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commit a5afd6690e84b8f1d48122e2769add15bf5fb169
Author: Eitan Postavsky <eitanp32@gmail.com>
Date: Sat Jan 15 22:26:44 2011 -0500
Chapter 17: <jbophrase>s and indentation.
diff --git a/todocbook/17.xml b/todocbook/17.xml
index 08ac12c..0e92546 100644
--- a/todocbook/17.xml
+++ b/todocbook/17.xml
@@ -1,28 +1,26 @@
<chapter xml:id="chapter-letterals">
<title>As Easy As A-B-C? The Lojban Letteral System And Its Uses</title>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section1">
<title>What's a letteral, anyway?</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>letter</primary><secondary>alphabet</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>letteral</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Brown</primary><secondary>James Cooke</secondary><tertiary>and "letteral"</tertiary></indexterm> James Cooke Brown, the founder of the Loglan Project, coined the word
<quote>letteral</quote> (by analogy with
<quote>numeral</quote>) to mean a letter of the alphabet, such as
<quote>f</quote> or
- <jbophrase>z</jbophrase>. A typical example of its use might be</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-tvHm">
+ <quote>z</quote>. A typical example of its use might be</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-tvHm">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e1d1"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>There are fourteen occurrences of the letteral
- <jbophrase>e</jbophrase> in this sentence.</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>There are fourteen occurrences of the letteral
+ <quote>e</quote> in this sentence.</para>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>fourteen "e"s</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> (Don't forget the one within quotation marks.) Using the word
<quote>letteral</quote> avoids confusion with
<quote>letter</quote>, the kind you write to someone. Not surprisingly, there is a Lojban gismu for
<quote>letteral</quote>, namely
<jbophrase>lerfu</jbophrase>, and this word will be used in the rest of this chapter.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>alphabet</primary><secondary>Latin used for Lojban</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Latin</primary><secondary>alphabet of Lojban</secondary></indexterm> Lojban uses the Latin alphabet, just as English does, right? Then why is there a need for a chapter like this? After all, everyone who can read it already knows the alphabet. The answer is twofold:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>alphabet</primary><secondary>words for letters in</secondary><tertiary>rationale</tertiary></indexterm> First, in English there are a set of words that correspond to and represent the English lerfu. These words are rarely written down in English and have no standard spellings, but if you pronounce the English alphabet to yourself you will hear them: ay, bee, cee, dee ... . They are used in spelling out words and in pronouncing most acronyms. The Lojban equivalents of these words are standardized and must be documented somehow.</para>
@@ -39,36 +37,36 @@
<jbophrase>lerfu valsi</jbophrase> or
<jbophrase>lervla</jbophrase>.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section2">
<title>A to Z in Lojban, plus one</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu words</primary><secondary>Lojban coverage requirement</secondary></indexterm> The first requirement of a system of lerfu words for any language is that they must represent the lerfu used to write the language. The lerfu words for English are a motley crew: the relationship between
<quote>doubleyou</quote> and
<quote>w</quote> is strictly historical in nature;
<quote>aitch</quote> represents
<quote>h</quote> but has no clear relationship to it at all; and
- <jbophrase>z</jbophrase> has two distinct lerfu words,
+ <quote>z</quote> has two distinct lerfu words,
<quote>zee</quote> and
<quote>zed</quote>, depending on the dialect of English in question.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>BY selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu word</primary><secondary>for "'"</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu words</primary><secondary>for consonants</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu words</primary><secondary>for vowels</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu words</primary><secondary>formation rules</secondary></indexterm> All of Lojban's basic lerfu words are made by one of three rules:</para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>to get a lerfu word for a vowel, add
- <quote>bu</quote>;</para>
+ <jbophrase>bu</jbophrase>;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>to get a lerfu word for a consonant, add
- <jbophrase>y</jbophrase>;</para>
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">y</jbophrase>;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>the lerfu word for
- <quote>'</quote> is
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">'</jbophrase> is
<jbophrase>.y'y</jbophrase>.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu words</primary><secondary>table of Lojban</secondary></indexterm> Therefore, the following table represents the basic Lojban alphabet:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>' a b c</cmavo>
<selmaho>d</selmaho>
<description>e</description>
@@ -97,28 +95,28 @@
<cmavo>t u v x</cmavo>
<selmaho>y</selmaho>
<description>z</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ty. .ubu vy.</cmavo>
<selmaho>xy.</selmaho>
<description>.ybu zy.</description>
</cmavo-entry></cmavo-list>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>BU selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>bu</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bu</primary><secondary>effect on preceding word</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu words</primary><secondary>composed of compound cmavo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu words</primary><secondary>composed of single cmavo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu words</primary><secondary>vowel words contrasted with consonant words</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu words</primary><secondary>consonant words contrasted with vowel words</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu words for vowels</primary><secondary>pause requirement before</secondary></indexterm> There are several things to note about this table. The consonant lerfu words are a single syllable, whereas the vowel and
- <quote>'</quote> lerfu words are two syllables and must be preceded by pause (since they all begin with a vowel). Another fact, not evident from the table but important nonetheless, is that
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">'</jbophrase> lerfu words are two syllables and must be preceded by pause (since they all begin with a vowel). Another fact, not evident from the table but important nonetheless, is that
<jbophrase>by</jbophrase> and its like are single cmavo of selma'o BY, as is
<jbophrase>.y'y</jbophrase>. The vowel lerfu words, on the other hand, are compound cmavo, made from a single vowel cmavo plus the cmavo
- <quote>bu</quote> (which belongs to its own selma'o, BU). All of the vowel cmavo have other meanings in Lojban (logical connectives, sentence separator, hesitation noise), but those meanings are irrelevant when
+ <jbophrase>bu</jbophrase> (which belongs to its own selma'o, BU). All of the vowel cmavo have other meanings in Lojban (logical connectives, sentence separator, hesitation noise), but those meanings are irrelevant when
- <quote>bu</quote> follows.</para>
+ <jbophrase>bu</jbophrase> follows.</para>
<para>Here are some illustrations of common Lojban words spelled out using the alphabet above:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qHRb" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e2d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ty. .abu ny. ry. .ubu</jbo>
<en>
<quote>t</quote>
<quote>a</quote>
@@ -144,21 +142,21 @@
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu words</primary><secondary>effect of systematic formulation</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>spelling out words</primary><secondary>Lojban contrasted with English in usefulness</secondary></indexterm> Spelling out words is less useful in Lojban than in English, for two reasons: Lojban spelling is phonemic, so there can be no real dispute about how a word is spelled; and the Lojban lerfu words sound more alike than the English ones do, since they are made up systematically. The English words
<quote>fail</quote> and
<quote>vale</quote> sound similar, but just hearing the first lerfu word of either, namely
<quote>eff</quote> or
<quote>vee</quote>, is enough to discriminate easily between them - and even if the first lerfu word were somehow confused, neither
<quote>vail</quote> nor
<quote>fale</quote> is a word of ordinary English, so the rest of the spelling determines which word is meant. Still, the capability of spelling out words does exist in Lojban.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu words ending with "y"</primary><secondary>pause after</secondary><tertiary>rationale</tertiary></indexterm> Note that the lerfu words ending in
- <jbophrase>y</jbophrase> were written (in
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">y</jbophrase> were written (in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qHRb"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qhrx"/>) with pauses after them. It is not strictly necessary to pause after such lerfu words, but failure to do so can in some cases lead to ambiguities:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-6dMS">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e2d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cy. claxu</jbo>
<gloss>I lerfu-
<quote>c</quote> without</gloss>
@@ -172,22 +170,22 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e2d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>micyclaxu</jbo>
<gloss>(Observative:) doctor-without</gloss>
<en>Something unspecified is without a doctor.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>A safe guideline is to pause after any cmavo ending in
- <jbophrase>y</jbophrase> unless the next word is also a cmavo ending in
- <jbophrase>y</jbophrase>. The safest and easiest guideline is to pause after all of them.</para>
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">y</jbophrase> unless the next word is also a cmavo ending in
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">y</jbophrase>. The safest and easiest guideline is to pause after all of them.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section3">
<title>Upper and lower cases</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lower case letters</primary><secondary>use in Lojban</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>capital letters</primary><secondary>use in Lojban</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>stress</primary><secondary>irregular marked with upper-case</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lower-case letters</primary><secondary>English usage contrasted with Lojban</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lower-case letters</primary><secondary>Lojban usage contrasted with English</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>upper-case letters</primary><secondary>English usage contrasted with Lojban</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>upper-case letters</primary><secondary>Lojban usage contrasted with English</secondary></indexterm> Lojban doesn't use lower-case (small) letters and upper-case (capital) letters in the same way that English does; sentences do not begin with an upper-case letter, nor do names. However, upper-case letters are used in Lojban to mark irregular stress within names, thus:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Fam2">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e3d1"/>
@@ -223,24 +221,24 @@
<jbo>.ibu ga'e vy. .abu ny. to'a</jbo>
<gloss>i [upper] V A N [lower]</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The cmavo and compound cmavo of this type will be called
<quote>shift words</quote>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>shift word</primary><secondary>scope</secondary></indexterm> How long does a shift word last? Theoretically, until the next shift word that contradicts it or until the end of text. In practice, it is common to presume that a shift word is only in effect until the next word other than a lerfu word is found.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>LAU selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>shift</primary><secondary>single-letter</secondary><tertiary>grammar of</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>shift word</primary><secondary>for single letter</secondary></indexterm> It is often convenient to shift just a single letter to upper case. The cmavo
- <quote>tau</quote>, of selma'o LAU, is useful for the purpose. A LAU cmavo must always be immediately followed by a BY cmavo or its equivalent: the combination is grammatically equivalent to a single BY. (See
+ <jbophrase>tau</jbophrase>, of selma'o LAU, is useful for the purpose. A LAU cmavo must always be immediately followed by a BY cmavo or its equivalent: the combination is grammatically equivalent to a single BY. (See
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17-section14"/> for details.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>chemical elements</primary><secondary>use of single-letter shift for</secondary></indexterm> A likely use of
- <quote>tau</quote> is in the internationally standardized symbols for the chemical elements. Each element is represented using either a single upper-case lerfu or one upper-case lerfu followed by one lower-case lerfu:</para>
