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Subject: Re: [lojban-beginners] What actually are the rules of word formation?
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de'i li 2015-04-19 ti'u li 16:18 li'ai TR NS di'e cusku:
> When I first learned about loglan/lojban I thought all words were of the
> form `CVCCV` or `CCVCV`, and compound words (lujvo) were always
> `(CVC|CCV)...CV`.

That seems correct for original, pre-rafsi Loglan. Words with other=20
shapes were invented later.

>                   I knew names had more flexibility. Later I learned
> that borrowed words did too. Even later I learned that compound words
> too had more flexible rules, e.g. hypen letters. And finally in the end,
> starring me in the face, it dawned on me that even simple words like
> `brivla` did not fit the original formations.

Par for the course. Most of the learning materials leave the morphology=20
unexplained, and even the CLL leaves some questions open.

> After reading a fair bit, I find myself more confused than ever. Are
> there any single set of definitive rules defining what and what isn't a
> legal lojban word?

Each parser has its own set of word formation rules. Most words in use=20
are recognized by all parsers but there are edge cases. I'll try to lay=20
out how camxes does it, since the existing documents explain it a little=20
disjointedly.

------ MEZOHE'S CONDENSED CLL 2.0 MORPHOLOGY CHAPTER COUNTERFEIT ------

=3D=3D=3D Phonemes =3D=3D=3D

At the most basic level, an utterance is made of phonemes. Here are the=20
main classes of phonemes (there are subclasses as seen later):

- consonants {zunsna}:
     bdgjvz (voiced), cfkpstx (unvoiced), lmnr (syllabic)
- glides {karmlisna}: i u
- h {me'o .y'y}: '
- word break (glottal stop) {depybu'i}: .
- vowels {karsna}: a e i o u
- diphthongs: au ai ei oi
- y {me'o .ybu}: y

The comma {me'o slaka bu} isn't a phoneme, but is used to separate=20
syllables for clarity. Removing it has no effect.

i and u are vowels, unless a vowel or diphthong follows, in which case=20
they are glides. Glide-diphthong pairs win over glide-vowel pairs, which=20
win over diphthongs.

At this level, strings of consonants follow these rules:
- consonants can be next to consonants, word breaks, vowels,
   diphthongs, and y
- no consonant can be followed by itself
- voiced consonants can't be next to voiceless ones, and vice versa
- sibilants (cjsz) can't be next to each other
- x can't be next to c or k
- the substrings mz, nts, ntc, ndz, ndj are not allowed

Glides must follow a word break, vowel, diphthong, or y, and be followed=20
by a vowel, diphthong, or y. i as a glide can't follow a diphthong=20
ending in i, and u as a glide can't follow the diphthong au.

h can't be next to a consonant, glide, or glottal stop.

Vowels, diphthongs, and y can be next to consonants, glides, h, and word=20
breaks.

=3D=3D=3D Syllables =3D=3D=3D

These are the shapes syllables {slaka} can have:

* Vowel syllable
   - a word break, a glide, or up to three consonants
   - then a vowel or a diphthong
   - then optionally a consonant
   - e.g. .a, spa, pan, blaif, stra

* h-syllable
   - the letter '
   - then a vowel or diphthong
   - then optionally a consonant
   - e.g. 'u, 'ei, 'am

* y-syllable
   - a word break, a glide, or up to three consonants
   - then the letter y
   - e.g. by, .y, gry, zbly

* hy-syllable
   - the string "'y"

* consonantal syllable {zunsnaslaka}
   - a consonant
   - then a syllabic consonant
   - e.g. fl, sm, rn

When a syllable starts with more than one consonant, the rules for these=20
clusters {zunsnagri} are more restrictive than the general ones above.=20
These are the permissible initial doubles, stolen with love from CLL:

     pl pr                       fl fr
     bl br                       vl vr

     cp cf      ct ck cm cn      cl cr
     jb jv      jd jg jm
     sp sf      st sk sm sn      sl sr
     zb zv      zd zg zm

     tc tr      ts               kl kr
     dj dr      dz               gl gr

     ml mr                       xl xr

And the permissible initial triples:

     cfr cfl sfr sfl   jvr jvl zvr zvl
     cpr cpl spr spl   jbr jbl zbr zbl
     ckr ckl skr skl   jgr jgl zgr zgl
     ctr     str       jdr     zdr
     cmr cml smr sml   jmr jml zmr zml

When segmenting text into syllables, when a consonant could possibly=20
either start a syllable or end one, it's always taken to start one. In=20
other words, onsets are greedy, codas are lazy.

