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[bpfk] dag-cll git updates for Tue Feb 1 13:21:04 EST 2011
commit de706a222ade85e1d44b41f4b4fb67e602762e6d
Merge: d2bca47 82fc1f0
Author: Robin Lee Powell <rlpowell@digitalkingdom.org>
Date: Mon Jan 31 20:33:51 2011 -0800
Merge commit '82fc1f09733cf08de9a573ae103f0b2054bbfbf7' into gh-pages
commit 82fc1f09733cf08de9a573ae103f0b2054bbfbf7
Author: Eitan Postavsky <eitanp32@gmail.com>
Date: Sat Jan 8 23:52:58 2011 -0500
Chapter 10: section titles, jbophrases, and glosses.
diff --git a/todocbook/10.xml b/todocbook/10.xml
index 5e9973f..b1b7630 100644
--- a/todocbook/10.xml
+++ b/todocbook/10.xml
@@ -1,75 +1,70 @@
<chapter xml:id="chapter-tenses">
<title>Imaginary Journeys: The Lojban Space/Time Tense System</title>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section1">
+ <section xml:id="section-introduction">
<title>Introductory</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>explanation of presentation method</secondary></indexterm> This chapter attempts to document and explain the space/time tense system of Lojban. It does not attempt to answer all questions of the form
<quote>How do I say such-and-such (an English tense) in Lojban?</quote> Instead, it explores the Lojban tense system from the inside, attempting to educate the reader into a Lojbanic viewpoint. Once the overall system is understood and the resources that it makes available are familiar, the reader should have some hope of using appropriate tense constructs and being correctly understood.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>Lojban contrasted with native languages</secondary></indexterm> The system of Lojban tenses presented here may seem really complex because of all the pieces and all the options; indeed, this chapter is the longest one in this book. But tense is in fact complex in every language. In your native language, the subtleties of tense are intuitive. In foreign languages, you are seldom taught the entire system until you have reached an advanced level. Lojban tenses are extremely systematic and productive, allowing you to express subtleties based on what they mean rather than on how they act similarly to English tenses. This chapter concentrates on presenting an intuitive approach to the meaning of Lojban tense words and how they may be creatively and productively combined.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>temporal tense</primary><secondary>Lojban contrasted with English in necessity</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>temporal tense</primary><secondary>as mandatory in English</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>temporal tense</primary><secondary>real relationship to time in English</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>temporal tense</primary><secondary>historical definition</secondary></indexterm> What is
<quote>tense</quote>? Historically,
<quote>tense</quote> is the attribute of verbs in English and related languages that expresses the time of the action. In English, three tenses are traditionally recognized, conventionally called the past, the present, and the future. There are also a variety of compound tenses used in English. However, there is no simple relationship between the form of an English tense and the time actually expressed:</para>
-
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
- I go to London tomorrow.
-
- I will go to London tomorrow.
+ <!-- FIXME: should these be in an <example>? if so, will any random id work? -->
+ <para>I go to London tomorrow.</para>
- I am going to London tomorrow.
+ <para>I will go to London tomorrow.</para>
-</programlisting>
+ <para>I am going to London tomorrow.</para>
<para>all mean the same thing, even though the first sentence uses the present tense; the second, the future tense; and the third, a compound tense usually called
<quote>present progressive</quote>. Likewise, a newspaper headline says
<quote>JONES DIES</quote>, although it is obvious that the time referred to must be in the past. Tense is a mandatory category of English: every sentence must be marked for tense, even if in a way contrary to logic, because every main verb has a tense marker built into to it. By contrast, Lojban brivla have no implicit tense marker attached to them.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>elided tense</primary><secondary>meaning of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>space location</primary><secondary>as part of tense system (see also tense</secondary><tertiary>spatial tense)</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>time</primary><secondary>as part of tense system (see also tense</secondary><tertiary>temporal tense)</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense system</primary><secondary>and space location</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense system</primary><secondary>and space location</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>selbri types applicable to</secondary></indexterm> In Lojban, the concept of tense extends to every selbri, not merely the verb-like ones. In addition, tense structures provide information about location in space as well as in time. All tense information is optional in Lojban: a sentence like:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-cKSK">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e1d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci</jbo>
- <en>I go-to the market.</en>
+ <gloss>I go-to the market.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>go to market</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> can be understood as:</para>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
- I went to the market.
- I am going to the market.
- I have gone to the market.
- I will go to the market.
- I continually go to the market.
-</programlisting>
+ <!-- FIXME: should these be in an <example>? if so, will any random id work? -->
+ <para>I went to the market.</para>
+ <para>I am going to the market.</para>
+ <para>I have gone to the market.</para>
+ <para>I will go to the market.</para>
+ <para>I continually go to the market.</para>
<para>as well as many other possibilities: context resolves which is correct.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>cu</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cu</primary><secondary>effect of tense specification</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense specification</primary><secondary>effect on elidability of terminators</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense specification</primary><secondary>effect on "cu"</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>position of in sentence</secondary></indexterm> The placement of a tense construct within a Lojban bridi is easy: right before the selbri. It goes immediately after the
- <quote>cu</quote>, and can in fact always replace the
- <quote>cu</quote> (although in very complex sentences the rules for eliding terminators may be changed as a result). In the following examples,
+ <jbophrase>cu</jbophrase>, and can in fact always replace the
+ <jbophrase>cu</jbophrase> (although in very complex sentences the rules for eliding terminators may be changed as a result). In the following examples,
<jbophrase>pu</jbophrase> is the tense marker for
<quote>past time</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nFgv">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e1d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi cu pu klama le zarci</jbo>
- <gloss>mi pu klama le zarci</gloss>
+ <jbo>mi cu pu klama le zarci mi pu klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I in-the-past go-to the market.</gloss>
<en>I went to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ku</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ku</primary><secondary>with tense</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>with ku</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>position in sentence alternative</secondary></indexterm> It is also possible to put the tense somewhere else in the bridi by adding
- <quote>ku</quote> after it. This
- <quote>ku</quote> is an elidable terminator, but it's almost never possible to actually elide it except at the end of the bridi:</para>
+ <jbophrase>ku</jbophrase> after it. This
+ <jbophrase>ku</jbophrase> is an elidable terminator, but it's almost never possible to actually elide it except at the end of the bridi:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-5V3Y">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e1d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>puku mi klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>In-the-past I go-to the market.</gloss>
<en>Earlier, I went to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -93,21 +88,21 @@
<en>I went to the market earlier.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>emphasizing by position in sentence</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>effect of different position in sentence</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-nFgv"/> through
<xref linkend="example-random-id-0f11"/> are different only in emphasis. Abnormal order, such as
<xref linkend="example-random-id-5V3Y"/> through
<xref linkend="example-random-id-0f11"/> exhibit, adds emphasis to the words that have been moved; in this case, the tense cmavo
<jbophrase>pu</jbophrase>. Words at either end of the sentence tend to be more noticeable.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section2">
+ <section xml:id="section-spatial-tenses">
<title>Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>vi</cmavo>
<selmaho>VA</selmaho>
<description>short distance</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>va</cmavo>
@@ -150,27 +145,27 @@
<description>within</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>be'a</cmavo>
<selmaho>FAhA</selmaho>
<description>north of</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>(The complete list of FAhA cmavo can be found in
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section27"/>.)</para>
+ <xref linkend="section-summary"/>.)</para>
<para>Why is this section about spatial tenses rather than the more familiar time tenses of
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section1"/>, asks the reader? Because the model to be used in explaining both will be easier to grasp for space than for time. The explanation of time tenses will resume in
+ <xref linkend="section-introduction"/>, asks the reader? Because the model to be used in explaining both will be easier to grasp for space than for time. The explanation of time tenses will resume in
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section4"/>.</para>
+ <xref linkend="section-temporal-tenses"/>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>temporal tense elision</primary><secondary>compared with spatial tense elision in meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>temporal tense</primary><secondary>compared with spatial tense in elidability</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>spatial tense</primary><secondary>compared with temporal tense in elidability</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>spatial tense</primary><secondary>as optional in English</secondary></indexterm> English doesn't have mandatory spatial tenses. Although there are plenty of ways in English of showing where an event happens, there is absolutely no need to do so. Considering this fact may give the reader a feel for what the optional Lojban time tenses are like. From the Lojban point of view, space and time are interchangeable, although they are not treated identically.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>VA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>FAhA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>spatial tense</primary><secondary>distance</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>distance</primary><secondary>specification with VA</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>VA selma'o</primary><secondary>and distance</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>spatial tense</primary><secondary>as an imaginary journey</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>imaginary journey</primary><secondary>and spatial tense</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>spatial tense</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> Lojban specifies the spatial tense of a bridi (the place at which it occurs) by using words from selma'o FAhA and VA to describe an imaginary journey from the speaker to the place referred to. FAhA cmavo specify the direction taken in the journey, whereas VA cmavo specify the distance gone. For example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hNAJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e2d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu va batci le gerku</jbo>
<gloss>The man [medium distance] bites the dog.</gloss>
@@ -188,21 +183,21 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e2d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu zu'a batci le gerku</jbo>
<en>The man [left] bites the dog.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the imaginary journey is again from the speaker's location to the location of the bridi, but it is now performed by going to the left (in the speaker's reference frame) for an unspecified distance. So a reasonable translation is:</para>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ <programlisting>
To my left, the man bites the dog.
</programlisting>
<para>The
<jbophrase>my</jbophrase> does not have an explicit equivalent in the Lojban, because the speaker's location is understood as the starting point.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>vu</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>va</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>vi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>VA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>zu'a</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>VA selma'o</primary><secondary>relation of words to ti</secondary><tertiary>ta, tu</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>zu'a</primary><secondary>derivation of word</secondary></indexterm> (Etymologically, by the way,
<jbophrase>zu'a</jbophrase> is derived from
<jbophrase>zunle</jbophrase>, the gismu for
<quote>left</quote>, whereas
<jbophrase>vi</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>va</jbophrase>, and
@@ -218,34 +213,34 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e2d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu zu'avi batci le gerku</jbo>
<gloss>The man [left] [short distance] bites the dog.</gloss>
<en>Slightly to my left, the man bites the dog.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>As explained in
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section1"/>, it would be perfectly correct to use
- <quote>ku</quote> to move this tense to the beginning or the end of the sentence to emphasize it:</para>
+ <xref linkend="section-introduction"/>, it would be perfectly correct to use
+ <jbophrase>ku</jbophrase> to move this tense to the beginning or the end of the sentence to emphasize it:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-uCGa">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e2d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>zu'aviku le nanmu cu batci le gerku</jbo>
<gloss>[Left] [short distance] the man bites the dog.</gloss>
<en>Slightly to my left, the man bites the dog.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section3">
+ <section xml:id="section-compound-spatial-tenses">
<title>Compound spatial tenses</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>compound tense</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> Humph, says the reader: this talk of
<quote>imaginary journeys</quote> is all very well, but what's the point of it? -
<jbophrase>zu'a</jbophrase> means
<quote>on the left</quote> and
<jbophrase>vi</jbophrase> means
<quote>nearby</quote>, and there's no more to be said. The imaginary-journey model becomes more useful when so-called compound tenses are involved. A compound tense is exactly like a simple tense, but has several FAhAs run together:</para>
@@ -253,21 +248,21 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e3d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu ga'u zu'a batci le gerku</jbo>
<en>The man [up] [left] bites the dog.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>manhole</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>imaginary journey</primary><secondary>stages of in compound tenses</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>compound spatial tense</primary><secondary>explanation of</secondary></indexterm> The proper interpretation of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-rWtP"/> is that the imaginary journey has two stages: first move from the speaker's location upward, and then to the left. A translation might read:</para>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ <programlisting>
Left of a place above me, the man bites the dog.