+ <jbophrase>tau</jbophrase> is in the internationally standardized symbols for the chemical elements. Each element is represented using either a single upper-case lerfu or one upper-case lerfu followed by one lower-case lerfu:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qhS7" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e3d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -254,65 +252,65 @@
<anchor xml:id="c17e3d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>tau sy. .ibu</jbo>
<gloss>[single shift] S i</gloss>
<en>Si (chemical symbol for silicon)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>single-letter shift</primary><secondary>as toggle</secondary></indexterm> If a shift to upper-case is in effect when
- <quote>tau</quote> appears, it shifts the next lerfu word only to lower case, reversing its usual effect.</para>
+ <jbophrase>tau</jbophrase> appears, it shifts the next lerfu word only to lower case, reversing its usual effect.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section4">
<title>The universal
- <quote>bu</quote></title>
+ <jbophrase>bu</jbophrase></title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu word set extension</primary><secondary>with bu</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bu</primary><secondary>for extension of lerfu word set</secondary></indexterm> So far we have seen
- <quote>bu</quote> only as a suffix to vowel cmavo to produce vowel lerfu words. Originally, this was the only use of
- <quote>bu</quote>. In developing the lerfu word system, however, it proved to be useful to allow
- <quote>bu</quote> to be attached to any word whatsoever, in order to allow arbitrary extensions of the basic lerfu word set.</para>
+ <jbophrase>bu</jbophrase> only as a suffix to vowel cmavo to produce vowel lerfu words. Originally, this was the only use of
+ <jbophrase>bu</jbophrase>. In developing the lerfu word system, however, it proved to be useful to allow
+ <jbophrase>bu</jbophrase> to be attached to any word whatsoever, in order to allow arbitrary extensions of the basic lerfu word set.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>fa'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>su</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>sa</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>si</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>lo'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>la'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>zoi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>zo</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>zei</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>za'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ba'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fa'o</primary><secondary>interaction with bu</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>su</primary><secondary>interaction with bu</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sa</primary><secondary>interaction with bu</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>si</primary><secondary>interaction with bu</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo'u</primary><secondary>interaction with bu</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>la'o</primary><secondary>interaction with bu</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>zoi</primary><secondary>interaction with bu</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>zo</primary><secondary>interaction with bu</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>zei</primary><secondary>interaction with bu</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>za'e</primary><secondary>interaction with bu</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ba'e</primary><secondary>interaction with bu</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bu</primary><secondary>interaction with ba'e</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bu</primary><secondary>and compound cmavo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bu</primary><secondary>grammar of</secondary></indexterm> Formally,
- <quote>bu</quote> may be attached to any single Lojban word. Compound cmavo do not count as words for this purpose. The special cmavo
- <quote>ba'e</quote>,
- <quote>za'e</quote>,
-
- <quote>zei</quote>,
- <quote>zo</quote>,
- <quote>zoi</quote>,
- <quote>la'o</quote>,
- <quote>lo'u</quote>,
+ <jbophrase>bu</jbophrase> may be attached to any single Lojban word. Compound cmavo do not count as words for this purpose. The special cmavo
+ <jbophrase>ba'e</jbophrase>,
+ <jbophrase>za'e</jbophrase>,
+
+ <jbophrase>zei</jbophrase>,
+ <jbophrase>zo</jbophrase>,
+ <jbophrase>zoi</jbophrase>,
+ <jbophrase>la'o</jbophrase>,
+ <jbophrase>lo'u</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>si</jbophrase>,
- <quote>sa</quote>,
+ <jbophrase>sa</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>su</jbophrase>, and
<jbophrase>fa'o</jbophrase> may not have
- <quote>bu</quote> attached, because they are interpreted before
- <quote>bu</quote> detection is done; in particular,</para>
+ <jbophrase>bu</jbophrase> attached, because they are interpreted before
+ <jbophrase>bu</jbophrase> detection is done; in particular,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-WvFu">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e4d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>zo bu</jbo>
<en>the word
<quote>bu</quote></en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>bubu</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>word "bu"</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>pause requirement in lerfu words</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bu</primary><secondary>effect of multiple</secondary></indexterm> is needed when discussing
- <quote>bu</quote> in Lojban. It is also illegal to attach
- <quote>bu</quote> to itself, but more than one
- <quote>bu</quote> may be attached to a word; thus
+ <jbophrase>bu</jbophrase> in Lojban. It is also illegal to attach
+ <jbophrase>bu</jbophrase> to itself, but more than one
+ <jbophrase>bu</jbophrase> may be attached to a word; thus
<jbophrase>.abubu</jbophrase> is legal, if ugly. (Its meaning is not defined, but it is presumably different from
<jbophrase>.abu</jbophrase>.) It does not matter if the word is a cmavo, a cmene, or a brivla. All such words suffixed by
- <quote>bu</quote> are treated grammatically as if they were cmavo belonging to selma'o BY. However, if the word is a cmene it is always necessary to precede and follow it by a pause, because otherwise the cmene may absorb preceding or following words.</para>
+ <jbophrase>bu</jbophrase> are treated grammatically as if they were cmavo belonging to selma'o BY. However, if the word is a cmene it is always necessary to precede and follow it by a pause, because otherwise the cmene may absorb preceding or following words.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>happy face</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>smiley face</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logograms</primary><secondary>words for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>smiley face</primary><secondary>word for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>unusual characters</primary><secondary>words for</secondary></indexterm> The ability to attach
- <quote>bu</quote> to words has been used primarily to make names for various logograms and other unusual characters. For example, the Lojban name for the
+ <jbophrase>bu</jbophrase> to words has been used primarily to make names for various logograms and other unusual characters. For example, the Lojban name for the
<quote>happy face</quote> is
<jbophrase>.uibu</jbophrase>, based on the attitudinal
<jbophrase>.ui</jbophrase> that means
<quote>happiness</quote>. Likewise, the
<quote>smiley face</quote>, written
@@ -321,122 +319,122 @@
<jbophrase>.uibu</jbophrase> into running Lojban text to indicate that you are happy, or
<jbophrase>zo'obu</jbophrase> when something is funny; instead, use the appropriate attitudinal directly.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>ampersand</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ampersand character</primary><secondary>word for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>"&"</primary><secondary>word for</secondary></indexterm> Likewise,
<jbophrase>joibu</jbophrase> represents the ampersand character,
<quote>&</quote>, based on the cmavo
<jbophrase>joi</jbophrase> meaning
<quote>mixed and</quote>. Many more such lerfu words will probably be invented in future.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>"</primary><secondary>"</secondary><tertiary>word for</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>"."</primary><secondary>word for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>syllable break</primary><secondary>word for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pause</primary><secondary>word for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>syllable break</primary><secondary>symbol for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pause</primary><secondary>symbol for</secondary></indexterm> The
- <quote>.</quote> and
- <quote>,</quote> characters used in Lojbanic writing to represent pause and syllable break respectively have been assigned the lerfu words
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">.</jbophrase> and
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">,</jbophrase> characters used in Lojbanic writing to represent pause and syllable break respectively have been assigned the lerfu words
<jbophrase>denpa bu</jbophrase> (literally,
<quote>pause bu</quote>) and
<jbophrase>slaka bu</jbophrase> (literally,
<quote>syllable bu</quote>). The written space is mandatory here, because
<jbophrase>denpa</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>slaka</jbophrase> are normal gismu with normal stress:
<jbophrase glossary="false">denpabu</jbophrase> would be a fu'ivla (word borrowed from another language into Lojban) stressed
<jbophrase glossary="false">denPAbu</jbophrase>. No pause is required between
<jbophrase>denpa</jbophrase> (or
<jbophrase>slaka</jbophrase>) and
- <quote>bu</quote>, though.</para>
+ <jbophrase>bu</jbophrase>, though.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section5">
<title>Alien alphabets</title>
<para>As stated in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17-section1"/>, Lojban's goal of cultural neutrality demands a standard set of lerfu words for the lerfu of as many other writing systems as possible. When we meet these lerfu in written text (particularly, though not exclusively, mathematical text), we need a standard Lojbanic way to pronounce them.</para>
<para>There are certainly hundreds of alphabets and other writing systems in use around the world, and it is probably an unachievable goal to create a single system which can express all of them, but if perfection is not demanded, a usable system can be created from the raw material which Lojban provides.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>alpha</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>letters</primary><secondary>non-Lojban</secondary><tertiary>representation with names</tertiary></indexterm> One possibility would be to use the lerfu word associated with the language itself, Lojbanized and with
- <quote>bu</quote> added. Indeed, an isolated Greek
+ <jbophrase>bu</jbophrase> added. Indeed, an isolated Greek
<quote>alpha</quote> in running Lojban text is probably most easily handled by calling it
<jbophrase>.alfas. bu</jbophrase>. Here the Greek lerfu word has been made into a Lojbanized name by adding
- <quote>s</quote> and then into a Lojban lerfu word by adding
- <quote>bu</quote>. Note that the pause after
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">s</jbophrase> and then into a Lojban lerfu word by adding
+ <jbophrase>bu</jbophrase>. Note that the pause after
<jbophrase>.alfas.</jbophrase> is still needed.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>letters</primary><secondary>non-Lojban</secondary><tertiary>representation with consonant-word + bu</tertiary></indexterm> Likewise, the easiest way to handle the Latin letters
<quote>h</quote>,
<quote>q</quote>, and
<quote>w</quote> that are not used in Lojban is by a consonant lerfu word with
- <quote>bu</quote> attached. The following assignments have been made:</para>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ <jbophrase>bu</jbophrase> attached. The following assignments have been made:</para>
+ <xxx>
.y'y.bu h
ky.bu q
vy.bu w
-</programlisting>
+ </xxx>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>quack</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> As an example, the English word
<quote>quack</quote> would be spelled in Lojban thus:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-0oAR">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e5d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ky.bu .ubu .abu cy. ky.</jbo>
<en>
<quote>q</quote>
<quote>u</quote>
<quote>a</quote>
<quote>c</quote>
<quote>k</quote>
</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>letters</primary><secondary>symbol contrasted with sound for spelling</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>letters</primary><secondary>sound contrasted with symbol for spelling</secondary></indexterm> Note that the fact that the letter
<quote>c</quote> in this word has nothing to do with the sound of the Lojban letter
- <quote>c</quote> is irrelevant; we are spelling an English word and English rules control the choice of letters, but we are speaking Lojban and Lojban rules control the pronunciations of those letters.</para>
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">c</jbophrase> is irrelevant; we are spelling an English word and English rules control the choice of letters, but we are speaking Lojban and Lojban rules control the pronunciations of those letters.</para>