=3D=3D=3D Words =3D=3D=3D

Words can be cmavo, cmevla, or brivla. cmavo and brivla are made of=20
syllables, while cmevla are free strings of phonemes.

cmavo are composed of:

- one vowel- or y-syllable, with at most one initial consonant and no
   final consonant
- optionally followed by any number of h- or hy-syllables without any
   final consonants

Examples: .a, ba, bai, ba'i, ba'ai, by, by'i, ia, iai, iy, ua'ai'y

There are two exceptions: "ybu", also spelled "y.bu", is a single cmavo=20
despite the medial consonant and word break, and "y" surrounded by word=20
breaks and not followed by "bu" is a word break itself, not a cmavo.

cmavo can be stressed on any syllable.

cmevla are arbitrary strings of phonemes, following phoneme but not=20
syllable restrictions, starting with a word break, containing no word=20
breaks, and ending with a consonant followed by a word break. They can=20
be stressed on any vowel, diphthong, or syllabic consonant.

A brivla is composed of any number of initial rafsi followed by a final=20
rafsi. It must begin with a vowel syllable, end with a vowel- or=20
h-syllable, and have at least two syllables. It may not be a slinkuhi,=20
and may not start with a sequence of cmavo that yields a valid word when=20
removed. Stress (marked here with a grave accent) is on the second-last=20
vowel- or h-syllable.

A final rafsi is:

- a zihevla:
   - a vowel syllable
   - followed by any number of vowel, h-, or consonantal syllables
   - followed by a vowel- or h-syllable with no final consonant
   - is not a gismu or sequence of more than one rafsi
   - e.g. cpi,k=C3=B9,ku  =C3=A0l,ga  f=C3=AC,pr,koi  gl=C3=A0u,ka  spr=C3=
=A0,'e
- or a gismu:
   - a CV vowel syllable followed by a CCV one
   - or a CVC one then a CV one
   - or a CCV one then a CV one
   - e.g. p=C3=A0,stu  v=C3=A8d,li  ts=C3=A0,ni
- or a short final rafsi:
   - a CVV or CCV vowel syllable, e.g. xau, cpa
   - or a CV vowel syllable followed by a 'V h-syllable,
     e.g. f=C3=A0'i

An initial rafsi is any one of these:

- a gismu followed by the syllable "'y"
     e.g. fasnu'y
- a gismu with its final vowel replaced with y
     e.g. fasny
- a zihevla followed by the syllable "'y"
     e.g. sorpeka'y
- a CV vowel syllable followed by a Cy y-syllable
     e.g. fa,ky
- a short y-less rafsi, unless the following rafsi is a zihevla rafsi:
   - a vowel syllable of the form CVV, CVVr, CVC, or CCV
   - or a CV syllable followed by a 'V or 'Vr syllable
     e.g. gau  gaur  gas  jbu  li,'a  li,'ar
- a short y-less rafsi followed by a short final rafsi followed by "'y"
     e.g. cau,cni,'y  ri,'ar,ju,'o,'y  mul,fau,'y,  jbo,jbe,'y
- a zihevla that ends in a vowel syllable with its final vowel replaced
   with y, unless the result breaks up into a string of any other rafsi
     e.g. ka,'or,ty  a,sny

If a CVVr or CV'Vr rafsi is followed by a rafsi beginning with "r", and=20
only then, the final "r" of the first rafsi is replaced with an "n".
If a rafsi ending in "y" is followed by a rafsi beginning with a vowel,=20
and only then, an "'" is prepended to the second rafsi. In other=20
situations where sticking two rafsi together violates phoneme or=20
syllable rules, the left rafsi needs to be replaced with one ending with=20
"y".

A brivla consisting of just a zihevla is called a zihevla, one=20
consisting of just a gismu is a gismu, and all others are called lujvo.

