /primary>on connected sumti Sometimes, h= owever, it is important to make a relative clause apply to the whole of a m= ore complex sumti, one which involves logical or non-logical connection (ex= plained in=20 + =20 + ). For example, + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d5"/> + + + la frank. .e la djordj. noi nanmu cu klama le zdani + Frank and George incidentally-who is-a-man go to-the house.= + Frank and George, who is a man, go to the house. + + + The incidental claim in=20 + is not that Frank and Georg= e are men, but only that George is a man, because the incidental relative c= lause attaches only to=20 + =20 + la djordj, the immediately preceding simple sum= ti. + =20 + relative clause s= copeextending to preceding sumti with vu'o= To make a relative clause attach to both parts of the logicall= y connected sumti in=20 + , a new cmavo is needed,=20 + vu'o (of selma'o VUhO). It is placed between the sumti = and the relative clause, and extends the sphere of influence of that relati= ve clause to the entire preceding sumti, including however many logical or = non-logical connectives there may be. + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d6"/> + + + la frank. .e la djordj. vu'o noi nanmu cu klama le zdani + Frank and George incidentally-who are-men go to-the house.<= /gloss> + Frank and George, who are men, go to the house. + + + The presence of=20 + vu'o here means that the relative clause=20 + noi nanmu extends to the entire logically conne= cted sumti=20 + la frank. .e la djordj.; in other words, both F= rank and George are claimed to be men, as the colloquial translation shows.= + relative clauses = on complex sumtiLojban contrasted with English English is able to resolve the distinction correctly in th= e case of=20 + and=20 + by making use of number:=20 + who is rather than=20 + who are. Lojban doesn't distinguish between singular an= d plural verbs:=20 + =20 + =20 + nanmu can mean=20 + is a man or=20 + are men, so another means is required. Furthermore, Loj= ban's mechanism works correctly in general: if=20 + nanmu (meaning=20 + is-a-man) were replaced with=20 + pu bajra (=20 + ran), English would have to make the distinction some o= ther way: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d7"/> + + + la frank. .e la djordj. noi pu bajra cu klama le zdani + Frank and (George who [past] runs) go to-the house. + Frank and George, who ran, go to the house. + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d8"/> + + + la frank. .e la djordj. vu'o noi pu bajra cu klama le zdani + (Frank and George) who [past] run go to-the house. + Frank and George, who ran, go to the house. + + + In spoken English, tone of voice would serve; in written English= , one or both sentences would need rewriting. + =20 +

+ Relative clauses in vocative phrases + DOI selma'o COI= selma'o Vocative phrases are explained in more detai= l in=20 + . Briefly, they are a metho= d of indicating who a sentence or discourse is addressed to: of identifying= the intended listener. They take three general forms, all beginning with c= mavo from selma'o COI or DOI (called=20 + vocative words; there can be one or many), followed by = either a name, a selbri, or a sumti. Here are three examples: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e9d1"/> + + + coi. frank. + Hello, Frank. + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e9d2"/> + + + co'o xirma + Goodbye, horse. + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e9d3"/> + + + fi'i la frank. .e la djordj. + =20 + Welcome, Frank and George! + + + Note that=20 + says farewell to something = which doesn't really have to be a horse, something that the speaker simply = thinks of as being a horse, or even might be something (a person, for examp= le) who is named=20 + Horse. In a sense,=20 + is ambiguous between=20 + co'o le xirma and=20 + co'o la xirma, a relatively safe semantic ambig= uity, since names are ambiguous in general: saying=20 + George doesn't distinguish between the possible Georges= . + Similarly,=20 + can be thought of as an abb= reviation of: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e9d4"/> + + + coi la frank. + Hello, the-one-named=20 + Frank. + + + Syntactically, vocative phrases are a kind of free modifier, and= can appear in many places in Lojban text, generally at the beginning or en= d of some complete construct; or, as in=20 + to=20 + , as sentences by themselves= . + vocative phrase w= ith nameplacement of relative clause on relative clausesplacement with vocative phrases = vocative phrasesrelative clauses on relative clauseson vocative p= hrases As can be seen, the form of vocative phrases= is similar to that of sumti, and as you might expect, vocative phrases all= ow relative clauses in various places. In vocative phrases which are simple= names (after the vocative words), any relative clauses must come just afte= r the names: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e9d5"/> + + + coi. frank. poi xunre se bende + Hello, Frank who is-a-red team-member + Hello, Frank from the Red Team! + + + The restrictive relative clause in=20 + =20 + suggests that there is some= other Frank (perhaps on the Green Team) from whom this Frank, the one the = speaker is greeting, must be distinguished. + vocative phrase w= ith selbriplacement of relative clause on<= /indexterm> A vocative phrase containing a selbri can have relative clauses= either before or after the selbri; both forms have the same meaning. Here = are some examples: + =20 + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e9d6"/> + + + co'o poi mi zvati ke'a ku'o xirma + Goodbye, such-that-(I am-at IT) horse + Goodbye, horse where I am! + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e9d7"/> + + + co'o xirma poi mi zvati + Goodbye, horse such-that-(I am-at-it). + + + + and=20 + mean the same thing. In fac= t, relative clauses can appear in both places. +

+ Relative clauses within relative clauses + relative clauses<= /primary>relative clauses within For the= most part, these are straightforward and uncomplicated: a sumti that is pa= rt of a relative clause bridi may itself be modified by a relative clause:<= /para> + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e10d1"/> + + + le prenu poi zvati le kumfa poi blanu cu masno + The person who is-in the room which is-blue is-slow. + + + ke'a with subscri= ptuse for outer sumti reference subscriptsuse with ke'a for outer sumti reference inner sumtire= ferring to from within relative clause within relative clause outer sumtireferring to from within relative clause within relative cla= use = relativized sumtiin relative clauses within relative c= lauses ke'ameaning in relative clause inside relative clau= se However, an ambiguity can exist if=20 + ke'a is used in a relative clause within a relative cla= use: does it refer to the outermost sumti, or to the sumti within the outer= relative clause to which the inner relative clause is attached? The latter= . To refer to the former, use a subscript on=20 + ke'a: + + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>room which he built</primary><seconda= ry>example</secondary></indexterm> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e10d2"/> + + + le prenu poi zvati le kumfa poi ke'axire zbasu ke'a cu masno<= /jbo> + The person who is-in the room which IT-sub-2 built IT is-sl= ow. + The person who is in the room which he built is slow. + =20 + + + + + + Here, the meaning of=20 + IT-sub-2 is that sumti attached to the second relative = clause, counting from the innermost, is used. Therefore,=20 + ke'axipa (IT-sub-1) means the same as plain=20 + =20 + ke'a. + prenex<= secondary>use for outer sumti reference outer sumtiprenex = for referring to from within relative clause within relative clause Alternatively, you can use a prenex (explained in full in= =20 + ), which is syntactically a ser= ies of sumti followed by the special cmavo=20 + zo'u, prefixed to the relative clause bridi: + + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>room which he built</primary><seconda= ry>example</secondary></indexterm> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e10d3"/> + + + le prenu poi ke'a goi ko'a zo'u ko'a zvati le kumfa poi ke'a = goi ko'e zo'u ko'a zbasu ke'a cu masno + The man who (IT =3D it1 : it1 is-in the room which (IT =3D = it2 : it1 built it2) is-slow. + + + + is more verbose than=20 + , but may be clearer, sinc= e it explicitly spells out the two=20 + ke'a cmavo, each on its own level, and assigns them t= o the assignable cmavo=20 + ko'a and=20 + ko'e (explained in ). +

+ Index of relative clause cmavo + relative clauses<= /primary>list of cmavo for Relative clau= se introducers (selma'o NOI): + + + noi + incidental clauses + + + poi + restrictive clauses + + + voi + restrictive clauses (non-veridical) + + + Relative phrase introducers (selma'o GOI): + + + goi + pro-sumti assignment + + + + pe + restrictive association + + + ne + incidental association + + + + po + extrinsic (alienable) possession + + + po'e + intrinsic (inalienable) possession + + + + + po'u + restrictive identification + + + no'u + incidental identification + + + + + + Relativizing pro-sumti (selma'o KOhA): + + + ke'a + pro-sumti for relativized sumti + + + + Relative clause joiner (selma'o ZIhE): + + + zi'e + joins relative clauses applying to a single sumti + + + Relative clause associator (selma'o VUhO): + + + vu'o + causes relative clauses to apply to all of a complex = sumti + + + Elidable terminators (each its own selma'o): + + + ku'o + relative clause elidable terminator + + + ge'u + relative phrase elidable terminator + + +

+ diff --git a/chapters/09.xml b/chapters/09.xml new file mode 100644 index 0000000..001fdde --- /dev/null +++ b/chapters/09.xml @@ -0,0 +1,2703 @@ + + To Boston Via The Road Go I, With An Excursion Into The Land Of M= odals + + The picture for chapter 9 + + + + + +

+ Introductory + relationshipobjects of relationshipas basis of sentenc= e se= ntencebasic Lojban selbridefinition sumti= definition The basic type of L= ojban sentence is the bridi: a claim by the speaker that certain objects ar= e related in a certain way. The objects are expressed by Lojban grammatical= forms called=20 + sumti; the relationship is expressed by the Lojban gram= matical form called a=20 + selbri. + sumtias objects in place structure slots place structureempty slots in place structuredefinition selbriplace structure of The sumti are not random= ly associated with the selbri, but according to a systematic pattern known = as the=20 + place structure of the selbri. This chapter describes t= he various ways in which the place structure of Lojban bridi is expressed a= nd by which it can be manipulated. The place structure of a selbri is a seq= uence of empty slots into which the sumti associated with that selbri are p= laced. The sumti are said to occupy the places of the selbri. + place structure o= f selbridetermining For our pr= esent purposes, every selbri is assumed to have a well-known place structur= e. If the selbri is a brivla, the place structure can be looked up in a dic= tionary (or, if the brivla is a lujvo not in any dictionary, inferred from = the principles of lujvo construction as explained in=20 + ); if the selbri is a tanru, the plac= e structure is the same as that of the final component in the tanru. + + + + x1in = place structure notation place structurenotation conventio= ns k= lamaplace structure of The sto= ck example of a place structure is that of the gismu=20 + klama: + + klama x1 comes/goes to destination x2 from o= rigin x3 via route x4 employing means of transport x5. + + The=20 + x1 ... x5 indicates that=20 + klama is a five-place predicate, and show the natural o= rder (as assigned by the language engineers) of those places: agent, destin= ation, origin, route, means. + place structureinstability of The place structu= res of brivla are not absolutely stable aspects of the language. The work d= one so far has attempted to establish a basic place structure on which all = users can, at first, agree. In the light of actual experience with the indi= vidual selbri of the language, there will inevitably be some degree of chan= ge to the brivla place structures. +

+ Standard bridi form:=20 + <valsi>cu</valsi> + The following cmavo is discussed in this section: + + + cu + CU + prefixed selbri separator + =20 + + + bridibuilding from selbri and sumti The most us= ual way of constructing a bridi from a selbri such as=20 + klama and an appropriate number of sumti is to place th= e sumti intended for the x1 place before the selbri, and all the other sumt= i in order after the selbri, thus: + + + + + <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Boston from Atlanta</primary><secon= dary>example</secondary></indexterm>=20 +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>go</primary><secondary>example</secon= dary></indexterm> +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>go to Boston from Atlanta</primary><s= econdary>example</secondary></indexterm> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e2d1"/> + + + mi cu klama la bastn. la .atlantas. le dargu le karce + I go to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the road using-the car. + + + Here the sumti are assigned to the places as follows: + + + + x1 + agent + mi + + + x2 + destination + la bastn. + + + x3 + origin + la .atlantas. + + + x4 + route + le dargu + + + x5 + means + le karce + + + (Note: Many of the examples in the rest of this chapter will tur= n out to have the same meaning as=20 + ; this fact will not be reit= erated.) + bridinon-standard form standard bridi formdefinition bridi= standard form of This ordering= , with the x1 place before the selbri and all other places in natural order= after the selbri, is called=20 + standard bridi form, and is found in the bulk of Lojban= bridi, whether used in main sentences or in subordinate clauses. However, = many other forms are possible, such as: + =20 + =20 + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e2d2"/> + + + mi la bastn. la .atlantas. le dargu le karce cu klama + I, to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the road using-the car, go. + + + bridieffect of alternate form on sumti order He= re the selbri is at the end; all the sumti are placed before it. However, t= he same order is maintained. + Similarly, we may split up the sumti, putting some before the se= lbri and others after it: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e2d3"/> + + + mi la bastn. cu klama la .atlantas. le dargu le karce + I to-Boston go from-Atlanta via-the road using-the car. + + + emphasischanging by using non-standard form of bridi bridieffect of using non-standard form All of the va= riant forms in this section and following sections can be used to place emp= hasis on the part or parts which have been moved out of their standard plac= es. Thus,=20 + places emphasis on the selb= ri (because it is at the end);=20 + emphasizes=20 + la bastn., because it has been moved before the= selbri. Moving more than one component may dilute this emphasis. It is per= mitted, but no stylistic significance has yet been established for drastic = reordering. + cueffect on elidable terminators cuusefulness of cunecessity of cuas selbri separator In all these examples, the cmavo=20 + cu (belonging to selma'o CU) is used to separate the se= lbri from any preceding sumti. It is never absolutely necessary to use=20 + cu. However, providing it helps the reader or listener = to locate the selbri quickly, and may make it possible to place a complex s= umti just before the selbri, allowing the speaker to omit elidable terminat= ors, possibly a whole stream of them, that would otherwise be necessary. + =20 + bridiselbri-first as exceptional selbri-first bridieff= ect on sumti places sumtiomitted first place in selbri-fir= st bridi sumtiorder in selbri-first bridi sumtiorder in selbri The general rule, then, is th= at the selbri may occur anywhere in the bridi as long as the sumti maintain= their order. The only exception (and it is an important one) is that if th= e selbri appears first, the x1 sumti is taken to have been omitted: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e2d4"/> + + + klama la bastn. la .atlantas. le dargu le karce + A-goer to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the road using-the car. + Goes to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the road using-the car. + Look: a goer to Boston from Atlanta via the road using th= e car! + =20 + + + command= contrasted with observative form observative formcontrasted with command observativedefinition bridiexception to sumti place structure in = bridiomi= tting the first sumti place Here the x1 place is em= pty: the listener must guess from context who is going to Boston. In=20 + ,=20 + klama is glossed=20 + a goer rather than=20 + go because=20 + Go at the beginning of an English sentence would sugges= t a command:=20 + Go to Boston!.=20 + is not a command, simply a = normal statement with the x1 place unspecified, causing the emphasis to fal= l on the selbri=20 + klama. Such a bridi, with empty x1, is called an=20 + observative, because it usually calls on the listener t= o observe something in the environment which would belong in the x1 place. = The third translation above shows this observative nature. Sometimes it is = the relationship itself which the listener is asked to observe. + =20 + (There is a way to both provide a sumti for the x1 place and put= the selbri first in the bridi: see=20 + .) + bridileaving end sumti places unspecified in <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">sumtidrop= ping trailing unspecified unspecified trailing sumtidroppi= ng Suppose the speaker desires to omit a place othe= r than the x1 place? (Presumably it is obvious or, for one reason or anothe= r, not worth saying.) Places at the end may simply be dropped: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e2d5"/> + + + mi klama la bastn. la .atlantas. + I go to-Boston from-Atlanta (via an unspecified route, usin= g an unspecified means). + =20 + + + =20 + + unspecified sumtinon-trailing=20 + has empty x4 and x5 places:= the speaker does not specify the route or the means of transport. However,= simple omission will not work for a place when the places around it are to= be specified: in + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e2d6"/> + + + mi klama la bastn. la .atlantas. le karce + I go to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the car. + + + + le karce occupies the x4 place, and therefore= =20 + means: +

+ I go to Boston from Atlanta, using the car as a route. +

+ This is nonsense, since a car cannot be a route. What the speake= r presumably meant is expressed by: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e2d7"/> +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>unspecified route</primary><secondary= >example</secondary></indexterm> + + + mi klama la bastn. la .atlantas. zo'e le karce + I go to-Boston from-Atlanta via-something-unspecified using= -the car. + + + place structuresomitting places with zo'e place structureleaving a sumti place unspecified in with zo'e <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">bridileav= ing a sumti place unspecified in with zo'e zo'eas place-ho= lder for unspecified sumti unspecified sumtiusing zo'e as = place-holder for Here the sumti cmavo=20 + zo'e is used to explicitly fill the x4 place;=20 + zo'e means=20 + the unspecified thing and has the same meaning as leavi= ng the place empty: the listener must infer the correct meaning from contex= t. +

+ Tagging places: FA + The following cmavo are discussed in this section: + + + fa + FA + tags x1 place + + + fe + FA + tags x2 place + + + fi + FA + tags x3 place + + + fo + FA + tags x4 place + + + fu + FA + tags x5 place + + + fi'a + =20 + FA + place structure question + + + FA selma'osyntax of In sentences like=20 + , it is easy to get lost and= forget which sumti falls in which place, especially if the sumti are more = complicated than simple names or descriptions. The place structure tags of = selma'o FA may be used to help clarify place structures. The five cmavo=20 + fa,=20 + fe,=20 + fi,=20 + fo, and=20 + fu may be inserted just before the sumti in the x1 to x= 5 places respectively: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d1"/> + + + fa mi cu klama fe la bastn. fi la .atlantas. fo le dargu fu l= e karce + x1=3D I go x2=3D Boston x3=3D Atlanta x4=3D the road x5=3D = the car. + I go to Boston from Atlanta via the road using the car. + =20 + =20 + + + FA selma'ofor accessing a selbri place explicitly by relative number sumti<= /primary>explicitly mapping into place structure with FA place struc= tureexplicitly mapping sumti to place with FA place struct= ureeffect of FA on FA selma'oeffect o= n place structure In=20 + , the tag=20 + fu before=20 + le karce clarifies that=20 + le karce occupies the x5 place of=20 + klama. The use of=20 + fu tells us nothing about the purpose or meaning of the= x5 place; it simply says that=20 + le karce occupies it. + In=20 + , the tags are overkill; the= y serve only to make=20 + even longer than it is. Her= e is a better illustration of the use of FA tags for clarification: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d2"/> + + + fa mi klama fe le zdani be mi be'o poi nurma vau fi la nu,IOR= K. + x1=3D I go x2=3D (the house of me) which is-rural x3=3D New= York. + + + In=20 + , the place structure of=20 + klama is as follows: + + + + x1 + agent + mi + + + x2 + destination + le zdani be mi be'o poi nurma vau + + + x3 + origin + la nu,IORK. + + + x4 + route + (empty) + + + x5 + means + (empty) + + + FA selma'oas a reminder of place in place structure The=20 + fi tag serves to remind the hearer that what follows is= in the x3 place of=20 + klama; after listening to the complex sumti occupying t= he x2 place, it's easy to get lost. + sumtire-ordering with FA selbri-first bridispecifying = first sumti place in with fa place structure ordereffect o= f FA on FA selma'oeffect on place structure order Of course, once the sumti have been tagged, the order in wh= ich they are specified no longer carries the burden of distinguishing the p= laces. Therefore, it is perfectly all right to scramble them into any order= desired, and to move the selbri to anywhere in the bridi, even the beginni= ng: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d3"/> + + + klama fa mi fi la .atlantas. fu le karce fe la bastn. fo le d= argu + go x1=3D I x3=3D Atlanta x5=3D the car x2=3D Boston x4=3D t= he road. + Go I from Atlanta using the car to Boston via the road. + + + selbri-first bridi= effect on use of cu cueffect of selbr= i-first bridi on Note that no=20 + cu is permitted before the selbri in=20 + , because=20 + cu separates the selbri from any preceding sumti, and= =20 + has no such sumti. + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d4"/> + + + fu le karce fo le dargu fi la .atlantas. fe la bastn. cu klam= a fa mi + x5=3D the car x4=3D the road x3=3D Atlanta x2=3D Boston go = x1=3DI + Using the car, via the road, from Atlanta to Boston go I.= + + + + exhibits the reverse of t= he standard bridi form seen in=20 + =20 + and=20 + , but still means exactly th= e same thing. If the FA tags were left out, however, producing: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d5"/> + + + le karce le dargu la .atlantas. la bastn. cu klama mi + The car to-the road from-Atlanta via-Boston goes using-me.<= /gloss> + The car goes to the road from Atlanta, with Boston as the= route, using me as a means of transport. + + + the meaning would be wholly changed, and in fact nonsensical. + zo'ecompared with FA for omitting places FA selma'ocom= pared with zo'e for omitting places place structuresomitti= ng places with FA Tagging places with FA cmavo make= s it easy not only to reorder the places but also to omit undesirable ones,= without any need for=20 + zo'e or special rules about the x1 place: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d6"/> + + + klama fi la .atlantas. fe la bastn. fu le karce + A-goer x3=3D Atlanta x2=3D Boston x5 =3D the car. + A goer from Atlanta to Boston using the car. + + + Here the x1 and x4 places are empty, and so no sumti are tagged = with=20 + fa or=20 + fo; in addition, the x2 and x3 places appear in reverse= order. + FA selma'oeffect on subsequent non-tagged places What if some sumti have FA tags and others do not? The rule is that after= a FA-tagged sumti, any sumti following it occupy the places numerically su= cceeding it, subject to the proviso that an already-filled place is skipped= : + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d7"/> + + + klama fa mi la bastn. la .atlantas. le dargu le karce + Go x1=3D I x2=3D Boston x3=3D Atlanta x4=3D the road x5=3D = the car. + Go I to Boston from Atlanta via the road using the car. + =20 + + + In=20 + , the=20 + fa causes=20 + mi to occupy the x1 place, and then the following untag= ged sumti occupy in order the x2 through x5 places. This is the mechanism b= y which Lojban allows placing the selbri first while specifying a sumti for= the x1 place. + Here is a more complex (and more confusing) example: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d8"/> + + + mi klama fi la .atlantas. le dargu fe la bastn. le karce + I go x3=3D Atlanta, the road x2=3D Boston, the car. + I go from Atlanta via the road to Boston using the car. + + + In=20 + ,=20 + mi occupies the x1 place because it is the first sumti = in the sentence (and is before the selbri). The second sumti,=20 + la .atlantas., occupies the x3 place by virtue = of the tag=20 + =20 + fi, and=20 + le dargu occupies the x4 place as a result of f= ollowing=20 + la .atlantas.. Finally,=20 + la bastn. occupies the x2 place because of its = tag=20 + fe, and=20 + le karce skips over the already-occupied x3 and= x4 places to land in the x5 place. + FA selma'oavoidance of complex usage of Such a = convoluted use of tags should probably be avoided except when trying for a = literal translation of some English (or other natural-language) sentence; t= he rules stated here are merely given so that some standard interpretation = is possible. + multiple sumti in= one placemeaning sumtimultiple in on= e place with FA FA selma'ofor putting more than one sumti = in a single place It is grammatically permitted to = tag more than one sumti with the same FA cmavo. The effect is that of makin= g more than one claim: + + + <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>to movie</primary><secondary>hou= se</secondary><tertiary>office: example</tertiary></indexterm> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d9"/> + + + [fa] la rik. fa la djein. klama [fe] le skina fe le zdani fe = le zarci + [x1=3D] Rick x1=3D Jane goes-to [x2=3D] the movie x2=3D the= house x2=3D the office + + + + multiple sumti in one plac= eavoiding may be taken to say = that both Rick and Jane go to the movie, the house, and the office, merging= six claims into one. More likely, however, it will simply confuse the list= ener. There are better ways, involving logical connectives (explained in=20 + ), to say such things in Lojban= . In fact, putting more than one sumti into a place is odd enough that it c= an only be done by explicit FA usage: this is the motivation for the provis= o above, that already-occupied places are skipped. In this way, no sumti ca= n be forced into a place already occupied unless it has an explicit FA cmav= o tagging it. + + + questions<= secondary>place structure position place structure questions The cmavo=20 + fi'a also belongs to selma'o FA, and allows Lojban user= s to ask questions about place structures. A bridi containing=20 + =20 + fi'a is a question, asking the listener to supply the a= ppropriate other member of FA which will make the bridi a true statement: + =20 + + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>give or receive</primary><secondary>e= xample</secondary></indexterm> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d10"/> + + + fi'a do dunda [fe] le vi rozgu + =20 + [what place]? you give x2=3D the nearby rose + In what way are you involved in the giving of this rose? + Are you the giver or the receiver of this rose? + + + In=20 + , the speaker uses the selbr= i=20 + dunda, whose place structure is: + + dunda x1 gives x2 to x3 + + answers= to place structure questions The tagged = sumti=20 + fi'a do indicates that the speaker wishes to kn= ow whether the sumti=20 + =20 + do falls in the x1 or the x3 place (the x2 place is alr= eady occupied by=20 + le rozgu). The listener can reply with a senten= ce consisting solely of a FA cmavo:=20 + fa if the listener is the giver,=20 + fi if he/she is the receiver. + fi'aeffect on subsequent untagged sumti I have = inserted the tag=20 + fe in brackets into=20 + , but it is actually not nec= essary, because=20 + fi'a does not count as a numeric tag; therefore,=20 + =20 + le vi rozgu would necessarily be in the x2 plac= e even if no tag were present, because it immediately follows the selbri. + There is also another member of FA, namely=20 + fai, which is discussed in=20 + . +

+ Conversion: SE + The following cmavo are discussed in this section: + + + se + SE + 2nd place conversion + + + te + SE + 3rd place conversion + + + ve + SE + 4th place conversion + + + xe + SE + 5th place conversion + + + SE selma'ofor converting place structure SE selma'oeffe= ct on selbri place structure converted selbrias different = selbri from unconverted converted selbriplace structure of= con= verted selbriforming with SE = converted selbridefinition So far we have seen ways to move= sumti around within a bridi, but the actual place structure of the selbri = has always remained untouched. The conversion cmavo of selma'o SE are incor= porated within the selbri itself, and produce a new selbri (called a conver= ted selbri) with a different place structure. In particular, after the appl= ication of any SE cmavo, the number and purposes of the places remain the s= ame, but two of them have been exchanged, the x1 place and another. Which p= lace has been exchanged with x1 depends on the cmavo chosen. Thus, for exam= ple, when=20 + =20 + se is used, the x1 place is swapped with the x2 place.<= /para> + SE selma'oword formation of cmavo in SE selma'orationa= le for no 1st place conversion Note that the cmavo = of SE begin with consecutive consonants in alphabetical order. There is no= =20 + 1st place conversion cmavo, because exchanging the x1 p= lace with itself is a pointless maneuver. + se klamaplace structure of Here are the place s= tructures of=20 + se klama: + + x1 is the destination of x2's going from x3 via x4 using x5= + + and=20 + te klama: + + x1 is the origin and x2 the destination of x3 going via x4 = using x5 + + and=20 + ve klama: + =20 + + x1 is the route to x2 from x3 used by x4 going via x5 + + and=20 + xe klama: + + x1 is the means in going to x2 from x3 via x4 employed by x= 5 + + SE selma'oeffect on place structure numbering N= ote that the place structure numbers in each case continue to be listed in = the usual order, x1 to x5. + Consider the following pair of examples: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e4d1"/> + + + la bastn. cu se klama mi + Boston is-the-destination of-me. + Boston is my destination. + Boston is gone to by me. + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e4d2"/> + + + fe la bastn. cu klama fa mi + x2 =3D Boston go x1=3DI. + To Boston go I. + + + converted selbri<= /primary>as resetting standard order FA in selbricompared with converted selbri in meaning converted selbricompared with selbri with FA in meaning FA in selbricont= rasted converted selbri with in structure converted selbri= contrasted with selbri with FA in structure=20 + and=20 + mean the same thing, in the= sense that there is a relationship of going with the speaker as the agent = and Boston as the destination (and with unspecified origin, route, and mean= s). Structurally, however, they are quite different.=20 + =20 + has=20 + la bastn. in the x1 place and=20 + mi in the x2 place of the selbri=20 + se klama, and uses standard bridi order;=20 + has=20 + mi in the x1 place and=20 + la bastn. in the x2 place of the selbri=20 + klama, and uses a non-standard order. + LE selma'o LA s= elma'o converted selbriin descriptions The most important use of conversion is in the construction of descripti= ons. A description is a sumti which begins with a cmavo of selma'o LA or LE= , called the descriptor, and contains (in the simplest case) a selbri. We h= ave already seen the descriptions=20 + le dargu and=20 + le karce. To this we could add: + + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>the go-er</primary><secondary>example= </secondary></indexterm> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e4d3"/> + + + le klama + the go-er, the one who goes + =20 + + + =20 + + + converted selbri= to access non-first place in description= descriptionsuse of SE in descriptionsas based on first place of = following selbri In every case, the description is = about something which fits into the x1 place of the selbri. In order to get= a description of a destination (that is, something fitting the x2 place of= =20 + klama), we must convert the selbri to=20 + se klama, whose x1 place is a destination. The = result is + + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>the destination</primary><secondary>e= xample</secondary></indexterm> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e4d4"/> + + + le se klama + the destination gone to by someone + =20 + + + Likewise, we can create three more converted descriptions: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e4d5"/> + + + le te klama + the origin of someone's going + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e4d6"/> + + + le ve klama + =20 + the route of someone's going + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e4d7"/> + + + le xe klama + the means by which someone goes + + + pluta ve klama<= /primary> =20 + +Mars roadexample= + + pluta= contrasted with ve klama ve klamacontrasted with pluta convert= ed selbriretention of basic meaning in converted selbricontrasted with other similar selbri=20 + does not mean=20 + the route plain and simple: that is=20 + le pluta, using a different selbri. It means a = route that is used by someone for an act of=20 + =20 + =20 + klama; that is, a journey with origin and destination. = A=20 + road on Mars, on which no one has traveled or is ever l= ikely to, may be called=20 + le pluta, but it cannot be=20 + =20 + =20 + le ve klama, since there exists no one for whom= it is=20 + =20 + le ve klama be fo da (the route taken in an act= ual journey by someone [da]). + =20 + conversionextending scope of conversionscope of SE selma= 'oextending scope of SE selma'oscope = of When converting selbri that are more complex tha= n a single brivla, it is important to realize that the scope of a SE cmavo = is only the following brivla (or equivalent unit). In order to convert an e= ntire tanru, it is necessary to enclose the tanru in=20 + =20 + ke…ke'e brackets: + + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>blue house</primary><secondary>exampl= e</secondary></indexterm> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e4d8"/> + + + mi se ke blanu zdani [ke'e] ti + I [2nd conversion] blue house this-thing + + + The place structure of=20 + blanu zdani (blue house) is the same as that of= =20 + zdani, by the rule given in=20 + . The place struct= ure of=20 + zdani is: + + zdani x1 is a house/nest/lair/den for inhabi= tant x2 + + The place structure of=20 + se ke blanu zdani [ke'e] is therefore: + + x1 is the inhabitant of the blue house (etc.) x2 + + Consequently,=20 + means: +

+ I am the inhabitant of the blue house which is this thing. +

+ Conversion applied to only part of a tanru has subtler effects w= hich are explained in=20 + . + multiple conversi= oneffect of ordering conversioneffect= of multiple on a selbri multiple SEeffect of ordering SE selm= a'oeffect of multiple on a selbri It is grammatical to convert a selbri more than once with SE; later (in= ner) conversions are applied before earlier (outer) ones. For example, the = place structure of=20 + se te klama is achieved by exchanging the x1 an= d x2 place of=20 + =20 + te klama, producing: + se te + + x1 is the destination and x2 is the origin of x3 going via = x4 using x5 + + On the other hand,=20 + te se klama has a place structure derived from = swapping the x1 and x3 places of=20 + se klama: + + x1 is the origin of x2's going to x3 via x4 using x5 + + multiple conversi= onavoiding which is quite diff= erent. However, multiple conversions like this are never necessary. Arbitra= ry scrambling of places can be achieved more easily and far more intelligib= ly with FA tags, and only a single conversion is ever needed in a descripti= on. + conversionswapping non-first places (Although no= one has made any real use of it, it is perhaps worth noting that compound = conversions of the form=20 + setese, where the first and third cmavo are the= same, effectively swap the two given places while leaving the others, incl= uding x1, alone:=20 + =20 + setese (or equivalently=20 + =20 + tesete) swap the x2 and x3 places, whereas=20 + texete (or=20 + xetexe) swap the x3 and x5 places.) +

+ Modal places: FIhO, FEhU + The following cmavo are discussed in this section: + + + fi'o + FIhO + modal place prefix + + + fe'u + FEhU + modal terminator + + + Sometimes the place structures engineered into Lojban are inadeq= uate to meet the needs of actual speech. Consider the gismu=20 + viska, whose place structure is: + + viska x1 sees x2 under conditions x3 + + Seeing is a threefold relationship, involving an agent (le viska= ), an object of sight (le se viska), and an environment that makes seeing p= ossible (le te viska). Seeing is done with one or more eyes, of course; in = general, the eyes belong to the entity in the x1 place. + =20 + + + fi'ou= se in adding places to place structure place structureaddi= ng new places to with modal sumti fi'oas modal tag Suppose, however, that you are blind in one eye and are t= alking to someone who doesn't know that. You might want to say,=20 + I see you with the left eye. There is no place in the p= lace structure of=20 + viska such as=20 + with eye x4 or the like. Lojban allows you to solve the= problem by adding a new place, changing the relationship: + + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>see with left eye</primary><secondary= >example</secondary></indexterm> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e5d1"/> + + + mi viska do fi'o kanla [fe'u] le zunle + I see you [modal] eye: the left-thing + I see you with the left eye. + + + fi'o with selbri<= /primary>meaning of modal tagfi'o with selbri a= s fi= 'oeffect on following selbri T= he three-place relation=20 + viska has now acquired a fourth place specifying the ey= e used for seeing. The combination of the cmavo=20 + fi'o (of selma'o FIhO) followed by a selbri, in this ca= se the gismu=20 + kanla, forms a tag which is prefixed to the sumti filli= ng the new place, namely=20 + le zunle. The semantics of=20 + fi'o kanla le zunle is that=20 + le zunle fills the x1 place of=20 + kanla, whose place structure is + + kanla x1 is an/the eye of body x2 + + modal sumtias first place of modal tag selbri = modal place relationimportance of first place in fi'o tagrelation = of modal sumti following to selbri modal placerelation of = to selbri Thus=20 + le zunle is an eye. The x2 place of=20 + kanla is unspecified and must be inferred from the cont= ext. It is important to remember that even though=20 + le zunle is placed following=20 + fi'o kanla, semantically it belongs in the x1 p= lace of=20 + kanla. The selbri may be terminated with=20 + fe'u (of selma'o FEhU), an elidable terminator which is= rarely required unless a non-logical connective follows the tag (omitting= =20 + fe'u in that case would make the connective affect the = selbri). + modal sumtiand FA marking modal sumtieffect on place s= tructure modal sumtiposition in bridi seltcita sumti= definition (see also modal sumti) sumti tcitade= finition (see also modal tag) modal sumtidefinition (see a= lso seltcita sumti) modal tagdefinition (see also sumti tc= ita) modal placerationale for term name modal place<= secondary>definition The term for such an added pla= ce is a=20 + modal place, as distinguished from the regular numbered= places. (This use of the word=20 + modal is specific to the Loglan Project, and does not a= gree with the standard uses in either logic or linguistics, but is now too = entrenched to change easily.) The=20 + fi'o construction marking a modal place is called a=20 + modal tag, and the sumti which follows it a=20 + modal sumti; the purely Lojban terms=20 + =20 + =20 + sumti tcita and=20 + seltcita sumti, respectively, are also commonly= used. Modal sumti may be placed anywhere within the bridi, in any order; t= hey have no effect whatever on the rules for assigning unmarked bridi to nu= mbered places, and they may not be marked with FA cmavo. + =20 + Consider=20 + again. Another way to view = the situation is to consider the speaker's left eye as a tool, a tool for s= eeing. The relevant selbri then becomes=20 + pilno, whose place structure is + + pilno x1 uses x2 as a tool for purpose x3 + + and we can rewrite=20 + as + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e5d2"/> + + + mi viska do fi'o se pilno le zunle kanla + I see you [modal] [conversion] use: the left eye. + I see you using my left eye. + + + Here the selbri belonging to the modal is=20 + se pilno. The conversion of=20 + pilno is necessary in order to get the=20 + tool place into x1, since only x1 can be the modal sumt= i. The=20 + =20 + =20 + tool user place is the x2 of=20 + se pilno (because it is the x1 of=20 + pilno) and remains unspecified. The tag=20 + fi'o pilno would mean=20 + with tool user, leaving the tool unspecified. +

+ Modal tags: BAI + There are certain selbri which seem particularly useful in const= ructing modal tags. In particular,=20 + pilno is one of them. The place structure of=20 + pilno is: + + pilno x1 uses x2 as a tool for purpose x3 + + BAI modal tagsrationale for and almost any selbr= i which represents an action may need to specify a tool. Having to say=20 + fi'o se pilno frequently would make many Lojban= sentences unnecessarily verbose and clunky, so an abbreviation is provided= in the language design: the compound cmavo=20 + sepi'o. + =20 + conversionof BAI cmavo modal tagsshort forms as BAI cm= avo = fi'o constructsshort forms as BAI cmavo BAI selma'oas short forms for fi'o constructs He= re=20 + se is used before a cmavo, namely=20 + pi'o, rather than before a brivla. The meaning of this = cmavo, which belongs to selma'o BAI, is exactly the same as that of=20 + =20 + fi'o pilno fe'u. Since what we want is a tag ba= sed on=20 + se pilno rather than=20 + pilno- the tool, not the tool user – the = grammar allows a BAI cmavo to be converted using a SE cmavo.=20 + may therefore be rewritten = as: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e6d1"/> + + + mi viska do sepi'o le zunle kanla + =20 + I see you with-tool: the left eye + I see you using my left eye. + + + The compound cmavo=20 + sepi'o is much shorter than=20 + =20 + fi'o se pilno [fe'u] and can be thought of as a= single word meaning=20 + with-tool. The modal tag=20 + pi'o, with no=20 + =20 + se, similarly means=20 + with-tool-user, probably a less useful concept. Neverth= eless, the parallelism with the place structure of=20 + pilno makes the additional syllable worthwhile. + conversioneffect on BAI BAI selma'oeffect of conversion= on Some BAI cmavo make sense with as well as witho= ut a SE cmavo; for example,=20 + ka'a, the BAI corresponding to the gismu=20 + =20 + klama, has five usable forms corresponding to the five = places of=20 + klama respectively: + + + ka'a + with-goer + + + + seka'a + with-destination + + + teka'a + with-origin + + + veka'a + with-route + + + xeka'a + with-means-of-transport + + + Any of these tags may be used to provide modal places for bridi,= as in the following examples: + + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Avon</primary><secondary>example</sec= ondary></indexterm> + <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>traveling salesperson</primary><sec= ondary>example</secondary></indexterm> ( + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e6d2"/> + + + la .eivn. cu vecnu loi flira cinta ka'a mi + =20 + Avon sells a-mass-of face paint with-goer me. + =20 + I am a traveling cosmetics salesperson for Avon. + =20 + + + =20 + + +=20 + may seem a bit strained, bu= t it illustrates the way in which an existing selbri,=20 + vecnu in this case, may have a place added to it which = might otherwise seem utterly unrelated.) + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e6d3"/> + + + mi cadzu seka'a la bratfyd. + I walk with-destination Bradford. + I am walking to Bradford. + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e6d4"/> + + + bloti teka'a la nu,IORK. + [Observative:] is-a-boat with-origin New York + A boat from New York! + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e6d5"/> + + + do bajra veka'a lo djine + You run with-route a circle. + You are running in circles. + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e6d6"/> + + + mi citka xeka'a le vinji + I eat with-means-of-transport the airplane. + I eat in the airplane. + + + English prepositi= onscontrasted with modal tags in preciseness modal tagscontrasted with English prepositions in preciseness BAI cmavo= rationale for selection There = are sixty-odd cmavo of selma'o BAI, based on selected gismu that seemed use= ful in a variety of settings. The list is somewhat biased toward English, b= ecause many of the cmavo were selected on the basis of corresponding Englis= h prepositions and preposition compounds such as with,=20 + without, and=20 + by means of. The BAI cmavo, however, are far more preci= se than English prepositions, because their meanings are fixed by the place= structures of the corresponding gismu. + =20 + BAI selma'oform of cmavo in All BAI cmavo have = the form CV'V or CVV. Most of them are CV'V, where the C is the first conso= nant of the corresponding gismu and the two Vs are the two vowels of the gi= smu. The table in=20 + shows the exceptions. + vague relationship= modal tag for modal tagfor vague rela= tionship There is one additional BAI cmavo that is = not derived from a gismu:=20 + do'e. This cmavo is used when an extra place is needed,= but it seems useful to be vague about the semantic implications of the ext= ra place: + =20 + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e6d7"/> + + + lo nanmu be do'e le berti cu klama le tcadu + =20 + Some man [related to] the north came to-the city. + A man of the north came to the city. + + + modal placeon description = selbri "of"in Englishcompa= red with do'e = do'ecompared with English "of" Here=20 + le berti is provided as a modal place of the se= lbri=20 + nanmu, but its exact significance is vague, and is para= lleled in the colloquial translation by the vague English preposition=20 + of.=20 + also illustrates a modal pl= ace bound into a selbri with=20 + be. This construction is useful when the selbri of a de= scription requires a modal place; this and other uses of=20 + be are more fully explained in=20 + . +

+ Modal sentence connection: the causals + =20 + The following cmavo are discussed in this section: + + + ri'a + BAI + rinka modal: physical cause + + + ki'u + =20 + BAI + krinu modal: justification + + + mu'i + =20 + BAI + mukti modal: motivation + + + ni'i + =20 + BAI + nibli modal: logical entailment + + + This section has two purposes. On the one hand, it explains the = grammatical construct called=20 + modal sentence connection. On the other, it exemplifies= some of the more useful BAI cmavo: the causals. (There are other BAI cmavo= which have causal implications:=20 + =20 + =20 + ja'e means=20 + with result, and so=20 + seja'e means=20 + with cause of unspecified nature; likewise,=20 + gau means=20 + with agent and=20 + tezu'e means=20 + with purpose. These other modal cmavo will not be furth= er discussed here, as my purpose is to explain modal sentence connection ra= ther than Lojbanic views of causation.) + =20 + =20 + causals= gismu There are four causal gismu in Loj= ban, distinguishing different versions of the relationships lumped in Engli= sh as=20 + causal: + + + rinka + event x1 physically causes event x2= + + + krinu + event x1 is the justification for e= vent x2 + + + mukti + event x1 is the (human) motive for = event x2 + + + nibli + event x1 logically entails event x2= + + + modal causalsimplication differences causalsmodal modalsfor causal gismu Each of these g= ismu has a related modal:=20 + ri'a,=20 + ki'u,=20 + =20 + mu'i, and=20 + =20 + ni'i respectively. Using these gismu and these modals, = we can create various causal sentences with different implications: + =20 + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e7d1"/> + + + le spati cu banro ri'a le nu do djacu dunda fi le spati + The plant grows with-physical-cause the event-of you water = give to the plant. + The plant grows because you water it. + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e7d2"/> + + + la djan. cpacu le pamoi se jinga ki'u le nu la djan. jinga + =20 + John gets the first prize with-justification the event-of J= ohn wins. + John got the first prize because he won. + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e7d3"/> + + + mi lebna le cukta mu'i le nu mi viska le cukta + =20 + I took the book with-motivation the event-of I saw the book= . + I took the book because I saw it. + + + + +<indexterm type=3D"ekxample-imported"><primary>Socrates</primary><secondar= y>example</secondary></indexterm> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e7d4"/> + + + la sokrates. morsi binxo ni'i le nu la sokrates. remna + =20 + Socrates dead-became with-logical-justification Socrates is= -human. + =20 + Socrates died because Socrates is human. + =20 + + + =20 + + + "because"English wordfour varieties of= In=20 + through=20 + , the same English word=20 + because is used to translate all four modals, but the t= ypes of cause being expressed are quite different. Let us now focus on=20 + , and explore some variation= s on it. + causals= claiming the relation contrasted with claiming cause and/or effe= ct and/or relation abstraction bridieffect on claim of bri= di As written,=20 + claims that the plant grows= , but only refers to the event of watering it in an abstraction bridi (abst= ractions are explained in=20 + =20 + ) without actually making a cl= aim. If I express=20 + , I have said that the plant= in fact grows, but I have not said that you actually water it, merely that= there is a causal relationship between watering and growing. This is seman= tically asymmetrical. Suppose I wanted to claim that the plant was being wa= tered, and only mention its growth as ancillary information? Then we could = reverse the main bridi and the abstraction bridi, saying: + =20 + + + <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>plant grows</primary><secondary>exa= mple</secondary></indexterm>=20 + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e7d5"/> + + + do djacu dunda fi le spati seri'a le nu ri banro + You water-give to the plant with-physical-effect it grows.<= /gloss> + You water the plant; therefore, it grows. + + + with the=20 + ri'a changed to=20 + seri'a. In addition, there are also symmetrical forms:<= /para> + + + <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>plant grows</primary><secondary>exa= mple</secondary></indexterm>=20 + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e7d6"/> + + + le nu do djacu dunda fi le spati cu rinka le nu le spati cu b= anro + The event-of (you water-give to the plant) causes the event= -of (the plant grows). + Your watering the plant causes its growth. If you water t= he plant, then it grows. + + + does not claim either event, but asserts only the causal relatio= nship between them. So in=20 + , I am not saying that the p= lant grows nor that you have in fact watered it. The second colloquial tran= slation shows a form of=20 + if-then in English quite distinct from the logical conn= ective=20 + if-then explained in=20 + . + Suppose we wish to claim both events as well as their causal rel= ationship? We can use one of two methods: + + + <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>plant grows</primary><secondary>exa= mple</secondary></indexterm>=20 + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e7d7"/> + + + le spati cu banro .iri'abo do djacu dunda fi le spati + =20 + The plant grows. Because you water-give to the plant. + The plant grows because you water it. + + + modal sentence con= nection + + + <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>plant grows</primary><secondary>exa= mple</secondary></indexterm>=20 + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e7d8"/> + + + do djacu dunda fi le spati .iseri'abo le spati cu banro + You water-give to the plant. Therefore it grows. + You water the plant; therefore, it grows. + + + The compound cmavo=20 + .iri'abo and=20 + =20 + .iseri'abo serve to connect two bridi, as the i= nitial=20 + i indicates. The final=20 + bo is necessary to prevent the modal from=20 + taking over the following sumti. If the=20 + bo were omitted from=20 + we would have: + + + <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>plant grows</primary><secondary>exa= mple</secondary></indexterm>=20 + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e7d9"/> + + + le spati cu banro .i ri'a do djacu dunda fi le spati + The plant grows. Because of you, [something] water-gives to= the plant. + The plant grows. Because of you, water is given to the pl= ant. + + + Because=20 + ri'a do is a modal sumti in=20 + =20 + =20 + , there is no longer an expl= icit sumti in the x1 place of=20 + djacu dunda, and the translation must be change= d. + modal sentence co= nnectionrelation to modal of second sentence in modal sent= ence connectionrelation to modal of first sentence in<= /secondary> moda= l sentence connectioneffect on modal The effect of sentences like=20 + and=20 + is that the modal,=20 + ri'a in this example, no longer modifies an explicit su= mti. Instead, the sumti is implicit, the event given by a full bridi. Furth= ermore, there is a second implication: that the first bridi fills the x2 pl= ace of the gismu=20 + rinka; it specifies an event which is the effect. I am = therefore claiming three things: that the plant grows, that you have watere= d it, and that there is a cause-and-effect relationship between the two. + modal sentence co= nnectionwith other than causals In principle, any modal tag can appear in a sentence connective of the ty= pe exemplified by=20 + and=20 + . However, it makes little s= ense to use any modals which do not expect events or other abstractions to = fill the places of the corresponding gismu. The sentence connective=20 + .ibaubo is perfectly grammatical, but it is har= d to imagine any two sentences which could be connected by an=20 + in-language modal. This is because a sentence describes= an event, and an event can be a cause or an effect, but not a language. +

+ Other modal connections + Like many Lojban grammatical constructions, sentence modal conne= ction has both forethought and afterthought forms. (See=20 + for a more detailed discussion= of Lojban connectives.)=20 + exemplifies only afterthought moda= l connection, illustrated here by: + + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>grasp water</primary><secondary>examp= le</secondary></indexterm> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d1"/> + + + mi jgari lei djacu .iri'abo mi jgari le kabri + I grasp the-mass-of water with-physical-cause I grasp the c= up. + Causing the mass of water to be grasped by me, I grasped th= e cup. + I grasp the water because I grasp the cup. + + + =20 + + + forethought connectiondefinition afterthought connectiondefinit= ion An afterthought connection is one that is signa= led only by a cmavo (or a compound cmavo, in this case) between the two con= structs being connected. Forethought connection uses a signal both before t= he first construct and between the two: the use of=20 + =20 + both and=20 + and in the first half of this sentence represents a for= ethought connection (though not a modal one). + =20 + =20 + modal sentence con= nectionforethought forethought modal sentence connection To make forethought modal sentence connections in Lojb= an, place the modal plus=20 + gi before the first bridi, and=20 + gi between the two. No=20 + i is used within the construct. The forethought equival= ent of=20 + is: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d2"/> + + + ri'agi mi jgari le kabri gi mi jgari lei djacu + With-physical-cause I grasp the cup, I grasp the-mass-of wa= ter. + Because I grasp the cup, I grasp the water. + + + forethought modal= sentence connectionrelation to modal of second bridi = in f= orethought modal sentence connectionrelation to modal = of first bridi in forethought modal sentence connection for causalsorder of cause and effect Note that the ca= use, the x1 of=20 + rinka is now placed first. To keep the two bridi in the= original order of=20 + , we could say: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d3"/> + + + seri'agi mi jgari lei djacu gi mi jgari le kabri + With-physical-effect I grasp the-mass-of water, I grasp the= cup. + + + In English, the sentence=20 + Therefore I grasp the water, I grasp the cup is ungramm= atical, because=20 + therefore is not grammatically equivalent to=20 + because. In Lojban,=20 + seri'agi can be used just like=20 + ri'agi. + modal sentence co= nnectioncondensing When the tw= o bridi joined by a modal connection have one or more elements (selbri or s= umti or both) in common, there are various condensed forms that can be used= in place of full modal sentence connection with both bridi completely stat= ed. + =20 + sumti modal conne= ction = modal sumti connection When the bridi are the same ex= cept for a single sumti, as in Examples 8.1 through 8.3, then a sumti modal= connection may be employed: + =20 + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d4"/> + + + mi jgari ri'agi le kabri gi lei djacu + I grasp because the cup, the-mass-of water. + + + + means exactly the same as= =20 + through=20 + , but there is no idiomatic = English translation that will distinguish it from them. + termset modal con= nection modalstermset connection If = the two connected bridi are different in more than one sumti, then a termse= t may be employed. Termsets are explained more fully in=20 + , but are essentially a mechanism = for creating connections between multiple sumti simultaneously. + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d5"/> + + + mi dunda le cukta la djan. .imu'ibo la djan. dunda lei jdini = mi + I gave the book to John. Motivated-by John gave the-mass-of= money to-me. + I gave the book to John, because John gave money to me. + + + means the same as: + nu'u nu'i + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d6"/> + + + nu'i mu'igi la djan. lei jdini mi gi mi le cukta la djan. nu'= u dunda + [start] because John, the-mass-of money, me; I, the book, J= ohn [end] gives. + + + Here there are three sumti in each half of the termset, because = the two bridi share only their selbri. + bridi-tail modal = connection modal bridi-tail connection modal connection of selbriu= sing bridi-tail modal connection There is no modal = connection between selbri as such: bridi which differ only in the selbri ca= n be modally connected using bridi-tail modal connection. The bridi-tail co= nstruct is more fully explained in=20 + =20 + , but essentially it consist= s of a selbri with optional sumti following it.=20 + is suitable for bridi-tail = connection, and could be shortened to: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d7"/> + + + mi mu'igi viska le cukta gi lebna le cukta + I, because saw the book, took the book. + + + Again, no straightforward English translation exists. It is even= possible to shorten=20 + further to: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d8"/> + + + mi mu'igi viska gi lebna vau le cukta + I because saw, therefore took, the book. + + + where=20 + le cukta is set off by the non-elidable=20 + vau and is made to belong to both bridi-tails – s= ee=20 + for more explanations. + shared bridi-tail= sumtiavoiding vau for shared bridi-tail sumtiavoiding Since this is a chapter on rearra= nging sumti, it is worth pointing out that=20 + can be further rearranged t= o: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d9"/> + + + mi le cukta mu'igi viska gi lebna + I, the book, because saw, therefore took. + + + which doesn't require the extra=20 + vau; all sumti before a conjunction of bridi-tails are = shared. + operand modal con= nection modal operand connection Finally, mathematical oper= ands can be modally connected. + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d10"/> + + + li ny. du li vo .ini'ibo li ny. du li re su'i re + the number n =3D the-number 4. Entailed-by the-number n =3D= the-number 2 + 2. + n =3D 4 because n =3D 2 + 2. + + + can be reduced to: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d11"/> + + + li ny. du li ni'igi vei re su'i re [ve'o] gi vo + the-number n =3D the-number because ( 2 + 2 ) therefore 4.<= /gloss> + n is 2 + 2, and is thus 4. + + + The cmavo=20 + vei and=20 + ve'o represent mathematical parentheses, and are requir= ed so that=20 + ni'igi affects more than just the immediately f= ollowing operand, namely the first=20 + re. (The right parenthesis,=20 + ve'o, is an elidable terminator.) As usual, no English = translation does=20 + justice. + modal connectives= fi'o prohibited in fi'orestriction on= use Note: Due to restrictions on the Lojban parsin= g algorithm, it is not possible to form modal connectives using the=20 + =20 + fi'o-plus-selbri form of modal. Only the predef= ined modals of selma'o BAI can be compounded as shown in=20 + and=20 + . +

+ Modal selbri + Consider the example: + + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>under compulsion</primary><secondary>= example</secondary></indexterm> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e9d1"/> + + + mi tavla bau la lojban. bai tu'a la frank. + I speak in-language Lojban with-compeller some-act-by Frank= . + I speak in Lojban, under compulsion by Frank. + =20 + + + =20 + + + modal sumtiunspecified modal sumtileaving vague=20 + has two modal sumti, using = the modals=20 + =20 + =20 + bau and=20 + bai. Suppose we wanted to specify the language explicit= ly but be vague about who's doing the compelling. We can simplify=20 + to: + + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>under compulsion</primary><secondary>= example</secondary></indexterm> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e9d2"/> + + + mi tavla bau la lojban. bai [ku]. + I speak in-language Lojban under-compulsion. + + + In=20 + , the elidable terminator=20 + ku has taken the place of the sumti which would normall= y follow=20 + bai. Alternatively, we could specify the one who compel= s but keep the language vague: + + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>under compulsion</primary><secondary>= example</secondary></indexterm> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e9d3"/> + + + mi tavla bau [ku] bai tu'a la frank. + I speak in-some-language under-compulsion-by some-act-by Fr= ank. + + + We are also free to move the modal-plus-=20 + ku around the bridi: + + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>under compulsion</primary><secondary>= example</secondary></indexterm> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e9d4"/> + + + bau [ku] bai ku mi tavla + In-some-language under-compulsion I speak. + + + modal followed by= selbrieffect on eliding cu An= alternative to using=20 + ku is to place the modal cmavo right before the selbri,= following the=20 + =20 + cu which often appears there. When a modal is present, = the=20 + cu is almost never necessary. + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e9d5"/> + + + mi bai tavla bau la lojban. + I compelledly speak in-language Lojban. + + + modal followed by= selbricontrasted with tanru modification in grammar modal= followed by selbricompared with tanru modification in= meaning In this use, the modal is like a tanru mod= ifier semantically, although grammatically it is quite distinct.=20 + is very similar in meaning = to: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e9d6"/> + + + mi se bapli tavla bau la lojban. + I compelledly-speak in-language Lojban. + + + The=20 + se conversion is needed because=20 + bapli tavla would be a=20 + compeller type of speaker rather than a=20 + compelled (by someone) type of speaker, which is what a= =20 + bai tavla is. + fi'o modal follow= ed by selbrieffect on eliding fe'u If the modal preceding a selbri is constructed using=20 + fi'o, then=20 + fe'u is required to prevent the main selbri and the mod= al selbri from colliding: + + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>see with eye</primary><secondary>exam= ple</secondary></indexterm> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e9d7"/> + + + mi fi'o kanla fe'u viska do + I with-eye see you. + I see you with my eye(s). + + + bai ke =20 + + + modalsexpanding scope over inner modal connection modalsexpandi= ng scope over non-logical connection modalsexpanding scope= over logical connection with ke ... ke'e There are= two other uses of modals. A modal can be attached to a pair of bridi-tails= that have already been connected by a logical, non-logical, or modal conne= ction (see=20 + for more on logical and non-lo= gical connections): + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e9d8"/> + + + mi bai ke ge klama le zarci gi cadzu le bisli [ke'e] + =20 + I under-compulsion (both go to-the market and walk on-the i= ce). + Under compulsion, I both go to the market and walk on the= ice. + + + Here the=20 + bai is spread over both=20 + klama le zarci and=20 + cadzu le bisli, and the=20 + ge ... gi represents the logical connection=20 + both-and between the two. + modalsexpanding scope over multiple sentences with tu'e=E2=80=A6tu'u Similarly, a modal can be attached to multiple sentenc= es that have been combined with=20 + tu'e and=20 + tu'u, which are explained in more detail in=20 + : + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e9d9"/> + + + bai tu'e mi klama le zarci .i mi cadzu le bisli [tu'u] + Under-compulsion [start] I go to-the market. I walk on-the = ice [end]. + + + means the same thing as=20 + . + Note: Either BAI modals or=20 + fi'o-plus-selbri modals may correctly be used i= n any of the constructions discussed in this section. +

+ Modal relative phrases; Comparison + The following cmavo are discussed in this section: + + + pe + GOI + restrictive relative phrase + + + ne + GOI + incidental relative phrase + + + mau + =20 + BAI + zmadu modal + + + me'a + =20 + BAI + mleca modal + + + Relative phrases and clauses are explained in much more detail i= n=20 + . However, there is a cons= truction which combines a modal with a relative phrase which is relevant to= this chapter. Consider the following examples of relative clauses: + + + <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Artur Rubenstein</primary><secondar= y>example</secondary></indexterm> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d1"/> + + + la .apasionatas. poi se cusku la .artr. rubnstain. cu se nelc= i mi + The Appassionata which is-expressed-by Arthur Rubinstein is= -liked-by me. + =20 + + + + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Beethoven</primary><secondary>example= </secondary></indexterm> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d2"/> + + + la .apasionatas. noi se finti la betovn. cu se nelci mi + The Appassionata, which is-created-by Beethoven, is-liked-b= y me. + =20 + =20 + + + + + + In=20 + ,=20 + la .apasionatas. refers to a particular perform= ance of the sonata, namely the one performed by Rubinstein. Therefore, the = relative clause=20 + poi se cusku uses the cmavo=20 + poi (of selma'o NOI) to restrict the meaning of=20 + la .apasionatas to the performance in question.= + In=20 + , however,=20 + la .apasionatas. refers to the sonata as a whol= e, and the information that it was composed by Beethoven is merely incident= al. The cmavo=20 + =20 + noi (also of selma'o NOI) expresses the incidental natu= re of this relationship. + The cmavo=20 + pe and=20 + ne (of selma'o GOI) are roughly equivalent to=20 + poi and=20 + noi respectively, but are followed by sumti rather than= full bridi. We can abbreviate=20 + and=20 + to: + + + <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Appassionata</primary><secondary>ex= ample</secondary></indexterm> + <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Artur Rubenstein</primary><secondar= y>example</secondary></indexterm> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d3"/> + + + la .apasionatas. pe la .artr. rubnstain. se nelci mi + The Appassionata of Arthur Rubinstein is-liked-by me. + =20 + + + + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Beethoven</primary><secondary>example= </secondary></indexterm> + <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Appassionata</primary><secondary>ex= ample</secondary></indexterm> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d4"/> + + + la .apasionatas. ne la betovn. se nelci mi + The Appassionata, which is of Beethoven, is-liked-by me. + =20 + =20 + + + relative phrases<= /primary>contrasted with relative clauses in preciseness Here the precise selbri of the relative clauses is lost: a= ll we can tell is that the Appassionata is connected in some way with Rubin= stein (in=20 + =20 + ) and Beethoven (in=20 + =20 + ), and that the relationship= s are respectively restrictive and incidental. + It happens that both=20 + cusku and=20 + finti have BAI cmavo, namely=20 + cu'u and=20 + =20 + fi'e. We can recast=20 + =20 + and=20 + as: + + + <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Appassionata</primary><secondary>ex= ample</secondary></indexterm> + <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Artur Rubenstein</primary><secondar= y>example</secondary></indexterm> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d5"/> + + + la .apasionatas pe cu'u la .artr. rubnstain. cu se nelci mi + =20 + The Appassionata expressed-by Arthur Rubinstein is-liked-by= me. + =20 + + + + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Beethoven</primary><secondary>example= </secondary></indexterm> + <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Appassionata</primary><secondary>ex= ample</secondary></indexterm> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d6"/> + + + la .apasionatas ne fi'e la betovn. cu se nelci mi + =20 + The Appassionata, invented-by Beethoven, is-liked-by me. + =20 + =20 + + + modals<= secondary>improving relative phrase preciseness with relative phrasesimproving preciseness with modals relative phrases with modalscompared to relative clauses in preciseness=20 + and=20 + have the full semantic cont= ent of=20 + and=20 + respectively. + "less"English= wordexpressing with relative phrases "more"English wordexpressing with relative= phrases Modal relative phrases are often used with = the BAI cmavo=20 + mau and=20 + =20 + me'a, which are based on the comparative gismu=20 + =20 + zmadu (more than) and=20 + mleca (less than) respectively. The place structures ar= e: + + + zmadu: + x1 is more than x2 in property/quan= tity x3 by amount x4 + + + mleca: + x1 is less than x2 in property/quan= tity x3 by amount x4 + + + Here are some examples: + + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>likes more than</primary><secondary>e= xample</secondary></indexterm> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d7"/> + + + la frank. nelci la betis. ne semau la meiris. + Frank likes Betty, which-is more-than Mary. + Frank likes Betty more than (he likes) Mary. + + + =20 + + +=20 + requires that Frank likes B= etty, but adds the information that his liking for Betty exceeds his liking= for Mary. The modal appears in the form=20 + semau because the x2 place of=20 + zmadu is the basis for comparison: in this case, Frank'= s liking for Mary. + =20 + =20 + + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>likes more than</primary><secondary>e= xample</secondary></indexterm> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d8"/> + + + la frank. nelci la meiris. ne seme'a la betis. + Frank likes Mary, which-is less-than Betty. + Frank likes Mary less than (he likes) Betty. + + + me'aavoiding in favor of semau mauavoiding in favor of= seme'a Here we are told that Frank likes Mary less= than he likes Betty; the information about the comparison is the same. It = would be possible to rephrase=20 + =20 + using=20 + me'a rather than=20 + =20 + semau, and=20 + using=20 + mau rather than=20 + =20 + seme'a, but such usage would be unnecessarily confusing= . Like many BAI cmavo,=20 + mau and=20 + =20 + me'a are more useful when converted with=20 + =20 + se. + "less"English= wordimportance of relative phrase to "more"English wordimportance of relative p= hrase to If the=20 + ne were omitted in=20 + and=20 + , the modal sumti (=20 + =20 + =20 + la meiris. and=20 + la betis. respectively) would become attached t= o the bridi as a whole, producing a very different translation.=20 + would become: + + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>likes more than</primary><secondary>e= xample</secondary></indexterm> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d9"/> + + + la frank. nelci la meiris. seme'a la betis. + Frank likes Mary is-less-than Betty. + Frank's liking Mary is less than Betty. + + + which compares a liking with a person, and is therefore nonsense= . + bridi-based compa= risoncontrasted with comparison with relative phrasein claims about parts comparison with relative phrasecontrasted with bridi-based comparisoni= n claims about parts comparisonclaims related to based on f= orm Pure comparison, which states only the comparat= ive information but says nothing about whether Frank actually likes either = Mary or Betty (he may like neither, but dislike Betty less), would be expre= ssed differently, as: + =20 + + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>likes more than</primary><secondary>e= xample</secondary></indexterm> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d10"/> + + + le ni la frank. nelci la betis. cu zmadu le ni la frank. nelc= i la meiris. + The quantity-of Frank's liking Betty is-more-than the quant= ity-of Frank's liking Mary. + + + modals often attac= hed with relative phraseslist = The mechanisms explained in this section are appropriate to many modals oth= er than=20 + semau and=20 + seme'a. Some other modals that are often associated wit= h relative phrases are:=20 + seba'i (=20 + =20 + instead of),=20 + ci'u (=20 + =20 + on scale),=20 + de'i (=20 + =20 + dated),=20 + du'i (=20 + =20 + as much as). Some BAI tags can be used equally well in = relative phrases or attached to bridi; others seem useful only attached to = bridi. But it is also possible that the usefulness of particular BAI modals= is an English-speaker bias, and that speakers of other languages may find = other BAIs useful in divergent ways. + fi'o modalsusage in relative phrases Note: The = uses of modals discussed in this section are applicable both to BAI modals = and to=20 + fi'o-plus-selbri modals. +

+ Mixed modal connection + It is possible to mix logical connection (explained in=20 + ) with modal connection, in a w= ay that simultaneously asserts the logical connection and the modal relatio= nship. Consider the sentences: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e11d1"/> + + + mi nelci do .ije mi nelci la djein. + I like you. And I like Jane. + + + which is a logical connection, and + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e11d2"/> + + + mi nelci do .iki'ubo mi nelci la djein. + I like you. Justified-by I like Jane. + + + mixed modal conne= ctionof sentences modal connectionsim= ultaneous with logical connectionsimultaneously modal and = logical The meanings of=20 + and=20 + can be simultaneously expre= ssed by combining the two compound cmavo, thus: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e11d3"/> + + + mi nelci do .ijeki'ubo mi nelci la djein. + I like you. And justified-by I like Jane. + + + mixed modal conne= ctiondefinition Here the two s= entences=20 + mi nelci do and=20 + mi nelci la djein. are simultaneously asserted,= their logical connection is asserted, and their causal relationship is ass= erted. The logical connective=20 + je comes before the modal=20 + ki'u in all such mixed connections. + =20 + Since=20 + mi nelci do and=20 + mi nelci la djein. differ only in the final sum= ti, we can transform=20 + into a mixed sumti connecti= on: + =20 + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e11d4"/> + + + mi nelci do .eki'ubo la djein. + I like you and/because Jane. + + + mixed modal conne= ctionas proscribed in forethought mixed modal connectionafterthought mixed modal connectionof s= umti Note that this connection is an afterthought o= ne. Mixed connectives are always afterthought; forethought connectives must= be either logical or modal. + =20 + mixed modal conne= ctionof bridi-tails There are = numerous other afterthought logical and non-logical connectives that can ha= ve modal information planted within them. For example, a bridi-tail connect= ed version of=20 + would be: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e11d5"/> + + + mi nelci do gi'eki'ubo nelci la djein. + I like you and/because like Jane. + + + The following three complex examples all mean the same thing. + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e11d6"/> + + + mi bevri le dakli .ijeseri'abo tu'e mi bevri le gerku .ijadu'= ibo mi bevri le mlatu [tu'u] + I carry the sack. And [effect] (I carry the dog. And/or [eq= ual] I carry the cat.) + I carry the sack. As a result I carry the dog or I carry = the cat, equally. + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e11d7"/> + + + mi bevri le dakli gi'eseri'ake bevri le gerku gi'adu'ibo bevr= i le mlatu [ke'e] + I carry the sack and [effect] (carry the dog and/or [equal]= carry the cat). + I carry the sack and as a result carry the dog or carry t= he cat equally. + + + + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>carry sack</primary><secondary>exampl= e</secondary></indexterm> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e11d8"/> + + + mi bevri le dakli .eseri'ake le gerku .adu'ibo le mlatu [ke'e= ] + I carry the sack and [effect] (the cat and/or [equal] the d= og). + I carry the sack, and as a result the cat or the dog equa= lly. + + + =20 + + + In=20 + , the=20 + tu'e…tu'u brackets are the equiva= lent of the=20 + ke…ke'e brackets in=20 + and=20 + , because=20 + ke…ke'e cannot extend across more= than one sentence. It would also be possible to change the=20 + .ijeseri'abo to=20 + .ije seri'a, which would show that the=20 + tu'e…tu'u portion was an effect, = but would not pin down the=20 + mi bevri le dakli portion as the cause. It is l= egal for a modal (or a tense; see=20 + ) to modify the whole of a=20 + tu'e…tu'u construct. + fi'omixed modal connection with Note: The uses = of modals discussed in this section are applicable both to BAI modals and t= o=20 + fi'o-plus-selbri modals. +