<para>A few more possibilities for Latin-alphabet letters used in languages other than English:</para>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ <xxx>
ty.bu þ (thorn)
dy.bu ð (edh)
-</programlisting>
+ </xxx>
<para>However, this system is not ideal for all purposes. For one thing, it is verbose. The native lerfu words are often quite long, and with
- <quote>bu</quote> added they become even longer: the worst-case Greek lerfu word would be
+ <jbophrase>bu</jbophrase> added they become even longer: the worst-case Greek lerfu word would be
<jbophrase>.Omikron. bu</jbophrase>, with four syllables and two mandatory pauses. In addition, alphabets that are used by many languages have separate sets of lerfu words for each language, and which set is Lojban to choose?</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>letters</primary><secondary>non-Lojban</secondary><tertiary>representation with language-shift</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>language shift</primary><secondary>choice of Lojban-lerfu-word counterpart</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>language shift</primary><secondary>effect on following words</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>language shift</primary><secondary>rationale for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>letters</primary><secondary>non-Lojban</secondary><tertiary>representation with consonant-word + bu, drawback</tertiary></indexterm> The alternative plan, therefore, is to use a shift word similar to those introduced in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17-section3"/>. After the appearance of such a shift word, the regular lerfu words are re-interpreted to represent the lerfu of the alphabet now in use. After a shift to the Greek alphabet, for example, the lerfu word
<jbophrase>ty</jbophrase> would represent not Latin
<quote>t</quote> but Greek
<quote>tau</quote>. Why
<quote>tau</quote>? Because it is, in some sense, the closest counterpart of
<quote>t</quote> within the Greek lerfu system. In principle it would be all right to map
<jbophrase>ty.</jbophrase> to
<quote>phi</quote> or even
<quote>omega</quote>, but such an arbitrary relationship would be extremely hard to remember.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bu</primary><secondary>interaction with language shift</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>language shift</primary><secondary>interaction with bu</secondary></indexterm> Where no obvious closest counterpart exists, some more or less arbitrary choice must be made. Some alien lerfu may simply not have any shifted equivalent, forcing the speaker to fall back on a
- <quote>bu</quote> form. Since a
- <quote>bu</quote> form may mean different things in different alphabets, it is safest to employ a shift word even when
- <quote>bu</quote> forms are in use.</para>
+ <jbophrase>bu</jbophrase> form. Since a
+ <jbophrase>bu</jbophrase> form may mean different things in different alphabets, it is safest to employ a shift word even when
+ <jbophrase>bu</jbophrase> forms are in use.</para>
<para>Shifts for several alphabets have been assigned cmavo of selma'o BY:</para>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ <xxx>
lo'a Latin/Roman/Lojban alphabet
ge'o Greek alphabet
je'o Hebrew alphabet
jo'o Arabic alphabet
ru'o Cyrillic alphabet
-</programlisting>
+ </xxx>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>LAU selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>zai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>language shift</primary><secondary>based on name + bu</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>language shift</primary><secondary>compound</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>language shift</primary><secondary>formation of shift alphabet name</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Cyrillic alphabet</primary><secondary>language shift word for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Arabic alphabet</primary><secondary>language shift word for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Hebrew alphabet</primary><secondary>language shift word for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Greek alphabet</primary><secondary>language shift word for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Latin alphabet</primary><secondary>language shift word for</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo
- <quote>zai</quote> (of selma'o LAU) is used to create shift words to still other alphabets. The BY word which must follow any LAU cmavo would typically be a name representing the alphabet with
+ <jbophrase>zai</jbophrase> (of selma'o LAU) is used to create shift words to still other alphabets. The BY word which must follow any LAU cmavo would typically be a name representing the alphabet with
- <quote>bu</quote> suffixed:</para>
+ <jbophrase>bu</jbophrase> suffixed:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qHT3" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e5d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>zai .devanagar. bu</jbo>
<en>Devanagari (Hindi) alphabet</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -464,26 +462,26 @@
<en>Japanese hiragana syllabary</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Japanese hiragana</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>hiragana</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Japanese katakana</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>katakana</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Devanagari</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>language shift</primary><secondary>standardization of</secondary></indexterm> Unlike the cmavo above, these shift words have not been standardized and probably will not be until someone actually has a need for them. (Note the
- <quote>.</quote> characters marking leading and following pauses.)</para>
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">.</jbophrase> characters marking leading and following pauses.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>LAU selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ce'a</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>bold</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>italic</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>shift words</primary><secondary>for face</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>shift words</primary><secondary>for font</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>face</primary><secondary>specifying for letters</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>font</primary><secondary>specifying for letters</secondary></indexterm> In addition, there may be multiple visible representations within a single alphabet for a given letter: roman vs. italics, handwriting vs. print, Bodoni vs. Helvetica. These traditional
<quote>font and face</quote> distinctions are also represented by shift words, indicated with the cmavo
- <quote>ce'a</quote> (of selma'o LAU) and a following BY word:</para>
+ <jbophrase>ce'a</jbophrase> (of selma'o LAU) and a following BY word:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qhV0" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e5d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ce'a .xelveticas. bu</jbo>
<en>Helvetica font</en>
@@ -534,82 +532,82 @@
<quote>umlaut</quote>; a mark which looks the same is also used in French, but with a different name and meaning.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>diacritical marks</primary><secondary>problem of position</secondary></indexterm> These marks may be considered lerfu, and each has a corresponding lerfu word in Lojban. So far, no problem. But the marks appear over lerfu, whereas the words must be spoken (or written) either before or after the lerfu word representing the basic lerfu. Typewriters (for mechanical reasons) and the computer programs that emulate them usually require their users to type the accent mark before the basic lerfu, whereas in speech the accent mark is often pronounced afterwards (for example, in German
<quote>a umlaut</quote> is preferred to
<quote>umlaut a</quote>).</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>FOI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>TEI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>foi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>tei</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>diacritical marks</primary><secondary>specifying with tei…foi</secondary></indexterm> Lojban cannot settle this question by fiat. Either it must be left up to default interpretation depending on the language in question, or the lerfu-word compounding cmavo
- <quote>tei</quote> (of selma'o TEI) and
- <quote>foi</quote> (of selma'o FOI) must be used. These cmavo are always used in pairs; any number of lerfu words may appear between them, and the whole is treated as a single compound lerfu word. The French word
+ <jbophrase>tei</jbophrase> (of selma'o TEI) and
+ <jbophrase>foi</jbophrase> (of selma'o FOI) must be used. These cmavo are always used in pairs; any number of lerfu words may appear between them, and the whole is treated as a single compound lerfu word. The French word
<quote>été</quote>, with acute accent marks on both
- <jbophrase>e</jbophrase> lerfu, could be spelled as:</para>
+ <quote>e</quote> lerfu, could be spelled as:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-NQgb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e6d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>tei .ebu .akut. bu foi ty. tei .akut. bu .ebu foi</jbo>
<en>(
- <jbophrase>e</jbophrase> acute )
+ <quote>e</quote> acute )
<quote>t</quote> ( acute
- <jbophrase>e</jbophrase>)</en>
+ <quote>e</quote>)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>ete</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>accent mark</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>diacritical marks</primary><secondary>order of specification within tei…foi</secondary></indexterm> and it does not matter whether
<jbophrase>akut. bu</jbophrase> appears before or after
<jbophrase>.ebu</jbophrase>; the
- <quote>tei ... foi</quote> grouping guarantees that the acute accent is associated with the correct lerfu. Of course, the level of precision represented by
+ <jbophrase>tei ... foi</jbophrase> grouping guarantees that the acute accent is associated with the correct lerfu. Of course, the level of precision represented by
<xref linkend="example-random-id-NQgb"/> would rarely be required: it might be needed by a Lojban-speaker when spelling out a French word for exact transcription by another Lojban-speaker who did not know French.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>diacritical marks</primary><secondary>problem with multiple on one lerfu</secondary></indexterm> This system breaks down in languages which use more than one accent mark on a single lerfu; some other convention must be used for showing which accent marks are written where in that case. The obvious convention is to represent the mark nearest the basic lerfu by the lerfu word closest to the word representing the basic lerfu. Any remaining ambiguities must be resolved by further conventions not yet established.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Spanish ch</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Spanish ll</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>compound letters</primary><secondary>native language</secondary><tertiary>representing as distinct letters</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>accented letters</primary><secondary>considered as distinct from unaccented</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>diacritical marks</primary><secondary>considered as forming distinct letters</secondary></indexterm> Some languages, like Swedish and Finnish, consider certain accented lerfu to be completely distinct from their unaccented equivalents, but Lojban does not make a formal distinction, since the printed characters look the same whether they are reckoned as separate letters or not. In addition, some languages consider certain 2-letter combinations (like
- <quote>ll</quote> and
- <quote>ch</quote> in Spanish) to be letters; this may be represented by enclosing the combination in
- <quote>tei ... foi</quote>.</para>
+ <quote xml:lang="es">ll</quote> and
+ <quote xml:lang="es">ch</quote> in Spanish) to be letters; this may be represented by enclosing the combination in
+ <jbophrase>tei ... foi</jbophrase>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu words</primary><secondary>forming new for non-Lojban letters using bu</secondary></indexterm> In addition, when discussing a specific language, it is permissible to make up new lerfu words, as long as they are either explained locally or well understood from context: thus Spanish
- <quote>ll</quote> or Croatian
- <quote>lj</quote> could be called
+ <quote xml:lang="es">ll</quote> or Croatian
+ <quote xml:lang="hr">lj</quote> could be called
<jbophrase>libu</jbophrase>, but that usage would not necessarily be universally understood.</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17-section19"/> contains a table of proposed lerfu words for some common accent marks.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section7">
<title>Punctuation marks</title>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>LAU selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>lau</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lau</primary><secondary>effect on following lerfu word</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>punctuation lerfu words</primary><secondary>mechanism for creating</secondary></indexterm> Lojban does not have punctuation marks as such: the denpa bu and the slaka bu are really a part of the alphabet. Other languages, however, use punctuation marks extensively. As yet, Lojban does not have any words for these punctuation marks, but a mechanism exists for devising them: the cmavo
- <quote>lau</quote> of selma'o LAU.