</programlisting>
<para>(Perhaps the speaker is at the bottom of a manhole, and the dog-biting is going on at the edge of the street.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>compound tense ordering</primary><secondary>Lojban contrasted with English</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>compound tense</primary><secondary>Lojban contrasted with English in order of specification</secondary></indexterm> In the English translation, the keywords
<quote>left</quote> and
<quote>above</quote> occur in reverse order to the Lojban order. This effect is typical of what happens when we
<quote>unfold</quote> Lojban compound tenses into their English equivalents, and shows why it is not very useful to try to memorize a list of Lojban tense constructs and their colloquial English equivalents.</para>
<para>The opposite order also makes sense:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-d1gU">
@@ -318,21 +313,21 @@
<gloss>The man [front] [short] [down] [medium] [right] [long] [within]</gloss>
<gloss>bites the dog.</gloss>
<gloss>Within a place a long distance to the right of a place which is a medium</gloss>
<gloss>distance downward from a place a short distance in front of me,</gloss>
<en>the man bites the dog.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Whew! It's a good thing tense constructs are optional: having to say all that could certainly be painful. Note, however, how much shorter the Lojban version of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-mqTU"/> is than the English version.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section4">
+ <section xml:id="section-temporal-tenses">
<title>Temporal tenses: PU and ZI</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>pu</cmavo>
<selmaho>PU</selmaho>
<description>past</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ca</cmavo>
@@ -374,27 +369,27 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means that to reach the dog-biting, you must take an imaginary journey through time, moving towards the past an unspecified distance. (Of course, this journey is even more imaginary than the ones talked about in the previous sections, since time-travel is not an available option.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ba</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ca</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>pu</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>space</primary><secondary>contrasted with time in number of directions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>time</primary><secondary>contrasted with space in number of directions</secondary></indexterm> Lojban recognizes three temporal directions:
<jbophrase>pu</jbophrase> for the past,
<jbophrase>ca</jbophrase> for the present, and
<jbophrase>ba</jbophrase> for the future. (Etymologically, these derive from the corresponding gismu
<jbophrase>purci</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>cabna</jbophrase>, and
<jbophrase>balvi</jbophrase>. See
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section23"/> for an explanation of the exact relationship between the cmavo and the gismu.) There are many more spatial directions, since there are FAhA cmavo for both absolute and relative directions as well as
+ <xref linkend="section-tenses-vs-modals"/> for an explanation of the exact relationship between the cmavo and the gismu.) There are many more spatial directions, since there are FAhA cmavo for both absolute and relative directions as well as
<quote>direction-like relationships</quote> like
<quote>surrounding</quote>,
<quote>within</quote>,
<quote>touching</quote>, etc. (See
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section27"/> for a complete list.) But there are really only two directions in time: forward and backward, toward the future and toward the past. Why, then, are there three cmavo of selma'o PU?</para>
+ <xref linkend="section-summary"/> for a complete list.) But there are really only two directions in time: forward and backward, toward the future and toward the past. Why, then, are there three cmavo of selma'o PU?</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>bu'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ca</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>as subjective perception</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bu'u</primary><secondary>compared with ca</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ca</primary><secondary>compared with bu'u</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ca</primary><secondary>rational for</secondary></indexterm> The reason is that tense is subjective: human beings perceive space and time in a way that does not necessarily agree with objective measurements. We have a sense of
<quote>now</quote> which includes part of the objective past and part of the objective future, and so we naturally segment the time line into three parts. The Lojban design recognizes this human reality by providing a separate time-direction cmavo for the
<quote>zero direction</quote>, Similarly, there is a FAhA cmavo for the zero space direction:
<jbophrase>bu'u</jbophrase>, which means something like
<quote>coinciding</quote>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>as observer-based</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relativity theory</primary><secondary>relation to Lojban tense system</secondary></indexterm> (Technical note for readers conversant with relativity theory: The Lojban time tenses reflect time as seen by the speaker, who is assumed to be a
@@ -486,21 +481,21 @@
<anchor xml:id="c10e4d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu batci le gerku puzuvuku</jbo>
<gloss>The man bites the dog [past] [long time] [long space].</gloss>
<en>The man bit the dog long ago and far away.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section5">
+ <section xml:id="section-interval-sizes">
<title>Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ve'i</cmavo>
<selmaho>VEhA</selmaho>
<description>short space interval</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ve'a</cmavo>
@@ -648,37 +643,37 @@
<anchor xml:id="c10e5d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta ri'u ve'ica'u finpe</jbo>
<gloss>That-there [right] [short space interval – front] is-a-fish.</gloss>
<en>That thing on my right extending forwards is a fish.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the space interval occupied by the fish extends from a point on my right to another point in front of the first point.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section6">
+ <section xml:id="section-vagueness">
<title>Vague intervals and non-specific tenses</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>interval size</primary><secondary>vague</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>interval size</primary><secondary>unspecified</secondary></indexterm> What is the significance of failing to specify an interval size of the type discussed in
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section5"/>? The Lojban rule is that if no interval size is given, the size of the space or time interval is left vague by the speaker. For example:</para>
+ <xref linkend="section-interval-sizes"/>? The Lojban rule is that if no interval size is given, the size of the space or time interval is left vague by the speaker. For example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-naft">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e6d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu klama le zarci</jbo>
- <en>I [past] go-to the market.</en>
+ <gloss>I [past] go-to the market.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>really means:</para>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ <programlisting>
At a moment in the past, and possibly other moments as
well, the event
<quote>I went to the market</quote> was in progress.
</programlisting>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense direction</primary><secondary>implications on scope of event</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>past event</primary><secondary>possible extension into present</secondary></indexterm> The vague or unspecified interval contains an instant in the speaker's past. However, there is no indication whether or not the whole interval is in the speaker's past! It is entirely possible that the interval during which the going-to-the-market is happening stretches into the speaker's present or even future.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>Lojban contrasted with English in implications of completeness</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-naft"/> points up a fundamental difference between Lojban tenses and English tenses. An English past-tense sentence like
<quote>I went to the market</quote> generally signifies that the going-to-the-market is entirely in the past; that is, that the event is complete at the time of speaking. Lojban
<jbophrase>pu</jbophrase> has no such implication.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>aorist</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>aorist</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Classical Greek aorist tense</primary><secondary>compared with Lojban tense</secondary></indexterm> This property of a past tense is sometimes called
@@ -690,26 +685,26 @@
<anchor xml:id="c10e6d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le tricu ba crino</jbo>
<gloss>The tree [future] is-green.</gloss>
<en>The tree will be green.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>future event</primary><secondary>possible extension into present</secondary></indexterm> does not imply (as the colloquial English translation does) that the tree is not green now. The vague interval throughout which the tree is, in fact, green may have already started.</para>
<para>This general principle does not mean that Lojban has no way of indicating that a tree will be green but is not yet green. Indeed, there are several ways of expressing that concept: see
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section10"/> (event contours) and
+ <xref linkend="section-event-contours"/> (event contours) and
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section20"/> (logical connection between tenses).</para>
+ <xref linkend="section-connected-tenses"/> (logical connection between tenses).</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section7">
+ <section xml:id="section-dimensionality">
<title>Dimensionality: VIhA</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>vi'i</cmavo>
<selmaho>VIhA</selmaho>
<description>on a line</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>vi'a</cmavo>
@@ -763,33 +758,33 @@
<quote>pastward</quote> and
<quote>futureward</quote> considered as space rather than time directions - they could be added, though, if Lojbanists find space-time expression useful.) If a temporal tense cmavo is used in the same tense construct with a
<jbophrase>vi'e</jbophrase> interval, the resulting tense may be self-contradictory.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section8">
+ <section xml:id="section-movement">
<title>Movement in space: MOhI</title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>mo'i</cmavo>
<selmaho>MOhI</selmaho>
<description>movement flag</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>MOhI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>mo'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>movement specification</primary><secondary>interaction with direction in tenses</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>direction</primary><secondary>interaction with movement specification in tenses</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>expressing movement in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>static contrasted with moving</secondary></indexterm> All the information carried by the tense constructs so far presented has been presumed to be static: the bridi is occurring somewhere or other in space and time, more or less remote from the speaker. Suppose the truth of the bridi itself depends on the result of a movement, or represents an action being done while the speaker is moving? This too can be represented by the tense system, using the cmavo
- <quote>mo'i</quote> (of selma'o MOhI) plus a spatial direction and optional distance; the direction now refers to a direction of motion rather than a static direction from the speaker.</para>
+ <jbophrase>mo'i</jbophrase> (of selma'o MOhI) plus a spatial direction and optional distance; the direction now refers to a direction of motion rather than a static direction from the speaker.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>toward my right</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>on right</primary><secondary>contrasted with toward right</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>toward right</primary><secondary>contrasted with on right</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-d8yP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e8d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le verba mo'i ri'u cadzu le bisli</jbo>
<gloss>The child [movement] [right] walks-on the ice.</gloss>
<en>The child walks toward my right on the ice.</en>
@@ -823,58 +818,58 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>toward her right</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-mfgA"/> is analogous to
<xref linkend="example-random-id-d8yP"/>. The cmavo
<jbophrase>ma'i</jbophrase> belongs to selma'o BAI (explained in
<xref linkend="chapter-sumti-tcita"/>), and allows specifying a reference frame.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>order of movement specification in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>movement</primary><secondary>order in tense constructs</secondary></indexterm> Both a regular and a
- <quote>mo'i</quote>-flagged spatial tense can be combined, with the
- <quote>mo'i</quote> construct coming last:</para>
+ <jbophrase>mo'i</jbophrase>-flagged spatial tense can be combined, with the
+ <jbophrase>mo'i</jbophrase> construct coming last:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-fusc">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e8d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le verba zu'avu mo'i ri'uvi cadzu le bisli</jbo>
<gloss>The child [left] [long] [movement] [right] [short] walks-on the ice.</gloss>
<en>Far to the left of me, the child walks a short distance toward my right on the ice.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>movement</primary><secondary>with multiple directions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>directions</primary><secondary>multiple with movement</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>complex movements</primary><secondary>expressing</secondary></indexterm> It is not grammatical to use multiple directions like
<jbophrase>zu'a ca'u</jbophrase> after
- <quote>mo'i</quote>, but complex movements can be expressed in a separate bridi.</para>
+ <jbophrase>mo'i</jbophrase>, but complex movements can be expressed in a separate bridi.</para>
<para>Here is an example of a movement tense on a bridi not inherently involving movement:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Avnq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e8d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi mo'i ca'uvu citka le mi sanmi</jbo>
<gloss>I [movement] [front] [long] eat my meal.</gloss>
<en>While moving a long way forward, I eat my meal.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>eat in airplane</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> (Perhaps I am eating in an airplane.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>time travel</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>movement</primary><secondary>time</secondary></indexterm> There is no parallel facility in Lojban at present for expressing movement in time - time travel - but one could be added easily if it ever becomes useful.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section9">
+ <section xml:id="section-interval-properties">
<title>Interval properties: TAhE and
- <quote>roi</quote></title>
+ <jbophrase>roi</jbophrase></title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ <programlisting>
di'i TAhE regularly
na'o TAhE typically
ru'i TAhE continuously
ta'e TAhE habitually
di'inai TAhE irregularly
@@ -950,51 +945,51 @@
<jbo>mi na'o klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [typically] go-to the market.</gloss>
<en>I typically go/went/will go to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>illustrates an interval property in isolation. There are no distance or direction cmavo, so the point of time is vague; likewise, there is no interval cmavo, so the length of the interval during which these goings-to-the-market take place is also vague. As always, context will determine these vague values.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>nai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>intermittently</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>interval spread</primary><secondary>expressing English "intermittently"</secondary></indexterm>
<quote>Intermittently</quote> is the polar opposite notion to
<quote>continuously</quote>, and is expressed not with its own cmavo, but by adding the negation suffix
- <quote>-nai</quote> (which belongs to selma'o NAI) to
+ <jbophrase>-nai</jbophrase> (which belongs to selma'o NAI) to
<jbophrase>ru'i</jbophrase>. For example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mvdN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e9d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le verba ru'inai cadzu le bisli</jbo>
<gloss>The child [continuously-not] walks-on the ice.</gloss>
<en>The child intermittently walks on the ice.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>interval spread</primary><secondary>negation with nai</secondary></indexterm> As shown in the cmavo table above, all the cmavo of TAhE may be negated with
- <quote>-nai</quote>;
+ <jbophrase>-nai</jbophrase>;
<jbophrase>ru'inai</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>di'inai</jbophrase> are probably the most useful.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ROI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>roi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>once</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>quantified</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>quantified temporal tense</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> An intermittent event can also be specified by counting the number of times during the interval that it takes place. The cmavo
- <quote>roi</quote> (which belongs to selma'o ROI) can be appended to a number to make a quantified tense. Quantified tenses are common in English, but not so commonly named: they are exemplified by the adverbs
+ <jbophrase>roi</jbophrase> (which belongs to selma'o ROI) can be appended to a number to make a quantified tense. Quantified tenses are common in English, but not so commonly named: they are exemplified by the adverbs
<quote>never</quote>,
<quote>once</quote>,
<quote>twice</quote>,
<quote>thrice</quote>, ...