+ Modal conversion: JAI + The following cmavo are discussed in this section: + + + jai + JAI + modal conversion + =20 + + + fai + FA + modal place structure tag + + + BAI selma'o SE = selma'o conversionswapping with modal place So far, conversion of numbered bridi places with SE and the additio= n of modal places with BAI have been two entirely separate operations. Howe= ver, it is possible to convert a selbri in such a way that, rather than exc= hanging two numbered places, a modal place is made into a numbered place. F= or example, + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e12d1"/> + + + mi cusku bau la lojban. + I express [something] in-language Lojban. + + + place structureeffect of modal conversion on <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">conversionmodal modal conversionplace structure of modal conversiongrammar of has an explicit x1 plac= e occupied by=20 + mi and an explicit=20 + bau place occupied by=20 + la lojban. To exchange these two, we use a moda= l conversion operator consisting of=20 + =20 + jai (of selma'o JAI) followed by the modal cmavo. Thus,= the modal conversion of=20 + =20 + =20 + is: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e12d2"/> + + + la lojban. jai bau cusku fai mi + Lojban is-the-language-of-expression used-by me. + + + faias allowing access to original first place in modal conversion modal con= versionaccess to original first place with fai In=20 + , the modal place=20 + la lojban. has become the x1 place of the new s= elbri=20 + jai bau cusku. What has happened to the old x1 = place? There is no numbered place for it to move to, so it moves to a speci= al=20 + unnumbered place marked by the tag=20 + fai of selma'o FA. + faieffect on numbering of place structure places Note: For the purposes of place numbering,=20 + fai behaves like=20 + fi'a; it does not affect the numbering of the other pla= ces around it. + =20 + modal conversions= in descriptions Like SE conver= sions, JAI conversions are especially convenient in descriptions. We may re= fer to=20 + the language of an expression as=20 + le jai bau cusku, for example. + modal conversion<= /primary>with no modal specified jai without modalmeaning In addition, it is grammatical to use=20 + jai without a following modal. This usage is not relate= d to modals, but is explained here for completeness. The effect of=20 + jai by itself is to send the x1 place, which should be = an abstraction, into the=20 + fai position, and to raise one of the sumti from the ab= stract sub-bridi into the x1 place of the main bridi. This feature is discu= ssed in more detail in=20 + . The following two examples = mean the same thing: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e12d3"/> + + + le nu mi lebna le cukta cu se krinu le nu mi viska le cukta + The event-of (I take the book) is-justified-by the event-of= (I see the book). + My taking the book is justified by my seeing it. + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e12d4"/> + + + mi jai se krinu le nu mi viska le cukta kei [fai le nu mi leb= na le cukta] + I am-justified by the event-of (I see the book) [namely, th= e event-of (I take the book)] + I am justified in taking the book by seeing the book. + + + modal conversion = without modalas vague=20 + , with the bracketed part om= itted, allows us to say that=20 + I am justified whereas in fact it is my action that is = justified. This construction is vague, but useful in representing natural-l= anguage methods of expression. + fi'oand modal conversion modal conversion with fi'o N= ote: The uses of modals discussed in this section are applicable both to BA= I modals and to=20 + fi'o-plus-selbri modals. +

+ Modal negation + modals<= secondary>negation of negation of modals Negation is expl= ained in detail in=20 + . There are two forms of negation = in Lojban: contradictory and scalar negation. Contradictory negation expres= ses what is false, whereas scalar negation says that some alternative to wh= at has been stated is true. A simple example is the difference between=20 + John didn't go to Paris (contradictory negation) and=20 + John went to (somewhere) other than Paris (scalar negat= ion). + modalscontradictory negation of negation of modalscontr= adictory Contradictory negation involving BAI cmavo= is performed by appending=20 + -nai (of selma'o NAI) to the BAI. A common use = of modals with=20 + -nai is to deny a causal relationship: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e13d1"/> + + + mi nelci do mu'inai le nu do nelci mi + I like you, but not because you like me. + + + contradictory neg= ation of modalsexplanation of meaning=20 + denies that the relationshi= p between my liking you (which is asserted) and your liking me (which is no= t asserted) is one of motivation. Nothing is said about whether you like me= or not, merely that that hypothetical liking is not the motivation for my = liking you. + modalsscalar negation of negation of modalsscalar Scalar negation is achieved by prefixing=20 + na'e (of selma'o NAhE), or any of the other cmavo of NA= hE, to the BAI cmavo. + + +<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>plant grows</primary><secondary>examp= le</secondary></indexterm> + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e13d2"/> + + + le spati cu banro na'emu'i le nu do djacu dunda fi le spati + The plant grows other-than-motivated-by the event-of you wa= ter-give to the plant. + + + =20 + + + scalar negation of modals<= /primary>explanation of meaning=20 + says that the relationship = between the plant's growth and your watering it is not one of motivation: t= he plant is not motivated to grow, as plants are not something which can ha= ve motivation as a rule. Implicitly, some other relationship between wateri= ng and growth exists, but=20 + =20 + doesn't say what it is (pre= sumably=20 + ri'a). + fi'o modalsnegation of by negating selbri negation of fi'o modals= by negating selbri Note: Modals made wit= h=20 + fi'o plus a selbri cannot be negated directly. The selb= ri can itself be negated either with contradictory or with scalar negation,= however. +

+ Sticky modals + The following cmavo is discussed in this section: + + + ki + KI + stickiness flag + + + modalsmaking sticky modalsmaking long-scope= sticky modalsdefinition Like tenses, modals c= an be made persistent from the bridi in which they appear to all following = bridi. The effect of this=20 + stickiness is to make the modal, along with its followi= ng sumti, act as if it appeared in every successive bridi. Stickiness is pu= t into effect by following the modal (but not any following sumti) with the= cmavo=20 + ki of selma'o KI. For example, + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e14d1"/> + + + mi tavla bau la lojban. bai ki tu'a la frank. .ibabo mi tavla= bau la gliban. + I speak in-language Lojban compelled-by some-property-of Fr= ank. Afterward, I speak in-language English. + + =20 + means the same as: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e14d2"/> + + + mi tavla bau la lojban. bai tu'a la frank. .ibabo mi tavla ba= u la gliban. bai tu'a la frank. + I speak in-language Lojban compelled-by some-property-of Fr= ank. Afterward, I speak in-language English compelled-by some-property-of F= rank. + + + In=20 + ,=20 + bai is made sticky, and so Frank's compelling is made a= pplicable to every following bridi.=20 + bau is not sticky, and so the language may vary from br= idi to bridi, and if not specified in a particular bridi, no assumption can= safely be made about its value. + sticky modalscanceling To cancel stickiness, us= e the form=20 + BAI ki ku, which stops any modal value for the = specified BAI from being passed to the next bridi. To cancel stickiness for= all modals simultaneously, and also for any sticky tenses that exist (=20 + ki is used for both modals and tenses), use=20 + ki by itself, either before the selbri or (in the form= =20 + ki ku) anywhere in the bridi: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e14d3"/> + + + mi ki tavla + I speak (no implication about language or compulsion). + + + fi'oproscribed for sticky modals sticky modalsfi'o pro= scribed from Note: Modals made with=20 + fi'o-plus-selbri cannot be made sticky. This is an unfo= rtunate, but unavoidable, restriction. +

+ Logical and non-logical connection of modals + =20 + non-logical conne= ctionof modals logical connectionof m= odals Logical and non-logical connectives are expla= ined in detail in=20 + . For the purposes of this chap= ter, it suffices to point out that a logical (or non-logical) connection be= tween two bridi which differ only in a modal can be reduced to a single bri= di with a connective between the modals. As a result,=20 + and=20 + mean the same thing: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e15d1"/> + + + la frank. bajra seka'a le zdani .ije la frank. bajra teka'a l= e zdani + Frank runs with-destination the house. And Frank runs with-= origin the house. + Frank runs to the house, and Frank runs from the house. + + + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e15d2"/> + + + la frank. bajra seka'a je teka'a le zdani + Frank runs with-destination and with-origin the house. + Frank runs to and from the house. + + + je Neither example implies whether a single act, or two acts, of ru= nning is referred to. To compel the sentence to refer to a single act of ru= nning, you can use the form: + + + <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e15d3"/> + + + la frank. bajra seka'a le zdani ce'e teka'a le zdani + Frank runs with-destination the house [joined-to] with-orig= in the-house. + + + The cmavo=20 + ce'e creates a termset containing two terms (termsets a= re explained in=20 + and=20 + ). When a termset contains more= than one modal tag derived from a single BAI, the convention is that the t= wo tags are derived from a common event. +

+ CV'V cmavo of selma'o BAI with irregular forms + modal cmavoregular form for derivation There ar= e 65 cmavo of selma'o BAI, of which all but one (=20 + do'e, discussed in=20 + =20 + ), are derived directly from selected g= ismu. Of these 64 cmavo, 36 are entirely regular and have the form CV'V, wh= ere C is the first consonant of the corresponding gismu, and the Vs are the= two vowels of the gismu. The remaining BAI cmavo, which are irregular in o= ne way or another, are listed in the table below. The table is divided into= sub-tables according to the nature of the exception; some cmavo appear in = more than one sub-table, and are so noted. + + + cmavo + gismu + comments + + Monosyllables of the form CVV: + + bai + bapli + + + bau + bangu + + + cau + claxu + + + fau + fasnu + + + gau + gasnu + + + kai + ckaji + uses 2nd consonant of gismu + + + mau + zmadu + uses 2nd consonant of gismu + + + + koi + korbi + + + rai + traji + uses 2nd consonant of gismu + + + sau + sarcu + + + tai + tamsmi + based on lujvo, not gismu + + + zau + zanru + + + + Second consonant of the gismu as the C: (the gismu is always = of the form CCVCV) + + ga'a + zgana + + + kai + ckaji + has CVV form (monosyllable) + + + ki'i + ckini + + + la'u + klani + has irregular 2nd V + + + le'a + klesi + has irregular 2nd V + + + mau + zmadu + has CVV form (monosyllable) + + + + me'e + cmene + + + ra'a + srana + + + ra'i + krasi + + + rai + traji + has CVV form (monosyllable) + + + ti'i + stidi + + + tu'i + stuzi + + + + Irregular 2nd V: + + fi'e + finti + + + + la'u + klani + uses 2nd consonant of gismu + + + le'a + klesi + uses 2nd consonant of gismu + + + ma'e + marji + + + mu'u + mupli + + + ti'u + tcika + + + va'o + vanbi + + + + Special cases: + + ri'i + lifri + uses 3rd consonant of gismu + + + tai + tamsmi + based on lujvo, not gismu + + + va'u + xamgu + CV'V cmavo can't begin with x + + + +

+ Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents</tit= le> + <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>modal cmavo table= </primary><secondary>format of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"= general-imported"><primary>modal cmavo</primary><secondary>table with Engli= sh equivalents</secondary></indexterm> The following table shows all the cm= avo belonging to selma'o BAI, and has five columns. The first column is the= cmavo itself; the second column is the gismu linked to it. The third colum= n gives an English phrase which indicates the meaning of the cmavo; and the= fourth column indicates its meaning when preceded by=20 + <valsi>se</valsi>.</para> + <para>For those cmavo with meaningful=20 + <valsi>te</valsi>,=20 + <valsi>ve</valsi>, and even=20 + <valsi>xe</valsi> conversions (depending on the number of places of th= e underlying gismu), the meanings of these are shown on one or two extra ro= ws following the primary row for that cmavo.</para> + <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>modal cmavo</prim= ary><secondary>basis in gismu place structure</secondary></indexterm> It sh= ould be emphasized that the place structures of the gismu control the meani= ngs of the BAI cmavo. The English phrases shown here are only suggestive, a= nd are often too broad or too narrow to correctly specify what the acceptab= le range of uses for the modal tag are.</para> + <cmavo-list> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>ba'i</cmavo> + <gismu>basti</gismu> + <modal-place>replaced by</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">instead of</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>bai</cmavo> + <gismu>bapli</gismu> + <modal-place>compelled by</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">compelling</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>bau</cmavo> + <gismu>bangu</gismu> + <modal-place>in language</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">in language of</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>be'i</cmavo> + <gismu>benji</gismu> + <modal-place>sent by</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">transmitting</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"te">sent to</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"ve">with transmit origin</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"xe">transmitted via</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>ca'i</cmavo> + <gismu>catni</gismu> + <modal-place>by authority of</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">with authority over</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>cau</cmavo> + <gismu>claxu</gismu> + <modal-place>lacked by</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">without</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>ci'e</cmavo> + <gismu>ciste</gismu> + <modal-place>in system</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">with system function</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"te">of system components</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>ci'o</cmavo> + <gismu>cinmo</gismu> + <modal-place>felt by</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">feeling emotion</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>ci'u</cmavo> + <gismu>ckilu</gismu> + <modal-place>on the scale</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">on scale measuring</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>cu'u</cmavo> + <gismu>cusku</gismu> + <modal-place>as said by</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">expressing</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"te">as told to</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"ve">expressed in medium</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>de'i</cmavo> + <gismu>detri</gismu> + <modal-place>dated</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">on the same date as</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>di'o</cmavo> + <gismu>diklo</gismu> + <modal-place>at the locus of</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">at specific locus</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo><valsi>do'e</valsi></cmavo> + <gismu>-----</gismu> + <modal-place>vaguely related to</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>du'i</cmavo> + <gismu>dunli</gismu> + <modal-place>as much as</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">equal to</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>du'o</cmavo> + <gismu>djuno</gismu> + <modal-place>according to</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">knowing facts</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"te">knowing about</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"ve">under epistemology</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>fa'e</cmavo> + <gismu>fatne</gismu> + <modal-place>reverse of</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">in reversal of</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo><valsi>fau</valsi></cmavo> + <gismu><valsi>fasnu</valsi></gismu> + <modal-place>in the event of</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>fi'e</cmavo> + <gismu>finti</gismu> + <modal-place>created by</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">creating work</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"te">created for purpose</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>ga'a</cmavo> + <gismu>zgana</gismu> + <modal-place>to observer</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">observing</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"te">observed by means</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"ve">observed under conditions</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>gau</cmavo> + <gismu>gasnu</gismu> + <modal-place>with agent</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">as agent in doing</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>ja'e</cmavo> + <gismu>jalge</gismu> + <modal-place>resulting in</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">results because of</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>ja'i</cmavo> + <gismu>javni</gismu> + <modal-place>by rule</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">by rule prescribing</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>ji'e</cmavo> + <gismu>jimte</gismu> + <modal-place>up to limit</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">as a limit of</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>ji'o</cmavo> + <gismu>jitro</gismu> + <modal-place>under direction</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">controlling</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>ji'u</cmavo> + <gismu>jicmu</gismu> + <modal-place>based on</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">supporting</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>ka'a</cmavo> + <gismu>klama</gismu> + <modal-place>gone to by</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">with destination</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"te">with origin</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"ve">via route</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"xe">by transport mode</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>ka'i</cmavo> + <gismu>krati</gismu> + <modal-place>represented by</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">on behalf of</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>kai</cmavo> + <gismu>ckaji</gismu> + <modal-place>characterizing</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">with property</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>ki'i</cmavo> + <gismu>ckini</gismu> + <modal-place>as relation of</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">related to</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"te">with relation</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>ki'u</cmavo> + <gismu>krinu</gismu> + <modal-place>justified by</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">with justified result</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>koi</cmavo> + <gismu>korbi</gismu> + <modal-place>bounded by</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">as boundary of</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"te">bordering</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>ku'u</cmavo> + <gismu>kulnu</gismu> + <modal-place>in culture</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">in culture of</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>la'u</cmavo> + <gismu>klani</gismu> + <modal-place>as quantity of</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">in quantity</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>le'a</cmavo> + <gismu>klesi</gismu> + <modal-place>in category</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">as category of</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"te">defined by quality</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>li'e</cmavo> + <gismu>lidne</gismu> + <modal-place>led by</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">leading</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>ma'e</cmavo> + <gismu>marji</gismu> + <modal-place>of material</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">made from material</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"te">in material form of</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>ma'i</cmavo> + <gismu>manri</gismu> + <modal-place>in reference frame</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">as a standard of</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>mau</cmavo> + <gismu>zmadu</gismu> + <modal-place>exceeded by</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">more than</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>me'a</cmavo> + <gismu>mleca</gismu> + <modal-place>undercut by</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">less than</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>me'e</cmavo> + <gismu>cmene</gismu> + <modal-place>with name</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">as a name for</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"te">as a name to</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>mu'i</cmavo> + <gismu>mukti</gismu> + <modal-place>motivated by</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">motive therefore</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>mu'u</cmavo> + <gismu>mupli</gismu> + <modal-place>exemplified by</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">as an example of</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>ni'i</cmavo> + <gismu>nibli</gismu> + <modal-place>entailed by</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">entails</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>pa'a</cmavo> + <gismu>panra</gismu> + <modal-place>in addition to</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">similar to</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"te">similar in pattern</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"ve">similar by standard</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>pa'u</cmavo> + <gismu>pagbu</gismu> + <modal-place>with component</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">as a part of</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>pi'o</cmavo> + <gismu>pilno</gismu> + <modal-place>used by</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">using tool</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>po'i</cmavo> + <gismu>porsi</gismu> + <modal-place>in the sequence</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">sequenced by rule</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>pu'a</cmavo> + <gismu>pluka</gismu> + <modal-place>pleased by</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">in order to please</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>pu'e</cmavo> + <gismu>pruce</gismu> + <modal-place>by process</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">processing from</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"te">processing into</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"ve">passing through stages</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo><valsi>ra'a</valsi></cmavo> + <gismu><valsi>srana</valsi></gismu> + <modal-place>pertained to by</modal-place> + <modal-place>concerning</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo><valsi>ra'i</valsi></cmavo> + <gismu><valsi>krasi</valsi></gismu> + <modal-place>from source</modal-place> + <modal-place>as an origin of</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>rai</cmavo> + <gismu>traji</gismu> + <modal-place>with superlative</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">superlative in</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"te">at extreme</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"ve">superlative among</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>ri'a</cmavo> + <gismu>rinka</gismu> + <modal-place>caused by</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">causing</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>ri'i</cmavo> + <gismu>lifri</gismu> + <modal-place>experienced by</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">experiencing</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>sau</cmavo> + <gismu>sarcu</gismu> + <modal-place>requiring</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">necessarily for</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"te">necessarily under conditions</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>si'u</cmavo> + <gismu>sidju</gismu> + <modal-place>aided by</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">assisting in</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>ta'i</cmavo> + <gismu>tadji</gismu> + <modal-place>by method</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">as a method for</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>tai</cmavo> + <gismu>tamsmi</gismu> + <modal-place>as a form of</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">in form</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"te">in form similar to</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>ti'i</cmavo> + <gismu>stidi</gismu> + <modal-place>suggested by</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">suggesting</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"te">suggested to</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>ti'u</cmavo> + <gismu>tcika</gismu> + <modal-place>with time</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">at the time of</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>tu'i</cmavo> + <gismu>stuzi</gismu> + <modal-place>with site</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">as location of</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>va'o</cmavo> + <gismu>vanbi</gismu> + <modal-place>under conditions</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">as conditions for</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>va'u</cmavo> + <gismu>xamgu</gismu> + <modal-place>benefiting from</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">with beneficiary</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>zau</cmavo> + <gismu>zanru</gismu> + <modal-place>approved by</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">approving</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + <cmavo-entry> + <cmavo>zu'e</cmavo> + <gismu>zukte</gismu> + <modal-place>with actor</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"se">with means to goal</modal-place> + <modal-place se=3D"te">with goal</modal-place> + </cmavo-entry> + </cmavo-list>=20 + <para>The lujvo=20 + <valsi>tamsmi</valsi> on which=20 + <valsi>tai</valsi> is based is derived from the tanru=20 + <jbophrase>tarmi simsa</jbophrase> and has the place structure:</para> + <definition> + <valsi>tamsmi</valsi> <content>x1 has form x2, similar in form to x3= in property/quality x4</content> + </definition> + <para>This lujvo is employed because=20 + <valsi>tarmi</valsi> does not have a place structure useful for the mo= dal's purpose.</para> + </section> +</chapter> diff --git a/chapters/1.xml b/chapters/1.xml deleted file mode 100644 index 2857811..0000000 --- a/chapters/1.xml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,370 +0,0 @@ -<chapter xmlns:xlink=3D"http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xml:id=3D"chapter-ab= out"> - <title>Lojban As We Mangle It In Lojbanistan: About This Book - - The picture for chapter 1 - - - - - =20 -

- What is Lojban? - - Logical Language = Grouprelation to Lojban Lojbanhistory= of Lojban (pronounced=20 - LOZH-bahn) is a constructed language. Previous versions= of the language were called=20 - Loglan by Dr. James Cooke Brown, who founded the Loglan= Project and started the development of the language in 1955. The goals for= the language were first described in the open literature in the article=20 - =20 - =20 - Loglan, publ= ished in=20 - Scientific American, June, = 1960. Made well-known by that article and by occasional references in scien= ce fiction (most notably in Robert Heinlein's novel=20 - =20 - The Moon Is A Harsh Mistress) = and computer publications, Loglan and Lojban have been built over four deca= des by dozens of workers and hundreds of supporters, led since 1987 by The = Logical Language Group (who are the publishers of this book). - Lojban<= secondary>features of There are thousands of artifi= cial languages (of which Esperanto is the best-known), but Loglan/Lojban ha= s been engineered to make it unique in several ways. The following are the = main features of Lojban: - - - Lojban is designed to be used by people in communication wit= h each other, and possibly in the future with computers. - - - Lojban is designed to be neutral between cultures. - - - Lojban grammar is based on the principles of predicate logic= . - - - Lojban has an unambiguous yet flexible grammar. - - - Lojban has phonetic spelling, and unambiguously resolves its= sounds into words. - - - Lojban is simple compared to natural languages; it is easy t= o learn. - - - Lojban's 1300 root words can be easily combined to form a vo= cabulary of millions of words. - - - Lojban is regular; the rules of the language are without exc= eptions. - - - Lojban attempts to remove restrictions on creative and clear= thought and communication. - - - Lojban has a variety of uses, ranging from the creative to t= he scientific, from the theoretical to the practical. - - - Lojban has been demonstrated in translation and in original = works of prose and poetry. - - -

- What is this book? - goal of this book= this = bookgoal of reference grammar This= book is what is called a=20 - reference grammar. It attempts to expound the whole Loj= ban language, or at least as much of it as is understood at present. Lojban= is a rich language with many features, and an attempt has been made to dis= cover the functions of those features. The word=20 - =20 - discover is used advisedly; Lojban was not=20 - invented by any one person or committee. Often, grammat= ical features were introduced into the language long before their usage was= fully understood. Sometimes they were introduced for one reason, only to p= rove more useful for other reasons not recognized at the time. - By intention, this book is complete in description but not in ex= planation. For every rule in the formal Lojban grammar (given in=20 - ), there is a bit of explanation a= nd an example somewhere in the book, and often a great deal more than a bit= . In essence,=20 - gives a brief overview of the languag= e,=20 - gives the formal structure of the= language, and the chapters in between put semantic flesh on those formal b= ones. I hope that eventually more grammatical material founded on (or even = correcting) the explanations in this book will become available. - linguistic drift<= /primary> Lojban= stability of Nevertheless, the= publication of this book is, in one sense, the completion of a long period= of language evolution. With the exception of a possible revision of the la= nguage that will not even be considered until five years from publication d= ate, and any revisions of this book needed to correct outright errors, the = language described in this book will not be changing by deliberate act of i= ts creators any more. Instead, language change will take place in the form = of new vocabulary – Lojban does not yet have nearly the vocabulary it= needs to be a fully usable language of the modern world, as=20 - explains – and through the irr= egular natural processes of drift and (who knows?) native-speaker evolution= . (Teach your children Lojban!) You can learn the language described here w= ith assurance that (unlike previous versions of Lojban and Loglan, as well = as most other artificial languages) it will not be subject to further fiddl= ing by language-meisters. - this bookstructure of structure of this book It is pr= obably worth mentioning that this book was written somewhat piecemeal. Each= chapter began life as an explication of a specific Lojban topic; only late= r did these begin to clump together into a larger structure of words and id= eas. Therefore, there are perhaps not as many cross-references as there sho= uld be. However, I have attempted to make the index as comprehensive as pos= sible. - chapter titlesintent of jokes Lojbanistan Each chapter has = a descriptive title, often involving some play on words; this is an attempt= to make the chapters more memorable. The title of=20 - (which you are now reading), for exa= mple, is an allusion to the book=20 - English As We Speak It In Ireland, by P. W. Joyce, which is a sort of informal reference grammar of Hiber= no-English.=20 - =20 - Lojbanistan is both an imaginary country where Lojban i= s the native language, and a term for the actual community of Lojban-speake= rs, scattered over the world. Why=20 - =20 - mangle? As yet, nobody in the real Lojbanistan speaks t= he language at all well, by the standards of the imaginary Lojbanistan; tha= t is one of the circumstances this book is meant to help remedy. - =20 -

- What are the typographical conventions of this book? - =20 - Each chapter is broken into numbered sections; each section cont= ains a mixture of expository text, numbered examples, and possibly tables.<= /para> - this bookexamples of examples in this book The reader= will notice a certain similarity in the examples used throughout the book.= One chapter after another rings the changes on the self-same sentences: - - - =20 - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>go to the store</primary><secondary>e= xample</secondary></indexterm> - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c1e3d1"/> - - - mi klama le zarci - I go-to that-which-I-describe-as-a store. - I go to the store. - - - will become wearisomely familiar before=20 - is reached. This method is delibe= rate; I have tried to use simple and (eventually) familiar examples whereve= r possible, to avoid obscuring new grammatical points with new vocabulary. = Of course, this is not the method of a textbook, but this book is not a tex= tbook (although people have learned Lojban from it and its predecessors). R= ather, it is intended both for self-learning (of course, at present would-b= e Lojban teachers must be self-learners) and to serve as a reference in the= usual sense, for looking up obscure points about the language. - examplesstructure of structure of examples example of examples It is useful to talk further about=20 - for what it illustrates abo= ut examples in this book. Examples usually occupy three lines. The first of= these is in Lojban, the second in a word-by-word literal translation of th= e Lojban into English, and the third in colloquial English. The second and = third lines are sometimes called the=20 - =20 - literal translation and the=20 - colloquial translation respectively. Sometimes, when cl= arity is not sacrificed thereby, one or both are omitted. If there is more = than one Lojban sentence, it generally means that they have the same meanin= g. - square bracketsuse of in notation Words are som= etimes surrounded by square brackets. In Lojban texts, these enclose option= al grammatical particles that may (in the context of the particular example= ) be either omitted or included. In literal translations, they enclose word= s that are used as conventional translations of specific Lojban words, but = don't have exactly the meanings or uses that the English word would suggest= . In=20 - =20 - , square brackets surround phonet= ic representations in the International Phonetic Alphabet. - =20 - grammatical categ= oriesuse of upper case for tablesform= at of Many of the tables, especially those placed a= t the head of various sections, are in three columns. The first column cont= ains Lojban words discussed in that section; the second column contains the= grammatical category (represented by an UPPER CASE Lojban word) to which t= he word belongs, and the third column contains a brief English gloss, not n= ecessarily or typically a full explanation. Other tables are explained in c= ontext. - technical terms A few Lojban words are used in this book as technical = terms. All of these are explained in=20 - =20 - , except for a few used only in single= chapters, which are explained in the introductory sections of those chapte= rs. -

- Disclaimers - disclaimers It is necessary to add, alas, that the examples used in th= is book do not refer to any existing person, place, or institution, and tha= t any such resemblance is entirely coincidental and unintentional, and not = intended to give offense. - dictionarysuperior authority of When definition= s and place structures of gismu, and especially of lujvo, are given in this= book, they may differ from those given in the English-Lojban dictionary (w= hich, as of this writing, is not yet published). If so, the information giv= en in the dictionary supersedes whatever is given here. -

- Acknowledgements and Credits - LLG this book= author of author of this book Although the bul= k of this book was written for the Logical Language Group (LLG) by John Cow= an, who is represented by the occasional authorial=20 - =20 - I, certain chapters were first written by others and th= en heavily edited by me to fit into this book. - this bookcontributors to contributors to this book In= particular:=20 - is a fusion of originally separate do= cuments, one by Athelstan, and one by Nora Tansky LeChevalier and Bob LeChe= valier;=20 - and=20 - were originally written by Bob = LeChevalier with contributions by Chuck Barton;=20 - was originally written (in much long= er form) by Nick Nicholas; the dialogue near the end of=20 - was contributed by Nora Tansk= y LeChevalier;=20 - and parts of=20 - were originally by Bob LeCheva= lier; and the YACC grammar in=20 - =20 - is the work of several hands, but= is primarily by Bob LeChevalier and Jeff Taylor. The BNF grammar, which is= also in=20 - , was originally written by me, th= en rewritten by Clark Nelson, and finally touched up by me again. - this bookcredits for credits for this book The resear= ch into natural languages from which parts of=20 - draw their material was performed b= y Ivan Derzhanski. LLG acknowledges his kind permission to use the fruits o= f his research. - =20 - picturescredits for credits for pictures The pictures= in this book were drawn by Nora Tansky LeChevalier, except for the picture= appearing in=20 - =20 - , which is by Sylvia Rutiser Ris= sell. - The index was made by Nora Tansky LeChevalier. - this bookreviewers of reviewers of this book I would = like to thank the following people for their detailed reviews, suggestions,= comments, and early detection of my embarrassing errors in Lojban, logic, = English, and cross-references: Nick Nicholas, Mark Shoulson, Veijo Vilva, C= olin Fine, And Rosta, Jorge Llambias, Iain Alexander, Paulo S. L. M. Barret= o, Robert J. Chassell, Gale Cowan, Karen Stein, Ivan Derzhanski, Jim Carter= , Irene Gates, Bob LeChevalier, John Parks-Clifford (also known as=20 - pc), and Nora Tansky LeChevalier. - Nick Nicholas (NSN) would like to thank the following Lojbanists= : Mark Shoulson, Veijo Vilva, Colin Fine, And Rosta, and Iain Alexander for= their suggestions and comments; John Cowan, for his extensive comments, hi= s exemplary trailblazing of Lojban grammar, and for solving the=20 - manskapi dilemma for NSN; Jorge Llambias, for his even = more extensive comments, and for forcing NSN to think more than he was incl= ined to; Bob LeChevalier, for his skeptical overview of the issue, his enco= uragement, and for scouring all Lojban text his computer has been burdened = with for lujvo; Nora Tansky LeChevalier, for writing the program converting= old rafsi text to new rafsi text, and sparing NSN from embarrassing errors= ; and Jim Carter, for his dogged persistence in analyzing lujvo algorithmic= ally, which inspired this research, and for first identifying the three luj= vo classes. - =20 - BrownJames Cooke Of course, the entire Loglan P= roject owes a considerable debt to James Cooke Brown as the language invent= or, and also to several earlier contributors to the development of the lang= uage. Especially noteworthy are Doug Landauer, Jeff Prothero, Scott Layson,= Jeff Taylor, and Bob McIvor. Final responsibility for the remaining errors= and infelicities is solely mine. - =20 -

- Informal Bibliography - Loglan<= /indexterm> bibliography The founding document for the Loglan Project, of which t= his book is one of the products, is=20 - Loglan 1: A Logical Language b= y James Cooke Brown (4th ed. 1989, The Loglan Institute, Gainesville, Flori= da, U.S.A.). The language described therein is not Lojban, but is very clos= e to it and may be considered an ancestral version. It is regrettably neces= sary to state that nothing in this book has been approved by Dr. Brown, and= that the very existence of Lojban is disapproved of by him. - =20 - The logic of Lojban, such as it is, owes a good deal to the Amer= ican philosopher W. v.O. Quine, especially=20 - Word and Object (1960, M.I.T. = Press). Much of Quine's philosophical writings, especially on observation s= entences, reads like a literal translation from Lojban. - =20 - The theory of negation expounded in=20 - is derived from a reading of Laur= ence Horn's work=20 - A Natural History of Negation.= - Of course, neither Brown nor Quine nor Horn is in any way respon= sible for the uses or misuses I have made of their works. - =20 - books about Lojba= n Depending on just when you are reading this book, t= here may be three other books about Lojban available: a textbook, a Lojban/= English dictionary, and a book containing general information about Lojban.= You can probably get these books, if they have been published, from the sa= me place where you got this book. In addition, other books not yet foreseen= may also exist. - =20 -

- Captions to Pictures - The following examples list the Lojban caption, with a translati= on, for the picture at the head of each chapter. If a chapter's picture has= no caption,=20 - (none) is specified instead. -

- <link linkend=3D"chapter-about-picture">Chapter 1 Caption</li= nk> - - coi lojban. coi rodo - - - Greetings, O Lojban! Greetings, all-of you - -

- <link linkend=3D"chapter-tour-picture">Chapter 2 Caption</lin= k> - - (none) - -

- <link linkend=3D"chapter-phonology-picture">Chapter 3 Caption= </link> - - .i .ai .i .ai .o - - - [untranslatable] - -

- <link linkend=3D"chapter-morphology-picture">Chapter 4 Captio= n</link> - - jbobliku - - - Lojbanic-blocks - -

- <link linkend=3D"chapter-selbri-picture">Chapter 5 Caption</l= ink> - - (none) - -

- <link linkend=3D"chapter-sumti-picture">Chapter 6 Caption</li= nk> - - lei re nanmu cu bevri le re nanmu - - - The-mass-of two men carry the two men - Two men (jointly) carry two men (both of them). - -

- <link linkend=3D"chapter-anaphoric-cmavo-picture">Chapter 7 C= aption</link> - - ma drani danfu - .i di'e - - .i di'u - .i dei - .i ri - .i do'i - - - [What sumti] is-the-correct type-of-answer? - The-next-sentence. - The-previous-sentence. - This-sentence. - The-previous-sentence. - An-unspecified-utterance. - -

- <link linkend=3D"chapter-relative-clauses-picture">Chapter 8 = Caption</link> - - ko viska re prenu poi bruna la santas. - - - [You!] see two persons who-are brothers-of Santa. - - -

- <link linkend=3D"chapter-sumti-tcita-picture">Chapter 9 Capti= on</link> - - (none) - -

- <link linkend=3D"chapter-tenses-picture">Chapter 10 Caption</= link> - - za'o klama - - - [superfective] come/go - Something goes (or comes) for too long. - -

- <link linkend=3D"chapter-abstractions-picture">Chapter 11 Cap= tion</link> - - le si'o kunti - - - The concept-of emptiness - -

- <link linkend=3D"chapter-lujvo-picture">Chapter 12 Caption</l= ink> - - (none) - -

- <link linkend=3D"chapter-attitudinals-picture">Chapter 13 Cap= tion</link> - - .oi ro'i ro'a ro'o - - - [Pain!] [emotional] [social] [physical] - -

- <link linkend=3D"chapter-connectives-picture">Chapter 14 Capt= ion</link> - - (none) - -

- <link linkend=3D"chapter-negation-picture">Chapter 15 Caption= </link> - - mi na'e lumci le karce - - - I other-than wash the car - I didn't wash the car. - -

- <link linkend=3D"chapter-quantifiers-picture">Chapter 16 Capt= ion</link> - - drata mupli pe'u .djan. - - - another example [please] John - Another example, John, please! - -

- <link linkend=3D"chapter-letterals-picture">Chapter 17 Captio= n</link> - - zai xanlerfu by. ly. .obu .jy by. .abu ny. - - - - [Shift] hand-letters l o j b a n - "Lojban" in a manual alphabet - -

- <link linkend=3D"chapter-mekso-picture">Chapter 18 Caption</l= ink> - - no no - - - 0 0 - -

- <link linkend=3D"chapter-structure-picture">Chapter 19 Captio= n</link> - - (none) - -

- <link linkend=3D"chapter-catalogue-picture">Chapter 20 Captio= n</link> - - (none) - -

- <link linkend=3D"chapter-grammars-picture">Chapter 21 Caption= </link> - - (none) - -

- Boring Legalities - Copyright =C2=A9 1997 by The Logical Language Group, Inc. All Ri= ghts Reserved. - Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of = this book, either in electronic or in printed form, provided the copyright = notice and this permission notice are preserved on all copies. - Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions o= f this book, provided that the modifications are clearly marked as such, an= d provided that the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the = terms of a permission notice identical to this one. - Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of thi= s book into another language, under the above conditions for modified versi= ons, except that this permission notice may be stated in a translation that= has been approved by the Logical Language Group, rather than in English. - The contents of=20 - are in the public domain. - For information, contact: The Logical Language Group, 2904 Beau = Lane, Fairfax VA 22031-1303 USA Telephone 703-385-0273. Electronic address:= =20 - llg-board@lojban.org<= /link>World Wide Web:=20 - http://www.lojban.org -

- diff --git a/chapters/2.xml b/chapters/2.xml deleted file mode 100644 index b7dcd2a..0000000 --- a/chapters/2.xml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2284 +0,0 @@ - - A Quick Tour of Lojban Grammar, With Diagrams - - The picture for chapter 2 - - - - -

- The concept of the bridi - bridiconcept of This chapter gives diagrammed e= xamples of basic Lojban sentence structures. The most general pattern is co= vered first, followed by successive variations on the basic components of t= he Lojban sentence. There are many more capabilities not covered in this ch= apter, but covered in detail in later chapters, so this chapter is a=20 - quick tour of the material later covered more slowly th= roughout the book. It also introduces most of the Lojban words used to disc= uss Lojban grammar. - =20 - - - Let us consider John and Sam and three statements about them: - =20 - - =20 - <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>father</primary><secondary>ex= ample</secondary></indexterm> - <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>John and Sam</primary><second= ary>example</secondary></indexterm> -=20 - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e1d1"/> - - John is the father of Sam. - - - =20 - <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>hits</primary><secondary>exam= ple</secondary></indexterm> - <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>John and Sam</primary><second= ary>example</secondary></indexterm> - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e1d2"/> - - John hits Sam. - =20 - - - - <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>taller</primary><secondary>ex= ample</secondary></indexterm> - <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>John and Sam</primary><second= ary>example</secondary></indexterm> - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e1d3"/> - - John is taller than Sam. - =20 - - sumtirelation with bridi brivlarelation to bridi predicati= oncompared with bridi bridicompared w= ith predication predicationas a relationship relationshipactive/static/attributive compared = These examples all describe relationships between John and Sam. However, in= English, we use the noun=20 - =20 - father to describe a static relationship in=20 - , the verb=20 - hits to describe an active relationship in=20 - =20 - , and the adjective=20 - taller to describe an attributive relationship in=20 - =20 - . In Lojban we make no such = grammatical distinctions; these three sentences, when expressed in Lojban, = are structurally identical. The same part of speech is used to represent th= e relationship. In formal logic this whole structure is called a=20 - predication; in Lojban it is called a=20 - bridi, and the central part of speech is the=20 - selbri. Logicians refer to the things thus related as= =20 - arguments, while Lojbanists call them=20 - sumti. These Lojban terms will be used for the rest of = the book. - - - bridi (predicate) - ______________|__________________ - | | - John is the father of Sam - |____| |______________| |___| - | | | - sumti selbri sumti (argument) - - - - - - =20 - - - In a relationship, there are a definite number of things being related. I= n English, for example,=20 - give has three places: the donor, the recipient and the= gift. For example: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e1d4"/> - <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>give</primary><secondary>exam= ple</secondary></indexterm> - - John gives Sam the book. - - and - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e1d5"/> - <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>give</primary><secondary>exam= ple</secondary></indexterm> - - Sam gives John the book. - - mean two different things because the relative positions of=20 - John and=20 - Sam have been switched. Further, - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e1d6"/> - <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>give</primary><secondary>exam= ple</secondary></indexterm> - - The book gives John Sam. - - seems strange to us merely because the places are being filled b= y unorthodox arguments. The relationship expressed by=20 - give has not changed. - place structuredefinition of In Lojban, each se= lbri has a specified number and type of arguments, known collectively as it= s=20 - place structure. The simplest kind of selbri consists o= f a single root word, called a=20 - gismu, and the definition in a dictionary gives the pla= ce structure explicitly. The primary task of constructing a Lojban sentence= , after choosing the relationship itself, is deciding what you will use to = fill in the sumti places. - This book uses the Lojban terms=20 - bridi,=20 - sumti, and=20 - selbri, because it is best to come to understand them i= ndependently of the English associations of the corresponding words, which = are only roughly similar in meaning anyhow. - =20 - - double underscore notation= convention for Quick Tour chapter underscore notation for Quick Tour chapter notatio= n conventionsfor Quick Tour chapter The Lojban examples in this chapter (but not in the rest of the book)= use a single underline (---) under each sumti, and a double underline (=3D= =3D=3D) under each selbri, to help you to tell them apart. -

- Pronunciation - pronunciationquick-tour version Detailed pronun= ciation and spelling rules are given in=20 - , but what follows will keep the = reader from going too far astray while digesting this chapter. - vowels<= secondary>pronunciation ofquick-tour version Lojban has six recognized vowels:=20 - a,=20 - e,=20 - i,=20 - o,=20 - u and=20 - y. The first five are roughly pronounced as=20 - a as in=20 - father,=20 - e as in=20 - let,=20 - i as in=20 - machine,=20 - o as in=20 - dome and=20 - u as in=20 - flute.=20 - y is pronounced as the sound called=20 - schwa, that is, as the unstressed=20 - a as in=20 - about or=20 - around. - consonantspronunciation ofquick-tour version Twelve consonants in Lojban are pronounced more or less = as their counterparts are in English:=20 - b,=20 - d,=20 - f,=20 - k,=20 - l,=20 - m,=20 - n,=20 - p,=20 - r,=20 - t,=20 - v and=20 - z. The letter=20 - c, on the other hand is pronounced as the=20 - sh in=20 - hush, while=20 - j is its voiced counterpart, the sound of the=20 - s in=20 - pleasure.=20 - g is always pronounced as it is in=20 - gift, never as in=20 - giant.=20 - s is as in=20 - sell, never as in=20 - rose. The sound of=20 - x is not found in English in normal words. It is = found as=20 - ch in Scottish=20 - loch, as=20 - j in Spanish=20 - junta, and as=20 - ch in German=20 - Bach; it also appears in the English in= terjection=20 - yecchh!. It gets easier to say as you practice it. The = letter=20 - r can be trilled, but doesn't have to be. - diphthongspronunciation ofquick-tour version The Lojban diphthongs=20 - ai,=20 - ei,=20 - oi, and=20 - au are pronounced much as in the English words= =20 - sigh,=20 - say,=20 - boy, and=20 - how. Other Lojban diphthongs begin with an=20 - i pronounced like English=20 - y (for example,=20 - io is pronounced=20 - yo) or else with a=20 - u pronounced like English=20 - w (for example,=20 - ua is pronounced=20 - wa). - period<= secondary>quick-tour version commaquick-tour version apostroph= equick-tour version Lojban als= o has three=20 - semi-letters: the period, the comma and the apostrophe.= The period represents a glottal stop or a pause; it is a required stoppage= of the flow of air in the speech stream. The apostrophe sounds just like t= he English letter=20 - =20 - h. Unlike a regular consonant, it is not found at the b= eginning or end of a word, nor is it found adjacent to a consonant; it is o= nly found between two vowels. The comma has no sound associated with it, an= d is used to separate syllables that might ordinarily run together. It is n= ot used in this chapter. - stress<= secondary>quick-tour version Stress falls on the ne= xt to the last syllable of all words, unless that vowel is=20 - y, which is never stressed; in such words the thi= rd-to-last syllable is stressed. If a word only has one syllable, then that= syllable is not stressed. - All Lojban words are pronounced as they are spelled: there are n= o silent letters. -

- Words that can act as sumti - pro-sumtiquick-tour version Here is a short tab= le of single words used as sumti. This table provides examples only, not th= e entire set of such words, which may be found in=20 - . - - - mi - I/me, we/us - - - do - you - - - ti - this, these - - - ta - that, those - - - tu - that far away, those far away - - - zo'e - unspecified value (used when a sumti is unimportant o= r obvious) - - - Lojban sumti are not specific as to number (singular or plural),= nor gender (masculine/feminine/neutral). Such distinctions can be optional= ly added by methods that are beyond the scope of this chapter. - =20 - pointing cmavoquick-tour version The cmavo=20 - ti,=20 - ta, and=20 - tu refer to whatever the speaker is pointing at, and sh= ould not be used to refer to things that cannot in principle be pointed at.= - namesquick-tour version Names may also be used = as sumti, provided they are preceded with the word=20 - la: - - - la meris. - the one/ones named Mary - - - la djan. - the one/ones named John - - - Other Lojban spelling versions are possible for names from other= languages, and there are restrictions on which letters may appear in Lojba= n names: see=20 - for more information. -

- Some words used to indicate selbri relations - selbri list for q= uick tour Here is a short table of some words used as= Lojban selbri in this chapter: - - - - vecnu - x1 (seller) sells x2 (goods) to x3 (buyer) for x4 (price)<= /td> - - - tavla - x1 (talker) talks to x2 (audience) about x3 (topic) in lan= guage x4 - - - sutra - x1 (agent) is fast at doing x2 (action) - - - blari'o - x1 (object/light source) is blue-green - - - melbi - x1 (object/idea) is beautiful to x2 (observer) by standard= x3 - - - cutci - x1 is a shoe/boot for x2 (foot) made of x3 (material) - - - bajra - x1 runs on x2 (surface) using x3 (limbs) in manner x4 (gai= t) - - - klama - x1 goes/comes to x2 (destination) from x3 (origin point) v= ia x4 (route) using x5 (means of transportation) - - - pluka - x1 pleases/is pleasing to x2 (experiencer) under condition= s x3 - - - - gerku - x1 is a dog of breed x2 - - - kurji - x1 takes care of x2 - - - kanro - x1 is healthy by standard x2 - - - - stali - x1 stays/remains with x2 - - - zarci - x1 is a market/store/shop selling x2 (products) operated b= y x3 (storekeeper) - - - x1notation conventionquick-tour version Each selbri (relation) has a specific rule that defines the r= ole of each sumti in the bridi, based on its position. In the table above, = that order was expressed by labeling the sumti positions as x1, x2, x3, x4,= and x5. - words not in the = dictionary Like the table in=20 - , this table is far from comple= te: in fact, no complete table can exist, because Lojban allows new words t= o be created (in specified ways) whenever a speaker or writer finds the exi= sting supply of words inadequate. This notion is a basic difference between= Lojban (and some other languages such as German and Chinese) and English; = in English, most people are very leery of using words that=20 - aren't in the dictionary. Lojbanists are encouraged to = invent new words; doing so is a major way of participating in the developme= nt of the language.=20 - explains how to make new words,= and=20 - explains how to give them appropriat= e meanings. -

- Some simple Lojban bridi - bridiquick-tour version Let's look at a simple = Lojban bridi. The place structure of the gismu=20 - tavla is - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e5d1"/> - - x1 talks to x2 about x3 in language x4 - - where the=20 - x es with following numbers represent the various argum= ents that could be inserted at the given positions in the English sentence.= For example: - - - <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>engineering</primary><seconda= ry>example</secondary></indexterm> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e5d2"/> - - John talks to Sam about engineering in Lojban. - =20 - - =20 - - - has=20 - John in the x1 place,=20 - Sam in the x2 place,=20 - engineering in the x3 place, and=20 - =20 - Lojban in the x4 place, and could be paraphrased: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e5d3"/> - - Talking is going on, with speaker John and listener Sam and su= bject matter engineering and language Lojban. - - The Lojban bridi corresponding to=20 - will have the form - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e5d4"/> - - - - x1 - cu - tavla=20 - x2=20 - x3=20 - x4 - - - - cuuse ofquick-tour version= cuomis= sion ofquick-tour version The = word=20 - cu serves as a separator between any preceding sumti an= d the selbri. It can often be omitted, as in the following examples. - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e5d5"/> - - - - mi=20 - tavla=20 - do=20 - zo'e=20 - zo'e - - I talk to you about something in some language. - - =20 - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e5d6"/> - - - - do=20 - tavla=20 - mi=20 - ta=20 - zo'e - - You talk to me about that thing in a language. - - =20 - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e5d7"/> - - - - mi=20 - tavla=20 - zo'e=20 - tu=20 - ti - - I talk to someone about that thing yonder in this languag= e. - - - ( - is a bit unusual, as there = is no easy way to point to a language; one might point to a copy of this bo= ok, and hope the meaning gets across!) - ellipsisquick-tour version When there are one o= r more occurrences of the cmavo=20 - zo'e at the end of a bridi, they may be omitted, a proc= ess called=20 - ellipsis.=20 - - and=20 - may be expressed thus: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e5d8"/> - - - - mi=20 - tavla=20 - do - - I talk to you (about something in some language). - - =20 - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e5d9"/> - - - - do=20 - tavla=20 - mi=20 - ta - - You talk to me about that thing (in some language). - - - Note that=20 - is not subject to ellipsis = by this direct method, as the=20 - - zo'e in it is not at the end of the bridi. -

- Variant bridi structure - sumti placementvariantquick-tour version Consider the sentence - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e6d1"/> - - - - mi - cu - vecnu - ti - ta - zo'e - - - seller-x1 - - sells - goods-sold-x2 - buyer-x3 - price-x4 - - - I - - sell - this - to that - for some price. - - I sell this-thing/these-things to that-buyer/those-buyers= . - (the price is obvious or unimportant) - - - - has one sumti (the x1) befo= re the selbri. It is also possible to put more than one sumti before the se= lbri, without changing the order of sumti: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e6d2"/> - - - - mi - ti =20 - cu - vecnu - ta - - - seller-x1 - goods-sold-x2 - - sells - buyer-x3 - - - I - this - - sell - to that. - - (translates as stilted or poetic English) - I this thing do sell to that buyer. - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e6d3"/> - - - - mi - ti - ta =20 - cu - vecnu - - - seller-x1 - goods-sold-x2 - buyer-x3 - - sells - - - I - this - to that - - sell - - (translates as stilted or poetic English) - I this thing to that buyer do sell. - - - - through=20 - mean the same thing. Usuall= y, placing more than one sumti before the selbri is done for style or for e= mphasis on the sumti that are out-of-place from their normal position. (Nat= ive speakers of languages other than English may prefer such orders.) - observativesquick-tour version If there are no = sumti before the selbri, then it is understood that the x1 sumti value is e= quivalent to=20 - zo'e; i.e. unimportant or obvious, and therefore not gi= ven. Any sumti after the selbri start counting from x2. - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e6d4"/> - - - - ta =20 - cu - melbi - - - object/idea-x1 - - is-beautiful=20 - to someone by some standard - - - That/Those - - is/are beautiful. - - That is beautiful. - Those are beautiful. - - - when the x1 is omitted, becomes: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e6d5"/> - - - - =20 - melbi - - - - unspecified-x1 - is-beautiful=20 - to someone by some standard - - Beautiful! - It's beautiful! - - - Omitting the x1 adds emphasis to the selbri relation, which has = become first in the sentence. This kind of sentence is termed an observativ= e, because it is often used when someone first observes or takes note of th= e relationship, and wishes to quickly communicate it to someone else. Commo= nly understood English observatives include=20 - =20 - =20 - Smoke! upon seeing smoke or smelling the odor, or=20 - Car! to a person crossing the street who might be in da= nger. Any Lojban selbri can be used as an observative if no sumti appear be= fore the selbri. - =20 - The word=20 - cu does not occur in an observative;=20 - =20 - cu is a separator, and there must be a sumti before the= selbri that needs to be kept separate for=20 - cu to be used. With no sumti preceding the selbri,=20 - cu is not permitted. Short words like=20 - cu which serve grammatical functions are called=20 - cmavo in Lojban. -

- Varying the order of sumti - sumti reordering<= /primary>quick-tour version For one reas= on or another you may want to change the order, placing one particular sumt= i at the front of the bridi. The cmavo=20 - se, when placed before the last word of the selbri, wil= l switch the meanings of the first and second sumti places. So - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e7d1"/> - - - - mi - tavla - do - ti - - I talk to you about this. - - - has the same meaning as - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e7d2"/> - - - - do - se tavla - mi - ti - - You are talked to by me about this. - - - The cmavo=20 - te, when used in the same location, switches the meanin= gs of the first and the third sumti places. - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e7d3"/> - - - - mi - tavla - do - ti - - I talk to you about this. - - - has the same meaning as - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e7d4"/> - - - - ti - te tavla - do - mi - - This is talked about to you by me. - - - Note that only the first and third sumti have switched places; t= he second sumti has remained in the second place. - The cmavo=20 - ve and=20 - xe switch the first and fourth sumti places, and the fi= rst and fifth sumti places, respectively. These changes in the order of pla= ces are known as=20 - conversions, and the=20 - se,=20 - te,=20 - ve, and=20 - xe cmavo are said to convert the selbri. - More than one of these operators may be used on a given selbri a= t one time, and in such a case they are evaluated from left to right. Howev= er, in practice they are used one at a time, as there are better tools for = complex manipulation of the sumti places. See=20 - for details. - passive voice The effect is similar to what in English is called the= =20 - passive voice. In Lojban, the converted selbri has a ne= w place structure that is renumbered to reflect the place reversal, thus ha= ving effects when such a conversion is used in combination with other const= ructs such as=20 - =20 - =20 - le selbri [ku] (see=20 - ). -

- The basic structure of longer utterances - People don't always say just one sentence. Lojban has a specifi= c structure for talk or writing that is longer than one sentence. The entir= ety of a given speech event or written text is called an utterance. The sen= tences (usually, but not always, bridi) in an utterance are separated by th= e cmavo=20 - ni'o and=20 - i. These correspond to a brief pause (or nothing at all= ) in spoken English, and the various punctuation marks like period, questio= n mark, and exclamation mark in written English. These separators prevent t= he sumti at the beginning of the next sentence from being mistaken for a tr= ailing sumti of the previous sentence. - =20 - The cmavo=20 - ni'o separates paragraphs (covering different topics of= discussion). In a long text or utterance, the topical structure of the tex= t may be indicated by multiple=20 - ni'o s, with perhaps=20 - ni'oni'oni'o used to indicate a chapter,=20 - ni'oni'o to indicate a section, and a single=20 - ni'o to indicate a subtopic corresponding to a single E= nglish paragraph. - The cmavo=20 - i separates sentences. It is sometimes compounded with = words that modify the exact meaning (the semantics) of the sentence in the = context of the utterance. (The cmavo=20 - xu, discussed in=20 - , is one such word – = it turns the sentence from a statement to a question about truth.) When mor= e than one person is talking, a new speaker will usually omit the=20 - i even though she/he may be continuing on the same topi= c. - It is still O.K. for a new speaker to say the=20 - i before continuing; indeed, it is encouraged for maxim= um clarity (since it is possible that the second speaker might merely be ad= ding words onto the end of the first speaker's sentence). A good translatio= n for=20 - i is the=20 - and used in run-on sentences when people are talking in= formally:=20 - I did this, and then I did that, and ..., and .... -

- tanru - tanruquick-tour version When two gismu are adja= cent, the first one modifies the second, and the selbri takes its place str= ucture from the rightmost word. Such combinations of gismu are called=20 - tanru. For example, - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d1"/> - - - sutra tavla - - - has the place structure - - - <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>fast talker</primary><seconda= ry>example</secondary></indexterm> - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d2"/> - - x1 is a fast type-of talker to x2 about x3 in language x4 - x1 talks fast to x2 about x3 in language x4 - - =20 - - - tanru default groupingquick-tour version When three or m= ore gismu are in a row, the first modifies the second, and that combined me= aning modifies the third, and that combined meaning modifies the fourth, an= d so on. For example - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d3"/> - - - sutra tavla cutci - - - =20 - - - has the place structure - - - <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>fast-talker shoe</primary><se= condary>example</secondary></indexterm> - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d4"/> - - s1 is a fast-talker type of shoe worn by s2 of material s3 - - That is, it is a shoe that is worn by a fast talker rather than = a shoe that is fast and is also worn by a talker. - =20 - Note especially the use of=20 - type-of as a mechanism for connecting the English trans= lations of the two or more gismu; this convention helps the learner underst= and each tanru in its context. Creative interpretations are also possible, = however: - - - <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>runner shoe</primary><seconda= ry>example</secondary></indexterm> - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d5"/> - - - bajra cutci - runner shoe - =20 - - - =20 - - - most probably refers to shoes suitable for runners, but might be interpre= ted in some imaginative instances as=20 - shoes that run (by themselves?). In general, however, t= he meaning of a tanru is determined by the literal meaning of its component= s, and not by any connotations or figurative meanings. Thus - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d6"/> - - - sutra tavla - fast-talker - - - would not necessarily imply any trickery or deception, unlike th= e English idiom, and a - - - <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Lepidoptera</primary><seconda= ry>example</secondary></indexterm> - <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>butterfly</primary><secondary= >social</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>=20 - <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>social butterfly</primary><se= condary>example</secondary></indexterm>=20 - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d7"/> - - - jikca toldi - social butterfly - - - =20 - - - must always be an insect with large brightly-colored wings, of the family= =20 - Lepidoptera. - =20 - tanruplace structure ofquick-tour version The place structure of a tanru is always that of the final = component of the tanru. Thus, the following has the place structure of=20 - klama: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d8"/> - - - - mi - cu - sutra klama - la meris. - - - I - - quickly-go - to Mary. - - - - tanru conversion<= /primary>effect on place structurequick-to= ur version With the conversion=20 - se klama as the final component of the tanru, t= he place structure of the entire selbri is that of=20 - se klama: the x1 place is the destination, and = the x2 place is the one who goes: - =20 - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d9"/> - - - - mi - cu - sutra - se klama - la meris. - - - I - - quickly - am-gone-to - by Mary. - - - - tanruand conversionquick-tour version<= /indexterm> The following example shows that there is more to conversion th= an merely switching places, though: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d10"/> - - - - la tam. - cu - melbi tavla - la meris. - - - Tom - - beautifully-talks - to Mary. - - - Tom - - is a beautiful-talker - to Mary. - - - - has the place structure of=20 - tavla, but note the two distinct interpretations. - Now, using conversion, we can modify the place structure order:<= /para> - =20 - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d11"/> - - - - la meris. - cu - melbi se tavla - la tam. - - - Mary - - is beautifully-talked-to - by Tom. - - - Mary - - is a beautiful-audience - for Tom. - - - - and we see that the modification has been changed so as to focus= on Mary's role in the bridi relationship, leading to a different set of po= ssible interpretations. - Note that there is no place structure change if the modifying te= rm is converted, and so less drastic variation in possible meanings: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d12"/> - <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>talker</primary><secondary>ex= ample</secondary></indexterm> - - - - la tam. - cu - tavla melbi - la meris. - - - Tom - - is talkerly-beautiful - to Mary. - - - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e9d13"/> - - - - la tam. - cu - se tavla melbi - la meris. - - - Tom - - is audiencely-beautiful - to Mary. - - - - and we see that the manner in which Tom is seen as beautiful by = Mary changes, but Tom is still the one perceived as beautiful, and Mary, th= e observer of beauty. -

- Description sumti - =20 - - descriptionsquick-tour version Often we wish to talk abo= ut things other than the speaker, the listener and things we can point to. = Let's say I want to talk about a talker other than=20 - mi. What I want to talk about would naturally fit into = the first place of=20 - tavla. Lojban, it turns out, has an operator that pulls= this first place out of a selbri and converts it to a sumti called a=20 - description sumti. The description sumti=20 - le tavla ku means=20 - the talker, and may be used wherever any sumti may be u= sed. - For example, - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e10d1"/> - - - - mi - tavla - do - le tavla - ku - - - - means the same as - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e10d2"/> - - I talk to you about the talker - - where=20 - the talker is presumably someone other than me, though = not necessarily. - Similarly=20 - le sutra tavla ku is=20 - the fast talker, and=20 - =20 - le sutra te tavla ku is=20 - the fast subject of talk or=20 - the subject of fast talk. Which of these related meanin= gs is understood will depend on the context in which the expression is used= . The most plausible interpretation within the context will generally be as= sumed by a listener to be the intended one. - In many cases the word=20 - ku may be omitted. In particular, it is never necessary= in a description at the end of a sentence, so: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e10d3"/> - - - - mi - tavla - do - le tavla - - - I - talk-to - you - about-the talker - - - - means exactly the same thing as=20 - . - cuneed forquick-tour version There is a problem when we want to say=20 - The fast one is talking. The=20 - obvious translation=20 - le sutra tavla turns out to mean=20 - the fast talker, and has no selbri at all. To solve thi= s problem we can use the word=20 - =20 - cu, which so far has always been optional, in front of = the selbri. - The word=20 - cu has no meaning, and exists only to mark the beginnin= g of the selbri within the bridi, separating it from a previous sumti. It c= omes before any other part of the selbri, including other cmavo like=20 - se or=20 - te. Thus: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e10d4"/> - - - le sutra tavla - The fast talker - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e10d5"/> - - - - le sutra - cu - tavla - - - The fast one - - is talking. - - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e10d6"/> - - - le sutra se tavla - The fast talked-to one - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e10d7"/> - - - - le sutra - cu - se tavla - - - The fast one - - is talked to. - - - - KU selma'oquick-tour version kuquick-tour version Consider the following more complex example, with two= description sumti. - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e10d8"/> - - - - mi - cu - tavla - le vecnu - ku - le blari'o - ku - - - I - - talk-to - the seller - - about the blue-green-thing. - - - - - The sumti=20 - le vecnu contains the selbri=20 - vecnu, which has the=20 - seller in the x1 place, and uses it in this sentence to= describe a particular=20 - seller that the speaker has in mind (one that he or she= probably expects the listener will also know about). Similarly, the speake= r has a particular blue-green thing in mind, which is described using=20 - le to mark=20 - blari'o, a selbri whose first sumti is something blue-g= reen. - It is safe to omit both occurrences of=20 - ku in=20 - , and it is also safe to omi= t the=20 - cu. -

- Examples of brivla - brivla<= secondary>types ofquick-tour version The simplest form of selbri is an individual word. A word which may = by itself express a selbri relation is called a=20 - brivla. The three types of brivla are gismu (root words= ), lujvo (compounds), and fu'ivla (borrowings from other languages). All ha= ve identical grammatical uses. So far, most of our selbri have been gismu o= r tanru built from gismu. - =20 - gismuquick-tour version gismu: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e11d1"/> - - - - mi =20 - cu - klama - ti - zo'e - zo'e - ta - - - Go-er - - goes - destination - origin - route - means. - - I go here (to this) using that means (from somewhere via = some route). - - - lujvoquick-tour version lujvo: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e11d2"/> - - - - ta=20 - cu - blari'o - - - That - - is-blue-green. - - - - fu'ivla= quick-tour version fu'ivla: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e11d3"/> - - - - ti=20 - cu - djarspageti - - - This - - is-spaghetti. - - - - - cmavo as selbriquick-tour version Some cmavo ma= y also serve as selbri, acting as variables that stand for another selbri. = The most commonly used of these is=20 - go'i, which represents the main bridi of the previous L= ojban sentence, with any new sumti or other sentence features being express= ed replacing the previously expressed ones. Thus, in this context: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e11d4"/> - - - - ta=20 - cu - go'i - - - That - - too/same-as-last selbri. - - That (is spaghetti), too. - - - -

- The sumti=20 - <valsi>di'u</valsi> and=20 - <jbophrase>la'e di'u</jbophrase> - referencequick-tour version In English, I might= say=20 - The dog is beautiful, and you might reply=20 - This pleases me. How do you know what=20 - =20 - this refers to? Lojban uses different expressions to co= nvey the possible meanings of the English: - - - <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>beautiful dog</primary><secon= dary>example</secondary></indexterm> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e12d1"/> - - - - le gerku - ku - cu=20 - melbi - - The dog is beautiful. - - - The following three sentences all might translate as=20 - This pleases me. - =20 - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e12d2"/> - - - - ti - cu - pluka - mi - - This (the dog) pleases me. - - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e12d3"/> - - - - di'u - cu - pluka - mi - - This (the last sentence) pleases me (perhaps because it i= s grammatical or sounds nice). - - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e12d4"/> - - - - la'e di'u - cu - pluka - mi - - This (the meaning of the last sentence; i.e. that the dog= is beautiful) pleases me. - - - - pleases= =20 - uses one sumti to point to = or refer to another by inference. It is common to write=20 - la'edi'u as a single word; it is used more often than= =20 - =20 - di'u by itself. -

- Possession - possessionquick-tour version=20 - Possession refers to the concept of specifying an objec= t by saying who it belongs to (or with). A full explanation of Lojban posse= ssion is given in=20 - . A simple means of expres= sing possession, however, is to place a sumti representing the possessor of= an object within the description sumti that refers to the object: specific= ally, between the=20 - le and the selbri of the description: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e13d1"/> - - - - le mi gerku - cu=20 - sutra - - - The of-me dog - - is fast. - - My dog is fast. - - - possession not ow= nershipquick-tour version In L= ojban, possession doesn't necessarily mean ownership: one may=20 - possess a chair simply by sitting on it, even though it= actually belongs to someone else. English uses possession casually in the = same way, but also uses it to refer to actual ownership or even more intima= te relationships:=20 - my arm doesn't mean=20 - some arm I own but rather=20 - the arm that is part of my body. Lojban has methods of = specifying all these different kinds of possession precisely and easily. -

- Vocatives and commands - =20 - vocativesquick-tour version You may call someon= e's attention to the fact that you are addressing them by using=20 - doi followed by their name. The sentence - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e14d1"/> - - - doi djan. - - - means=20 - Oh, John, I'm talking to you. It also has the effect of= setting the value of=20 - do;=20 - do now refers to=20 - John until it is changed in some way in the conversatio= n. Note that=20 - is not a bridi, but it is a= legitimate Lojban sentence nevertheless; it is known as a=20 - vocative phrase. - =20 - Other cmavo can be used instead of=20 - doi in a vocative phrase, with a different significance= . For example, the cmavo=20 - =20 - coi means=20 - hello and=20 - co'o means=20 - good-bye. Either word may stand alone, they may follow = one another, or either may be followed by a pause and a name. (Vocative phr= ases with=20 - doi do not need a pause before the name.) - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e14d2"/> - - - coi. djan. - Hello, John. - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e14d3"/> - - - co'o. djan. - Good-bye, John. - - - imperativesquick-tour version commandsquick-tour vers= ion Commands are expressed in Lojban by a simple va= riation of the main bridi structure. If you say - - =20 - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e14d4"/> - - - - do - tavla - - - You - are-talking. - - - - you are simply making a statement of fact. In order to issue a c= ommand in Lojban, substitute the word=20 - ko for=20 - do. The bridi - - - <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Talk!</primary><secondary>exa= mple</secondary></indexterm> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e14d5"/> - - - - ko - tavla - - - - -=20 - - instructs the listener to do whatever is necessary to make=20 - true; it means=20 - Talk! Other examples: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e14d6"/> - - - - ko - sutra - - Be fast! - - - The=20 - ko need not be in the x1 place, but rather can occur an= ywhere a sumti is allowed, leading to possible Lojban commands that are ver= y unlike English commands: - =20 - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e14d7"/> - - - - mi - tavla - ko - - Be talked to by me. - Let me talk to you. - - - The cmavo=20 - ko can fill any appropriate sumti place, and can be use= d as often as is appropriate for the selbri: - - - <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Take care!</primary><secondar= y>example</secondary></indexterm> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e14d8"/> - - - - ko - kurji - ko - - - - and - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e14d9"/> - - - - ko - ko - kurji - - - - =20 - - - both mean=20 - You take care of you and=20 - Be taken care of by you, or to put it colloquially,=20 - Take care of yourself. -