+ <jbophrase>lau</jbophrase> of selma'o LAU.
- <quote>lau</quote> must always be followed by a BY word; the interpretation of the BY word is changed from a lerfu to a punctuation mark. Typically, this BY word would be a name or brivla with a
+ <jbophrase>lau</jbophrase> must always be followed by a BY word; the interpretation of the BY word is changed from a lerfu to a punctuation mark. Typically, this BY word would be a name or brivla with a
- <quote>bu</quote> suffix.</para>
+ <jbophrase>bu</jbophrase> suffix.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>punctuation lerfu words</primary><secondary>rationale for lau</secondary></indexterm> Why is
- <quote>lau</quote> necessary at all? Why not just use a
+ <jbophrase>lau</jbophrase> necessary at all? Why not just use a
- <quote>bu</quote>-marked word and announce that it is always to be interpreted as a punctuation mark? Primarily to avoid ambiguity. The
- <quote>bu</quote> mechanism is extremely open-ended, and it is easy for Lojban users to make up
- <quote>bu</quote> words without bothering to explain what they mean. Using the
- <quote>lau</quote> cmavo flags at least the most important of such nonce lerfu words as having a special function: punctuation. (Exactly the same argument applies to the use of
+ <jbophrase>bu</jbophrase>-marked word and announce that it is always to be interpreted as a punctuation mark? Primarily to avoid ambiguity. The
+ <jbophrase>bu</jbophrase> mechanism is extremely open-ended, and it is easy for Lojban users to make up
+ <jbophrase>bu</jbophrase> words without bothering to explain what they mean. Using the
+ <jbophrase>lau</jbophrase> cmavo flags at least the most important of such nonce lerfu words as having a special function: punctuation. (Exactly the same argument applies to the use of
- <quote>zai</quote> to signal an alphabet shift or
+ <jbophrase>zai</jbophrase> to signal an alphabet shift or
- <quote>ce'a</quote> to signal a font shift.)</para>
+ <jbophrase>ce'a</jbophrase> to signal a font shift.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>punctuation lerfu words</primary><secondary>interaction with different alphabet systems</secondary></indexterm> Since different alphabets require different punctuation marks, the interpretation of a
- <quote>lau</quote>-marked lerfu word is affected by the current alphabet shift and the current font shift.</para>
+ <jbophrase>lau</jbophrase>-marked lerfu word is affected by the current alphabet shift and the current font shift.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section8">
<title>What about Chinese characters?</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Amharic writing</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>syllabaries</primary><secondary>lerfu word representation</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>hiragana</primary><secondary>contrasted with kanji</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>kanji</primary><secondary>contrasted with alphabets and syllabaries</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Chinese characters</primary><secondary>contrasted with alphabets and syllabaries</secondary></indexterm> Chinese characters (
@@ -644,59 +642,59 @@
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-fBfe">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e8d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.y'y.bu .abu ny. vo zy. .ibu vo</jbo>
<en>
<quote>h</quote>
<quote>a</quote>
<quote>n</quote> 4
- <jbophrase>z</jbophrase>
- <jbophrase>i</jbophrase> 4</en>
+ <quote>z</quote>
+ <quote>i</quote> 4</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>han^{4}zi^{4}</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu words with numeric digits</primary><secondary>grammar considerations</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>numeric digits in lerfu words</primary><secondary>grammar considerations</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo
<jbophrase>vo</jbophrase> is the Lojban digit
<quote>4</quote>. It is grammatical to intersperse digits (of selma'o PA) into a string of lerfu words; as long as the first cmavo is a lerfu word, the whole will be interpreted as a string of lerfu words. In Chinese, the digits can be used to represent tones. Pinyin is more usually written using accent marks, the mechanism for which was explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17-section6"/>.</para>
<para>The Japanese company named
<quote>Mitsubishi</quote> in English is spelled the same way in romaji, and could be spelled out in Lojban thus:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pLUV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e8d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>my. .ibu ty. sy. .ubu by. .ibu sy. .y'y.bu .ibu</jbo>
<en>
<quote>m</quote>
- <jbophrase>i</jbophrase>
+ <quote>i</quote>
<quote>t</quote>
<quote>s</quote>
<quote>u</quote>
<quote>b</quote>
- <jbophrase>i</jbophrase>
+ <quote>i</quote>
<quote>s</quote>
<quote>h</quote>
- <jbophrase>i</jbophrase>
+ <quote>i</quote>
</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Mitsubishi</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>kanji</primary><secondary>representing based on strokes</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Chinese characters</primary><secondary>representing based on strokes</secondary></indexterm> Alternatively, a really ambitious Lojbanist could assign lerfu words to the individual strokes used to write Chinese characters (there are about seven or eight of them if you are a flexible human being, or about 40 if you are a rigid computer program), and then represent each character with a
- <quote>tei</quote>, the stroke lerfu words in the order of writing (which is standardized for each character), and a
- <quote>foi</quote>. No one has as yet attempted this project.</para>
+ <jbophrase>tei</jbophrase>, the stroke lerfu words in the order of writing (which is standardized for each character), and a
+ <jbophrase>foi</jbophrase>. No one has as yet attempted this project.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section9">
<title>lerfu words as pro-sumti</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu string</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> So far, lerfu words have only appeared in Lojban text when spelling out words. There are several other grammatical uses of lerfu words within Lojban. In each case, a single lerfu word or more than one may be used. Therefore, the term
<quote>lerfu string</quote> is introduced: it is short for
<quote>sequence of one or more lerfu words</quote>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu string</primary><secondary>as pro-sumti</secondary></indexterm> A lerfu string may be used as a pro-sumti (a sumti which refers to some previous sumti), just like the pro-sumti
<jbophrase>ko'a</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>ko'e</jbophrase>, and so on:</para>
@@ -709,21 +707,21 @@
<jbo>.abu prami by.</jbo>
<en>A loves B</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-2wo8"/>,
<jbophrase>.abu</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>by.</jbophrase> represent specific sumti, but which sumti they represent must be inferred from context.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>goi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu string</primary><secondary>as pro-sumti assigned by goi</secondary></indexterm> Alternatively, lerfu strings may be assigned by
- <quote>goi</quote>, the regular pro-sumti assignment cmavo:</para>
+ <jbophrase>goi</jbophrase>, the regular pro-sumti assignment cmavo:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-i7Ny">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e9d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le gerku goi gy. cu xekri .i gy. klama le zdani</jbo>
<en>The dog, or G, is black. G goes to the house.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -766,68 +764,68 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.abu dunda by. cy.</jbo>
<en>A gives B C</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>BOI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>boi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>boi</primary><secondary>eliding from lerfu strings</secondary></indexterm> Does this mean that A gives B to C? No.