<quote>always</quote>, and by the related phrases
<quote>many times</quote>,
<quote>a few times</quote>,
<quote>too many times</quote>, and so on. All of these are handled in Lojban by a number plus
- <quote>-roi</quote>:</para>
+ <jbophrase>-roi</jbophrase>:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qdW2" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e9d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi paroi klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [one time] go-to the market.</gloss>
<en>I go to the market once.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1015,22 +1010,22 @@
<anchor xml:id="c10e9d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu reroi klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] [two times] go-to the market.</gloss>
<en>I went to the market twice.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>quantified temporal tense with direction</primary><secondary>Lojban contrasted with English in implications</secondary></indexterm> The English is slightly over-specific here: it entails that both goings-to-the-market were in the past, which may or may not be true in the Lojban sentence, since the implied interval is vague. Therefore, the interval may start in the past but extend into the present or even the future.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>quantified temporal tense</primary><secondary>negating with nai</secondary></indexterm> Adding
- <quote>-nai</quote> to
- <quote>roi</quote> is also permitted, and has the meaning
+ <jbophrase>-nai</jbophrase> to
+ <jbophrase>roi</jbophrase> is also permitted, and has the meaning
<quote>other than (the number specified)</quote>:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>rat eats cheese</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rXXf">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e9d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ratcu reroinai citka le cirla</jbo>
<gloss>The rat [twice-not] eats the cheese.</gloss>
@@ -1047,21 +1042,21 @@
<quote>whole time interval</quote>: conceptually, an interval which stretches from time's beginning to its end:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-8WJS">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e9d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ze'e paroi klama le zarci</jbo>
- <en>I [whole interval] [once] go-to the market.</en>
+ <gloss>I [whole interval] [once] go-to the market.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Since specifying no ZEhA leaves the interval vague,
<xref linkend="example-random-id-TYve"/> might in appropriate context mean the same as
<xref linkend="example-random-id-8WJS"/> after all - but
<xref linkend="example-random-id-8WJS"/> allows us to be specific when specificity is necessary.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ze'eca</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ze'eba</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ze'epu</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>PU selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>have never</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ze'eca</primary><secondary>meaning of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ze'eba</primary><secondary>meaning of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ze'epu</primary><secondary>meaning of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ze'e</primary><secondary>effect on following PU direction</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>temporal direction</primary><secondary>exception in meaning when following ze'e</secondary></indexterm> A PU cmavo following
<jbophrase>ze'e</jbophrase> has a slightly different meaning from one that follows another ZEhA cmavo. The compound cmavo
@@ -1084,25 +1079,25 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>says nothing about whether I might go in future.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ve'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>quantified space</primary></indexterm> The space equivalent of
<jbophrase>ze'e</jbophrase> is
<jbophrase>ve'e</jbophrase>, and it can be used in the same way with a quantified space tense: see
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section11"/> for an explanation of space interval modifiers.</para>
+ <xref linkend="section-fehe"/> for an explanation of space interval modifiers.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section10">
+ <section xml:id="section-event-contours">
<title>Event contours: ZAhO and
- <quote>re'u</quote></title>
+ <jbophrase>re'u</jbophrase></title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>pu'o</cmavo>
<selmaho>ZAhO</selmaho>
<description>inchoative</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ca'o</cmavo>
@@ -1205,21 +1200,21 @@
<anchor xml:id="c10e10d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le verba ba'o cadzu le bisli</jbo>
<gloss>The child [perfective] walks-on the ice.</gloss>
<en>The child is finished walking on the ice.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>finished</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>continues</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>on verge</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense direction</primary><secondary>contrasted with event contours in implication of extent</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>event contours</primary><secondary>contrasted with tense direction in implication of extent</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>event contours</primary><secondary>implications on scope of event</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>event contours</primary><secondary>perfective</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>event contours</primary><secondary>continuitive</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>event contours</primary><secondary>inchoative</secondary></indexterm> As discussed in
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section6"/>, the simple PU cmavo make no assumptions about whether the scope of a past, present, or future event extends into one of the other tenses as well.
+ <xref linkend="section-vagueness"/>, the simple PU cmavo make no assumptions about whether the scope of a past, present, or future event extends into one of the other tenses as well.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qdwz"/> through
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qdxB"/> illustrate that these ZAhO cmavo do make such assumptions possible: the event in 10.1 has not yet begun, definitively; likewise, the event in 10.3 is definitely over.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ba'o</primary><secondary>as futureward of event</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pu'o</primary><secondary>as pastward of event</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ba'o</primary><secondary>explanation of derivation</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pu'o</primary><secondary>explanation of derivation</secondary></indexterm> Note that in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qdwz"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qdxB"/>,
<jbophrase>pu'o</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>ba'o</jbophrase> may appear to be reversed:
<jbophrase>pu'o</jbophrase>, although etymologically connected with
<jbophrase>pu</jbophrase>, is referring to a future event; whereas
@@ -1353,21 +1348,21 @@
<anchor xml:id="c10e10d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. pu co'i catra la djim</jbo>
<gloss>John [past] [achievative] kills Jim.</gloss>
<en>John was at the point in time where he killed Jim.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ROI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>re'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cycles</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ordinal tense</primary></indexterm> Finally, since an activity is cyclical, an individual cycle can be referred to using a number followed by
- <quote>re'u</quote>, which is the other cmavo of selma'o ROI:</para>
+ <jbophrase>re'u</jbophrase>, which is the other cmavo of selma'o ROI:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-msrS">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e10d12"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pare'u klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [first time] go-to the store.</gloss>
<en>I go to the store for the first time (within a vague interval).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1388,34 +1383,34 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e10d14"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi paroi pare'u klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [one time] [first time] go-to the store.</gloss>
<en>There is one occasion on which I go to the store for the first time.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section11">
+ <section xml:id="section-fehe">
<title>Space interval modifiers: FEhE</title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>fe'e</cmavo>
<selmaho>FEhE</selmaho>
<description>space interval modifier flag</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>FEhE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>fe'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>order of spatial interval modifiers in </secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>spatial interval modifiers</primary><secondary>order in tense</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>spatial intervals</primary><secondary>expressing degree of continuity over</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>space intervals</primary><secondary>compared with time intervals in continuity</secondary></indexterm> Like time intervals, space intervals can also be continuous, discontinuous, or repetitive. Rather than having a whole separate set of selma'o for space interval properties, we instead prefix the flag
- <quote>fe'e</quote> to the cmavo used for time interval properties. A space interval property would be placed just after the space interval size and/or dimensionality cmavo:</para>
+ <jbophrase>fe'e</jbophrase> to the cmavo used for time interval properties. A space interval property would be placed just after the space interval size and/or dimensionality cmavo:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qe09" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e11d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ko vi'i fe'e di'i sombo le gurni</jbo>
@@ -1446,21 +1441,21 @@
<gloss>li re su'i re du li vo</gloss>
<gloss>[whole time] [all times] [whole space] [space:] [all places]</gloss>
<gloss>The-number 2 + 2 = the-number 4.</gloss>
<en>Always and everywhere, two plus two is four.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>As shown in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qE1z"/>, when a tense comes first in a bridi, rather than in its normal position before the selbri (in this case
<jbophrase>du</jbophrase>), it is emphasized.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>be'a</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ZAhO selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>fe'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>spatial contours</primary><secondary>expressing</secondary></indexterm> The
- <quote>fe'e</quote> marker can also be used for the same purpose before members of ZAhO. (The cmavo
+ <jbophrase>fe'e</jbophrase> marker can also be used for the same purpose before members of ZAhO. (The cmavo
<jbophrase>be'a</jbophrase> belongs to selma'o FAhA; it is the space direction meaning
<quote>north of</quote>.)</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-L4un">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e11d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>tu ve'abe'a fe'e co'a rokci</jbo>
<gloss>That-yonder [medium space interval – north] [space] [initiative] is-a-rock.</gloss>
@@ -1468,71 +1463,71 @@
<en>That is the south face of a rock.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>rock face</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>south face</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>event contours</primary><secondary>temporal contrasted with spatial</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>spatial contours</primary><secondary>contrasted with temporal event contours</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>beginning point</primary><secondary>spatial</secondary></indexterm> Here the notion of a
<quote>beginning point</quote> represented by the cmavo
<jbophrase>co'a</jbophrase> is transferred from
<quote>beginning in time</quote> to
<quote>beginning in space</quote> under the influence of the
- <quote>fe'e</quote> flag. Space is not inherently oriented, unlike time, which flows from past to future: therefore, some indication of orientation is necessary, and the
+ <jbophrase>fe'e</jbophrase> flag. Space is not inherently oriented, unlike time, which flows from past to future: therefore, some indication of orientation is necessary, and the
<jbophrase>ve'abe'a</jbophrase> provides an orientation in which the south face is the
<quote>beginning</quote> and the north face is the
<quote>end</quote>, since the rock extends from south (near me) to north (away from me).</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>FAhA selma'o</primary><secondary>use in specifying space/time mapping direction</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>space/time metaphor</primary><secondary>expressing direction mapping for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>space</primary><secondary>as time-based metaphor</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>time</primary><secondary>as space-based metaphor</secondary></indexterm> Many natural languages represent time by a space-based metaphor: in English, what is past is said to be
<quote>behind us</quote>. In other languages, the metaphor is reversed. Here, Lojban is representing space (or space interval modifiers) by a time-based metaphor: the choice of a FAhA cmavo following a VEhA cmavo indicates which direction is mapped onto the future. (The choice of future rather than past is arbitrary, but convenient for English-speakers.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fe'e</primary><secondary>effect of TAhE/ROI with ZAhO on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ZAhO selma'o</primary><secondary>effect on fe'e flag for TAhE and ROI</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ROI selma'o</primary><secondary>effect of ZAhO on fe'e flag</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>TAhE selma'o</primary><secondary>effect of ZAhO on fe'e flag</secondary></indexterm> If both a TAhE (or ROI) and a ZAhO are present as space interval modifiers, the
- <quote>fe'e</quote> flag must be prefixed to each.</para>
+ <jbophrase>fe'e</jbophrase> flag must be prefixed to each.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section12">
+ <section xml:id="section-tcita">
<title>Tenses as sumti tcita</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>argument tags</primary><secondary>based on tenses (see also sumti tcita)</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti tcita</primary><secondary>based on tenses</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>temporal information</primary><secondary>adding to a sentence with tense sumti tcita</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>spatial information</primary><secondary>adding to a sentence with tense sumti tcita</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tenses</primary><secondary>use as sumti tcita</secondary></indexterm> So far, we have seen tenses only just before the selbri, or (equivalently in meaning) floating about the bridi with
- <quote>ku</quote>. There is another major use for tenses in Lojban: as sumti tcita, or argument tags. A tense may be used to add spatial or temporal information to a bridi as, in effect, an additional place:</para>
+ <jbophrase>ku</jbophrase>. There is another major use for tenses in Lojban: as sumti tcita, or argument tags. A tense may be used to add spatial or temporal information to a bridi as, in effect, an additional place:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-v761">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e12d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci ca le nu do klama le zdani</jbo>
<gloss>I go-to the market [present] the event-of you go-to the house.</gloss>
<en>I go to the market when you go to the house.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ca</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti tcita</primary><secondary>based on tense direction</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense direction</primary><secondary>as sumti tcita</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ca</primary><secondary>meaning as a sumti tcita</secondary></indexterm> Here
<jbophrase>ca</jbophrase> does not appear before the selbri, nor with
- <quote>ku</quote>; instead, it governs the following sumti, the
- <quote>le nu</quote> construct. What
+ <jbophrase>ku</jbophrase>; instead, it governs the following sumti, the
+ <jbophrase>le nu</jbophrase> construct. What
<xref linkend="example-random-id-v761"/> asserts is that the action of the main bridi is happening at the same time as the event mentioned by that sumti. So
<jbophrase>ca</jbophrase>, which means
<quote>now</quote> when used with a selbri, means
<quote>simultaneously-with</quote> when used with a sumti. Consider another example:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>pu</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pu</primary><secondary>meaning as a sumti tcita</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4aPT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e12d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci pu le nu do pu klama le zdani</jbo>
- <en>I go-to the market [past] the event-of you [past] go-to the house.</en>
+ <gloss>I go-to the market [past] the event-of you [past] go-to the house.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The second
<jbophrase>pu</jbophrase> is simply the past tense marker for the event of your going to the house, and says that this event is in the speaker's past. How are we to understand the first
<jbophrase>pu</jbophrase>, the sumti tcita?</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>imaginary journey</primary><secondary>starting at a different point</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>imaginary journey</primary><secondary>starting point</secondary></indexterm> All of our imaginary journeys so far have started at the speaker's location in space and time. Now we are specifying an imaginary journey that starts at a different location, namely at the event of your going to the house.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-4aPT"/> then says that my going to the market is in the past, relative not to the speaker's present moment, but instead relative to the moment when you went to the house.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-4aPT"/> can therefore be translated:</para>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ <programlisting>
I had gone to the market before you went to the house.