- Questions - questionsquick-tour version There are many kind= s of questions in Lojban: full explanations appear in=20 - and in various other= chapters throughout the book. In this chapter, we will introduce three kin= ds: sumti questions, selbri questions, and yes/no questions. - =20 - =20 - sumti questionsquick-tour version questionsquick-tour = version The cmavo=20 - ma is used to create a sumti question: it indicates tha= t the speaker wishes to know the sumti which should be placed at the locati= on of the=20 - ma to make the bridi true. It can be translated as=20 - Who? or=20 - What? in most cases, but also serves for=20 - When?,=20 - Where?, and=20 - Why? when used in sumti places that express time, locat= ion, or cause. For example: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d1"/> - - - - ma - tavla - do - mi - - - Who? - talks - to-you - about-me. - - Who is talking to you about me? - - - The listener can reply by simply stating a sumti: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d2"/> - - - la djan. - John (is talking to you about me). - - - Like=20 - ko,=20 - ma can occur in any position where a sumti is allowed, = not just in the first position: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d3"/> - - - - do - cu - tavla - ma - - - You - - talk - to what/whom? - - - - A=20 - ma can also appear in multiple sumti positions in one s= entence, in effect asking several questions at once. - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d4"/> - - - - ma - cu =20 - tavla - ma - - - What/Who - - talks - to what/whom? - - - - separate question= squick-tour version The two se= parate=20 - ma positions ask two separate questions, and can theref= ore be answered with different values in each sumti place. - =20 - bridi questionsquick-tour version selbri questionsquic= k-tour version The cmavo=20 - mo is the selbri analogue of=20 - ma. It asks the respondent to provide a selbri that wou= ld be a true relation if inserted in place of the=20 - mo: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d5"/> - - - - do - cu - mo - - - You - - are-what/do-what? - - - - A=20 - mo may be used anywhere a brivla or other selbri might.= Keep this in mind for later examples. Unfortunately, by itself,=20 - mo is a very non-specific question. The response to the= question in=20 - could be: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d6"/> - - - - mi - cu - melbi - - I am beautiful. - - - or: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d7"/> - - - - mi - cu - tavla - - I talk. - - - speaker-listener = cooperation Clearly,=20 - mo requires some cooperation between the speaker and th= e respondent to ensure that the right question is being answered. If contex= t doesn't make the question specific enough, the speaker must ask the quest= ion more specifically using a more complex construction such as a tanru (se= e=20 - ). - It is perfectly permissible for the respondent to fill in other = unspecified places in responding to a=20 - mo question. Thus, the respondent in=20 - could have also specified a= n audience, a topic, and/or a language in the response. - yes/no questions<= /primary>quick-tour version Finally, we = must consider questions that can be answered=20 - Yes or=20 - No, such as - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d8"/> - - Are you talking to me? - - Like all yes-or-no questions in English,=20 - may be reformulated as - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d9"/> - - Is it true that you are talking to me? - - In Lojban we have a word that asks precisely that question in p= recisely the same way. The cmavo=20 - xu, when placed in front of a bridi, asks whether that = bridi is true as stated. So - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d10"/> - - - - xu =20 - do - tavla - mi - - - Is-it-true-that - you - are-talking - to-me? - - - - is the Lojban translation of=20 - . - affirmative answe= rquick-tour version go'i with xuquick= -tour version The answer=20 - Yes may be given by simply restating the bridi without = the=20 - xu question word. Lojban has a shorthand for doing this= with the word=20 - go'i, mentioned in=20 - . Instead of a negative answer,= the bridi may be restated in such a way as to make it true. If this can be= done by substituting sumti, it may be done with=20 - =20 - go'i as well. For example: - - - <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>healthy</primary><secondary>e= xample</secondary></indexterm> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d11"/> - - - - xu - do - kanro - - Are you healthy? - - - =20 - - - can be answered with - - - <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>healthy</primary><secondary>e= xample</secondary></indexterm> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d12"/> - - - - mi - kanro - - I am healthy. - - - - or - - - <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>healthy</primary><secondary>e= xample</secondary></indexterm> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d13"/> - - - - go'i - - I am healthy. - - - - - - (Note that=20 - do to the questioner is=20 - mi to the respondent.) - - or - - - <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>healthy</primary><secondary>e= xample</secondary></indexterm> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d14"/> - - - - le tavla - cu - kanro - - The talker is healthy. - - - - or - - - <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>healthy</primary><secondary>e= xample</secondary></indexterm> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e15d15"/> - - - - le tavla - cu - go'i - - The talker is healthy. - - - - negative answerquick-tour version A general neg= ative answer may be given by=20 - =20 - na go'i.=20 - na may be placed before any selbri (but after the=20 - cu). It is equivalent to stating=20 - It is not true that ... before the bridi. It does not i= mply that anything else is true or untrue, only that that specific bridi is= not true. More details on negative statements are available in=20 - . -

- Indicators - interjectionsquick-tour version attitudinal indicators= quick-tour version indicatorsquick-tour version Different cultures express emotions and attitudes with a vari= ety of intonations and gestures that are not usually included in written la= nguage. Some of these are available in some languages as interjections (i.e= . Aha!, Oh no!, Ouch!, Aahh!, etc.), but they vary greatly from culture to = culture. - =20 - Lojban has a group of cmavo known as=20 - attitudinal indicators which specifically covers this t= ype of commentary on spoken statements. They are both written and spoken, b= ut require no specific intonation or gestures. Grammatically they are very = simple: one or more attitudinals at the beginning of a bridi apply to the e= ntire bridi; anywhere else in the bridi they apply to the word immediately = to the left. For example: - =20 - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e16d1"/> - - - - .ie=20 - mi - cu - klama - - - Agreement! - I - - go. - - Yep! I'll go. - - =20 - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e16d2"/> - - - - .ei=20 - mi - cu - klama - - - Obligation! - I - - go. - - I should go. - - =20 - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e16d3"/> - - - - mi - cu - klama - le melbi - .ui - ku - - - I - - go - to-the beautiful-thing - and I am happy because it is the beautiful thing I'm goin= g to - - - - - but/and equivalen= ce met= alinguistic wordsquick-tour version discursives<= secondary>quick-tour version Not all indicators ind= icate attitudes. Discursives, another group of cmavo with the same grammati= cal rules as attitudinal indicators, allow free expression of certain kinds= of commentary about the main utterances. Using discursives allows a clear = separation of these so-called=20 - =20 - metalinguistic features from the underlying statements = and logical structure. By comparison, the English words=20 - =20 - but and=20 - also, which discursively indicate contrast or an added = weight of example, are logically equivalent to=20 - and, which does not have a discursive content. The aver= age English-speaker does not think about, and may not even realize, the par= adoxical idea that=20 - but basically means=20 - and. - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e16d4"/> - - - - mi - cu - klama - .i=20 - do - cu - stali - - - I - - go. - - You - - stay. - - - =20 - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e16d5"/> - - - - mi - cu - klama - .i - ji'a - do - cu - stali - - - I - - go. - - In addition, - you - - stay. - added weight - - - =20 - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e16d6"/> - - - - mi - cu - klama - .i - ku'i - do - cu - stali - - - I - - go. - - However, - you - - stay. - contrast - - - - evidentialsquick-tour version Another group of = indicators are called=20 - evidentials. Evidentials show the speaker's relationshi= p to the statement, specifically how the speaker came to make the statement= . These include=20 - =20 - =20 - za'a (I directly observe the relationship),=20 - =20 - pe'i (I believe that the relationship holds),=20 - =20 - ru'a (I postulate the relationship), and others. Many A= merican Indian languages use this kind of words. - =20 - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e16d7"/> - - - - - pe'i - do - cu - melbi - - - I opine! - You - - are beautiful. - - - =20 - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e16d8"/> - - - - - za'a - do - cu - melbi - - - I directly observe! - You - - are beautiful. - - - -

- Tenses - time tensesquick-tour version tensesquick-tour versio= n In English, every verb is tagged for the grammati= cal category called tense: past, present, or future. The sentence - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e17d1"/> - - John went to the store - - necessarily happens at some time in the past, whereas - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e17d2"/> - - John is going to the store - - is necessarily happening right now. - sentencestenselessquick-tour version The Lojban sentence - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e17d3"/> - - - - la djan.=20 - cu - klama - le zarci - - - John - - goes/went/will-go - to-the store - - - - serves as a translation of either=20 - or=20 - , and of many other possible= English sentences as well. It is not marked for tense, and can refer to an= event in the past, the present or the future. This rule does not mean that= Lojban has no way of representing the time of an event. A close translatio= n of=20 - would be: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e17d4"/> - - - - la djan. - pu - klama - le zarci - - - John - [past] - goes - to-the store - - - - where the tag=20 - pu forces the sentence to refer to a time in the past. = Similarly, - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e17d5"/> - - - - la djan. - ca - klama - le zarci - - - John - [present] - goes - to-the store - - - - necessarily refers to the present, because of the tag=20 - ca. Tags used in this way always appear at the very beg= inning of the selbri, just after the=20 - cu, and they may make a=20 - cu unnecessary, since tags cannot be absorbed into tanr= u. Such tags serve as an equivalent to English tenses and adverbs. In Lojba= n, tense information is completely optional. If unspecified, the appropriat= e tense is picked up from context. - =20 - space tensesquick-tour version Lojban also exte= nds the notion of=20 - tense to refer not only to time but to space. The follo= wing example uses the tag=20 - vu to specify that the event it describes happens far a= way from the speaker: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e17d6"/> - - - - do - vu vecnu - zo'e - - - You - yonder sell - something-unspecified. - - - - In addition, tense tags (either for time or space) can be prefix= ed to the selbri of a description, producing a tensed sumti: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e17d7"/> - - - - le pu bajra - ku - cu - tavla - - - The earlier/former/past runner - - - talked/talks. - - - - (Since Lojban tense is optional, we don't know when he or she ta= lks.) - Tensed sumti with space tags correspond roughly to the English u= se of=20 - this or=20 - that as adjectives, as in the following example, which = uses the tag=20 - =20 - vi meaning=20 - nearby: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e17d8"/> - - - - le vi bajra - ku - cu - tavla - - - The nearby runner - - - talks. - - This runner talks. - - - Do not confuse the use of=20 - vi in=20 - with the cmavo=20 - ti, which also means=20 - this, but in the sense of=20 - this thing. - sumti with tenses= quick-tour version Furthermore= , a tense tag can appear both on the selbri and within a description, as in= the following example (where=20 - ba is the tag for future time): - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c2e17d9"/> - - - - le vi tavla - ku - cu - ba klama - - - The here talker - - - [future] goes. - - The talker who is here will go. - This talker will go. - - -

- Lojban grammatical terms - =20 - grammatical terms= quick-tour version Here is a r= eview of the Lojban grammatical terms used in this chapter, plus some other= s used throughout this book. Only terms that are themselves Lojban words ar= e included: there are of course many expressions like=20 - =20 - indicator in=20 - that are not explained here. S= ee the Index for further help with these. - - - bridi: - - brididefinitionquick-tour version predication; the basic unit of Lojban expression; the main ki= nd of Lojban sentence; a claim that some objects stand in some relationship= , or that some single object has some property. - =20 - - - - sumti: - - sumtidefinitionquick-tour version argument; words identifying something which stands in a speci= fied relationship to something else, or which has a specified property. See= =20 - . - - - - selbri: - - selbridefinitionquick-tour version logical predicate; the core of a bridi; the word or words sp= ecifying the relationship between the objects referred to by the sumti. See= =20 - . - - - - cmavo: - - cmavodefinitionquick-tour version one of the Lojban parts of speech; a short word; a structural= word; a word used for its grammatical function. - =20 - - - - brivla: - - brivladefinitionquick-tour version one of the Lojban parts of speech; a content word; a predica= te word; can function as a selbri; is a gismu, a lujvo, or a fu'ivla. See= =20 - =20 - . - - - - gismu: - - gismudefinitionquick-tour version a root word; a kind of brivla; has associated rafsi. See=20 - . - - - - lujvo: - - lujvodefinitionquick-tour version a compound word; a kind of brivla; may or may not appear in a= dictionary; does not have associated rafsi. See=20 - and=20 - . - - - - fu'ivla: - - fu'ivladefinitionquick-tour version a borrowed word; a kind of brivla; may or may not appear in= a dictionary; copied in a modified form from some non-Lojban language; usu= ally refers to some aspect of culture or the natural world; does not have a= ssociated rafsi. See=20 - =20 - . - - - - rafsi: - - rafsidefinitionquick-tour version a word fragment; one or more is associated with each gismu; c= an be assembled according to rules in order to make lujvo; not a valid word= by itself. See=20 - . - - - - tanru: - - tanrudefinitionquick-tour version a group of two or more brivla, possibly with associated cmavo= , that form a selbri; always divisible into two parts, with the first part = modifying the meaning of the second part (which is taken to be basic). See= =20 - . - - - - selma'o: - - selma'odefinitionquick-tour version a group of cmavo that have the same grammatical use (can ap= pear interchangeably in sentences, as far as the grammar is concerned) but = differ in meaning or other usage. See=20 - . - - - -

- diff --git a/chapters/3.xml b/chapters/3.xml deleted file mode 100644 index bfb447c..0000000 --- a/chapters/3.xml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2209 +0,0 @@ - - The Hills Are Alive With The Sounds Of Lojban - - The picture for chapter 3 - - - - -

- Orthography - orthographyrelation to pronunciation pronunciationrela= tion to orthography audio-visual isomorphism isomorphismaudio-vi= sual Lojban is designed so that any properly spoken= Lojban utterance can be uniquely transcribed in writing, and any properly = written Lojban can be spoken so as to be uniquely reproduced by another per= son. As a consequence, the standard Lojban orthography must assign to each = distinct sound, or phoneme, a unique letter or symbol. Each letter or symbo= l has only one sound or, more accurately, a limited range of sounds that ar= e permitted pronunciations for that phoneme. Some symbols indicate stress (= speech emphasis) and pause, which are also essential to Lojban word recogni= tion. In addition, everything that is represented in other languages by pun= ctuation (when written) or by tone of voice (when spoken) is represented in= Lojban by words. These two properties together are known technically as audio-visual isomorphism. - =20 - alphabetLojban Lojban alphabet Latin alphabet Lojban uses a= variant of the Latin (Roman) alphabet, consisting of the following letters= and symbols: - - ' - , - . - a - b - c - d - e - f - g - i - j - k - l - m - n - o - p - r - s - t - u - v - x - y - z - - omitting the letters=20 - h,=20 - q, and=20 - w. - alphabetic order<= /primary> The alphabetic order given above is that of the ASCII= coded character set, widely used in computers. By making Lojban alphabetic= al order the same as ASCII, computerized sorting and searching of Lojban te= xt is facilitated. - =20 - =20 - stress<= secondary>showing non-standard capital lettersuse of Capital letters are used only to represent non-standard = stress, which can appear only in the representation of Lojbanized names. Th= us the English name=20 - Josephine, as normally pronounced, is Lojbanized as=20 - DJOsefin., pronounced=20 - ['d=CA=92os=C9=9Bfin=CA=94]. (See=20 - for an explanation of the = symbols within square brackets.) Technically, it is sufficient to capitaliz= e the vowel letter, in this case=20 - =20 - O, but it is easier on the reader to capitalize t= he whole syllable. - Without the capitalization, the ordinary rules of Lojban stress = would cause the=20 - =20 - se syllable to be stressed. Lojbanized names are meant = to represent the pronunciation of names from other languages with as little= distortion as may be; as such, they are exempt from many of the regular ru= les of Lojban phonology, as will appear in the rest of this chapter. -

- Basic Phonetics - bracketsuse in IPA notation phonetic alphabet IPA International Phonetic Alphabet (see = also IPA) Lojban pronunciations are defined using the= International Phonetic Alphabet, or IPA, a standard method of transcribing= pronunciations. By convention, IPA transcriptions are always within square= brackets: for example, the word=20 - =20 - cat is pronounced (in General American pronunciation)= =20 - =20 - [k=C3=A6t].=20 - contains a brief expl= anation of the IPA characters used in this chapter, with their nearest anal= ogues in English, and will be especially useful to those not familiar with = the technical terms used in describing speech sounds. - =20 - standard pronunci= ation = pronunciationstandard The stan= dard pronunciations and permitted variants of the Lojban letters are listed= in the table below. The descriptions have deliberately been made a bit amb= iguous to cover variations in pronunciation by speakers of different native= languages and dialects. In all cases except=20 - =20 - r the first IPA symbol shown represents the prefe= rred pronunciation; for=20 - r, all of the variations (and any other rhotic so= und) are equally acceptable. - - - - Letter - IPA - X-SAMPA - Description - - - - ' - [h] - [h] - an unvoiced glottal spirant - - - , - - - - - the syllable separator - - - . - [=CA=94] - [?] - a glottal stop or a pause - - - a - [a], [= =C9=91] - - [a], [A] - - an open vowel - - - b - [b] - [b] - a voiced bilabial stop - - - c - [=CA=83], [=CA=82] - - [S], [s`] - - an unvoiced coronal sibilant - - - d - [d] - [d] - a voiced dental/alveolar stop - - - e - [=C9=9B], [e] - - [E], [e] - - a front mid vowel - - - f - [f], [= =C9=B8] - - [f], [p\] - - an unvoiced labial fricative - - - g - [=C9=A1] - [g] - a voiced velar stop - - - i - [i] - [i] - a front close vowel - - - j - [=CA=92], [=CA=90] - - [Z], [z`] - - a voiced coronal sibilant - - - k - [k] - [k] - an unvoiced velar stop - - - l - [l], [l= =CC=A9] - - [l], [l=3D] - - a voiced lateral approximant (may be syllabic) - - - m - [m], [m= =CC=A9] - - [m], [m=3D] - - a voiced bilabial nasal (may be syllabic) - - - n - [n], [n= =CC=A9], [=C5=8B], [=C5=8B=CC=8D] - - [n], [n=3D], [N], [N=3D] - - a voiced dental or velar nasal (may be syllabic) - - - o - [o], [= =C9=94] - - [o], [O] - - a back mid vowel - - - p - [p] - [p] - an unvoiced bilabial stop - - - r - [r], [= =C9=B9], [=C9=BE], [=CA=80], [r=CC=A9], [=C9=B9=CC=A9], [=C9=BE=CC=A9], [=CA=80=CC=A9] - - [r], [r\], [4], [R\], [r=3D], [r\=3D], [4=3D]= , [R\=3D] - - a rhotic sound - - - s - [s] - [s] - an unvoiced alveolar sibilant - - - t - [t] - [t] - an unvoiced dental/alveolar stop - - - u - [u] - [u] - a back close vowel - - - v - [v], [= =CE=B2] - - [v], [B] - - a voiced labial fricative - - - x - [x] - [x] - an unvoiced velar fricative - - - y - [=C9=99] - [@] - a central mid vowel - - - z - [z] - [z] - a voiced alveolar sibilant - - - sounds<= secondary>clarity of clarity of sounds Lojban letterslist with= IPA pronunciation Lojban lettersIPA for pronouncing pronuncia= tionIPA for Lojban The Lojban = sounds must be clearly pronounced so that they are not mistaken for each ot= her. Voicing and placement of the tongue are the key factors in correct pro= nunciation, but other subtle differences will develop between consonants in= a Lojban-speaking community. At this point these are the only mandatory ru= les on the range of sounds. - rounded/unrounded= vowels Note in particular that Lojban vowels can be = pronounced with either rounded or unrounded lips; typically=20 - o and=20 - u are rounded and the others are not, as in Engli= sh, but this is not a requirement; some people round=20 - y as well. Lojban consonants can be aspirated or = unaspirated. Palatalizing of consonants, as found in Russian and other lang= uages, is not generally acceptable in pronunciation, though a following=20 - i may cause it. - sounds for letter= sLojban contrasted with English soundsdifficult The sounds represented by the letters=20 - c,=20 - g,=20 - j,=20 - s, and=20 - x require special attention for speakers of Engli= sh, either because they are ambiguous in the orthography of English (=20 - =20 - c,=20 - g,=20 - s), or because they are strikingly different in L= ojban (=20 - c,=20 - j,=20 - x). The English=20 - c represents three different sounds,=20 - [k] in=20 - cat and=20 - [s] in=20 - cent, as well as the=20 - [=CA=83] of=20 - ocean. Similarly, English=20 - g can represent=20 - [=C9=A1] as in=20 - go,=20 - [d=CA=92] as in=20 - gentle, and=20 - [=CA=92] as in the second "g" in=20 - garage (in some pronunciations). English=20 - s can be either=20 - [s] as in=20 - cats,=20 - [z] as in=20 - cards,=20 - [=CA=83] as in=20 - tension, or=20 - [=CA=92] as in=20 - measure. The sound of Lojban=20 - x doesn't appear in most English dialects at all.= - j-sound in Englis= hrepresentation in Lojban ch-sound in Englishrepresentation in Lojban ts-sound in Russianrepr= esentation in Lojban soundscomplex= There are two common English sounds that are found in Lojban but are not L= ojban consonants: the=20 - ch of=20 - church and the=20 - j of=20 - judge. In Lojban, these are considered two consonant so= unds spoken together without an intervening vowel sound, and so are represe= nted in Lojban by the two separate consonants:=20 - tc (IPA=20 - [t=CA=83]) and=20 - dj (IPA=20 - [d=CA=92]). In general, whether a comple= x sound is considered one sound or two depends on the language: Russian vie= ws=20 - ts as a single sound, whereas English, French, and Lojb= an consider it to be a consonant cluster. -

- The Special Lojban Characters - charactersspecial The apostrophe, period, and c= omma need special attention. They are all used as indicators of a division = between syllables, but each has a different pronunciation, and each is used= for different reasons: - apostrophetype of letter in word-formation ' symboldef= inition (see also apostrophe) apostrophedefinition of The apostrophe represents a phoneme similar to a short,= breathy English=20 - h, (IPA=20 - [h]). The letter=20 - h is not used to represent this sound for two reasons: = primarily in order to simplify explanations of the morphology, but also bec= ause the sound is very common, and the apostrophe is a visually lightweight= representation of it. The apostrophe sound is a consonant in nature, but i= s not treated as either a consonant or a vowel for purposes of Lojban morph= ology (word-formation), which is explained in=20 - . In addition, the apostrophe vi= sually parallels the comma and the period, which are also used (in differen= t ways) to separate syllables. - unvoiced vowel gl= ideapostrophe as apostrophepurpose of= The apostrophe is included in Lojban only to enabl= e a smooth transition between vowels, while joining the vowels within a sin= gle word. In fact, one way to think of the apostrophe is as representing an= unvoiced vowel glide. - =20 - apostrophevariant of As a permitted variant, an= y unvoiced fricative other than those already used in Lojban may be used to= render the apostrophe: IPA=20 - [=CE=B8] is one possibility. The conveni= ence of the listener should be regarded as paramount in deciding to use a s= ubstitute for=20 - [h]. - pauserepresentation of in Lojban glottal stopas pause = in Lojban perioddefinition of The = period represents a mandatory pause, with no specified length; a glottal st= op (IPA=20 - =20 - [=CA=94]) is considered a pause of short= est length. A pause (or glottal stop) may appear between any two words, and= in certain cases – explained in detail in=20 - =20 - – must occur. In particular, = a word beginning with a vowel is always preceded by a pause, and a word end= ing in a consonant is always followed by a pause. - period<= secondary>optional Technically, the period is an op= tional reminder to the reader of a mandatory pause that is dictated by the = rules of the language; because these rules are unambiguous, a missing perio= d can be inferred from otherwise correct text. Periods are included only as= an aid to the reader. - period<= secondary>within a word A period also may be found = apparently embedded in a word. When this occurs, such a written string is n= ot one word but two, written together to indicate that the writer intends a= unitary meaning for the compound. It is not really necessary to use a spac= e between words if a period appears. - pausecontrasted with syllable break syllable breakcont= rasted with pause syllable breakrepresentation in Lojban comma= definition of The comma is use= d to indicate a syllable break within a word, generally one that is not obv= ious to the reader. Such a comma is written to separate syllables, but indi= cates that there must be no pause between them, in contrast to the period. = Between two vowels, a comma indicates that some type of glide may be necess= ary to avoid a pause that would split the two syllables into separate words= . It is always legal to use the apostrophe (IPA=20 - =20 - [h]) sound in pronouncing a comma. Howev= er, a comma cannot be pronounced as a pause or glottal stop between the two= letters separated by the comma, because that pronunciation would split the= word into two words. - =20 - commaoptional commamain use of= Otherwise, a comma is usually only used to clarify the presence of syllabi= c=20 - l,=20 - m,=20 - n, or=20 - r (discussed later). Commas are never required: n= o two Lojban words differ solely because of the presence or placement of a = comma. - periodexample of Here is a somewhat artificia= l example of the difference in pronunciation between periods, commas and ap= ostrophes. In the English song about Old MacDonald's Farm, the vowel string= which is written as=20 - ee-i-ee-i-o in English could be Lojbanized with periods= as: - - - =20 - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Old McDonald</primary><secondary>exam= ple</secondary></indexterm> - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e3d1"/> - - - .i.ai.i.ai.o - [=CA=94i =CA=94aj =CA=94i =CA=94aj =CA=94o] - Ee! Eye! Ee! Eye! Oh! - - - However, this would sound clipped, staccato, and unmusical compa= red to the English. Furthermore, although=20 - is a string of meaningful L= ojban words, as a sentence it makes very little sense. (Note the use of per= iods embedded within the written word.) - commaexample of If commas were used instead of = periods, we could represent the English string as a Lojbanized name, ending= in a consonant: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e3d2"/> - - - .i,ai,i,ai,on. - [=CA=94i jaj ji jaj jon=CA=94] - - - commavariant of The commas represent new syllab= le breaks, but prohibit the use of pauses or glottal stop. The pronunciatio= n shown is just one possibility, but closely parallels the intended English= pronunciation. - =20 - However, the use of commas in this way is risky to unambiguous i= nterpretation, since the glides might be heard by some listeners as diphtho= ngs, producing something like - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e3d3"/> - - - .i,iai,ii,iai,ion. - - - which is technically a different Lojban name. Since the intent w= ith Lojbanized names is to allow them to be pronounced more like their nati= ve counterparts, the comma is allowed to represent vowel glides or some non= -Lojbanic sound. Such an exception affects only spelling accuracy and the a= bility of a reader to replicate the desired pronunciation exactly; it will = not affect the recognition of word boundaries. - apostropheas preferable over comma in names Sti= ll, it is better if Lojbanized names are always distinct. Therefore, the ap= ostrophe is preferred in regular Lojbanized names that are not attempting t= o simulate a non-Lojban pronunciation perfectly. (Perfection, in any event,= is not really achievable, because some sounds simply lack reasonable Lojba= nic counterparts.) - If apostrophes were used instead of commas in=20 - , it would appear as: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e3d4"/> - - - .i'ai'i'ai'on. - [=CA=94i hai hi hai hon=CA=94] - - - apostropheexample of which preserves the rhythm= and length, if not the exact sounds, of the original English. -

- Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants - diphthongsdefinition of There exist 16 diphthon= gs in the Lojban language. A diphthong is a vowel sound that consists of tw= o elements, a short vowel sound and a glide, either a labial (IPA=20 - [w]) or palatal (IPA=20 - [j]) glide, that either precedes (an on-= glide) or follows (an off-glide) the main vowel. Diphthongs always constitu= te a single syllable. - vowels<= secondary>contrasted with consonants consonantscontrasted = with vowels For Lojban purposes, a vowel sound is a= relatively long speech-sound that forms the nucleus of a syllable. Consona= nt sounds are relatively brief and normally require an accompanying vowel s= ound in order to be audible. Consonants may occur at the beginning or end o= f a syllable, around the vowel, and there may be several consonants in a cl= uster in either position. Each separate vowel sound constitutes a distinct = syllable; consonant sounds do not affect the determination of syllables. - vowels<= secondary>definition of The six Lojban vowels are= =20 - a,=20 - e,=20 - i,=20 - o,=20 - u, and=20 - y. The first five vowels appear freely in all kin= ds of Lojban words. The vowel=20 - y has a limited distribution: it appears only in = Lojbanized names, in the Lojban names of the letters of the alphabet, as a = glue vowel in compound words, and standing alone as a space-filler word (li= ke English=20 - =20 - uh or=20 - er). - diphthongslist of diphthongsIPA for The Lojban diphthongs are shown in the table below. (Variant pronunci= ations have been omitted, but are much as one would expect based on the var= iant pronunciations of the separate vowel letters:=20 - ai may be pronounced=20 - [=C9=91j], for example.) - - - - Letters - IPA - Description - - - - - ai =20 - [aj] - an open vowel with palatal off-glide - - - ei =20 - [=C9=9Bj] - a front mid vowel with palatal off-glide - - - oi =20 - [oj] - a back mid vowel with palatal off-glide - - - au =20 - [aw] - an open vowel with labial off-glide - - - ia =20 - [ja] - an open vowel with palatal on-glide - - - ie =20 - [j=C9=9B] - a front mid vowel with palatal on-glide - - - ii =20 - [ji] - a front close vowel with palatal on-glide - - - io =20 - [jo] - a back mid vowel with palatal on-glide - - - iu =20 - [ju] - a back close vowel with palatal on-glide - - - ua =20 - [wa] - an open vowel with labial on-glide - - - ue =20 - [w=C9=9B] - a front mid vowel with labial on-glide - - - ui =20 - [wi] - a front close vowel with labial on-glide - - - uo =20 - [wo] - a back mid vowel with labial on-glide - - - uu =20 - [wu] - a back close vowel with labial on-glide - - - iy =20 - [j=C9=99] - a central mid vowel with palatal on-glide - - - uy =20 - [w=C9=99] - a central mid vowel with labial on-glide - - - (Approximate English equivalents of most of these diphthongs exi= st: see=20 - for examples.) - diphthongsclassification of The first four diph= thongs above (=20 - ai,=20 - ei,=20 - oi, and=20 - au, the ones with off-glides) are freely used i= n most types of Lojban words; the ten following ones are used only as stand= -alone words and in Lojbanized names and borrowings; and the last two (=20 - =20 - iy and=20 - uy) are used only in Lojbanized names. - syllabic consonan= ts con= sonantssyllabic The syllabic c= onsonants of Lojban,=20 - =20 - [l=CC=A9],=20 - [m=CC=A9],=20 - [n=CC=A9], and=20 - [r=CC=A9], are variants of the non-sylla= bic=20 - [l],=20 - [m],=20 - [n], and=20 - [r] respectively. They normally have onl= y a limited distribution, appearing in Lojban names and borrowings, althoug= h in principle any=20 - =20 - l,=20 - m,=20 - n, or=20 - r may be pronounced syllabically. If a syllabic c= onsonant appears next to a=20 - =20 - l,=20 - m,=20 - n, or=20 - r that is not syllabic, it may not be clear which= is which: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e4d1"/> - - - brlgan. - [br=CC=A9l gan] - or - [brl=CC=A9 gan] - - - is a hypothetical Lojbanized name with more than one valid pronu= nciation; however it is pronounced, it remains the same word. - =20 - -Earlexample - - syllabic consonantsfinal in word Syllabic consonants are= treated as consonants rather than vowels from the standpoint of Lojban mor= phology. Thus Lojbanized names, which are generally required to end in a co= nsonant, are allowed to end with a syllabic consonant. An example is=20 - =20 - rl., which is an approximation of the English name=20 - Earl, and has two syllabic consonants. - =20 - =20 - syllabic consonan= tseffect on stress stresseffect of sy= llabic consonants on Syllables with syllabic conson= ants and no vowel are never stressed or counted when determining which syll= ables to stress (see=20 - =20 - ). -

- Vowel Pairs - vowel pairsuse of apostrophe in apostropheuse in vowel= pairs vowel pairsdefinition of Lo= jban vowels also occur in pairs, where each vowel sound is in a separate sy= llable. These two vowel sounds are connected (and separated) by an apostrop= he. Lojban vowel pairs should be pronounced continuously with the=20 - =20 - [h] sound between (and not by a glottal = stop or pause, which would split the two vowels into separate words). - =20 - diphthongscontrasted with vowel pairs vowel pairscontr= asted with diphthongs All vowel combinations are pe= rmitted in two-syllable pairs with the apostrophe separating them; this inc= ludes those which constitute diphthongs when the apostrophe is not included= . - vowel pairslist of The Lojban vowel pairs are:<= /para> - =20 - - a'a - a'e - a'i - a'o - a'u - a'y - =20 - =20 - =20 - e'a - e'e - e'i - e'o - e'u - e'y - =20 - =20 - =20 - i'a - i'e - i'i - i'o - i'u - i'y - =20 - o'a - o'e - o'i - o'o - o'u - o'y - =20 - =20 - u'a - u'e - u'i - u'o - u'u - u'y - =20 - y'a - y'e - y'i - y'o - y'u - y'y - - vowel pairsinvolving y Vowel pairs involving=20 - y appear only in Lojbanized names. They could app= ear in cmavo (structure words), but only=20 - =20 - .y'y. is so used – it is the Lojban name of the a= postrophe letter (see=20 - ). - vowel pairsgrouping of When more than two vowel= s occur together in Lojban, the normal pronunciation pairs vowels from the = left into syllables, as in the Lojbanized name: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e5d1"/> - - - meiin. - mei,in. - - - - contains the diphthong=20 - ei followed by the vowel=20 - i. In order to indicate a different grouping, the= comma must always be used, leading to: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e5d2"/> - - - me,iin. - - - which contains the vowel=20 - e followed by the diphthong=20 - ii. In rough English representation,=20 - is=20 - May Een, whereas=20 - is=20 - Meh Yeen. -

- Consonant Clusters - consonanteffect on syllable count consonantdefinition<= /secondary> A consonant sound is a relatively brief speech-soun= d that precedes or follows a vowel sound in a syllable; its presence either= preceding or following does not add to the count of syllables, nor is a co= nsonant required in either position for any syllable. Lojban has seventeen = consonants: for the purposes of this section, the apostrophe is not counted= as a consonant. - consonantsvoicing of consonantsvoiced/unvoiced equival= ents An important distinction dividing Lojban conso= nants is that of voicing. The following table shows the unvoiced consonants= and the corresponding voiced ones: - =20 - - - - UNVOICED - VOICED - - - - p - b - - - t - d - - - k - g - - - f - v - - - c - j - - - s - z - - - x - - - - - The consonant=20 - x has no voiced counterpart in Lojban. The remain= ing consonants,=20 - l,=20 - m,=20 - n, and=20 - r, are typically pronounced with voice, but can b= e pronounced unvoiced. - consonant cluster= scontrasted with single consonants consonant clusterscontrasted with doubled consonants = doubled consonants= contrasted with consonant clusters doubled consonantscontrasted with single consonants single consonantsc= ontrasted with consonant clusters single consonantscontra= sted with doubled consonants consonant clustersdefinition = of Consonant sounds occur in languages as single co= nsonants, or as doubled, or as clustered combinations. Single consonant sou= nds are isolated by word boundaries or by intervening vowel sounds from oth= er consonant sounds. Doubled consonant sounds are either lengthened like=20 - [s] in English=20 - hiss, or repeated like=20 - [k] in English=20 - backcourt. Consonant clusters consist of two or more si= ngle or doubled consonant sounds in a group, each of which is different fro= m its immediate neighbor. In Lojban, doubled consonants are excluded altoge= ther, and clusters are limited to two or three members, except in Lojbanize= d names. - =20 - consonantsposition of Consonants can occur in t= hree positions in words: initial (at the beginning), medial (in the middle)= , and final (at the end). In many languages, the sound of a consonant varie= s depending upon its position in the word. In Lojban, as much as possible, = the sound of a consonant is unrelated to its position. In particular, the c= ommon American English trait of changing a=20 - t between vowels into a=20 - d or even an alveolar tap (IPA=20 - [=C9=BE]) is unacceptable in Lojban. - - consonantsfinal consonantsrestrictions on<= /indexterm> Lojban imposes no restrictions on the appearance of single cons= onants in any valid consonant position; however, no consonant (including sy= llabic consonants) occurs final in a word except in Lojbanized names. - =20 - consonant pairsrestrictions on Pairs of consona= nts can also appear freely, with the following restrictions: - - - It is forbidden for both consonants to be the same, as this = would violate the rule against double consonants. - - - voiced/unvoic= ed consonantsrestrictions on I= t is forbidden for one consonant to be voiced and the other unvoiced. The c= onsonants - l,=20 - m,=20 - n, and=20 - r are exempt from this restriction. As a resu= lt,=20 - bf is forbidden, and so is=20 - sd, but both=20 - fl and=20 - vl, and both=20 - ls and=20 - lz, are permitted. - - - - It is forbidden for both consonants to be drawn from the set= =20 - c,=20 - j,=20 - s,=20 - z. - - - - The specific pairs=20 - cx,=20 - kx,=20 - xc,=20 - xk, and=20 - mz are forbidden. - - - - yuse in avoiding forbidden consonant pairs Th= ese rules apply to all kinds of words, even Lojbanized names. If a name wou= ld normally contain a forbidden consonant pair, a=20 - y can be inserted to break up the pair: - - - - =20 - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>James</primary><secondary>example</se= condary></indexterm> - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e6d1"/> - - - djeimyz. - [d=CA=92=C9=9Bj m=C9=99z=CA=94] - James - - - The regular English pronunciation of=20 - James, which is=20 - [d=CA=92=C9=9Bjmz], would Lojbanize as= =20 - djeimz., which contains a forbidden c= onsonant pair. -

- Initial Consonant Pairs - consonant pairsinitial The set of consonant pai= rs that may appear at the beginning of a word (excluding Lojbanized names) = is far more restricted than the fairly large group of permissible consonant= pairs described in=20 - =20 - . Even so, it is more than English= allows, although hopefully not more than English-speakers (and others) can= learn to pronounce. - initial consonant= pairslist of There are just 4= 8 such permissible initial consonant pairs, as follows: - - - bl - br - - - - - - - - - cf - ck - cl - cm - cn - cp - cr - ct - - - dj - dr - dz - - - fl - fr - - - gl - gr - - - jb - jd - jg - jm - jv - - - kl - kr - - - ml - mr - - - pl - pr - - - sf - sk - sl - sm - sn - sp - sr - st - - - tc - tr - ts - - - vl - vr - - - xl - xr - - - zb - zd - zg - zm - zv - - - Lest this list seem almost random, a pairing of voiced and unvoi= ced equivalent vowels will show significant patterns which may help in lear= ning: - - - pl - pr - - - - - - - - - fl - fr - - - bl - br - - - - - - - - - vl - vr - - - - - - cp - cf - - - ct - ck - cm - cn - - - cl - cr - - - jb - jv - - - jd - jg - jm - - - sp - sf - - - st - sk - sm - sn - - - sl - sr - - - zb - zv - - - zd - zg - zm - - - - - - tc - tr - - - ts - - - - - - kl - kr - - - dj - dr - - - dz - - - - - - gl - gr - - - - - - ml - mr - - - - - - - - - xl - xr - - - unvoiced consonan= tscontrasted with voiced in allowable consonant pairs<= /secondary> voic= ed consonantscontrasted with unvoiced in allowable con= sonant pairs Note that if both consonants of an ini= tial pair are voiced, the unvoiced equivalent is also permissible, and the = voiced pair can be pronounced simply by voicing the unvoiced pair. (The con= verse is not true:=20 - cn is a permissible initial pair, but=20 - jn is not.) - consonant triples= Consonant triples can occur medially in Lojban words= . They are subject to the following rules: - - - consonant tri= plesrestrictions on The first = two consonants must constitute a permissible consonant pair; - - - The last two consonants must constitute a permissible initia= l consonant pair; - - - The triples=20 - ndj,=20 - ndz,=20 - ntc, and=20 - nts are forbidden. - - - consonant cluster= smore than three consonants in= Lojbanized names can begin or end with any permissible consonant pair, not= just the 48 initial consonant pairs listed above, and can have consonant t= riples in any location, as long as the pairs making up those triples are pe= rmissible. In addition, names can contain consonant clusters with more than= three consonants, again requiring that each pair within the cluster is val= id. - =20 - =20 - =20 - =20 - =20 -

- Buffering Of Consonant Clusters - vowelbuffer buffer vowel consonant clustersbuffering of Many languages do not have consonant clusters at all, a= nd even those languages that do have them often allow only a subset of the = full Lojban set. As a result, the Lojban design allows the use of a buffer = sound between consonant combinations which a speaker finds unpronounceable.= This sound may be any non-Lojbanic vowel which is clearly separable by the= listener from the Lojban vowels. Some possibilities are IPA=20 - [=C9=AA],=20 - [=C9=A8],=20 - [=CA=8A], or even=20 - [=CA=8F], but there probably is no unive= rsally acceptable buffer sound. When using a consonant buffer, the sound sh= ould be made as short as possible. Two examples showing such buffering (we = will use=20 - [=C9=AA] in this chapter) are: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e8d1"/> - - - vrusi - [=CB=88vru si] - or - [v=C9=AA =CB=88ru si] - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e8d2"/> - =20 - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Amsterdam</primary><secondary>example= </secondary></indexterm> - - - - - .AMsterdam. =20 - [=CA=94am ster dam=CA=94] - or - [=CB=88=CA=94a m=C9=AA s=C9=AA t=C9=9B r=C9=AA da m=C9=AA=CA= =94] - - - stresseffect of buffer vowel on buffer voweland stre= ss When a buffer vowel is used, it splits each buff= ered consonant into its own syllable. However, the buffering syllables are = never stressed, and are not counted in determining stress. They are, in eff= ect, not really syllables to a Lojban listener, and thus their impact is ig= nored. - =20 - Here are more examples of unbuffered and buffered pronunciations= : - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e8d3"/> - - - klama =20 - [=CB=88kla ma] - [k=C9=AA =CB=88la ma] - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e8d4"/> - - - xapcke =20 - [=CB=88xap =CA=83k=C9=9B] - [=CB=88xa p=C9=AA =CA=83k=C9=9B] - [=CB=88xa p=C9=AA =CA=83=C9=AA k=C9=9B] - - - In=20 - , we see that buffering vowe= ls can be used in just some, rather than all, of the possible places: the s= econd pronunciation buffers the=20 - pc consonant pair but not the=20 - ck. The third pronunciation buffers both. - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e8d5"/> - - - ponyni'u - [po n=C9=99 'ni hu] - - - y soundcontrasted with vowel buffer vowel buffercont= rasted with y sound=20 - cannot contain any buffer= ing vowel. It is important not to confuse the vowel=20 - y, which is pronounced=20 - [=C9=99], with the buffer, which has a v= ariety of possible pronunciations and is never written. Consider the contra= st between - - - =20 - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>bone bread</primary><secondary>exampl= e</secondary></indexterm> - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e8d6"/> - - - bongynanba - [bo=C5=8B g=C9=99 =CB=88nan ba] - - - an unlikely Lojban compound word meaning=20 - bone bread (note the use of=20 - =20 - [=C5=8B] as a representative of=20 - n before=20 - g) and - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e8d7"/> - - - bongnanba - [bo=C5=8B =CB=88gnan ba] - - - a possible borrowing from another language (Lojban borrowings ca= n only take a limited form). If=20 - =20 - =20 - were pronounced with buffer= ing, as - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e8d8"/> - - - [bo=C5=8B g=C9=AA =CB=88nan ba] - - - it would be very similar to=20 - . Only a clear distinction b= etween=20 - y and any buffering vowel would keep the two word= s distinct. - buffer vowelshortening of vowelslength of<= /indexterm> Since buffering is done for the benefit of the speaker in order= to aid pronounceability, there is no guarantee that the listener will not = mistake a buffer vowel for one of the six regular Lojban vowels. The buffer= vowel should be as laxly pronounced as possible, as central as possible, a= nd as short as possible. Furthermore, it is worthwhile for speakers who use= buffers to pronounce their regular vowels a bit longer than usual, to avoi= d confusion with buffer vowels. The speakers of many languages will have tr= ouble correctly hearing any of the suggested buffer vowels otherwise. By th= is guideline,=20 - =20 - would be pronounced - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e8d9"/> - - - [bo=CB=90=C5=8B g=C9=AA =CB=88na=CB=90n ba=CB=90] - - - with lengthened vowels. -

- Syllabication And Stress - syllabicationdefinition of A Lojban word has on= e syllable for each of its vowels, diphthongs, and syllabic consonants (ref= erred to simply as=20 - =20 - vowels for the purposes of this section.) Syllabication= rules determine which of the consonants separating two vowels belong to th= e preceding vowel and which to the following vowel. These rules are convent= ional only; the phonetic facts of the matter about how utterances are sylla= bified in any language are always very complex. - syllabicationrules for A single consonant alway= s belongs to the following vowel. A consonant pair is normally divided betw= een the two vowels; however, if the pair constitute a valid initial consona= nt pair, they are normally both assigned to the following vowel. A consonan= t triple is divided between the first and second consonants. Apostrophes an= d commas, of course, also represent syllable breaks. Syllabic consonants us= ually appear alone in their syllables. - syllabicationand names It is permissible to var= y from these rules in Lojbanized names. For example, there are no definitiv= e rules for the syllabication of names with consonant clusters longer than = three consonants. The comma is used to indicate variant syllabication or to= explicitly mark normal syllabication. - =20 - =20 - =20 - syllabicationexamples of Here are some examples= of Lojban syllabication: - =20 - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d1"/> - - - pujenaicajeba - pu,je,nai,ca,je,ba - - - This word has no consonant pairs and is therefore syllabified be= fore each medial consonant. - =20 - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d2"/> - - - ninmu - nin,mu - - - This word is split at a consonant pair. - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d3"/> - - - fitpri - fit,pri - - - This word is split at a consonant triple, between the first two = consonants of the triple. - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d4"/> - - - sairgoi - sair,goi - sai,r,goi - =20 - - - This word contains the consonant pair=20 - rg; the=20 - r may be pronounced syllabically or not. - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d5"/> - - - klezba - klez,ba - kle,zba - - - This word contains the permissible initial pair=20 - zb, and so may be syllabicated either between= =20 - z and=20 - b or before=20 - zb. - stressed vowelcompared with stressed syllable = stressed syllablecompared with stressed vowel stressdefinition of<= /secondary> Stress is a relatively louder pronunciation of one = syllable in a word or group of words. Since every syllable has a vowel soun= d (or diphthong or syllabic consonant) as its nucleus, and the stress is on= the vowel sound itself, the terms=20 - stressed syllable and=20 - stressed vowel are largely interchangeable concepts. - stress<= secondary>rules for Most Lojban words are stressed = on the next-to-the-last, or penultimate, syllable. In counting syllables, h= owever, syllables whose vowel is=20 - y or which contain a syllabic consonant (=20 - =20 - l,=20 - m,=20 - n, or=20 - r) are never counted. (The Lojban term for penult= imate stress is=20 - da'amoi terbasna.) Similarly, syllables created= solely by adding a buffer vowel, such as=20 - [=C9=AA], are not counted. - stress<= secondary>levels of There are actually three levels= of stress – primary, secondary, and weak. Weak stress is the lowest = level, so it really means no stress at all. Weak stress is required for syl= lables containing=20 - y, a syllabic consonant, or a buffer vowel. - namesstress on brivlastress on= cmavos= tress on stressprimary Primary str= ess is required on the penultimate syllable of Lojban content words (called= =20 - brivla). Lojbanized names may be stressed on any syllab= le, but if a syllable other than the penultimate is stressed, the syllable = (or at least its vowel) must be capitalized in writing. Lojban structural w= ords (called=20 - cmavo) may be stressed on any syllable or none at all. = However, primary stress may not be used in a syllable just preceding a briv= la, unless a pause divides them; otherwise, the two words may run together.= - stress<= secondary>secondary Secondary stress is the optiona= l and non-distinctive emphasis used for other syllables besides those requi= red to have either weak or primary stress. There are few rules governing se= condary stress, which typically will follow a speaker's native language hab= its or preferences. Secondary stress can be used for contrast, or for empha= sis of a point. Secondary stress can be emphasized at any level up to prima= ry stress, although the speaker must not allow a false primary stress in br= ivla, since errors in word resolution could result. - The following are Lojban words with stress explicitly shown: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d6"/> - - - dikyjvo - DI,ky,jvo - - - (In a fully-buffered dialect, the pronunciation would be:=20 - ['di k=C9=99 =CA=92=C9=AA vo].) Note tha= t the syllable=20 - ky is not counted in determining stress. The vowel=20 - y is never stressed in a normal Lojban context. - - - =20 - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Armstrong</primary><secondary>example= </secondary></indexterm> - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d7"/> - - - .armstrong. - .ARM,strong. - - - This is a Lojbanized version of the name=20 - Armstrong. The final=20 - =20 - g must be explicitly pronounced. With full buffer= ing, the name would be pronounced: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d8"/> - - - [=CB=88=CA=94a r=C9=AA m=C9=AA s=C9=AA t=C9=AA ro n=C9=AA g= =C9=AA=CA=94] - - - However, there is no need to insert a buffer in every possible p= lace just because it is inserted in one place: partial buffering is also ac= ceptable. In every case, however, the stress remains in the same place: on = the first syllable. - -ngLojban contrasted with English The English p= ronunciation of=20 - Armstrong, as spelled in English, is not correct by Loj= ban standards; the letters=20 - =20 - ng in English represent a velar nasal (IPA=20 - [=C5=8B]) which is a single consonant. I= n Lojban,=20 - ng represents two separate consonants that mu= st both be pronounced; you may not use=20 - [=C5=8B] to pronounce Lojban=20 - ng, although=20 - [=C5=8Bg] is acceptable. English speaker= s are likely to have to pronounce the ending with a buffer, as one of the f= ollowing: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d9"/> - - - [=CB=88=CA=94arm stron g=C9=AA=CA=94] - or - [=CB=88=CA=94arm stro=C5=8B g=C9=AA=CA=94] - or even - [=CB=88=CA=94arm stro n=C9=AAg=CA=94] - - - The normal English pronunciation of the name=20 - Armstrong could be Lojbanized as: - =20 - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d10"/> - - - .ARMstron. - - - since Lojban=20 - n is allowed to be pronounced as the velar nasal= =20 - [=C5=8B]. - Here is another example showing the use of=20 - y: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d11"/> - - - bisydja - BI,sy,dja - BI,syd,ja - - - This word is a compound word, or lujvo, built from the two affix= es=20 - bis and=20 - dja. When they are joined, an impermissible consonant p= air results:=20 - sd. In accordance with the algorithm for maki= ng lujvo, explained in=20 - , a=20 - y is inserted to separate the impermissible conso= nant pair; the=20 - y is not counted as a syllable for purposes of st= ress determination. - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d12"/> - - - da'udja - da'UD,ja - da'U,dja - - - These two syllabications sound the same to a Lojban listener &= ndash; the association of unbuffered consonants in syllables is of no impor= t in recognizing the word. - - - <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>syllabication</primary><secon= dary>variants of</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d13"/> - - - e'u bridi - e'u BRI,di - E'u BRI,di - e'U.BRI,di - - - In=20 - ,=20 - e'u is a cmavo and=20 - bridi is a brivla. Either of the first two pronunciatio= ns is permitted: no primary stress on either syllable of=20 - e'u, or primary stress on the first syllable. The third= pronunciation, which places primary stress on the second syllable of the c= mavo, requires that – since the following word is a brivla – th= e two words must be separated by a pause. Consider the following two cases:= - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d14"/> - - - le re nobli prenu - le re NObli PREnu - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c3e9d15"/> - - - le re no bliprenu - le re no bliPREnu - - - If the cmavo=20 - no in=20 - were to be stressed, the ph= rase would sound exactly like the given pronunciation of=20 - , which is unacceptable in L= ojban: a single pronunciation cannot represent both. -

- IPA For English Speakers - IPA pronunciation= description television Received Pronunciation General American There are many dialects of English, thus making it difficu= lt to define the standardized symbols of the IPA in terms useful to every r= eader. All the symbols used in this chapter are repeated here, in more or l= ess alphabetical order, with examples drawn from General American. In addit= ion, some attention is given to the Received Pronunciation of (British) Eng= lish. These two dialects are referred to as GA and RP respectively. Speaker= s of other dialects should consult a book on phonetics or their local telev= ision sets. - =20 - =20 - =20 - - - [=CB=88] - - An IPA indicator of primary stress; the syllable which fol= lows=20 - [=CB=88] receives primary stress.<= /para> - - - - [=CA=94] - - An allowed variant of Lojban=20 - .. This sound is not usually considered par= t of English. It is the catch in your throat that sometimes occurs prior to= the beginning of a word (and sometimes a syllable) which starts with a vow= el. In some dialects, like Cockney and some kinds of American English, it i= s used between vowels instead of=20 - t:=20 - bottle - [bo=CA=94l=CC=A9]. The English int= erjection=20 - uh-oh! almost always has it between the syllables= . - - - - [=CB=90] - - A symbol indicating that the previous vowel is to be spoke= n for a longer time than usual. Lojban vowels can be pronounced long in ord= er to make a greater contrast with buffer vowels. - - - - [a] - - The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 - a. This sound doesn't occur in GA, but soun= ds somewhat like the=20 - ar of=20 - park, as spoken in RP or New England American. It= is pronounced further forward in the mouth than=20 - [=C9=91]. - - - - [=C9=91] - - An allowed variant of Lojban=20 - a. The=20 - a of GA=20 - father. The sound=20 - [a] is preferred because GA speake= rs often relax an unstressed=20 - [=C9=91] into a schwa=20 - [=C9=99], as in the usual pronunci= ations of=20 - about and=20 - sofa. Because schwa is a distinct vowel in Lojban= , English speakers must either learn to avoid this shift or to use=20 - [a] instead: the Lojban word for= =20 - sofa is=20 - sfofa, pronounced=20 - [sfofa] or=20 - [sfof=C9=91] but never=20 - [sfof=C9=99] which would be the no= n-word=20 - sfofy. - - - - [=C3=A6] - - Not a Lojban sound. The=20 - a of English=20 - cat. - - - - [b] - - The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 - b. As in English=20 - boy,=20 - sober, or=20 - job. - - - - [=CE=B2] - - An allowed variant of Lojban=20 - v. Not an English sound; the Spanish=20 - b or=20 - v between vowels. This sound shou= ld not be used for Lojban=20 - b. - - - - [d] - - The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 - d. As in English=20 - dog,=20 - soda, or=20 - mad. - - - - [=C9=9B] - - The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 - e. The=20 - e of English=20 - met. - - - - [e] - - An allowed variant of Lojban=20 - e. This sound is not found in English, but = is the Spanish=20 - e, or the tense=20 - e of Italian. The vowel of Englis= h=20 - say is similar except for the off-glide: you can = learn to make this sound by holding your tongue steady while saying the fir= st part of the English vowel. - - - - [=C9=99] - - The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 - y. As in the=20 - a of English=20 - sofa or=20 - about. Schwa is generally unstressed in Lojban, a= s it is in English. It is a totally relaxed sound made with the tongue in t= he middle of the mouth. - - - - [f] - - The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 - f. As in=20 - fee,=20 - loafer, or=20 - chef. - - - - [=C9=B8] - - An allowed variant of Lojban=20 - f. Not an English sound; the Japanese=20 - - f sound. - - - - [g] - - The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 - g. As in English=20 - go,=20 - eagle, or=20 - dog. - - - - [h] - - The preferred pronunciation of the Lojban apostrophe sound= . As in English=20 - aha or the second "h" in=20 - oh, hello. - - - - [i] - - The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 - i. Essentially like the English vowel of=20 - pizza or=20 - machine, although the English vowel is sometimes = pronounced with an off-glide, which should not be present in Lojban. - - - - [=C9=AA] - - A possible Lojban buffer vowel. The=20 - =20 - i of English=20 - bit. - - - - [=C9=A8] - - A possible Lojban buffer vowel. The=20 - =20 - u of=20 - just in some varieties of GA, those which make th= e word sound more or less like=20 - jist. Also Russian=20 - y as in=20 - byt' (to be); like a schwa=20 - [=C9=99], but higher in the mouth.= - - - - [j] - - Used in Lojban diphthongs beginning or ending with=20 - i. Like the=20 - y in English=20 - yard or=20 - say. - - - - [k] - - The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 - k. As in English=20 - kill,=20 - token, or=20 - flak. - - - - [l] - - The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 - l. As in English=20 - low,=20 - nylon, or=20 - excel. - - - - [l=CC=A9] - - The syllabic version of Lojban=20 - l, as in English=20 - bottle or=20 - middle. - - - - [m] - - The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 - m. As in English=20 - me,=20 - humor, or=20 - ham. - - - - [m=CC=A9] - - The syllabic version of Lojban=20 - m. As in English=20 - catch 'em or=20 - bottom. - - - - [n] - - The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 - n. As in English=20 - no,=20 - honor, or=20 - son. - - - - [n=CC=A9] - - The syllabic version of Lojban=20 - n. As in English=20 - button. - - - - [=C5=8B] - - An allowed variant of Lojban=20 - n, especially in Lojbanized names and befor= e=20 - g or=20 - k. As in English=20 - sing or=20 - singer (but not=20 - finger or=20 - danger). - - - - [=C5=8B=CC=8D] - - An allowed variant of Lojban syllabic=20 - n, especially in Lojbanized names. - - - - [o] - - The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 - o. As in the French=20 - haute (cuisine) or Spanish=20 - como. There is no exact English e= quivalent of this sound. The nearest GA equivalent is the=20 - o of=20 - dough or=20 - joke, but it is essential that the off-glide (a= =20 - [w]-like sound) at the end of the = vowel is not pronounced when speaking Lojban. The RP sound in these words i= s=20 - [=C9=99w] in IPA terms, and has no= =20 - [o] in it at all; unless you can s= peak with a Scots, Irish, or American accent, you may have trouble with thi= s sound. - - - - [=C9=94] - - An allowed variant of Lojban=20 - o, especially before=20 - r. This sound is a shortened form of the=20 - aw in GA=20 - dawn (for those people who don't pronounce=20 - dawn and=20 - Don alike; if you do, you may have trouble with t= his sound). In RP, but not GA, it is the=20 - o of=20 - hot. - - - - [p] - - The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 - p. As in English=20 - pay,=20 - super, or=20 - up. - - - - [r] - - One version of Lojban=20 - r. Not an English sound. The Spanish=20 - rr and the Scots=20 - r, a tongue-tip trill. - - - - [=C9=B9] - - One version of Lojban=20 - r. As in GA=20 - right,=20 - baron, or=20 - car. Not found in RP. - - - - [=C9=BE] - - One version of Lojban=20 - r. In GA, appears as a variant of=20 - t or=20 - d in the words=20 - metal and=20 - medal respectively. A tongue-tip flap. - - - - [=CA=80] - - One version of Lojban=20 - r. Not an English sound. The French or Germ= an=20 - r in - reine or=20 - rot respectively. A uvular trill.= - - - - - [r=CC=A9],=20 - [=C9=B9=CC=A9],=20 - [=C9=BE=CC=A9],=20 - [=CA=80=CC=A9] - - are syllabic versions of the above.=20 - [=C9=B9=CC=A9] appears in the GA (= but not RP) pronunciation of=20 - bird. - - - - [s] - - The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 - s. As in English=20 - so,=20 - basin, or=20 - yes. - - - - [=CA=83] - - The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 - c. The=20 - sh of English=20 - ship,=20 - ashen, or=20 - dish. - - - - [=CA=82] - - An allowed variant of Lojban=20 - s. Not an English sound. The Hindi retrofle= x=20 - s with dot below, or Klingon=20 - S. - - - - [t] - - The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 - t. As in English=20 - tea,=20 - later, or=20 - not. It is important to avoid the GA habit of pro= nouncing the=20 - t between vowels as=20 - [d] or=20 - [=C9=BE]. - - - - [=CE=B8] - - Not normally a Lojban sound, but a possible variant of Loj= ban=20 - '. The=20 - th of English=20 - thin (but not=20 - then). - - - - [v] - - The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 - v. As in English=20 - voice,=20 - savor, or=20 - live. - - - - [w] - - Used in Lojban diphthongs beginning or ending with=20 - u. Like the=20 - w in English=20 - wet - [w=C9=9Bt] or=20 - cow - [k=C9=91w]. - - - - [x] - - The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 - x. Not normally an English sound, but used = in some pronunciations of=20 - loch and=20 - Bach;=20 - gh in Scots=20 - might and=20 - night. The German=20 - Ach-Laut. To pronounce=20 - [x], force air through your throat= without vibrating your vocal chords; there should be lots of scrape. - - - - [=CA=8F] - - A possible Lojban buffer vowel. Not an English sound: the= =20 - =20 - =C3=BC of German=20 - h=C3=BCbsch. - - - - [z] - - The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 - z. As in English=20 - zoo,=20 - hazard, or=20 - fizz. - - - - [=CA=92] - - The preferred pronunciation of Lojban=20 - j. The=20 - si of English=20 - vision, or the consonant at the end of GA=20 - garage. - - - - [=CA=90] - - An allowed variant of Lojban=20 - z. Not an English sound. The voiced version= of=20 - [=CA=82]. - - - -

- English Analogues For Lojban Diphthongs - diphthongsEnglish analogues of Here is a list o= f English words that contain diphthongs that are similar to the Lojban diph= thongs. This list does not constitute an official pronunciation guide; it i= s intended as a help to English-speakers. - - - - Lojban - English - - - - ai =20 - pie - - - ei =20 - pay - - - oi =20 - boy - - - au =20 - cow - - - ia =20 - yard - - - ie =20 - yes - - - ii =20 - ye - - - io =20 - yodel (in GA only) - - - iu =20 - unicorn or few - - - ua =20 - suave - - - ue =20 - wet - - - ui =20 - we - - - uo =20 - woe (in GA only) - - - uu =20 - woo - - - iy =20 - million (the io part, that i= s) - - - uy =20 - was (when unstressed) - - -

- Oddball Orthographies - orthographynon-standard The following notes des= cribe ways in which Lojban has been written or could be written that differ= from the standard orthography explained in the rest of this chapter. Nobod= y needs to read this section except people with an interest in the obscure.= Technicalities are used without explanation or further apology. - =20 - There exists an alternative orthography for Lojban, which is des= igned to be as compatible as possible (but no more so) with the orthography= used in pre-Lojban versions of Loglan. The consonants undergo no change, e= xcept that=20 - =20 - x is replaced by=20 - h. The individual vowels likewise remain unchange= d. However, the vowel pairs and diphthongs are changed as follows: - =20 - - - - ai,=20 - ei,=20 - oi,=20 - au become=20 - ai,=20 - ei,=20 - oi,=20 - ao. - - - - - ia through=20 - iu and=20 - ua through=20 - uu remain unchanged. - - - - - a'i,=20 - =20 - e'i,=20 - o'i and=20 - =20 - a'o become=20 - =20 - a,i,=20 - e,i,=20 - o,i and=20 - a,o. - - - - - i'a through=20 - i'u and=20 - u'a through=20 - u'u are changed to=20 - =20 - ia through=20 - iu and=20 - ua through=20 - uu in lujvo and cmavo other than attitudi= nals, but become=20 - i,a through=20 - i,u and=20 - u,a through=20 - u,u in names, fu'ivla, and attitudinal cm= avo. - - - - All other vowel pairs simply drop the apostrophe. - =20 - - - The result of these rules is to eliminate the apostrophe altoget= her, replacing it with comma where necessary, and otherwise with nothing. I= n addition, names and the cmavo=20 - i are capitalized, and irregular stress is marked with = an apostrophe (now no longer used for a sound) following the stressed sylla= ble. - =20 - =20 - Three points must be emphasized about this alternative orthograp= hy: - =20 - - - non-standard = orthographiescaveat It is not = standard, and has not been used. - - - It does not represent any changes to the standard Lojban pho= nology; it is simply a representation of the same phonology using a differe= nt written form. - - - It was designed to aid in a planned rapprochement between th= e Logical Language Group and The Loglan Institute, a group headed by James = Cooke Brown. The rapprochement never took place. - =20 - - - non-standard orth= ographiesCyrillic There also e= xists a Cyrillic orthography for Lojban which was designed when the introdu= ctory Lojban brochure was translated into Russian. It uses the=20 - =D0=B0,=20 - =D0=B1,=20 - =D0=B2,=20 - =D0=B3,=20 - =D0=B4,=20 - =D0=B5,=20 - =D0=B6,=20 - =D0=B7,=20 - =D0=B8,=20 - =D0=BA,=20 - =D0=BB,=20 - =D0=BC,=20 - =D0=BD,=20 - =D0=BE,=20 - =D0=BF,=20 - =D1=80,=20 - =D1=81,=20 - =D1=82,=20 - =D1=83,=20 - =D1=84,=20 - =D1=85, and=20 - =D1=88 in the obvious ways. The Latin letter=20 - y is mapped onto the hard sign=20 - =D1=8A, as in Bulgarian. The apostrophe, comma, and per= iod are unchanged. Diphthongs are written as vowel pairs, as in the Roman r= epresentation. - Tolkien= and non-standard Lojban orthography non-standard orthographiesTengwar Finally, an orthography usin= g the Tengwar of F=C3=A9anor, a fictional orthography invented by J. R. R. = Tolkien and described in the Appendixes to=20 - =20 - =20 - The Lord Of The Rings, has bee= n devised for Lojban. The following mapping, which closely resembles that u= sed for Westron, will be meaningful only to those who have read those appen= dixes. In brief, the tincot=C3=A9ma and parmat=C3=A9ma are used in the conv= entional ways; the calmat=C3=A9ma represents palatal consonants, and the qu= esset=C3=A9ma represents velar consonants. - =20 - - - tinco - t - - - calma =20 - - - - - ando - d - - - anga =20 - - - - - thule =20 - - - - - harma - c - - - anto =20 - - - - - anca - j - - - numen - n - - - noldo =20 - - - - - ore - r - - - anna - i - - - parma - p - - - quesse - k - - - umbar - b - - - ungwe - g - - - formen - f - - - hwesta - x - - - ampa - v - - - unque - - - - - malta - m - - - nwalme - - - - - vala - u - - - vilya - - - - - - The letters=20 - vala and=20 - anna are used for=20 - u and=20 - i only when those letters are used to represent g= lides. Of the additional letters,=20 - r,=20 - l,=20 - s, and=20 - z are written with=20 - r=C3=B3men,=20 - lambe,=20 - silme, and=20 - =C3=A1re/=20 - esse respectively; the inverted forms = are used as free variants. - Lojban, like Quenya, is a vowel-last language, so tehtar are rea= d as following the tengwar on which they are placed. The conventional tehta= r are used for the five regular vowels, and the dot below for y. The Lojban apostrophe is represented by = halla. There is no equivalent of the Lojban comma or period. -

- diff --git a/chapters/4.xml b/chapters/4.xml deleted file mode 100644 index 103fd92..0000000 --- a/chapters/4.xml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,3214 +0,0 @@ - - The Shape Of Words To Come: Lojban Morphology - - The picture for chapter 4 - - - - - =20 -

- Introductory - word formsin Lojban (see also morphology) morphologydef= inition morphologysimplicity of Mo= rphology is the part of grammar that deals with the form of words. Lojban's= morphology is fairly simple compared to that of many languages, because Lo= jban words don't change form depending on how they are used. English has on= ly a small number of such changes compared to languages like Russian, but i= t does have changes like=20 - boys as the plural of=20 - =20 - boy, or=20 - walked as the past-tense form of=20 - walk. To make plurals or past tenses in Lojban, you add= separate words to the sentence that express the number of boys, or the tim= e when the walking was going on. - word formsas related to grammatical uses derivational morphology<= secondary>definition morphologyderivational However, Lojban does have what is called=20 - derivational morphology: the capability of building new= words from old words. In addition, the form of words tells us something ab= out their grammatical uses, and sometimes about the means by which they ent= ered the language. Lojban has very orderly rules for the formation of words= of various types, both the words that already exist and new words yet to b= e created by speakers and writers. - =20 - morphologyconventions for A stream of Lojban so= unds can be uniquely broken up into its component words according to specif= ic rules. These so-called=20 - morphology rules are summarized in this chapter. (Howev= er, a detailed algorithm for breaking sounds into words has not yet been fu= lly debugged, and so is not presented in this book.) First, here are some c= onventions used to talk about groups of Lojban letters, including vowels an= d consonants. - =20 - - - yconsidered not to be a vowel for morphological discussions V= as a symbol for a single vowel morphologysymbol= ic conventions for discussing V represents any sing= le Lojban vowel except=20 - y; that is, it represents=20 - a,=20 - e,=20 - i,=20 - o, or=20 - u. - - - VV stringas a symbol for a double vowel VV = represents either a diphthong, one of the following: - - ai - ei - oi - au - - or a two-syllable vowel pair with an apostrophe separating the vow= els, one of the following: - - a'a - a'e - a'i - a'o - a'u - =20 - e'a - e'e - e'i - e'o - e'u - =20 - i'a - i'e - i'i - i'o - i'u - =20 - o'a - o'e - o'i - o'o - o'u - =20 - u'a - u'e - u'i - u'o - u'u - - - - - apostropheas not a consonant for morphological discussions syllabic ras a consonant for morphological discussions= syllabic nas a consonant for morphological discussions syllabic mas a consonant for morphological discussions syllabic l<= secondary>considered as a consonant for morphological discussions C stringas a symbol for a single consonant = C represents a single Lojban consonant, not including the apostrophe, one o= f - - b=20 - c=20 - d=20 - f=20 - g=20 - j=20 - k=20 - l=20 - m=20 - n=20 - p=20 - r=20 - s=20 - t=20 - v=20 - x - or z - - . Syllabic l, m, n, and r always count as consonants for = the purposes of this chapter. - - - - CC stringas a symbol for a permissible initial consonant pair CC represents two adjacent consonants of type C which co= nstitute one of the 48 permissible initial consonant pairs:=20 - - - bl br - cf ck cl cm cn cp cr ct - dj dr dz - fl fr - gl gr - jb jd jg jm jv - kl kr - ml mr - pl pr - sf sk sl sm sn sp sr st - tc tr ts - vl vr=20 - xl xr - zb zd zg zm zv - - - - C/C stringas a symbol for a permissible consonant pair<= /indexterm> C/C represents two adjacent consonants which constitute one of = the permissible consonant pairs (not necessarily a permissible initial cons= onant pair). The permissible consonant pairs are explained in . In brief, any consonant pair is permissible unless= it: contains two identical letters, contains both a voiced (excluding r, l, m, n) and an unvoiced consonant, or is one of certain specified = forbidden pairs. - - - - C/CC stringas a symbol for a consonant triple C/CC represents a consonant triple. The first two consonants must consti= tute a permissible consonant pair; the last two consonants must constitute = a permissible initial consonant pair. - - - brivla<= secondary>as one of the 3 basic word classes cmeneas one o= f the 3 basic word classes cmavoas one of the 3 basic word= classes parts of speech word classes Lojban has three basic wo= rd classes – parts of speech – in contrast to the eight that ar= e traditional in English. These three classes are called cmavo, brivla, and= cmene. Each of these classes has uniquely identifying properties – a= n arrangement of letters that allows the word to be uniquely and unambiguou= sly recognized as a separate word in a string of Lojban, upon either readin= g or hearing, and as belonging to a specific word-class. - =20 - =20 - They are also functionally different: cmavo are the structure wo= rds, corresponding to English words like=20 - =20 - and,=20 - if,=20 - the and=20 - to; brivla are the content words, corresponding to Engl= ish words like=20 - come,=20 - red,=20 - doctor, and=20 - freely; cmene are proper names, corresponding to Englis= h=20 - James,=20 - Afghanistan, and=20 - Pope John Paul II. -