<jbophrase>by. cy.</jbophrase> is a single lerfu string, although written as two words, and represents a single pro-sumti. The true interpretation is that A gives BC to someone unspecified. To solve this problem, we need to introduce the elidable terminator
- <quote>boi</quote> (of selma'o BOI). This cmavo is used to terminate lerfu strings and also strings of numerals; it is required when two of these appear in a row, as here. (The other reason to use
- <quote>boi</quote> is to attach a free modifier - subscript, parenthesis, or what have you - to a lerfu string.) The correct version is:</para>
+ <jbophrase>boi</jbophrase> (of selma'o BOI). This cmavo is used to terminate lerfu strings and also strings of numerals; it is required when two of these appear in a row, as here. (The other reason to use
+ <jbophrase>boi</jbophrase> is to attach a free modifier - subscript, parenthesis, or what have you - to a lerfu string.) The correct version is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Hdwz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e9d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.abu [boi] dunda by. boi cy. [boi]</jbo>
<en>A gives B to C</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>A gives B to C</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> where the two occurrences of
- <quote>boi</quote> in brackets are elidable, but the remaining occurrence is not. Likewise:</para>
+ <jbophrase>boi</jbophrase> in brackets are elidable, but the remaining occurrence is not. Likewise:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-L9op">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e9d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xy. boi ro [boi] prenu cu prami</jbo>
<gloss>X all persons loves.</gloss>
<en>X loves everybody.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>lerfu strings</secondary><tertiary>interaction with quantifiers and boi</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>boi</primary><secondary>required between pro-sumti lerfu string and quantifier</secondary></indexterm> requires the first
- <quote>boi</quote> to separate the lerfu string
+ <jbophrase>boi</jbophrase> to separate the lerfu string
<jbophrase>xy.</jbophrase> from the digit string
<jbophrase>ro</jbophrase>.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section10">
<title>References to lerfu</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>lerfu string</secondary><tertiary>effect on reference to lerfu itself</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu</primary><secondary>reference to</secondary></indexterm> The rules of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17-section9"/> make it impossible to use unmarked lerfu words to refer to lerfu themselves. In the sentence:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-CYny">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e10d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.abu. cu lerfu</jbo>
<gloss>A is-a-letteral.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>LI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>me'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu</primary><secondary>referring to with me'o</secondary></indexterm> the hearer would try to find what previous sumti
<jbophrase>.abu</jbophrase> refers to. The solution to this problem makes use of the cmavo
- <quote>me'o</quote> of selma'o LI, which makes a lerfu string into a sumti representing that very string of lerfu. This use of
- <quote>me'o</quote> is a special case of its mathematical use, which is to introduce a mathematical expression used literally rather than for its value.</para>
+ <jbophrase>me'o</jbophrase> of selma'o LI, which makes a lerfu string into a sumti representing that very string of lerfu. This use of
+ <jbophrase>me'o</jbophrase> is a special case of its mathematical use, which is to introduce a mathematical expression used literally rather than for its value.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>"a" is letteral</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Yy32">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e10d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>me'o .abu cu lerfu</jbo>
<en>The-expression
<quote>a</quote> is-a-letteral.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -837,44 +835,44 @@
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>four "e"s</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-UT1J">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e10d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>dei vasru vo lerfu</jbo>
<gloss>po'u me'o .ebu</gloss>
<gloss>this-sentence contains four letterals</gloss>
<gloss>which-are the-expression
- <jbophrase>e</jbophrase>.</gloss>
+ <quote>e</quote>.</gloss>
<en>This sentence contains four
- <jbophrase>e</jbophrase> s.</en>
+ <quote>e</quote> s.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Since the Lojban sentence has only four
- <jbophrase>e</jbophrase> lerfu rather than fourteen, the translation is not a literal one - but
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">e</jbophrase> lerfu rather than fourteen, the translation is not a literal one - but
<xref linkend="example-random-id-pbDf"/> is a Lojban truth just as
<xref linkend="example-random-id-tvHm"/> is an English truth. Coincidentally, the colloquial English translation of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-pbDf"/> is also true!</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>la'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>lu</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>me'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>la'e lu</primary><secondary>compared with me'o</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>me'o</primary><secondary>compared with la'e lu</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>representing lerfu</primary><secondary>lu contrasted with me'o</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lu</primary><secondary>contrasted with me'o for representing lerfu</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>me'o</primary><secondary>contrasted with lu…li'u for representing lerfu</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>me'o</primary><secondary>contrasted with quotation for representing lerfu</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>quotation</primary><secondary>contrasted with me'o for representing lerfu</secondary></indexterm> The reader might be tempted to use quotation with
- <quote>lu ... li'u</quote> instead of
- <quote>me'o</quote>, producing:</para>
+ <jbophrase>lu ... li'u</jbophrase> instead of
+ <jbophrase>me'o</jbophrase>, producing:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pbDf">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e10d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lu .abu li'u cu lerfu</jbo>
<gloss>[quote] .abu [unquote] is-a-letteral.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(The single-word quote
- <quote>zo</quote> cannot be used, because
+ <jbophrase>zo</jbophrase> cannot be used, because
<jbophrase>.abu</jbophrase> is a compound cmavo.) But
<xref linkend="example-random-id-pbDf"/> is false, because it says:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-P8Ag">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e10d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>The word
<jbophrase>.abu</jbophrase> is a letteral</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -909,37 +907,37 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li .abu du li by. su'i cy.</jbo>
<gloss>the-number a equals the-number b plus c</gloss>
<en>a = b + c</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>function name</primary><secondary>lerfu string as</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu string</primary><secondary>as function name</secondary></indexterm> A lerfu string as function name (preceded by
- <quote>ma'o</quote> of selma'o MAhO):</para>
+ <jbophrase>ma'o</jbophrase> of selma'o MAhO):</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>function f of x</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-H0SM">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e11d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li .y.bu du li ma'o fy. boi xy.</jbo>
<gloss>the-number y equals the number the-function f of x</gloss>
<en>y = f(x)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note the
- <quote>boi</quote> here to separate the lerfu strings
+ <jbophrase>boi</jbophrase> here to separate the lerfu strings
<jbophrase>fy</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>xy</jbophrase>.</para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri</primary><secondary>lerfu string as</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu string</primary><secondary>as selbri</secondary></indexterm> A lerfu string as selbri (followed by a cmavo of selma'o MOI):</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-X4KM">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e11d3"/>
@@ -963,63 +961,63 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ny.mai</jbo>
<en>Nthly</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Nthly</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>subscripts</primary><secondary>lerfu string as</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu string</primary><secondary>as subscript</secondary></indexterm> A lerfu string as subscript (preceded by
- <quote>xi</quote> of selma'o XI):</para>
+ <jbophrase>xi</jbophrase> of selma'o XI):</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-oTgS">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e11d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xy. xi ky.</jbo>
<en>x sub k</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>x sub k</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>quantifier</primary><secondary>lerfu string as</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu string</primary><secondary>as quantifier</secondary></indexterm> A lerfu string as quantifier (enclosed in
- <quote>vei ... ve'o</quote> parentheses):</para>
+ <jbophrase>vei ... ve'o</jbophrase> parentheses):</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-bbnL">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e11d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>vei ny. [ve'o] lo prenu</jbo>
<en>(
<quote>n</quote>) persons</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>vei</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>n people</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu strings</primary><secondary>as quantifiers</secondary><tertiary>avoiding interaction with sumti quantified</tertiary></indexterm> The parentheses are required because
<jbophrase>ny. lo prenu</jbophrase> would be two separate sumti,
<jbophrase>ny.</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>lo prenu</jbophrase>. In general, any mathematical expression other than a simple number must be in parentheses when used as a quantifier; the right parenthesis mark, the cmavo
- <quote>ve'o</quote>, can usually be elided.</para>
+ <jbophrase>ve'o</jbophrase>, can usually be elided.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu juxtaposition interpretation</primary><secondary>contrasted with mathematical interpretation</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu string</primary><secondary>interpretation</secondary><tertiary>contrasted with mathematical interpretation</tertiary></indexterm> All the examples above have exhibited single lerfu words rather than lerfu strings, in accordance with the conventions of ordinary mathematics. A longer lerfu string would still be treated as a single variable or function name: in Lojban,
<jbophrase>.abu by. cy.</jbophrase> is not the multiplication
<quote>a × b × c</quote> but is the variable
<quote>abc</quote>. (Of course, a local convention could be employed that made the value of a variable like
<quote>abc</quote>, with a multi-lerfu-word name, equal to the values of the variables
- <quote>a</quote>,
- <quote>b</quote>, and
- <quote>c</quote> multiplied together.)</para>
+ <varname>a</varname>,
+ <varname>b</varname>, and
+ <varname>c</varname> multiplied together.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu shift scope</primary><secondary>exception for mathematical texts</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mathematical texts</primary><secondary>effect on lerfu shift scope</secondary></indexterm> There is a special rule about shift words in mathematical text: shifts within mathematical expressions do not affect lerfu words appearing outside mathematical expressions, and vice versa.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section12">