</programlisting>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti tcita</primary><secondary>based on tense distance</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense distance</primary><secondary>as sumti tcita</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>spatial tenses</primary><secondary>as sumti tcita</secondary></indexterm> (Other translations are possible, depending on the ever-present context.) Spatial direction and distance sumti tcita are exactly analogous:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qe2C" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e12d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ratcu cu citka le cirla vi le panka</jbo>
<gloss>The rat eats the cheese [short distance] the park.</gloss>
@@ -1556,65 +1551,65 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ratcu cu citka le cirla vu le vi panka</jbo>
<gloss>The rat eats the cheese [long distance] the [short distance] park</gloss>
<en>The rat eats the cheese far away from the nearby park.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>fe'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>rat eats cheese</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>near the park</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti tcita based on event contours</primary><secondary>relation of main bridi to sumti process in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti tcita</primary><secondary>event contours contrasted with direction/distance as basis for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense direction/distance as sumti tcita</primary><secondary>contrasted with event contours</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>event contours as sumti tcita</primary><secondary>contrasted with direction and distance</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ZAhO selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti tcita</primary><secondary>based on spatial contours</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>spatial contours</primary><secondary>as sumti tcita</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti tcita</primary><secondary>based on event contours</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>event contours</primary><secondary>as sumti tcita</secondary></indexterm> The event contours of selma'o ZAhO (and their space equivalents, prefixed with
- <quote>fe'e</quote>) are also useful as sumti tcita. The interpretation of ZAhO tcita differs from that of FAhA, VA, PU, and ZI tcita, however. The event described in the sumti is viewed as a process, and the action of the main bridi occurs at the phase of the process which the ZAhO specifies, or at least some part of that phase. The action of the main bridi itself is seen as a point event, so that there is no issue about which phase of the main bridi is intended. For example:</para>
+ <jbophrase>fe'e</jbophrase>) are also useful as sumti tcita. The interpretation of ZAhO tcita differs from that of FAhA, VA, PU, and ZI tcita, however. The event described in the sumti is viewed as a process, and the action of the main bridi occurs at the phase of the process which the ZAhO specifies, or at least some part of that phase. The action of the main bridi itself is seen as a point event, so that there is no issue about which phase of the main bridi is intended. For example:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>in the aftermath</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>die after living</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Y2Kb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e12d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi morsi ba'o le nu mi jmive</jbo>
<gloss>I am-dead [perfective] the event-of I live.</gloss>
<en>I die in the aftermath of my living.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the (point-)event of my being dead is the portion of my living-process which occurs after the process is complete. Contrast
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Y2Kb"/> with:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-18dT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e12d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi morsi ba le nu mi jmive</jbo>
- <en>I am-dead [future] the event-of I live.</en>
+ <gloss>I am-dead [future] the event-of I live.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>As explained in
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section6"/>,
+ <xref linkend="section-vagueness"/>,
<xref linkend="example-random-id-18dT"/> does not exclude the possibility that I died before I ceased to live!</para>
<para>Likewise, we might say:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-jJzr">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e12d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci pu'o le nu mi citka</jbo>
- <en>I go-to the store [inchoative] the event-of I eat</en>
+ <gloss>I go-to the store [inchoative] the event-of I eat</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which indicates that before my eating begins, I go to the store, whereas</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-0VJp">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e12d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci ba'o le nu mi citka</jbo>
- <en>I go-to the store [perfective] the event-of I eat</en>
+ <gloss>I go-to the store [perfective] the event-of I eat</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>would indicate that I go to the store after I am finished eating.</para>
<para>Here is an example which mixes temporal ZAhO (as a tense) and spatial ZAhO (as a sumti tcita):</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>too long</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>boat sailed</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PABV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e12d10"/>
</title>
@@ -1668,21 +1663,21 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>loi snime cu carvi ca le ze'u dunra</jbo>
<gloss>Some-of-the-mass-of snow rains [present] the [long time] winter.</gloss>
<en>Snow falls in the long winter.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>claims that during some part of the winter, which is long as winters go, snow falls.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section13">
+ <section xml:id="section-sticky-tenses">
<title>Sticky and multiple tenses: KI</title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ki</cmavo>
<selmaho>KI</selmaho>
<description>sticky tense set/reset</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
@@ -1699,32 +1694,32 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi puki klama le zarci .i le nanmu cu batci le gerku</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] [sticky] go-to the market. The man bites the dog.</gloss>
<en>I went to the market. The man bit the dog.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the use of
<jbophrase>puki</jbophrase> rather than just
<jbophrase>pu</jbophrase> ensures that the tense will affect the next sentence as well. Otherwise, since the second sentence is tenseless, there would be no way of determining its tense; the event of the second sentence might happen before, after, or simultaneously with that of the first sentence.</para>
<para>(The last statement does not apply when the two sentences form part of a narrative. See
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section14"/> for an explanation of
+ <xref linkend="section-story-time"/> for an explanation of
<quote>story time</quote>, which employs a different set of conventions.)</para>
<para>What if the second sentence has a tense anyway?</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>had earlier</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>effect of sticky tense on</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-L9GA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e13d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi puki klama le zarci .i le nanmu pu batci le gerku</jbo>
- <en>I [past] [sticky] go-to the market. The man [past] bites the dog.</en>
+ <gloss>I [past] [sticky] go-to the market. The man [past] bites the dog.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the second
<jbophrase>pu</jbophrase> does not replace the sticky tense, but adds to it, in the sense that the starting point of its imaginary journey is taken to be the previously set sticky time. So the translation of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-L9GA"/> is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-oJQz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e13d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1732,21 +1727,21 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>compound tense</primary><secondary>compared with tense in scope of sticky tense</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense in scope of sticky tense</primary><secondary>compared with compound tense</secondary></indexterm> and it is equivalent in meaning (when considered in isolation from any other sentences) to:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-N5xa">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e13d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu klama le zarci .i le nanmu pupu batci le gerku</jbo>
- <en>I [past] go-to the market. The man [past] [past] bites the dog.</en>
+ <gloss>I [past] go-to the market. The man [past] [past] bites the dog.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>compound tense</primary><secondary>compared with multiple tenses in sentence</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tenses</primary><secondary>multiple in sentence compared with compound tense</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tenses</primary><secondary>multiple in sentence</secondary></indexterm> The point has not been discussed so far, but it is perfectly grammatical to have more than one tense construct in a sentence:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-t7YR">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e13d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>puku mi ba klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>[past] I [future] go-to the market.</gloss>
@@ -1797,29 +1792,29 @@
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sticky tenses</primary><secondary>from part of a multiple tense</secondary></indexterm> But why bother to allow multiple tense constructs at all? They specify separate portions of the imaginary journey, and can be useful in order to make part of a tense sticky. Consider
<xref linkend="example-random-id-gg9C"/>, which adds a second bridi and a
<jbophrase>ki</jbophrase> to
<xref linkend="example-random-id-t7YR"/>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gg9C">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e13d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>pukiku mi ba klama le zarci .i le nanmu cu batci le gerku</jbo>
- <en>[past] [sticky] I [future] go-to the market. The man bites the dog.</en>
+ <gloss>[past] [sticky] I [future] go-to the market. The man bites the dog.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>What is the implied tense of the second sentence? Not
<jbophrase>puba</jbophrase>, but only
<jbophrase>pu</jbophrase>, since only
<jbophrase>pu</jbophrase> was made sticky with
<jbophrase>ki</jbophrase>. So the translation is:</para>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ <programlisting>
I was going to go to the market. The man bit the dog.