- cmavo - punctuation marks= cmavo as Lojban equivalents <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">numberscm= avo as Lojban equivalents prepositionscmavo as Lojban equi= valents conjunctionscmavo as Lojban equivalents articlescmavo as Lojban equivalents structure words selma'odefinition = cmavodefinition The f= irst group of Lojban words discussed in this chapter are the cmavo. They ar= e the structure words that hold the Lojban language together. They often ha= ve no semantic meaning in themselves, though they may affect the semantics = of brivla to which they are attached. The cmavo include the equivalent of E= nglish articles, conjunctions, prepositions, numbers, and punctuation marks= . There are over a hundred subcategories of cmavo, known as selma'o<= /valsi>, each having a specifically defined grammatical usage. The various = selma'o are discussed throughout=20 - to=20 - and summarized in=20 - . - cmavostructure of Standard cmavo occur in four = forms defined by their word structure. Here are some examples of the variou= s forms: - - - V-form - .a - .e - .i - .o - .u - - - CV-form - ba - ce - di - fo - gu - - - VV-form - .au - .ei - .ia - o'u - u'e - - - CVV-form - ki'a - pei - mi'o - coi - cu'u - - - In addition, there is the cmavo=20 - .y. (remember that=20 - y is not a V), which must have pauses before and = after it. - cmavolack of relation of form to grammatical use experimental cmavoforms for cmavofor experimental use cmavosimple A simple cmavo thus has the pro= perty of having only one or two vowels, or of having a single consonant fol= lowed by one or two vowels. Words consisting of three or more vowels in a r= ow, or a single consonant followed by three or more vowels, are also of cma= vo form, but are reserved for experimental use: a few examples are=20 - - - - <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>girls' school</primary><secon= dary>little</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e3d1"/> - - That's a little girls' school. - - What does it mean? Two possible readings are: - - - <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>girls' school</primary><secon= dary>little</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e3d2"/> - - That's a little school for girls. - - - - <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>girls' school</primary><secon= dary>little</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e3d3"/> - - That's a school for little girls. - - speech rhythmfor grouping in English This ambig= uity is quite different from the simple tanru ambiguity described in=20 - . We understand that=20 - girls' school means=20 - a school where girls are the students, and not=20 - a school where girls are the teachers or=20 - a school which is a girl (!). Likewise, we understand t= hat=20 - little girl means=20 - girl who is small. This is an ambiguity of grouping. Is= =20 - girls' school to be taken as a unit, with=20 - little specifying the type of girls' school? Or is=20 - little girl to be taken as a unit, specifying the type = of school? In English speech, different tones of voice, or=20 - exaggerated speech rhythm showing the grouping, are used to make the d= istinction; English writing usually leaves it unrepresented. - =20 - Lojban makes no use of tones of voice for any purpose; explici= t words are used to do the work. The cmavo=20 - bo (which belongs to selma'o BO) may be placed between = the two brivla which are most closely associated. Therefore, a Lojban trans= lation of=20 - would be: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e3d4"/> - - - ta cmalu nixli bo ckule - That is-a-small girl [] school. - - - might be translated:<= /para> - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e3d5"/> - - - ta cmalu bo nixli ckule - That is-a-small [] girl school. - - - The=20 - bo is represented in the literal translation by a hyphe= n because in written English a hyphen is sometimes used for the same purpos= e:=20 - a big dog-catcher would be quite different from a=20 - big-dog catcher (presumably someone who catches only bi= g dogs). - tanru nested with= in tanru Analysis of=20 - and=20 - reveals a tanru nested with= in a tanru. In=20 - , the main tanru has a selta= u of=20 - cmalu and a tertau of=20 - nixli bo ckule; the tertau is itself a tanru wi= th=20 - nixli as the seltau and=20 - ckule as the tertau. In=20 - , on the other hand, the sel= tau is=20 - cmalu bo nixli (itself a tanru), whereas the te= rtau is=20 - ckule.=20 - This structure of tanru nested within tanru forms the basis for all th= e more complex types of selbri that will be explained below. - What about=20 - ? What does it mean? - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e3d6"/> - - - ta cmalu nixli ckule - That is-a-small girl school. - - - tanrudefault left-grouping of left-grouping ruledefin= ition of The rules of Lojban do not leave this sent= ence ambiguous, as the rules of English do with=20 - . The choice made by the lan= guage designers is to say that=20 - means the same as=20 - . This is true no matter wha= t three brivla are used: the leftmost two are always grouped together. This= rule is called the=20 - left-grouping rule. Left-grouping in seemingly ambiguou= s structures is quite common – though not universal – in other = contexts in Lojban. - Another way to express the English meaning of=20 - and=20 - , using parentheses to mark = grouping, is: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e3d7"/> - - - ta cmalu [] nixli bo ckule - That is-a-small type-of (girl type-of school). - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e3d8"/> - - - ta cmalu bo nixli [] ckule - That is-a-(small type-of girl) type-of school. - - - Because=20 - type-of is implicit in the Lojban tanru form, it has no= Lojban equivalent. - Note: It is perfectly legal, though pointless, to insert=20 - bo into a simple tanru: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e3d9"/> - - - ta klama bo jubme - That is-a-goer [] table. - - - is a legal Lojban bridi that means exactly the same thing as=20 - , and is ambiguous in exactl= y the same ways. The cmavo=20 - bo serves only to resolve grouping ambiguity: it says n= othing about the more basic ambiguity present in all tanru. -

- -

- Complex tanru grouping - =20 - tanru groupingcomplex If one element of a tanru= can be another tanru, why not both elements? - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e4d1"/> - - - do mutce bo barda gerku bo kavbu - You are-a-(very type-of large) (dog type-of capturer). - You are a very large dog-catcher. - - - In=20 - , the selbri is a tanru with= seltau=20 - mutce bo barda and tertau=20 - gerku bo kavbu. It is worth emphasizing once ag= ain that this tanru has the same fundamental ambiguity as all other Lojban = tanru: the sense in which the=20 - dog type-of capturer is said to be=20 - very type-of large is not precisely specified. Presumab= ly it is his body which is large, but theoretically it could be one of his = other properties. - pretty<= secondary>English ambiguity of We will now justify = the title of this chapter by exploring the ramifications of the phrase=20 - pretty little girls' school, an expansion of the tanru = used in=20 - =20 - to four brivla. (Although= this example has been used in the Loglan Project almost since the beginnin= g – it first appeared in Quine's book=20 - Word and Object (1960) –= it is actually a mediocre example because of the ambiguity of English=20 - pretty; it can mean=20 - beautiful, the sense intended here, or it can mean=20 - very. Lojban=20 - melbi is not subject to this ambiguity: it means only= =20 - beautiful.) - Here are four ways to group this phrase: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e4d2"/> - - - ta melbi cmalu nixli ckule - That is-a-((pretty type-of little) type-of girl) type-of sc= hool. - That is a school for girls who are beautifully small. - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e4d3"/> - - - ta melbi cmalu nixli bo ckule - That is-a-(pretty type-of little) (girl type-of school). - That is a girls' school which is beautifully small. - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e4d4"/> - - - ta melbi cmalu bo nixli ckule - That is-a-(pretty type-of (little type-of girl)) type-of sc= hool. - That is a school for small girls who are beautiful. - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e4d5"/> - - - ta melbi cmalu bo nixli bo ckule - That is-a-pretty type-of (little type-of (girl type-of scho= ol)). - That is a small school for girls which is beautiful. - - - bofor right-grouping in tanru tanru groupingwith bo right= -grouping in tanruwith bo right-grouping ruledefinition of=20 - uses a construction which h= as not been seen before:=20 - cmalu bo nixli bo ckule, with two consecutive u= ses of=20 - bo between brivla. The rule for multiple=20 - bo constructions is the opposite of the rule when no=20 - bo is present at all: the last two are grouped together= . Not surprisingly, this is called the=20 - right-grouping rule, and it is associated with every us= e of=20 - =20 - bo in the language. Therefore, - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e4d6"/> - - - ta cmalu bo nixli bo ckule - That is-a-little type-of (girl type-of school). - - - means the same as=20 - , not=20 - . This rule may seem peculia= r at first, but one of its consequences is that=20 - bo is never necessary between the first two elements of= any of the complex tanru presented so far: all of=20 - through=20 - could have=20 - bo inserted between=20 - melbi and=20 - cmalu with no change in meaning. -

- -

- Complex tanru with=20 - <valsi>ke</valsi> and=20 - <valsi>ke'e</valsi> - =20 - The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - - ke - KE - start grouping - - - ke'e - KEhE - end grouping - - - tanru groupingwith ke grouping parentheses There is, = in fact, a fifth grouping of=20 - pretty little girls' school that cannot be expressed wi= th the resources explained so far. To handle it, we must introduce the grou= ping parentheses cmavo,=20 - =20 - =20 - ke and=20 - ke'e (belonging to selma'o KE and KEhE respectively). A= ny portion of a selbri sandwiched between these two cmavo is taken to be a = single tanru component, independently of what is adjacent to it. Thus,=20 - can be rewritten in any of = the following ways: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e5d1"/> - - - ta ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ckule - That is-a-( pretty little ) girl school. - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e5d2"/> - - - ta ke ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ke'e ckule - That is-a-( ( pretty little ) girl ) school. - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e5d3"/> - - - ta ke ke ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ke'e ckule ke'e - That is-a-( ( ( pretty little ) girl ) school ). - - - Even more versions could be created simply by placing any number= of=20 - ke cmavo at the beginning of the selbri, and a like num= ber of=20 - ke'e cmavo at its end. Obviously, all of these are a wa= ste of breath once the left-grouping rule has been grasped. However, the fo= llowing is equivalent to=20 - and may be easier to unders= tand: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e5d4"/> - - - ta melbi ke cmalu nixli ke'e ckule - That is-a-( pretty type-of ( little type-of girl ) ) type-o= f school. - - - Likewise, a=20 - ke and=20 - ke'e version of=20 - would be: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e5d5"/> - - - ta melbi cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e] - That is-a-(pretty type-of little) ( girl type-of school ).<= /gloss> - - - The final=20 - ke'e is given in square brackets here to indicate that = it can be elided. It is always possible to elide=20 - =20 - ke'e at the end of the selbri, making=20 - as terse as=20 - . - Now how about that fifth grouping? It is - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e5d6"/> - - - ta melbi ke cmalu nixli ckule [ke'e] - That is-a-pretty type-of ( ( little type-of girl ) type-of = school ). - That is a beautiful school for small girls. - - - - is distinctly different i= n meaning from any of Examples 4.2 through 4.5. Note that within the=20 - ke…ke'e parentheses, the left-g= rouping rule is applied to=20 - cmalu nixli ckule. - tanru groupingwith ke and bo=20 - It is perfectly all right to mix=20 - bo and=20 - ke…ke'e in a single selbri. For i= nstance,=20 - , which in pure=20 - ke…ke'e form is - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e5d7"/> - - - ta melbi ke cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e] [ke'e] - That is-a-pretty type-of ( little type-of ( girl type-of sc= hool ) ). - - - can equivalently be expressed as: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e5d8"/> - - - ta melbi ke cmalu nixli bo ckule [ke'e] - That is-a-pretty type-of ( little type-of ( girl type-of sc= hool ) ). - - - and in many other different forms as well. -

- -

- Logical connection within tanru - The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - - je - JA - tanru logical and - - - ja - JA - tanru logical or - - - joi - JOI - mixed mass and - - - gu'e - GUhA - tanru forethought logical and - - - gi - GI - forethought connection separator - - - Consider the English phrase=20 - big red dog. How shall this be rendered as a Lojban tan= ru? The naive attempt: - =20 - - - =20 - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>big red dog</primary><secondary>examp= le</secondary></indexterm> - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d1"/> - - - barda xunre gerku - (big type-of red) type-of dog - - - will not do, as it means a dog whose redness is big, in whatever= way redness might be described as=20 - big. Nor is - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d2"/> - - - barda xunre bo gerku - big type-of (red type-of dog) - - - adjective orderin= g much better. After all, the straightforward underst= anding of the English phrase is that the dog is big as compared with other = dogs, not merely as compared with other red dogs. In fact, the bigness and = redness are independent properties of the dog, and only obscure rules of En= glish adjective ordering prevent us from saying=20 - =20 - red big dog. - logical connectiv= esin tanru The Lojban approach= to this problem is to introduce the cmavo=20 - je, which is one of the many equivalents of English=20 - and. A big red dog is one that is both big and red, and= we can say: - =20 - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d3"/> - - - barda je xunre gerku - (big and red) type-of dog - - - Of course, - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d4"/> - - - xunre je barda gerku - (red and big) type-of dog - - - logical connectiv= es in tanrueffect on tanru grouping is equally satisfactory and means the same thing. As these examples i= ndicate, joining two brivla with=20 - je makes them a unit for tanru purposes. However, expli= cit grouping with=20 - bo or=20 - ke…ke'e associates brivla more cl= osely than=20 - je does: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d5"/> - - - barda je pelxu bo xunre gerku - barda je ke pelxu xunre ke'e gerku - (big and (yellow type-of red)) dog - big yellowish-red dog - - - With no grouping indicators, we get: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d6"/> - - - barda je pelxu xunre gerku - ((big and yellow) type-of red) type-of dog - biggish- and yellowish-red dog - - - which again raises the question of=20 - : what does=20 - biggish-red mean? - logical connectiv= es in tanruusefulness of Unlik= e=20 - bo and=20 - ke…ke'e,=20 - je is useful as well as merely legal within simple tanr= u. It may be used to partly resolve the ambiguity of simple tanru: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d7"/> - - - ta blanu je zdani - that is-blue and is-a-house - - - definitely refers to something which is both blue and is a house= , and not to any of the other possible interpretations of simple=20 - blanu zdani. Furthermore,=20 - blanu zdani refers to something which is blue i= n the way that houses are blue;=20 - blanu je zdani has no such implication – = the blueness of a=20 - blanu je zdani is independent of its houseness.= - With the addition of=20 - je, many more versions of=20 - pretty little girls' school are made possible: see=20 - =20 - for a complete lis= t. - A subtle point in the semantics of tanru like=20 - needs special elucidation. = There are at least two possible interpretations of: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d8"/> - - - ta melbi je nixli ckule - That is-a-(beautiful and girl) type-of school. - - - It can be understood as: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d9"/> - - That is a girls' school and a beautiful school. - - or as: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d10"/> - - That is a school for things which are both girls and beautiful= . - - logical connectiv= es in tanruambiguity of The in= terpretation specified by=20 - treats the tanru as a sort = of abbreviation for: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d11"/> - - - ta ke melbi ckule ke'e je ke nixli ckule [ke'e] - That is-a-( beautiful type-of school ) and ( girl type-of s= chool ) - - - whereas the interpretation specified by=20 - does not. This is a kind of= semantic ambiguity for which Lojban does not compel a firm resolution. The= way in which the school is said to be of type=20 - beautiful and girl may entail that it is separately a b= eautiful school and a girls' school; but the alternative interpretation, th= at the members of the school are beautiful and girls, is also possible. Sti= ll another interpretation is: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d12"/> - - That is a school for beautiful things and also for girls. - - so while the logical connectives help to resolve the meaning of = tanru, they by no means compel a single meaning in and of themselves. - logical connectiv= es in tanrueffect on formal logical manipulations In general, logical connectives within tanru cannot und= ergo the formal manipulations that are possible with the related logical co= nnectives that exist outside tanru; see=20 - for further details. - The logical connective=20 - je is only one of the fourteen logical connectives that= Lojban provides. Here are a few examples of some of the others: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d13"/> - - - le bajra cu jinga ja te jinga - the runner(s) is/are winner(s) or loser(s). - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d14"/> - - - blanu naja lenku skapi - (blue only-if cold) skin - skin which is blue only if it is cold - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d15"/> - - - xamgu jo tordu nuntavla - (good if-and-only-if short) speech - speech which is good if (and only if) it is short - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d16"/> - - - vajni ju pluka nuntavla - (important whether-or-not pleasing) event-of-talking - speech which is important, whether or not it is pleasing<= /natlang> - - - In=20 - ,=20 - ja is grammatically equivalent to=20 - je but means=20 - or (more precisely,=20 - and/or). Likewise,=20 - naja means=20 - only if in=20 - ,=20 - jo means=20 - if and only if in=20 - , and=20 - ju means=20 - whether or not in=20 - . - multiple logical = connectiveswithin tanru Now co= nsider the following example: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d17"/> - - - ricfu je blanu jabo crino - rich and (blue or green) - - - tanru grouping wi= th JA+BOeffect on tanru grouping which illustrates a new grammatical feature: the use of both=20 - ja and=20 - bo between tanru components. The two cmavo combine to f= orm a compound whose meaning is that of=20 - ja but which groups more closely;=20 - jabo is to=20 - =20 - ja as plain=20 - bo is to no cmavo at all. However, both=20 - ja and=20 - jabo group less closely than=20 - =20 - bo does: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d18"/> - - - ricfu je blanu jabo crino bo blanu - rich and (blue or green - blue) - rich and (blue or greenish-blue) - - - An alternative form of=20 - is: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d19"/> - - - ricfu je ke blanu ja crino [ke'e] - rich and (blue or green) - - - non-logical conne= ctiveswithin tanru In addition= to the logical connectives, there are also a variety of non-logical connec= tives, grammatically equivalent to the logical ones. The only one with a we= ll-understood meaning in tanru contexts is=20 - joi, which is the kind of=20 - and that denotes a mixture: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d20"/> - - - ti blanu joi xunre bolci - This is-a-(blue and red) ball. - =20 - - - The ball described is neither solely red nor solely blue, but pr= obably striped or in some other way exhibiting a combination of the two col= ors.=20 - is distinct from: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d21"/> - - - ti blanu xunre bolci - This is a bluish-red ball - - - which would be a ball whose color is some sort of purple tending= toward red, since=20 - xunre is the more important of the two components. On t= he other hand, - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d22"/> - - - ti blanu je xunre bolci - This is a (blue and red) ball - =20 - - - is probably self-contradictory, seeming to claim that the ball i= s independently both blue and red at the same time, although some sensible = interpretation may exist. - =20 - forethought logic= al connectiveswithin tanru Fin= ally, just as English=20 - and has the variant form=20 - both ... and, so=20 - je between tanru components has the variant form=20 - gu'e…gi, where=20 - gu'e is placed before the components and=20 - gi between them: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d23"/> - - - gu'e barda gi xunre gerku - (both big and red) type-of dog - - - is equivalent in meaning to=20 - . For each logical connectiv= e related to=20 - je, there is a corresponding connective related to=20 - gu'e…gi in a systematic way. - forethought logic= al connectives in tanrueffect on tanru grouping The portion of a=20 - gu'e…gi construction before the= =20 - gi is a full selbri, and may use any of the selbri reso= urces including=20 - je logical connections. After the=20 - gi, logical connections are taken to be wider in scope = than the=20 - gu'e…gi, which has in effect the = same scope as=20 - bo: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e6d24"/> - - - gu'e barda je xunre gi gerku ja mlatu - (both (big and red) and dog) or cat - something which is either big, red, and a dog, or else a = cat - - - leaves=20 - mlatu outside the=20 - gu'e…gi construction. The scope o= f the=20 - gi arm extends only to a single brivla or to two or mor= e brivla connected with=20 - bo or=20 - ke…ke'e. -

- -

- Linked sumti: <valsi>be</valsi>-<valsi>bei</valsi>-<valsi>be'o<= /valsi> - The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - - be - BE - linked sumti marker - =20 - - - bei - BEI - linked sumti separator - =20 - - - be'o - BEhO - linked sumti terminator - =20 - - - The question of the place structures of selbri has been glossed = over so far. This chapter does not attempt to treat place structure issues = in detail; they are discussed in=20 - . One grammatical structure rel= ated to places belongs here, however. In simple sentences such as=20 - , the place structure of the se= lbri is simply the defined place structure of the gismu - mamta. What about more complex selbri? - tanruplace structures of For tanru, the place s= tructure rule is simple: the place structure of a tanru is always the place= structure of its tertau. Thus, the place structure of=20 - blanu zdani is that of=20 - zdani: the x1 place is a house or nest, and the x2 plac= e is its occupants. - What about the places of=20 - blanu? Is there any way to get them into the act? In fa= ct,=20 - blanu has only one place, and this is merged, as it wer= e, with the x1 place of=20 - zdani. It is whatever is in the x1 place that is being = characterized as blue-for-a-house. But if we replace=20 - blanu with=20 - xamgu, we get: - - - =20 - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>good house</primary><secondary>exampl= e</secondary></indexterm> - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d1"/> - - - ti xamgu zdani - This is-a-good house. - =20 - This is a good (for someone, by some standard) house. - - - Since=20 - xamgu has three places (x1, the good thing; x2, the per= son for whom it is good; and x3, the standard of goodness),=20 - necessarily omits informati= on about the last two: there is no room for them. Room can be made, however= ! - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d2"/> - - - ti xamgu be do bei mi [be'o] zdani - This is-a-good (for you by-standard me) house. - This is a house that is good for you by my standards. - - - linked sumtiin tanru seltaufilling sumti places in Here, the gismu=20 - xamgu has been followed by the cmavo=20 - be (of selma'o BE), which signals that one or more sumt= i follows. These sumti are not part of the overall bridi place structure, b= ut fill the places of the brivla they are attached to, starting with x2. If= there is more than one sumti, they are separated by the cmavo=20 - bei (of selma'o BEI), and the list of sumti is terminat= ed by the elidable terminator=20 - be'o (of selma'o BEhO). - linked sumtidefinition Grammatically, a brivla = with sumti linked to it in this fashion plays the same role in tanru as a s= imple brivla. To illustrate, here is a fully fleshed-out version of=20 - , with all places filled in:= - - - =20 - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Brooklyn</primary><secondary>example<= /secondary></indexterm> - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d3"/> - - - ti cmalu be le ka canlu bei lo'e ckule be'o - This is a small (in-dimension the property-of volume by-sta= ndard the-typical school) - - - nixli be li mu bei lo merko be'o bo ckule - (girl (of-years the-number five by-standard some American-t= hing) school) - - - la bryklyn. loi pemci - in-Brooklyn with-subject poems - - - le mela nu,IORK. prenu le jecta - for-audience New-York persons with-operator the state. - - This is a school, small in volume compared to the typical scho= ol, pertaining to five-year-old girls (by American standards), in Brooklyn,= teaching poetry to the New York community and operated by the state. - - Here the three places of=20 - cmalu, the three of=20 - nixli, and the four of=20 - ckule are fully specified. Since the places of=20 - ckule are the places of the bridi as a whole, it was no= t necessary to link the sumti which follow=20 - ckule. It would have been legal to do so, however: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d4"/> - - - mi klama be le zarci bei le zdani [be'o] - I go (to-the market from-the house). - - - means the same as - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d5"/> - - - mi klama le zarci le zdani - I go to-the market from-the house. - - - tanruplace structures of No matter how complex = a tanru gets, the last brivla always dictates the place structure: the plac= e structure of - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d6"/> - - - melbi je cmalu nixli bo ckule - a (pretty and little) (girl school) - a school for girls which is both beautiful and small - - - is simply that of=20 - ckule. (The sole exception to this rule is discussed in= =20 - .) - FA tags and linke= d sumti linked sumti and FA tags It is possible to precede = linked sumti by the place structure ordering tags=20 - =20 - fe,=20 - fi,=20 - fo, and=20 - fu (of selma'o FA, discussed further in=20 - ), which serve to explicitly specify the= x2, x3, x4, and x5 places respectively. Normally, the place following the= =20 - be is the x2 place and the other places follow in order= . If it seems convenient to change the order, however, it can be accomplish= ed as follows: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d7"/> - - - ti xamgu be fi mi bei fe do [be'o] zdani - This is-a-good ( by-standard me for you ) house. - - - which is equivalent in meaning to=20 - . Note that the order of=20 - be,=20 - bei, and=20 - be'o does not change; only the inserted=20 - fi tells us that=20 - mi is the x3 place (and correspondingly, the inserted= =20 - fe tells us that=20 - do is the x2 place). Changing the order of sumti is oft= en done to match the order of another language, or for emphasis or rhythm.<= /para> - Of course, using FA cmavo makes it easy to specify one place whi= le omitting a previous place: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d8"/> - - - ti xamgu be fi mi [be'o] zdani - This is-a-good (by-standard me) house. - This is a good house by my standards. - =20 - - - sumti tcita and t= ense tags tense tags and sumti tcita sumti tcita and modal tags = modal tags and sumti tcita sumti tc= ita and linked sumti linked sumti and sumti tcita Similarly= , sumti labeled by modal or tense tags can be inserted into strings of link= ed sumti just as they can into bridi: - =20 - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d9"/> - - - ta blanu be ga'a mi [be'o] zdani - That is-a-blue (to-observer me) house. - That is a blue, as I see it, house. - - - The meaning of=20 - is slightly different from:= - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d10"/> - - - ta blanu zdani ga'a mi - That is-a-blue house to-observer me. - That is a blue house, as I see it. - - - See discussions in=20 - of modals and in=20 - of tenses for more explanations. - be'oeffect of relative clauses on elidability of relative clauses= effect on elidability of be'o be'oelidability o= f el= idability of be'o The terminator=20 - be'o is almost always elidable: however, if the selbri = belongs to a description, then a relative clause following it will attach t= o the last linked sumti unless=20 - =20 - be'o is used, in which case it will attach to the outer= description: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d11"/> - - - le xamgu be do noi barda cu zdani - The good-thing for you (who are-large) is-a-house. - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d12"/> - - - le xamgu be do be'o noi barda cu zdani - The (good-thing for you) (which is-large) is-a-house - - - (Relative clauses are explained in=20 - .) - be'oeffect of ku on elidability of kueffect on elidabi= lity of be'o In other cases, however,=20 - be'o cannot be elided if=20 - ku has also been elided: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e7d13"/> - - - le xamgu be le ctuca [ku] be'o zdani - the good (for the teacher) house - - - requires either=20 - ku or=20 - be'o, and since there is only one occurrence of=20 - be, the=20 - be'o must match it, whereas it may be confusing which o= ccurrence of=20 - le the=20 - ku terminates (in fact the second one is correct). -

- -

- Inversion of tanru:=20 - <valsi>co</valsi> - The following cmavo is discussed in this section: - - - co - CO - tanru inversion marker - =20 - - - tanru inversion The standard order of Lojban tanru, whereby the modifi= er precedes what it modifies, is very natural to English-speakers: we talk = of=20 - blue houses, not of=20 - houses blue. In other languages, however, such matters = are differently arranged, and Lojban supports this reverse order (tertau be= fore seltau) by inserting the particle=20 - co.=20 - and=20 - mean exactly the same thing= : - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d1"/> - - - ta blanu zdani - That is-a-blue type-of-house. - That is a blue house. - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d2"/> - - - ta zdani co blanu - That is-a-house of-type blue. - That is a blue house. - - - seltau<= secondary>definition tertaudefinition tanru inversiondefinition This change is called=20 - tanru inversion. In tanru inversion, the element before= =20 - =20 - co (=20 - zdani in=20 - ) is the tertau, and the ele= ment following=20 - co (=20 - blanu) in=20 - ) is the seltau. - place structure a= nd tanru inversion tanru inversion and place structure The = meaning, and more specifically, the place structure, of a tanru is not affe= cted by inversion: the place structure of=20 - zdani co blanu is still that of=20 - zdani. However, the existence of inversion in a selbri = has a very special effect on any sumti which follow that selbri. Instead of= being interpreted as filling places of the selbri, they actually fill the = places (starting with x2) of the seltau. In=20 - , we saw how to fill interior plac= es with=20 - be…bei…be'o= , and in fact=20 - and=20 - have the same meaning: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d3"/> - - - mi klama be le zarci bei le zdani be'o troci - I am-a-(goer to the market from the house) type-of trier. - I try to go to the market from the house. - =20 - - - - - =20 - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>try to go</primary><secondary>example= </secondary></indexterm> - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d4"/> - - - mi troci co klama le zarci le zdani - I am-a-trier of-type (goer to-the market from-the house). - I try to go to the market from the house. - =20 - - - - is a less deeply nested con= struction, requiring fewer cmavo. As a result it is probably easier to unde= rstand. - Note that in Lojban=20 - trying to go is expressed using=20 - troci as the tertau. The reason is that=20 - trying to go is a=20 - going type of trying, not a=20 - trying type of going. The trying is more fundamental th= an the going – if the trying fails, we may not have a going at all. - inverted tanrueffect on sumti after the selbri = inverted tanrueffect on sumti before the selbri unfilled places of inverted tanru Any sumti which precede a selbri with an inverted tanru f= ill the places of the selbri (i.e., the places of the tertau) in the ordina= ry way. In=20 - =20 - ,=20 - mi fills the x1 place of=20 - troci co klama, which is the x1 place of=20 - troci. The other places of the selbri remain unfilled. = The trailing sumti=20 - le zarci and=20 - le zdani do not occupy selbri places, despite a= ppearances. - As a result, the regular mechanisms (involving selma'o VOhA and = GOhI, explained in=20 - ) for referring to individu= al sumti of a bridi cannot refer to any of the trailing places of=20 - , because they are not reall= y=20 - sumti of the bridi at all. - tanru inversionwhere allowed tanru inversionin compl= ex tanru When inverting a more complex tanru, it is= possible to invert it only at the most general modifier-modified pair. The= only possible inversion of=20 - , for instance, is: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d5"/> - - - ta nixli [bo] ckule co cmalu - That (is-a-girl type-of school) of-type little. - That's a girls' school which is small. - - - tanru groupingeffect of tanru inversion on tanru inversioneffect on tanru grouping=20 - Note that the=20 - bo of=20 - is optional in=20 - , because=20 - co groups more loosely than any other cmavo used in tan= ru, including none at all. Not even=20 - ke…ke'e parentheses can encompass= a=20 - co: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d6"/> - - - ta cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e] co melbi - That is-a-(little type-of (girl type-of school)) of-type pr= etty. - That's a small school for girls which is beautiful. - - - tanru inversionrule for removing In=20 - , the=20 - ke'e is automatically inserted before the=20 - co rather than at its usual place at the end of the sel= bri. As a result, there is a simple and mechanical rule for removing=20 - co from any selbri: change=20 - A co B to=20 - ke B ke'e A. (At the same time, any sumti following the= selbri must be transformed into=20 - be…bei…be'o= form and attached following B.) Therefore, - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d7"/> - - - ckule co melbi nixli - school of-type pretty girl - school for beautiful girls - - - means the same as: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d8"/> - - - ke melbi nixli ke'e ckule - (pretty girl) school - - - multiple tanru in= versioneffect on grouping tanru inversionmultiple Multiple=20 - co cmavo can appear within a selbri, indicating multipl= e inversions: a right-grouping rule is employed, as for=20 - =20 - bo. The above rule can be applied to interpret such sel= bri, but all=20 - co cmavo must be removed simultaneously: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d9"/> - - - ckule co nixli co cmalu - school of-type (girl of-type little) - - - becomes formally - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d10"/> - - - ke ke cmalu ke'e nixli ke'e ckule - ( (little) girl ) school - - - which by the left-grouping rule is simply - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d11"/> - - - cmalu nixli ckule - little girl school - school for little girls - - - As stated above, the selbri places, other than the first, of - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d12"/> - - - mi klama co sutra - I am-a-goer of-type quick - I go quickly - - - cannot be filled by placing sumti after the selbri, because any = sumti in that position fill the places of=20 - sutra, the seltau. However, the tertau places (which me= ans in effect the selbri places) can be filled with=20 - be: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e8d13"/> - - - mi klama be le zarci be'o co sutra - I am-a-goer (to the store) of-type quick. - I go to the store quickly. - - -

- -

- Other kinds of simple selbri - The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - - go'i - GOhA - repeats the previous bridi - - - du - GOhA - equality - - - nu'a - NUhA - math operator to selbri - - - moi - MOI - changes number to ordinal selbri - =20 - - - mei - MOI - changes number to cardinal selbri - =20 - - - nu - NU - event abstraction - =20 - - - kei - KEI - terminator for NU - - - equivalents to br= ivla b= rivla equivalents So far we have only discussed brivl= a and tanru built up from brivla as possible selbri. In fact, there are a f= ew other constructions in Lojban which are grammatically equivalent to briv= la: they can be used either directly as selbri, or as components in tanru. = Some of these types of simple selbri are discussed at length in=20 - ,=20 - , and=20 - ; but for completeness these types ar= e mentioned here with a brief explanation and an example of their use in se= lbri. - tanruwith GOhA selbriwith GOhA= GOhA selma'oas component in tanru GOhA selma'oas selbri The cmavo of selma'o GOhA (with one exception) serve as pro= -bridi, providing a reference to the content of other bridi; none of them h= as a fixed meaning. The most commonly used member of GOhA is probably=20 - go'i, which amounts to a repetition of the previous bri= di, or part of it. If I say: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d1"/> - - - la djan. klama le zarci - John goes-to the market. - - - you may retort: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d2"/> - - - la djan. go'i troci - John [repeat last] are-a-tryer - John tries to. - - - - is short for: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d3"/> - - - la djan. klama be le zarci be'o troci - John is-a-goer (to the market) type-of trier. - - - because the whole bridi of=20 - has been packaged up into t= he single word=20 - go'i and inserted into=20 - . - duas an exception within GOhA selma'o The excep= tional member of GOhA is=20 - du, which represents the relation of identity. Its plac= e structure is: - x1 is identical with x2, x3, ... - for as many places as are given. More information on selma'o GOh= A is available in=20 - . - tanrucontaining mathematical expressions mathematical expressions in tanru<= /primary> Lojban mathematical expressions (mekso) can be incorp= orated into selbri in two different ways. Mathematical operators such as=20 - =20 - su'i, meaning=20 - plus, can be transformed into selbri by prefixing them = with=20 - nu'a (of selma'o NUhA). The resulting place structure i= s: - x1 is the result of applying (the operator) to ar= guments x2, x3, etc. - for as many arguments as are required. (The result goes in the x= 1 place because the number of following places may be indefinite.) For exam= ple: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d4"/> - - - li vo nu'a su'i li re li re - The-number 4 is-the-sum-of the-number 2 and-the-number 2. - - - A possible tanru example might be: - - - =20 - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>addition problems</primary><secondary= >example</secondary></indexterm> - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d5"/> - - - mi jimpe tu'a loi nu'a su'i nabmi - I understand something-about the-mass-of is-the-sum-of prob= lems. - I understand addition problems. - =20 - - - MOI selma'o More usefully, it is possible to combine a mathemati= cal expression with a cmavo of selma'o MOI to create one of various numeric= al selbri. Details are available in=20 - =20 - . Here are a few tanru: - - - =20 - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Preem Palver</primary><secondary>exam= ple</secondary></indexterm> - -=20 - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d6"/> - - - la prim. palvr. pamoi cusku - Preem Palver is-the-1-th speaker. - =20 - Preem Palver is the first speaker. - =20 - - - - - =20 - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>two brothers</primary><secondary>exam= ple</secondary></indexterm> - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d7"/> - - - la an,iis. joi la .asun. bruna remei - Anyi massed-with Asun are-a-brother type-of-twosome. - Anyi and Asun are two brothers. - =20 - =20 - - - NU selma'o Finally, an important type of simple selbri which is= not a brivla is the abstraction. Grammatically, abstractions are simple: a= cmavo of selma'o NU, followed by a bridi, followed by the elidable termina= tor=20 - kei of selma'o KEI. Semantically, abstractions are an e= xtremely subtle and powerful feature of Lojban whose full ramifications are= documented in=20 - . A few examples: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d8"/> - - - ti nu zdile kei kumfa - This is-an-event-of amusement room. - This is an amusement room. - - - abstraction bridi= contrasted with component non-abstraction bridi in mea= ning=20 - is quite distinct in meanin= g from: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e9d9"/> - - - ti zdile kumfa - This is-an-amuser room. - - - which suggests the meaning=20 - a room that amuses someone. -

- -

- selbri based on sumti: <valsi>me</valsi> - The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - - me - ME - changes sumti to simple selbri - - - me'u - MEhU - terminator for me - - - meplace structure of conversion of sumti into selbri = sumti into selbri<= /indexterm> selbri from sumt= i A sumti can be made into a simple selbri by precedi= ng it with=20 - me (of selma'o ME) and following it with the elidable t= erminator=20 - me'u (of selma'o MEhU). This makes a selbri with the pl= ace structure - x1 is one of the referents of [the sumti]<= /quote> - which is true of the thing, or things, that are the referents of= the sumti, and not of anything else. For example, consider the sumti - - - =20 - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Three Kings</primary><secondary>examp= le</secondary></indexterm> - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d1"/> - - - le ci nolraitru - the three noblest-governors - the three kings - - - If these are understood to be the Three Kings of Christian tra= dition, who arrive every year on January 6, then we may say: - =20 - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d2"/> - - - la BALtazar. cu me le ci nolraitru - Balthazar is one-of-the-referents-of=20 - the three kings. - Balthazar is one of the three kings. - - - and likewise - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d3"/> - - - la kaspar. cu me le ci nolraitru - Caspar is one of the three kings. - - - and - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d4"/> - - - la melxi,or. cu me le ci nolraitru - Melchior is one of the three kings. - - - ducompared with me in effect mecompared with du in e= ffect me/du equivalence If the sumti refers to a single o= bject, then the effect of=20 - me is much like that of=20 - du: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d5"/> - - - do du la djan. - You are-identical-with the-one-called John.<= /gloss> - You are John. - - - means the same as - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d6"/> - - - do me la djan. - You are-the-referent-of=20 - the-one-called John. - You are John. - - - meused with names It is common to use=20 - me selbri, especially those based on name sumti using= =20 - la, as seltau. For example: - - - =20 - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Chrysler</primary><secondary>example<= /secondary></indexterm> - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d7"/> - - - ta me lai kraislr. [me'u] karce - That (is-a-referent of=20 - the-mass-called Chrysler) car. - =20 - That is a Chrysler car. - =20 - - - logical connect= ivesrelative precedence with me'u me'urelative precedence with logical connectives elidability of me'u The elidable terminator=20 - me'u can usually be omitted. It is absolutely required = only if the=20 - me selbri is being used in an indefinite description (a= type of sumti explained in=20 - =20 - =20 - ), and if the indef= inite description is followed by a relative clause (explained in=20 - =20 - =20 - ) or a sumti logical conne= ctive (explained in=20 - ). Without a=20 - me'u, the relative clause or logical connective would a= ppear to belong to the sumti embedded in the=20 - me expression. Here is a contrasting pair of sentences:= - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d8"/> - - - re me le ci nolraitru .e la djan. [me'u] cu blabi - Two of the group=20 - the three kings and John are white. - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d9"/> - - - re me le ci nolraitru me'u .e la djan. cu blabi - Two of the three kings, and John, are white. - - - In=20 - the=20 - me selbri covers the three kings plus John, and the ind= efinite description picks out two of them that are said to be white: we can= not say which two. In=20 - =20 - =20 - , though, the=20 - me selbri covers only the three kings: two of them are = said to be white, and so is John. - Finally, here is another example requiring=20 - me'u: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d10"/> - - - ta me la'e le se cusku be do me'u cukta - That is-a-(what-you-said) type of book. - That is the kind of book you were talking about. - - - There are other sentences where either=20 - me'u or some other elidable terminator must be expresse= d: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e10d11"/> - - - le me le ci nolraitru [ku] me'u nunsalci - the (the three kings) type-of-event-of-celebrating - the Three Kings celebration - =20 - - - requires either=20 - ku or=20 - me'u to be explicit, and (as with=20 - be'o in=20 - ) the=20 - me'u leaves no doubt which cmavo it is paired with. -

- -

- Conversion of simple selbri - xe<= /indexterm> ve= te se SE selma'= o plac= e structurere-ordering by conversion conversion<= secondary>definition tanru and conversion conversion and tanru = Conversion is the process of changing a selbri so that its places appear in= a different order. This is not the same as labeling the sumti with the cma= vo of FA, as mentioned in=20 - , and then rearranging the order i= n which the sumti are spoken or written. Conversion transforms the selbri i= nto a distinct, though closely related, selbri with renumbered places. - In Lojban, conversion is accomplished by placing a cmavo of selm= a'o SE before the selbri: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e11d1"/> - - - mi prami do - I love you. - - - is equivalent in meaning to: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e11d2"/> - - - do se prami mi - You [swap x1 and x2] love me. - You are loved by me. - - - Conversion is fully explained in=20 - . For the purposes of this chapter, the = important point about conversion is that it applies only to the following s= imple selbri. When trying to convert a tanru, therefore, it is necessary to= be careful! Consider=20 - : - - - =20 - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>walk to market</primary><secondary>ex= ample</secondary></indexterm> - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e11d3"/> - - - la .alis. cu cadzu klama le zarci - Alice is-a-walker type-of goer to-the market. - Alice walkingly goes to the market. - Alice walks to the market. - - - To convert this sentence so that=20 - le zarci is in the x1 place, one correct way is= : - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e11d4"/> - - - le zarci cu se ke cadzu klama [ke'e] la .alis. - The market is-a-[swap x1/x2] (walker type-of goer) Alice. - The market is-walkingly gone-to by-Alice. - - - kefor conversion of tanru conversion with ke The=20 - ke…ke'e brackets cause the entire= tanru to be converted by the=20 - se, which would otherwise convert only=20 - cadzu, leading to: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e11d5"/> - - - le zarci cu se cadzu klama la .alis. - The market (is-a-[swap x1/x2] walker) type-of goer to Alice= . - The market is-a-walking-surface type-of goer to Alice. - - - whatever that might mean. An alternative approach, since the pla= ce structure of=20 - cadzu klama is that of=20 - klama alone, is to convert only the latter: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e11d6"/> - - - le zarci cu cadzu se klama la .alis. - The market walkingly is-gone-to by-Alice. - - - But the tanru in=20 - may or may not have the sam= e meaning as that in=20 - ; in particular, because=20 - cadzu is not converted, there is a suggestion that alth= ough Alice is the goer, the market is the walker. With a different sumti as= x1, this seemingly odd interpretation might make considerable sense: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e11d7"/> - - - la djan. cu cadzu se klama la .alis - John walkingly is-gone-to by Alice - - - suggests that Alice is going to John, who is a moving target. - tense conversion<= /primary>with jai jaifor modal conversion There is an alternative type of conversion, using the cm= avo=20 - jai of selma'o JAI optionally followed by a modal or te= nse construction. Grammatically, such a combination behaves exactly like co= nversion using SE. More details can be found in=20 - . -

- -

- Scalar negation of selbri - selbri<= secondary>scalar negation of scalar negationeffect on selb= ri Negation is too large and complex a topic to exp= lain fully in this chapter; see=20 - . In brief, there are two main typ= es of negation in Lojban. This section is concerned with so-called=20 - scalar negation, which is used to state that a true rel= ation between the sumti is something other than what the selbri specifies. = Scalar negation is expressed by cmavo of selma'o NAhE: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d1"/> - - - la .alis. cu na'e ke cadzu klama [ke'e] le zarci - Alice non- (walkingly goes) to-the market. - Alice other-than (walkingly goes) to-the market. - Alice doesn't walk to the market. - - - kefor expanding scope of scalar negation meanin= g that Alice's relationship to the market is something other than that of w= alking there. But if the=20 - ke were omitted, the result would be: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d2"/> - - - la .alis. cu na'e cadzu klama le zarci - Alice non- walkingly goes to-the market. - Alice doesn't walk to the market. - - - meaning that Alice does go there in some way (=20 - klama is not negated), but by a means other than that o= f walking.=20 - negates both=20 - cadzu and=20 - klama, suggesting that Alice's relation to the market i= s something different from walkingly-going; it might be walking without goi= ng, or going without walking, or neither. - Of course, any of the simple selbri types explained in=20 - may be used in place of brivl= a in any of these examples: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d3"/> - - - la djonz. cu na'e pamoi cusku - Jones is non-1st speaker - Jones is not the first speaker. - - - Since only=20 - pamoi is negated, an appropriate inference is that he i= s some other kind of speaker. - negationcomplex examples complex negationexamples Here is an assortment of more complex examples showing = the interaction of scalar negation with=20 - bo grouping,=20 - ke and=20 - ke'e grouping, logical connection, and sumti linked wit= h=20 - be and=20 - bei: - na'econtrasted with na'e ke - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d4"/> - - - mi na'e sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o klama le zarci - I ( (non-quickly) ( walking using the arms) ) go-to the mar= ket. - I go to the market, walking using my arms other than quic= kly. - - - In=20 - ,=20 - na'e negates only=20 - sutra. Contrast=20 - : - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d5"/> - - - mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka [be'o] ke'e klama le za= rci - I non- ( quickly (walking using the arms) ) go-to the marke= t. - I go to the market, other than by walking quickly on my a= rms. - - - Now consider=20 - and=20 - , which are equivalent in me= aning, but use=20 - ke grouping and=20 - bo grouping respectively: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d6"/> - - - mi sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o je masno klama le zarci - I (quickly – (walking using the arms) and slowly) go-= to the market. - I go to the market, both quickly walking using my arms an= d slowly. - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d7"/> - - - mi ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka [be'o] ke'e je masno klama l= e zarci - I ( (quickly (walking using the arms) ) and slowly) go-to t= he market. - I go to the market, both quickly walking using my arms an= d slowly. - - - However, if we place a=20 - na'e at the beginning of the selbri in both=20 - and=20 - , we get different results:<= /para> - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d8"/> - - - mi na'e sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o je masno klama le zar= ci - I ( (non- quickly) - (walking using the arms) and slowly) g= o-to the market. - I go to the market, both walking using my arms other than= quickly, and also slowly. - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d9"/> - - - mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka [be'o] ke'e je masno kl= ama le zarci - I (non-(quickly (walking using the arms) ) and slowly) go-t= o the market. - I go to the market, both other than quickly walking using= my arms, and also slowly. - - - The difference arises because the=20 - na'e in=20 - negates the whole construct= ion from=20 - ke to=20 - ke'e, whereas in=20 - it negates=20 - sutra alone. - perils of omittin= g terminators <= primary>omitting terminatorsperils of Beware of omitting terminators in these complex examples! If the ex= plicit=20 - =20 - ke'e is left out in=20 - , it is transformed into: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d10"/> - - - mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o je masno klama [ke= 'e] le zarci - I non-(quickly ( (walking using the arms) ) and slowly) go-= to) the market. - I do something other than quickly both going to the market = walking - using my arms and slowly going to the market. - - - And if both=20 - ke'e and=20 - be'o are omitted, the results are even sillier: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e12d11"/> - - - mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka je masno klama [be'o] [= ke'e] le zarci - I non-(quickly walk on my (arm-type and slow) goers) on the= market. - I do something other than quickly walking using the goers= , both arm-type and slow, relative-to the market. - - - In=20 - , everything after=20 - be is a linked sumti, so the place structure is that of= =20 - =20 - cadzu, whose x2 place is the surface walked upon. It is= less than clear what an=20 - arm-type goer might be. Furthermore, since the x3 place= has been occupied by the linked sumti, the=20 - =20 - le zarci following the selbri falls into the no= nexistent x4 place of=20 - cadzu. As a result, the whole example, though grammatic= al, is complete nonsense. (The bracketed Lojban words appear where a fluent= Lojbanist would understand them to be implied.) - na'ebefore gu'e Finally, it is also possible to= place=20 - na'e before a=20 - gu'e…gi logically connected tanru= construction. The meaning of this usage has not yet been firmly establishe= d. -

- -

- Tenses and bridi negation - A bridi can have cmavo associated with it which specify the time= , place, or mode of action. For example, in - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e13d1"/> - - - mi pu klama le zarci - I [past] go to-the market. - I went to the market. - - - the cmavo=20 - pu specifies that the action of the speaker going to th= e market takes place in the past. Tenses are explained in full detail in=20 - . Tense is semantically a property o= f the entire bridi; however, the usual syntax for tenses attaches them at t= he front of the selbri, as in=20 - . There are alternative ways= of expressing tense information as well. Modals, which are explained in=20 - , behave in the same way as ten= ses. - Similarly, a bridi may have the particle=20 - na (of selma'o NA) attached to the beginning of the sel= bri to negate the bridi. A negated bridi expresses what is false without sa= ying anything about what is true. Do not confuse this usage with the scalar= negation of=20 - . For example: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e13d2"/> - - - la djonz. na pamoi cusku - Jones (Not!) is-the-first speaker - It is not true that Jones is the first speaker. - Jones isn't the first speaker. - - - Jones may be the second speaker, or not a speaker at all;=20 - doesn't say. There are othe= r ways of expressing bridi negation as well; the topic is explained fully i= n=20 - . - bridi negationrelative order with tense tenserelative = order with bridi negation Various combinations of t= ense and bridi negation cmavo are permitted. If both are expressed, either = order is permissible with no change in meaning: - =20 - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e13d3"/> - - - mi na pu klama le zarci - mi pu na klama le zarci - It is false that I went to the market. - I didn't go to the market. - - - bridi negationmultiple It is also possible to h= ave more than one=20 - na, in which case pairs of=20 - na cmavo cancel out: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e13d4"/> - - - mi na na klama le zarci - It is false that it is false that I go to the market. - I go to the market. - - - tense and namultiple na and tensemultiple<= /indexterm> It is even possible, though somewhat pointless, to have multipl= e=20 - na cmavo and tense cmavo mixed together, subject to the= limitation that two adjacent tense cmavo will be understood as a compound = tense, and must fit the grammar of tenses as explained in=20 - =20 - =20 - =20 - . - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e13d5"/> - - - mi na pu na ca klama le zarci - I [not] [past] [not] [present] go to-the market - It is not the case that in the past it was not the case tha= t in the present I went to the market. - I didn't not go to the market. - I went to the market. - - - negation cmavoposition relative to selbri modal cmavop= osition relative to selbri tense cmavoposition relative to= selbri Tense, modal, and negation cmavo can appear= only at the beginning of the selbri. They cannot be embedded within it. - =20 -

- -

- Some types of asymmetrical tanru - =20 - tanruasymmetrical asymmetrical tanru This section and= =20 - contain some example tanru= classified into groups based on the type of relationship between the modif= ying seltau and the modified tertau. All the examples are paralleled by com= pounds actually observed in various natural languages. In the tables which = follow, each group is preceded by a brief explanation of the relationship. = The tables themselves contain a tanru, a literal gloss, an indication of th= e languages which exhibit a compound analogous to this tanru, and (for thos= e tanru with no English parallel) a translation. - languagesabbreviations for Here are the 3-lette= r abbreviations used for the various languages (it is presumed to be obviou= s whether a compound is found in English or not, so English is not explicit= ly noted): - - - Aba - Abazin - - - Chi - Chinese - - - Ewe - Ewe - - - Fin - Finnish - - - Geo - Georgian - - - Gua - Guarani - - - Hop - Hopi - - - Hun - Hungarian - - - Imb - Imbabura Quechua - - - Kar - Karaitic - - - Kaz - Kazakh - - - Kor - Korean - - - Mon - Mongolian - - - Qab - Qabardian - - - Que - Quechua - - - Rus - Russian - - - Skt - Sanskrit - - - Swe - Swedish - - - Tur - Turkish - - - Udm - Udmurt - - - Any lujvo or fu'ivla used in a group are glossed at the end of t= hat group. - asymmetrical tanr= udefinition The tanru discusse= d in this section are asymmetrical tanru; that is, ones in which the order = of the terms is fundamental to the meaning of the tanru. For example,=20 - =20 - junla dadysli, or=20 - clock pendulum, is the kind of pendulum used in a clock= , whereas=20 - dadysli junla, or=20 - pendulum clock, is the kind of clock that employs a pen= dulum. Most tanru are asymmetrical in this sense. Symmetrical tanru are dis= cussed in=20 - . - asymmetrical tanr= u typesobject-of-action + action The tertau represents an action, and the seltau then represents the obje= ct of that action: - - - pinsi nunkilbra - pencil sharpener - Hun - - - zgike nunctu - music instruction - Hun - - - mirli nunkalte - deer hunting - Hun - - - finpe nunkalte - fish hunting - Tur,Kor,Udm,Aba - fishing - - - smacu terkavbu - mousetrap - Tur,Kor,Hun,Udm,Aba - - - zdani turni - house ruler - Kar - host - - - zerle'a nunte'a - thief fear - Skt - fear of thieves - - - cevni zekri - god crime - Skt - offense against the gods - - - - - nunkilbra - sharpness-apparatus - - - nunctu - event-of-teaching - - - nunkalte - event-of-hunting - - - terkavbu - trap - - - zerle'a - crime-taker - - - nunte'a - event-of-fearing - - - asymmetrical tanr= u typeselements-in-set + set T= he tertau represents a set, and the seltau the type of the elements contain= ed in that set: - - - zdani lijgri - house row - - - selci lamgri - cell block - - - karda mulgri - card pack - Swe - - - rokci derxi - stone heap - Swe - - - tadni girzu - student group - Hun - - - remna girzu - human-being group - Qab - group of people - - - cpumi'i lijgri - tractor column - Qab - - - cevni jenmi - god army - Skt - - - cevni prenu - god folk - Skt - - - - - lijgri - line-group - - - lamgri - adjacent-group - - - mulgri - complete-group - - - cpumi'i - pull-machine - - - asymmetrical tanr= u typesset + element-of-set Co= nversely: the tertau is an element, and the seltau represents a set in whic= h that element is contained. Implicitly, the meaning of the tertau is restr= icted from its usual general meaning to the specific meaning appropriate fo= r elements in the given set. Note the opposition between=20 - zdani linji in the previous group, and=20 - linji zdani in this one, which shows why this k= ind of tanru is called=20 - asymmetrical. - - - carvi dirgo - raindrop - Tur,Kor,Hun,Udm,Aba - - - linji zdani - row house - - - asymmetrical tanr= u typesobject + component/detail The seltau specifies an object and the tertau a component or detail of t= hat object; the tanru as a whole refers to the detail, specifying that it i= s a detail of that whole and not some other. - - - junla dadysli - clock pendulum - Hun - - - purdi vorme - garden door - Qab - - - purdi bitmu - garden wall - Que - - - moklu skapi - mouth skin - Imb - lips - - - nazbi kevna - nose hole - Imb - nostril - - - karce xislu - automobile wheel - Chi - - - jipci pimlu - chicken feather - Chi - - - vinji rebla - airplane tail - Chi - - - - - dadysli - hang-oscillator - - - asymmetrical tanr= u typescharacteristic/detail + object Conversely: the seltau specifies a characteristic or important deta= il of the object described by the tertau; objects described by the tanru as= a whole are differentiated from other similar objects by this detail. - - - pixra cukta - picture book - - - kerfa silka - hair silk - Kar - velvet - - - plise tapla - apple cake - Tur - - - dadysli junla - pendulum clock - Hun - - - - - dadysli - hang-oscillator - - - asymmetrical tanr= u typesgeneral-class + sub-class The tertau specifies a general class of object (a genus), and the seltau= specifies a sub-class of that class (a species): - - - ckunu tricu - pine tree - Hun,Tur,Hop - - - asymmetrical tanr= u typespossessor + object The = tertau specifies an object of possession, and the seltau may specify the po= ssessor (the possession may be intrinsic or otherwise). In English, these c= ompounds have an explicit possessive element in them:=20 - lion's mane,=20 - child's foot,=20 - noble's cow. - - - cinfo kerfa - lion mane - Kor,Tur,Hun,Udm,Qab - - - verba jamfu - child foot - Swe - - - nixli tuple - girl leg - Swe - - - cinfo jamfu - lion foot - Que - - - danlu skapi - animal skin - Ewe - - - ralju zdani - chief house - Ewe - - - jmive munje - living world - Skt - - - nobli bakni - noble cow - Skt - - - nolraitru ralju - king chief - Skt - emperor - - - - - nolraitru - nobly-superlative-ruler - - - asymmetrical tanr= u typesinhabitant + habitat Th= e tertau specifies a habitat, and the seltau specifies the inhabitant: - - - lanzu tumla - family land - - - asymmetrical tanr= u typeseffect + causative agent The tertau specifies a causative agent, and the seltau specifies the effe= ct of that cause: - - - kalselvi'i gapci - tear gas - Hun - - - terbi'a jurme - disease germ - Tur - - - fenki litki - crazy liquid - Hop - whisky - - - pinca litki - urine liquid - Hop - beer - - - - - kalselvi'i - eye-excreted-thing - - - terbi'a - disease - - - asymmetrical tanr= u typescause + effect Converse= ly: the tertau specifies an effect, and the seltau specifies its cause. - - - djacu barna - water mark - Chi - - - asymmetrical tanr= u typespurpose-of-instrument + instrument<= /indexterm> The tertau specifies an instrument, and the seltau specifies th= e purpose of that instrument: - - - taxfu dadgreku - garment rack - Chi - - - tergu'i ti'otci - lamp shade - Chi - - - xirma zdani - horse house - Chi - stall - - - nuzba tanbo - news board - Chi - bulletin board - - - - - dadgreku - hang-frame - - - tergu'i - source of illumination - - - ti'otci - shadow-tool - - - asymmetrical tanr= u typesobject-of-purpose-of-instrument + instrument More vaguely: the tertau specifies an instrument, and= the seltau specifies the object of the purpose for which that instrument i= s used: - - - cpina rokci - pepper stone - Que - stone for grinding pepper - - - jamfu djacu - foot water - Skt - water for washing the feet - - - grana mudri - post wood - Skt - wood for making a post - - - moklu djacu - mouth water - Hun - water for washing the mouth - - - lanme gerku - sheep dog - - dog for working sheep - - - asymmetrical tanr= u typessource + product The te= rtau specifies a product from some source, and the seltau specifies the sou= rce of the product: - - - moklu djacu - mouth water - Aba,Qab - saliva - - - ractu mapku - rabbit hat - Rus - - - jipci sovda - chicken egg - Chi - - - sikcurnu silka - silkworm silk - Chi - - - mlatu kalci - cat feces - Chi - - - bifce lakse - bee wax - Chi - beeswax - - - cribe rectu - bear meat - Tur,Kor,Hun,Udm,Aba - - - solxrula grasu - sunflower oil - Tur,Kor,Hun,Udm,Aba - - - bifce jisra - bee juice - Hop - honey - - - tatru litki - breast liquid - Hop - milk - - - kanla djacu - eye water - Kor - tear - - - - - sikcurnu - silk-worm - - - solxrula - solar-flower - - - asymmetrical tanr= u typesproduct + source Conver= sely: the tertau specifies the source of a product, and the seltau specifie= s the product: - - - silna jinto - salt well - Chi - - - kolme terkakpa - coal mine - Chi - - - ctile jinto - oil well - Chi - - - - - terkakpa - source of digging - - - asymmetrical tanr= u typessource-material + object The tertau specifies an object, and the seltau specifies the material fro= m which the object is made. This case is especially interesting, because th= e referent of the tertau may normally be made from just one kind of materia= l, which is then overridden in the tanru. - - - rokci cinfo - stone lion - - - snime nanmu - snow man - Hun - - - kliti cipni - clay bird - - - blaci kanla - glass eye - Hun - - - blaci kanla - glass eye - Que - spectacles - - - solji sicni - gold coin - Tur - - - solji junla - gold watch - Tur,Kor,Hun - - - solji djine - gold ring - Udm,Aba,Que - - - rokci zdani - stone house - Imb - - - mudri zdani - wood house - Ewe - wooden house - - - rokci bitmu - stone wall - Ewe - - - solji carce - gold chariot - Skt - - - mudri xarci - wood weapon - Skt - wooden weapon - - - cmaro'i dargu - pebble road - Chi - - - sudysrasu cutci - straw shoe - Chi - - - - - cmaro'i - small-rock - - - sudysrasu - dry-grass - - - Note: the two senses of=20 - blaci kanla can be discriminated as: - - - blaci kanla bo tarmi - glass (eye shape) - glass eye - - - blaci kanla bo sidju - glass (eye helper) - spectacles - - - asymmetrical tanr= u typesobject-measured + standard-object The tertau specifies a typical object used to measure a quantity= and the seltau specifies something measured. The tanru as a whole refers t= o a given quantity of the thing being measured. English does not have compo= unds of this form, as a rule. - - - tumla spisa - land piece - Tur - piece of land - - - tcati kabri - tea cup - Kor,Aba - cup of tea - - - nanba spisa - bread piece - Kor - piece of bread - - - bukpu spisa - cloth piece - Udm,Aba - piece of cloth - - - djacu calkyguzme - water calabash - Ewe - calabash of water - - - - - calkyguzme - shell-fruit, calabash - - - asymmetrical tanr= u typesoverriding-property + object-with-implicit-prop= erties The tertau specifies an object with certain = implicit properties, and the seltau overrides one of those implicit propert= ies: - - - kensa bloti - spaceship - - - bakni verba - cattle child - Ewe - calf - - - asymmetrical tanr= u typeswhole + part The seltau= specifies a whole, and the tertau specifies a part which normally is assoc= iated with a different whole. The tanru then refers to a part of the seltau= which stands in the same relationship to the whole seltau as the tertau st= ands to its typical whole. - - - kosta degji - coat finger - Hun - coat sleeve - - - denci genja - tooth root - Imb - - - tricu stedu - tree head - Imb - treetop - - - asymmetrical tanr= u typesproduct + producer The = tertau specifies the producer of a certain product, and the seltau specifie= s the product. In this way, the tanru as a whole distinguishes its referent= s from other referents of the tertau which do not produce the product. - - - silka curnu - silkworm - Tur,Hun,Aba - - - asymmetrical tanr= u typesobject-giving-characteristic + other-object The tertau specifies an object, and the seltau specifi= es another object which has a characteristic property. The tanru as a whole= refers to those referents of the tertau which possess the property. - - - sonci manti - soldier ant - - - ninmu bakni - woman cattle - Imb - cow - - - mamta degji - mother finger - Imb - thumb - - - cifnu degji - baby finger - Imb - pinky - - - pacraistu zdani - hell house - Skt - - - fagri dapma - fire curse - Skt - curse destructive as fire - - - - - pacraistu - evil-superlative-site - - - asymmetrical tanr= u typessimilar-appearance-object + object<= /indexterm> As a particular case (when the property is that of resemblance)= : the seltau specifies an object which the referent of the tanru resembles.= - - - grutrceraso jbama - cherry bomb - - - solji kerfa - gold hair - Hun - golden hair - - - kanla djacu - eye water - Kar - spring - - - bakni rokci - bull stone - Mon - boulder - - - - - grutrceraso - fu'ivla for cherry based on Linnean= name - - - asymmetrical tanr= u typestypical-place + object = The seltau specifies a place, and the tertau an object characteristically l= ocated in or at that place. - - - ckana boxfo - bed sheet - Chi - - - mrostu mojysu'a - tomb monument - Chi - tombstone - - - jubme tergusni - table lamp - Chi - - - foldi smacu - field mouse - Chi - - - briju ci'ajbu - office desk - Chi - - - rirxe xirma - river horse - Chi - hippopotamus - - - xamsi gerku - sea dog - Chi - seal - - - cagyce'u zdani - village house - Skt - - - - - mrostu - dead-site - - - mojysu'a - remember-structure - - - ci'ajbu - write-table - - - cagyce'u - farm-community - - - asymmetrical tanr= u typesobject + place-sold Spe= cifically: the tertau is a place where the seltau is sold or made available= to the public. - - - cidja barja - food bar - Chi - restaurant - - - cukta barja - book bar - Chi - library - - - asymmetrical tanr= u typeslocus-of-application + object The seltau specifies the locus of application of the tertau. - - - kanla velmikce - eye medicine - Chi - - - jgalu grasu - nail oil - Chi - nail polish - - - denci pesxu - tooth paste - Chi - - - - - velmikce - treatment used by doctor - - - asymmetrical tanr= u typesactivity + implement-used The tertau specifies an implement used in the activity denoted by the se= ltau. - - - me la pinpan. bolci - Ping-Pong ball - Chi - - - asymmetrical tanr= u typesundesired-object + protection-object The tertau specifies a protective device against the undesira= ble features of the referent of the seltau. - - - carvi mapku - rain cap - Chi - - - carvi taxfu - rain garment - Chi - raincoat - - - vindu firgai - poison mask - Chi - gas mask - - - - - firgai - face-cover - - - asymmetrical tanr= u typesobject + usual-container The tertau specifies a container characteristically used to hold the refe= rent of the seltau. - - - cukta vasru - book vessel - Chi - satchel - - - vanju kabri - wine cup - Chi - - - spatrkoka lanka - coca basket - Que - - - rismi dakli - rice bag - Ewe,Chi - - - tcati kabri - tea cup - Chi - - - ladru botpi - milk bottle - Chi - - - rismi patxu - rice pot - Chi - - - festi lante - trash can - Chi - - - bifce zdani - bee house - Kor - beehive - - - cladakyxa'i zdani - sword house - Kor - sheath - - - manti zdani - ant nest - Gua - anthill - - - - - spatrkoka - fu'ivla for coca - - - cladakyxa'i - (long-knife)-weapon - - - asymmetrical tanr= u typescharacteristic-time + event The seltau specifies the characteristic time of the event specified by= the tertau. - - - vensa djedi - spring day - Chi - - - crisa citsi - summer season - Chi - - - cerni bumru - morning fog - Chi - - - critu lunra - autumn moon - Chi - - - dunra nicte - winter night - Chi - - - nicte ckule - night school - Chi - - - asymmetrical tanr= u typesenergy-source + powered= The seltau specifies a source of energy for the referent of the tertau. - - - dikca tergusni - electric lamp - Chi - - - ratni nejni - atom energy - Chi - - - brife molki - windmill - Tur,Kor,Hun,Udm,Aba - - - - - tergusni - illumination-source - - - asymmetrical tanr= u typesmiscellaneous Finally, = some tanru which don't fall into any of the above categories. - - - ladru denci - milk tooth - Tur,Hun,Udm,Qab - - - kanla denci - eye tooth - - - It is clear that=20 - tooth is being specified, and that=20 - milk and=20 - eye act as modifiers. However, the relationship between= =20 - ladru and=20 - denci is something like=20 - tooth which one has when one is drinking milk from one's mother= , a relationship certainly present nowhere except in this particula= r concept. As for=20 - kanla denci, the relationship is not only not p= resent on the surface, it is hardly possible to formulate it at all. -