<title>Acronyms</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>acronym</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> An acronym is a name constructed of lerfu. English examples are
<quote>DNA</quote>,
<quote>NATO</quote>,
@@ -1032,21 +1030,21 @@
<quote>NATO</quote>). Some acronyms fluctuate between the two pronunciations:
<quote>SQL</quote> may be
<quote>ess cue ell</quote> or
<quote>sequel</quote>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu words</primary><secondary>as a basis for acronym names</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>acronyms</primary><secondary>using names based on lerfu words</secondary></indexterm> In Lojban, a name can be almost any sequence of sounds that ends in a consonant and is followed by a pause. The easiest way to Lojbanize acronym names is to glue the lerfu words together, using
- <quote>'</quote> wherever two vowels would come together (pauses are illegal in names) and adding a final consonant:</para>
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">'</jbophrase> wherever two vowels would come together (pauses are illegal in names) and adding a final consonant:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-736i">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e12d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la dyny'abub. .i la ny'abuty'obub.</jbo>
<gloss>.i la cy'ibu'abub. .i la sykybulyl.</gloss>
<gloss>.i la .ibubymym. .i la ny'ybucyc.</gloss>
<gloss>DNA. NATO.</gloss>
@@ -1055,23 +1053,23 @@
<en>IBM. NYC.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>NYC</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>SQL</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>NATO</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>IBM</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>CIA</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>DNA</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>acronym names from lerfu words</primary><secondary>assigning final consonant</secondary></indexterm> There is no fixed convention for assigning the final consonant. In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-736i"/>, the last consonant of the lerfu string has been replicated into final position.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bu</primary><secondary>omitting in acronyms names based on lerfu words</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>acronyms names based on lerfu words</primary><secondary>omitting bu</secondary></indexterm> Some compression can be done by leaving out
- <quote>bu</quote> after vowel lerfu words (except for
+ <jbophrase>bu</jbophrase> after vowel lerfu words (except for
<jbophrase>.y.bu</jbophrase>, wherein the
- <quote>bu</quote> cannot be omitted without ambiguity). Compression is moderately important because it's hard to say long names without introducing an involuntary (and illegal) pause:</para>
+ <jbophrase>bu</jbophrase> cannot be omitted without ambiguity). Compression is moderately important because it's hard to say long names without introducing an involuntary (and illegal) pause:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-0sin">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e12d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la dyny'am. .i la ny'aty'om.</jbo>
<gloss>.i la cy'i'am. .i la sykybulym.</gloss>
<gloss>.i la .ibymym. .i la ny'ybucym.</gloss>
<gloss>DNA. NATO.</gloss>
@@ -1079,63 +1077,63 @@
<gloss>CIA. SQL.</gloss>
<en>IBM. NYC.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-0sin"/>, the final consonant
- <quote>m</quote> stands for
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">m</jbophrase> stands for
<jbophrase>merko</jbophrase>, indicating the source culture of these acronyms.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>"z" instead of "'"</primary><secondary>in acronyms names based on lerfu words</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>acronyms names based on lerfu words</primary><secondary>using "z" instead of "'" in</secondary></indexterm> Another approach, which some may find easier to say and which is compatible with older versions of the language that did not have a
- <quote>'</quote> character, is to use the consonant
- <jbophrase>z</jbophrase> instead of
- <quote>'</quote>:</para>
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">'</jbophrase> character, is to use the consonant
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">z</jbophrase> instead of
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">'</jbophrase>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Js6m">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e12d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la dynyzaz. .i la nyzatyzoz.</jbo>
<gloss>.i la cyzizaz. .i la sykybulyz.</gloss>
<gloss>.i la .ibymyz. .i la nyzybucyz.</gloss>
<gloss>DNA. NATO.</gloss>
<gloss>CIA. SQL.</gloss>
<en>IBM. NYC.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>me</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>acronyms</primary><secondary>as lerfu strings using "me"</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu strings</primary><secondary>as acronyms using "me"</secondary></indexterm> One more alternative to these lengthy names is to use the lerfu string itself prefixed with
- <quote>me</quote>, the cmavo that makes sumti into selbri:</para>
+ <jbophrase>me</jbophrase>, the cmavo that makes sumti into selbri:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-iMRB">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e12d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la me dy ny. .abu</jbo>
<en>that-named what-pertains-to
<quote>d</quote>
<quote>n</quote>
<quote>a</quote></en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This works because
- <quote>la</quote>, the cmavo that normally introduces names used as sumti, may also be used before a predicate to indicate that the predicate is a (meaningful) name:</para>
+ <jbophrase>la</jbophrase>, the cmavo that normally introduces names used as sumti, may also be used before a predicate to indicate that the predicate is a (meaningful) name:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7KLi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e12d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la cribe cu ciska</jbo>
<gloss>That-named
<quote>Bear</quote> writes.</gloss>
<en>Bear is a writer.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1293,39 +1291,38 @@
<description>start compound lerfu word</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>foi</cmavo>
<selmaho>FOI</selmaho>
<description>end compound lerfu word</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>LAU selma'o</primary><secondary>grammar of following BY cmavo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu word cmavo</primary><secondary>list of auxiliary</secondary></indexterm> Note that LAU cmavo must be followed by a BY cmavo or the equivalent, where
<quote>equivalent</quote> means: either any Lojban word followed by
- <quote>bu</quote>, another LAU cmavo (and its required sequel), or a
- <quote>tei ... foi</quote> compound cmavo.</para>
+ <jbophrase>bu</jbophrase>, another LAU cmavo (and its required sequel), or a
+ <jbophrase>tei ... foi</jbophrase> compound cmavo.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section15">
<title>Proposed lerfu words - introduction</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu words</primary><secondary>list of proposed</secondary><tertiary>notation convention</tertiary></indexterm> The following sections contain tables of proposed lerfu words for some of the standard alphabets supported by the Lojban lerfu system. The first column of each list is the lerfu (actually, a Latin-alphabet name sufficient to identify it). The second column is the proposed name-based lerfu word, and the third column is the proposed lerfu word in the system based on using the cmavo of selma'o BY with a shift word.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>proposed lerfu words</primary><secondary>as working basis</secondary></indexterm> These tables are not meant to be authoritative (several authorities within the Lojban community have niggled over them extensively, disagreeing with each other and sometimes with themselves). They provide a working basis until actual usage is available, rather than a final resolution of lerfu word problems. Probably the system presented here will evolve somewhat before settling down into a final, conventional form.</para>
<para>For Latin-alphabet lerfu words, see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17-section2"/> (for Lojban) and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17-section5"/> (for non-Lojban Latin-alphabet lerfu).</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section16">
<title>Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet</title>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ <xxx>
alpha .alfas. bu .abu
-<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
beta .betas. bu by
gamma .gamas. bu gy
delta .deltas. bu dy
epsilon .Epsilon. bu .ebu
zeta .zetas. bu zy
eta .etas. bu .e'ebu
theta .tetas. bu ty. bu
iota .iotas. bu .ibu
kappa .kapas. bu ky
lambda .lymdas. bu ly
@@ -1337,29 +1334,28 @@
rho .ros. bu ry
sigma .sigmas. bu sy
tau .taus. bu ty
upsilon .Upsilon. bu .ubu
phi .fis. bu py. bu
chi .xis. bu ky. bu
psi .psis. bu psis. bu
omega .omegas. bu .o'obu
rough .dasei,as. bu .y'y
smooth .psiles. bu xutla bu
-</programlisting>
+ </xxx>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section17">
<title>Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Cyrillic alphabet</primary><secondary>proposed lerfu words for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu words</primary><secondary>proposed for Cyrillic alphabet</secondary></indexterm> The second column in this listing is based on the historical names of the letters in Old Church Slavonic. Only those letters used in Russian are shown; other languages require more letters which can be devised as needed.</para>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ <xxx>
a .azys. bu .abu
-<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
b .bukys. bu by
v .vedis. bu vy
g .glagolis. bu gy
d .dobros. bu dy
e .iestys. bu .ebu
zh .jivet. bu jy
z .zemlias. bu zy
i .ije,is. bu .ibu
short i .itord. bu .itord. bu
k .kakos. bu ky
@@ -1377,28 +1373,27 @@
ts .tsis. bu tsys. bu
ch .tcriyviys. bu tcys. bu
sh .cas. bu cy
shch .ctas. bu ctcys. bu
hard sign .ier. bu jdari bu
yeri .ierys. bu .y.bu
soft sign .ieriys. bu ranti bu
reversed e .ecarn. bu .ecarn. bu
yu .ius. bu .iubu
ya .ias. bu .iabu
-</programlisting>
+ </xxx>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section18">
<title>Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet</title>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ <xxx>
aleph .alef. bu .alef. bu
-<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
bet .bet. bu by
gimel .gimel. bu gy
daled .daled. bu dy
he .xex. bu .y'y
vav .vav. bu vy
zayin .zai,in. bu zy
khet .xet. bu xy. bu
tet .tet. bu ty. bu
yud .iud. bu .iud. bu
@@ -1418,31 +1413,30 @@
dagesh .daGEC. bu daGEC. bu
hiriq .xirik. bu .ibu
tzeirekh .tseirex. bu .eibu
segol .seGOL. bu .ebu
qubbutz .kubuts. bu .ubu
qamatz .kamats. bu .abu
patach .patax. bu .a'abu
sheva .cyVAS. bu .y.bu
kholem .xolem. bu .obu
shuruq .curuk. bu .u'ubu
-</programlisting>
+ </xxx>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section19">
<title>Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple letters</primary><secondary>proposed lerfu words for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>diacritic marks</primary><secondary>proposed lerfu words for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>accent marks</primary><secondary>proposed lerfu words for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu words</primary><secondary>proposed for multiple letters</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu words</primary><secondary>proposed for diacritic marks</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu words</primary><secondary>proposed for accent marks</secondary></indexterm> This list is intended to be suggestive, not complete: there are lerfu such as Polish
<quote>dark</quote> l and Maltese h-bar that do not yet have symbols.</para>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ <xxx>
acute .akut. bu
-<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
or .pritygal. bu [pritu galtu]
grave .grav. bu
or .zulgal. bu [zunle galtu]
circumflex .cirkumfleks. bu
or .midgal. bu [midju galtu]
tilde .tildes. bu
macron .makron. bu
@@ -1457,34 +1451,33 @@
double-acute .re'akut. bu [re akut.]