</programlisting>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti with tense</primary><secondary>effect of main bridi tense on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>embedded bridi tenses</primary><secondary>effect of main bridi tense on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense on main bridi</primary><secondary>effect on embedded sumti with tenses</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense on main bridi</primary><secondary>effect on embedded bridi tenses</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>on embedded bridi</secondary></indexterm> Lojban has several ways of embedding a bridi within another bridi: descriptions, abstractors, relative clauses. (Technically, descriptions contain selbri rather than bridi.) Any of the selbri of these subordinate bridi may have tenses attached. These tenses are interpreted relative to the tense of the main bridi:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>former market</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-yxFP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e13d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu klama le ba'o zarci</jbo>
@@ -1851,24 +1846,24 @@
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ki</primary><secondary>with no tense</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sticky tenses</primary><secondary>canceling</secondary></indexterm>
<jbophrase>ki</jbophrase> may also be used as a tense by itself. This cancels all stickiness and returns the bridi and all following bridi to the speaker's location in both space and time.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>handling multiple episodes</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>subscripting</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>subscripts</primary><secondary>for sticky tense</secondary></indexterm> In complex descriptions, multiple tenses may be saved and then used by adding a subscript to
<jbophrase>ki</jbophrase>. A time made sticky with
<jbophrase>kixipa</jbophrase> (ki-sub-1) can be returned to by specifying
<jbophrase>kixipa</jbophrase> as a tense by itself. In the case of written expression, the writer's here-and-now is often different from the reader's, and a pair of subscripted
<jbophrase>ki</jbophrase> tenses could be used to distinguish the two.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section14">
+ <section xml:id="section-story-time">
<title>Story time</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>stories</primary><secondary>flow of time in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>story time</primary><secondary>rationale for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>story time</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> Making strict use of the conventions explained in
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section13"/> would be intolerably awkward when a story is being told. The time at which a story is told by the narrator is usually unimportant to the story. What matters is the flow of time within the story itself. The term
+ <xref linkend="section-sticky-tenses"/> would be intolerably awkward when a story is being told. The time at which a story is told by the narrator is usually unimportant to the story. What matters is the flow of time within the story itself. The term
<quote>story</quote> in this section refers to any series of statements related in more-or-less time-sequential order, not just a fictional one.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>story time</primary><secondary>tenseless sentences in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tenseless sentences in story time</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>story time</primary><secondary>as a convention for inferring tense</secondary></indexterm> Lojban speakers use a different set of conventions, commonly called
<quote>story time</quote>, for inferring tense within a story. It is presumed that the event described by each sentence takes place some time more or less after the previous ones. Therefore, tenseless sentences are implicitly tensed as
<quote>what happens next</quote>. In particular, any sticky time setting is advanced by each sentence.</para>
<para>The following mini-story illustrates the important features of story time. A sentence-by-sentence explication follows:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qE94" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e14d1"/>
@@ -1942,21 +1937,21 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.i ko'e bartu klama</jbo>
<gloss>It-2 out ran</gloss>
<en>It ran out.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>cave</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>story tense</primary><secondary>Lojban convention contrasted with English convention</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qE94"/> sets both the time (long ago) and the place (in a cave) using
<jbophrase>ki</jbophrase>, just like the sentence sequences in
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section13"/>. No further space cmavo are used in the rest of the story, so the place is assumed to remain unchanged. The English translation of
+ <xref linkend="section-sticky-tenses"/>. No further space cmavo are used in the rest of the story, so the place is assumed to remain unchanged. The English translation of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qE94"/> is marked for past tense also, as the conventions of English storytelling require: consequently, all other English translation sentences are also in the past tense. (We don't notice how strange this is; even stories about the future are written in past tense!) This conventional use of past tense is not used in Lojban narratives.</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qEa4"/> is tenseless. Outside story time, it would be assumed that its event happens simultaneously with that of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qE94"/>, since a sticky tense is in effect; the rules of story time, however, imply that the event occurs afterwards, and that the story time has advanced (changing the sticky time set in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qE94"/>).</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qEa7"/> has an explicit tense. This is taken relative to the latest setting of the sticky time; therefore, the event of
@@ -1975,21 +1970,21 @@
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qebJ"/>.</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qebT"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qeBW"/> are again tenseless, and so happen after
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qebJ"/>. (Story time is changed.)</para>
<para>So the overall order is 14.1 - 14.3 - 14.2 - 14.4 - (medium interval) - 14.5 - 14.6 - 14.7. It is also possible that 14.3 happens before 14.1.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>story time</primary><secondary>with no initial sticky time</secondary></indexterm> If no sticky time (or space) is set initially, the story is set at an unspecified time (or space): the effect is like that of choosing an arbitrary reference point and making it sticky. This style is common in stories that are jokes. The same convention may be used if the context specifies the sticky time sufficiently.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section15">
+ <section xml:id="section-sub-bridi-tenses">
<title>Tenses in subordinate bridi</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>subordinate clauses</primary><secondary>tense usage rules in English</secondary></indexterm> English has a set of rules, formally known as
<quote>sequence of tense rules</quote>, for determining what tense should be used in a subordinate clause, depending on the tense used in the main sentence. Here are some examples:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qECX" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e15d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>John says that George is going to the market.</jbo>
@@ -2035,118 +2030,118 @@
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>subordinate clause tense</primary><secondary>effect of main bridi tense on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>subordinate clause tense</primary><secondary>Lojban compared with Esperanto</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>subordinate clause tense</primary><secondary>Lojban compared with Russian</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>subordinate clause tense</primary><secondary>Lojban contrasted with English</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sequence of tense rules</primary><secondary>Lojban contrasted with English</secondary></indexterm> Lojban, like Russian and Esperanto, uses a different convention. A tense in a subordinate bridi is understood to be relative to the tense already set in the main bridi. Thus
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qECX"/> through
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qeFQ"/> can be expressed in Lojban respectively thus:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>John says that George goes to market</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qega" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e15d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. ca cusku le se du'u la djordj. ca klama le zarci</jbo>
- <en>John [present] says the statement-that George [present] goes-to the market.</en>
+ <gloss>John [present] says the statement-that George [present] goes-to the market.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qeGL" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e15d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. ca cusku le se du'u la djordj. pu klama le zarci</jbo>
- <en>John [present] says the statement-that George [past] goes-to the market.</en>
+ <gloss>John [present] says the statement-that George [past] goes-to the market.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qEGL" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e15d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. pu cusku le se du'u la djordj. ca klama le zarci</jbo>
- <en>John [past] says the statement-that George [present] goes-to the market.</en>
+ <gloss>John [past] says the statement-that George [present] goes-to the market.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qegV" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e15d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. pu cusku le se du'u la djordj. pu klama le zarci</jbo>
- <en>John [past] says the statement-that George [past] goes-to the market.</en>
+ <gloss>John [past] says the statement-that George [past] goes-to the market.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Probably the most counterintuitive of the Lojban examples is
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qEGL"/>. The
<jbophrase>ca</jbophrase> looks quite odd, as if George were going to the market right now, rather than back when John spoke. But this
<jbophrase>ca</jbophrase> is really a
<jbophrase>ca</jbophrase> with respect to a reference point specified by the outer
<jbophrase>pu</jbophrase>. This behavior is the same as the additive behavior of multiple tenses in the same bridi, as explained in
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section13"/>.</para>
+ <xref linkend="section-sticky-tenses"/>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>CUhE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>nau</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>nau</primary><secondary>syntax</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>overriding to speaker's current</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>speaker's current</secondary></indexterm> There is a special cmavo
<jbophrase>nau</jbophrase> (of selma'o CUhE) which can be used to override these rules and get to the speaker's current reference point. (Yes, it sounds like English
<quote>now</quote>.) It is not grammatical to combine
<jbophrase>nau</jbophrase> with any other cmavo in a tense, except by way of a logical or non-logical connection (see
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section20"/>). Here is a convoluted sentence with several nested bridi which uses
+ <xref linkend="section-connected-tenses"/>). Here is a convoluted sentence with several nested bridi which uses
<jbophrase>nau</jbophrase> at the lowest level:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Yjop">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e15d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. pu cusku le se du'u la .alis pu cusku le se du'u</jbo>
<gloss>la djordj. pu cusku le se du'u la maris. nau klama le zarci</gloss>
<gloss>John [past] says the statement-that Alice [past] says the statement-that</gloss>
<gloss>George [past] says the statement that Mary [now] goes-to the market.</gloss>
<en>John said that Alice had said that George had earlier said that Mary is now going to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sticky tenses</primary><secondary>effect of nau on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>nau</primary><secondary>effect on sticky tenses</secondary></indexterm> The use of
<jbophrase>nau</jbophrase> does not affect sticky tenses.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section16">
+ <section xml:id="section-tense-connection">
<title>Tense relations between sentences</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense with sumti tcita</primary><secondary>asymmetry of</secondary></indexterm> The sumti tcita method, explained in
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section12"/>, of asserting a tense relationship between two events suffers from asymmetry. Specifically,</para>
+ <xref linkend="section-tcita"/>, of asserting a tense relationship between two events suffers from asymmetry. Specifically,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-vreo">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e16d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le verba cu cadzu le bisli zu'a le nu le nanmu cu batci le gerku</jbo>
<gloss>The child walks-on the ice [left] the event-of the man bites the dog.</gloss>
<en>The child walks on the ice to the left of where the man bites the dog.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>bo</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>.i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sentences</primary><secondary>connecting with tense</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>connecting sentences in with</secondary></indexterm> which specifies an imaginary journey leftward from the man biting the dog to the child walking on the ice, claims only that the child walks on the ice. By the nature of
- <quote>le nu</quote>, the man's biting the dog is merely referred to without being claimed. If it seems desirable to claim both, each event can be expressed as a main sentence bridi, with a special form of
+ <jbophrase>le nu</jbophrase>, the man's biting the dog is merely referred to without being claimed. If it seems desirable to claim both, each event can be expressed as a main sentence bridi, with a special form of
<jbophrase>.i</jbophrase> connecting them:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9Q0x">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e16d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu cu batci le gerku .izu'abo le verba cu cadzu le bisli</jbo>
<gloss>The man bites the dog. [Left] the child walks-on the ice.</gloss>
<en>The man bites the dog. To the left, the child walks on the ice.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<jbophrase>.izu'abo</jbophrase> is a compound cmavo: the
<jbophrase>.i</jbophrase> separates the sentences and the
<jbophrase>zu'a</jbophrase> is the tense. The
- <quote>bo</quote> is required to prevent the
+ <jbophrase>bo</jbophrase> is required to prevent the
<jbophrase>zu'a</jbophrase> from gobbling up the following sumti, namely
<jbophrase>le verba</jbophrase>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>sumti tcita form contrasted with connected sentences</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense connection of sentences</primary><secondary>contrasted with sumti tcita form</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>imaginary journey</primary><secondary>origin of in tense-connected sentences</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense connection of sentences</primary><secondary>order of</secondary></indexterm> Note that the bridi in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-9Q0x"/> appear in the reverse order from their appearance in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-vreo"/>. With
<jbophrase>.izu'abo</jbophrase> (and all other afterthought tense connectives) the sentence specifying the origin of the journey comes first. This is a natural order for sentences, but requires some care when converting between this form and the sumti tcita form.</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-9Q0x"/> means the same thing as:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Ne2C">
@@ -2156,21 +2151,21 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu cu batci le gerku</jbo>
<gloss>.i zu'a la'edi'u le verba cu cadzu le bisli</gloss>
<gloss>The man bites the dog.</gloss>
<gloss>[Left] the-referent-of-the-last-sentence the child walks-on the ice.</gloss>
<en>The man bites the dog. Left of what I just mentioned, the child walks on the ice.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense connected sentences</primary><secondary>importance of bo in</secondary></indexterm> If the
- <quote>bo</quote> is omitted in
+ <jbophrase>bo</jbophrase> is omitted in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-9Q0x"/>, the meaning changes:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-jThf">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e16d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu cu batci le gerku .i zu'a le verba cu cadzu le bisli</jbo>
<gloss>The man bites the dog. [Left] the child [something] walks-on the ice.</gloss>
<en>The man bites the dog. To the left of the child, something walks on the ice.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -2198,41 +2193,41 @@
<xref linkend="example-random-id-9Q0x"/> makes the origin point of the tense the event described by the first sentence.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense connected sentences</primary><secondary>forethought mode</secondary></indexterm> Two sentences may also be connected in forethought by a tense relationship. Just like afterthought tense connection, forethought tense connection claims both sentences, and in addition claims that the time or space relationship specified by the tense holds between the events the two sentences describe.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>gi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>imaginary journey</primary><secondary>origin in tense forethought sentence connection</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sentences</primary><secondary>forethought tense connection of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>forethought tense connection of sentences</primary><secondary>order of</secondary></indexterm> The origin sentence is placed first, preceded by a tense plus
- <quote>gi</quote>. Another
- <quote>gi</quote> is used to separate the sentences:</para>
+ <jbophrase>gi</jbophrase>. Another
+ <jbophrase>gi</jbophrase> is used to separate the sentences:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9cXU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e16d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>pugi mi klama le zarci gi mi klama le zdani</jbo>
<gloss>[past] I go-to the market [,] I go-to the house.</gloss>
<en>Before I go to the market, I go to the house.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>A parallel construction can be used to express a tense relationship between sumti:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>gi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>forethought tense connection of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>imaginary journey</primary><secondary>origin in tense forethought sumti connection</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>forethought tense connection of sumti</primary><secondary>order of</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-o3Yg">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e16d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama pugi le zarci gi le zdani</jbo>
- <en>I go-to [past] the market [,] the house.</en>
+ <gloss>I go-to [past] the market [,] the house.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Because English does not have any direct way of expressing a tense-like relationship between nouns,
<xref linkend="example-random-id-o3Yg"/> cannot be expressed in English without paraphrasing it either into
<xref linkend="example-random-id-9cXU"/> or else into
<quote>I go to the house before the market</quote>, which is ambiguous - is the market going?</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>gi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi-tails</primary><secondary>forethought tense connection of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>imaginary journey</primary><secondary>origin in tense forethought bridi-tail connection</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>forethought tense connection of bridi-tails</primary><secondary>order of</secondary></indexterm> Finally, a third forethought construction expresses a tense relationship between bridi-tails rather than whole bridi. (The construct known as a
<quote>bridi-tail</quote> is explained fully in
<xref linkend="chapter-connectives"/>; roughly speaking, it is a selbri, possibly with following sumti.)