- Some types of symmetrical tanru - =20 - symmetrical tanru= This section deals with symmetrical tanru, where ord= er is not important. Many of these tanru can be expressed with a logical or= non-logical connective between the components. - =20 - symmetrical tanru= typesboth separately true The= tanru may refer to things which are correctly specified by both tanru comp= onents. Some of these instances may also be seen as asymmetrical tanru wher= e the seltau specifies a material. The connective=20 - =20 - je is appropriate: - - - cipnrstrigi pacru'i - owl demon - Skt - - - nolraitru prije - royal sage - Skt - - - remna nakni - human-being male - Qab - man - - - remna fetsi - human-being female - Qab - woman - - - sonci tolvri - soldier coward - Que - - - panzi nanmu - offspring man - Ewe - son - - - panzi ninmu - offspring woman - Ewe - daughter - - - solji sicni - gold coin - Tur - - - solji junla - gold watch - Tur,Kor,Hun - - - solji djine - gold ring - Udm,Aba,Que - - - rokci zdani - stone house - Imb - - - mudri zdani - wooden house - Ewe - - - rokci bitmu - stone wall - Ewe - - - solji carce - gold chariot - Skt - - - mudri xarci - wooden weapon - Skt - - - zdani tcadu - home town - Chi - - - - - cipnrstrigi - fu'ivla for owl based on Linnean na= me - - - pacru'i - evil-spirit - - - tolvri - opposite-of-brave - - - symmetrical tanru= typesone or other true The ta= nru may refer to all things which are specified by either of the tanru comp= onents. The connective=20 - ja is appropriate: - - - nunji'a nunterji'a - victory defeat - Skt - victory or defeat - - - donri nicte - day night - Skt - day and night - - - lunra tarci - moon stars - Skt - moon and stars - - - patfu mamta - father mother - Imb,Kaz,Chi - parents - - - tuple birka - leg arm - Kaz - extremity - - - nuncti nunpinxe - eating drinking - Udm - cuisine - - - bersa tixnu - son daughter - Chi - children - - - - - nunji'a - event-of-winning - - - nunterji'a - event-of-losing - - - nuncti - event-of-eating - - - nunpinxe - event-of-drinking - - - symmetrical tanru= typesusing more inclusive class Alternatively, the tanru may refer to things which are specified by eith= er of the tanru components or by some more inclusive class of things which = the components typify: - - - curnu jalra - worm beetle - Mon - insect - - - jalra curnu - beetle worm - Mon - insect - - - kabri palta - cup plate - Kaz - crockery - - - jipci gunse - hen goose - Qab - housefowl - - - xrula tricu - flower tree - Chi - vegetation - - - symmetrical tanru= typesusing crucial/typical parts The tanru components specify crucial or typical parts of the referent o= f the tanru as a whole: - - - tumla vacri - land air - Fin - world - - - moklu stedu - mouth head - Aba - face - - - sudysrasu cunmi - hay millet - Qab - agriculture - - - gugde ciste - state system - Mon - politics - - - prenu so'imei - people multitude - Mon - masses - - - djacu dertu - water earth - Chi - climate - - - - - sudysrasu - dry-grass - - - so'imei - manysome - - -

- - <quote>Pretty little girls' school</quote>: forty ways to say it</titl= e> - <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>pretty little gir= ls' school</primary><secondary>forty ways</secondary></indexterm> The follo= wing examples show every possible grouping arrangement of=20 - <jbophrase>melbi cmalu nixli ckule</jbophrase> using=20 - <valsi>bo</valsi> or=20 - <valsi>ke</valsi>…<valsi>ke'e</valsi> for grouping and=20 - <valsi>je</valsi> or=20 - <valsi>je</valsi><valsi>bo</valsi> for logical connection. Most of the= se are definitely not plausible interpretations of the English phrase=20 - <quote>pretty little girls' school</quote>, especially those which des= cribe something which is both a girl and a school.</para> - <para>Examples <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qjmr"/>, <xref linke= nd=3D"example-random-id-qjNi"/>, <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qjog"/>= , <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qjop"/>, and <xref linkend=3D"example-= random-id-tz0L"/> are repeated here as Examples <xref linkend=3D"example-ra= ndom-id-qjzw"/>, <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qKaM"/>, <xref linkend= =3D"example-random-id-qKfX"/>, <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qKmg"/>, = and <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qKPQ"/> respectively. -  - The seven examples following each of these share the same grouping= pattern, but differ in the presence or absence of=20 - <valsi>je</valsi> at each possible site. Some of the examples have mor= e than one Lojban version. In that case, they differ only in grouping mecha= nism, and are always equivalent in meaning.</para> - <para>The logical connective=20 - <valsi>je</valsi> is associative: that is,=20 - <quote>A and (B and C)</quote> is the same as=20 - <quote>(A and B) and C</quote>. Therefore, some of the examples have t= he same meaning as others. In particular, <xref linkend=3D"example-random-i= d-qKAG"/>, <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qKFA"/>, <xref linkend=3D"exa= mple-random-id-qKLN"/>, <xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-qKpo"/>, and <xr= ef linkend=3D"example-random-id-qKU6"/> all have the same meaning because a= ll four brivla are logically connected and the grouping is simply irrelevan= t. -  - Other equivalent forms are noted in the examples themselves. However, = if=20 - =20 - <valsi>je</valsi> were replaced by=20 - <valsi>naja</valsi> or=20 - <valsi>jo</valsi> or most of the other logical connectives, the meanin= gs would become distinct.</para> - <para>It must be emphasized that, because of the ambiguity of all tanr= u, the English translations are by no means definitive – they represe= nt only one possible interpretation of the corresponding Lojban sentence.</= para> - <example xml:id=3D"example-random-id-qjzw" role=3D"interlinear-gloss-e= xample"> - <title> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d1"/> - - - melbi cmalu nixli ckule - ((pretty type-of little) type-of girl) type-of school - school for girls who are beautifully small - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d2"/> - - - melbi je cmalu nixli ckule - ((pretty and little) type-of girl) type-of school - school for girls who are beautiful and small - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d3"/> - - - melbi bo cmalu je nixli ckule - ((pretty type-of little) and girl) type-of school - school for girls and for beautifully small things - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d4"/> - - - ke melbi cmalu nixli ke'e je ckule - ((pretty type-of little) type-of girl) and school - thing which is a school and a beautifully small girl - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d5"/> - - - melbi je cmalu je nixli ckule - ((pretty and little) and girl) type-of school - school for things which are beautiful, small, and girls - Note: same as - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d6"/> - - - melbi bo cmalu je nixli je ckule - ((pretty type-of little) and girl) and school - thing which is beautifully small, a school, and a girl - Note: same as - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d7"/> - - - ke melbi je cmalu nixli ke'e je ckule - ((pretty and little) type-of girl) and school - thing which is a school and a girl who is both beautiful = and small - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d8"/> - - - melbi je cmalu je nixli je ckule - ((pretty and little) and girl) and school - thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d9"/> - - - melbi cmalu nixli bo ckule - (pretty type-of little) type-of (girl type-of school) - girls' school which is beautifully small - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d10"/> - - - melbi je cmalu nixli bo ckule - (pretty and little) type-of (girl type-of school) - girls' school which is beautiful and small - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d11"/> - - - melbi cmalu nixli je ckule - (pretty type-of little) type-of (girl and school) - something which is a girl and a school which is beautiful= ly small - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d12"/> - - - melbi bo cmalu je nixli bo ckule - (pretty type-of little) and (girl type-of school) - something which is beautifully small and a girls' school<= /natlang> - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d13"/> - - - melbi je cmalu nixli je ckule - (pretty and little) type-of (girl and school) - a pretty and little type of thing which is both a girl an= d a school - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d14"/> - - - melbi bo cmalu je nixli jebo ckule - (pretty type-of little) and (girl and school) - thing which is beautifully small, a school, and a girl - - - Note: same as - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d15"/> - - - melbi jebo cmalu je nixli bo ckule - (pretty and little) and (girl type-of school) - thing which is beautiful and small and a girl's school - - - Note: same as - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d16"/> - - - melbi jebo cmalu je nixli jebo ckule - (pretty and little) and (girl and school) - thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d17"/> - - - melbi cmalu bo nixli ckule - (pretty type-of (little type-of girl)) type-of school - school for beautiful girls who are small - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d18"/> - - - melbi cmalu je nixli ckule - (pretty type-of (little and girl)) type-of school - school for beautiful things which are small and are girls= - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d19"/> - - - melbi je cmalu bo nixli ckule - (pretty and (little type-of girl)) type-of school - school for things which are beautiful and are small girls= - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d20"/> - - - ke melbi cmalu bo nixli ke'e je ckule - melbi bo cmalu bo nixli je ckule - (pretty type-of (little type-of girl)) and school - thing which is a school and a small girl who is beautiful= - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d21"/> - - - melbi je cmalu jebo nixli ckule - (pretty and (little and girl)) type-of school - school for things which are beautiful, small, and girls - - - Note: same as - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d22"/> - - - melbi je cmalu bo nixli je ckule - (pretty and (little type-of girl)) and school - thing which is beautiful, a small girl, and a school - - - Note: same as - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d23"/> - - - ke melbi cmalu je nixli ke'e je ckule - (pretty type-of (little and girl)) and school - thing which is beautifully small, a beautiful girl, and a= school - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d24"/> - - - melbi je cmalu jebo nixli je ckule - (pretty and (little and girl)) and school - thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d25"/> - - - melbi cmalu bo nixli bo ckule - melbi ke cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e] [ke'e] - pretty type-of (little type-of (girl type-of school)) - small school for girls which is beautiful - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d26"/> - - - melbi ke cmalu nixli je ckule [ke'e] - pretty type-of (little type-of (girl and school)) - small thing, both a girl and a school, which is beautiful= - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d27"/> - - - melbi cmalu je nixli bo ckule - pretty type-of (little and (girl type-of school)) - thing which is beautifully small and a girls' school that= is beautiful - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d28"/> - - - melbi je cmalu bo nixli bo ckule - melbi je ke cmalu nixli bo ckule [ke'e] - melbi je ke cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e] [ke'e] - pretty and (little type-of (girl type-of school)) - thing which is beautiful and a small type of girls' schoo= l - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d29"/> - - - melbi cmalu je nixli jebo ckule - melbi cmalu je ke nixli je ckule [ke'e] - pretty type-of (little and (girl and school)) - thing which is beautifully small, a beautiful girl, and a= beautiful school - - - Note: same as - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d30"/> - - - melbi je cmalu jebo nixli bo ckule - melbi je ke cmalu je nixli bo ckule [ke'e] - pretty and (little and (girl type-of school)) - thing which is beautiful, small and a girls' school - - - Note: same as - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d31"/> - - - melbi je ke cmalu nixli je ckule [ke'e] - pretty and (little type-of (girl and school)) - beautiful thing which is a small girl and a small school<= /natlang> - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d32"/> - - - melbi jebo cmalu jebo nixli jebo ckule - pretty and (little and (girl and school)) - thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d33"/> - - - melbi ke cmalu nixli ckule [ke'e] - pretty type-of ((little type-of girl) type-of school) - beautiful school for small girls - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d34"/> - - - melbi ke cmalu je nixli ckule [ke'e] - pretty type-of ((little and girl) type-of school - beautiful school for things which are small and are girls= - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d35"/> - - - melbi ke cmalu bo nixli je ckule [ke'e] - pretty type-of ((little type-of girl) and school) - beautiful thing which is a small girl and a school - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d36"/> - - - melbi je ke cmalu nixli ckule [ke'e] - pretty and ((little type-of girl) type-of school) - thing which is beautiful and a school for small girls - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d37"/> - - - melbi cmalu je nixli je ckule - pretty type-of ((little and girl) and school) - thing which is beautifully small, a beautiful girl, and a= beautiful school - - - Note: same as - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d38"/> - - - melbi je ke cmalu bo nixli je ckule [ke'e] - pretty and ((little type-of girl) and school) - thing which is beautiful, a small girl and a school - - - Note: same as - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d39"/> - - - melbi je ke cmalu je nixli ckule [ke'e] - pretty and ((little and girl) type-of school) - thing which is beautiful and is a small school and a girl= s' school - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c5e16d40"/> - - - melbi je ke cmalu je nixli je ckule [ke'e] - pretty and ((little and girl) and school) - thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school - - -

- =20 - diff --git a/chapters/6.xml b/chapters/6.xml deleted file mode 100644 index 59acd47..0000000 --- a/chapters/6.xml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2205 +0,0 @@ - - To Speak Of Many Things: The Lojban sumti - - The picture for chapter 6 - - - - - -

- The five kinds of simple sumti - =20 - sumtidefinition simple sumti If you understand anythi= ng about Lojban, you know what a sumti is by now, right? An argument, one o= f those things that fills the places of simple Lojban sentences like: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e1d1"/> - - - mi klama le zarci - I go-to the market - - - pro-sumticontrasted with description In=20 - ,=20 - mi and=20 - le zarci are the sumti. It is easy to see that = these two sumti are not of the same kind:=20 - mi is a pro-sumti (the Lojban analogue of a pronoun) re= ferring to the speaker, whereas=20 - le zarci is a description which refers to somet= hing described as being a market. - sumtikinds of There are five kinds of simple su= mti provided by Lojban: - =20 - - - gadridefinition sumtidescriptions as descriptions like=20 - le zarci, which usually begin with a descri= ptor (called a=20 - gadri in Lojban) such as=20 - =20 - le; - - - sumtipro-sumti as pro-sumti, such as=20 - mi; - - - sumtinames as names, such as=20 - la lojban., which usually begin with=20 - la; - - - sumtiquotations as quotations, which begin w= ith=20 - lu,=20 - le'u,=20 - zo, or=20 - zoi; - - - sumtinumbers as pure numbers, which usually = begin with=20 - li. - - - Here are a few examples of each kind of sumti: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e1d2"/> - - - e'osai ko sarji la lojban. - Please support Lojban! - - - - exhibits=20 - ko, a pro-sumti; and=20 - la lojban., a name. - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e1d3"/> - - - mi cusku lu e'osai li'u le tcidu - I express=20 - Please! to-the reader. - - - le li'u <= indexterm type=3D"lojban-word-imported">lu = =20 - exhibits=20 - mi, a pro-sumti;=20 - lu e'osai li'u, a quotation; and=20 - le tcidu, a description. - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e1d4"/> - - - ti mitre li ci - This measures-in-meters the-number three. - This is three meters long. - - - li =20 - exhibits=20 - ti, a pro-sumti; and=20 - li ci, a number. - Most of this chapter is about descriptions, as they have the mos= t complicated syntax and usage. Some attention is also given to names, whic= h are closely interwoven with descriptions. Pro-sumti, numbers, and quotati= ons are described in more detail in=20 - ,=20 - , and=20 - respectively, so this chapter on= ly gives summaries of their forms and uses. See=20 - through=20 - for these summaries. -

- The three basic description types - descriptionstypes of The following cmavo are di= scussed in this section: - - - le - LE - the, the one(s) described as - - - lo - LE - some, some of those which really are - - - la - LA - the one(s) named - - - ku - KU - elidable terminator for LE, LA - - - selbri<= secondary>as part of description descriptoras part of de= scription descriptionscomponents of descriptionstypes of The syntax of descriptions is fairl= y complex, and not all of it can be explained within the confines of this c= hapter: relative clauses, in particular, are discussed in=20 - . However, most descriptio= ns have just two components: a descriptor belonging to selma'o LE or LA, an= d a selbri. (The difference between selma'o LE and selma'o LA is not import= ant until=20 - .) Furthermore, the selbri is often j= ust a single brivla. Here is an elementary example: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d1"/> - - - le zarci - one-or-more-specific-things-each-of-which-I-describe-as bei= ng-a-market - the market - - - lecompared with English the The long gloss for= =20 - le is of course far too long to use most of the time, a= nd in fact=20 - =20 - le is quite close in meaning to English=20 - the. It has particular implications, however, which=20 - the does not have. - descriptionsimportance of selbri first place in= descriptorspurpose of The general purpose of all descript= ors is to create a sumti which might occur in the x1 place of the selbri be= longing to the description. Thus=20 - le zarci conveys something which might be found= in the x1 place of=20 - zarci, namely a market. - leand truth of selbri leand specificity leimplications of The specific purpose of=20 - le is twofold. First, it indicates that the speaker has= one or more specific markets in mind (whether or not the listener knows wh= ich ones they are). Second, it also indicates that the speaker is merely de= scribing the things he or she has in mind as markets, without being committ= ed to the truth of that description. - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d2"/> - - - le zarci cu barda - One-or-more-specific-things-which-I-describe as mark= ets is/are-big. - The market is big. - The markets are big. - - - plurals= Lojban contrasted with English in necessity of marking Note that English-speakers must state whether a reference to= markets is to just one (=20 - the market) or to more than one (=20 - the markets). Lojban requires no such forced choice, so= both colloquial translations of=20 - are valid. Only the context= can specify which is meant. (This rule does not mean that Lojban has no wa= y of specifying the number of markets in such a case: that mechanism is exp= lained in=20 - .) - Now consider the following strange-looking example: - - - =20 - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>The men are women</primary><secondary= >example</secondary></indexterm> - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d3"/> - - - le nanmu cu ninmu - One-or-more-specific-things-which-I-describe as men<= /quote> are women. - The man is a woman. - The men are women. - =20 - - - lein false-to-fact descriptions=20 - is not self-contradictory i= n Lojban, because=20 - le nanmu merely means something or other which,= for my present purposes, I choose to describe as a man, whether or not it = really is a man. A plausible instance would be: someone we had assumed to b= e a man at a distance turned out to be actually a woman on closer observati= on.=20 - =20 - is what I would say to poin= t out my observation to you. - =20 - descriptionsspecific specific descriptions In all des= criptions with=20 - le, the listener is presumed to either know what I have= in mind or else not to be concerned at present (perhaps I will give more i= dentifying details later). In particular, I might be pointing at the suppos= ed man or men:=20 - would then be perfectly int= elligible, since=20 - le nanmu merely clarifies that I am pointing at= the supposed man, not at a landscape, or a nose, which happens to lie in t= he same direction. - loimplications of descriptionsnon-specific<= /indexterm> non-specific des= criptions The second descriptor dealt with in this se= ction is=20 - lo. Unlike=20 - le,=20 - lo is nonspecific: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d4"/> - - - lo zarci - one-or-more-of-all-the-things-which-really are-markets - a market - some markets - - - loand truth of selbri locontrasted with le in truth re= quirement lecontrasted with lo in truth requirement lecontrasted with lo in specificity locontraste= d with le in specificity Again, there are two collo= quial English translations. The effect of using=20 - lo in=20 - is to refer generally to on= e or more markets, without being specific about which. Unlike=20 - le zarci,=20 - lo zarci must refer to something which actually= is a market (that is, which can appear in the x1 place of a truthful bridi= whose selbri is=20 - zarci). Thus - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d5"/> - - - lo nanmu cu ninmu - Some man is a woman. - Some men are women. - - - must be false in Lojban, given that there are no objects in the = real world which are both men and women. Pointing at some specific men or w= omen would not make=20 - =20 - true, because those specifi= c individuals are no more both-men-and-women than any others. In general,= =20 - lo refers to whatever individuals meet its description.= - lause with descriptions contrasted with use before Lojbanized names lecompared with la in specificity lacompared = with le in specificity laimplications of The last descriptor of this section is=20 - la, which indicates that the selbri which follows it ha= s been dissociated from its normal meaning and is being used as a name. Lik= e=20 - le descriptions,=20 - la descriptions are implicitly restricted to those I ha= ve in mind. (Do not confuse this use of=20 - la with its use before regular Lojbanized names, which = is discussed in=20 - .) For example: - - - =20 - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>bear wrote story</primary><secondary>= example</secondary></indexterm> - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d6"/> - - - la cribe pu finti le lisri - The-one-named=20 - bear [past] creates the story. - Bear wrote the story. - - - naming predicate In=20 - ,=20 - la cribe refers to someone whose naming predica= te is=20 - =20 - cribe, i.e.=20 - Bear. In English, most names don't mean anything, or at= least not anything obvious. The name=20 - Frank coincides with the English word=20 - frank, meaning=20 - honest, and so one way of translating=20 - Frank ate some cheese into Lojban would be: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d7"/> - - - la stace pu citka lo cirla - The-one-called Honest/Frank [past] eats some= cheese. - - - English-speakers typically would not do this, as we tend to be m= ore attached to the sound of our names than their meaning, even if the mean= ing (etymological or current) is known. Speakers of other languages may fee= l differently. (In point of fact,=20 - Frank originally meant=20 - the free one rather than=20 - the honest one.) - lacontrasted with le in implications It is impo= rtant to note the differences between=20 - and the following: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d8"/> - - - le cribe pu finti le lisri - One-or-more-specific-things-which-I-describe-as a-bear [pas= t] creates the story. - The bear(s) wrote the story. - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d9"/> - - - lo cribe pu finti le lisri - One-or-more-of-the-things-which-really are-bears [past] cre= ates the story. - A bear wrote the story. - Some bears wrote the story. - - - lacontrasted with lo in implications=20 - is about a specific bear or= bearlike thing(s), or thing(s) which the speaker (perhaps whimsically or m= etaphorically) describes as a bear (or more than one);=20 - is about one or more of the= really existing, objectively defined bears. In either case, though, each o= f them must have contributed to the writing of the story, if more than one = bear (or=20 - bear) is meant. - descriptions with= loteddy bear contrasted with real bear (The notion of a=20 - really existing, objectively defined bear raises certai= n difficulties. Is a panda bear a=20 - real bear? How about a teddy bear? In general, the answ= er is=20 - yes. Lojban gismu are defined as broadly as possible, a= llowing tanru and lujvo to narrow down the definition. There probably are n= o necessary and sufficient conditions for defining what is and what is not = a bear that can be pinned down with complete precision: the real world is f= uzzy. In borderline cases,=20 - =20 - le may communicate better than=20 - lo.) - So while=20 - could easily be true (there= is a real writer named=20 - Greg Bear), and=20 - could be true if the speake= r is sufficiently peculiar in what he or she describes as a bear,=20 - is certainly false. - Similarly, compare the following two examples, which are analogo= us to=20 - and=20 - respectively: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d10"/> - - - le remna pu finti le lisri - The human being(s) wrote the story. - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e2d11"/> - - - lo remna pu finti le lisri - A human being wrote the story. - Some human beings wrote the story. - - - locontrasted with le in implications lecontrasted with= lo in implications=20 - says who the author of the = story is: one or more particular human beings that the speaker has in mind.= If the topic of conversation is the story, then=20 - identifies the author as so= meone who can be pointed out or who has been previously mentioned; whereas = if the topic is a person, then=20 - le remna is in effect a shorthand reference to = that person.=20 - merely says that the author= is human. - kuuses of = cueffect on elidability of ku kueffect of following selbri on elidability of <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">kuas elid= able terminator for descriptions The elidable termi= nator for all descriptions is=20 - ku. It can almost always be omitted with no danger of a= mbiguity. The main exceptions are in certain uses of relative clauses, whic= h are discussed in=20 - , and in the case of a descript= ion immediately preceding the selbri. In this latter case, using an explici= t=20 - cu before the selbri makes the=20 - ku unnecessary. There are also a few other uses of=20 - ku: in the compound negator=20 - naku (discussed in=20 - ) and to terminate place-struct= ure, tense, and modal tags that do not have associated sumti (discussed in= =20 - and=20 - ). -

- Individuals and masses - The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - - lei - LE - the mass I describe as - - - loi - LE - part of the mass of those which really are - - - lai - LA - the mass of those named - - - sumtifor set objects sumtifor mass objects= sumti= for individual objects sumticlassified by type= s of objects referred to All Lojban sumti are class= ified by whether they refer to one of three types of objects, known as=20 - individuals,=20 - masses, and=20 - sets. The term=20 - individual is misleading when used to refer to more tha= n one object, but no less-confusing term has as yet been found. All the des= criptions in=20 - and=20 - refer to individuals, wh= ether one or more than one. Consider the following example: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e3d1"/> - - - le prenu cu bevri le pipno - One-or-more-of-those-I-describe-as persons carry the piano.= - =20 - The person(s) carry the piano. - =20 - - - (Of course the second=20 - le should really get the same translation as the first,= but I am putting the focus of this discussion on the first=20 - le, the one preceding=20 - prenu. I will assume that there is only one piano under= discussion.) - individual object= smultiple multiple individual objects= meaning of lemeaning of in the plural plurals with lemeaning of Suppose the context of=20 - is such that you can determ= ine that I am talking about three persons. What am I claiming? I am claimin= g that each of the three persons carried the piano. This claim can be true = if the persons carried the piano one at a time, or in turns, or in a variet= y of other ways. But in order for=20 - to be true, I must be willi= ng to assert that person 1 carried the piano, and that person 2 carried the= piano, and that person 3 carried the piano. - But suppose I am not willing to claim that. For in fact pianos a= re heavy, and very few persons can carry a piano all by themselves. The mos= t likely factual situation is that person 1 carried one end of the piano, a= nd person 2 the other end, while person 3 either held up the middle or else= supervised the whole operation without actually lifting anything. The corr= ect way of expressing such a situation in Lojban is: - - - =20 - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>piano-moving</primary><secondary>exam= ple</secondary></indexterm> - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e3d2"/> - - - lei prenu cu bevri le pipno - The-mass-of-one-or-more-of-those-I-describe-as persons carr= y the piano. - =20 - - - mass objectand logical reasoning mass objectproperties = of m= ultiple individual objectscontrasted with mass object<= /secondary> mass= objectcontrasted with multiple individual objects Here the same three persons are treated not as individ= uals, but as a so-called=20 - mass entity, or just=20 - mass. A mass has the properties of each individual whic= h composes it, and may have other properties of its own as well. This can l= ead to apparent contradictions. Thus suppose in the piano-moving example ab= ove that person 1 has fair skin, whereas person 2 has dark skin. Then it is= correct to say that the person-mass has both fair skin and dark skin. Usin= g the mass descriptor=20 - =20 - lei signals that ordinary logical reasoning is not appl= icable: contradictions can be maintained, and all sorts of other peculiarit= ies may exist. However, we can safely say that a mass inherits only the com= ponent properties that are relevant to it; it would be ludicrous to say tha= t a mass of two persons is of molecular dimensions, simply because some of = the parts (namely, the molecules) of the persons are that small. - laias mass counterpart of lai loias mass counterpart = of lo The descriptors=20 - loi and=20 - lai are analogous to=20 - lo and=20 - la respectively, but refer to masses either by property= (=20 - loi) or by name (=20 - lai). A classic example of=20 - loi use is: - - - =20 - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>lions in Africa</primary><secondary>e= xample</secondary></indexterm> - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e3d3"/> - - - loi cinfo cu xabju le fi'ortu'a - Part-of-the-mass-of-those-which-really are-lions dwell in-t= he African-land. - The lion dwells in Africa. - Lions dwell in Africa. - - - loicontrasted with lei in specificity leicontrasted wit= h loi in specificity The difference between=20 - lei and=20 - loi is that=20 - lei cinfo refers to a mass of specific individu= als which the speaker calls lions, whereas=20 - loi cinfo refers to some part of the mass of al= l those individuals which actually are lions. The restriction to=20 - some part of the mass allows statements like=20 - to be true even though some= lions do not dwell in Africa – they live in various zoos around the = world. On the other hand,=20 - doesn't actually say that m= ost lions live in Africa: equally true is - - - =20 - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Englishman in Africa</primary><second= ary>example</secondary></indexterm> - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e3d4"/> - - - loi glipre cu xabju le fi'ortu'a - Part-of-the-mass-of-those-which-really are-English-persons = dwell in-the African-land. - The English dwell in Africa. - - - since there is at least one English person living there.=20 - explains another method of saying wha= t is usually meant by=20 - The lion lives in Africa which does imply that living i= n Africa is normal, not exceptional, for lions. - mass objectspeculiarities of English translation of Note that the Lojban mass articles are sometimes translated by English= plurals (the most usual case), sometimes by English singulars (when the si= ngular is used to express typicalness or abstraction), and sometimes by sin= gulars with no article: - =20 - =20 - - - =20 - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>butter is soft</primary><secondary>ex= ample</secondary></indexterm> - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e3d5"/> - - - loi matne cu ranti - =20 - Part-of-the-mass-of-that-which-really is-a-quantity-of-butt= er is-soft. - Butter is soft. - - - mass objectas dependent on intention Of course, = some butter is hard (for example, if it is frozen butter), so the=20 - part-of implication of=20 - loi becomes once again useful. The reason this mechanis= m works is that the English words like=20 - butter, which are seen as already describing masses, ar= e translated in Lojban by non-mass forms. The place structure of=20 - matne is=20 - =20 - x1 is a quantity of butter from source x2, so the singl= e English word=20 - butter is translated as something like=20 - a part of the mass formed from all the quantities of butter tha= t exist. (Note that the operation of forming a mass entity does not= imply, in Lojban, that the components of the mass are necessarily close to= one another or even related in any way other than conceptually. Masses are= formed by the speaker's intention to form a mass, and can in principle con= tain anything.) - mass nameuse of The mass name descriptor=20 - =20 - =20 - lai is used in circumstances where we wish to talk abou= t a mass of things identified by a name which is common to all of them. It = is not used to identify a mass by a single name peculiar to it. Thus the ma= ss version of=20 - , - - - =20 - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Bears wrote book</primary><secondary>= example</secondary></indexterm> - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e3d6"/> - - - lai cribe pu finti le vi cukta - The-mass-of-those-named=20 - bear [past] creates the nearby book. - The Bears wrote this book. - - - laicontrasted with la in implications lacontrasted with= lai in implications in a context where=20 - la cribe would be understood as plural, would m= ean that either Tom Bear or Fred Bear (to make up some names) might have wr= itten the book, or that Tom and Fred might have written it as collaborators= . Using=20 - =20 - la instead of=20 - lai in=20 - would give the implication = that each of Tom and Fred, considered individually, had written it. -

- Masses and sets - The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - - le'i - LE - the set described as - - - lo'i - LE - the set of those which really are - - - la'i - LA - the set of those named - - - masscompared with set as abstract of multiple individuals setcompared with mass as abstract of multiple individuals masscontrasted with set in attribution of component properties setcontrasted with mass in attribution of component properties Having said so much about masses, let us turn to sets.= Sets are easier to understand than masses, but are more rarely used. Like = a mass, a set is an abstract object formed from a number of individuals; ho= wever, the properties of a set are not derived from any of the properties o= f the individuals that compose it. - la'ias set counterpart of lai lo'ias set counterpart = of loi le'ias set counterpart of lei sets= properties of cardinalitydefinition cardinalityproperty of sets membershipproperty of sets inclusionproperty of sets Sets have proper= ties like cardinality (how many elements in the set), membership (the relat= ionship between a set and its elements), and set inclusion (the relationshi= p between two sets, one of which – the superset – contains all = the elements of the other – the subset). The set descriptors=20 - =20 - =20 - =20 - le'i,=20 - lo'i and=20 - la'i correspond exactly to the mass descriptors=20 - lei,=20 - loi, and=20 - lai except that normally we talk of the whole of a set,= not just part of it. Here are some examples contrasting=20 - lo,=20 - loi, and=20 - lo'i: - - - =20 - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>rats are brown</primary><secondary>ex= ample</secondary></indexterm> - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e4d1"/> - - - lo ratcu cu bunre - One-or-more-of-those-which-really-are rats are-brown. - Some rats are brown. - =20 - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e4d2"/> - - - loi ratcu cu cmalu - Part-of-the-mass-of-those-which-really-are rats are-small.<= /gloss> - Rats are small. - - - lo'icontrasted with lo and loi loicontrasted with lo a= nd lo'i locontrasted with loi and lo'i - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e4d3"/> - - - lo'i ratcu cu barda - The-set-of rats is-large. - There are a lot of rats. - - - The mass of rats is small because at least one rat is small; the= mass of rats is also large; the set of rats, though, is unquestionably lar= ge – it has billions of members. The mass of rats is also brown, sinc= e some of its components are; but it would be incorrect to call the set of = rats brown – brown-ness is not the sort of property that sets possess= . - =20 - setsuse in Lojban place structure Lojban speake= rs should generally think twice before employing the set descriptors. Howev= er, certain predicates have places that require set sumti to fill them. For= example, the place structure of=20 - fadni is: - x1 is ordinary/common/typical/usual in property x= 2 among the members of set x3 - Why is it necessary for the x3 place of=20 - fadni to be a set? Because it makes no sense for an ind= ividual to be typical of another individual: an individual is typical of a = group. In order to make sure that the bridi containing=20 - fadni is about an entire group, its x3 place must be fi= lled with a set: - - - =20 - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>typical Lojban user</primary><seconda= ry>example</secondary></indexterm> - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e4d4"/> - - - mi fadni zo'e lo'i lobypli - I am-ordinary among the-set-of Lojban-users. - I am a typical Lojban user. - =20 - - - Note that the x2 place has been omitted; I am not specifying in = exactly which way I am typical – whether in language knowledge, or ag= e, or interests, or something else. If=20 - lo'i were changed to=20 - lo in=20 - , the meaning would be somet= hing like=20 - I am typical of some Lojban user, which is nonsense. -

- Descriptors for typical objects - =20 - The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - - lo'e - LE - the typical - - - le'e - LE - the stereotypical - =20 - - - As promised in=20 - , Lojban has a method for discrimina= ting between=20 - the lion who lives in Africa and=20 - the Englishman who, generally speaking, doesn't live in= Africa even though some Englishmen do. The descriptor=20 - lo'e means=20 - the typical, as in - - - =20 - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>lion in Africa</primary><secondary>ex= ample</secondary></indexterm> - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e5d1"/> - - - lo'e cinfo cu xabju le fi'ortu'a - The-typical lion dwells-in the African-land. - The lion dwells in Africa. - - - typical objectsand instantiation typical objectsdetermi= ning characteristics of What is this=20 - typical lion? Surely it is not any particular lion, bec= ause no lion has all of the=20 - typical characteristics, and (worse yet) some character= istics that all real lions have can't be viewed as typical. For example, al= l real lions are either male or female, but it would be bizarre to suppose = that the typical lion is either one. So the typical lion has no particular = sex, but does have a color (golden brown), a residence (Africa), a diet (ga= me), and so on. Likewise we can say that - - - =20 - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>typical Englishman</primary><secondar= y>example</secondary></indexterm> - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e5d2"/> - - - lo'e glipre cu xabju le fi'ortu'a na.e le gligugde - The-typical English-person dwells-in the African-land (Not!= ) and the English-country. - The typical English person dwells not in Africa but in En= gland. - - - le'irelationship to le'e le'erelationship to le'i lo'irelationship to lo'e lo'erelationship to l= o'i The relationship between=20 - lo'e cinfo and=20 - lo'i cinfo may be explained thus: the typical l= ion is an imaginary lion-abstraction which best exemplifies the set of lion= s. There is a similar relationship between=20 - le'e and=20 - le'i: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e5d3"/> - - - le'e xelso merko cu gusta ponse - The-stereotypical Greek-type-of American is-a-restaurant-ty= pe-of owner. - =20 - Lots of Greek-Americans own restaurants. - =20 - - - stereotypicalcompared with typical typicalcompared with= stereotypical stereotypicalas not derogatory in Lojban Greek-= Americans own restaurants stereotypical objects Here we are= concerned not with the actual set of Greek-Americans, but with the set of = those the speaker has in mind, which is typified by one (real or imaginary)= who owns a restaurant. The word=20 - stereotypical is often derogatory in English, but=20 - =20 - le'e need not be derogatory in Lojban: it simply sugges= ts that the example is typical in the speaker's imagination rather than in = some objectively agreed-upon way. Of course, different speakers may disagre= e about what the features of=20 - the typical lion are (some would include having a short= intestine, whereas others would know nothing of lions' intestines), so the= distinction between=20 - lo'e cinfo and=20 - le'e cinfo may be very fine. - Furthermore, - - - =20 - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Hollywood</primary><secondary>example= </secondary></indexterm> - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e5d4"/> - - - le'e skina cu se finti ne'i la xali,uyd. - The-stereotypical movie is-invented in Hollywood. - =20 - =20 - - - is probably true to an American, but might be false (not the ste= reotype) to someone living in India or Russia. - - -typical Smithexa= mple - - name equivalent for typicalrationale for lack of Note that there is no naming equivalent of=20 - lo'e and=20 - le'e, because there is no need, as a rule, for a=20 - typical George or a=20 - typical Smith. People or things who share a common name= do not, in general, have any other common attributes worth mentioning. - =20 -

- Quantified sumti - The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - - ro - PA - all of/each of - - - su'o - PA - at least (one of) - - - Quantifiers tell us how many: in the case of quantifiers with su= mti, how many things we are talking about. In Lojban, quantifiers are expre= ssed by numbers and mathematical expressions: a large topic discussed in so= me detail in=20 - =20 - . For the purposes of this chapter, a= simplified treatment will suffice. Our examples will employ either the sim= ple Lojban numbers=20 - pa,=20 - re,=20 - ci,=20 - vo, and=20 - mu, meaning=20 - one,=20 - two,=20 - three,=20 - four,=20 - five respectively, or else one of four special quantifi= ers, two of which are discussed in this section and listed above. These fou= r quantifiers are important because every Lojban sumti has either one or tw= o of them implicitly present in it – which one or two depends on the = particular kind of sumti. There is more explanation of implicit quantifiers= later in this section. (The other two quantifiers,=20 - piro and=20 - pisu'o, are explained in=20 - =20 - .) - Every Lojban sumti may optionally be preceded by an explicit qua= ntifier. The purpose of this quantifier is to specify how many of the thing= s referred to by the sumti are being talked about. Here are some simple exa= mples contrasting sumti with and without explicit quantifiers: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e6d1"/> - - - do cadzu le bisli - You walk-on the ice. - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e6d2"/> - - - re do cadzu le bisli - Two-of you walk-on the ice. - - - The difference between=20 - and=20 - is the presence of the expl= icit quantifier=20 - re in the latter example. Although=20 - re by itself means=20 - two, when used as a quantifier it means=20 - two-of. Out of the group of listeners (the number of wh= ich isn't stated), two (we are not told which ones) are asserted to be=20 - walkers on the ice. Implicitly, the others (if any) are= not walkers on the ice. In Lojban, you cannot say=20 - I own three shoes if in fact you own four shoes. Number= s need never be specified, but if they are specified they must be correct.<= /para> - (This rule does not mean that there is no way to specify a numbe= r which is vague. The sentence - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e6d3"/> - - - mi ponse su'o ci cutci - I possess at-least three shoes. - - - is true if you own three shoes, or four, or indeed any larger nu= mber. More details on vague numbers appear in the discussion of mathematica= l expressions in=20 - =20 - =20 - .) - Now consider=20 - again. How many of the list= eners are claimed to walk on the ice? The answer turns out to be: all of th= em, however many that is. So=20 - and=20 - : - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e6d4"/> - - - ro do cadzu le bisli - All-of you walk-on the ice. - - - sumtias having implicit quantifiers quantifierswith su= mti turn out to mean exactly the same thing. This i= s a safe strategy, because if one of my listeners doesn't turn out to be wa= lking on the ice, I can safely claim that I didn't intend that person to be= a listener! And in fact, all of the personal pro-sumti such as=20 - =20 - mi and=20 - mi'o and=20 - ko obey the same rule. We say that personal pro-sumti h= ave a so-called=20 - =20 - implicit quantifier of=20 - ro (all). This just means that if no quantifier is give= n explicitly, the meaning is the same as if the implicit quantifier had bee= n used. - =20 - implicit quantifi= eron quotationsdiscussion of Not all sumti have=20 - ro as the implicit quantifier, however. Consider the qu= otation in: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e6d5"/> - - - mi cusku lu do cadzu le bisli li'u - I express [quote] you walk-on the ice [unquote]. - I say,=20 - You walk on the ice. - - - What is the implicit quantifier of the quotation=20 - lu do cadzu le bisli li'u? Surely not=20 - ro. If=20 - ro were supplied explicitly, thus: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e6d6"/> - - - mi cusku ro lu do cadzu le bisli li'u - I express all-of [quote] you walk-on the ice [unquote]. - - - the meaning would be something like=20 - I say every occurrence of the sentence 'You walk on the ice'. Of course I don't say every occurrence of it, only some occurrences.= One might suppose that=20 - means that I express exactl= y one occurrence, but it is more Lojbanic to leave the number unspecified, = as with other sumti. We can say definitely, however, that I say it at least= once. - The Lojban cmavo meaning=20 - at least is=20 - su'o, and if no ordinary number follows,=20 - su'o means=20 - at least once. (See=20 - for the use of=20 - su'o with an ordinary number). Therefore, the explicitl= y quantified version of=20 - is - implicit quantifi= erfor quotations quotationsimplicit q= uantifier for su'oas implicit quantifier for quotations - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e6d7"/> - - - mi cusku su'o lu do cadzu le bisli li'u - I express at-least-one-of [quote] you walk-on the ice [unqu= ote]. - I say one or more instances of=20 - You walk on the ice. - I say=20 - You walk on the ice. - - - If an explicit ordinary number such as=20 - re were to appear, it would have to convey an exact exp= ression, so - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e6d8"/> - - - mi cusku re lu do cadzu le bisli li'u - I express two-of [quote] you walk-on the ice [unquote]. - - - means that I say the sentence exactly twice, neither more nor le= ss. -

- Quantified descriptions - The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - - piro - PA - the whole of - pisu'o - PA - a part of - - - quantificationbefore description sumti compared with before non-descrip= tion sumti Like other sumti, descriptions can be qu= antified. When a quantifier appears before a description, it has the same m= eaning as one appearing before a non-description sumti: it specifies how ma= ny things, of all those referred to by the description, are being talked ab= out in this particular bridi. Suppose that context tells us that=20 - le gerku refers to three dogs. Then we can say = that exactly two of them are white as follows: - - - =20 - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>two dogs are white</primary><secondar= y>example</secondary></indexterm> - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e7d1"/> - - - re le gerku cu blabi - Two-of the dogs are-white. - Two of the dogs are white. - - - inner quantifiereffect of on meaning outer quantifieref= fect of on meaning inner quantifiercontrasted with outer q= uantifier outer quantifiercontrasted with inner quantifier= inn= er quantifierdefinition outer quantifierdefinition When discussing descriptions, this or= dinary quantifier is called an=20 - outer quantifier, since it appears outside the descript= ion. But there is another possible location for a quantifier: between the d= escriptor and the selbri. This quantifier is called an=20 - inner quantifier, and its meaning is quite different: i= t tells the listener how many objects the description selbri characterizes.= - For example, the context of=20 - supposedly told us that=20 - le gerku referred to some three specific dogs. = This assumption can be made certain with the use of an explicit inner quant= ifier: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e7d2"/> - - - re le ci gerku cu blabi - Two-of the three dogs are-white. - Two of the three dogs are white. - - - (As explained in the discussion of=20 - , simple numbers like those = in=20 - must be exact: it therefore= follows that the third dog cannot be white.) - inner quantifier<= /primary>explicit You may also specify a= n explicit inner quantifier and leave the outer quantifier implicit: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e7d3"/> - - - le ci gerku cu blabi - The three dogs are-white. - The three dogs are white. - - - outer quantifier<= /primary>implicit on descriptors inner quantifierimplicit on descriptors descriptorsimplicit quantifiers = for There are rules for each of the 11 descriptors = specifying what the implicit values for the inner and outer quantifiers are= . They are meant to provide sensible default values when context is absent,= not necessarily to prescribe hard and fast rules. The following table list= s the implicit values: - - - - le: - ro le su'o - all of the at-least-one described as - - - lo: - su'o lo ro - at least one of all of those which really are - - - la: - ro la su'o - all of the at least one named - - - lei: - pisu'o lei su'o - some part of the mass of the at-least-one described as - - - loi: - pisu'o loi ro - some part of the mass of all those that really are - - - lai: - pisu'o lai su'o - some part of the mass of the at-least-one named - - - le'i: - piro le'i su'o - the whole of the set of the at-least-one described as - - - lo'i: - piro lo'i ro - the whole of the set of all those that really are - - - la'i: - piro la'i su'o - the whole of the set of the at-least-one named - - - le'e: - ro le'e su'o - all the stereotypes of the at-least-one described as - - - lo'e: - su'o lo'e ro - at least one of the types of all those that really are - - - le-series cmavoas encompassing le-series and la-series descriptors for = quantification discussion le-series cmavodefinition la-series = descriptorscompared with le-series in implicit quantif= ication le-series descriptorscompared with la-series in im= plicit quantification When examined for the first t= ime, this table looks dreadfully arbitrary. In fact, there are quite a few = regularities in it. First of all, the la-series (that is, the descriptors= =20 - la,=20 - lai, and=20 - la'i) and the le-series (that is, the descriptors=20 - le,=20 - lei,=20 - le'i, and=20 - le'e) always have corresponding implicit quantifiers, s= o we may subsume the la-series under the le-series for the rest of this dis= cussion:=20 - le-series cmavo will refer to both the le-series proper= and to the la-series. - =20 - le-series cmavorule for implicit inner quantifier lo-series cmavo= rule for implicit inner quantifier The r= ule for the inner quantifier is very simple: the lo-series cmavo (namely,= =20 - =20 - lo,=20 - loi,=20 - lo'i, and=20 - lo'e) all have an implicit inner quantifier of=20 - ro, whereas the le-series cmavo all have an implicit in= ner quantifier of=20 - =20 - su'o. - le-series cmavorationale for implicit inner quantifier lo-series cmavorationale for implicit inner quantifier Why? Because lo-series descriptors always refer to all of the things w= hich really fit into the x1 place of the selbri. They are not restricted by= the speaker's intention. Descriptors of the le-series, however, are so res= tricted, and therefore talk about some number, definite or indefinite, of o= bjects the speaker has in mind – but never less than one. - massesrule for implicit outer quantifier setsrule for i= mplicit outer quantifier Understanding the implicit= outer quantifier requires rules of greater subtlety. In the case of mass a= nd set descriptors, a single rule suffices for each: reference to a mass is= implicitly a reference to some part of the mass; reference to a set is imp= licitly a reference to the whole set. Masses and sets are inherently singul= ar objects: it makes no sense to talk about two distinct masses with the sa= me components, or two distinct sets with the same members. Therefore, the l= argest possible outer quantifier for either a set description or a mass des= cription is=20 - piro, the whole of it. - plural massespossible use for (Pedantically, it= is possible that the mass of water molecules composing an ice cube might b= e thought of as different from the same mass of water molecules in liquid f= orm, in which case we might talk about=20 - re lei djacu, two masses of the water-bits I ha= ve in mind.) - pisu'oexplanation of meaning piroexplanation of meaning= Why=20 - pi-? It is the Lojban cmavo for the deci= mal point. Just as=20 - =20 - pimu means=20 - .5, and when used as a quantif= ier specifies a portion consisting of five tenths of a thing,=20 - piro means a portion consisting of the all-ness –= the entirety – of a thing. Similarly,=20 - pisu'o specifies a portion consisting of at least one p= art of a thing, i.e. some of it. - =20 - portion= on set contrasted with on individual outer quantifiersfor expressing subsets subsetsexpressing with outer= quantifiers Smaller quantifiers are possible for s= ets, and refer to subsets. Thus=20 - =20 - pimu le'i nanmu is a subset of the set of men I= have in mind; we don't know precisely which elements make up this subset, = but it must have half the size of the full set. This is the best way to say= =20 - half of the men; saying=20 - pimu le nanmu would give us a half-portion of o= ne of them instead! Of course, the result of=20 - pimu le'i nanmu is still a set; if you need to = refer to the individuals of the subset, you must say so (see=20 - lu'a in=20 - =20 - ). - loimplicit outer quantifier for leimplicit outer quant= ifier for individual descriptorsdifferent implicit outer q= uantifiers among outer quantifiersrationale for difference= s in implicit quantifier on descriptors The case of= outer quantifiers for individual descriptors (including=20 - le,=20 - lo,=20 - la, and the typical descriptors=20 - le'e and=20 - lo'e) is special. When we refer to specific individuals= with=20 - le, we mean to refer to all of those we have in mind, s= o=20 - ro is appropriate as the implicit quantifier, just as i= t is appropriate for=20 - do. Reference to non-specific individuals with=20 - lo, however, is typically to only some of the objects w= hich can be correctly described, and so=20 - su'o is the appropriate implicit quantifier, just as fo= r quotations. - locontrasted with le in implicit quantification= lecont= rasted with lo in implicit quantification From the = English-speaking point of view, the difference in structure between the fol= lowing example using=20 - le: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e7d4"/> - - - [ro] le ci gerku cu blabi - [All-of] those-described-as three dogs are-white. - The three dogs are white. - - - and the corresponding form with=20 - lo: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e7d5"/> - - - ci lo [ro] gerku cu blabi - Three-of those-which-are [all] dogs are-white. - Three dogs are white. - - - looks very peculiar. Why is the number=20 - ci found as an inner quantifier in=20 - and as an outer quantifier = in=20 - ? The number of dogs is the = same in either case. The answer is that the=20 - ci in=20 - is part of the specificatio= n: it tells us the actual number of dogs in the group that the speaker has = in mind. In=20 - , however, the dogs referred= to by=20 - ... lo gerku are all the dogs that exist: the o= uter quantifier then restricts the number to three; which three, we cannot = tell. The implicit quantifiers are chosen to avoid claiming too much or too= little: in the case of=20 - le, the implicit outer quantifier=20 - ro says that each of the dogs in the restricted group i= s white; in the case of=20 - lo, the implicit inner quantifier simply says that thre= e dogs, chosen from the group of all the dogs there are, are white. - lo-series descrip= tioncaution on exact numbers as inner quantifiers on Using exact numbers as inner quantifiers in lo-serie= s descriptions is dangerous, because you are stating that exactly that many= things exist which really fit the description. So examples like - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e7d6"/> - - - [so'o] lo ci gerku cu blabi - =20 - [some-of] those-which-really-are three dogs are-white - - - are semantically anomalous;=20 - claims that some dog (or do= gs) is white, but also that there are just three dogs in the universe! - Nevertheless, inner quantifiers are permitted on=20 - lo descriptors for consistency's sake, and may occasion= ally be useful. - Note that the inner quantifier of=20 - le, even when exact, need not be truthful:=20 - le ci nanmu means=20 - what I describe as three men, not=20 - three of what I describe as men. This follows from the = rule that what is described by a=20 - le description represents the speaker's viewpoint rathe= r than the objective way things are. -

- Indefinite descriptions - descriptorsomission of loomission of By a quirk of Lojban syntax, it is possible to omit the descriptor= =20 - lo, but never any other descriptor, from a description = like that of=20 - ; namely, one which has an e= xplicit outer quantifier but no explicit inner quantifier. The following ex= ample: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e8d1"/> - - - ci gerku [ku] cu blabi - Three dogs are white. - - - indefinite descri= ptiondefinition omission of descriptoreffect on ku kueffect on of omitting descriptor is equivalent in meaning to=20 - . Even though the descriptor= is not present, the elidable terminator=20 - ku may still be used. The name=20 - indefinite description for this syntactic form is histo= rically based: of course, it is no more and no less indefinite than its cou= nterpart with an explicit=20 - =20 - =20 - lo. Indefinite descriptions were introduced into the la= nguage in order to imitate the syntax of English and other natural language= s. - inner quantifier<= /primary>in indefinite description outer quantifierin indefinite description indefinite descriptionas pro= hibiting explicit inner quantifier indefinite descriptiona= s needing explicit outer quantifier Indefinite desc= riptions must fit this mold exactly: there is no way to make one which does= not have an explicit outer quantifier (thus=20 - *gerku cu blabi is ungrammatica= l), or which has an explicit inner quantifier (thus=20 - *reboi ci gerku cu blabi is als= o ungrammatical –=20 - re ci gerku cu blabi is fine, but means=20 - 23 dogs are white). - Note:=20 - also contains an indefinite= description, namely=20 - =20 - =20 - su'o ci cutci; another version of that example = using an explicit=20 - lo would be: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e8d2"/> - - - mi ponse su'o ci lo cutci - I possess at-least three things-which-really-are shoes - I own three (or more) shoes. - - -

- sumti-based descriptions - As stated in=20 - , most descriptions consi= st of just a descriptor and a selbri. (In this chapter, the selbri have alw= ays been single gismu, but of course any selbri, however complex, can be em= ployed in a description. The syntax and semantics of selbri are explained i= n=20 - .) In the intervening sections, inne= r and outer quantifiers have been added to the syntax. Now it is time to di= scuss a description of a radically different kind: the sumti-based descript= ion. - =20 - sumti-based descr= iptionouter quantifier on sumti-based descriptioninner quantifier on sumti-based descriptiondef= inition A sumti-based description has a sumti where= the selbri would normally be, and the inner quantifier is required –= it cannot be implicit. An outer quantifier is permitted but not required.<= /para> - =20 - A full theory of sumti-based descriptions has yet to be worked o= ut. One common case, however, is well understood. Compare the following: - - =20 - =20 - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>the two of you</primary><secondary>ex= ample</secondary></indexterm> - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e9d1"/> - - - re do cu nanmu - Two-of you are-men. - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e9d2"/> -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>the two of you</primary><secondary>ex= ample</secondary></indexterm> - - - le re do cu nanmu - The two-of you are men. - - - - simply specifies that of = the group of listeners, size unknown, two are men.=20 - , which has the sumti-base= d description=20 - =20 - le re do, says that of the two listeners, all= (the implicit outer quantifier=20 - ro) are men. So in effect the inner quantifier=20 - re gives the number of individuals which the inner su= mti=20 - =20 - do refers to. - Here is another group of examples: - - =20 - =20 - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>three bears</primary><secondary>examp= le</secondary></indexterm> - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e9d3"/> - - - re le ci cribe cu bunre - Two-of the three bears are-brown. - =20 - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e9d4"/> -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>three bears</primary><secondary>examp= le</secondary></indexterm> - - - le re le ci cribe cu bunre - The two-of the three bears are-brown. - =20 - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e9d5"/> -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>three bears</primary><secondary>examp= le</secondary></indexterm> - - - pa le re le ci cribe cu bunre - One-of the two-of the three bears are-brown. - =20 - - - sumti-based descri= ptions with leas increasing restricting to in-mind In each case,=20 - le ci cribe restricts the bears (or alleged bea= rs) being talked of to some group of three which the speaker has in mind.= =20 - says that two of them (whic= h two is not stated) are brown.=20 - says that a specific pair o= f them are brown.=20 - says that of a specific pai= r chosen from the original three, one or the other of that pair is brown. -

- sumti qualifiers - The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - sumti qualifiers<= /primary>list of - - - la'e - LAhE - something referred to by - - - lu'e - LAhE - a reference to - - - tu'a - LAhE - an abstraction involving - - - lu'a - LAhE - an individual/member/component of - - - lu'i - LAhE - a set formed from - - - lu'o - LAhE - a mass formed from - - - vu'i - LAhE - a sequence formed from - - - na'ebo - NAhE+BO - something other than - - - to'ebo - NAhE+BO - the opposite of - - - no'ebo - NAhE+BO - the neutral form of - - - je'abo - NAhE+BO - that which indeed is - =20 - - lu'u - LUhU - elidable terminator for LAhE and NAhE+BO - - - Well, that's quite a list of cmavo. What are they all about? - lu'uas elidable terminator for qualified sumti = sumti qualifierselidable terminator for qualified sumti sumti qualifiersexternal syntax of sumti qualifiersinternal syntax o= f NA= hE selma'o LAhE selma'o The above cmavo and compound cmavo = are called the=20 - sumti qualifiers. All of them are either single cmavo o= f selma'o LAhE, or else compound cmavo involving a scalar negation cmavo of= selma'o NAhE immediately followed by=20 - =20 - bo of selma'o BO. Syntactically, you can prefix a sumti= qualifier to any sumti and produce another simple sumti. (You may need to = add the elidable terminator=20 - =20 - lu'u to show where the qualified sumti ends.) - =20 - sumti qualifiers<= /primary>as short forms for common special cases Semantically, sumti qualifiers represent short forms of certain co= mmon special cases. Suppose you want to say=20 - I see 'The Red Pony', where=20 - =20 - The Red Pony is the title of a book. How about: - =20 - unqualified sumti<= /primary>contrasted with qualified sumti= qualified sumticontrasted with unqualified sumti - - =20 - =20 - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Red Pony</primary><secondary>example<= /secondary></indexterm> - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d1"/> - - - mi viska lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u - I see [quote] the red small-horse [unquote]. - - - But=20 - doesn't work: it says that = you see a piece of text=20 - The Red Pony. That might be all right if you were looki= ng at the cover of the book, where the words=20 - =20 - The Red Pony are presumably written. (More precisely, w= here the words=20 - =20 - le xunre cmaxirma are written – but we ma= y suppose the book has been translated into Lojban.) - What you really want to say is: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d2"/> -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Red Pony</primary><secondary>example<= /secondary></indexterm> - - - mi viska le selsinxa be lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u - I see the thing-represented-by [quote] the red small-horse = [unquote]. - - - The x2 place of=20 - selsinxa (the x1 place of=20 - sinxa) is a sign or symbol, and the x1 place of=20 - selsinxa (the x2 place of=20 - sinxa) is the thing represented by the sign.=20 - allows us to use a symbol (= namely the title of a book) to represent the thing it is a symbol of (namel= y the book itself). - This operation turns out to be needed often enough that it's use= ful to be able to say: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d3"/> - - - mi viska la'e lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u [lu'u] - =20 - =20 - I see the-referent-of [quote] the red small-horse [unquote]= . - - - referent= referring to with la'e la'eeffect of on meanin= g de= referencing a pointerwith la'e= la'eas= short for le selsinxa be So= when=20 - la'e is prefixed to a sumti referring to a symbol, it p= roduces a sumti referring to the referent of that symbol. (In computer jarg= on,=20 - =20 - la'e dereferences a pointer.) - By introducing a sumti qualifier, we correct a false sentence (= =20 - ), which too closely resembl= es its literal English equivalent, into a true sentence (=20 - ), without having to change = it overmuch; in particular, the structure remains the same. Most of the use= s of sumti qualifiers are of this general kind. - symbolreferring to with lu'e lu'eeffect of on meaning The sumti qualifier=20 - lu'e provides the converse operation: it can be prefixe= d to a sumti referring to some thing to produce a sumti referring to a sign= or symbol for the thing. For example, - lu'eas short for le sinxa be - - - =20 - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>title of book</primary><secondary>exa= mple</secondary></indexterm> - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d4"/> - - - mi pu cusku lu'e le vi cukta - I [past] express a-symbol-for the nearby book. - I said the title of this book. - - - The equivalent form not using a sumti qualifier would be: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d5"/> -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>title of book</primary><secondary>exa= mple</secondary></indexterm> - - - mi pu cusku le sinxa be le vi cukta - I [past] express the symbol-for the nearby book. - - - which is equivalent to=20 - , but longer. - sequence= contrasted with set vu'iuse for creating sequen= ce t= u'ause for forming abstractions vu'ie= ffect of on meaning lu'oeffect of on meaning lu'ieffect of on meaning lu'aeffect of on meaning tu'aeffect of on meaning The other sum= ti qualifiers follow the same rules. The cmavo=20 - tu'a is used in forming abstractions, and is explained = more fully in=20 - . The triplet=20 - lu'a,=20 - =20 - lu'i, and=20 - =20 - lu'o convert between individuals, sets, and masses;=20 - =20 - vu'i belongs to this group as well, but creates a seque= nce, which is similar to a set but has a definite order. (The set of John a= nd Charles is the same as the set of Charles and John, but the sequences ar= e different.) Here are some examples: - =20 - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d6"/> - - - mi troci tu'a le vorme - I try some-abstraction-about the door. - I try (to open) the door. - - - tu'aas being deliberately vague=20 - might mean that I try to do= something else involving the door; the form is deliberately vague. - Most of the following examples make use of the cmavo=20 - ri, belonging to selma'o KOhA. This cmavo means=20 - the thing last mentioned; it is equivalent to repeating= the immediately previous sumti (but in its original context). It is explai= ned in more detail in=20 - . - - =20 - =20 - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>set of rats</primary><secondary>examp= le</secondary></indexterm> - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d7"/> - - - lo'i ratcu cu barda .iku'i lu'a ri cmalu - =20 - The-set-of rats is-large. But some-members-of it-last-menti= oned is-small. - The set of rats is large, but some of its members are sma= ll. - =20 - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d8"/> -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>set of rats</primary><secondary>examp= le</secondary></indexterm> - - - lo ratcu cu cmalu .iku'i lu'i ri barda - =20 - Some rats are-small. But the-set-of them-last-mentioned is-= large. - Some rats are small, but the set of rats is large. - =20 - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d9"/> -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>set of rats</primary><secondary>examp= le</secondary></indexterm> - - - mi ce do girzu .i lu'o ri gunma .i vu'i ri porsi - I in-a-set-with you are-a-set. The-mass-of it-last-mentione= d is-a-mass. The-sequence-of it-last-mentioned is-a-sequence - The set of you and me is a set. The mass of you and me is= a mass. The sequence of you and me is a sequence. - - - (Yes, I know these examples are a bit silly. This set was introd= uced for completeness, and practical examples are as yet hard to come by.)<= /para> - negation sumti qu= alifiersmeanings of sumti qualifiersf= or negation Finally, the four sumti qualifiers form= ed from a cmavo of NAhE and=20 - bo are all concerned with negation, which is discussed = in detail in=20 - . Here are a few examples of negat= ion sumti qualifiers: - =20 - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d10"/> - - - mi viska na'ebo le gerku - =20 - I see something-other-than the dog. - - - - This compound,=20 - na'ebo, is the most common of the four negation= sumti qualifiers. The others usually only make sense in the context of rep= eating, with modifications, something already referred to: - =20 - =20 - - - =20 - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>lukewarm food</primary><secondary>exa= mple</secondary></indexterm> - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e10d11"/> - - - mi nelci loi glare cidja .ije do nelci to'ebo ri .ije la djei= n. nelci no'ebo ra - I like part-of-the-mass-of hot-type-of food. And you like t= he-opposite-of the-last-mentioned. And Jane likes the-neutral-value-of some= thing-mentioned. - I like hot food, and you like cold food, and Jane likes l= ukewarm food. - =20 - - - (In=20 - , the sumti=20 - ra refers to some previously mentioned sumti other than= that referred to by=20 - ri. We cannot use=20 - ri here, because it would signify=20 - la djein., that being the most recent sumti ava= ilable to=20 - ri. See more detailed explanations in=20 - .) -

- The syntax of vocative phrases - vocative phrases<= /primary>as a free modifier Vocative phrases are not sumti, but are explained in this chapter becaus= e their syntax is very similar to that of sumti. Grammatically, a vocative = phrase is one of the so-called=20 - =20 - free modifiers of Lojban, along with subscripts, parent= heses, and various other constructs explained in=20 - =20 - . They can be placed after many, = but not all, constructions of the grammar: in general, after any elidable t= erminator (which, however, must not then be elided!), at the beginnings and= ends of sentences, and in many other places. - vocative phrasepurpose of The purpose of a voca= tive phrase is to indicate who is being addressed, or to indicate to that p= erson that he or she ought to be listening. A vocative phrase begins with a= cmavo of selma'o COI or DOI, all of which are explained in more detail in= =20 - =20 - . Sometimes that is all the= re is to the phrase: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d1"/> - - - coi - [greetings] - Hello. - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d2"/> - - - je'e - =20 - [acknowledgement] - Uh-huh. - Roger! - - - vocative wordphrase following In these cases, t= he person being addressed is obvious from the context. However, a vocative = word (more precisely, one or more cmavo of COI, possibly followed by=20 - doi, or else just=20 - doi by itself) can be followed by one of several kinds = of phrases, all of which are intended to indicate the addressee. The most c= ommon case is a name: - coi - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d3"/> - - - coi. djan. - Hello, John. - - - A pause is required (for morphological reasons) between a member= of COI and a name. You can use=20 - doi instead of a pause: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d4"/> - - - coi doi djan. - Hello, John. - - - means exactly the same thing and does not require a pause. Usin= g=20 - doi by itself is like just saying someone's name to att= ract his or her attention: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d5"/> - - - doi djan. - John! - - - vocative phraseimplicit descriptor on vocative phrasew= ith sumti without descriptor vocative phraseforms of In place of a name, a description may appear, lacking it= s descriptor, which is understood to be=20 - le: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d6"/> - - - coi xunre pastu nixli - Hello, (red-type-of dress)-type-of girl. - Hello, girl with the red dress! - - - vocative phraseexplicit quantifiers prohibited on vocative phrase= implicit quantifiers on The listener nee= d not really be a=20 - xunre pastu nixli, as long as she understands h= erself correctly from the description. (Actually, only a bare selbri can ap= pear; explicit quantifiers are forbidden in this form of vocative, so the i= mplicit quantifiers=20 - su'o le ro are in effect.) - Finally, a complete sumti may be used, the most general case. - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d7"/> - - - co'o la bab. .e la noras. - Goodbye, Bob and Nora. - - - vocative phrasewith complete sumti=20 - is thus the same as: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d8"/> - - - coi le xunre pastu nixli - Hello, the-one-described-as red-dress girl! - - - and=20 - is the same as: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d9"/> - - - doi la djan. - The-one-named John! - - - vocative phrase t= erminatorelidability of vocative phraseelidable terminator for Finally, the elidable ter= minator for vocative phrases is=20 - do'u (of selma'o DOhU), which is rarely needed except w= hen a simple vocative word is being placed somewhere within a bridi. It may= also be required when a vocative is placed between a sumti and its relativ= e clause, or when there are a sequence of so-called=20 - =20 - free modifiers (vocatives, subscripts, utterance ordina= ls – see=20 - – metalinguistic comments &nda= sh; see=20 - – or reciprocals –= see - ) which must be properly separate= d. - vocative phraseeffect of position on meaning Th= e meaning of a vocative phrase that is within a sentence is not affected by= its position in the sentence: thus=20 - =20 - and=20 - mean the same thing: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d10"/> - - - doi djan. ko klama mi - John, come to me! - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e11d11"/> - - - ko klama mi doi djan. - Come to me, John! - - - As usual for this chapter, the full syntax of vocative phrases h= as not been explained: relative clauses, discussed in=20 - , make for more possibilit= ies. -

- Lojban names - Names have been used freely as sumti throughout this chapter wit= hout too much explanation. The time for the explanation has now come. - name wordsrecognition of namestwo kinds of= First of all, there are two different kinds of things usually = called=20 - names when talking about Lojban. The naming predicates = of=20 - are just ordinary predic= ates which are being used in a special sense. In addition, though, there is= a class of Lojban words which are used only to name things: these can be r= ecognized by the fact that they end in a consonant followed by a pause. Som= e examples: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e12d1"/> - - - djan. meris. djein. .alis. - John. Mary. Jane. Alice. - - - (Note that=20 - .alis. begins as well as ends with a pause, because a= ll Lojban words beginning with a vowel must be preceded by a pause. See=20 - for more information.) - nameswith LA descriptor namesin vocative phrase namesuses of Names of this kind have two= basic uses in Lojban: when used in a vocative phrase (see=20 - =20 - ) they indicate who the lis= tener is or should be. When used with a descriptor of selma'o LA, namely=20 - la,=20 - lai, or=20 - la'i, they form sumti which refer to the persons or thi= ngs known by the name. - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e12d2"/> - - - la djonz. klama le zarci - Jones goes to-the store. - The Joneses go to-the store. - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e12d3"/> - - - lai djonz. klama le zarci - The-mass-of Joneses go to-the store. - The Joneses go to the store. - - - In=20 - , the significance is that a= ll the persons (perhaps only one) I mean to refer to by the name=20 - djonz. are going to the store. In=20 - , the Joneses are massified,= and only some part of them needs to be going. Of course, by=20 - djonz. I can mean whomever I want: that person need n= ot use the name=20 - djonz. at all. - LA selma'ocontrasted with LE in use of name-words LE selma'ocontrasted with LA in use of name-words The s= umti in=20 - and=20 - operate exactly like the si= milar uses of=20 - la and=20 - lai in=20 - and=20 - respectively. The only diff= erence is that these descriptors are followed by Lojban name-words. And in = fact, the only difference between descriptors of selma'o LA (these three) a= nd of selma'o LE (all the other descriptors) is that the former can be foll= owed by name-words, whereas the latter cannot. - =20 - doieffect on necessity for pause before name-word LA selma'oeffect on necessity for pause before name-word= name-wordspause requirements before name-wordslimitations on There are certain limitations on the form of name-word= s in Lojban. In particular, they cannot contain the letter-sequences (or so= und-sequences)=20 - =20 - la,=20 - lai, or=20 - doi unless a consonant immediately precedes within the = name. Reciprocally, every name not preceded by=20 - la,=20 - lai,=20 - la'i, or=20 - doi must be preceded by a pause instead: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e12d4"/> - - - coi .djan. - Hello, John. - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e12d5"/> - - - zo .djan. cmene mi - The-word John is-the-name-of me. - My name is John. - - - In=20 - and=20 - ,=20 - .djan. appears with a pause before it as well as afte= r it, because the preceding word is not one of the four special cases. Thes= e rules force names to always be separable from the general word-stream. - namesmultiple Unless some other rule prevents i= t (such as the rule that=20 - zo is always followed by a single word, which is quoted= ), multiple names may appear wherever one name is permitted, each with its = terminating pause: - - - =20 - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Newport News</primary><secondary>exam= ple</secondary></indexterm> - - - =20 - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>John Paul Jones</primary><secondary>e= xample</secondary></indexterm> - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e12d6"/> - - - doi djan. pol. djonz. le bloti cu klama fi la niuport. niuz.<= /jbo> - John Paul Jones, the boat comes (to somewhere) from Newpo= rt News. - =20 - =20 - - - name-wordspermissible consonant combinations A n= ame may not contain any consonant combination that is illegal in Lojban wor= ds generally: the=20 - impermissible consonant clusters of Lojban morphology (= explained in=20 - =20 - =20 - ). Thus=20 - djeimz. is not a valid version of=20 - James (because=20 - mz is invalid):=20 - djeimyz will suffice. Similarly,=20 - la may be replaced by=20 - ly,=20 - lai by=20 - ly'i,=20 - doi by=20 - do'i or=20 - dai. Here are a few examples: - =20 - -Doyleexample - -Lyraexample =20 -Lottieexample =20 - - - Doyle - *doi,l - do'il or dai,l - =20 - - - Lyra - *lairas - ly'iras - - - Lottie - *latis - LYtis. or lotis. - - - (American pronunciation) - - - - - -namesus= ing rafsi Names may be borrowed from other language= s or created arbitrarily. Another common practice is to use one or more raf= si, arranged to end with a consonant, to form a name: thus the rafsi=20 - loj- for=20 - logji (logical) and=20 - ban- for=20 - bangu (language) unite to form the name of this languag= e: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e12d7"/> - - - lojban. - Lojban - - - names from vowel-= final basecommonly used consonant endings<= /indexterm> names<= secondary>borrowing from other languages When borro= wing names from another language which end in a vowel, or when turning a Lo= jban brivla (all of which end in vowels) into a name, the vowel may be remo= ved or an arbitrary consonant added. It is common (but not required) to use= the consonants=20 - =20 - s or=20 - n when borrowing vowel-final names from English; speake= rs of other languages may wish to use other consonant endings. - =20 - names with laimplicit quantifier for The implic= it quantifier for name sumti of the form=20 - la followed by a name is=20 - su'o, just as for=20 - la followed by a selbri. -