ogonek .ogoniek. bu
hacek .xatcek. bu
ligatured fi tei fy. ibu foi
Danish/Latin ae tei .abu .ebu foi
Dutch ij tei .ibu jy. foi
German es-zed tei sy. zy. foi
-</programlisting>
+ </xxx>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section20">
<title>Proposed lerfu words for radio communication</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Phonetic Alphabet</primary><secondary>proposed lerfu words for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ICAO Phonetic Alphabet</primary><secondary>proposed lerfu words for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>noisy environments</primary><secondary>proposed lerfu words for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>radio communication</primary><secondary>proposed lerfu words for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu words</primary><secondary>proposed for radio communication</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu words</primary><secondary>proposed for noisy environments</secondary></indexterm> There is a set of English words which are used, by international agreement, as lerfu words (for the English alphabet) over the radio, or in noisy situations where the utmost clarity is required. Formally they are known as the
<quote>ICAO Phonetic Alphabet</quote>, and are used even in non-English-speaking countries.</para>
<para>This table presents the standard English spellings and proposed Lojban versions. The Lojbanizations are not straightforward renderings of the English sounds, but make some concessions both to the English spellings of the words and to the Lojban pronunciations of the lerfu (thus
<jbophrase>carlis. bu</jbophrase>, not
<jbophrase>tcarlis. bu</jbophrase>).</para>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ <xxx>
Alfa .alfas. bu
-<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
Bravo .bravos. bu
Charlie .carlis. bu
Delta .deltas. bu
Echo .ekos. bu
Foxtrot .fokstrot. bu
Golf .golf. bu
Hotel .xoTEL. bu
India .indias. bu
Juliet .juliet. bu
Kilo .kilos. bu
@@ -1497,13 +1490,13 @@
Romeo .romios. bu
Sierra .sieras. bu
Tango .tangos. bu
Uniform .Uniform. bu
Victor .viktas. bu
Whiskey .uiskis. bu
X-ray .eksreis. bu
Yankee .iankis. bu
Zulu .zulus. bu
-</programlisting>
+ </xxx>
</section>
</chapter>
commit d627088504b6cca06e2b5d4f7d128147a4295ea6
Author: Eitan Postavsky <eitanp32@gmail.com>
Date: Sat Jan 15 22:06:20 2011 -0500
Automatic indentation of chapters 12, 14, and 15.
diff --git a/todocbook/12.xml b/todocbook/12.xml
index b29ae59..649f6c5 100644
--- a/todocbook/12.xml
+++ b/todocbook/12.xml
@@ -79,30 +79,30 @@
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>goer-house</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> As a simple example, consider the rather non-obvious tanru
<jbophrase>klama zdani</jbophrase>, or
<quote>goer-house</quote>. The gismu
<jbophrase>zdani</jbophrase> has two places:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-xcfi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e2d1"/>
</title>
- <para>x1 is a nest/house/lair/den for inhabitant x2</para>
+ <para>x1 is a nest/house/lair/den for inhabitant x2</para>
</example>
<para>(but in this chapter we will use simply
<quote>house</quote>, for brevity), and the gismu
<jbophrase>klama</jbophrase> has five:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-zUVg">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e2d2"/>
</title>
- <para>x1 goes to destination x2 from origin point x3 via route x4 using means x5</para>
+ <para>x1 goes to destination x2 from origin point x3 via route x4 using means x5</para>
</example>
<para>The tanru
<jbophrase>klama zdani</jbophrase> will also have two places, namely those of
<jbophrase>zdani</jbophrase>. Since a
<jbophrase>klama zdani</jbophrase> is a type of
<jbophrase>zdani</jbophrase>, we can assume that all goer-houses - whatever they may be - are also houses.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>dog house</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>possible meanings of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fleas</primary></indexterm> But is knowing the places of the tertau everything that is needed to understand the meaning of a tanru? No. To see why, let us switch to a less unlikely tanru:
<jbophrase>gerku zdani</jbophrase>, literally
<quote>dog house</quote>. A tanru expresses a very loose relation: a
@@ -181,56 +181,56 @@
<jbophrase>gerku</jbophrase>. We can proceed as follows:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo place structure</primary><secondary>notation conventions</secondary></indexterm> (The notation introduced casually in
<xref linkend="section-tanru-meanings"/> will be useful in the rest of this chapter. Rather than using the regular x1, x2, etc. to represent places, we'll use the first letter of the relevant gismu in place of the
<quote>x</quote>, or more than one letter where necessary to resolve ambiguities. Thus, z1 is the first place of
<jbophrase>zdani</jbophrase>, and g2 is the second place of
<jbophrase>gerku</jbophrase>.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo place structure</primary><secondary>explicated walk-through</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>new notation</primary></indexterm> The place structure of
<jbophrase>zdani</jbophrase> is given as
<xref linkend="example-random-id-xcfi"/>, but is repeated here using the new notation:</para>
-<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>doghouse</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>doghouse</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-95t5">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e3d1"/>
</title>
- <para>z1 is a nest/house/lair/den of z2</para>
+ <para>z1 is a nest/house/lair/den of z2</para>
</example>
<para>The place structure of
<jbophrase>gerku</jbophrase> is:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-H4ed">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e3d2"/>
</title>
- <para>g1 is a dog of breed g2</para>
+ <para>g1 is a dog of breed g2</para>
</example>
<para>But z2 is the same as g1; therefore, the tentative place structure for
<jbophrase>gerzda</jbophrase> now becomes:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-VHXr">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e3d3"/>
</title>
- <para>z1 is a house for dweller z2 of breed g2</para>
+ <para>z1 is a house for dweller z2 of breed g2</para>
</example>
<para>which can also be written</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-MnKf">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e3d4"/>
</title>
- <para>z1 is a house for dog g1 of breed g2</para>
+ <para>z1 is a house for dog g1 of breed g2</para>
</example>
<para>or more comprehensively</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-Wx42">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e3d5"/>
</title>
- <para>z1 is a house for dweller/dog z2=g1 of breed g2</para>
+ <para>z1 is a house for dweller/dog z2=g1 of breed g2</para>
</example>
<para>Despite the apparently conclusive nature of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Wx42"/>, our task is not yet done: we still need to decide whether any of the remaining places should also be eliminated, and what order the lujvo places should appear in. These concerns will be addressed in the remainder of the chapter; but we are now equipped with the terminology needed for those discussions.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-selecting-places">
<title>Selecting places</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo place structure</primary><secondary>basis of</secondary></indexterm> The set of places of an ordinary lujvo are selected from the places of its component gismu. More precisely, the places of such a lujvo are derived from the set of places of the component gismu by eliminating unnecessary places, until just enough places remain to give an appropriate meaning to the lujvo. In general, including a place makes the concept expressed by a lujvo more general; excluding a place makes the concept more specific, because omitting the place requires assuming a standard value or range of values for it.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo place structure</primary><secondary>rationale for standardization</secondary></indexterm> It would be possible to design the place structure of a lujvo from scratch, treating it as if it were a gismu, and working out what arguments contribute to the notion to be expressed by the lujvo. There are two reasons arguing against doing so and in favor of the procedure detailed in this chapter.</para>
<para>The first is that it might be very difficult for a hearer or reader, who has no preconceived idea of what concept the lujvo is intended to convey, to work out what the place structure actually is. Instead, he or she would have to make use of a lujvo dictionary every time a lujvo is encountered in order to work out what a
<jbophrase>se jbopli</jbophrase> or a
@@ -245,60 +245,60 @@
<quote>symmetrical lujvo</quote>. A symmetrical lujvo is one based on a tanru interpretation such that the first place of the seltau is equivalent to the first place of the tertau: each component of the tanru characterizes the same object. As an illustration of this, consider the lujvo
<jbophrase>balsoi</jbophrase>: it is intended to mean
<quote>both great and a soldier</quote>- that is,
<quote>great soldier</quote>, which is the interpretation we would tend to give its veljvo,
<jbophrase>banli sonci</jbophrase>. The underlying gismu place structures are:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-7AFc">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e5d1"/>
</title>
- <para> <jbophrase>banli</jbophrase>: b1 is great in property b2 by standard b3</para>
- <para> <jbophrase>sonci</jbophrase>: s1 is a soldier of army s2</para>
+ <para> <jbophrase>banli</jbophrase>: b1 is great in property b2 by standard b3</para>
+ <para> <jbophrase>sonci</jbophrase>: s1 is a soldier of army s2</para>
</example>
<para>In this case the s1 place of
<jbophrase>sonci</jbophrase> is redundant, since it is equivalent to the b1 place of
<jbophrase>banli</jbophrase>. Therefore the place structure of
<jbophrase>balsoi</jbophrase> need not include places for both s1 and b1, as they refer to the same thing. So the place structure of
<jbophrase>balsoi</jbophrase> is at most</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-UtwF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e5d2"/>
</title>
- <para>b1=s1 is a great soldier of army s2 in property b2 by standard b3</para>
-
+ <para>b1=s1 is a great soldier of army s2 in property b2 by standard b3</para>
+
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>listen attentively</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo place structure</primary><secondary>when first places redundant plus others</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>symmetrical veljvo</primary></indexterm> Some symmetrical veljvo have further equivalent places in addition to the respective first places. Consider the lujvo
<jbophrase>tinju'i</jbophrase>,
<quote>to listen</quote> (
<quote>to hear attentively, to hear and pay attention</quote>). The place structures of the gismu
<jbophrase>tirna</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>jundi</jbophrase> are:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-rFiE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e5d3"/>
</title>
- <para>
- <jbophrase>tirna</jbophrase>: t1 hears sound t2 against background noise t3</para>
-
- <para>
- <jbophrase>jundi</jbophrase>: j1 pays attention to j2</para>
+ <para>