@@ -2248,27 +2243,27 @@
<gloss>I [past] go-to the market [,] go-to the house.</gloss>
<en>I, before going to the market, go to the house.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense connection of bridi-tails</primary><secondary>meaning of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense connection of sumti</primary><secondary>meaning of</secondary></indexterm> In both
<xref linkend="example-random-id-o3Yg"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-vSCv"/>, the underlying sentences
<jbophrase>mi klama le zarci</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>mi klama le zdani</jbophrase> are not claimed; only the relationship in time between them is claimed.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense afterthought connection forms</primary><secondary>selma'o allowed</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense forethought connection forms</primary><secondary>selma'o allowed</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense connection</primary><secondary>expansions of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense connection</primary><secondary>equivalent meanings</secondary></indexterm> Both the forethought and the afterthought forms are appropriate with PU, ZI, FAhA, VA, and ZAhO tenses. In all cases, the equivalent forms are (where X and Y stand for sentences, and TENSE for a tense cmavo):</para>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ <programlisting>
subordinate: X TENSE le nu Y
afterthought coordinate: Y .i+TENSE+bo X
forethought coordinate: TENSE+gi X gi Y
</programlisting>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section17">
+ <section xml:id="section-tense-logical-connection">
<title>Tensed logical connectives</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tensed logical connectives</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connectives</primary><secondary>tensed</secondary></indexterm> The Lojban tense system interacts with the Lojban logical connective system. That system is a separate topic, explained in
<xref linkend="chapter-connectives"/> and touched on only in summary here. By the rules of the logical connective system,
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qehB"/> through 17.3 are equivalent in meaning:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qehB" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e17d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -2289,21 +2284,21 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e17d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la teris. satre le mlatu .e le ractu</jbo>
<en>Terry strokes the cat and the rabbit.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>bo</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>stoke cat then rabbit</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>and then</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> Suppose we wish to add a tense relationship to the logical connective
<quote>and</quote>? To say that Terry strokes the cat and later strokes the rabbit, we can combine a logical connective with a tense connective by placing the logical connective first, then the tense, and then the cmavo
- <quote>bo</quote>, thus:</para>
+ <jbophrase>bo</jbophrase>, thus:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qEiY" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e17d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la teris. satre le mlatu .ijebabo la teris. satre le ractu</jbo>
<en>Terry strokes the cat. And then Terry strokes the rabbit.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -2322,34 +2317,34 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la teris. satre le mlatu .ebabo le ractu</jbo>
<en>Terry strokes the cat and then the rabbit.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tensed logically connected sumti</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tensed logically connected bridi-tails</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tensed logically connected sentences</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qEiY"/> through 17.6 are equivalent in meaning. They are also analogous to
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qehB"/> through
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qEIm"/> respectively. The
- <quote>bo</quote> is required for the same reason as in
+ <jbophrase>bo</jbophrase> is required for the same reason as in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-9Q0x"/>: to prevent the
<jbophrase>ba</jbophrase> from functioning as a sumti tcita for the following sumti (or, in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qEjn"/>, from being attached to the following selbri).</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tensed logical connectives</primary><secondary>with tu'e…tu'u</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tensed logical connectives</primary><secondary>with ke…ke'e</secondary></indexterm> In addition to the
- <quote>bo</quote> construction of
+ <jbophrase>bo</jbophrase> construction of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qEiY"/> through
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qEKa"/>, there is also a form of tensed logical connective with
- <quote>ke ... ke'e</quote> (
- <quote>tu'e ... tu'u</quote> for sentences). The logical connective system makes
+ <jbophrase>ke ... ke'e</jbophrase> (
+ <jbophrase>tu'e ... tu'u</jbophrase> for sentences). The logical connective system makes
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qeL4"/> through
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qeLv"/> equivalent in meaning:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qeL4" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e17d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi bevri le dakli .ije tu'e mi bevri le gerku .ija mi bevri le mlatu tu'u</jbo>
<gloss>I carry the sack. And (I carry the dog. And/or I carry the cat).</gloss>
<en>I carry the sack. And I carry the dog, or I carry the cat, or I carry both.</en>
@@ -2412,37 +2407,37 @@
<gloss>I carry the sack and [future] (the cat and/or [present] the dog).</gloss>
<en>I carry the sack, and then the cat or the dog or both at once.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tensed logically connected sumti</primary><secondary>with grouping</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tensed logically connected bridi-tails</primary><secondary>with grouping</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tensed logically connected sentences</primary><secondary>with grouping</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qeLV"/> through
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qEnd"/> are equivalent in meaning to each other, and correspond to the tenseless
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qeL4"/> through
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qeLv"/> respectively.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section18">
+ <section xml:id="section-tense-negation">
<title>Tense negation</title>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>nai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ZAhO selma'o</primary><secondary>contradictory negation of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>FAhA selma'o</primary><secondary>contradictory negation of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>PU selma'o</primary><secondary>contradictory negation of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>negation</primary><secondary>of tenses</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tenses</primary><secondary>negating</secondary></indexterm> Any bridi which involves tenses of selma'o PU, FAhA, or ZAhO can be contradicted by a
- <quote>-nai</quote> suffixed to the tense cmavo. Some examples:</para>
+ <jbophrase>-nai</jbophrase> suffixed to the tense cmavo. Some examples:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-qXWF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e18d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi punai klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] [not] go-to the market.</gloss>
<en>I didn't go to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>nai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>negation of tenses</primary><secondary>meaning of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tenses</primary><secondary>contradictory negation of with nai</secondary></indexterm> As a contradictory negation,
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qXWF"/> implies that the bridi as a whole is false without saying anything about what is true. When the negated tense is a sumti tcita,
- <quote>-nai</quote> negation indicates that the stated relationship does not hold:</para>
+ <jbophrase>-nai</jbophrase> negation indicates that the stated relationship does not hold:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qEnq" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e18d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci canai le nu do klama le zdani</jbo>
<gloss>I go-to the market [present] [not] the event-of you go-to the house.</gloss>
<en>It is not true that I went to the market at the same time that you went to the house.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -2503,38 +2498,38 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e18d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi morsi na'e ca'o le nu mi jmive</jbo>
<gloss>I am-dead [non-] [continuitive] the event-of I live.</gloss>
<en>I am dead other than during my life.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>FAhA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>PU selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>scalar negation of tenses</primary><secondary>selma'o allowed with</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>contradictory negation of tenses</primary><secondary>selma'o allowed with</secondary></indexterm> Unlike
- <quote>-nai</quote> contradictory negation, scalar negation of tenses is not limited to PU and FAhA:</para>
+ <jbophrase>-nai</jbophrase> contradictory negation, scalar negation of tenses is not limited to PU and FAhA:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-THJJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e18d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le verba na'e ri'u cadzu le bisli</jbo>
<gloss>The child [non-] [right] walks-on the ice</gloss>
<en>The child walks on the ice other than to my right.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ROI selma'o</primary><secondary>scalar negation of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>TAhE selma'o</primary><secondary>scalar negation of</secondary></indexterm> The use of
- <quote>-nai</quote> on cmavo of TAhE and ROI has already been discussed in
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section9"/>; this use is also a scalar negation.</para>
+ <jbophrase>-nai</jbophrase> on cmavo of TAhE and ROI has already been discussed in
+ <xref linkend="section-interval-properties"/>; this use is also a scalar negation.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section19">
+ <section xml:id="section-caha">
<title>Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ca'a</cmavo>
<selmaho>CAhA</selmaho>
<description>actually is</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
@@ -2716,21 +2711,21 @@
<en>(at some understood moment in the future).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tenses with elided CAhA</primary><secondary>meaning</secondary></indexterm> As always in Lojban tenses, a missing CAhA can have an indeterminate meaning, or the context can be enough to disambiguate it. Saying</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-IKGW">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e19d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta jelca</jbo>
- <en>That burns/is-burning/might-burn/will-burn.</en>
+ <gloss>That burns/is-burning/might-burn/will-burn.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>inflammable</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> with no CAhA specified can translate the two very different English sentences
<quote>That is on fire</quote> and
<quote>That is inflammable.</quote> The first demands immediate action (usually), whereas the second merely demands caution. The two cases can be disambiguated with:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-5tur">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e19d12"/>
</title>
@@ -2762,21 +2757,21 @@
<anchor xml:id="c10e19d14"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>jelca</jbo>
<en>It burns!</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>the prudent Lojbanist will assume the meaning
<quote>Fire!</quote></para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section20">
+ <section xml:id="section-connected-tenses">
<title>Logical and non-logical connections between tenses</title>
<para>Like many things in Lojban, tenses may be logically connected; logical connection is explained in more detail in
<xref linkend="chapter-connectives"/>. Some of the terminology in this section will be clear only if you already understand logical connectives.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logically connected tenses</primary><secondary>expansion to sentences</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tenses</primary><secondary>logically connected with JA</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logically connected tenses</primary><secondary>with JA</secondary></indexterm> The appropriate logical connectives belong to selma'o JA. A logical connective between tenses can always be expanded to one between sentences:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-XAj7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e20d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu je ba klama le zarci</jbo>
@@ -2807,21 +2802,21 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Tuz1"/> is far more specific than</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-J5jJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e20d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ba klama le zarci</jbo>
- <en>I [future] go-to the market.</en>
+ <gloss>I [future] go-to the market.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which only says that I will go, without claiming anything about my past or present.