- Pro-sumti summary - pro-sumticlasses of The Lojban pro-sumti are th= e cmavo of selma'o KOhA. They fall into several classes: personal, definabl= e, quantificational, reflexive, back-counting, indefinite, demonstrative, m= etalinguistic, relative, question. More details are given in=20 - ; this section mostly dupli= cates information found there, but adds material on the implicit quantifier= of each pro-sumti. - pro-sumtiimplicit quantifier for The following e= xamples illustrate each of the classes. Unless otherwise noted below, the i= mplicit quantification for pro-sumti is=20 - ro (all). In the case of pro-sumti which refer to other= sumti, the=20 - ro signifies=20 - all of those referred to by the other sumti: thus it is= possible to restrict, but not to extend, the quantification of the other s= umti. - personal pro-sumt= i Personal pro-sumti (=20 - mi,=20 - do,=20 - mi'o,=20 - mi'a,=20 - =20 - ma'a,=20 - =20 - do'o,=20 - =20 - ko) refer to the speaker or the listener or both, with = or without third parties: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d1"/> - - - mi prami do - I love you. - - - personal pro-sumt= iimplicit quantifier for The p= ersonal pro-sumti may be interpreted in context as either representing indi= viduals or masses, so the implicit quantifier may be=20 - =20 - pisu'o rather than=20 - =20 - ro: in particular,=20 - mi'o,=20 - mi'a,=20 - =20 - ma'a, and=20 - =20 - do'o specifically represent mass combinations of the in= dividuals (you and I, I and others, you and I and others, you and others) t= hat make them up. - =20 - definable pro-sum= ti Definable pro-sumti (=20 - ko'a,=20 - ko'e,=20 - ko'i,=20 - ko'o,=20 - ko'u,=20 - fo'a,=20 - =20 - fo'e,=20 - fo'i,=20 - fo'o,=20 - fo'u) refer to whatever the speaker has explicitly made= them refer to. This reference is accomplished with=20 - goi (of selma'o GOI), which means=20 - defined-as. - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d2"/> - - - le cribe goi ko'a cu xekri .i ko'a citka le smacu - The bear defined-as it-1 is-black. It-1 eats the mouse. - - - quantificational = pro-sumti Quantificational pro-sumti (=20 - da,=20 - de,=20 - di) are used as variables in bridi involving predicate = logic: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d3"/> - - - ro da poi prenu cu prami pa de poi finpe - All somethings-1 which-are persons love one something-2 whi= ch-is a-fish. - All persons love a fish (each his/her own). - - - quantificational = pro-sumtiimplicit quantification rules (This is not the same as=20 - All persons love a certain fish; the difference between= the two is one of quantifier order.) The implicit quantification rules for= quantificational pro-sumti are particular to them, and are discussed in de= tail in=20 - =20 - . Roughly speaking, the quantif= ier is=20 - su'o (at least one) when the pro-sumti is first used, a= nd=20 - ro (all) thereafter. - reflexive pro-sum= ti Reflexive pro-sumti (=20 - vo'a,=20 - vo'e,=20 - vo'i,=20 - vo'o,=20 - vo'u) refer to the same referents as sumti filling othe= r places in the same bridi, with the effect that the same thing is referred= to twice: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d4"/> - - - le cribe cu batci vo'a - The bear bites what-is-in-the-x1-place. - The bear bites itself. - - - back-counting pro= -sumti Back-counting pro-sumti (=20 - ri,=20 - ra,=20 - ru) refer to the referents of previous sumti counted ba= ckwards from the pro-sumti: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d5"/> - - - mi klama la frankfurt. ri - I go to-Frankfurt from-the-referent-of-the-last-sumti - I go from Frankfurt to Frankfurt (by some unstated route)= . - - - indefinite pro-su= mti Indefinite pro-sumti (=20 - zo'e,=20 - zu'i,=20 - =20 - zi'o) refer to something which is unspecified: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d6"/> - - - mi klama la frankfurt. zo'e zo'e zo'e - I go to-Frankfurt from-unspecified via-unspecified by-means= -unspecified. - - - indefinite pro-su= mtiimplicit quantifier for The= implicit quantifier for indefinite pro-sumti is, well, indefinite. It migh= t be=20 - =20 - ro (all) or=20 - su'o (at least one) or conceivably even=20 - no (none), though=20 - no would require a very odd context indeed. - demonstrative pro= -sumti Demonstrative pro-sumti (=20 - ti,=20 - ta,=20 - tu) refer to things pointed at by the speaker, or when = pointing is not possible, to things near or far from the speaker: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d7"/> - - - ko muvgau ti ta tu - You [imperative] move this-thing from-that-nearby-place to-= that-further-away-place. - Move this from there to over there! - - - metalinguistic pr= o-sumti Metalinguistic pro-sumti (=20 - di'u,=20 - de'u,=20 - =20 - da'u,=20 - =20 - di'e,=20 - =20 - de'e,=20 - =20 - da'e,=20 - =20 - dei,=20 - do'i) refer to spoken or written utterances, either pre= ceding, following, or the same as the current utterance. - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d8"/> - - - li re su'i re du li vo .i la'e di'u jetnu - The-number two plus two equals the-number four. The-referen= t-of the-previous-utterance is-true. - - - metalinguistic pr= o-sumtiimplicit quantifier for= The implicit quantifier for metalinguistic pro-sumti is=20 - =20 - su'o (at least one), because they are considered analog= ous to=20 - lo descriptions: they refer to things which really are = previous, current, or following utterances. - relative pro-sumt= i The relative pro-sumti (=20 - =20 - ke'a) is used within relative clauses (see=20 - for a discussion of relat= ive clauses) to refer to whatever sumti the relative clause is attached to.= - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d9"/> - - - mi viska le mlatu ku poi zo'e zbasu ke'a loi slasi - I see the cat(s) such-that something-unspecified makes it/t= hem (the cats) from-a-mass-of plastic. - I see the cat(s) made of plastic. - - - question pro-sumt= i The question pro-sumti (=20 - =20 - ma) is used to ask questions which request the listener= to supply a sumti which will make the question into a truth: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e13d10"/> - - - do klama ma - You go to-what-sumti? - Where are you going? - - - question pro-sumt= iimplicit quantifier for The i= mplicit quantifier for the question pro-sumti is=20 - =20 - su'o (at least one), because the listener is only being= asked to supply a single answer, not all correct answers. - definable pro-sum= tisequences of lerfu words as = In addition, sequences of lerfu words (of selma'o BY and related selma'o) c= an also be used as definable pro-sumti. - =20 -

- Quotation summary - quotationfour kinds There are four kinds of quo= tation in Lojban: text quotation, words quotation, single-word quotation, n= on-Lojban quotation. More information is provided in . - text quotationas internally grammatical text quotations= yntax of Text quotations are preceded by=20 - lu and followed by=20 - li'u, and are an essential part of the surrounding text= : they must be grammatical Lojban texts. - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e14d1"/> - - - mi cusku lu mi'e djan. li'u - I say the-text [quote] I-am John [unquote]. - I say I'm John. - - - word quotationinternal grammar of word quotationas mor= phologically valid Words quotations are quotations = of one or more Lojban words. The words need not mean anything, but they mus= t be morphologically valid so that the end of the quotation can be discerne= d. - le'u lo'u - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e14d2"/> - - - mi cusku lo'u li mi le'u - I say the-words [quote] li mi [unquote]. - I say li mi= . - - - Note that the translation of=20 - does not translate the Lojb= an words, because they are not presumed to have any meaning (in fact, they = are ungrammatical). - single-word quota= tion Single-word quotation quotes a single Lojban wor= d. Compound cmavo are not allowed. - =20 - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e14d3"/> - - - mi cusku zo .ai - I say the-word=20 - ai. - - - non-Lojban quotat= ion Non-Lojban quotation can quote anything, Lojban o= r not, even non-speech such as drum talk, whistle words, music, or belching= . A Lojban word which does not appear within the quotation is used before a= nd after it to set it off from the surrounding Lojban text. - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e14d4"/> - - - mi cusku zoi kuot. I'm John .kuot - I say=20 - I'm John. - - - quotationimplicit quantifier for The implicit q= uantifier for all types of quotation is=20 - su'o (at least one), because quotations are analogous t= o=20 - lo descriptions: they refer to things which actually ar= e words or sequences of words. -

- Number summary - number sumtiwith li number sumtisyntax of The sumti which refer to numbers consist of the cmavo=20 - li (of selma'o LI) followed by an arbitrary Lojban meks= o, or mathematical expression. This can be anything from a simple number up= to the most complicated combination of numbers, variables, operators, and = so on. Much more information on numbers is given in=20 - . Here are a few examples of increasi= ng complexity: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e15d1"/> - - - li vo - the-number four -

4

- - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e15d2"/> - - - li re su'i re - the-number two plus two -

2 + 2

- - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e15d3"/> - - - li .abu bopi'i xy. bote'a re su'i by. bopi'i xy. su'i cy. - the-number a times x to-power 2 plus b times x plus c -

ax 2 + bx + c

- - - number sumtiwith li contrasted with me'o number sumtiw= ith me'o contrasted with li LI selma'o me'o number sumtiwith me'o An alternative to=20 - li is=20 - me'o, also of selma'o LI. Number expressions beginning = with=20 - me'o refer to the actual expression, rather than its va= lue. Thus=20 - and=20 - above have the same meaning= , the number four, whereas - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e15d4"/> - - - me'o vo - the-expression four - 4 - - - and - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c6e15d5"/> - - - me'o re su'i re - the-expression two plus two - 2+2 - - - refer to different pieces of text. - mathematical expr= essionsimplicit quantifier for= numbersimplicit quantifier for The implicit quantifier fo= r numbers and mathematical expressions is=20 - =20 - su'o, because these sumti are analogous to=20 - lo descriptions: they refer to things which actually ar= e numbers or pieces of text. In the case of numbers (with=20 - li), this is a distinction without a difference, as the= re is only one number which is 4; but there are many texts=20 - 4, as many as there are documents in which that numeral= appears. -

- diff --git a/chapters/7.xml b/chapters/7.xml deleted file mode 100644 index 5eb8394..0000000 --- a/chapters/7.xml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2424 +0,0 @@ - - Brevity Is The Soul Of Language: Pro-sumti And Pro-bridi - - - The picture for chapter 7 - - - - - -

- What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for? - pronouns in Engli= shas noun abbreviations Speake= rs of Lojban, like speakers of other languages, require mechanisms of abbre= viation. If every time we referred to something, we had to express a comple= te description of it, life would be too short to say what we have to say. I= n English, we have words called=20 - pronouns which allow us to replace nouns or noun phrase= s with shorter terms. An English with no pronouns might look something like= this: - =20 - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e1d1"/> - - Speakers of Lojban, like speakers of other languages, require = mechanisms of abbreviation. If every time speakers of Lojban referred to a = thing to which speakers of Lojban refer, speakers of Lojban had to express = a complete description of what speakers of Lojban referred to, life would b= e too short to say what speakers of Lojban have to say. - - pronouns in Engli= shas independent of abbreviations Speakers of this kind of English would get mightily sick of talking. Fu= rthermore, there are uses of pronouns in English which are independent of a= bbreviation. There is all the difference in the world between: - =20 - - =20 - =20 - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>shook stick</primary><secondary>examp= le</secondary></indexterm> - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e1d2"/> - - John picked up a stick and shook it. - - and - - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>shook stick</primary><secondary>examp= le</secondary></indexterm> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e1d3"/> - - John picked up a stick and shook a stick. - - - does not imply that the t= wo sticks are necessarily the same, whereas=20 - requires that they are. - GOhA selma'o<= /primary> pro-su= mtiseries pro-sumticompared to pro-br= idi as means of abbreviation pro-bridicompared to pro-sumt= i as means of abbreviation pro-brididefinition= pro-sumtidefinition pro-sumticompared to pronouns in= usage as abbreviations pronounscompared to pro-sumti in u= sage as abbreviations In Lojban, we have sumti rath= er than nouns, so our equivalent of pronouns are called by the hybrid term= =20 - =20 - pro-sumti. A purely Lojban term would be=20 - sumti cmavo: all of the pro-sumti are cmavo bel= onging to selma'o KOhA. In exactly the same way, Lojban has a group of cmav= o (belonging to selma'o GOhA) which serve as selbri or full bridi. These ma= y be called=20 - pro-bridi or=20 - bridi cmavo. This chapter explains the uses of = all the members of selma'o KOhA and GOhA. They fall into a number of groups= , known as series: thus, in selma'o KOhA, we have among others the mi-serie= s, the ko'a-series, the da-series, and so on. In each section, a series of = pro-sumti is explained, and if there is a corresponding series of pro-bridi= , it is explained and contrasted. Many pro-sumti series don't have pro-brid= i analogues, however. - antecedent of pro= -brididefinition referent of pro-brididefinition <= primary>antecedent of pro-sumtidefinition<= /indexterm> referent of pro-= sumtidefinition A few technica= l terms: The term=20 - =20 - referent means the thing to which a pro-sumti (by exten= sion, a pro-bridi) refers. If the speaker of a sentence is James, then the = referent of the word=20 - I is James. On the other hand, the term=20 - antecedent refers to a piece of language which a pro-su= mti (or pro-bridi) implicitly repeats. In - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e1d4"/> - - John loves himself - - the antecedent of=20 - himself is=20 - John; not the person, but a piece of text (a name, in t= his case). John, the person, would be the referent of=20 - himself. Not all pro-sumti or pro-bridi have antecedent= s, but all of them have referents. -

- Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series - The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - - mi - KOhA - mi-series - I, me - - - do - KOhA - mi-series - you - - - mi'o - KOhA - mi-series - you and I - - - mi'a - KOhA - mi-series - I and others, we but not you - - - ma'a - KOhA - mi-series - you and I and others - - - do'o - KOhA - mi-series - you and others - - - ko - KOhA - mi-series - you-imperative - - - - -foreman of a juryexample - - personal pronounswith mi-series for I/you pro-sumtifor listener= (s) = pro-sumtifor speaker(s) pro-sumtimi-s= eries mi-seriesof pro-sumti The mi= -series of pro-sumti refer to the speaker, the listener, and others in vari= ous combinations.=20 - mi refers to the speaker and perhaps others for whom th= e speaker speaks; it may be a Lojbanic mass.=20 - do refers to the listener or listeners. Neither=20 - mi nor=20 - do is specific about the number of persons referred to;= for example, the foreman of a jury may refer to the members of the jury as= =20 - =20 - mi, since in speaking officially he represents all of t= hem. - COI selma'o COI sel= ma'oeffect on referent of "do" COI selma'oeffect on r= eferent of "mi" The referents of=20 - mi and=20 - do are usually obvious from the context, but may be ass= igned by the vocative words of selma'o COI, explained in=20 - . The vocative=20 - mi'e assigns=20 - mi, whereas all of the other vocatives assign=20 - do. - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e2d1"/> - - - mi'e djan. doi frank. mi cusku lu mi bajra li'u do - I-am John, O Frank, I express [quote] I run [unquote] to-yo= u - I am John, Frank; I tell you=20 - I run. - - - pro-sumtifor listeners and/or speakers and/or others The cmavo=20 - mi'o,=20 - mi'a,=20 - =20 - ma'a, and=20 - =20 - do'o express various combinations of the speaker and/or= the listener and/or other people: - =20 - - - - mi'o includes only the speaker and the listener but= no one else; - - - - mi'a includes the speaker and others but excludes t= he listener; - =20 - - - - do'o includes the listener and others but excludes = the speaker; - =20 - - - - ma'a includes all three: speaker, listener, others.= - =20 - - - pro-sumti for spe= aker/listener/othersas masses = pro-sumti for speaker/listen= er/othersrelation to joi All o= f these pro-sumti represent masses. For example,=20 - mi'o is the same as=20 - mi joi do, the mass of me and you considered jo= intly. - pro-sumti for "we"contrasted with English "we" English "we"contrasted with Lojban pro-sumti for "we" In English,=20 - we can mean=20 - mi or=20 - mi'o or=20 - mi'a or even=20 - =20 - ma'a, and English-speakers often suffer because they ca= nnot easily distinguish=20 - =20 - mi'o from=20 - mi'a: - =20 - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e2d2"/> - - We're going to the store. - - Does this include the listener or not? There's no way to be sure= . - kouse for commands kouse for imperatives imperativeswith ko commandswith ko Finally, the cmavo=20 - ko is logically equivalent to=20 - do; its referent is the listener. However, its use alte= rs an assertion about the listener into a command to the listener to make t= he assertion true: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e2d3"/> - - - do klama le zarci - You go to-the store. - - - becomes: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e2d4"/> - - - ko klama le zarci - You [imperative] go to-the store. - Make you go to the store true! - Go to the store! - - - koin later selbri place in imperative imperativesEngli= sh contrasted with Lojban in presence of subject of command In English, the subject of a command is omitted, but in Lojban, th= e word=20 - ko must be used. However,=20 - ko does not have to appear in the x1 place: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e2d5"/> - - - mi viska ko - I see you [imperative] - Make=20 - I see you true! - Be seen by me! - - - koin sub-clause of main bridi In=20 - , it is necessary to make th= e verb passive in English in order to convey the effect of=20 - ko in the x2 place. Indeed,=20 - ko does not even have to be a sumti of the main bridi:<= /para> - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e2d6"/> - - - mi viska le prenu poi prami ko - I see the person that loves you [imperative] - Make=20 - I see the person that loves you true! - Be such that the person who loves you is seen by me! - Show me the person who loves you! - - - mi-series pro-sum= tilack of pro-bridi equivalent= As mentioned in=20 - , some pro-sum= ti series have corresponding pro-bridi series. However, there is no equival= ent of the mi-series among pro-bridi, since a person isn't a relationship.<= /para> -

- Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series - The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - - ti - KOhA - ti-series - this here, a nearby object - - - ta - KOhA - ti-series - that there, a medium-distant object - - - tu - KOhA - ti-series - that yonder, a far-distant object - - - pro-sumtiti-series ti-series pro-sumtias pointing refe= rents only this/that in Englishcompared with ti-series pro= -sumti ti-series pro-sumticompared with English this/that<= /secondary> demo= nstrative pro-sumti pointingreference by It is often useful to refer to things by pointing to them or by some r= elated non-linguistic mechanism. In English, the words=20 - this and=20 - that serve this function among others:=20 - this refers to something pointed at that is near the sp= eaker, and=20 - that refers to something further away. The Lojban pro-s= umti of the ti-series serve the same functions, but more narrowly. The cmav= o=20 - ti,=20 - ta, and=20 - tu provide only the pointing function of=20 - this and=20 - that; they are not used to refer to things that cannot = be pointed at. - ti-series pro-sum= ti3 degrees of distance with = tuarchai= c English yon as equivalent of yonas archaic English equiv= alent of tu There are three pro-sumti of the ti-ser= ies rather than just two because it is often useful to distinguish between = objects that are at more than two different distances. Japanese, among othe= r languages, regularly does this. Until the 16th century, English did too; = the pronoun=20 - that referred to something at a medium distance from th= e speaker, and the now-archaic pronoun=20 - yon to something far away. - =20 - ti-series pro-sum= tiproblems in written text ti-series pro-sumticonversational convention for In conversat= ion, there is a special rule about=20 - ta and=20 - tu that is often helpful in interpreting them. When use= d contrastingly,=20 - ta refers to something that is near the listener, where= as=20 - tu refers to something far from both speaker and listen= er. This makes for a parallelism between=20 - ti and=20 - mi, and=20 - ta and=20 - do, that is convenient when pointing is not possible; f= or example, when talking by telephone. In written text, on the other hand, = the meaning of the ti-series is inherently vague; is the writer to be taken= as pointing to something, and if so, to what? In all cases, what counts as= =20 - near and=20 - far away is relative to the current situation. - thispronoun expression with ti tias pronoun expression= for English this thisadjective usage contrasted with pron= oun usage thispronoun usage contrasted with adjective usag= e It is important to distinguish between the Englis= h pronoun=20 - this and the English adjective=20 - this as in=20 - this boat. The latter is not represented in Lojban by= =20 - =20 - ti: - - - =20 - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>this boat</primary><secondary>example= </secondary></indexterm> - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e3d1"/> - - - le ti bloti - the this boat - =20 - - - thisadjective expression with vi vias adjective express= ion for English this does not mean=20 - this boat but rather=20 - =20 - this one's boat,=20 - the boat associated with this thing, as explained in=20 - . A correct Lojban transla= tion of=20 - is - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e3d2"/> -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>this boat</primary><secondary>example= </secondary></indexterm> - - - le vi bloti - the here boat - the nearby boat - - - using a spatial tense before the selbri=20 - bloti to express that the boat is near the speaker. (Te= nses are explained in full in=20 - .) Another correct translation would= be: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e3d3"/> -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>this boat</primary><secondary>example= </secondary></indexterm> - - - ti noi bloti - =20 - this-thing which-incidentally is-a-boat - - - ti-series pro-sum= tilack of pro-bridi equivalent= thisad= jective expression with ti noi ti noias adjective expressi= on for this There are no demonstrative pro-bridi to= correspond to the ti-series: you can't point to a relationship. -

- Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series - The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - - di'u - KOhA - di'u-series - the previous utterance - - - de'u - KOhA - di'u-series - an earlier utterance - - - - da'u - KOhA - di'u-series - a much earlier utterance - - - - di'e - KOhA - di'u-series - the next utterance - - - - de'e - KOhA - di'u-series - a later utterance - - - - da'e - KOhA - di'u-series - a much later utterance - - - - dei - KOhA - di'u-series - this very utterance - - - do'i - KOhA - di'u-series - some utterance - - - pro-sumtidi'u-series thisas utterance reference in Eng= lish di'u-series pro-sumti utterance pro-sumti (see also di'u-series pro-sumti) pro-sumti f= or utterances The cmavo of the di'u-series enable us = to talk about things that have been, are being, or will be said. In English= , it is normal to use=20 - this and=20 - that for this (indeed, the immediately preceding=20 - this is an example of such a usage): - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e4d1"/> - - You don't like cats. - That is untrue. - - Here=20 - that does not refer to something that can be pointed to= , but to the preceding sentence=20 - You don't like cats. In Lojban, therefore,=20 - is rendered: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e4d2"/> - - - do na nelci loi mlatu .i di'u jitfa jufra - You (Not!) like the-mass-of cats. The-previous-utterance is= -a-false-sentence. - - - ti-series pro-sum= ticontrasted with di'u-series pro-sumti di'ucontrasted with ta tacontrasted with di'u Using=20 - ta instead of=20 - di'u would cause the listener to look around to see wha= t the speaker of the second sentence was physically pointing to. - As with=20 - ti,=20 - ta, and=20 - tu, the cmavo of the di'u-series come in threes: a clos= e utterance, a medium-distance utterance, and a distant utterance, either i= n the past or in the future. It turned out to be impossible to use the=20 - i/=20 - a/=20 - u vowel convention of the demonstratives in=20 - without causing collisions with = other cmavo, and so the di'u-series has a unique=20 - i/=20 - e/=20 - a convention in the first vowel of the cmavo. - Most references in speech are to the past (what has already bee= n said), so=20 - di'e,=20 - =20 - de'e, and=20 - =20 - da'e are not very useful when speaking. In writing, the= y are frequently handy: - =20 - - - =20 - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Simon says</primary><secondary>exampl= e</secondary></indexterm> - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e4d3"/> - - - la saimn. cusku di'e - =20 - Simon expresses the-following-utterance. - Simon says: - =20 - - - - would typically be follow= ed by a quotation. Note that although presumably the quotation is of someth= ing Simon has said in the past, the quotation utterance itself would appear= after=20 - , and so=20 - di'e is appropriate. - =20 - The remaining two cmavo,=20 - dei and=20 - do'i, refer respectively to the very utterance that the= speaker is uttering, and to some vague or unspecified utterance uttered by= someone at some time: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e4d4"/> - - - dei jetnu jufra - This-utterance is-a-true-sentence. - What I am saying (at this moment) is true. - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e4d5"/> - - - do'i jetnu jufra - Some-utterance is-a-true-sentence. - That's true (where=20 - that is not necessarily what was just said). - - - The cmavo of the di'u-series have a meaning that is relative to = the context. The referent of=20 - dei in the current utterance is the same as the referen= t of=20 - di'u in the next utterance. The term=20 - utterance is used rather than=20 - sentence because the amount of speech or written text r= eferred to by any of these words is vague. Often, a single bridi is intende= d, but longer utterances may be thus referred to. - Note one very common construction with=20 - di'u and the cmavo=20 - la'e (of selma'o LAhE; see=20 - ) which precedes a sumti a= nd means=20 - the thing referred to by (the sumti): - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e4d6"/> - - - mi prami la djein. .i mi nelci la'e di'u - I love Jane. And I like the-referent-of the-last-utterance.= - I love Jane, and I like that. - - - la'edi'ucontrasted with di'u di'ucontrasted with la'= edi'u The effect of=20 - la'e di'u in=20 - is that the speaker likes, = not the previous sentence, but rather the state of affairs referred to by t= he previous sentence, namely his loving Jane. This cmavo compound is often = written as a single word:=20 - la'edi'u. It is important not to mix up=20 - =20 - di'u and=20 - la'edi'u, or the wrong meaning will generally result: - =20 - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e4d7"/> - - - mi prami la djein. .i mi nelci di'u - I love Jane. And I like the-last-utterance. - - - says that the speaker likes one of his own sentences. - There are no pro-bridi corresponding to the di'u-series. -

- Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the bro= da-series - The following cmavo and gismu are discussed in this section: - =20 - - - ko'a - KOhA - ko'a-series - it-1 - - - ko'e - KOhA - ko'a-series - it-2 - - - ko'i - KOhA - ko'a-series - it-3 - - - ko'o - KOhA - ko'a-series - it-4 - - - ko'u - KOhA - ko'a-series - it-5 - - - fo'a - KOhA - ko'a-series - it-6 - - - - fo'e - KOhA - ko'a-series - it-7 - - - fo'i - KOhA - ko'a-series - it-8 - - - fo'o - KOhA - ko'a-series - it-9 - - - fo'u - KOhA - ko'a-series - it-10 - - - broda - BRIVLA - broda-series - is-thing-1 - - - brode - BRIVLA - broda-series - is-thing-2 - - - brodi - BRIVLA - broda-series - is-thing-3 - - - brodo - BRIVLA - broda-series - is-thing-4 - - - brodu - BRIVLA - broda-series - is-thing-5 - - - goi - GOI - pro-sumti assignment - - - - cei - CEI - pro-bridi assignment - - - - ko'a-series pro-s= umti p= ro-sumtiko'a-series personal pronouns= with ko'a-series for he/she/it/they The discussion = of personal pro-sumti in=20 - =20 - may have seemed incomplete. In E= nglish, the personal pronouns include not only=20 - =20 - I and=20 - you but also=20 - he,=20 - she,=20 - it, and=20 - they. Lojban does have equivalents of this latter group= : in fact, it has more of them than English does. However, they are organiz= ed and used very differently. - ko'a-series pro-s= umtias assignable personal pronouns for he/she/it/theyEnglish contrasted with Lojban in organization= There are ten cmavo in the ko'a-series, and they may be assign= ed freely to any sumti whatsoever. The English word=20 - he can refer only to males,=20 - she only to females (and ships and a few other things),= =20 - it only to inanimate things, and=20 - they only to plurals; the cmavo of the ko'a-series have= no restrictions at all. Therefore, it is almost impossible to guess from t= he context what ko'a-series cmavo might refer to if they are just used free= ly: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e5d1"/> - - - la .alis. klama le zarci .i ko'a blanu - Alice goes-to the store. It-1 is-blue. - - - The English gloss=20 - it-1, plus knowledge about the real world, would tend t= o make English-speakers believe that=20 - =20 - ko'a refers to the store; in other words, that its ante= cedent is=20 - le zarci. To a Lojbanist, however,=20 - la .alis. is just as likely an antecedent, in w= hich case=20 - means that Alice, not the s= tore, is blue. - ko'a-series pro-s= umtiassigning with goi To avoi= d this pitfall, Lojban employs special syntax, using the cmavo=20 - goi: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e5d2"/> - - - la .alis. klama le zarci .i ko'a goi la .alis. cu blanu - Alice goes-to the store. It-1, also-known-as Alice, is-blue= . - - - ko'a-series pro-s= umtiassignment with goi as symmetrical Syntactically,=20 - goi la .alis. is a relative phrase (relative ph= rases are explained in=20 - ). Semantically, it says t= hat=20 - ko'a and=20 - la .alis. refer to the same thing, and furtherm= ore that this is true because=20 - ko'a is being defined as meaning=20 - la .alis.. It is equally correct to say: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e5d3"/> - - - la .alis. klama le zarci .i la .alis. goi ko'a cu blanu - Alice goes-to the store. Alice, also-known-as it-1, is-blue= . - - - in other words,=20 - goi is symmetrical. There is a terminator,=20 - ge'u (of selma'o GEhU), which is almost always elidable= . The details are in=20 - . - goi assignment of= ko'a-series pro-sumtiuse in speech contrasted with wr= iting The afterthought form of=20 - goi shown in=20 - and=20 - is probably most common in = speech, where we do not know until part way through our utterance that we w= ill want to refer to Alice again. In writing, though,=20 - ko'a may be assigned at the point where Alice is first = mentioned. An example of this forethought form of=20 - goi is: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e5d4"/> - - - la .alis. goi ko'a klama le zarci .i ko'a cu blanu - Alice, also-known-as it-1, goes-to the store. It-1 is-blue.= - - - =20 -hereafter known asexample - legal jargon= example=20 - - Again, ko'a goi la .alis. would have been entir= ely acceptable in=20 - . This last form is reminisc= ent of legal jargon: The party of the first part, hereafter known as= Buyer, .... - =20 - pro-bridias abbreviation for bridi broda-series for pro-bridicompared with ko'a-series for pro-sumti ko'a-series for pro-sumticompared with broda-series for pro-bridi pro-bridibroda-series broda-series pro-bridi Just as the ko'= a-series of pro-sumti allows a substitute for a sumti which is long or comp= lex, or which for some other reason we do not want to repeat, so the broda-= series of pro-bridi allows a substitute for a selbri or even a whole bridi:= - - - =20 - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>thingy</primary><secondary>example</s= econdary></indexterm> - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e5d5"/> - - - ti slasi je mlatu bo cidja lante gacri cei broda .i le crino = broda cu barda .i le xunre broda cu cmalu - These are plastic cat-food can covers or thingies. The gr= een thingy is large. The red thingy is small. - - - broda-series pro-= bridiword-form rationale ceifor broda= -series pro-bridi assignment broda-series pro-bridiassigni= ng with cei <= primary>goi for ko'a-series assignmentcompared with ce= i for broda-series assignment cei for broda-series assignmentcompared with goi for ko'a-series assignment antecedent= for pro-bridi The pro-bridi=20 - broda has as its antecedent the selbri=20 - slasi je mlatu bo cidja lante gacri. The cmavo= =20 - cei performs the role of=20 - =20 - goi in assigning=20 - broda to this long phrase, and=20 - broda can then be used just like any other brivla. (In = fact,=20 - broda and its relatives actually=20 - are brivla: they are gismu in morphology, althoug= h they behave exactly like the members of selma'o GOhA. The reasons for usi= ng gismu rather than cmavo are buried in the Loglan Project's history.) - antecedentfor pro-bridi as full bridi Note that= pro-bridi are so called because, even though they have the grammar of selb= ri, their antecedents are whole bridi. In the following rather contrived ex= ample, the antecedent of=20 - brode is the whole bridi=20 - mi klama le zarci: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e5d6"/> - - - mi klama cei brode le zarci .i do brode - =20 - I go-to (which-is claim-1) the store. You claim-1. - I go to the store. You, too. - - - pro-bridioverriding sumti of antecedent bridi for In the second bridi,=20 - do brode means=20 - do klama le zarci, because=20 - brode carries the x2 sumti of=20 - mi klama le zarci along with it. It also potent= ially carries the x1 sumti as well, but the explicit x1 sumti=20 - do overrides the=20 - mi of the antecedent bridi. Similarly, any tense or neg= ation that is present in the antecedent is also carried, and can be overrid= den by explicit tense or negation cmavo on the pro-bridi. These rules hold = for all pro-bridi that have antecedents. - =20 - broda-series pro-= bridiwith no assignment broda-series pro-bridiuse as abstract pattern broda-series pro-bridiu= se as sample gismu Another use of=20 - broda and its relatives, without assignment, is as=20 - sample gismu: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e5d7"/> - - - broda ke brode brodi - a thing-1 type of (thing-2 type-of thing-3) - - - represents an abstract pattern, a certain kind of tanru. (Histor= ically, this use was the original one.) - lerfu as pro-sumt= iimplicit assignment of antecedent ko'a-series pro-sumticontrasted with lerfu as pro-sumti in explicit assignmen= t of lerfu as pro-sumticontrasted with ko'a-series in expl= icit assignment of pro-sumtilerfu as lerfuas assignable pro-sumti As is explained in=20 - , the words for Lojban lett= ers, belonging to selma'o BY and certain related selma'o, are also usable a= s assignable pro-sumti. The main difference between letter pro-sumti and ko= 'a-series pro-sumti is that, in the absence of an explicit assignment, lett= ers are taken to refer to the most recent name or description sumti beginni= ng with the same letter: - =20 - =20 - =20 - =20 - =20 - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e5d8"/> - - - mi viska le gerku .i gy. cusku zo arf. - I see the dog. D expresses the-word=20 - Arf!. - - - goiuse in assigning lerfu as pro-sumti lerfu as pro-sumtiexplicit assignment of antecedent The Lojban wor= d=20 - gerku begins with=20 - g, so the antecedent of=20 - gy., the cmavo for the letter=20 - g, must be=20 - le gerku. In the English translation, we use th= e same principle to refer to the dog as=20 - D. Of course, in case of ambiguity,=20 - goi can be used to make an explicit assignment. - namesassigning with goi goiuse in assigning name Furthermore,=20 - goi can even be used to assign a name: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e5d9"/> - - - le ninmu goi la sam. cu klama le zarci - The woman also-known-as Sam goes to-the store. - The woman, whom I'll call Sam, goes to the store. - - - This usage does not imply that the woman's name is Sam, or even = that the speaker usually calls the woman=20 - Sam.=20 - Sam is simply a name chosen, as if at random, for use i= n the current context only. -

- Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-s= eries - The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - - ri - KOhA - ri-series - (repeats last sumti) - - - ra - KOhA - ri-series - (repeats previous sumti) - - - ru - KOhA - ri-series - (repeats long-ago sumti) - - - - go'i - GOhA - go'i-series - (repeats last bridi) - - - go'a - GOhA - go'i-series - (repeats previous bridi) - - - - go'u - GOhA - go'i-series - (repeats long-ago bridi) - - - - go'e - GOhA - go'i-series - (repeats last-but-one bridi) - - - - go'o - GOhA - go'i-series - (repeats future bridi) - - - - nei - GOhA - go'i-series - (repeats current bridi) - - - - no'a - GOhA - go'i-series - (repeats outer bridi) - - - - - ra'o - RAhO - pro-cmavo update - - - The term=20 - anaphora literally means=20 - =20 - repetition, but is used in linguistics to refer to pron= ouns whose significance is the repetition of earlier words, namely their an= tecedents. Lojban provides three pro-sumti anaphora,=20 - =20 - ri,=20 - ra, and=20 - ru; and three corresponding pro-bridi anaphora,=20 - =20 - go'i,=20 - go'a, and=20 - =20 - go'u. These cmavo reveal the same vowel pattern as the = ti-series, but the=20 - =20 - distances referred to are not physical distances, but d= istances from the anaphoric cmavo to its antecedent. - The cmavo=20 - ri is the simplest of these; it has the same referent a= s the last complete sumti appearing before the=20 - ri: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d1"/> - - - la .alis. sipna le ri kumfa - Alice sleeps-in the of-[repeat last sumti] room. - Alice sleeps in her room. - - - The=20 - ri in=20 - is equivalent to repeating = the last sumti, which is=20 - la .alis., so=20 - is equivalent to: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d2"/> - - - la .alis. sipna le la .alis. kumfa - Alice sleeps-in the of-Alice room. - Alice sleeps in Alice's room. - - - Note that=20 - ri does not repeat=20 - le ri kumfa, because that sumti is not yet comp= lete when=20 - ri appears. This prevents=20 - ri from getting entangled in paradoxes of self-referenc= e. (There are plenty of other ways to do that!) Note also that sumti within= other sumti, as in quotations, abstractions, and the like, are counted in = the order of their beginnings; thus a lower level sumti like=20 - la alis. in=20 - is considered to be more re= cent than a higher level sumti that contains it. - Certain sumti are ignored by=20 - ri; specifically, most of the other cmavo of KOhA, and = the almost-grammatically-equivalent lerfu words of selma'o BY. It is simple= r just to repeat these directly: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d3"/> - - - mi prami mi - I love me. - I love myself. - - - However, the cmavo of the ti-series can be picked up by=20 - ri, because you might have changed what you are pointin= g at, so repeating=20 - ti may not be effective. Likewise,=20 - ri itself (or rather its antecedent) can be repeated by= a later=20 - ri; in fact, a string of=20 - ri cmavo with no other intervening sumti always all rep= eat the same sumti: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d4"/> - - - la djan. viska le tricu .i ri se jadni le ri jimca - John sees the tree. [repeat last] is-adorned-by the of-[rep= eat last] branch. - John sees the tree. It is adorned by its branches. - - - Here the second=20 - ri has as antecedent the first=20 - ri, which has as antecedent=20 - le tricu. All three refer to the same thing: a = tree. - To refer to the next-to-last sumti, the third-from-last sumti, a= nd so on,=20 - ri may be subscripted (subscripts are explained in=20 - ): - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d5"/> - - - lo smuci .i lo forca .i la rik. pilno rixire .i la .alis. pil= no riximu - A spoon. A fork. Rick uses [repeat next-to-last]. Alice use= s [repeat fifth-from-last]. - - - Here=20 - rixire, or=20 - ri-sub-2, skips=20 - la rik. to reach=20 - lo forca. In the same way,=20 - riximu, or=20 - ri-sub-5, skips=20 - la .alis.,=20 - rixire,=20 - la rik., and=20 - lo forca to reach=20 - lo smuci. As can clearly be seen, this procedur= e is barely practicable in writing, and would break down totally in speech.= - Therefore, the vaguer=20 - ra and=20 - ru are also provided. The cmavo=20 - ra repeats a recently used sumti, and=20 - ru one that was further back in the speech or text. The= use of=20 - ra and=20 - ru forces the listener to guess at the referent, but ma= kes life easier for the speaker. Can=20 - ra refer to the last sumti, like=20 - ri? The answer is no if=20 - ri has also been used. If=20 - ri has not been used, then=20 - ra might be the last sumti. Likewise, if=20 - ra has been used, then any use of=20 - ru would repeat a sumti earlier than the one=20 - ra is repeating. A more reasonable version of Example <= xref linkend=3D"example-random-id-Lc2y"/>, but one that depends more on con= text, is: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d6"/> - - - lo smuci .i lo forca .i la rik. pilno ra .i la .alis. pilno r= u - A spoon. A fork. Rick uses [some previous thing]. Alice use= s [some more remote thing]. - - - In=20 - , the use of=20 - ra tells us that something other than=20 - la rik. is the antecedent;=20 - lo forca is the nearest sumti, so it is probabl= y the antecedent. Similarly, the antecedent of=20 - ru must be something even further back in the utterance= than=20 - lo forca, and=20 - lo smuci is the obvious candidate. - The meaning of=20 - ri must be determined every time it is used. Since=20 - ra and=20 - ru are more vaguely defined, they may well retain the s= ame meaning for a while, but the listener cannot count on this behavior. To= make a permanent reference to something repeated by=20 - ri,=20 - ra, or=20 - ru, use=20 - goi and a ko'a-series cmavo: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d7"/> - - - la .alis. klama le zarci .i ri goi ko'a blanu - Alice goes-to the store. It-last-mentioned also-known-as it= -1 is-blue. - - - allows the store to be referred to henceforth as=20 - ko'a without ambiguity.=20 - is equivalent to=20 - and eliminates any possibil= ity of=20 - ko'a being interpreted by the listener as referring to = Alice. - answers= go'i for yes/no questions questionsanswering wi= th go'i go'ias affirmative answer to yes/no question go'i-seri= es pro-bridieffect of sumti of referent bridi on go'i-seri= es pro-bridias main-bridi anaphora only go'i-series pro-br= idieffect of sub-clauses on <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">go'i-series pro-bridireferent of go'i-series pro-bridicompared with= ri-series pro-sumti in rules of reference go'i-series pro-bridi ri-series pro-sumti<= /primary> anapho= rapro-bridi go'i-series as anaphorapr= o-sumti ri-series as pronounsas anaphora anaphoradefinition The cmavo=20 - go'i,=20 - go'a, and=20 - =20 - go'u follow exactly the same rules as=20 - =20 - ri,=20 - ra, and=20 - ru, except that they are pro-bridi, and therefore repea= t bridi, not sumti – specifically, main sentence bridi. Any bridi tha= t are embedded within other bridi, such as relative clauses or abstractions= , are not counted. Like the cmavo of the broda-series, the cmavo of the go'= i-series copy all sumti with them. This makes=20 - go'i by itself convenient for answering a question affi= rmatively, or for repeating the last bridi, possibly with new sumti: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d8"/> - - - xu zo djan. cmene do .i go'i - [True-false?] The-word=20 - John is-the-name of you? [repeat last bridi]. - Is John your name? Yes. - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d9"/> - - - mi klama le zarci .i do go'i - I go-to the store. You [repeat last bridi]. - I go to the store. You, too. - - - cei= go'i-series pro= -bridiassigning for permanent reference Note that=20 - means the same as=20 - , but without the bother of = assigning an actual broda-series word to the first bridi. For long-term ref= erence, use=20 - go'i cei broda or the like, analogously to=20 - =20 - ri goi ko'a in=20 - . - The remaining four cmavo of the go'i-series are provided for co= nvenience or for achieving special effects. The cmavo=20 - go'e means the same as=20 - =20 - go'ixire: it repeats the last bridi but one. Th= is is useful in conversation: - =20 - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d10"/> - - - A: mi ba klama le zarci B: mi nelci le si'o mi go'i A: do go'= e - =20 - A: I [future] go-to the store. B: I like the concept-of I [= repeat last bridi]. A: You [repeat last bridi but one]. - A: I am going to the store. B: I like the idea of my goin= g. A: You'll go, too. - - - Here B's sentence repeats A's within an abstraction (explained i= n ):=20 - le si'o mi go'i means=20 - le si'o mi klama le zarci. Why must B use the w= ord=20 - mi explicitly to replace the x1 of=20 - mi klama le zarci, even though it looks like=20 - mi is replacing=20 - mi? Because B's=20 - mi refers to B, whereas A's=20 - mi refers to A. If B said: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d11"/> - - - mi nelci le si'o go'i - - - that would mean: -

- I like the idea of your going to the store. -

- The repetition signalled by=20 - go'i is not literally of words, but of concepts. Finall= y, A repeats her own sentence, but with the x1 changed to=20 - do, meaning B. Note that in=20 - , the tense=20 - ba (future time) is carried along by both=20 - go'i and=20 - go'e. - =20 - Descriptions based on go'i-series cmavo can be very useful for r= epeating specific sumti of previous bridi: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d12"/> - - - le xekri mlatu cu klama le zarci .i le go'i cu cadzu le bisli= - The black cat goes-to the store. That-described-as-the-x1-p= lace-of [repeat last bridi] walks-on the ice. - The black cat goes to the store. It walks on the ice. - =20 - - - Here the=20 - go'i repeats=20 - le xekri mlatu cu klama le zarci, and since=20 - le makes the x1 place into a description, and the x1 pl= ace of this bridi is=20 - le xekri mlatu,=20 - le go'i means=20 - le xekri mlatu. - The cmavo=20 - go'o,=20 - =20 - nei, and=20 - =20 - no'a have been little used so far. They repeat respecti= vely some future bridi, the current bridi, and the bridi that encloses the = current bridi (=20 - =20 - no'a, unlike the other members of the go'i- series, can= repeat non-sentence bridi). Here are a few examples: - =20 - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d13"/> - - - mi nupre le nu mi go'o .i ba dunda le djini le bersa .i ba du= nda le zdani le tixnu - I promise the event-of I [repeat future bridi] [Future] giv= e the money to-the son [Future] give the house to-the daughter - I promise to do the following: Give the money to my son. = Give the house to my daughter. - - - (Note: The Lojban does not contain an equivalent of the=20 - my in the colloquial English; it leaves the fact that i= t is the speaker's son and daughter that are referred to implicit. To make = the fact explicit, use=20 - le bersa/tixnu be mi.) - For good examples of=20 - nei and=20 - =20 - no'a, we need nested bridi contexts: - =20 - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d14"/> - - - mi se pluka le nu do pensi le nu nei kei pu le nu do zukte - =20 - I am-pleased-by the event-of (you think-about (the event-of= [main bridi]) before the-event of (your acting). - I am pleased that you thought about whether I would be pl= eased (about ...) before you acted. - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d15"/> - - - mi ba klama ca le nu do no'a - =20 - I [future] go [present] the event-of you [repeats outer bri= di] - I will go when you do. - - - go'i ra'ocontrasted with go'i Finally,=20 - ra'o is a cmavo that can be appended to any go'i-series= cmavo, or indeed any cmavo of selma'o GOhA, to signal that pro-sumti or pr= o-bridi cmavo in the antecedent are to be repeated literally and reinterpre= ted in their new context. Normally, any pro-sumti used within the anteceden= t of the pro-bridi keep their meanings intact. In the presence of=20 - ra'o, however, their meanings must be reinterpreted wit= h reference to the new environment. If someone says to you: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d16"/> - - - mi ba lumci lemi karce - I will wash my car. - - - you might reply either: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d17"/> - - - mi go'i - I will wash your car. - - - or: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d18"/> - - - mi go'i ra'o - =20 - I will wash my car. - - - The=20 - ra'o forces the second=20 - mi from the original bridi to mean the new speaker rath= er than the former speaker. This means that=20 - go'e ra'o would be an acceptable alternative to= =20 - =20 - do go'e in B's statement in=20 - =20 - . - go'i-series pro-b= ridiin quotations ri-series pro-sumti= in quotations The anaphoric pro-sumti of this secti= on can be used in quotations, but never refer to any of the supporting text= outside the quotation, since speakers presumably do not know that they may= be quoted by someone else. - =20 - go'i-series pro-b= ridiin quotation series ri-series pro-sumtiin quotation series However, a=20 - ri-series or=20 - go'a-series reference within a quotation can re= fer to something mentioned in an earlier quotation if the two quotations ar= e closely related in time and context. This allows a quotation to be broken= up by narrative material without interfering with the pro-sumti within it.= Here's an example: - =20 - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e6d19"/> - - - la djan. cusku lu mi klama le zarci li'u .i la .alis. cusku l= u mi go'i li'u - John says [quote] I go-to the store [unquote]. Alice says [= quote] I [repeat] [unquote]. - John says, I am going to the store. Alice = says, Me too. - - - go'i-series pro-b= ridiin narrative about quotation ri-series pro-sumtiin narrative about quotation Of cour= se, there is no problem with narrative material referring to something with= in a quotation: people who quote, unlike people who are quoted, are aware o= f what they are doing. -

- Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'= e-series - =20 - =20 - The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - - zo'e - KOhA - zo'e-series - the obvious value - - - - zu'i - KOhA - zo'e-series - the typical value - - - - - - zi'o - KOhA - zo'e-series - the nonexistent value - - - - - co'e - GOhA - co'e-series - has the obvious relationship - - - - typical valuecontrasted with elliptical value for sumti elliptical valuecontrasted with typical value for sumti elliptical sumti zo'eas place-holder for sumti elliptical pro-bridi indefinite pro-bridi pro-sumt= iunspecified elliptical pro-sumti = indefinite pro-sumti co'e-series pr= o-bridi zo'e-series pro-sumti The cmavo of the zo'e-series = represent indefinite, unspecified sumti. The cmavo=20 - =20 - =20 - zo'e represents an elliptical value for this sumti plac= e; it is the optional spoken place holder when a sumti is skipped without b= eing specified. Note that the elliptical value is not always the typical va= lue. The properties of ellipsis lead to an elliptical sumti being defined a= s=20 - =20 - =20 - =20 - =20 - =20 - whatever I want it to mean but haven't bothered to figure out, = or figure out how to express. - typical sumti pro-sumti= typical The cmavo=20 - zu'i, on the other hand, represents the typical value f= or this place of this bridi: - =20 - =20 - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e7d1"/> - - - mi klama le bartu be le zdani le nenri be le zdani zu'i zu'i<= /jbo> - I go to-the outside of the house from-the inside of the hou= se [by-typical-route] [by-typical-means] - - - In=20 - , the first=20 - zu'i probably means something like=20 - =20 - by the door, and the second=20 - zu'i probably means something like=20 - =20 - on foot, those being the typical route and means for le= aving a house. On the other hand, if you are at the top of a high rise duri= ng a fire, neither=20 - zu'i is appropriate. It's also common to use=20 - =20 - zu'i in=20 - =20 - by standard places. - irrelevantspecifying of sumti place sumtiirrelevant to= relationship zi'o Finally, the cmavo=20 - zi'o represents a value which does not even exist. When= a bridi fills one of its places with=20 - zi'o, what is really meant is that the selbri has a pla= ce which is irrelevant to the true relationship the speaker wishes to expre= ss. For example, the place structure of=20 - =20 - zbasu is: - actor x1 makes x2 from materials x3 - =20 - -living thingsexa= mple - - Consider the sentence -

- Living things are made from cells. -

- This cannot be correctly expressed as: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e7d2"/> - - - loi jmive cu se zbasu [zo'e] fi loi selci - The-mass-of living-things is-made [by-something] from the-m= ass-of cells - - - because the=20 - zo'e, expressed or understood, in=20 - indicates that there is sti= ll a=20 - maker in this relationship. We do not generally suppose= , however, that someone=20 - makes living things from cells. The best answer is prob= ably to find a different selbri, one which does not imply a=20 - =20 - maker: however, an alternative strategy is to use=20 - zi'o to eliminate the maker place: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e7d3"/> - - - loi jmive cu se zbasu zi'o loi selci - The-mass-of living-things is-made [without-maker] from the-= mass-of cells. - - - zi'oas creating new selbri Note: The use of=20 - zi'o to block up, as it were, one place of a selbri act= ually creates a new selbri with a different place structure. Consider the f= ollowing examples: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e7d4"/> - - - mi zbasu le dinju loi mudri - I make the building from-some-of-the-mass-of wood. - I make the building out of wood. - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e7d5"/> - - - zi'o zbasu le dinju loi mudri - [without-maker] makes the building from-some-of-the-mass-of= wood. - The building is made out of wood. - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e7d6"/> - - - mi zbasu zi'o loi mudri - I make [without-thing-made] from-some-of-the-mass-of wood.<= /gloss> - I build using wood. - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e7d7"/> - - - mi zbasu le dinju zi'o - I make the building [without-material]. - I make the building. - - - If=20 - is true, then=20 - through=20 - must be true also. However,= =20 - does not correspond to any = sentence with three regular (non-=20 - zi'o) sumti. - co'eas selbri place-holder selbriomitting with co'e The pro-bridi=20 - co'e (which by itself constitutes the co'e-series of se= lma'o GOhA) represents the elliptical selbri. Lojban grammar does not allow= the speaker to merely omit a selbri from a bridi, although any or all sumt= i may be freely omitted. Being vague about a relationship requires the use = of=20 - =20 - co'e as a selbri place-holder: - =20 - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e7d8"/> - - - mi troci le nu mi co'e le vorme - =20 - I try the event-of my [doing-the-obvious-action] to-the doo= r. - I try the door. - =20 - - - The English version means, and the Lojban version probably means= , that I try to open the door, but the relationship of opening is not actua= lly specified; the Lojbanic listener must guess it from context. Lojban, un= like English, makes it clear that there is an implicit action that is not b= eing expressed. - co'erationale for word form The form of=20 - co'e was chosen to resemble=20 - =20 - zo'e; the cmavo=20 - do'e of selma'o BAI (see=20 - =20 - ) also belongs to the same group of cma= vo. - zo'e-seriescompared with do'i as indefinite pro-sumti do'icompared with zo'e-series as indefinite pro-sumti Note that=20 - do'i, of the di'u-series, is also a kind of indefinite = pro-sumti: it is indefinite in referent, but is restricted to referring onl= y to an utterance. - =20 -

- Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series - =20 - =20 - The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - - vo'a - KOhA - vo'a-series - x1 of this bridi - - - vo'e - KOhA - vo'a-series - x2 of this bridi - - - vo'i - KOhA - vo'a-series - x3 of this bridi - - - vo'o - KOhA - vo'a-series - x4 of this bridi - - - vo'u - KOhA - vo'a-series - x5 of this bridi - - - - soi - SOI - - reciprocity - - - - - - se'u - SEhU - - soi terminator - - - reciprocal pro-su= mti re= flexive pro-sumti pro-sumtireferring to place of same bridi = with vo'a-series pro-sumtivo'a-series anaphorapro-sumti vo'a-series as The cmavo of the vo'a= -series are pro-sumti anaphora, like those of the ri-series, but have a spe= cific function. These cmavo refer to the other places of the same bridi; th= e five of them represent up to five places. The same vo'a-series cmavo mean= different things in different bridi. Some examples: - =20 - - - =20 - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>wash self</primary><secondary>example= </secondary></indexterm> - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e8d1"/> - - - mi lumci vo'a - I wash myself - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e8d2"/> - - - mi klama le zarci vo'e - I go to the store from itself [by some route unspecified]= . - - - pro-sumtireferring to place of different bridi with go'i-series To refer to places of neighboring bridi, constructions lik= e=20 - le se go'i ku do the job: this refers to the 2n= d place of the previous main bridi, as explained in=20 - . - vice versaEnglishexpressing with vo'a-series pro-= sumti and soi = vo'a-series pro-sumtiuse in expressing recipr= ocity with soi soiuse in expressing reciprocity with vo'a-= series pro-sumti reciprocityexpressing with vo'a-series pr= o-sumti and soi The cmavo of the vo'a-series are al= so used with=20 - soi (of selma'o SOI) to precisely express reciprocity, = which in English is imprecisely expressed with a discursive phrase like=20 - =20 - =20 - vice versa: - - - =20 - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>vice versa</primary><secondary>exampl= e</secondary></indexterm> - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e8d3"/> - - - mi prami do soi vo'a vo'e - I love you [reciprocity] [x1 of this bridi] [x2 of this bri= di]. - =20 - =20 - I love you and vice versa (swapping=20 - I and=20 - you). - - - soi with one follo= wing sumticonvention The signi= ficance of=20 - soi vo'a vo'e is that the bridi is still true e= ven if the x1 (specified by=20 - vo'a) and the x2 (specified by=20 - vo'e) places are interchanged. If only a single sumti f= ollows=20 - soi, then the sumti immediately preceding=20 - soi is understood to be one of those involved: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e8d4"/> -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>vice versa</primary><secondary>exampl= e</secondary></indexterm> - - - mi prami do soi vo'a - I love you [reciprocity] [x1 of this bridi]. = =20 - - - again involves the x1 and x2 places. - soiuse in expressing reciprocity reciprocityexpressing= with soi Of course, other places can be involved, = and other sumti may be used in place of vo'a-series cmavo, provided those o= ther sumti can be reasonably understood as referring to the same things men= tioned in the bridi proper. Here are several examples that mean the same th= ing: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e8d5"/> -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>vice versa</primary><secondary>exampl= e</secondary></indexterm> - - - - mi bajykla ti ta soi vo'e - mi bajykla ti ta soi vo'e vo'i - soi vo'e vo'i mi bajykla ti ta - I runningly-go to this from that and vice versa (to that fr= om this). - - - se'uelidability considerations se'uas elidable termina= tor for soi The elidable terminator for=20 - soi is=20 - se'u (selma'o SEhU), which is normally needed only if t= here is just one sumti after the=20 - soi, and the=20 - soi construction is not at the end of the bridi. Constr= uctions using=20 - soi are free modifiers, and as such can go almost anywh= ere. Here is an example where=20 - =20 - se'u is required: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e8d6"/> -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>vice versa</primary><secondary>exampl= e</secondary></indexterm> - - - mi bajykla ti soi vo'i se'u ta - I runningly-go to-this [reciprocity] [x3 of this bridi] fro= m-that - I run to this from that and vice versa. - - -

- sumti and bridi questions:=20 - =20 - <valsi>ma</valsi> and=20 - <valsi>mo</valsi> - The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - - ma - KOhA - sumti question - - - mo - GOhA - bridi question - - - questionssumti maas sumti question Lojban questions are more fully explained in=20 - , but=20 - ma and=20 - mo are listed in this chapter for completeness. The cma= vo=20 - ma asks for a sumti to make the bridi true: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e9d1"/> - - - do klama ma - You go to-what-destination? - Where are you going? - - - go'icompared with mo in overriding of arguments= mocomp= ared with go'i in overriding of arguments questionsselbri<= /secondary> moas selbri question The cmavo=20 - mo, on the other hand, asks for a selbri which makes th= e question bridi true. If the answer is a full bridi, then the arguments of= the answer override the arguments in the question, in the same manner as t= he go'i-series cmavo. A simple example is: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e9d2"/> - - - do mo - What predicate is true as applied to you? - How are you? - What are you doing? - What are you? - - - - is a truly pregnant questio= n that will have several meanings depending on context. - (One thing it probably does not mean is=20 - Who are you? in the sense=20 - What is your name/identity?, which is better expressed = by: - - - =20 - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>what is your name</primary><secondary= >example</secondary></indexterm> - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e9d3"/> - - - ma cmene do - What sumti is-the-name-of you? - What is your name? - - - or even - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e9d4"/> - - - doi ma - O [what sumti?] - - - which uses the vocative=20 - doi to address someone, and simultaneously asks who the= someone is.) - =20 - A further example of=20 - mo: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e9d5"/> - - - lo mo prenu cu darxi do .i barda - A [what selbri?] type-of person hit you? (Observative:) A b= ig thing. - Which person hit you? The big one. - - - multiple moas multiple questions multiple maas multipl= e questions <= primary>multiple questions in one bridiexpressing When=20 - ma or=20 - mo is repeated, multiple questions are being asked simu= ltaneously: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e9d6"/> - - - ma djuno ma - [What sumti] knows [what sumti]? - Who knows what? - - -

- Relativized pro-sumti:=20 - <valsi>ke'a</valsi> - The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - - ke'a - KOhA - relativized sumti - =20 - - - relative clauses<= /primary>use of ke'a for referral to relativized sumti in ke'afor relativized sumti in relative clauses pro-sumtifor relativized sumti in relative clauses T= his pro-sumti is used in relative clauses (explained in=20 - ) to indicate how the sumt= i being relativized fits within the clause. For example: - - - =20 - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>cat of plastic</primary><secondary>ex= ample</secondary></indexterm> - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e10d1"/> - - - mi catlu lo mlatu poi [zo'e] zbasu ke'a lei slasi - I see a cat such-that something-unspecified makes the-thing= -being-relativized [the cat] from-some-mass-of plastic. - I see a cat made of plastic. - - - ke'aambiguity when omitted If=20 - ke'a were omitted from=20 - , it might be confused with:= - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e10d2"/> - - - mi catlu lo mlatu poi [ke'a] zbasu lei slasi - I see a cat such-that the-thing-being-relativized [the cat]= makes a-mass-of plastic - I see a cat that makes plastic. - - - ricontrasted with ke'a in relative clauses ke'acontras= ted with ri in relative clauses The anaphora cmavo= =20 - =20 - ri cannot be used in place of=20 - ke'a in=20 - and=20 - , because the relativized su= mti is not yet complete when the=20 - =20 - ke'a appears. - subscriptson ke'a for nested relative clauses = ke'asubs= cripting for nested relative clauses ke'aand abstract desc= riptions Note that=20 - ke'a is used only with relative clauses, and not with o= ther embedded bridi such as abstract descriptions. In the case of relative = clauses within relative clauses,=20 - ke'a may be subscripted to make the difference clear (s= ee=20 - ). -

- Abstraction focus pro-sumti:=20 - <valsi>ce'u</valsi> - The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - - ce'u - KOhA - abstraction focus - - - The cmavo=20 - ce'u is used within abstraction bridi, particularly pro= perty abstractions introduced by the cmavo=20 - =20 - ka. Abstractions, including the uses of=20 - ce'u, are discussed in full in=20 - . - ce'uuse in specifying sumti place of property in abstraction property abstr= actionspecifying sumti place of property with ce'u In brief: Every property abstraction specifies a prope= rty of one of the sumti in it; that sumti place is filled by using=20 - =20 - =20 - ce'u. This convention enables us to distinguish clearly= between: - - - =20 - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>happiness</primary><secondary>example= </secondary></indexterm> - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e11d1"/> - - - le ka ce'u gleki - the property-of (X being-happy) - the property of being happy - happiness - =20 - - - and - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e11d2"/> - - - le ka gleki ce'u - the property-of (being-happy about-X) - the property of being that which someone is happy about - - -

- Bound variable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the da-series and the b= u'a-series - The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - - da - KOhA - da-series - something-1 - - - de - KOhA - da-series - something-2 - - - di - KOhA - da-series - something-3 - - - - bu'a - GOhA - bu'a-series - some-predicate-1 - - - bu'e - GOhA - bu'a-series - some-predicate-2 - - - - bu'i - GOhA - bu'a-series - some-predicate-3 - - - - bu'a-series pro-s= umtifor bound variables da-series pro-sumtifor bound variables Bound variables belong to= the predicate-logic part of Lojban, and are listed here for completeness o= nly. Their semantics is explained in=20 - . It is worth mentioning that t= he Lojban translation of=20 - is: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e12d1"/> - - - la djan. cu lafti da poi grana ku'o gi'e desygau da - John raised something-1 which is-a-stick and shake-did some= thing-1. - John picked up a stick and shook it. - - -

- Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling - The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - - da'o - =20 - DAhO - cancel all pro-sumti/pro-bridi - - - pro-bridi assignm= entstability of pro-sumti assignments= tability of How long does a pro-sumti or pro-bridi = remain stable? In other words, once we know the referent of a pro-sumti or = pro-bridi, how long can we be sure that future uses of the same cmavo have = the same referent? The answer to this question depends on which series the = cmavo belongs to. - bound variable pr= o-sumtistability of assignable pro-sumtiexplicit cancellation of by rebinding assignable pro-sumtistability of personal pro-sumtistability of= personal pro-su= mtiimplicit cancellation of by change of speaker/liste= ner Personal pro-sumti are stable until there is a = change of speaker or listener, possibly signaled by a vocative. Assignable = pro-sumti and pro-bridi last indefinitely or until rebound with=20 - goi or=20 - cei. Bound variable pro-sumti and pro-bridi also genera= lly last until re-bound; details are available in=20 - =20 - . - anaphoric pro-bri= distability of anaphoric pro-sumtista= bility of ke'astability of reflexive pro-sumtistability of utterance pro-sumtistability of Utterance pro-sumti are stable only within the utterance in= which they appear; similarly, reflexive pro-sumti are stable only within t= he bridi in which they appear; and=20 - =20 - ke'a is stable only within its relative clause. Anaphor= ic pro-sumti and pro-bridi are stable only within narrow limits depending o= n the rules for the particular cmavo. - indefinite pro-br= idistability of indefinite pro-sumtis= tability of <= primary>demonstrative pro-sumtistability of Demonstrative pro-sumti, indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi, = and sumti and bridi questions potentially change referents every time they = are used. - =20 - =20 - da'osyntax of da'ofor cancellation of pro-sumti/pro-br= idi assignment cancellation of pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignmentwith da'o = pro-bridi assignmentexplicit cancellation of = with da'o pro-sumti assignmentexplicit cancellation of wit= h da'o However, there are ways to cancel all pro-su= mti and pro-bridi, so that none of them have known referents. (Some, such a= s=20 - mi, will acquire the same referent as soon as they are = used again after the cancellation.) The simplest way to cancel everything i= s with the cmavo=20 - da'o of selma'o DAhO, which is used solely for this pur= pose; it may appear anywhere, and has no effect on the grammar of texts con= taining it. One use of=20 - =20 - da'o is when entering a conversation, to indicate that = one's pro-sumti assignments have nothing to do with any assignments already= made by other participants in the conversation. - =20 - pro-bridi assignm= entno'i effect on pro-sumti assignmentno'i effect on no'ieffect on pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignme= nts = ni'oeffect on pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignments In addition, the cmavo=20 - ni'o and=20 - no'i of selma'o NIhO, which are used primarily to indic= ate shifts in topic, may also have the effect of canceling pro-sumti and pr= o-bridi assignments, or of reinstating ones formerly in effect. More explan= ations of NIhO can be found in=20 - . -

- The identity predicate: du - =20 - The following cmavo is discussed in this section: - - - du - GOhA - identity - - - identity predicat= e The cmavo=20 - du has the place structure: - x1 is identical with x2, x3, ... - durationale for selection of selma'o for and ap= pears in selma'o GOhA for reasons of convenience: it is not a pro-bridi.=20 - du serves as mathematical=20 - =3D, and outside mathematical contexts is used for defi= ning or identifying. Mathematical examples may be found in=20 - . - mintucontrasted with du ducontrasted with mintu The main difference between - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e14d1"/> - - - ko'a du le nanmu - It-1 is-identical-to the man - - - and - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e14d2"/> - - - ko'a mintu le nanmu - =20 - It-1 is-the-same-as the man - - - dumeaning of is this defining nature.=20 - presumes that the speaker i= s responding to a request for information about what=20 - ko'a refers to, or that the speaker in some way feels t= he need to define=20 - ko'a for later reference. A bridi with=20 - du is an identity sentence, somewhat metalinguistically= saying that all attached sumti are representations for the same referent. = There may be any number of sumti associated with=20 - du, and all are said to be identical. - - , however, predicates; it = is used to make a claim about the identity of=20 - ko'a, which presumably has been defined previously. - dunlicontrasted with du ducontrasted with dunli duderivation of Note:=20 - du historically is derived from=20 - dunli, but=20 - =20 - dunli has a third place which=20 - =20 - du lacks: the standard of equality. -