A slinkuhi {valslinku'i} is a [consonant followed by a brivla that up to=20
its first y-syllable, or if no y-syllables, in its entirety, is composed=20
of non-zihevla rafsi] that itself can't be broken up into a string of rafsi=
.
   e.g. _p_r=C3=A0,'i  _s_p=C3=B2r,te  _z_bla,zd=C3=A0,vro  _c_nar,jy,fra,g=
=C3=A0,ri

Other non-words also behave like slinkuhi, in that prepending a cmavo=20
makes them a word, but these arise from rules other than the one named=20
slinkuhi.
   e.g. cpa  cpau  cpra  cprau  (brivla must have 2+ syllables)
        cl,p=C3=A0r,nu  (brivla must start with a vowel syllable)

A tosmabru {valrtosmabru} is a sequence of cmavo followed by a brivla.=20
tosmabru can be coerced into being brivla by adding a consonant at the=20
end of the last syllable of the first cmavo.

   e.g. gau,tc=C3=AC,ni -> gau tcini; cmavo + gismu
        gaur,tc=C3=AC,ni -> gaurtcini; a single lujvo
        .a,'u,nain,mo -> .a'u nainmo; cmavo + zi'evla
        .a,'ur,nain,mo -> .a'urnainmo; a single zihevla
        boi,k=C3=A8i,foi -> boi k=C3=A8i foi; three cmavo
        boir,k=C3=A8i,foi -> boirkeifoi; a single lujvo

=3D=3D=3D Word breaks, glottal stops =3D=3D=3D

All word breaks may be pronounced as glottal stops, and some word breaks=20
have to. Glottal stops are required before and after all cmevla, as well=20
as before all words starting with a vowel or "y". They are also required=20
after certain cmavo:

- When pronouncing two words together would break a phonotactic rule,
   they need to be separated with a glottal stop.
     e.g. "au" "u=C3=A0n,mo" -> {.au .uanmo}

- Each pair of cmavo of the form CV Cy followed by either a brivla or a
   cmavo of the form CVV or CV'V needs a glottal stop between the last
   and second-last word.
     e.g. "ca" "vy" "c=C3=A0r,vi" -> {ca vy. carvi} /Sa.vy?.'Sar.vi/
          (/Sa.vy.'Sar.vi/ would be {cavycarvi}, a lujvo)

- Every stressed cmavo followed by a brivla starting with a consonant
   cluster needs a glottal stop after the cmavo.
     e.g. "b=C3=A0" "sna,j=C3=B9,'i" -> {b=C3=A0. snaju'i} /'ba?.sna.'Zu.hi=
/
          (/'ba.sna.'Zu.hi/ would be {basna j=C3=B9'i}, a gismu and a cmavo=
)

=3D=3D=3D Parser peculiarities =3D=3D=3D

jbofihe, popular before camxes came along, has different rules than camxes.

* Vowel syllables

   - They may start with any number of consonants, and the rule for
     initial triples doesn't exist. The only restriction is that all
     pairs in the initial cluster need to be valid initial pairs.
       e.g. {stsmla'u} is a word

   - They may end with up to two consonants, not just one.
       e.g. {bongnanba} is a word

   - Syllables beginning with glides are their own type, and if not
     preceded by a glottal stop, they continue the word like an
     h-syllable.
       e.g. {.aierne} is one word, not two,
            {.ia} always starts with a glottal stop

   - Syllables beginning with vowels don't require a word boundary
     before them.
       e.g. {sincrboa} is a word, {.joan.} is a word

(Or, more accurately, jbofihe has no notion of syllables in the sense=20
that camxes does, but even under jbofihe practically no one would use=20
words that violated these modified syllable rules)

* cmevla

Dotside doesn't apply: the beginning of cmevla can also be delimited by=20
some cmavo, namely {la}, {lai}, {la'i}, or {doi}. If one of these cmavo=20
precedes a cmevla, no initial glottal stop is required. cmevla can't=20
contain any of these cmavo. For example {la .larfin.} parses as three=20
words, "la" "la" "rfin"

* brivla

zihevla as final rafsi, rafsi beginning with vowels, and rafsi ending in=20
"'y" do not exist.
   e.g. {bardykentauru}, {.algyro'i}, {sorpeka'ykla} aren't words

rafsi with CVCy shape are illegal if the corresponding CVC rafsi is=20
legal in the situation.
   e.g. {jbobanyjvo} isn't a word, only {jbobanjvo} is

rafsi with CVVr or CV'Vr shape are only recognized as rafsi if using the=20
corresponding CVV or CV'V rafsi would result in tosmabru.
   e.g. {lerpi'oci'arci'e} is a zihevla,
        {lerpi'oci'aci'e} is a lujvo,
        {ci'arci'e} is a lujvo

All brivla must have a consonant cluster within the first five letters=20
after ' and y are removed. {ko'oinde} is not a word.

----------------------------------------------------------------------

I hope that I didn't overlook too many rules and that the text is fairly=20
understandable. Do tell if something is wrong or unclear.

mu'o do

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