<jbophrase>ba</jbophrase> does not imply
<jbophrase>punai</jbophrase> or
<jbophrase>canai</jbophrase>; to compel that interpretation, either a logical connection or a ZAhO is needed.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>connected tenses</primary><secondary>negation of compared with negation in connective</secondary></indexterm> Tense negation can often be removed in favor of negation in the logical connective itself. The following examples are equivalent in meaning:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qErC" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e20d5"/>
@@ -2853,23 +2848,23 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi puza bi'o bazu vasxu</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] [medium] from ... to [future] [long] breathe.</gloss>
<en>I breathe from a medium time ago till a long time to come.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(It is to be hoped that I have a long life ahead of me.)</para>
<para>One additional use of non-logical connectives within tenses is discussed in
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section21"/>. Other uses will probably be identified in future.</para>
+ <xref linkend="section-sub-events"/>. Other uses will probably be identified in future.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section21">
+ <section xml:id="section-sub-events">
<title>Sub-events</title>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>six-shooter</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tenses</primary><secondary>non-logical connection of for sub-events</secondary></indexterm> Another application of non-logical tense connection is to talk about sub-events of events. Consider a six-shooter: a gun which can fire six bullets in succession before reloading. If I fire off the entire magazine twice, I can express the fact in Lojban thus:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9CqG">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e21d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi reroi pi'u xaroi cecla le seldanti</jbo>
@@ -2906,21 +2901,21 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e21d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi reroi ca'o xaroi darxi le damri</jbo>
<gloss>I [twice] [continuitive] [six times] hit the drum.</gloss>
<en>On two occasions, I continue to beat the drum six times.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section22">
+ <section xml:id="section-jai">
<title>Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>jai</cmavo>
<selmaho>JAI</selmaho>
<description>tense conversion</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
@@ -2929,34 +2924,34 @@
<description>indefinite place</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>SE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>conversion</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> Conversion is the regular Lojban process of moving around the places of a place structure. The cmavo of selma'o SE serve this purpose, exchanging the first place with one of the others:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qEu5" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e22d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cu klama le zarci</jbo>
- <en>I go-to the market.</en>
+ <gloss>I go-to the market.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qEu9" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e22d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le zarci cu se klama mi</jbo>
- <en>The market is-gone-to by-me.</en>
+ <gloss>The market is-gone-to by-me.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>jai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>jai with tense</primary><secondary>as equivalent of SE in grammar</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense conversion</primary><secondary>accessing tense of bridi with jai</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>conversion</primary><secondary>accessing tense of bridi with jai</secondary></indexterm> It is also possible to bring a place that is specified by a sumti tcita (for the purposes of this chapter, a tense sumti tcita) to the front, by using
- <quote>jai</quote> plus the tense as the grammatical equivalent of SE:</para>
+ <jbophrase>jai</jbophrase> plus the tense as the grammatical equivalent of SE:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qEvD" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e22d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ratcu cu citka le cirla vi le panka</jbo>
<gloss>The rat eats the cheese [short distance] the park.</gloss>
<en>The rat eats the cheese in the park.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -3005,73 +3000,73 @@
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>place of eating</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-esDa">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e22d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska le jai vi citka be le cirla</jbo>
- <en>I saw the place-of eating the cheese.</en>
+ <gloss>I saw the place-of eating the cheese.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the eater of the cheese is elided, so no
<jbophrase>fai</jbophrase> appears.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense conversion</primary><secondary>of temporal tenses</secondary></indexterm> Of course, temporal tenses are also usable with JAI:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nSnh">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e22d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi djuno fi le jai ca morsi be fai la djan.</jbo>
<gloss>I know about the [present] is-dead of-the-one-called
<quote>John</quote>.</gloss>
<gloss>I know the time of John's death.</gloss>
<en>I know when John died.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section23">
+ <section xml:id="section-tenses-vs-modals">
<title>Tenses versus modals</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modals</primary><secondary>contrasted with tenses in semantics</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tenses</primary><secondary>contrasted with modals in semantics</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modals</primary><secondary>compared with tenses in syntax</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tenses</primary><secondary>compared with modals in syntax</secondary></indexterm> Grammatically, every use of tenses seen so far is exactly paralleled by some use of modals as explained in
<xref linkend="chapter-sumti-tcita"/>. Modals and tenses alike can be followed by sumti, can appear before the selbri, can be used in pure and mixed connections, can participate in JAI conversions. The parallelism is perfect. However, there is a deep difference in the semantics of tense constructs and modal constructs, grounded in historical differences between the two forms. Originally, modals and tenses were utterly different things in earlier versions of Loglan; only in Lojban have they become grammatically interchangeable. And even now, differences in semantics continue to be maintained.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modals</primary><secondary>importance of 1st sumti place for sumti tcita use</secondary></indexterm> The core distinction is that whereas the modal bridi</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-YLmV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e23d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci do mu'i le nu do nelci mi</jbo>
<gloss>I like you with-motivation the event-of you like me.</gloss>
<en>I like you because you like me.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>places the
- <quote>le nu</quote> sumti in the x1 place of the gismu
+ <jbophrase>le nu</jbophrase> sumti in the x1 place of the gismu
<jbophrase>mukti</jbophrase> (which underlies the modal
<jbophrase>mu'i</jbophrase>), namely the motivating event, the tensed bridi</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-zXi8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e23d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci do ba le nu do nelci mi</jbo>
<gloss>I like you after the event-of you like me.</gloss>
<en>I like you after you like me.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tenses</primary><secondary>importance of 2nd sumti place for sumti tcita use</secondary></indexterm> places the
- <quote>le nu</quote> sumti in the x2 place of the gismu
+ <jbophrase>le nu</jbophrase> sumti in the x2 place of the gismu
<jbophrase>balvi</jbophrase> (which underlies the tense
<jbophrase>ba</jbophrase>), namely the point of reference for the future tense. Paraphrases of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-YLmV"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-zXi8"/>, employing the brivla
<jbophrase>mukti</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>balvi</jbophrase> explicitly, would be:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-JbEU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e23d3"/>
</title>
@@ -3144,34 +3139,34 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e23d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>bagi do nelci mi gi mi nelci do</jbo>
<en>After you like me, I like you.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>respectively.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal sentence connection</primary><secondary>table of equivalent schemata</secondary></indexterm> The following modal sentence schemata (where X and Y represent sentences) all have the same meaning:</para>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ <programlisting>
X .i BAI bo Y
BAI gi Y gi X
X BAI le nu Y
</programlisting>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense sentence connection</primary><secondary>table of equivalent schemata</secondary></indexterm> whereas the following tensed sentence schemata also have the same meaning:</para>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ <programlisting>
X .i TENSE bo Y
TENSE gi X gi Y
Y TENSE le nu X
</programlisting>
<para>neglecting the question of what is claimed. In the modal sentence schemata, the modal tag is always followed by Y, the sentence representing the event in the x1 place of the gismu that underlies the BAI. In the tensed sentences, no such simple rule exists.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section24">
+ <section xml:id="section-tense-questions">
<title>Tense questions:
<jbophrase>cu'e</jbophrase></title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>cu'e</cmavo>
<selmaho>CUhE</selmaho>
<description>tense question</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
@@ -3258,21 +3253,21 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>or even the modal reply (from selma'o BAI; see
<xref linkend="chapter-sumti-tcita"/>):</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Vqgy">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e24d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>seka'a le briju</jbo>
- <en>With-destination the office.</en>
+ <gloss>With-destination the office.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal-or-tense questions</primary><secondary>pre-specifying some information</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense-or-modal questions</primary><secondary>pre-specifying some information</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cu'e</primary><secondary>combining with other tense cmavo</secondary></indexterm> The only way to combine
<jbophrase>cu'e</jbophrase> with other tense cmavo is through logical connection, which makes a question that pre-specifies some information:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>when else</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>sowed grain</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-QTts">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e24d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -3297,42 +3292,42 @@
</example>
<para>Answers to
<xref linkend="example-random-id-I6xI"/> would be logical connectives such as
<jbophrase>je</jbophrase>, meaning
<quote>both</quote>,
<jbophrase>naje</jbophrase> meaning
<quote>the latter</quote>, or
<jbophrase>jenai</jbophrase> meaning
<quote>the former</quote>.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section25">
+ <section xml:id="section-explicit-magnitudes">
<title>Explicit magnitudes</title>
<para>It is a limitation of the VA and ZI system of specifying magnitudes that they can only prescribe vague magnitudes: small, medium, or large. In order to express both an origin point and an exact distance, the Lojban construction called a
<quote>termset</quote> is employed. (Termsets are explained further in
<xref linkend="chapter-connectives"/> and
<xref linkend="chapter-quantifiers"/>.) It is grammatical for a termset to be placed after a tense or modal tag rather than a sumti, which allows both the origin of the imaginary journey and its distance to be specified. Here is an example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7Lys">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e25d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la frank. sanli zu'a nu'i la djordj.</jbo>
<gloss>la'u lo mitre be li mu [nu'u]</gloss>
<gloss>Frank stands [left] [start termset] George</gloss>
<gloss>[quantity] a thing-measuring-in-meters the-number 5 [end termset].</gloss>
<en>Frank is standing five meters to the left of George.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the termset extends from the
- <quote>nu'i</quote> to the implicit
- <quote>nu'u</quote> at the end of the sentence, and includes the terms
- <quote>la djordj.</quote>, which is the unmarked origin point, and the tagged sumti
+ <jbophrase>nu'i</jbophrase> to the implicit
+ <jbophrase>nu'u</jbophrase> at the end of the sentence, and includes the terms
+ <jbophrase>la djordj.</jbophrase>, which is the unmarked origin point, and the tagged sumti
<jbophrase>lo mitre be li mu</jbophrase>, which the cmavo
<jbophrase>la'u</jbophrase> (of selma'o BAI, and meaning
<quote>with quantity</quote>; see
<xref linkend="chapter-sumti-tcita"/>) marks as a quantity. Both terms are governed by the tag
<jbophrase>zu'a</jbophrase></para>
<para>It is not necessary to have both an origin point and an explicit magnitude: a termset may have only a single term in it. A less precise version of
@@ -3343,38 +3338,38 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la frank. sanli zu'a nu'i la'u</jbo>
<gloss>lo mitre be li mu</gloss>
<gloss>Frank stands [left] [termset] [quantity]</gloss>
<gloss>a thing-measuring-in-meters the-number 5.</gloss>
<en>Frank stands five meters to the left.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section26">
+ <section xml:id="section-exercise">
<title>Finally (an exercise for the much-tried reader)</title>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-NxGB">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e26d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.a'o do pu seju ba roroi ca'o fe'e su'oroi jimpe</jbo>
<en>fi le lojbo temci selsku ciste</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section27">
+ <section xml:id="section-summary">
<title>Summary of tense selma'o</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense selma'o</primary><secondary>summary of</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ <programlisting>
PU temporal direction
pu = past, ca = present, ba = future
ZI temporal distance
zi = short, za = medium, zu = long
ZEhA temporal interval
ze'i = short, ze'a = medium, ze'u = long, ze'e = infinite
@@ -3388,25 +3383,25 @@
di'i = regularly, na'o = typically, ru'i = continuously, ta'e = habitually
ZAhO event contours
see
-<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section10"/>
+<xref linkend="section-event-contours"/>
FAhA spatial direction
see
-<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section28"/>
+<xref linkend="section-direction-cmavo"/>
VA spatial distance
vi = short, va = medium, vu = long
VEhA spatial interval
ve'i = short, ve'a = medium, ve'u = long, ve'e = infinite
VIhA spatial dimensionality
@@ -3414,43 +3409,43 @@
vi'i = line, vi'a = plane, vi'u = space, vi'e = space-time
FEhE spatial interval modifier flag
fe'enoroi = nowhere, fe'eroroi = everywhere, fe'eba'o = beyond, etc.
MOhI spatial movement flag
mo'i = motion; see
-<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section28"/>
+<xref linkend="section-direction-cmavo"/>
KI set or reset sticky tense
tense+
<jbophrase>ki</jbophrase> = set,
<jbophrase>ki</jbophrase> alone = reset
CUhE tense question, reference point
cu'e = asks for a tense or aspect, nau = use speaker's reference point
JAI tense conversion
jaica = the time of, jaivi = the place of, etc.
</programlisting>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section28">
+ <section xml:id="section-direction-cmavo">
<title>List of spatial directions and direction-like relations</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>spatial directions</primary><secondary>list of</secondary></indexterm> The following list of FAhA cmavo gives rough English glosses for the cmavo, first when used without
- <quote>mo'i</quote> to express a direction, and then when used with
- <quote>mo'i</quote> to express movement in the direction. When possible, the gismu from which the cmavo is derived is also listed.</para>
+ <jbophrase>mo'i</jbophrase> to express a direction, and then when used with
+ <jbophrase>mo'i</jbophrase> to express movement in the direction. When possible, the gismu from which the cmavo is derived is also listed.</para>
<cmavo-list>ca'u crane in front (of) forwardti'a trixe behind backwardzu'a zunle on the left (of) leftwardga'u gapru above upward(ly)ni'a cnita below downward(ly)ne'i nenri within intoru'u sruri surrounding orbitingpa'o pagre transfixing passing throughne'a next to moving while next to
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>te'e</cmavo>
<selmaho>bordering</selmaho>
<description>moving along the border (of)</description>
</cmavo-entry> re'o adjacent (to) alongfa'a farna towards arriving atto'o away from departing fromzo'i inward (from) approachingze'o outward (from) receding fromzo'a tangential (to) passing (by)be'a berti north (of) northward(ly)ne'u snanu south (of) southward(ly)du'a stuna east (of) eastward(ly)vu'a west (of) westward(ly)</cmavo-list>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ze'o</primary><secondary>special note on direction orientation</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>zo'i</primary><secondary>special note on direction orientation</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>to'o</primary><secondary>special note on direction orientation</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fa'a</primary><secondary>special note on direction orientation</secondary></indexterm> Special note on
<jbophrase>fa'a</jbophrase>,
diff --git a/todocbook/20.xml b/todocbook/20.xml
index d837b6a..e755a68 100644
--- a/todocbook/20.xml
+++ b/todocbook/20.xml
@@ -141,21 +141,21 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section4"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Indicates the intensity of an emotion: maximum, strong, weak, or not at all. Typically follows another particle which specifies the emotion.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
.ei cai mi klama le zarci
[Obligation!] [Intense!] I go-to the market.
I must go to the market.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="CAhA"/> selma'o CAhA (
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section19"/>)</bridgehead>
+ <xref linkend="chapter-tenses-section-caha"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Specifies whether a bridi refers to an actual fact, a potential (achieved or not), or merely an innate capability.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ro datka ka'e flulimna
All ducks [capability] are-float-swimmers.