- lujvo based on pro-sumti - pro-sumtirafsi for rafsibased on pro-sumti= There exist rafsi allocated to a few cmavo of selma'o KOhA, bu= t they are rarely used. (See=20 - for a complete list.) The obv= ious way to use them is as internal sumti, filling in an appropriate place = of the gismu or lujvo to which they are attached; as such, they usually sta= nd as the first rafsi in their lujvo. - =20 - -you-talkexample<= /secondary> - - pro-sumti rafsi<= secondary>effect of on place structure of lujvo lujvopro-s= umti rafsi effect on place structure of Thus=20 - donta'a, meaning=20 - you-talk, would be interpreted as=20 - tavla be do, and would have the place structure= - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e15d1"/> - - t1 talks to you about subject t3 in language t4= - - since t2 (the addressee) is already known to = be=20 - do. - =20 - -you-cmavoexample= - - On the other hand, the lujvo=20 - donma'o, literally=20 - you-cmavo, which means=20 - =20 - a second person personal pronoun, would be interpreted = as=20 - cmavo be zo do, and have the place structure: - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e15d2"/> - - c1 is a second person pronoun in language c4 - - - since both the c2 place (the grammatical clas= s) and the c3 place (the meaning) are obvious from the c= ontext=20 - do. - pro-sumti rafsianticipated use of for abbreviating inconvenient forms An anticipated use of rafsi for cmavo in the=20 - =20 - fo'a series is to express lujvo which can't be expresse= d in a convenient rafsi form, because they are too long to express, or are = formally inconvenient (fu'ivla, cmene, and so forth.) An example would be:<= /para> - =20 - =20 - =20 - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c7e15d3"/> - - - fo'a goi le kulnrsu,omi .i lo fo'arselsanga - x6 stands for Finnish-culture. An x6-song. - - - =20 - =20 -beverageexample<= /secondary> - - zi'o rafsieffect of on place structure of lujvo lujvozi'o rafsi= effect on place structure of Finally, lujvo involv= ing=20 - zi'o are also possible, and are fully discussed in=20 - . In brief, the convention is to use = the rafsi for - zi'o as a prefix immediately followed by the rafsi for = the number of the place to be deleted. Thus, if we consider a beverage (som= ething drunk without considering who, if anyone, drinks it) as a=20 - - - se pinxe be zi'o, the lujvo corresponding to th= is is=20 - zilrelselpinxe (deleting the second place of=20 - se pinxe). Deleting the x1 place in this fashio= n would move all remaining places up by one. This would mean that=20 - zilpavypinxe has the same place structure as=20 - zilrelselpinxe, and=20 - lo zilpavypinxe, like=20 - lo zilrelselpinxe, refers to a beverage, and no= t to a non-existent drinker. - - pro-bridi rafsias producing context-dependent meanings The pro-bridi=20 - co'e,=20 - - du, and=20 - bu'a also have rafsi, which can be used just as if they= were gismu. The resulting lujvo have (except for=20 - du-based lujvo) highly context-dependent meanin= gs. -

- KOhA cmavo by series - mi-series - - - mi - I (rafsi: mib) - - - do - you (rafsi: don and doi= ) - - - mi'o - you and I - - - mi'a - I and others, we but not you - - - ma'a - you and I and others - - - do'o - you and others - - - ko - you-imperative - - - - ti-series - - - ti - this here; something nearby (rafsi: tif) - - - ta - that there; something distant (rafsi: taz) - - - tu - that yonder; something far distant (rafsi: tuf= ) - - - - di'u-series - - - di'u - the previous utterance - - - de'u - an earlier utterance - - - da'u - a much earlier utterance - - - di'e - the next utterance - - - de'e - a later utterance - - - da'e - a much later utterance - - - dei - this very utterance - - - do'i - some utterance - - - - ko'a-series - - - ko'a - it-1; 1st assignable pro-sumti - - - ko'e - it-2; 2nd assignable pro-sumti - - - ko'i - it-3; 3rd assignable pro-sumti - - - ko'o - it-4; 4th assignable pro-sumti - - - ko'u - it-5; 5th assignable pro-sumti - - - fo'a - it-6; 6th assignable pro-sumti (rafsi: fo'a) - - - fo'e - it-7; 7th assignable pro-sumti (rafsi: fo'e) - - - fo'i - it-8; 8th assignable pro-sumti (rafsi: fo'i) - - - fo'o - it-9; 9th assignable pro-sumti - - - fo'u - it-10; 10th assignable pro-sumti - - - - ri-series - - - ri - (repeats the last sumti) - - - ra - (repeats a previous sumti) - - - ru - (repeats a long-ago sumti) - - - - zo'e-series - - - - zo'e - the obvious value - - - zu'i - the typical value - - - zi'o - the nonexistent value (rafsi: zil) - - - - vo'a-series - - - vo'a - x1 of this bridi - - - vo'e - x2 of this bridi - - - vo'i - x3 of this bridi - - - vo'o - x4 of this bridi - - - vo'u - x5 of this bridi - - - - da-series - - - da - something-1 (rafsi: dav/dza) - - - de - something-2 - - - di - something-3 - - - - others: - - - ke'a - relativized sumti - - - ma - sumti question - - - ce'u - abstraction focus - - -

- GOhA and other pro-bridi by series - - broda-series (not GOhA): - - - broda - is-1; 1st assignable pro-bridi - - - brode - is-2; 2nd assignable pro-bridi - - - brodi - is-3; 3rd assignable pro-bridi - - - brodo - is-4; 4th assignable pro-bridi - - - brodu - is-5; 5th assignable pro-bridi - - - - go'i-series - - - go'i - (repeats the last bridi) - - - go'a - (repeats a previous bridi) - - - go'u - (repeats a long-ago bridi) - - - go'e - (repeats the last-but-one bridi) - - - go'o - (repeats a future bridi) - - - nei - (repeats the current bridi) - - - no'a - (repeats the next outer bridi) - - - - bu'a-series - - - bu'a - some-predicate-1 (rafsi: bul) - - - bu'e - some-predicate-2 - - - bu'i - some-predicate-3 - - - - others: - - - co'e - has the obvious relationship (rafsi: com/co'e) - - - mo - bridi question - - - du - identity: x1 is identical to= x2, x3 ... - - dub - du'o - - -

- Other cmavo discussed in this chapter - - - goi - GOI - pro-sumti assignment (ko'a-series) - - - cei - CEI - pro-bridi assignment (broda-series) - - - ra'o - RAhO - pro-sumti/pro-bridi update - - - soi - SOI - reciprocity - - - se'u - SEhU - soi terminator - - - da'o - DAhO - cancel all pro-sumti/pro-bridi - - -

- diff --git a/chapters/8.xml b/chapters/8.xml deleted file mode 100644 index 25d7cdc..0000000 --- a/chapters/8.xml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1579 +0,0 @@ - - Relative Clauses, Which Make sumti Even More Complicated - - The picture for chapter 8 - - - - - -

- What are you pointing at? - The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - - poi - NOI - restrictive relative clause introducer - =20 - - - ke'a - GOhA - relative pro-sumti - =20 - - - ku'o - KUhO - relative clause terminator - - - Let us think about the problem of communicating what it is that = we are pointing at when we are pointing at something. In Lojban, we can ref= er to what we are pointing at by using the pro-sumti=20 - ti if it is nearby, or=20 - ta if it is somewhat further away, or=20 - tu if it is distant. (Pro-sumti are explained in full i= n=20 - .) - referenceambiguity of ti/ta/tu However, even wi= th the assistance of a pointing finger, or pointing lips, or whatever may b= e appropriate in the local culture, it is often hard for a listener to tell= just what is being pointed at. Suppose one is pointing at a person (in par= ticular, in the direction of his or her face), and says: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e1d1"/> - - - ti cu barda - This-one is-big. - - - What is the referent of=20 - ti? Is it the person? Or perhaps it is the person's nos= e? Or even (for=20 - ti can be plural as well as singular, and mean=20 - =20 - these ones as well as=20 - this one) the pores on the person's nose? - referenceuse of relative clause for relative clauseuse = for reference To help solve this problem, Lojban us= es a construction called a=20 - relative clause. Relative clauses are usually attached = to the end of sumti, but there are other places where they can go as well, = as explained later in this chapter. A relative clause begins with a word of= selma'o NOI, and ends with the elidable terminator=20 - ku'o (of selma'o KUhO). As you might suppose,=20 - noi is a cmavo of selma'o NOI; however, first we will d= iscuss the cmavo=20 - poi, which also belongs to selma'o NOI. - ke'aas referent for relativized sumti referenceto relat= ivized sumti with ke'a relativized sumtidefinition poisyntax of In between the=20 - poi and the=20 - ku'o appears a full bridi, with the same syntax as any = other bridi. Anywhere within the bridi of a relative clause, the pro-sumti= =20 - ke'a (of selma'o KOhA) may be used, and it stands for t= he sumti to which the relative clause is attached (called the=20 - relativized sumti). Here are some examples before we go= any further: - =20 - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e1d2"/> - <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>big person</primary><secondary>exam= ple</secondary></indexterm> =20 - - - ti poi ke'a prenu ku'o cu barda - This-thing such-that-(IT is-a-person) is-large. - This thing which is a person is big. - This person is big. - - - - =20 -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>big nose</primary><secondary>example<= /secondary></indexterm> - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e1d3"/> - - - ti poi ke'a nazbi ku'o cu barda - This-thing such-that-(IT is-a-nose) is-large. - This thing which is a nose is big. - This nose is big. - - - - - <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>big nose-pores</primary><secondary>= example</secondary></indexterm> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e1d4"/> - - - ti poi ke'a nazbi kapkevna ku'o cu barda - This-thing such-that-(IT is-a-nose-type-of skin-hole) is-bi= g. - These things which are nose-pores are big. - These nose-pores are big. - - - =20 - -ITas no= tation convention in relative clause chapter In the= literal translations throughout this chapter, the word=20 - IT, capitalized, is used to represent the cmavo=20 - ke'a. In each case, it serves to represent the sumti (i= n=20 - through=20 - , the cmavo=20 - ti) to which the relative clause is attached. - ke'anon-initial place use in relative clause Of= course, there is no reason why=20 - ke'a needs to appear in the x1 place of a relative clau= se bridi; it can appear in any place, or indeed even in a sub-bridi within = the relative clause bridi. Here are two more examples: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e1d5"/> - - - tu poi le mlatu pu lacpu ke'a ku'o cu ratcu - That-distant-thing such-that (the cat [past] drags IT) is-a= -rat. - That thing which the cat dragged is a rat. - What the cat dragged is a rat. - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e1d6"/> - - - ta poi mi djica le nu mi ponse ke'a [kei] ku'o cu bloti - That-thing such-that( I desire the event-of( I own IT ) ) i= s-a-boat. - That thing that I want to own is a boat. - - - In=20 - ,=20 - ke'a appears in an abstraction clause (abstractions are= explained in=20 - ) within a relative clause. - relative clauseeffect of omission of ke'a on= ke'a<= secondary>effect of omission of Like any sumti,=20 - ke'a can be omitted. The usual presumption in that case= is that it then falls into the x1 place: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e1d7"/> - - - ti poi nazbi cu barda - This-thing which is-a-nose is-big. - - - almost certainly means the same thing as=20 - . However,=20 - ke'a can be omitted if it is clear to the listener that= it belongs in some place other than x1: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e1d8"/> - - - tu poi le mlatu pu lacpu cu ratcu - That-distant-thing which the cat [past] drags is-a-rat - - - is equivalent to=20 - . - ku'oelidability for relative clauses As stated = before,=20 - ku'o is an elidable terminator, and in fact it is almos= t always elidable. Throughout the rest of this chapter,=20 - ku'o will not be written in any of the examples unless = it is absolutely required: thus,=20 - can be written: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e1d9"/> - - - ti poi prenu cu barda - That which is-a-person is-big. - That person is big. - - - poidiscussion of translation without any change= in meaning. Note that=20 - poi is translated=20 - which rather than=20 - such-that when=20 - ke'a has been omitted from the x1 place of the relative= clause bridi. The word=20 - which is used in English to introduce English relative = clauses: other words that can be used are=20 - who and=20 - that, as in: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e1d10"/> - - I saw a man who was going to the store. - - and - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e1d11"/> - - The building that the school was located in is large. - - In=20 - the relative clause is=20 - who was going to the store, and in=20 - it is=20 - that the school was located in. Sometimes=20 - who,=20 - which, and=20 - that are used in literal translations in this chapter i= n order to make them read more smoothly. -

- Incidental relative clauses - The following cmavo is discussed in this section: - - - noi - NOI - incidental relative clause introducer - =20 - - - relative clausesrestricted contrasted with incidental non-restrictive relati= ve clausedefinition (see also incidental relative clau= se) = incidental relative clausedefinition restrictive relative = clausedefinition relative clauserestr= ictive (see also restrictive relative clause) relative clauseskinds of There are two basic kinds of relative = clauses: restrictive relative clauses introduced by=20 - =20 - poi, and incidental (sometimes called simply=20 - non-restrictive) relative clauses introduced by=20 - noi. The difference between restrictive and incidental = relative clauses is that restrictive clauses provide information that is es= sential to identifying the referent of the sumti to which they are attached= , whereas incidental relative clauses provide additional information which = is helpful to the listener but is not essential for identifying the referen= t of the sumti. All of the examples in=20 - are restrictive relative clauses: the = information in the relative clause is essential to identification. (The tit= le of this chapter, though, uses an incidental relative clause.) - =20 - =20 - Consider the following examples: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e2d1"/> - - - le gerku poi blanu cu barda - The dog which is-blue is-large. - The dog which is blue is large. - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e2d2"/> - - - le gerku noi blanu cu barda - The dog incidentally-which is-blue is-large. - The dog, which is blue, is large. - - - In=20 - , the information conveyed b= y=20 - poi blanu is essential to identifying the dog i= n question: it restricts the possible referents from dogs in general to dog= s that are blue. This is why=20 - poi relative clauses are called restrictive. In=20 - , on the other hand, the dog= which is referred to has presumably already been identified clearly, and t= he relative clause=20 - noi blanu just provides additional information = about it. (If in fact the dog hasn't been identified clearly, then the rela= tive clause does not help identify it further.) - incidental relati= ve clauseas a parenthetical device commaeffect on relative clause in English relative clausesef= fect of commas in English relative clausesrestricted contr= asted with incidental in English expression In Engl= ish, the distinction between restrictive and incidental relative clauses is= expressed in writing by surrounding incidental, but not restrictive, claus= es with commas. These commas are functioning as parentheses, because incide= ntal relative clauses are essentially parenthetical. This distinction in pu= nctuation is represented in speech by a difference in tone of voice. In add= ition, English restrictive relative clauses can be introduced by=20 - =20 - =20 - that as well as=20 - which and=20 - who, whereas incidental relative clauses cannot begin w= ith=20 - that. Lojban, however, always uses the cmavo=20 - poi and=20 - noi rather than punctuation or intonation to make the d= istinction. - Here are more examples of incidental relative clauses: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e2d3"/> - - - mi noi jdice cu zvati - I who-incidentally am-a-judge am-at [some-place]. - I, a judge, am present. - - - In this example,=20 - mi is already sufficiently restricted, and the addition= al information that I am a judge is being provided solely for the listener'= s edification. - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e2d4"/> - - - xu do viska le mi karce noi blabi - [True?] You see my car incidentally-which is-white. - Do you see my car, which is white? - - - In=20 - , the speaker is presumed to= have only one car, and is providing incidental information that it is whit= e. (Alternatively, he or she might have more than one car, since=20 - le karce can be plural, in which case the incid= ental information is that each of them is white.) Contrast=20 - =20 - with a restrictive relative= clause: - =20 - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e2d5"/> - - - xu do viska le mi karce poi blabi - [True?] You see my car which is-white. - Do you see my car that is white? - Do you see my white car? - - - relative clausecompared with tanru Here the spe= aker probably has several cars, and is restricting the referent of the sumt= i=20 - le mi karce (and thereby the listener's attenti= on) to the white one only.=20 - means much the same as=20 - , which does not use a relat= ive clause: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e2d6"/> - - - xu do viska le mi blabi karce - [True?] You see my white car. - Do you see my car, the white one? - - - relative clausecontrasted with tanru So a restr= ictive relative clause attached to a description can often mean the same as= a description involving a tanru. However,=20 - =20 - blabi karce, like all tanru, is somewhat vague:= in principle, it might refer to a car which carries white things, or even = express some more complicated concept involving whiteness and car-ness; the= restrictive relative clause of=20 - =20 - can only refer to a car whi= ch is white, not to any more complex or extended concept. -

- Relative phrases - The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - - pe - GOI - restrictive association - - - po - GOI - restrictive possession - - - po'e - =20 - GOI - restrictive intrinsic possession - =20 - =20 - - - po'u - GOI - restrictive identification - - - ne - GOI - incidental association - =20 - - - no'u - =20 - GOI - incidental identification - =20 - =20 - - - ge'u - GEhU - relative phrase terminator - - - relative phraseas an abbreviation of a common relative clause relative phra= sesyntax of relative phraserational= e for There are types of relative clauses (those wh= ich have a certain selbri) which are frequently wanted in Lojban, and can b= e expressed using a shortcut called a relative phrase. Relative phrases are= introduced by cmavo of selma'o GOI, and consist of a GOI cmavo followed by= a single sumti. - loose association<= /primary>expressing with pe peas loose associat= ion = pecompared with poi ke'a srana<= /secondary> Here is an example of=20 - pe, plus an equivalent sentence using a relative clause= : - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d1"/> - - - le stizu pe mi cu blanu - The chair associated-with me is-blue. - My chair is blue. - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d2"/> - - - le stizu poi ke'a srana mi cu blanu - The chair such-that( IT is-associated-with me) is-blue. - - - In=20 - and=20 - , the link between the chair= and the speaker is of the loosest kind. - specificityexpressing with po possessionexpressing wi= th po poas restrictive possession = pocompa= red with poi ke'a se steci srana Here is an example of=20 - po: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d3"/> - - - le stizu po mi cu xunre - The chair specific-to me is red. - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d4"/> - - - le stizu poi ke'a se steci srana mi cu xunre - The chair such-that (IT is-specifically associated-with me)= is-red. - - - pocontrasted with pe pecontrasted with po<= /indexterm>=20 - and=20 - contrast with=20 - and=20 - : the chair is more permanen= tly connected with the speaker. A plausible (though not the only possible) = contrast between=20 - and=20 - is that=20 - pe mi would be appropriate for a chair the spea= ker is currently sitting on (whether or not the speaker owned that chair), = and=20 - po mi for a chair owned by the speaker (whether= or not he or she was currently occupying it). - pocontrasted with English possession As a result, the relationship expressed between two sumti by=20 - po is usually called=20 - possession, although it does not necessarily imply owne= rship, legal or otherwise. The central concept is that of specificity (=20 - =20 - steci in Lojban). - inalienable posses= sionexpressing with po'e intrinsic possessionexpressing with po'e possessionintrinsicexpressing with po'e po'eas intrinsic possessio= n po= 'ecompared with poi ke'a jinzi ke se steci = srana Here is an example of=20 - po'e, as well as another example of=20 - =20 - po: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d5"/> - - - le birka po'e mi cu spofu - =20 - The arm intrinsically-possessed-by me is-broken - - - - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>person's arm</primary><secondary>exam= ple</secondary></indexterm> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d6"/> - - - le birka poi jinzi ke se steci srana mi cu spofu - The arm which is-intrinsically (specifically associated-wit= h) me is-broken. - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d7"/> - - - le botpi po mi cu spofu - The bottle specific-to me is-broken - - - =20 - - - alienable possessiondefinition extrinsic possessiondefinition inali= enable possessiondefinition <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">intrinsic possession= definition pocontrasted with po'e po'econtrasted with po=20 - and=20 - on the one hand, and=20 - on the other, illustrate th= e contrast between two types of possession called=20 - intrinsic and=20 - extrinsic, or sometimes=20 - inalienable and=20 - =20 - alienable, respectively. Something is intrinsically (or= inalienably) possessed by someone if the possession is part of the possess= or, and cannot be changed without changing the possessor. In the case of=20 - , people are usually taken t= o intrinsically possess their arms: even if an arm is cut off, it remains t= he arm of that person. (If the arm is transplanted to another person, howev= er, it becomes intrinsically possessed by the new user, though, so intrinsi= c possession is a matter of degree.) - =20 - =20 - inalienabledistinguishing from alienable By con= trast, the bottle of=20 - can be given away, or throw= n away, or lost, or stolen, so it is possessed extrinsically (alienably). T= he exact line between intrinsic and extrinsic possession is culturally depe= ndent. The U.S. Declaration of Independence speaks of the=20 - =20 - inalienable rights of men, but just what those rights a= re, and even whether the concept makes sense at all, varies from culture to= culture. - =20 - Note that=20 - can also be expressed witho= ut a relative clause: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d8"/> - - - le birka be mi cu spofu - The arm of-body me is broken - - - intrinsic possess= ionexpressing by using place in some selbri reflecting the fact that the gismu=20 - birka has an x2 place representing the body to which th= e arm belongs. Many, but not all, cases of intrinsic possession can be thus= covered without using=20 - =20 - =20 - po'e by placing the possessor into the appropriate plac= e of the description selbri. - =20 - Here is an example of=20 - po'u: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d9"/> - - - le gerku po'u le mi pendo cu cinba mi - The dog which-is my friend kisses me. - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d10"/> - - - le gerku poi du le mi pendo cu cinba mi - The dog which =3D my friend kisses me. - - - identityexpressing with po'u po'uas identity po'ucompared with poi ke'a du<= /indexterm> The cmavo=20 - po'u does not represent possession at all, but rather i= dentity. (Note that it means=20 - poi du and its form was chosen to suggest the r= elationship.) - In=20 - , the use of=20 - po'u tells us that=20 - le gerku and=20 - le mi pendo represent the same thing. Consider = the contrast between=20 - and: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d11"/> - - - le mi pendo po'u le gerku cu cinba mi - My friend which-is the dog kisses me. - - - po'urelative phrase of contrasted with relativized sumti of= The facts of the case are the same, but the listener's knowled= ge about the situation may not be. In=20 - , the listener is presumed n= ot to understand which dog is meant by=20 - le gerku, so the speaker adds a relative phrase= clarifying that it is the particular dog which is the speaker's friend. - - , however, assumes that the = listener does not know which of the speaker's friends is referred to, and s= pecifies that it is the friend that is the dog (which dog is taken to be ob= vious). Here is another example of the same contrast: - - - <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>New York city</primary><secondary>e= xample</secondary></indexterm> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d12"/> - - - le tcadu po'u la nu,iork - The city of New York [not another city] - - - - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>New York state</primary><secondary>ex= ample</secondary></indexterm> - <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>New York city</primary><secondary>e= xample</secondary></indexterm> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d13"/> - - - la nu,iork po'u le tcadu - New York the city (not the state or some other New York)<= /natlang> - - - =20 - - - possessed in relative phra= sescompared with possessor possessor in relative phrasescompared with possessed The prin= ciple that the possessor and the possessed may change places applies to all= the GOI cmavo, and allows for the possibility of odd effects: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d14"/> - <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>friend's cup</primary><secondary>ex= ample</secondary></indexterm>=20 - - - le kabri pe le mi pendo cu cmalu - The cup associated-with my friend is small. - My friend's cup is small - =20 - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d15"/> -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>cup's friend</primary><secondary>exam= ple</secondary></indexterm> - - - le mi pendo pe le kabri cu cmalu - My friend associated-with the cup is small. - My friend, the one with the cup, is small. - - - =20 - - - is useful in a context whic= h is about my friend, and states that his or her cup is small, whereas=20 - is useful in a context that= is primarily about a certain cup, and makes a claim about=20 - my friend of the cup, as opposed to some other friend o= f mine. Here the cup appears to=20 - possess the person! English can't even express this rel= ationship with a possessive –=20 - the cup's friend of mine looks like nonsense – bu= t Lojban has no trouble doing so. - =20 - incidental identif= icationexpressing with no'u <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">incidental associationexpressing with ne po'ucompared with no'u pecompared with ne no'ucompared with po'u<= /secondary> necompared with pe Finally, the cm= avo=20 - ne and=20 - no'u stand to=20 - =20 - pe and=20 - po'u, respectively, as=20 - noi does to=20 - poi- they provide incidental information: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d16"/> - - - le blabi gerku ne mi cu batci do - The white dog, incidentally-associated-with me, bites you.<= /gloss> - The white dog, which is mine, bites you. - - - In=20 - , the white dog is already f= ully identified (after all, presumably the listener knows which dog bit him= or her!). The fact that it is yours is merely incidental to the main bridi= claim. - po'ucontrasted with no'u no'ucontrasted with po'u Distinguishing between=20 - po'u and=20 - no'u can be a little tricky. Consider a room with sever= al men in it, one of whom is named Jim. If you don't know their names, I mi= ght say: - =20 - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d17"/> - - - le nanmu no'u la djim. cu terpemci - =20 - The man, incidentally-who-is Jim, is-a-poet. - The man, Jim, is a poet. - - - Here I am saying that one of the men is a poet, and incidentally= telling you that he is Jim. But if you do know the names, then - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d18"/> - - - le nanmu po'u la djim. cu terpemci - The man who-is Jim is-a-poet. - The man Jim is a poet. - - - is appropriate. Now I am using the fact that the man I am speaki= ng of is Jim in order to pick out which man I mean. - possessionLojban usage compared with French and German in omission/incl= usion possessionLojban usage contrasted with English in om= ission/inclusion It is worth mentioning that Englis= h sometimes over-specifies possession from the Lojban point of view (and th= e point of view of many other languages, including ones closely related to = English). The idiomatic English sentence - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d19"/> - - The man put his hands in his pockets. - - seems strange to a French- or German-speaking person: whose pock= ets would he put his hands into? and even odder, whose hands would he put i= nto his pockets? In Lojban, the sentence - - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>hands in pockets</primary><secondary>= example</secondary></indexterm> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e3d20"/> - - - le nanmu cu punji le xance le daski - The man puts the hand at-locus-the pocket. - - - =20 - - - is very natural. Of course, if the man is in fact putting his hands into = another's pockets, or another's hands into his pockets, the fact can be spe= cified. - goirationale for non-inclusion in relative clause chapter ge'ueffect of following logical connective on elidability logical connectiv= eseffect on elidability of ge'u from preceding relativ= e phrase ge'uelidability of from relative phrases Finally, the elidable terminator for GOI cmavo is=20 - ge'u of selma'o GEhU; it is almost never required. Howe= ver, if a logical connective immediately follows a sumti modified by a rela= tive phrase, then an explicit=20 - ge'u is needed to allow the connective to affect the re= lativized sumti rather than the sumti of the relative phrase. (What about t= he cmavo after which selma'o GOI is named? It is discussed in=20 - =20 - , as it is not semantical= ly akin to the other kinds of relative phrases, although the syntax is the = same.) -

- Multiple relative clauses:=20 - <valsi>zi'e</valsi> - - - zi'e - ZIhE - relative clause joiner - - - multiple relative= clausesattaching with zi'e So= metimes it is necessary or useful to attach more than one relative clause t= o a sumti. This is made possible in Lojban by the cmavo=20 - zi'e (of selma'o ZIhE), which is used to join one or mo= re relative clauses together into a single unit, thus making them apply to = the same sumti. For example: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e4d1"/> - - - le gerku poi blabi zi'e poi batci le nanmu cu klama - The dog which is white and which bites the man goes. - - - zi'ecompared with English and <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">zi'econtr= asted with logical connectives The most usual trans= lation of=20 - zi'e in English is=20 - and, but=20 - zi'e is not really a logical connective: unlike most of= the true logical connectives (which are explained in=20 - ), it cannot be converted into = a logical connection between sentences. - relative phraseconnecting to relative clause with zi'e relative clauseconnecting to relative phrase with zi'e multiple relative claus= esconnecting different kinds with zi'e It is perfectly correct to use=20 - zi'e to connect relative clauses of different kinds: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e4d2"/> - - - le gerku poi blabi zi'e noi le mi pendo cu ponse ke'a cu klam= a - The dog that-is (white) and incidentally-such-that (my frie= nd owns IT) goes. - The dog that is white, which my friend owns, is going. - - - In=20 - , the restrictive clause=20 - poi blabi specifies which dog is referred to, b= ut the incidental clause=20 - noi le mi pendo cu ponse is mere incidental inf= ormation: the listener is supposed to already have identified the dog from = the=20 - poi blabi. Of course, the meaning (though not n= ecessarily the emphasis) is the same if the incidental clause appears first= . - zi'euse in connecting relative phrase/clause to relative phrase/clause<= /secondary> It is also possible to connect relative phrases wit= h=20 - zi'e, or a relative phrase with a relative clause: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e4d3"/> - - - le botpi po mi zi'e poi blanu cu spofu - The bottle specific-to me and which-is blue is-broken. - My blue bottle is broken. - - - Note that if the colloquial translation of=20 - were=20 - My bottle, which is blue, is broken, then=20 - noi rather than=20 - poi would have been correct in the Lojban version, sinc= e that version of the English implies that you do not need to know the bott= le is blue. As written,=20 - suggests that I probably ha= ve more than one bottle, and the one in question needs to be picked out as = the blue one. - - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>my chair</primary><secondary>example<= /secondary></indexterm> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e4d4"/> - - - mi ba zutse le stizu pe mi zi'e po do zi'e poi xunre - I [future] sit-in the chair associated-with me and specific= -to you and which-is red. - I will sit in my chair (really yours), the red one. - =20 - - - =20 - - -=20 - illustrates that more than = two relative phrases or clauses can be connected with=20 - zi'e. It almost defies colloquial translation because o= f the very un-English contrast between=20 - pe mi, implying that the chair is temporarily c= onnected with me, and=20 - po do, implying that the chair has a more perma= nent association with you. (Perhaps I am a guest in your house, in which ca= se the chair would naturally be your property.) - Here is another example, mixing a relative phrase and two relati= ve clauses, a restrictive one and a non-restrictive one: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e4d5"/> - - - mi ba citka le dembi pe mi zi'e poi cpana le mi palta zi'e no= i do dunda ke'a mi - I [future] eat the beans associated-with me and which are-u= pon my plate and which-incidentally you gave IT to-me. - I'll eat my beans that are on my plate, the ones you gave= me. - =20 - - -

- Non-veridical relative clauses:=20 - <valsi>voi</valsi> - - - voi - NOI - non-veridical relative clause introducer - - - There is another member of selma'o NOI which serves to introduce= a third kind of relative clause:=20 - voi. Relative clauses introduced by=20 - voi are restrictive, like those introduced by=20 - poi. However, there is a fundamental difference between= =20 - poi and=20 - voi relative clauses. A=20 - poi relative clause is said to be veridical, in the sam= e sense that a description using=20 - lo or=20 - loi is: it is essential to the interpretation that the = bridi actually be true. For example: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e5d1"/> - - - le gerku poi blabi cu klama - The dog which is-white goes. - - - it must actually be true that the dog is white, or the sentence = constitutes a miscommunication. If there is a white dog and a brown dog, an= d the speaker uses=20 - le gerku poi blabi to refer to the brown dog, t= hen the listener will not understand correctly. However, - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e5d2"/> - - - le gerku voi blabi cu klama - The dog which-I-describe-as white goes. - - - puts the listener on notice that the dog in question may not act= ually meet objective standards (whatever they are) for being white: only th= e speaker can say exactly what is meant by the term. In this way,=20 - voi is like=20 - le; the speaker's intention determines the meaning. - As a result, the following two sentences - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e5d3"/> - - - le nanmu cu ninmu - That-which-I-describe-as a-man is-a-woman. - The=20 - guy is actually a gal. - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e5d4"/> - - - ti voi nanmu cu ninmu - This-thing which-I-describe-as a-man is-a-woman. - - - mean essentially the same thing (except that=20 - involves pointing thanks to= the use of=20 - ti, whereas=20 - doesn't), and neither one i= s self-contradictory: it is perfectly all right to describe something as a = man (although perhaps confusing to the listener) even if it actually is a w= oman. -

- Relative clauses and descriptors - So far, this chapter has described the various kinds of relative= clauses (including relative phrases). The list is now complete, and the re= st of the chapter will be concerned with the syntax of sumti that include r= elative clauses. So far, all relative clauses have appeared directly after = the sumti to which they are attached. This is the most common position (and= originally the only one), but a variety of other placements are also possi= ble which produce a variety of semantic effects. - There are actually three places where a relative clause can be a= ttached to a description sumti: after the descriptor (=20 - le,=20 - lo, or whatever), after the embedded selbri but before = the elidable terminator (which is=20 - ku), and after the=20 - ku. The relative clauses attached to descriptors that w= e have seen have occupied the second position. Thus=20 - , if written out with all el= idable terminators, would appear as: - =20 - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d1"/> - - - le gerku poi blabi ku'o ku cu klama vau - The (dog which (is-white) ) goes. - The dog which is white is going. - - - Here=20 - ku'o is the terminator paired with=20 - poi and=20 - ku with=20 - le, and=20 - vau is the terminator of the whole bridi. - When a simple descriptor using=20 - le, like=20 - le gerku, has a relative clause attached, it is= purely a matter of style and emphasis where the relative clause should go.= Therefore, the following examples are all equivalent in meaning to=20 - : - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d2"/> - - - le poi blabi ku'o gerku cu klama - The such-that (it-is-white) dog goes. - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d3"/> - - - le gerku ku poi blabi cu klama - The (dog) which is-white goes. - - - - will seem most natural to= speakers of languages like English, which always puts relative clauses aft= er the noun phrases they are attached to;=20 - , on the other hand, may s= eem more natural to Finnish or Chinese speakers, who put the relative claus= e first. Note that in=20 - , the elidable terminator= =20 - ku'o must appear, or the selbri of the relative claus= e (=20 - blabi) will merge with the selbri of the description = (=20 - gerku), resulting in an ungrammatical sentence. The p= urpose of the form appearing in=20 - will be apparent shortly. - As is explained in detail in=20 - , two different num= bers (known as the=20 - inner quantifier and the=20 - outer quantifier) can be attached to a description. The= inner quantifier specifies how many things the descriptor refers to: it ap= pears between the descriptor and the description selbri. The outer quantifi= er appears before the descriptor, and specifies how many of the things refe= rred to by the descriptor are involved in this particular bridi. In the fol= lowing example, - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d4"/> - - - re le mu prenu cu klama le zarci - Two-of the five persons go to-the market. - Two of the five people [that I have in mind] are going to= the market. - =20 - - - - mu is the inner quantifier and=20 - re is the outer quantifier. Now what is meant by atta= ching a relative clause to the sumti=20 - re le mu prenu? Suppose the relative clause i= s=20 - poi ninmu (meaning=20 - who are women). Now the three possible attachment point= s discussed previously take on significance. - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d5"/> - - - re le poi ninmu ku'o mu prenu cu klama le zarci - Two of the such-that([they] are-women) five persons go to-t= he market. - Two women out of the five persons go to the market. - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d6"/> - - - re le mu prenu poi ninmu [ku] cu klama le zarci - Two of the (five persons which are-women) go to-the market.= - Two of the five women go to the market. - =20 - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d7"/> - - - re le mu prenu ku poi ninmu cu klama le zarci - (Two of the five persons) which are-women go to-the market.= - Two women out of the five persons go to the market. - - - As the parentheses show,=20 - means that all five of the = persons are women, whereas=20 - means that the two who are = going to the market are women. How do we remember which is which? If the re= lative clause comes after the explicit=20 - ku, as in=20 - , then the sumti as a whole = is qualified by the relative clause. If there is no=20 - ku, or if the relative clause comes before an explicit= =20 - ku, then the relative clause is understood to apply to = everything which the underlying selbri applies to. - What about=20 - ? By convention, it means th= e same as=20 - , and it requires no=20 - ku, but it does typically require a=20 - ku'o instead. Note that the relative clause comes befor= e the inner quantifier. - When=20 - le is the descriptor being used, and the sumti has no e= xplicit outer quantifier, then the outer quantifier is understood to be=20 - ro (meaning=20 - all), as is explained in=20 - . Thus=20 - le gerku is taken to mean=20 - all of the things I refer to as dogs, possibly all one = of them. In that case, there is no difference between a relative clause aft= er the=20 - ku or before it. However, if the descriptor is=20 - lo, the difference is quite important: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d8"/> - - - lo prenu ku noi blabi cu klama le zarci - (Some persons) incidentally-which are-white go to-the marke= t. - Some people, who are white, go to the market. - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d9"/> - - - lo prenu noi blabi [ku] cu klama le zarci - Some (persons incidentally-which are-white) go to-the marke= t. - Some of the people, who by the way are white, go to the m= arket. - - - Both=20 - and=20 - tell us that one or more pe= rsons are going to the market. However, they make very different incidental= claims. Now, what does=20 - lo prenu noi blabi mean? Well, the default inne= r quantifier is=20 - ro (meaning=20 - all), and the default outer quantifier is=20 - su'o (meaning=20 - at least one). Therefore, we must first take all person= s, then choose at least one of them. That one or more people will be going.= - =20 - In=20 - , the relative clause descri= bed the sumti once the outer quantifier was applied: one or more people, wh= o are white, are going. But in=20 - , the relative clause actual= ly describes the sumti before the outer quantification is applied, so that = it ends up meaning=20 - First take all persons – by the way, they're all white. But not all people are white, so the incidental claim being made her= e is false. - =20 - relative clauses = on losyntax suggestion The saf= e strategy, therefore, is to always use=20 - ku when attaching a=20 - noi relative clause to a=20 - lo descriptor. Otherwise we may end up claiming far too= much. - relative clauses = and namesplacement considerations relative clauseson names relative clausesas part of name relative= clausesimpact of la on placement When the descriptor is=20 - la, indicating that what follows is a selbri used for n= aming, then the positioning of relative clauses has a different significanc= e. A relative clause inside the=20 - ku, whether before or after the selbri, is reckoned par= t of the name; a relative clause outside the=20 - ku is not. Therefore, - - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>afraid of horse</primary><secondary>e= xample</secondary></indexterm> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d10"/> - - - mi viska la nanmu poi terpa le ke'a xirma [ku] - I see that-named (=20 - man which fears the of-IT horse). - I see Man Afraid Of His Horse. - - - =20 - - - says that the speaker sees a person with a particular name, who does not = necessarily fear any horses, whereas - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d11"/> - - - mi viska la nanmu ku poi terpa le ke'a xirma. - I see that-named(=20 - Man) which fears the of-IT horse. - I see the person named=20 - Man who is afraid of his horse. - - - refers to one (or more) of those named=20 - Man, namely the one(s) who are afraid of their horses.<= /para> - relative clauses = and indefinite sumtiplacement considerations relative clau= sesimpact of indefinite sumti on placement= Finally, so-called indefinite sumti like=20 - =20 - =20 - re karce, which means almost the same as=20 - re lo karce (which in turn means the same as=20 - re lo ro karce), can have relative clauses atta= ched; these are taken to be of the outside-the-=20 - ku variety. Here is an example: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e6d12"/> - - - mi ponse re karce [ku] poi xekri - I possess two cars which-are black. - - - relative clauses = on indefinite sumtisyntax considerations relative clauses<= /primary>syntax with indefinite sumti Th= e restrictive relative clause only affects the two cars being affected by t= he main bridi, not all cars that exist. It is ungrammatical to try to place= a relative clause within an indefinite sumti (that is, before an explicitl= y expressed terminating=20 - =20 - =20 - =20 - ku.) Use an explicit=20 - lo instead. -

- Possessive sumti - possessive sumticompared with relative phrase <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">relative phrasecompared with possessive sumti sumtibetween descript= or and description selbri In=20 - through=20 - , the sumti=20 - le mi karce appears, glossed as=20 - my car. Although it might not seem so, this sumti actua= lly contains a relative phrase. When a sumti appears between a descriptor a= nd its description selbri, it is actually a=20 - pe relative phrase. So - - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>my</primary><secondary>example</secon= dary></indexterm> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e7d1"/> - - - le mi karce cu xunre - My car is-red. - - - =20 - - - and - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e7d2"/> - - - le pe mi karce cu xunre - The (associated-with me) car is-red. - - - mean exactly the same thing. Furthermore, since there are no spe= cial considerations of quantifiers here, - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e7d3"/> - - - le karce pe mi cu xunre - The car associated-with me is-red. - - - possessor sumtidefinition possessive sumtidefinition means the same thing as well. A sumti like the one i= n=20 - is called a=20 - possessive sumti. Of course, it does not really indicat= e possession in the sense of ownership, but like=20 - =20 - pe relative phrases, indicates only weak association; y= ou can say=20 - le mi karce even if you've only borrowed it for= the night. (In English,=20 - my car usually means=20 - le karce po mi, but we do not have the same sen= se of possession in=20 - my seat on the bus; Lojban simply makes the weaker sens= e the standard one.) The inner sumti,=20 - =20 - mi in=20 - , is correspondingly called = the=20 - possessor sumti. - relative clauses = and possessive sumtidevelopment history possessive sumti a= nd relative clausesdevelopment history Historically, possessive sumti existed before any other kind of re= lative phrase or clause, and were retained when the machinery of relative p= hrases and clauses as detailed in this chapter so far was slowly built up. = When preposed relative clauses of the=20 - =20 - type were devised, possessi= ve sumti were most easily viewed as a special case of them. - =20 - numbers= as possessive sumti quotationsas possessive sum= ti d= escriptionsas possessive sumti= namesa= s possessive sumti pro-sumtias possessive sumti relative phras= escontrasted with possessive sumti in complexity allow= ed p= ossessive sumticontrasted with relative phrases in com= plexity allowed possessive sumtisyntax allowed= Although any sumti, however complex, can appear in a full-fled= ged relative phrase, only simple sumti can appear as possessor sumti, witho= ut a=20 - =20 - pe. Roughly speaking, the legal possessor sumti are: pr= o-sumti, quotations, names and descriptions, and numbers. In addition, the = possessor sumti may not be preceded by a quantifier, as such a form would b= e interpreted as the unusual=20 - descriptor + quantifier + sumti type of description. Al= l these sumti forms are explained in full in=20 - . - Here is an example of a description used in a possessive sumti:<= /para> - =20 - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e7d4"/> - - - le le nanmu ku karce cu blanu - The (associated-with-the man) car is blue. - The man's car is blue. - - - possessive sumti<= /primary>effect on elidability of ku kueffect o= f possessive sumti on elidability of Note the expli= cit=20 - ku at the end of the possessor sumti, which prevents th= e selbri of the possessor sumti from merging with the selbri of the main de= scription sumti. Because of the need for this=20 - ku, the most common kind of possessor sumti are pro-sum= ti, especially personal pro-sumti, which require no elidable terminator. De= scriptions are more likely to be attached with relative phrases. - =20 - And here is a number used as a possessor sumti: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e7d5"/> -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>juror 5</primary><secondary>example</= secondary></indexterm> - - - le li mu jdice se bende - The of-the-number-five judging team-member - Juror number 5 - - - =20 - - - which is not quite the same as=20 - the fifth juror; it simply indicates a weak association= between the particular juror and the number 5. - possessive sumti = with relative clauseseffect of placement relative clauses = with possessive sumtieffect of placement possessive sumti<= /primary>with relative clauses on possessive sumti possessive sumti<= /primary>relative clauses on relative clauseson= possessive sumti A possessive sumti may also have = regular relative clauses attached to it. This would need no comment if it w= ere not for the following special rule: a relative clause immediately follo= wing the possessor sumti is understood to affect the possessor sumti, not t= he possessive. For example: - =20 - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e7d6"/> - - - le mi noi sipna vau karce cu na klama - The of-me incidentally-which-(is-sleeping) car isn't going.= - - - means that my car isn't going; the incidental claim of=20 - noi sipna applies to me, not my car, however. I= f I wanted to say that the car is sleeping (whatever that might mean) I wou= ld need: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e7d7"/> - - - le mi karce poi sipna cu na klama - The of-me car which sleeps isn't going. - - - ku'oeffect of vau on elidability vaueffect on elidabil= ity ku'o Note that=20 - uses=20 - vau rather than=20 - ku'o at the end of the relative clause: this terminator= ends every simple bridi and is almost always elidable; in this case, thoug= h, it is a syllable shorter than the equally valid alternative,=20 - =20 - ku'o. -

- Relative clauses and complex sumti:=20 - <valsi>vu'o</valsi> - The following cmavo is discussed in this section: - - - vu'o - VUhO - relative clause attacher - - - Normally, relative clauses attach only to simple sumti or parts = of sumti: pro-sumti, names and descriptions, pure numbers, and quotations. = An example of a relative clause attached to a pure number is: - =20 - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d1"/> - <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>irrational number</primary><s= econdary>example</secondary></indexterm> - - - li pai noi na'e frinu namcu - The-number pi, incidentally-which is-a-non- fraction number= - The irrational number pi - =20 - - - =20 - - - relative clauses= on quotation relative clauseson number And here is an incidental relative clause attached to a quo= tation: - =20 - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d2"/> - - - lu mi klama le zarci li'u noi mi cusku ke'a cu jufra - [quote] I go to-the market [unquote] incidentally-which-(I = express IT) is-a-sentence. - - I'm going to the market, which I'd said, is a sente= nce. - - - which may serve to identify the author of the quotation or some = other relevant, but subsidiary, fact about it. All such relative clauses ap= pear only after the simple sumti, never before it. - =20 - NAhE selma'o<= /primary> NAhE s= elma'oeffect of relative clause placement with LAhE selma'= oeffect of relative clause placement with<= /indexterm> relative clauses= and NAhEplacement considerations relative clausesimpact of NAhE on placement relative clauses and LAhEplacement considerations relative clausesimpact = of LAhE on placement In addition, sumti with attach= ed sumti qualifiers of selma'o LAhE or NAhE+BO (which are explained in deta= il in=20 - =20 - ) can have a relative clau= se appearing after the qualifier and before the qualified sumti, as in: - - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>red pony</primary><secondary>example<= /secondary></indexterm> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d3"/> - - - la'e poi tolcitno vau lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u cu zvati le v= u kumfa - A-referent-of (which is-old) [quote] The Red Small-horse [u= nquote] is-at the [far distance] room. - An old=20 - The Red Pony is in the far room. - =20 - - - - - -=20 - is a bit complex, and may n= eed some picking apart. The quotation=20 - lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u means the string of w= ords=20 - The Red Pony. If the=20 - =20 - la'e at the beginning of the sentence were omitted,=20 - would claim that a certain = string of words is in a room distant from the speaker. But obviously a stri= ng of words can't be in a room! The effect of the=20 - la'e is to modify the sumti so that it refers not to th= e words themselves, but to the referent of those words, a novel by John Ste= inbeck (presumably in Lojban translation). The particular copy of=20 - The Red Pony is identified by the restrictive relative = clause.=20 - =20 - =20 - means exactly the same as:<= /para> - - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>red pony</primary><secondary>example<= /secondary></indexterm> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d4"/> - - - la'e lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u lu'u poi to'ercitno cu zvati l= e vu kumfa - A-referent-of ([quote] The Red Small-horse [unquote]) which= is-old is-at the [far distance] room. - - - and the two sentences can be considered stylistic variants. Note= the required=20 - lu'u terminator, which prevents the relative clause fro= m attaching to the quotation itself: we do not wish to refer to an old quot= ation! - =20 - relative clauses<= /primary>on connected sumti Sometimes, h= owever, it is important to make a relative clause apply to the whole of a m= ore complex sumti, one which involves logical or non-logical connection (ex= plained in=20 - =20 - ). For example, - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d5"/> - - - la frank. .e la djordj. noi nanmu cu klama le zdani - Frank and George incidentally-who is-a-man go to-the house.= - Frank and George, who is a man, go to the house. - - - The incidental claim in=20 - is not that Frank and Georg= e are men, but only that George is a man, because the incidental relative c= lause attaches only to=20 - =20 - la djordj, the immediately preceding simple sum= ti. - =20 - relative clause s= copeextending to preceding sumti with vu'o= To make a relative clause attach to both parts of the logicall= y connected sumti in=20 - , a new cmavo is needed,=20 - vu'o (of selma'o VUhO). It is placed between the sumti = and the relative clause, and extends the sphere of influence of that relati= ve clause to the entire preceding sumti, including however many logical or = non-logical connectives there may be. - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d6"/> - - - la frank. .e la djordj. vu'o noi nanmu cu klama le zdani - Frank and George incidentally-who are-men go to-the house.<= /gloss> - Frank and George, who are men, go to the house. - - - The presence of=20 - vu'o here means that the relative clause=20 - noi nanmu extends to the entire logically conne= cted sumti=20 - la frank. .e la djordj.; in other words, both F= rank and George are claimed to be men, as the colloquial translation shows.= - relative clauses = on complex sumtiLojban contrasted with English English is able to resolve the distinction correctly in th= e case of=20 - and=20 - by making use of number:=20 - who is rather than=20 - who are. Lojban doesn't distinguish between singular an= d plural verbs:=20 - =20 - =20 - nanmu can mean=20 - is a man or=20 - are men, so another means is required. Furthermore, Loj= ban's mechanism works correctly in general: if=20 - nanmu (meaning=20 - is-a-man) were replaced with=20 - pu bajra (=20 - ran), English would have to make the distinction some o= ther way: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d7"/> - - - la frank. .e la djordj. noi pu bajra cu klama le zdani - Frank and (George who [past] runs) go to-the house. - Frank and George, who ran, go to the house. - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e8d8"/> - - - la frank. .e la djordj. vu'o noi pu bajra cu klama le zdani - (Frank and George) who [past] run go to-the house. - Frank and George, who ran, go to the house. - - - In spoken English, tone of voice would serve; in written English= , one or both sentences would need rewriting. - =20 -

- Relative clauses in vocative phrases - DOI selma'o COI= selma'o Vocative phrases are explained in more detai= l in=20 - . Briefly, they are a metho= d of indicating who a sentence or discourse is addressed to: of identifying= the intended listener. They take three general forms, all beginning with c= mavo from selma'o COI or DOI (called=20 - vocative words; there can be one or many), followed by = either a name, a selbri, or a sumti. Here are three examples: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e9d1"/> - - - coi. frank. - Hello, Frank. - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e9d2"/> - - - co'o xirma - Goodbye, horse. - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e9d3"/> - - - fi'i la frank. .e la djordj. - =20 - Welcome, Frank and George! - - - Note that=20 - says farewell to something = which doesn't really have to be a horse, something that the speaker simply = thinks of as being a horse, or even might be something (a person, for examp= le) who is named=20 - Horse. In a sense,=20 - is ambiguous between=20 - co'o le xirma and=20 - co'o la xirma, a relatively safe semantic ambig= uity, since names are ambiguous in general: saying=20 - George doesn't distinguish between the possible Georges= . - Similarly,=20 - can be thought of as an abb= reviation of: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e9d4"/> - - - coi la frank. - Hello, the-one-named=20 - Frank. - - - Syntactically, vocative phrases are a kind of free modifier, and= can appear in many places in Lojban text, generally at the beginning or en= d of some complete construct; or, as in=20 - to=20 - , as sentences by themselves= . - vocative phrase w= ith nameplacement of relative clause on relative clausesplacement with vocative phrases = vocative phrasesrelative clauses on relative clauseson vocative p= hrases As can be seen, the form of vocative phrases= is similar to that of sumti, and as you might expect, vocative phrases all= ow relative clauses in various places. In vocative phrases which are simple= names (after the vocative words), any relative clauses must come just afte= r the names: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e9d5"/> - - - coi. frank. poi xunre se bende - Hello, Frank who is-a-red team-member - Hello, Frank from the Red Team! - - - The restrictive relative clause in=20 - =20 - suggests that there is some= other Frank (perhaps on the Green Team) from whom this Frank, the one the = speaker is greeting, must be distinguished. - vocative phrase w= ith selbriplacement of relative clause on<= /indexterm> A vocative phrase containing a selbri can have relative clauses= either before or after the selbri; both forms have the same meaning. Here = are some examples: - =20 - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e9d6"/> - - - co'o poi mi zvati ke'a ku'o xirma - Goodbye, such-that-(I am-at IT) horse - Goodbye, horse where I am! - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e9d7"/> - - - co'o xirma poi mi zvati - Goodbye, horse such-that-(I am-at-it). - - - - and=20 - mean the same thing. In fac= t, relative clauses can appear in both places. -

- Relative clauses within relative clauses - relative clauses<= /primary>relative clauses within For the= most part, these are straightforward and uncomplicated: a sumti that is pa= rt of a relative clause bridi may itself be modified by a relative clause:<= /para> - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e10d1"/> - - - le prenu poi zvati le kumfa poi blanu cu masno - The person who is-in the room which is-blue is-slow. - - - ke'a with subscri= ptuse for outer sumti reference subscriptsuse with ke'a for outer sumti reference inner sumtire= ferring to from within relative clause within relative clause outer sumtireferring to from within relative clause within relative cla= use = relativized sumtiin relative clauses within relative c= lauses ke'ameaning in relative clause inside relative clau= se However, an ambiguity can exist if=20 - ke'a is used in a relative clause within a relative cla= use: does it refer to the outermost sumti, or to the sumti within the outer= relative clause to which the inner relative clause is attached? The latter= . To refer to the former, use a subscript on=20 - ke'a: - - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>room which he built</primary><seconda= ry>example</secondary></indexterm> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e10d2"/> - - - le prenu poi zvati le kumfa poi ke'axire zbasu ke'a cu masno<= /jbo> - The person who is-in the room which IT-sub-2 built IT is-sl= ow. - The person who is in the room which he built is slow. - =20 - - - - - - Here, the meaning of=20 - IT-sub-2 is that sumti attached to the second relative = clause, counting from the innermost, is used. Therefore,=20 - ke'axipa (IT-sub-1) means the same as plain=20 - =20 - ke'a. - prenex<= secondary>use for outer sumti reference outer sumtiprenex = for referring to from within relative clause within relative clause Alternatively, you can use a prenex (explained in full in= =20 - ), which is syntactically a ser= ies of sumti followed by the special cmavo=20 - zo'u, prefixed to the relative clause bridi: - - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>room which he built</primary><seconda= ry>example</secondary></indexterm> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c8e10d3"/> - - - le prenu poi ke'a goi ko'a zo'u ko'a zvati le kumfa poi ke'a = goi ko'e zo'u ko'a zbasu ke'a cu masno - The man who (IT =3D it1 : it1 is-in the room which (IT =3D = it2 : it1 built it2) is-slow. - - - - is more verbose than=20 - , but may be clearer, sinc= e it explicitly spells out the two=20 - ke'a cmavo, each on its own level, and assigns them t= o the assignable cmavo=20 - ko'a and=20 - ko'e (explained in ). -

- Index of relative clause cmavo - relative clauses<= /primary>list of cmavo for Relative clau= se introducers (selma'o NOI): - - - noi - incidental clauses - - - poi - restrictive clauses - - - voi - restrictive clauses (non-veridical) - - - Relative phrase introducers (selma'o GOI): - - - goi - pro-sumti assignment - - - - pe - restrictive association - - - ne - incidental association - - - - po - extrinsic (alienable) possession - - - po'e - intrinsic (inalienable) possession - - - - - po'u - restrictive identification - - - no'u - incidental identification - - - - - - Relativizing pro-sumti (selma'o KOhA): - - - ke'a - pro-sumti for relativized sumti - - - - Relative clause joiner (selma'o ZIhE): - - - zi'e - joins relative clauses applying to a single sumti - - - Relative clause associator (selma'o VUhO): - - - vu'o - causes relative clauses to apply to all of a complex = sumti - - - Elidable terminators (each its own selma'o): - - - ku'o - relative clause elidable terminator - - - ge'u - relative phrase elidable terminator - - -

- diff --git a/chapters/9.xml b/chapters/9.xml deleted file mode 100644 index 001fdde..0000000 --- a/chapters/9.xml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2703 +0,0 @@ - - To Boston Via The Road Go I, With An Excursion Into The Land Of M= odals - - The picture for chapter 9 - - - - - -

- Introductory - relationshipobjects of relationshipas basis of sentenc= e se= ntencebasic Lojban selbridefinition sumti= definition The basic type of L= ojban sentence is the bridi: a claim by the speaker that certain objects ar= e related in a certain way. The objects are expressed by Lojban grammatical= forms called=20 - sumti; the relationship is expressed by the Lojban gram= matical form called a=20 - selbri. - sumtias objects in place structure slots place structureempty slots in place structuredefinition selbriplace structure of The sumti are not random= ly associated with the selbri, but according to a systematic pattern known = as the=20 - place structure of the selbri. This chapter describes t= he various ways in which the place structure of Lojban bridi is expressed a= nd by which it can be manipulated. The place structure of a selbri is a seq= uence of empty slots into which the sumti associated with that selbri are p= laced. The sumti are said to occupy the places of the selbri. - place structure o= f selbridetermining For our pr= esent purposes, every selbri is assumed to have a well-known place structur= e. If the selbri is a brivla, the place structure can be looked up in a dic= tionary (or, if the brivla is a lujvo not in any dictionary, inferred from = the principles of lujvo construction as explained in=20 - ); if the selbri is a tanru, the plac= e structure is the same as that of the final component in the tanru. - - - - x1in = place structure notation place structurenotation conventio= ns k= lamaplace structure of The sto= ck example of a place structure is that of the gismu=20 - klama: - - klama x1 comes/goes to destination x2 from o= rigin x3 via route x4 employing means of transport x5. - - The=20 - x1 ... x5 indicates that=20 - klama is a five-place predicate, and show the natural o= rder (as assigned by the language engineers) of those places: agent, destin= ation, origin, route, means. - place structureinstability of The place structu= res of brivla are not absolutely stable aspects of the language. The work d= one so far has attempted to establish a basic place structure on which all = users can, at first, agree. In the light of actual experience with the indi= vidual selbri of the language, there will inevitably be some degree of chan= ge to the brivla place structures. -

- Standard bridi form:=20 - <valsi>cu</valsi> - The following cmavo is discussed in this section: - - - cu - CU - prefixed selbri separator - =20 - - - bridibuilding from selbri and sumti The most us= ual way of constructing a bridi from a selbri such as=20 - klama and an appropriate number of sumti is to place th= e sumti intended for the x1 place before the selbri, and all the other sumt= i in order after the selbri, thus: - - - - - <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Boston from Atlanta</primary><secon= dary>example</secondary></indexterm>=20 -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>go</primary><secondary>example</secon= dary></indexterm> -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>go to Boston from Atlanta</primary><s= econdary>example</secondary></indexterm> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e2d1"/> - - - mi cu klama la bastn. la .atlantas. le dargu le karce - I go to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the road using-the car. - - - Here the sumti are assigned to the places as follows: - - - - x1 - agent - mi - - - x2 - destination - la bastn. - - - x3 - origin - la .atlantas. - - - x4 - route - le dargu - - - x5 - means - le karce - - - (Note: Many of the examples in the rest of this chapter will tur= n out to have the same meaning as=20 - ; this fact will not be reit= erated.) - bridinon-standard form standard bridi formdefinition bridi= standard form of This ordering= , with the x1 place before the selbri and all other places in natural order= after the selbri, is called=20 - standard bridi form, and is found in the bulk of Lojban= bridi, whether used in main sentences or in subordinate clauses. However, = many other forms are possible, such as: - =20 - =20 - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e2d2"/> - - - mi la bastn. la .atlantas. le dargu le karce cu klama - I, to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the road using-the car, go. - - - bridieffect of alternate form on sumti order He= re the selbri is at the end; all the sumti are placed before it. However, t= he same order is maintained. - Similarly, we may split up the sumti, putting some before the se= lbri and others after it: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e2d3"/> - - - mi la bastn. cu klama la .atlantas. le dargu le karce - I to-Boston go from-Atlanta via-the road using-the car. - - - emphasischanging by using non-standard form of bridi bridieffect of using non-standard form All of the va= riant forms in this section and following sections can be used to place emp= hasis on the part or parts which have been moved out of their standard plac= es. Thus,=20 - places emphasis on the selb= ri (because it is at the end);=20 - emphasizes=20 - la bastn., because it has been moved before the= selbri. Moving more than one component may dilute this emphasis. It is per= mitted, but no stylistic significance has yet been established for drastic = reordering. - cueffect on elidable terminators cuusefulness of cunecessity of cuas selbri separator In all these examples, the cmavo=20 - cu (belonging to selma'o CU) is used to separate the se= lbri from any preceding sumti. It is never absolutely necessary to use=20 - cu. However, providing it helps the reader or listener = to locate the selbri quickly, and may make it possible to place a complex s= umti just before the selbri, allowing the speaker to omit elidable terminat= ors, possibly a whole stream of them, that would otherwise be necessary. - =20 - bridiselbri-first as exceptional selbri-first bridieff= ect on sumti places sumtiomitted first place in selbri-fir= st bridi sumtiorder in selbri-first bridi sumtiorder in selbri The general rule, then, is th= at the selbri may occur anywhere in the bridi as long as the sumti maintain= their order. The only exception (and it is an important one) is that if th= e selbri appears first, the x1 sumti is taken to have been omitted: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e2d4"/> - - - klama la bastn. la .atlantas. le dargu le karce - A-goer to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the road using-the car. - Goes to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the road using-the car. - Look: a goer to Boston from Atlanta via the road using th= e car! - =20 - - - command= contrasted with observative form observative formcontrasted with command observativedefinition bridiexception to sumti place structure in = bridiomi= tting the first sumti place Here the x1 place is em= pty: the listener must guess from context who is going to Boston. In=20 - ,=20 - klama is glossed=20 - a goer rather than=20 - go because=20 - Go at the beginning of an English sentence would sugges= t a command:=20 - Go to Boston!.=20 - is not a command, simply a = normal statement with the x1 place unspecified, causing the emphasis to fal= l on the selbri=20 - klama. Such a bridi, with empty x1, is called an=20 - observative, because it usually calls on the listener t= o observe something in the environment which would belong in the x1 place. = The third translation above shows this observative nature. Sometimes it is = the relationship itself which the listener is asked to observe. - =20 - (There is a way to both provide a sumti for the x1 place and put= the selbri first in the bridi: see=20 - .) - bridileaving end sumti places unspecified in <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">sumtidrop= ping trailing unspecified unspecified trailing sumtidroppi= ng Suppose the speaker desires to omit a place othe= r than the x1 place? (Presumably it is obvious or, for one reason or anothe= r, not worth saying.) Places at the end may simply be dropped: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e2d5"/> - - - mi klama la bastn. la .atlantas. - I go to-Boston from-Atlanta (via an unspecified route, usin= g an unspecified means). - =20 - - - =20 - - unspecified sumtinon-trailing=20 - has empty x4 and x5 places:= the speaker does not specify the route or the means of transport. However,= simple omission will not work for a place when the places around it are to= be specified: in - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e2d6"/> - - - mi klama la bastn. la .atlantas. le karce - I go to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the car. - - - - le karce occupies the x4 place, and therefore= =20 - means: -

- I go to Boston from Atlanta, using the car as a route. -

- This is nonsense, since a car cannot be a route. What the speake= r presumably meant is expressed by: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e2d7"/> -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>unspecified route</primary><secondary= >example</secondary></indexterm> - - - mi klama la bastn. la .atlantas. zo'e le karce - I go to-Boston from-Atlanta via-something-unspecified using= -the car. - - - place structuresomitting places with zo'e place structureleaving a sumti place unspecified in with zo'e <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">bridileav= ing a sumti place unspecified in with zo'e zo'eas place-ho= lder for unspecified sumti unspecified sumtiusing zo'e as = place-holder for Here the sumti cmavo=20 - zo'e is used to explicitly fill the x4 place;=20 - zo'e means=20 - the unspecified thing and has the same meaning as leavi= ng the place empty: the listener must infer the correct meaning from contex= t. -

- Tagging places: FA - The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - - fa - FA - tags x1 place - - - fe - FA - tags x2 place - - - fi - FA - tags x3 place - - - fo - FA - tags x4 place - - - fu - FA - tags x5 place - - - fi'a - =20 - FA - place structure question - - - FA selma'osyntax of In sentences like=20 - , it is easy to get lost and= forget which sumti falls in which place, especially if the sumti are more = complicated than simple names or descriptions. The place structure tags of = selma'o FA may be used to help clarify place structures. The five cmavo=20 - fa,=20 - fe,=20 - fi,=20 - fo, and=20 - fu may be inserted just before the sumti in the x1 to x= 5 places respectively: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d1"/> - - - fa mi cu klama fe la bastn. fi la .atlantas. fo le dargu fu l= e karce - x1=3D I go x2=3D Boston x3=3D Atlanta x4=3D the road x5=3D = the car. - I go to Boston from Atlanta via the road using the car. - =20 - =20 - - - FA selma'ofor accessing a selbri place explicitly by relative number sumti<= /primary>explicitly mapping into place structure with FA place struc= tureexplicitly mapping sumti to place with FA place struct= ureeffect of FA on FA selma'oeffect o= n place structure In=20 - , the tag=20 - fu before=20 - le karce clarifies that=20 - le karce occupies the x5 place of=20 - klama. The use of=20 - fu tells us nothing about the purpose or meaning of the= x5 place; it simply says that=20 - le karce occupies it. - In=20 - , the tags are overkill; the= y serve only to make=20 - even longer than it is. Her= e is a better illustration of the use of FA tags for clarification: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d2"/> - - - fa mi klama fe le zdani be mi be'o poi nurma vau fi la nu,IOR= K. - x1=3D I go x2=3D (the house of me) which is-rural x3=3D New= York. - - - In=20 - , the place structure of=20 - klama is as follows: - - - - x1 - agent - mi - - - x2 - destination - le zdani be mi be'o poi nurma vau - - - x3 - origin - la nu,IORK. - - - x4 - route - (empty) - - - x5 - means - (empty) - - - FA selma'oas a reminder of place in place structure The=20 - fi tag serves to remind the hearer that what follows is= in the x3 place of=20 - klama; after listening to the complex sumti occupying t= he x2 place, it's easy to get lost. - sumtire-ordering with FA selbri-first bridispecifying = first sumti place in with fa place structure ordereffect o= f FA on FA selma'oeffect on place structure order Of course, once the sumti have been tagged, the order in wh= ich they are specified no longer carries the burden of distinguishing the p= laces. Therefore, it is perfectly all right to scramble them into any order= desired, and to move the selbri to anywhere in the bridi, even the beginni= ng: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d3"/> - - - klama fa mi fi la .atlantas. fu le karce fe la bastn. fo le d= argu - go x1=3D I x3=3D Atlanta x5=3D the car x2=3D Boston x4=3D t= he road. - Go I from Atlanta using the car to Boston via the road. - - - selbri-first bridi= effect on use of cu cueffect of selbr= i-first bridi on Note that no=20 - cu is permitted before the selbri in=20 - , because=20 - cu separates the selbri from any preceding sumti, and= =20 - has no such sumti. - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d4"/> - - - fu le karce fo le dargu fi la .atlantas. fe la bastn. cu klam= a fa mi - x5=3D the car x4=3D the road x3=3D Atlanta x2=3D Boston go = x1=3DI - Using the car, via the road, from Atlanta to Boston go I.= - - - - exhibits the reverse of t= he standard bridi form seen in=20 - =20 - and=20 - , but still means exactly th= e same thing. If the FA tags were left out, however, producing: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d5"/> - - - le karce le dargu la .atlantas. la bastn. cu klama mi - The car to-the road from-Atlanta via-Boston goes using-me.<= /gloss> - The car goes to the road from Atlanta, with Boston as the= route, using me as a means of transport. - - - the meaning would be wholly changed, and in fact nonsensical. - zo'ecompared with FA for omitting places FA selma'ocom= pared with zo'e for omitting places place structuresomitti= ng places with FA Tagging places with FA cmavo make= s it easy not only to reorder the places but also to omit undesirable ones,= without any need for=20 - zo'e or special rules about the x1 place: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d6"/> - - - klama fi la .atlantas. fe la bastn. fu le karce - A-goer x3=3D Atlanta x2=3D Boston x5 =3D the car. - A goer from Atlanta to Boston using the car. - - - Here the x1 and x4 places are empty, and so no sumti are tagged = with=20 - fa or=20 - fo; in addition, the x2 and x3 places appear in reverse= order. - FA selma'oeffect on subsequent non-tagged places What if some sumti have FA tags and others do not? The rule is that after= a FA-tagged sumti, any sumti following it occupy the places numerically su= cceeding it, subject to the proviso that an already-filled place is skipped= : - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d7"/> - - - klama fa mi la bastn. la .atlantas. le dargu le karce - Go x1=3D I x2=3D Boston x3=3D Atlanta x4=3D the road x5=3D = the car. - Go I to Boston from Atlanta via the road using the car. - =20 - - - In=20 - , the=20 - fa causes=20 - mi to occupy the x1 place, and then the following untag= ged sumti occupy in order the x2 through x5 places. This is the mechanism b= y which Lojban allows placing the selbri first while specifying a sumti for= the x1 place. - Here is a more complex (and more confusing) example: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d8"/> - - - mi klama fi la .atlantas. le dargu fe la bastn. le karce - I go x3=3D Atlanta, the road x2=3D Boston, the car. - I go from Atlanta via the road to Boston using the car. - - - In=20 - ,=20 - mi occupies the x1 place because it is the first sumti = in the sentence (and is before the selbri). The second sumti,=20 - la .atlantas., occupies the x3 place by virtue = of the tag=20 - =20 - fi, and=20 - le dargu occupies the x4 place as a result of f= ollowing=20 - la .atlantas.. Finally,=20 - la bastn. occupies the x2 place because of its = tag=20 - fe, and=20 - le karce skips over the already-occupied x3 and= x4 places to land in the x5 place. - FA selma'oavoidance of complex usage of Such a = convoluted use of tags should probably be avoided except when trying for a = literal translation of some English (or other natural-language) sentence; t= he rules stated here are merely given so that some standard interpretation = is possible. - multiple sumti in= one placemeaning sumtimultiple in on= e place with FA FA selma'ofor putting more than one sumti = in a single place It is grammatically permitted to = tag more than one sumti with the same FA cmavo. The effect is that of makin= g more than one claim: - - - <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>to movie</primary><secondary>hou= se</secondary><tertiary>office: example</tertiary></indexterm> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d9"/> - - - [fa] la rik. fa la djein. klama [fe] le skina fe le zdani fe = le zarci - [x1=3D] Rick x1=3D Jane goes-to [x2=3D] the movie x2=3D the= house x2=3D the office - - - - multiple sumti in one plac= eavoiding may be taken to say = that both Rick and Jane go to the movie, the house, and the office, merging= six claims into one. More likely, however, it will simply confuse the list= ener. There are better ways, involving logical connectives (explained in=20 - ), to say such things in Lojban= . In fact, putting more than one sumti into a place is odd enough that it c= an only be done by explicit FA usage: this is the motivation for the provis= o above, that already-occupied places are skipped. In this way, no sumti ca= n be forced into a place already occupied unless it has an explicit FA cmav= o tagging it. - - - questions<= secondary>place structure position place structure questions The cmavo=20 - fi'a also belongs to selma'o FA, and allows Lojban user= s to ask questions about place structures. A bridi containing=20 - =20 - fi'a is a question, asking the listener to supply the a= ppropriate other member of FA which will make the bridi a true statement: - =20 - - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>give or receive</primary><secondary>e= xample</secondary></indexterm> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e3d10"/> - - - fi'a do dunda [fe] le vi rozgu - =20 - [what place]? you give x2=3D the nearby rose - In what way are you involved in the giving of this rose? - Are you the giver or the receiver of this rose? - - - In=20 - , the speaker uses the selbr= i=20 - dunda, whose place structure is: - - dunda x1 gives x2 to x3 - - answers= to place structure questions The tagged = sumti=20 - fi'a do indicates that the speaker wishes to kn= ow whether the sumti=20 - =20 - do falls in the x1 or the x3 place (the x2 place is alr= eady occupied by=20 - le rozgu). The listener can reply with a senten= ce consisting solely of a FA cmavo:=20 - fa if the listener is the giver,=20 - fi if he/she is the receiver. - fi'aeffect on subsequent untagged sumti I have = inserted the tag=20 - fe in brackets into=20 - , but it is actually not nec= essary, because=20 - fi'a does not count as a numeric tag; therefore,=20 - =20 - le vi rozgu would necessarily be in the x2 plac= e even if no tag were present, because it immediately follows the selbri. - There is also another member of FA, namely=20 - fai, which is discussed in=20 - . -

- Conversion: SE - The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - - se - SE - 2nd place conversion - - - te - SE - 3rd place conversion - - - ve - SE - 4th place conversion - - - xe - SE - 5th place conversion - - - SE selma'ofor converting place structure SE selma'oeffe= ct on selbri place structure converted selbrias different = selbri from unconverted converted selbriplace structure of= con= verted selbriforming with SE = converted selbridefinition So far we have seen ways to move= sumti around within a bridi, but the actual place structure of the selbri = has always remained untouched. The conversion cmavo of selma'o SE are incor= porated within the selbri itself, and produce a new selbri (called a conver= ted selbri) with a different place structure. In particular, after the appl= ication of any SE cmavo, the number and purposes of the places remain the s= ame, but two of them have been exchanged, the x1 place and another. Which p= lace has been exchanged with x1 depends on the cmavo chosen. Thus, for exam= ple, when=20 - =20 - se is used, the x1 place is swapped with the x2 place.<= /para> - SE selma'oword formation of cmavo in SE selma'orationa= le for no 1st place conversion Note that the cmavo = of SE begin with consecutive consonants in alphabetical order. There is no= =20 - 1st place conversion cmavo, because exchanging the x1 p= lace with itself is a pointless maneuver. - se klamaplace structure of Here are the place s= tructures of=20 - se klama: - - x1 is the destination of x2's going from x3 via x4 using x5= - - and=20 - te klama: - - x1 is the origin and x2 the destination of x3 going via x4 = using x5 - - and=20 - ve klama: - =20 - - x1 is the route to x2 from x3 used by x4 going via x5 - - and=20 - xe klama: - - x1 is the means in going to x2 from x3 via x4 employed by x= 5 - - SE selma'oeffect on place structure numbering N= ote that the place structure numbers in each case continue to be listed in = the usual order, x1 to x5. - Consider the following pair of examples: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e4d1"/> - - - la bastn. cu se klama mi - Boston is-the-destination of-me. - Boston is my destination. - Boston is gone to by me. - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e4d2"/> - - - fe la bastn. cu klama fa mi - x2 =3D Boston go x1=3DI. - To Boston go I. - - - converted selbri<= /primary>as resetting standard order FA in selbricompared with converted selbri in meaning converted selbricompared with selbri with FA in meaning FA in selbricont= rasted converted selbri with in structure converted selbri= contrasted with selbri with FA in structure=20 - and=20 - mean the same thing, in the= sense that there is a relationship of going with the speaker as the agent = and Boston as the destination (and with unspecified origin, route, and mean= s). Structurally, however, they are quite different.=20 - =20 - has=20 - la bastn. in the x1 place and=20 - mi in the x2 place of the selbri=20 - se klama, and uses standard bridi order;=20 - has=20 - mi in the x1 place and=20 - la bastn. in the x2 place of the selbri=20 - klama, and uses a non-standard order. - LE selma'o LA s= elma'o converted selbriin descriptions The most important use of conversion is in the construction of descripti= ons. A description is a sumti which begins with a cmavo of selma'o LA or LE= , called the descriptor, and contains (in the simplest case) a selbri. We h= ave already seen the descriptions=20 - le dargu and=20 - le karce. To this we could add: - - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>the go-er</primary><secondary>example= </secondary></indexterm> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e4d3"/> - - - le klama - the go-er, the one who goes - =20 - - - =20 - - - converted selbri= to access non-first place in description= descriptionsuse of SE in descriptionsas based on first place of = following selbri In every case, the description is = about something which fits into the x1 place of the selbri. In order to get= a description of a destination (that is, something fitting the x2 place of= =20 - klama), we must convert the selbri to=20 - se klama, whose x1 place is a destination. The = result is - - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>the destination</primary><secondary>e= xample</secondary></indexterm> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e4d4"/> - - - le se klama - the destination gone to by someone - =20 - - - Likewise, we can create three more converted descriptions: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e4d5"/> - - - le te klama - the origin of someone's going - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e4d6"/> - - - le ve klama - =20 - the route of someone's going - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e4d7"/> - - - le xe klama - the means by which someone goes - - - pluta ve klama<= /primary> =20 - -Mars roadexample= - - pluta= contrasted with ve klama ve klamacontrasted with pluta convert= ed selbriretention of basic meaning in converted selbricontrasted with other similar selbri=20 - does not mean=20 - the route plain and simple: that is=20 - le pluta, using a different selbri. It means a = route that is used by someone for an act of=20 - =20 - =20 - klama; that is, a journey with origin and destination. = A=20 - road on Mars, on which no one has traveled or is ever l= ikely to, may be called=20 - le pluta, but it cannot be=20 - =20 - =20 - le ve klama, since there exists no one for whom= it is=20 - =20 - le ve klama be fo da (the route taken in an act= ual journey by someone [da]). - =20 - conversionextending scope of conversionscope of SE selma= 'oextending scope of SE selma'oscope = of When converting selbri that are more complex tha= n a single brivla, it is important to realize that the scope of a SE cmavo = is only the following brivla (or equivalent unit). In order to convert an e= ntire tanru, it is necessary to enclose the tanru in=20 - =20 - ke…ke'e brackets: - - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>blue house</primary><secondary>exampl= e</secondary></indexterm> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e4d8"/> - - - mi se ke blanu zdani [ke'e] ti - I [2nd conversion] blue house this-thing - - - The place structure of=20 - blanu zdani (blue house) is the same as that of= =20 - zdani, by the rule given in=20 - . The place struct= ure of=20 - zdani is: - - zdani x1 is a house/nest/lair/den for inhabi= tant x2 - - The place structure of=20 - se ke blanu zdani [ke'e] is therefore: - - x1 is the inhabitant of the blue house (etc.) x2 - - Consequently,=20 - means: -

- I am the inhabitant of the blue house which is this thing. -

- Conversion applied to only part of a tanru has subtler effects w= hich are explained in=20 - . - multiple conversi= oneffect of ordering conversioneffect= of multiple on a selbri multiple SEeffect of ordering SE selm= a'oeffect of multiple on a selbri It is grammatical to convert a selbri more than once with SE; later (in= ner) conversions are applied before earlier (outer) ones. For example, the = place structure of=20 - se te klama is achieved by exchanging the x1 an= d x2 place of=20 - =20 - te klama, producing: - se te - - x1 is the destination and x2 is the origin of x3 going via = x4 using x5 - - On the other hand,=20 - te se klama has a place structure derived from = swapping the x1 and x3 places of=20 - se klama: - - x1 is the origin of x2's going to x3 via x4 using x5 - - multiple conversi= onavoiding which is quite diff= erent. However, multiple conversions like this are never necessary. Arbitra= ry scrambling of places can be achieved more easily and far more intelligib= ly with FA tags, and only a single conversion is ever needed in a descripti= on. - conversionswapping non-first places (Although no= one has made any real use of it, it is perhaps worth noting that compound = conversions of the form=20 - setese, where the first and third cmavo are the= same, effectively swap the two given places while leaving the others, incl= uding x1, alone:=20 - =20 - setese (or equivalently=20 - =20 - tesete) swap the x2 and x3 places, whereas=20 - texete (or=20 - xetexe) swap the x3 and x5 places.) -

- Modal places: FIhO, FEhU - The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - - fi'o - FIhO - modal place prefix - - - fe'u - FEhU - modal terminator - - - Sometimes the place structures engineered into Lojban are inadeq= uate to meet the needs of actual speech. Consider the gismu=20 - viska, whose place structure is: - - viska x1 sees x2 under conditions x3 - - Seeing is a threefold relationship, involving an agent (le viska= ), an object of sight (le se viska), and an environment that makes seeing p= ossible (le te viska). Seeing is done with one or more eyes, of course; in = general, the eyes belong to the entity in the x1 place. - =20 - - - fi'ou= se in adding places to place structure place structureaddi= ng new places to with modal sumti fi'oas modal tag Suppose, however, that you are blind in one eye and are t= alking to someone who doesn't know that. You might want to say,=20 - I see you with the left eye. There is no place in the p= lace structure of=20 - viska such as=20 - with eye x4 or the like. Lojban allows you to solve the= problem by adding a new place, changing the relationship: - - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>see with left eye</primary><secondary= >example</secondary></indexterm> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e5d1"/> - - - mi viska do fi'o kanla [fe'u] le zunle - I see you [modal] eye: the left-thing - I see you with the left eye. - - - fi'o with selbri<= /primary>meaning of modal tagfi'o with selbri a= s fi= 'oeffect on following selbri T= he three-place relation=20 - viska has now acquired a fourth place specifying the ey= e used for seeing. The combination of the cmavo=20 - fi'o (of selma'o FIhO) followed by a selbri, in this ca= se the gismu=20 - kanla, forms a tag which is prefixed to the sumti filli= ng the new place, namely=20 - le zunle. The semantics of=20 - fi'o kanla le zunle is that=20 - le zunle fills the x1 place of=20 - kanla, whose place structure is - - kanla x1 is an/the eye of body x2 - - modal sumtias first place of modal tag selbri = modal place relationimportance of first place in fi'o tagrelation = of modal sumti following to selbri modal placerelation of = to selbri Thus=20 - le zunle is an eye. The x2 place of=20 - kanla is unspecified and must be inferred from the cont= ext. It is important to remember that even though=20 - le zunle is placed following=20 - fi'o kanla, semantically it belongs in the x1 p= lace of=20 - kanla. The selbri may be terminated with=20 - fe'u (of selma'o FEhU), an elidable terminator which is= rarely required unless a non-logical connective follows the tag (omitting= =20 - fe'u in that case would make the connective affect the = selbri). - modal sumtiand FA marking modal sumtieffect on place s= tructure modal sumtiposition in bridi seltcita sumti= definition (see also modal sumti) sumti tcitade= finition (see also modal tag) modal sumtidefinition (see a= lso seltcita sumti) modal tagdefinition (see also sumti tc= ita) modal placerationale for term name modal place<= secondary>definition The term for such an added pla= ce is a=20 - modal place, as distinguished from the regular numbered= places. (This use of the word=20 - modal is specific to the Loglan Project, and does not a= gree with the standard uses in either logic or linguistics, but is now too = entrenched to change easily.) The=20 - fi'o construction marking a modal place is called a=20 - modal tag, and the sumti which follows it a=20 - modal sumti; the purely Lojban terms=20 - =20 - =20 - sumti tcita and=20 - seltcita sumti, respectively, are also commonly= used. Modal sumti may be placed anywhere within the bridi, in any order; t= hey have no effect whatever on the rules for assigning unmarked bridi to nu= mbered places, and they may not be marked with FA cmavo. - =20 - Consider=20 - again. Another way to view = the situation is to consider the speaker's left eye as a tool, a tool for s= eeing. The relevant selbri then becomes=20 - pilno, whose place structure is - - pilno x1 uses x2 as a tool for purpose x3 - - and we can rewrite=20 - as - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e5d2"/> - - - mi viska do fi'o se pilno le zunle kanla - I see you [modal] [conversion] use: the left eye. - I see you using my left eye. - - - Here the selbri belonging to the modal is=20 - se pilno. The conversion of=20 - pilno is necessary in order to get the=20 - tool place into x1, since only x1 can be the modal sumt= i. The=20 - =20 - =20 - tool user place is the x2 of=20 - se pilno (because it is the x1 of=20 - pilno) and remains unspecified. The tag=20 - fi'o pilno would mean=20 - with tool user, leaving the tool unspecified. -

- Modal tags: BAI - There are certain selbri which seem particularly useful in const= ructing modal tags. In particular,=20 - pilno is one of them. The place structure of=20 - pilno is: - - pilno x1 uses x2 as a tool for purpose x3 - - BAI modal tagsrationale for and almost any selbr= i which represents an action may need to specify a tool. Having to say=20 - fi'o se pilno frequently would make many Lojban= sentences unnecessarily verbose and clunky, so an abbreviation is provided= in the language design: the compound cmavo=20 - sepi'o. - =20 - conversionof BAI cmavo modal tagsshort forms as BAI cm= avo = fi'o constructsshort forms as BAI cmavo BAI selma'oas short forms for fi'o constructs He= re=20 - se is used before a cmavo, namely=20 - pi'o, rather than before a brivla. The meaning of this = cmavo, which belongs to selma'o BAI, is exactly the same as that of=20 - =20 - fi'o pilno fe'u. Since what we want is a tag ba= sed on=20 - se pilno rather than=20 - pilno- the tool, not the tool user – the = grammar allows a BAI cmavo to be converted using a SE cmavo.=20 - may therefore be rewritten = as: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e6d1"/> - - - mi viska do sepi'o le zunle kanla - =20 - I see you with-tool: the left eye - I see you using my left eye. - - - The compound cmavo=20 - sepi'o is much shorter than=20 - =20 - fi'o se pilno [fe'u] and can be thought of as a= single word meaning=20 - with-tool. The modal tag=20 - pi'o, with no=20 - =20 - se, similarly means=20 - with-tool-user, probably a less useful concept. Neverth= eless, the parallelism with the place structure of=20 - pilno makes the additional syllable worthwhile. - conversioneffect on BAI BAI selma'oeffect of conversion= on Some BAI cmavo make sense with as well as witho= ut a SE cmavo; for example,=20 - ka'a, the BAI corresponding to the gismu=20 - =20 - klama, has five usable forms corresponding to the five = places of=20 - klama respectively: - - - ka'a - with-goer - - - - seka'a - with-destination - - - teka'a - with-origin - - - veka'a - with-route - - - xeka'a - with-means-of-transport - - - Any of these tags may be used to provide modal places for bridi,= as in the following examples: - - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Avon</primary><secondary>example</sec= ondary></indexterm> - <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>traveling salesperson</primary><sec= ondary>example</secondary></indexterm> ( - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e6d2"/> - - - la .eivn. cu vecnu loi flira cinta ka'a mi - =20 - Avon sells a-mass-of face paint with-goer me. - =20 - I am a traveling cosmetics salesperson for Avon. - =20 - - - =20 - - -=20 - may seem a bit strained, bu= t it illustrates the way in which an existing selbri,=20 - vecnu in this case, may have a place added to it which = might otherwise seem utterly unrelated.) - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e6d3"/> - - - mi cadzu seka'a la bratfyd. - I walk with-destination Bradford. - I am walking to Bradford. - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e6d4"/> - - - bloti teka'a la nu,IORK. - [Observative:] is-a-boat with-origin New York - A boat from New York! - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e6d5"/> - - - do bajra veka'a lo djine - You run with-route a circle. - You are running in circles. - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e6d6"/> - - - mi citka xeka'a le vinji - I eat with-means-of-transport the airplane. - I eat in the airplane. - - - English prepositi= onscontrasted with modal tags in preciseness modal tagscontrasted with English prepositions in preciseness BAI cmavo= rationale for selection There = are sixty-odd cmavo of selma'o BAI, based on selected gismu that seemed use= ful in a variety of settings. The list is somewhat biased toward English, b= ecause many of the cmavo were selected on the basis of corresponding Englis= h prepositions and preposition compounds such as with,=20 - without, and=20 - by means of. The BAI cmavo, however, are far more preci= se than English prepositions, because their meanings are fixed by the place= structures of the corresponding gismu. - =20 - BAI selma'oform of cmavo in All BAI cmavo have = the form CV'V or CVV. Most of them are CV'V, where the C is the first conso= nant of the corresponding gismu and the two Vs are the two vowels of the gi= smu. The table in=20 - shows the exceptions. - vague relationship= modal tag for modal tagfor vague rela= tionship There is one additional BAI cmavo that is = not derived from a gismu:=20 - do'e. This cmavo is used when an extra place is needed,= but it seems useful to be vague about the semantic implications of the ext= ra place: - =20 - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e6d7"/> - - - lo nanmu be do'e le berti cu klama le tcadu - =20 - Some man [related to] the north came to-the city. - A man of the north came to the city. - - - modal placeon description = selbri "of"in Englishcompa= red with do'e = do'ecompared with English "of" Here=20 - le berti is provided as a modal place of the se= lbri=20 - nanmu, but its exact significance is vague, and is para= lleled in the colloquial translation by the vague English preposition=20 - of.=20 - also illustrates a modal pl= ace bound into a selbri with=20 - be. This construction is useful when the selbri of a de= scription requires a modal place; this and other uses of=20 - be are more fully explained in=20 - . -

- Modal sentence connection: the causals - =20 - The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - - ri'a - BAI - rinka modal: physical cause - - - ki'u - =20 - BAI - krinu modal: justification - - - mu'i - =20 - BAI - mukti modal: motivation - - - ni'i - =20 - BAI - nibli modal: logical entailment - - - This section has two purposes. On the one hand, it explains the = grammatical construct called=20 - modal sentence connection. On the other, it exemplifies= some of the more useful BAI cmavo: the causals. (There are other BAI cmavo= which have causal implications:=20 - =20 - =20 - ja'e means=20 - with result, and so=20 - seja'e means=20 - with cause of unspecified nature; likewise,=20 - gau means=20 - with agent and=20 - tezu'e means=20 - with purpose. These other modal cmavo will not be furth= er discussed here, as my purpose is to explain modal sentence connection ra= ther than Lojbanic views of causation.) - =20 - =20 - causals= gismu There are four causal gismu in Loj= ban, distinguishing different versions of the relationships lumped in Engli= sh as=20 - causal: - - - rinka - event x1 physically causes event x2= - - - krinu - event x1 is the justification for e= vent x2 - - - mukti - event x1 is the (human) motive for = event x2 - - - nibli - event x1 logically entails event x2= - - - modal causalsimplication differences causalsmodal modalsfor causal gismu Each of these g= ismu has a related modal:=20 - ri'a,=20 - ki'u,=20 - =20 - mu'i, and=20 - =20 - ni'i respectively. Using these gismu and these modals, = we can create various causal sentences with different implications: - =20 - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e7d1"/> - - - le spati cu banro ri'a le nu do djacu dunda fi le spati - The plant grows with-physical-cause the event-of you water = give to the plant. - The plant grows because you water it. - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e7d2"/> - - - la djan. cpacu le pamoi se jinga ki'u le nu la djan. jinga - =20 - John gets the first prize with-justification the event-of J= ohn wins. - John got the first prize because he won. - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e7d3"/> - - - mi lebna le cukta mu'i le nu mi viska le cukta - =20 - I took the book with-motivation the event-of I saw the book= . - I took the book because I saw it. - - - - -<indexterm type=3D"ekxample-imported"><primary>Socrates</primary><secondar= y>example</secondary></indexterm> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e7d4"/> - - - la sokrates. morsi binxo ni'i le nu la sokrates. remna - =20 - Socrates dead-became with-logical-justification Socrates is= -human. - =20 - Socrates died because Socrates is human. - =20 - - - =20 - - - "because"English wordfour varieties of= In=20 - through=20 - , the same English word=20 - because is used to translate all four modals, but the t= ypes of cause being expressed are quite different. Let us now focus on=20 - , and explore some variation= s on it. - causals= claiming the relation contrasted with claiming cause and/or effe= ct and/or relation abstraction bridieffect on claim of bri= di As written,=20 - claims that the plant grows= , but only refers to the event of watering it in an abstraction bridi (abst= ractions are explained in=20 - =20 - ) without actually making a cl= aim. If I express=20 - , I have said that the plant= in fact grows, but I have not said that you actually water it, merely that= there is a causal relationship between watering and growing. This is seman= tically asymmetrical. Suppose I wanted to claim that the plant was being wa= tered, and only mention its growth as ancillary information? Then we could = reverse the main bridi and the abstraction bridi, saying: - =20 - - - <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>plant grows</primary><secondary>exa= mple</secondary></indexterm>=20 - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e7d5"/> - - - do djacu dunda fi le spati seri'a le nu ri banro - You water-give to the plant with-physical-effect it grows.<= /gloss> - You water the plant; therefore, it grows. - - - with the=20 - ri'a changed to=20 - seri'a. In addition, there are also symmetrical forms:<= /para> - - - <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>plant grows</primary><secondary>exa= mple</secondary></indexterm>=20 - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e7d6"/> - - - le nu do djacu dunda fi le spati cu rinka le nu le spati cu b= anro - The event-of (you water-give to the plant) causes the event= -of (the plant grows). - Your watering the plant causes its growth. If you water t= he plant, then it grows. - - - does not claim either event, but asserts only the causal relatio= nship between them. So in=20 - , I am not saying that the p= lant grows nor that you have in fact watered it. The second colloquial tran= slation shows a form of=20 - if-then in English quite distinct from the logical conn= ective=20 - if-then explained in=20 - . - Suppose we wish to claim both events as well as their causal rel= ationship? We can use one of two methods: - - - <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>plant grows</primary><secondary>exa= mple</secondary></indexterm>=20 - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e7d7"/> - - - le spati cu banro .iri'abo do djacu dunda fi le spati - =20 - The plant grows. Because you water-give to the plant. - The plant grows because you water it. - - - modal sentence con= nection - - - <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>plant grows</primary><secondary>exa= mple</secondary></indexterm>=20 - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e7d8"/> - - - do djacu dunda fi le spati .iseri'abo le spati cu banro - You water-give to the plant. Therefore it grows. - You water the plant; therefore, it grows. - - - The compound cmavo=20 - .iri'abo and=20 - =20 - .iseri'abo serve to connect two bridi, as the i= nitial=20 - i indicates. The final=20 - bo is necessary to prevent the modal from=20 - taking over the following sumti. If the=20 - bo were omitted from=20 - we would have: - - - <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>plant grows</primary><secondary>exa= mple</secondary></indexterm>=20 - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e7d9"/> - - - le spati cu banro .i ri'a do djacu dunda fi le spati - The plant grows. Because of you, [something] water-gives to= the plant. - The plant grows. Because of you, water is given to the pl= ant. - - - Because=20 - ri'a do is a modal sumti in=20 - =20 - =20 - , there is no longer an expl= icit sumti in the x1 place of=20 - djacu dunda, and the translation must be change= d. - modal sentence co= nnectionrelation to modal of second sentence in modal sent= ence connectionrelation to modal of first sentence in<= /secondary> moda= l sentence connectioneffect on modal The effect of sentences like=20 - and=20 - is that the modal,=20 - ri'a in this example, no longer modifies an explicit su= mti. Instead, the sumti is implicit, the event given by a full bridi. Furth= ermore, there is a second implication: that the first bridi fills the x2 pl= ace of the gismu=20 - rinka; it specifies an event which is the effect. I am = therefore claiming three things: that the plant grows, that you have watere= d it, and that there is a cause-and-effect relationship between the two. - modal sentence co= nnectionwith other than causals In principle, any modal tag can appear in a sentence connective of the ty= pe exemplified by=20 - and=20 - . However, it makes little s= ense to use any modals which do not expect events or other abstractions to = fill the places of the corresponding gismu. The sentence connective=20 - .ibaubo is perfectly grammatical, but it is har= d to imagine any two sentences which could be connected by an=20 - in-language modal. This is because a sentence describes= an event, and an event can be a cause or an effect, but not a language. -

- Other modal connections - Like many Lojban grammatical constructions, sentence modal conne= ction has both forethought and afterthought forms. (See=20 - for a more detailed discussion= of Lojban connectives.)=20 - exemplifies only afterthought moda= l connection, illustrated here by: - - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>grasp water</primary><secondary>examp= le</secondary></indexterm> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d1"/> - - - mi jgari lei djacu .iri'abo mi jgari le kabri - I grasp the-mass-of water with-physical-cause I grasp the c= up. - Causing the mass of water to be grasped by me, I grasped th= e cup. - I grasp the water because I grasp the cup. - - - =20 - - - forethought connectiondefinition afterthought connectiondefinit= ion An afterthought connection is one that is signa= led only by a cmavo (or a compound cmavo, in this case) between the two con= structs being connected. Forethought connection uses a signal both before t= he first construct and between the two: the use of=20 - =20 - both and=20 - and in the first half of this sentence represents a for= ethought connection (though not a modal one). - =20 - =20 - modal sentence con= nectionforethought forethought modal sentence connection To make forethought modal sentence connections in Lojb= an, place the modal plus=20 - gi before the first bridi, and=20 - gi between the two. No=20 - i is used within the construct. The forethought equival= ent of=20 - is: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d2"/> - - - ri'agi mi jgari le kabri gi mi jgari lei djacu - With-physical-cause I grasp the cup, I grasp the-mass-of wa= ter. - Because I grasp the cup, I grasp the water. - - - forethought modal= sentence connectionrelation to modal of second bridi = in f= orethought modal sentence connectionrelation to modal = of first bridi in forethought modal sentence connection for causalsorder of cause and effect Note that the ca= use, the x1 of=20 - rinka is now placed first. To keep the two bridi in the= original order of=20 - , we could say: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d3"/> - - - seri'agi mi jgari lei djacu gi mi jgari le kabri - With-physical-effect I grasp the-mass-of water, I grasp the= cup. - - - In English, the sentence=20 - Therefore I grasp the water, I grasp the cup is ungramm= atical, because=20 - therefore is not grammatically equivalent to=20 - because. In Lojban,=20 - seri'agi can be used just like=20 - ri'agi. - modal sentence co= nnectioncondensing When the tw= o bridi joined by a modal connection have one or more elements (selbri or s= umti or both) in common, there are various condensed forms that can be used= in place of full modal sentence connection with both bridi completely stat= ed. - =20 - sumti modal conne= ction = modal sumti connection When the bridi are the same ex= cept for a single sumti, as in Examples 8.1 through 8.3, then a sumti modal= connection may be employed: - =20 - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d4"/> - - - mi jgari ri'agi le kabri gi lei djacu - I grasp because the cup, the-mass-of water. - - - - means exactly the same as= =20 - through=20 - , but there is no idiomatic = English translation that will distinguish it from them. - termset modal con= nection modalstermset connection If = the two connected bridi are different in more than one sumti, then a termse= t may be employed. Termsets are explained more fully in=20 - , but are essentially a mechanism = for creating connections between multiple sumti simultaneously. - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d5"/> - - - mi dunda le cukta la djan. .imu'ibo la djan. dunda lei jdini = mi - I gave the book to John. Motivated-by John gave the-mass-of= money to-me. - I gave the book to John, because John gave money to me. - - - means the same as: - nu'u nu'i - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d6"/> - - - nu'i mu'igi la djan. lei jdini mi gi mi le cukta la djan. nu'= u dunda - [start] because John, the-mass-of money, me; I, the book, J= ohn [end] gives. - - - Here there are three sumti in each half of the termset, because = the two bridi share only their selbri. - bridi-tail modal = connection modal bridi-tail connection modal connection of selbriu= sing bridi-tail modal connection There is no modal = connection between selbri as such: bridi which differ only in the selbri ca= n be modally connected using bridi-tail modal connection. The bridi-tail co= nstruct is more fully explained in=20 - =20 - , but essentially it consist= s of a selbri with optional sumti following it.=20 - is suitable for bridi-tail = connection, and could be shortened to: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d7"/> - - - mi mu'igi viska le cukta gi lebna le cukta - I, because saw the book, took the book. - - - Again, no straightforward English translation exists. It is even= possible to shorten=20 - further to: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d8"/> - - - mi mu'igi viska gi lebna vau le cukta - I because saw, therefore took, the book. - - - where=20 - le cukta is set off by the non-elidable=20 - vau and is made to belong to both bridi-tails – s= ee=20 - for more explanations. - shared bridi-tail= sumtiavoiding vau for shared bridi-tail sumtiavoiding Since this is a chapter on rearra= nging sumti, it is worth pointing out that=20 - can be further rearranged t= o: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d9"/> - - - mi le cukta mu'igi viska gi lebna - I, the book, because saw, therefore took. - - - which doesn't require the extra=20 - vau; all sumti before a conjunction of bridi-tails are = shared. - operand modal con= nection modal operand connection Finally, mathematical oper= ands can be modally connected. - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d10"/> - - - li ny. du li vo .ini'ibo li ny. du li re su'i re - the number n =3D the-number 4. Entailed-by the-number n =3D= the-number 2 + 2. - n =3D 4 because n =3D 2 + 2. - - - can be reduced to: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e8d11"/> - - - li ny. du li ni'igi vei re su'i re [ve'o] gi vo - the-number n =3D the-number because ( 2 + 2 ) therefore 4.<= /gloss> - n is 2 + 2, and is thus 4. - - - The cmavo=20 - vei and=20 - ve'o represent mathematical parentheses, and are requir= ed so that=20 - ni'igi affects more than just the immediately f= ollowing operand, namely the first=20 - re. (The right parenthesis,=20 - ve'o, is an elidable terminator.) As usual, no English = translation does=20 - justice. - modal connectives= fi'o prohibited in fi'orestriction on= use Note: Due to restrictions on the Lojban parsin= g algorithm, it is not possible to form modal connectives using the=20 - =20 - fi'o-plus-selbri form of modal. Only the predef= ined modals of selma'o BAI can be compounded as shown in=20 - and=20 - . -

- Modal selbri - Consider the example: - - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>under compulsion</primary><secondary>= example</secondary></indexterm> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e9d1"/> - - - mi tavla bau la lojban. bai tu'a la frank. - I speak in-language Lojban with-compeller some-act-by Frank= . - I speak in Lojban, under compulsion by Frank. - =20 - - - =20 - - - modal sumtiunspecified modal sumtileaving vague=20 - has two modal sumti, using = the modals=20 - =20 - =20 - bau and=20 - bai. Suppose we wanted to specify the language explicit= ly but be vague about who's doing the compelling. We can simplify=20 - to: - - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>under compulsion</primary><secondary>= example</secondary></indexterm> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e9d2"/> - - - mi tavla bau la lojban. bai [ku]. - I speak in-language Lojban under-compulsion. - - - In=20 - , the elidable terminator=20 - ku has taken the place of the sumti which would normall= y follow=20 - bai. Alternatively, we could specify the one who compel= s but keep the language vague: - - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>under compulsion</primary><secondary>= example</secondary></indexterm> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e9d3"/> - - - mi tavla bau [ku] bai tu'a la frank. - I speak in-some-language under-compulsion-by some-act-by Fr= ank. - - - We are also free to move the modal-plus-=20 - ku around the bridi: - - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>under compulsion</primary><secondary>= example</secondary></indexterm> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e9d4"/> - - - bau [ku] bai ku mi tavla - In-some-language under-compulsion I speak. - - - modal followed by= selbrieffect on eliding cu An= alternative to using=20 - ku is to place the modal cmavo right before the selbri,= following the=20 - =20 - cu which often appears there. When a modal is present, = the=20 - cu is almost never necessary. - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e9d5"/> - - - mi bai tavla bau la lojban. - I compelledly speak in-language Lojban. - - - modal followed by= selbricontrasted with tanru modification in grammar modal= followed by selbricompared with tanru modification in= meaning In this use, the modal is like a tanru mod= ifier semantically, although grammatically it is quite distinct.=20 - is very similar in meaning = to: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e9d6"/> - - - mi se bapli tavla bau la lojban. - I compelledly-speak in-language Lojban. - - - The=20 - se conversion is needed because=20 - bapli tavla would be a=20 - compeller type of speaker rather than a=20 - compelled (by someone) type of speaker, which is what a= =20 - bai tavla is. - fi'o modal follow= ed by selbrieffect on eliding fe'u If the modal preceding a selbri is constructed using=20 - fi'o, then=20 - fe'u is required to prevent the main selbri and the mod= al selbri from colliding: - - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>see with eye</primary><secondary>exam= ple</secondary></indexterm> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e9d7"/> - - - mi fi'o kanla fe'u viska do - I with-eye see you. - I see you with my eye(s). - - - bai ke =20 - - - modalsexpanding scope over inner modal connection modalsexpandi= ng scope over non-logical connection modalsexpanding scope= over logical connection with ke ... ke'e There are= two other uses of modals. A modal can be attached to a pair of bridi-tails= that have already been connected by a logical, non-logical, or modal conne= ction (see=20 - for more on logical and non-lo= gical connections): - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e9d8"/> - - - mi bai ke ge klama le zarci gi cadzu le bisli [ke'e] - =20 - I under-compulsion (both go to-the market and walk on-the i= ce). - Under compulsion, I both go to the market and walk on the= ice. - - - Here the=20 - bai is spread over both=20 - klama le zarci and=20 - cadzu le bisli, and the=20 - ge ... gi represents the logical connection=20 - both-and between the two. - modalsexpanding scope over multiple sentences with tu'e=E2=80=A6tu'u Similarly, a modal can be attached to multiple sentenc= es that have been combined with=20 - tu'e and=20 - tu'u, which are explained in more detail in=20 - : - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e9d9"/> - - - bai tu'e mi klama le zarci .i mi cadzu le bisli [tu'u] - Under-compulsion [start] I go to-the market. I walk on-the = ice [end]. - - - means the same thing as=20 - . - Note: Either BAI modals or=20 - fi'o-plus-selbri modals may correctly be used i= n any of the constructions discussed in this section. -

- Modal relative phrases; Comparison - The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - - pe - GOI - restrictive relative phrase - - - ne - GOI - incidental relative phrase - - - mau - =20 - BAI - zmadu modal - - - me'a - =20 - BAI - mleca modal - - - Relative phrases and clauses are explained in much more detail i= n=20 - . However, there is a cons= truction which combines a modal with a relative phrase which is relevant to= this chapter. Consider the following examples of relative clauses: - - - <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Artur Rubenstein</primary><secondar= y>example</secondary></indexterm> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d1"/> - - - la .apasionatas. poi se cusku la .artr. rubnstain. cu se nelc= i mi - The Appassionata which is-expressed-by Arthur Rubinstein is= -liked-by me. - =20 - - - - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Beethoven</primary><secondary>example= </secondary></indexterm> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d2"/> - - - la .apasionatas. noi se finti la betovn. cu se nelci mi - The Appassionata, which is-created-by Beethoven, is-liked-b= y me. - =20 - =20 - - - - - - In=20 - ,=20 - la .apasionatas. refers to a particular perform= ance of the sonata, namely the one performed by Rubinstein. Therefore, the = relative clause=20 - poi se cusku uses the cmavo=20 - poi (of selma'o NOI) to restrict the meaning of=20 - la .apasionatas to the performance in question.= - In=20 - , however,=20 - la .apasionatas. refers to the sonata as a whol= e, and the information that it was composed by Beethoven is merely incident= al. The cmavo=20 - =20 - noi (also of selma'o NOI) expresses the incidental natu= re of this relationship. - The cmavo=20 - pe and=20 - ne (of selma'o GOI) are roughly equivalent to=20 - poi and=20 - noi respectively, but are followed by sumti rather than= full bridi. We can abbreviate=20 - and=20 - to: - - - <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Appassionata</primary><secondary>ex= ample</secondary></indexterm> - <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Artur Rubenstein</primary><secondar= y>example</secondary></indexterm> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d3"/> - - - la .apasionatas. pe la .artr. rubnstain. se nelci mi - The Appassionata of Arthur Rubinstein is-liked-by me. - =20 - - - - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Beethoven</primary><secondary>example= </secondary></indexterm> - <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Appassionata</primary><secondary>ex= ample</secondary></indexterm> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d4"/> - - - la .apasionatas. ne la betovn. se nelci mi - The Appassionata, which is of Beethoven, is-liked-by me. - =20 - =20 - - - relative phrases<= /primary>contrasted with relative clauses in preciseness Here the precise selbri of the relative clauses is lost: a= ll we can tell is that the Appassionata is connected in some way with Rubin= stein (in=20 - =20 - ) and Beethoven (in=20 - =20 - ), and that the relationship= s are respectively restrictive and incidental. - It happens that both=20 - cusku and=20 - finti have BAI cmavo, namely=20 - cu'u and=20 - =20 - fi'e. We can recast=20 - =20 - and=20 - as: - - - <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Appassionata</primary><secondary>ex= ample</secondary></indexterm> - <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Artur Rubenstein</primary><secondar= y>example</secondary></indexterm> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d5"/> - - - la .apasionatas pe cu'u la .artr. rubnstain. cu se nelci mi - =20 - The Appassionata expressed-by Arthur Rubinstein is-liked-by= me. - =20 - - - - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Beethoven</primary><secondary>example= </secondary></indexterm> - <indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>Appassionata</primary><secondary>ex= ample</secondary></indexterm> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d6"/> - - - la .apasionatas ne fi'e la betovn. cu se nelci mi - =20 - The Appassionata, invented-by Beethoven, is-liked-by me. - =20 - =20 - - - modals<= secondary>improving relative phrase preciseness with relative phrasesimproving preciseness with modals relative phrases with modalscompared to relative clauses in preciseness=20 - and=20 - have the full semantic cont= ent of=20 - and=20 - respectively. - "less"English= wordexpressing with relative phrases "more"English wordexpressing with relative= phrases Modal relative phrases are often used with = the BAI cmavo=20 - mau and=20 - =20 - me'a, which are based on the comparative gismu=20 - =20 - zmadu (more than) and=20 - mleca (less than) respectively. The place structures ar= e: - - - zmadu: - x1 is more than x2 in property/quan= tity x3 by amount x4 - - - mleca: - x1 is less than x2 in property/quan= tity x3 by amount x4 - - - Here are some examples: - - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>likes more than</primary><secondary>e= xample</secondary></indexterm> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d7"/> - - - la frank. nelci la betis. ne semau la meiris. - Frank likes Betty, which-is more-than Mary. - Frank likes Betty more than (he likes) Mary. - - - =20 - - -=20 - requires that Frank likes B= etty, but adds the information that his liking for Betty exceeds his liking= for Mary. The modal appears in the form=20 - semau because the x2 place of=20 - zmadu is the basis for comparison: in this case, Frank'= s liking for Mary. - =20 - =20 - - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>likes more than</primary><secondary>e= xample</secondary></indexterm> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d8"/> - - - la frank. nelci la meiris. ne seme'a la betis. - Frank likes Mary, which-is less-than Betty. - Frank likes Mary less than (he likes) Betty. - - - me'aavoiding in favor of semau mauavoiding in favor of= seme'a Here we are told that Frank likes Mary less= than he likes Betty; the information about the comparison is the same. It = would be possible to rephrase=20 - =20 - using=20 - me'a rather than=20 - =20 - semau, and=20 - using=20 - mau rather than=20 - =20 - seme'a, but such usage would be unnecessarily confusing= . Like many BAI cmavo,=20 - mau and=20 - =20 - me'a are more useful when converted with=20 - =20 - se. - "less"English= wordimportance of relative phrase to "more"English wordimportance of relative p= hrase to If the=20 - ne were omitted in=20 - and=20 - , the modal sumti (=20 - =20 - =20 - la meiris. and=20 - la betis. respectively) would become attached t= o the bridi as a whole, producing a very different translation.=20 - would become: - - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>likes more than</primary><secondary>e= xample</secondary></indexterm> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d9"/> - - - la frank. nelci la meiris. seme'a la betis. - Frank likes Mary is-less-than Betty. - Frank's liking Mary is less than Betty. - - - which compares a liking with a person, and is therefore nonsense= . - bridi-based compa= risoncontrasted with comparison with relative phrasein claims about parts comparison with relative phrasecontrasted with bridi-based comparisoni= n claims about parts comparisonclaims related to based on f= orm Pure comparison, which states only the comparat= ive information but says nothing about whether Frank actually likes either = Mary or Betty (he may like neither, but dislike Betty less), would be expre= ssed differently, as: - =20 - - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>likes more than</primary><secondary>e= xample</secondary></indexterm> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e10d10"/> - - - le ni la frank. nelci la betis. cu zmadu le ni la frank. nelc= i la meiris. - The quantity-of Frank's liking Betty is-more-than the quant= ity-of Frank's liking Mary. - - - modals often attac= hed with relative phraseslist = The mechanisms explained in this section are appropriate to many modals oth= er than=20 - semau and=20 - seme'a. Some other modals that are often associated wit= h relative phrases are:=20 - seba'i (=20 - =20 - instead of),=20 - ci'u (=20 - =20 - on scale),=20 - de'i (=20 - =20 - dated),=20 - du'i (=20 - =20 - as much as). Some BAI tags can be used equally well in = relative phrases or attached to bridi; others seem useful only attached to = bridi. But it is also possible that the usefulness of particular BAI modals= is an English-speaker bias, and that speakers of other languages may find = other BAIs useful in divergent ways. - fi'o modalsusage in relative phrases Note: The = uses of modals discussed in this section are applicable both to BAI modals = and to=20 - fi'o-plus-selbri modals. -

- Mixed modal connection - It is possible to mix logical connection (explained in=20 - ) with modal connection, in a w= ay that simultaneously asserts the logical connection and the modal relatio= nship. Consider the sentences: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e11d1"/> - - - mi nelci do .ije mi nelci la djein. - I like you. And I like Jane. - - - which is a logical connection, and - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e11d2"/> - - - mi nelci do .iki'ubo mi nelci la djein. - I like you. Justified-by I like Jane. - - - mixed modal conne= ctionof sentences modal connectionsim= ultaneous with logical connectionsimultaneously modal and = logical The meanings of=20 - and=20 - can be simultaneously expre= ssed by combining the two compound cmavo, thus: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e11d3"/> - - - mi nelci do .ijeki'ubo mi nelci la djein. - I like you. And justified-by I like Jane. - - - mixed modal conne= ctiondefinition Here the two s= entences=20 - mi nelci do and=20 - mi nelci la djein. are simultaneously asserted,= their logical connection is asserted, and their causal relationship is ass= erted. The logical connective=20 - je comes before the modal=20 - ki'u in all such mixed connections. - =20 - Since=20 - mi nelci do and=20 - mi nelci la djein. differ only in the final sum= ti, we can transform=20 - into a mixed sumti connecti= on: - =20 - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e11d4"/> - - - mi nelci do .eki'ubo la djein. - I like you and/because Jane. - - - mixed modal conne= ctionas proscribed in forethought mixed modal connectionafterthought mixed modal connectionof s= umti Note that this connection is an afterthought o= ne. Mixed connectives are always afterthought; forethought connectives must= be either logical or modal. - =20 - mixed modal conne= ctionof bridi-tails There are = numerous other afterthought logical and non-logical connectives that can ha= ve modal information planted within them. For example, a bridi-tail connect= ed version of=20 - would be: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e11d5"/> - - - mi nelci do gi'eki'ubo nelci la djein. - I like you and/because like Jane. - - - The following three complex examples all mean the same thing. - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e11d6"/> - - - mi bevri le dakli .ijeseri'abo tu'e mi bevri le gerku .ijadu'= ibo mi bevri le mlatu [tu'u] - I carry the sack. And [effect] (I carry the dog. And/or [eq= ual] I carry the cat.) - I carry the sack. As a result I carry the dog or I carry = the cat, equally. - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e11d7"/> - - - mi bevri le dakli gi'eseri'ake bevri le gerku gi'adu'ibo bevr= i le mlatu [ke'e] - I carry the sack and [effect] (carry the dog and/or [equal]= carry the cat). - I carry the sack and as a result carry the dog or carry t= he cat equally. - - - - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>carry sack</primary><secondary>exampl= e</secondary></indexterm> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e11d8"/> - - - mi bevri le dakli .eseri'ake le gerku .adu'ibo le mlatu [ke'e= ] - I carry the sack and [effect] (the cat and/or [equal] the d= og). - I carry the sack, and as a result the cat or the dog equa= lly. - - - =20 - - - In=20 - , the=20 - tu'e…tu'u brackets are the equiva= lent of the=20 - ke…ke'e brackets in=20 - and=20 - , because=20 - ke…ke'e cannot extend across more= than one sentence. It would also be possible to change the=20 - .ijeseri'abo to=20 - .ije seri'a, which would show that the=20 - tu'e…tu'u portion was an effect, = but would not pin down the=20 - mi bevri le dakli portion as the cause. It is l= egal for a modal (or a tense; see=20 - ) to modify the whole of a=20 - tu'e…tu'u construct. - fi'omixed modal connection with Note: The uses = of modals discussed in this section are applicable both to BAI modals and t= o=20 - fi'o-plus-selbri modals. -

- Modal conversion: JAI - The following cmavo are discussed in this section: - - - jai - JAI - modal conversion - =20 - - - fai - FA - modal place structure tag - - - BAI selma'o SE = selma'o conversionswapping with modal place So far, conversion of numbered bridi places with SE and the additio= n of modal places with BAI have been two entirely separate operations. Howe= ver, it is possible to convert a selbri in such a way that, rather than exc= hanging two numbered places, a modal place is made into a numbered place. F= or example, - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e12d1"/> - - - mi cusku bau la lojban. - I express [something] in-language Lojban. - - - place structureeffect of modal conversion on <= indexterm type=3D"general-imported">conversionmodal modal conversionplace structure of modal conversiongrammar of has an explicit x1 plac= e occupied by=20 - mi and an explicit=20 - bau place occupied by=20 - la lojban. To exchange these two, we use a moda= l conversion operator consisting of=20 - =20 - jai (of selma'o JAI) followed by the modal cmavo. Thus,= the modal conversion of=20 - =20 - =20 - is: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e12d2"/> - - - la lojban. jai bau cusku fai mi - Lojban is-the-language-of-expression used-by me. - - - faias allowing access to original first place in modal conversion modal con= versionaccess to original first place with fai In=20 - , the modal place=20 - la lojban. has become the x1 place of the new s= elbri=20 - jai bau cusku. What has happened to the old x1 = place? There is no numbered place for it to move to, so it moves to a speci= al=20 - unnumbered place marked by the tag=20 - fai of selma'o FA. - faieffect on numbering of place structure places Note: For the purposes of place numbering,=20 - fai behaves like=20 - fi'a; it does not affect the numbering of the other pla= ces around it. - =20 - modal conversions= in descriptions Like SE conver= sions, JAI conversions are especially convenient in descriptions. We may re= fer to=20 - the language of an expression as=20 - le jai bau cusku, for example. - modal conversion<= /primary>with no modal specified jai without modalmeaning In addition, it is grammatical to use=20 - jai without a following modal. This usage is not relate= d to modals, but is explained here for completeness. The effect of=20 - jai by itself is to send the x1 place, which should be = an abstraction, into the=20 - fai position, and to raise one of the sumti from the ab= stract sub-bridi into the x1 place of the main bridi. This feature is discu= ssed in more detail in=20 - . The following two examples = mean the same thing: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e12d3"/> - - - le nu mi lebna le cukta cu se krinu le nu mi viska le cukta - The event-of (I take the book) is-justified-by the event-of= (I see the book). - My taking the book is justified by my seeing it. - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e12d4"/> - - - mi jai se krinu le nu mi viska le cukta kei [fai le nu mi leb= na le cukta] - I am-justified by the event-of (I see the book) [namely, th= e event-of (I take the book)] - I am justified in taking the book by seeing the book. - - - modal conversion = without modalas vague=20 - , with the bracketed part om= itted, allows us to say that=20 - I am justified whereas in fact it is my action that is = justified. This construction is vague, but useful in representing natural-l= anguage methods of expression. - fi'oand modal conversion modal conversion with fi'o N= ote: The uses of modals discussed in this section are applicable both to BA= I modals and to=20 - fi'o-plus-selbri modals. -

- Modal negation - modals<= secondary>negation of negation of modals Negation is expl= ained in detail in=20 - . There are two forms of negation = in Lojban: contradictory and scalar negation. Contradictory negation expres= ses what is false, whereas scalar negation says that some alternative to wh= at has been stated is true. A simple example is the difference between=20 - John didn't go to Paris (contradictory negation) and=20 - John went to (somewhere) other than Paris (scalar negat= ion). - modalscontradictory negation of negation of modalscontr= adictory Contradictory negation involving BAI cmavo= is performed by appending=20 - -nai (of selma'o NAI) to the BAI. A common use = of modals with=20 - -nai is to deny a causal relationship: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e13d1"/> - - - mi nelci do mu'inai le nu do nelci mi - I like you, but not because you like me. - - - contradictory neg= ation of modalsexplanation of meaning=20 - denies that the relationshi= p between my liking you (which is asserted) and your liking me (which is no= t asserted) is one of motivation. Nothing is said about whether you like me= or not, merely that that hypothetical liking is not the motivation for my = liking you. - modalsscalar negation of negation of modalsscalar Scalar negation is achieved by prefixing=20 - na'e (of selma'o NAhE), or any of the other cmavo of NA= hE, to the BAI cmavo. - - -<indexterm type=3D"example"><primary>plant grows</primary><secondary>examp= le</secondary></indexterm> - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e13d2"/> - - - le spati cu banro na'emu'i le nu do djacu dunda fi le spati - The plant grows other-than-motivated-by the event-of you wa= ter-give to the plant. - - - =20 - - - scalar negation of modals<= /primary>explanation of meaning=20 - says that the relationship = between the plant's growth and your watering it is not one of motivation: t= he plant is not motivated to grow, as plants are not something which can ha= ve motivation as a rule. Implicitly, some other relationship between wateri= ng and growth exists, but=20 - =20 - doesn't say what it is (pre= sumably=20 - ri'a). - fi'o modalsnegation of by negating selbri negation of fi'o modals= by negating selbri Note: Modals made wit= h=20 - fi'o plus a selbri cannot be negated directly. The selb= ri can itself be negated either with contradictory or with scalar negation,= however. -

- Sticky modals - The following cmavo is discussed in this section: - - - ki - KI - stickiness flag - - - modalsmaking sticky modalsmaking long-scope= sticky modalsdefinition Like tenses, modals c= an be made persistent from the bridi in which they appear to all following = bridi. The effect of this=20 - stickiness is to make the modal, along with its followi= ng sumti, act as if it appeared in every successive bridi. Stickiness is pu= t into effect by following the modal (but not any following sumti) with the= cmavo=20 - ki of selma'o KI. For example, - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e14d1"/> - - - mi tavla bau la lojban. bai ki tu'a la frank. .ibabo mi tavla= bau la gliban. - I speak in-language Lojban compelled-by some-property-of Fr= ank. Afterward, I speak in-language English. - - =20 - means the same as: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e14d2"/> - - - mi tavla bau la lojban. bai tu'a la frank. .ibabo mi tavla ba= u la gliban. bai tu'a la frank. - I speak in-language Lojban compelled-by some-property-of Fr= ank. Afterward, I speak in-language English compelled-by some-property-of F= rank. - - - In=20 - ,=20 - bai is made sticky, and so Frank's compelling is made a= pplicable to every following bridi.=20 - bau is not sticky, and so the language may vary from br= idi to bridi, and if not specified in a particular bridi, no assumption can= safely be made about its value. - sticky modalscanceling To cancel stickiness, us= e the form=20 - BAI ki ku, which stops any modal value for the = specified BAI from being passed to the next bridi. To cancel stickiness for= all modals simultaneously, and also for any sticky tenses that exist (=20 - ki is used for both modals and tenses), use=20 - ki by itself, either before the selbri or (in the form= =20 - ki ku) anywhere in the bridi: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e14d3"/> - - - mi ki tavla - I speak (no implication about language or compulsion). - - - fi'oproscribed for sticky modals sticky modalsfi'o pro= scribed from Note: Modals made with=20 - fi'o-plus-selbri cannot be made sticky. This is an unfo= rtunate, but unavoidable, restriction. -

- Logical and non-logical connection of modals - =20 - non-logical conne= ctionof modals logical connectionof m= odals Logical and non-logical connectives are expla= ined in detail in=20 - . For the purposes of this chap= ter, it suffices to point out that a logical (or non-logical) connection be= tween two bridi which differ only in a modal can be reduced to a single bri= di with a connective between the modals. As a result,=20 - and=20 - mean the same thing: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e15d1"/> - - - la frank. bajra seka'a le zdani .ije la frank. bajra teka'a l= e zdani - Frank runs with-destination the house. And Frank runs with-= origin the house. - Frank runs to the house, and Frank runs from the house. - - - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e15d2"/> - - - la frank. bajra seka'a je teka'a le zdani - Frank runs with-destination and with-origin the house. - Frank runs to and from the house. - - - je Neither example implies whether a single act, or two acts, of ru= nning is referred to. To compel the sentence to refer to a single act of ru= nning, you can use the form: - - - <anchor xml:id=3D"c9e15d3"/> - - - la frank. bajra seka'a le zdani ce'e teka'a le zdani - Frank runs with-destination the house [joined-to] with-orig= in the-house. - - - The cmavo=20 - ce'e creates a termset containing two terms (termsets a= re explained in=20 - and=20 - ). When a termset contains more= than one modal tag derived from a single BAI, the convention is that the t= wo tags are derived from a common event. -

- CV'V cmavo of selma'o BAI with irregular forms - modal cmavoregular form for derivation There ar= e 65 cmavo of selma'o BAI, of which all but one (=20 - do'e, discussed in=20 - =20 - ), are derived directly from selected g= ismu. Of these 64 cmavo, 36 are entirely regular and have the form CV'V, wh= ere C is the first consonant of the corresponding gismu, and the Vs are the= two vowels of the gismu. The remaining BAI cmavo, which are irregular in o= ne way or another, are listed in the table below. The table is divided into= sub-tables according to the nature of the exception; some cmavo appear in = more than one sub-table, and are so noted. - - - cmavo - gismu - comments - - Monosyllables of the form CVV: - - bai - bapli - - - bau - bangu - - - cau - claxu - - - fau - fasnu - - - gau - gasnu - - - kai - ckaji - uses 2nd consonant of gismu - - - mau - zmadu - uses 2nd consonant of gismu - - - - koi - korbi - - - rai - traji - uses 2nd consonant of gismu - - - sau - sarcu - - - tai - tamsmi - based on lujvo, not gismu - - - zau - zanru - - - - Second consonant of the gismu as the C: (the gismu is always = of the form CCVCV) - - ga'a - zgana - - - kai - ckaji - has CVV form (monosyllable) - - - ki'i - ckini - - - la'u - klani - has irregular 2nd V - - - le'a - klesi - has irregular 2nd V - - - mau - zmadu - has CVV form (monosyllable) - - - - me'e - cmene - - - ra'a - srana - - - ra'i - krasi - - - rai - traji - has CVV form (monosyllable) - - - ti'i - stidi - - - tu'i - stuzi - - - - Irregular 2nd V: - - fi'e - finti - - - - la'u - klani - uses 2nd consonant of gismu - - - le'a - klesi - uses 2nd consonant of gismu - - - ma'e - marji - - - mu'u - mupli - - - ti'u - tcika - - - va'o - vanbi - - - - Special cases: - - ri'i - lifri - uses 3rd consonant of gismu - - - tai - tamsmi - based on lujvo, not gismu - - - va'u - xamgu - CV'V cmavo can't begin with x - - - -

- Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents</tit= le> - <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>modal cmavo table= </primary><secondary>format of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type=3D"= general-imported"><primary>modal cmavo</primary><secondary>table with Engli= sh equivalents</secondary></indexterm> The following table shows all the cm= avo belonging to selma'o BAI, and has five columns. The first column is the= cmavo itself; the second column is the gismu linked to it. The third colum= n gives an English phrase which indicates the meaning of the cmavo; and the= fourth column indicates its meaning when preceded by=20 - <valsi>se</valsi>.</para> - <para>For those cmavo with meaningful=20 - <valsi>te</valsi>,=20 - <valsi>ve</valsi>, and even=20 - <valsi>xe</valsi> conversions (depending on the number of places of th= e underlying gismu), the meanings of these are shown on one or two extra ro= ws following the primary row for that cmavo.</para> - <para> <indexterm type=3D"general-imported"><primary>modal cmavo</prim= ary><secondary>basis in gismu place structure</secondary></indexterm> It sh= ould be emphasized that the place structures of the gismu control the meani= ngs of the BAI cmavo. The English phrases shown here are only suggestive, a= nd are often too broad or too narrow to correctly specify what the acceptab= le range of uses for the modal tag are.</para> - <cmavo-list> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>ba'i</cmavo> - <gismu>basti</gismu> - <modal-place>replaced by</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">instead of</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>bai</cmavo> - <gismu>bapli</gismu> - <modal-place>compelled by</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">compelling</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>bau</cmavo> - <gismu>bangu</gismu> - <modal-place>in language</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">in language of</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>be'i</cmavo> - <gismu>benji</gismu> - <modal-place>sent by</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">transmitting</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"te">sent to</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"ve">with transmit origin</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"xe">transmitted via</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>ca'i</cmavo> - <gismu>catni</gismu> - <modal-place>by authority of</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">with authority over</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>cau</cmavo> - <gismu>claxu</gismu> - <modal-place>lacked by</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">without</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>ci'e</cmavo> - <gismu>ciste</gismu> - <modal-place>in system</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">with system function</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"te">of system components</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>ci'o</cmavo> - <gismu>cinmo</gismu> - <modal-place>felt by</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">feeling emotion</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>ci'u</cmavo> - <gismu>ckilu</gismu> - <modal-place>on the scale</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">on scale measuring</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>cu'u</cmavo> - <gismu>cusku</gismu> - <modal-place>as said by</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">expressing</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"te">as told to</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"ve">expressed in medium</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>de'i</cmavo> - <gismu>detri</gismu> - <modal-place>dated</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">on the same date as</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>di'o</cmavo> - <gismu>diklo</gismu> - <modal-place>at the locus of</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">at specific locus</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo><valsi>do'e</valsi></cmavo> - <gismu>-----</gismu> - <modal-place>vaguely related to</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>du'i</cmavo> - <gismu>dunli</gismu> - <modal-place>as much as</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">equal to</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>du'o</cmavo> - <gismu>djuno</gismu> - <modal-place>according to</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">knowing facts</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"te">knowing about</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"ve">under epistemology</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>fa'e</cmavo> - <gismu>fatne</gismu> - <modal-place>reverse of</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">in reversal of</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo><valsi>fau</valsi></cmavo> - <gismu><valsi>fasnu</valsi></gismu> - <modal-place>in the event of</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>fi'e</cmavo> - <gismu>finti</gismu> - <modal-place>created by</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">creating work</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"te">created for purpose</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>ga'a</cmavo> - <gismu>zgana</gismu> - <modal-place>to observer</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">observing</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"te">observed by means</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"ve">observed under conditions</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>gau</cmavo> - <gismu>gasnu</gismu> - <modal-place>with agent</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">as agent in doing</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>ja'e</cmavo> - <gismu>jalge</gismu> - <modal-place>resulting in</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">results because of</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>ja'i</cmavo> - <gismu>javni</gismu> - <modal-place>by rule</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">by rule prescribing</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>ji'e</cmavo> - <gismu>jimte</gismu> - <modal-place>up to limit</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">as a limit of</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>ji'o</cmavo> - <gismu>jitro</gismu> - <modal-place>under direction</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">controlling</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>ji'u</cmavo> - <gismu>jicmu</gismu> - <modal-place>based on</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">supporting</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>ka'a</cmavo> - <gismu>klama</gismu> - <modal-place>gone to by</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">with destination</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"te">with origin</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"ve">via route</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"xe">by transport mode</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>ka'i</cmavo> - <gismu>krati</gismu> - <modal-place>represented by</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">on behalf of</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>kai</cmavo> - <gismu>ckaji</gismu> - <modal-place>characterizing</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">with property</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>ki'i</cmavo> - <gismu>ckini</gismu> - <modal-place>as relation of</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">related to</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"te">with relation</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>ki'u</cmavo> - <gismu>krinu</gismu> - <modal-place>justified by</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">with justified result</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>koi</cmavo> - <gismu>korbi</gismu> - <modal-place>bounded by</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">as boundary of</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"te">bordering</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>ku'u</cmavo> - <gismu>kulnu</gismu> - <modal-place>in culture</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">in culture of</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>la'u</cmavo> - <gismu>klani</gismu> - <modal-place>as quantity of</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">in quantity</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>le'a</cmavo> - <gismu>klesi</gismu> - <modal-place>in category</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">as category of</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"te">defined by quality</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>li'e</cmavo> - <gismu>lidne</gismu> - <modal-place>led by</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">leading</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>ma'e</cmavo> - <gismu>marji</gismu> - <modal-place>of material</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">made from material</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"te">in material form of</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>ma'i</cmavo> - <gismu>manri</gismu> - <modal-place>in reference frame</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">as a standard of</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>mau</cmavo> - <gismu>zmadu</gismu> - <modal-place>exceeded by</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">more than</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>me'a</cmavo> - <gismu>mleca</gismu> - <modal-place>undercut by</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">less than</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>me'e</cmavo> - <gismu>cmene</gismu> - <modal-place>with name</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">as a name for</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"te">as a name to</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>mu'i</cmavo> - <gismu>mukti</gismu> - <modal-place>motivated by</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">motive therefore</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>mu'u</cmavo> - <gismu>mupli</gismu> - <modal-place>exemplified by</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">as an example of</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>ni'i</cmavo> - <gismu>nibli</gismu> - <modal-place>entailed by</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">entails</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>pa'a</cmavo> - <gismu>panra</gismu> - <modal-place>in addition to</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">similar to</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"te">similar in pattern</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"ve">similar by standard</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>pa'u</cmavo> - <gismu>pagbu</gismu> - <modal-place>with component</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">as a part of</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>pi'o</cmavo> - <gismu>pilno</gismu> - <modal-place>used by</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">using tool</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>po'i</cmavo> - <gismu>porsi</gismu> - <modal-place>in the sequence</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">sequenced by rule</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>pu'a</cmavo> - <gismu>pluka</gismu> - <modal-place>pleased by</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">in order to please</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>pu'e</cmavo> - <gismu>pruce</gismu> - <modal-place>by process</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">processing from</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"te">processing into</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"ve">passing through stages</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo><valsi>ra'a</valsi></cmavo> - <gismu><valsi>srana</valsi></gismu> - <modal-place>pertained to by</modal-place> - <modal-place>concerning</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo><valsi>ra'i</valsi></cmavo> - <gismu><valsi>krasi</valsi></gismu> - <modal-place>from source</modal-place> - <modal-place>as an origin of</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>rai</cmavo> - <gismu>traji</gismu> - <modal-place>with superlative</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">superlative in</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"te">at extreme</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"ve">superlative among</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>ri'a</cmavo> - <gismu>rinka</gismu> - <modal-place>caused by</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">causing</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>ri'i</cmavo> - <gismu>lifri</gismu> - <modal-place>experienced by</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">experiencing</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>sau</cmavo> - <gismu>sarcu</gismu> - <modal-place>requiring</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">necessarily for</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"te">necessarily under conditions</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>si'u</cmavo> - <gismu>sidju</gismu> - <modal-place>aided by</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">assisting in</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>ta'i</cmavo> - <gismu>tadji</gismu> - <modal-place>by method</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">as a method for</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>tai</cmavo> - <gismu>tamsmi</gismu> - <modal-place>as a form of</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">in form</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"te">in form similar to</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>ti'i</cmavo> - <gismu>stidi</gismu> - <modal-place>suggested by</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">suggesting</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"te">suggested to</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>ti'u</cmavo> - <gismu>tcika</gismu> - <modal-place>with time</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">at the time of</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>tu'i</cmavo> - <gismu>stuzi</gismu> - <modal-place>with site</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">as location of</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>va'o</cmavo> - <gismu>vanbi</gismu> - <modal-place>under conditions</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">as conditions for</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>va'u</cmavo> - <gismu>xamgu</gismu> - <modal-place>benefiting from</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">with beneficiary</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>zau</cmavo> - <gismu>zanru</gismu> - <modal-place>approved by</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">approving</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - <cmavo-entry> - <cmavo>zu'e</cmavo> - <gismu>zukte</gismu> - <modal-place>with actor</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"se">with means to goal</modal-place> - <modal-place se=3D"te">with goal</modal-place> - </cmavo-entry> - </cmavo-list>=20 - <para>The lujvo=20 - <valsi>tamsmi</valsi> on which=20 - <valsi>tai</valsi> is based is derived from the tanru=20 - <jbophrase>tarmi simsa</jbophrase> and has the place structure:</para> - <definition> - <valsi>tamsmi</valsi> <content>x1 has form x2, similar in form to x3= in property/quality x4</content> - </definition> - <para>This lujvo is employed because=20 - <valsi>tarmi</valsi> does not have a place structure useful for the mo= dal's purpose.</para> - </section> -</chapter> diff --git a/scripts/build b/scripts/build new file mode 100755 index 0000000..0567c2b --- /dev/null +++ b/scripts/build @@ -0,0 +1,75 @@ +#!/bin/bash + +usage() { + echo " + +Usage: $0 [-s] [-t] [-T target] [chapters] + +-s: Replaces external xrefs in each chapter, so each chapter works standal= one. + +-t: Does what -s does, but also prevents most glossary processing so the g= lossary building goes much faster. + +-T target: Specifies the make target. Most of them are obvious. The _web= targets copy stuff into your ~/public_html/ web space. Complete list: + +$(grep '^[a-z][a-z_]*:' build/Makefile | sed 's/:.*//' | sed 's/^/ /') + +[chapters]: defaults to all chapters; if you specify less than all chapter= s, you must use -s or -t +" + exit 1 +} + +optlist=3D"" +target=3D"all" + +while getopts "sthT" opt +do + case "$opt" in + s) optlist=3D"$optlist -s";; + t) optlist=3D"$optlist -t";; + T) target=3D"$OPTARG";; + [?h]) usage;; + esac +done + +if [ $OPTIND -gt 1 ] +then + shift $(expr $OPTIND - 1) +fi + +chapters=3D"$*" + +if [ "$chapters" -a ! "$optlist" ] +then + echo " + +Since you specified chapters, you need to specify -s or -t. -t is faster. + +" + + usage +fi + +# Set up defaults +if [ ! "$chapters" ] +then + chapters=3D"$(ls chapters/* | tr '\012' ' ')" +fi + +echo "chapters: $chapters" +echo "optlist: $optlist" + +# See if we need to delete the cll.xml before we run make +echo "$optlist $chapters" >build/chapter-list.new +if [ ! -f build/chapter-list ] +then + touch build/chapter-list +fi + +if [ "$(diff -q build/chapter-list build/chapter-list.new)" ] +then + cp build/chapter-list.new build/chapter-list + echo -e "\nChapter list differences found; forcing a re-merge.\n" + rm -f cll.xml +fi + +make -f build/Makefile test=3D"$optlist" chapters=3D"$chapters" $target --=20 You received this message because you are subscribed to the Google Groups "= BPFK" group. To post to this group, send email to bpfk-list@googlegroups.com. To unsubscribe from this group, send email to bpfk-list+unsubscribe@googleg= roups.com. For more options, visit this group at http://groups.google.com/group/bpfk-l= ist?hl=3Den.