All ducks have the capability of swimming by floating.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="CEI"/> selma'o CEI (
@@ -208,21 +208,21 @@
<anchor xml:id="CU"/> selma'o CU (
<xref linkend="chapter-sumti-tcita-section-cu"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Separates the selbri of a bridi from any sumti which precede it. Never strictly necessary, but often useful to eliminate various elidable terminators.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
le gerku cu klama le zarci
The dog goes to-the store.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="CUhE"/> selma'o CUhE (
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section24"/>)</bridgehead>
+ <xref linkend="chapter-tenses-section-tense-questions"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Forms a question which asks when, where, or in what mode the rest of the bridi is true. See
<xref linkend="PU"/>,
<xref linkend="CAhA"/>,
<xref linkend="TAhE"/>, and
<xref linkend="BAI"/>.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
do cu'e klama le zarci
You [When/Where?] go to-the store?
When are you going to the store?
</programlisting>
@@ -260,37 +260,37 @@
<anchor xml:id="FA"/> selma'o FA (
<xref linkend="chapter-sumti-tcita-section-FA"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Prefix for a sumti, indicating which numbered place in the place structure the sumti belongs in; overrides word order.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
fa mi cu klama fi la .atlantas. fe la bastn. fo le dargu fu le karce
x1= I go x3= Atlanta x2= Boston x4= the road x5= the car.
I go from Atlanta to Boston via the road using the car.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="FAhA"/> selma'o FAhA (
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section2"/>)</bridgehead>
+ <xref linkend="chapter-tenses-section-spatial-tenses"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Specifies the direction in which, or toward which (when marked with
<xref linkend="MOhI"/>) or along which (when prefixed by
<xref linkend="VEhA"/> or
<xref linkend="VIhA"/>) the action of the bridi takes place.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
le nanmu zu'a batci le gerku
The man [left] bites the dog.
To my left, the man bites the dog.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="FAhO"/> selma'o FAhO (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section15"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>A mechanical signal, outside the grammar, indicating that there is no more text. Useful in talking to computers.</para>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="FEhE"/> selma'o FEhE (
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section11"/>)</bridgehead>
+ <xref linkend="chapter-tenses-section-fehe"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Indicates that the following interval modifier (using
<xref linkend="TAhE"/>,
<xref linkend="ROI"/>, or
<xref linkend="ZAhO"/>) refers to space rather than time.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ko vi'i fe'e di'i sombo le gurni
You-imperative [1-dimensional] [space] [regularly] sow the grain.
Sow the grain in a line and evenly!
</programlisting>
@@ -527,35 +527,35 @@
<xref linkend="section-ke-grouping"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Elidable terminator for
<xref linkend="KE"/>. Marks the end of a grouping.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ta ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ckule
That is-a-( pretty little ) girl school.
That is a school for girls who are pretty in their littleness.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="KI"/> selma'o KI (
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section13"/>)</bridgehead>
+ <xref linkend="chapter-tenses-section-sticky-tenses"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>When preceded by a tense or modal, makes it “sticky”, so that it applies to all further bridi until reset by another appearance of
<xref linkend="KI"/>. When alone, eliminates all sticky tenses.</para>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="KOhA"/> selma'o KOhA (
<xref linkend="chapter-anaphoric-cmavo-section-introduction"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>A general selma'o which contains all cmavo which can substitute for sumti. These cmavo are divided into several groups.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
le blanu zdani goi ko'a cu barda .i ko'a na cmamau ti
The blue house (referred to as it-1) is big. It-1 is-not smaller-than this-thing.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="KU"/> selma'o KU (
<xref linkend="chapter-sumti-section-basic-descriptors"/>,
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section1"/>)</bridgehead>
+ <xref linkend="chapter-tenses-section-introduction"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Elidable terminator for
<xref linkend="LE"/> and some uses of
<xref linkend="LA"/>. Indicates the end of a description sumti. Also used after a tense or modal to indicate that no sumti follows, and in the compound
<xref linkend="NA"/>+
<xref linkend="KU"/> to indicate natural language-style negation.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
le prenu ku le zdani ku klama
The person, to-the house, goes.
The person goes to the house.
</programlisting>
@@ -757,21 +757,21 @@
<para>Produces a mathematical operand from a sumti; used to make dimensioned units. Terminated by
<xref linkend="TEhU"/>.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
li mo'e re ratcu su'i mo'e re ractu du li mo'e vo danlu
The-number two rats plus two rabbits equals the-number four animals.
2 rats + 2 rabbits = 4 animals.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="MOhI"/> selma'o MOhI (
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section8"/>)</bridgehead>
+ <xref linkend="chapter-tenses-section-movement"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>A tense flag indicating movement in space, in a direction specified by a following
<xref linkend="FAhA"/> cmavo.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
le verba mo'i ri'u cadzu le bisli
The child [movement] [right] walks-on the ice.
The child walks toward my right on the ice.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="NA"/> selma'o NA (
@@ -906,21 +906,21 @@
<para>An optional signal of forethought mathematical operators, which precede their operands. Terminated by
<xref linkend="KUhE"/>.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
li vo du li pe'o su'i reboi re
The-number four equals the-number [forethought] sum-of two two.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="PU"/> selma'o PU (
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section4"/>)</bridgehead>
+ <xref linkend="chapter-tenses-section-temporal-tenses"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Specifies simple time directions (future, past, or neither).</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi pu klama le zarci
I [past] go-to the market.
I went to the market.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="RAhO"/> selma'o RAhO (
<xref linkend="chapter-anaphoric-cmavo-section-ri-gohi-series"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>The pro-bridi update flag: changes the meaning of sumti implicitly attached to a pro-bridi (see
@@ -935,21 +935,21 @@
A: mi ba lumci le mi karce
B: mi go'i ra'o
A: I [future] wash my car.
B: I do-the-corresponding-thing (i.e. wash B’s car).
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="ROI"/> selma'o ROI (
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section9"/>)</bridgehead>
+ <xref linkend="chapter-tenses-section-interval-properties"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>When suffixed to a number, makes an extensional tense (e.g. once, twice, many times).</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi reroi klama le zarci
I twice go-to the market.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="SA"/> selma'o SA (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section13"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Erases the previous phrase or sentence.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
@@ -1005,21 +1005,21 @@
mi prami do soi mi
I love you [reciprocally] me.
I love you and vice versa.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="SU"/> selma'o SU (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section13"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Closes and erases the entire previous discourse.</para>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="TAhE"/> selma'o TAhE (
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section9"/>)</bridgehead>
+ <xref linkend="chapter-tenses-section-interval-properties"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>A tense modifier specifying frequencies within an interval of time or space (regularly, habitually, etc.).</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
le verba ta'e klama le ckule
The child habitually goes to-the school.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="TEI"/> selma'o TEI (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17-section6"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Signals the beginning of a compound letter word, which acts grammatically like a single letter. Compound letter words end with the non-elidable selma'o
@@ -1084,21 +1084,21 @@
<anchor xml:id="UI"/> selma'o UI (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section1"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Particles which indicate the speaker’s emotional state or source of knowledge, or the present stage of discourse.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
.ui la djan. klama
[Happiness!] John is-coming.
Hurrah! John is coming!
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="VA"/> selma'o VA (
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section2"/>)</bridgehead>
+ <xref linkend="chapter-tenses-section-spatial-tenses"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>A tense indicating distance in space (near, far, or neither).</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
le nanmu va batci le gerku
The man [medium distance] bites the dog.
Over there the man is biting the dog.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="VAU"/> selma'o VAU (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section9"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Elidable terminator for a simple bridi, or for each bridi-tail of a
@@ -1118,40 +1118,40 @@
li vei ny. su'i pa ve'o pi'i vei ny. su'i pa [ve'o] du
li ny. [bo] te'a re su'i re bo pi'i ny. su'i pa
The-number (“n” plus one) times (“n” plus one) equals
the-number n-power-two plus two-times-“n” plus 1.
(n + 1)(n + 1) = n
<superscript>2</superscript> + 2n + 1
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="VEhA"/> selma'o VEhA (
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section5"/>)</bridgehead>
+ <xref linkend="chapter-tenses-section-interval-sizes"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>A tense indicating the size of an interval in space (long, medium, or short).</para>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="VEhO"/> selma'o VEhO (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section5"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Elidable terminator for
<xref linkend="VEI"/>: right mathematical parenthesis.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
li vei ny. su'i pa ve'o pi'i vei ny. su'i pa [ve'o] du
li ny. [bo] te'a re su'i re bo pi'i ny. su'i pa
The-number (“n” plus one) times (“n” plus one) equals
the-number n-power-two plus two-times-“n” plus 1.
(n + 1)(n + 1) = n
<superscript>2</superscript> + 2n + 1
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="VIhA"/> selma'o VIhA (
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section7"/>)</bridgehead>
+ <xref linkend="chapter-tenses-section-dimensionality"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>A tense indicating dimensionality in space (line, plane, volume, or space-time interval).</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
le verba ve'a vi'a cadzu le bisli
The child [medium space interval] [2-dimensional] walks-on the ice.
In a medium-sized area, the child walks on the ice.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="VUhO"/> selma'o VUhO (
@@ -1186,49 +1186,49 @@
<anchor xml:id="Y"/> selma'o Y (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section14"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Hesitation noise: content-free, but holds the floor or continues the conversation. It is different from silence in that silence may be interpreted as having nothing more to say.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
doi .y. .y. .djan
O, uh, uh, John!
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="ZAhO"/> selma'o ZAhO (
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section10"/>)</bridgehead>
+ <xref linkend="chapter-tenses-section-event-contours"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>A tense modifier specifying the contour of an event (e.g. beginning, ending, continuing).</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi pu'o damba
I [inchoative] fight.
I’m on the verge of fighting.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="ZEI"/> selma'o ZEI (<xref linkend="chapter-morphology-section-rafsi"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>A morphological glue word, which joins the two words it stands between into the equivalent of a lujvo.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ta xy. zei kantu kacma
That is-an-(X - ray) camera.
That is an X-ray camera.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="ZEhA"/> selma'o ZEhA (
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section5"/>)</bridgehead>
+ <xref linkend="chapter-tenses-section-interval-sizes"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>A tense indicating the size of an interval in time (long, medium, or short).</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi puze'a citka
I [past] [short interval] eat.
I ate for a little while.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="ZI"/> selma'o ZI (
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section4"/>)</bridgehead>
+ <xref linkend="chapter-tenses-section-temporal-tenses"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>A tense indicating distance in time (a long, medium or short time ago or in the future).</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi puzi citka
I [past] [short distance] eat.
I ate a little while ago.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="ZIhE"/> selma'o ZIhE (
<xref linkend="chapter-relative-clauses-section-zihe"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Joins multiple relative phrases or clauses which apply to the same sumti. Although generally translated with “and”, it is not considered a logical connective.</para>
diff --git a/todocbook/7.xml b/todocbook/7.xml
index af7f0fa..d99de1a 100644
--- a/todocbook/7.xml
+++ b/todocbook/7.xml
@@ -1,18 +1,18 @@
<chapter xml:id="chapter-anaphoric-cmavo">
<title>Brevity Is The Soul Of Language: Pro-sumti And Pro-bridi</title>
<section xml:id="section-introduction">
<title>What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pronouns in English</primary><secondary>as noun abbreviations</secondary></indexterm> Speakers of Lojban, like speakers of other languages, require mechanisms of abbreviation. If every time we referred to something, we had to express a complete description of it, life would be too short to say what we have to say. In English, we have words called
<quote>pronouns</quote> which allow us to replace nouns or noun phrases with shorter terms. An English with no pronouns might look something like this:</para>
- <example role="english-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KeL4">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-KeL4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e1d1"/>
</title>
<para>Speakers of Lojban, like speakers of other languages, require mechanisms of abbreviation. If every time speakers of Lojban referred to a thing to which speakers of Lojban refer, speakers of Lojban had to express a complete description of what speakers of Lojban referred to, life would be too short to say what speakers of Lojban have to say.</para>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pronouns in English</primary><secondary>as independent of abbreviations</secondary></indexterm> Speakers of this kind of English would get mightily sick of talking. Furthermore, there are uses of pronouns in English which are independent of abbreviation. There is all the difference in the world between:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-VISf">
<title> <!-- FIXME: this indexterm goes in two examples -->
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>shook stick</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
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