+ <jbophrase>tirna</jbophrase>: t1 hears sound t2 against background noise t3</para>
+
+ <para>
+ <jbophrase>jundi</jbophrase>: j1 pays attention to j2</para>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>background noise</primary></indexterm> and the place structure of the lujvo is:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-EUr1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e5d4"/>
</title>
- <para>j1=t1 listens to j2=t2 against background noise t3</para>
-
+ <para>j1=t1 listens to j2=t2 against background noise t3</para>
+
</example>
<para>Why so? Because not only is the j1 place (the one who pays attention) equivalent to the t1 place (the hearer), but the j2 place (the thing paid attention to) is equivalent to the t2 place (the thing heard).</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo place structure</primary><secondary>when first place redundant with non-first</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>asymmetrical</secondary></indexterm> A substantial minority of lujvo have the property that the first place of the seltau (
<jbophrase>gerku</jbophrase> in this case) is equivalent to a place other than the first place of the tertau; such lujvo are said to be
<quote>asymmetrical</quote>. (There is a deliberate parallel here with the terms
<quote>asymmetrical tanru</quote> and
<quote>symmetrical tanru</quote> used in
<xref linkend="chapter-selbri"/>.)</para>
@@ -306,29 +306,29 @@
<jbophrase>gerzda</jbophrase>, discussed in
<xref linkend="section-lujvo-meanings"/>, where we learned that the g1 place was equivalent to the z2 place. In order to get the places aligned, we could convert
<jbophrase>zdani</jbophrase> to
<jbophrase>se zdani</jbophrase> (or
<jbophrase>selzda</jbophrase> when expressed as a lujvo). The place structure of
<jbophrase>selzda</jbophrase> is</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-IXoj">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e5d5"/>
</title>
- <para>s1 is housed by nest s2</para>
+ <para>s1 is housed by nest s2</para>
</example>
<para>and so the three-part lujvo
<jbophrase>gerselzda</jbophrase> would have the place structure</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-KqE4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e5d6"/>
</title>
- <para>s1=g1 is a dog housed in nest s2 of dog breed g2</para>
+ <para>s1=g1 is a dog housed in nest s2 of dog breed g2</para>
</example>
<para>However, although
<jbophrase>gerselzda</jbophrase> is a valid lujvo, it doesn't translate
<quote>doghouse</quote>; its first place is the dog, not the doghouse. Furthermore, it is more complicated than necessary;
<jbophrase>gerzda</jbophrase> is simpler than
<jbophrase>gerselzda</jbophrase>.</para>
<para>From the reader's or listener's point of view, it may not always be obvious whether a newly met lujvo is symmetrical or asymmetrical, and if the latter, what kind of asymmetrical lujvo. If the place structure of the lujvo isn't given in a dictionary or elsewhere, then plausibility must be applied, just as in interpreting tanru.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>car goer</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> The lujvo
<jbophrase>karcykla</jbophrase>, for example, is based on
@@ -344,50 +344,50 @@
<jbo>karce: ka1 is a car carrying ka2 propelled by ka3</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>A asymmetrical interpretation of
<jbophrase>karcykla</jbophrase> that is strictly analogous to the place structure of
<jbophrase>gerzda</jbophrase>, equating the kl2 (destination) and ka1 (car) places, would lead to the place structure</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-GgxL">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e5d8"/>
</title>
- <para>kl1 goes to car kl2=ka1 which carries ka2 propelled by ka3 from origin kl3</para>
- <para>via route kl4 by means of kl5</para>
+ <para>kl1 goes to car kl2=ka1 which carries ka2 propelled by ka3 from origin kl3</para>
+ <para>via route kl4 by means of kl5</para>
</example>
<para>But in general we go about in cars, rather than going to cars, so a far more likely place structure treats the ka1 place as equivalent to the kl5 place, leading to</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-QiHw">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e5d9"/>
</title>
- <para>kl1 goes to destination kl2 from origin kl3 via route kl4</para>
- <para>by means of car kl5=ka1 carrying ka2 propelled by ka3.</para>
+ <para>kl1 goes to destination kl2 from origin kl3 via route kl4</para>
+ <para>by means of car kl5=ka1 carrying ka2 propelled by ka3.</para>
</example>
<para>instead.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-dependent-places">
<title>Dependent places</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo place structure</primary><secondary>dependent places</secondary></indexterm> In order to understand which places, if any, should be completely removed from a lujvo place structure, we need to understand the concept of dependent places. One place of a brivla is said to be dependent on another if its value can be predicted from the values of one or more of the other places. For example, the g2 place of
<jbophrase>gerku</jbophrase> is dependent on the g1 place. Why? Because when we know what fits in the g1 place (Spot, let us say, a well-known dog), then we know what fits in the g2 place (
<quote>St. Bernard</quote>, let us say). In other words, when the value of the g1 place has been specified, the value of the g2 place is determined by it. Conversely, since each dog has only one breed, but each breed contains many dogs, the g1 place is not dependent on the g2 place; if we know only that some dog is a St. Bernard, we cannot tell by that fact alone which dog is meant.</para>
<para>For
<jbophrase>zdani</jbophrase>, on the other hand, there is no dependency between the places. When we know the identity of a house-dweller, we have not determined the house, because a dweller may dwell in more than one house. By the same token, when we know the identity of a house, we do not know the identity of its dweller, for a house may contain more than one dweller.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo place structure</primary><secondary>dropping dependent seltau places</secondary></indexterm> The rule for eliminating places from a lujvo is that dependent places provided by the seltau are eliminated. Therefore, in
<jbophrase>gerzda</jbophrase> the dependent g2 place is removed from the tentative place structure given in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Wx42"/>, leaving the place structure:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-zMyY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e6d1"/>
</title>
- <para>z1 is the house dwelt in by dog z2=g1</para>
+ <para>z1 is the house dwelt in by dog z2=g1</para>
</example>
<para>Informally put, the reason this has happened - and it happens a lot with seltau places - is that the third place was describing not the doghouse, but the dog who lives in it. The sentence</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PI6B">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e6d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la mon. rePOS. gerzda la spat.</jbo>
<en>Mon Repos is a doghouse of Spot.</en>
@@ -399,21 +399,21 @@
<anchor xml:id="c12e6d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la mon. rePOS. zdani la spat. noi gerku</jbo>
<en>Mon Repos is a house of Spot, who is a dog.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>since that is the interpretation we have given
<jbophrase>gerzda</jbophrase>. But that in turn means</para>
-<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>unspecified breed</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>unspecified breed</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-wc69">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e6d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la mon. rePOS. zdani la spat noi ke'a gerku zo'e</jbo>
<en>Mon Repos is a house of Spot, who is a dog of unspecified breed.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -445,34 +445,34 @@
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>beetle</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> As a further example, take
<jbophrase>cakcinki</jbophrase>, the lujvo for
<quote>beetle</quote>, based on the tanru
<jbophrase>calku cinki</jbophrase>, or
<quote>shell-insect</quote>. The gismu place structures are:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-D0qb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e6d7"/>
</title>
- <para>
- <jbophrase>calku</jbophrase>: ca1 is a shell/husk around ca2 made of ca3</para>
- <para>
- <jbophrase>cinki</jbophrase>: ci1 is an insect/arthropod of species ci2</para>
-
+ <para>
+ <jbophrase>calku</jbophrase>: ca1 is a shell/husk around ca2 made of ca3</para>
+ <para>
+ <jbophrase>cinki</jbophrase>: ci1 is an insect/arthropod of species ci2</para>
+
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo place structure</primary><secondary>dropping cross-dependent places</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo place structure</primary><secondary>cross-dependent places</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cross-dependency</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>arthropod</primary></indexterm> This example illustrates a cross-dependency between a place of one gismu and a place of the other. The ca3 place is dependent on ci1, because all insects (which fit into ci1) have shells made of chitin (which fits into ca3). Furthermore, ca1 is dependent on ci1 as well, because each insect has only a single shell. And since ca2 (the thing with the shell) is equivalent to ci1 (the insect), the place structure is</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-n7JB">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e6d8"/>
</title>
- <para>ci1=ca2 is a beetle of species ci2</para>
-
+ <para>ci1=ca2 is a beetle of species ci2</para>
+
</example>
<para>with not a single place of
<jbophrase>calku</jbophrase> surviving independently!</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>beetles</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Coleoptera</primary></indexterm> (Note that there is nothing in this explanation that tells us just why
<jbophrase>cakcinki</jbophrase> means
<quote>beetle</quote> (member of Coleoptera), since all insects in their adult forms have chitin shells of some sort. The answer, which is in no way predictable, is that the shell is a prominent, highly noticeable feature of beetles in particular.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo place structure</primary><secondary>dropping dependent tertau places</secondary></indexterm> What about the dependency of ci2 on ci1? After all, no beetle belongs to more than one species, so it would seem that the ci2 place of
@@ -497,21 +497,21 @@
<jbophrase>kuldi'u</jbophrase> (from
<jbophrase>ckule dinju</jbophrase>, and meaning
<quote>school building</quote>) needs to be</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-u6Xz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e6d9"/>
</title>
- <para>d1 is a building housing school c1 teaching subject c3 to audience c4</para>
+ <para>d1 is a building housing school c1 teaching subject c3 to audience c4</para>
</example>
<para>even though c3 and c4 are plainly dependent on c1. The other places of
<jbophrase>ckule</jbophrase>, the location (c2) and operators (c5), don't seem to be necessary to the concept
<quote>school building</quote>, and are dependent on c1 to boot, so they are omitted. Again, the need for case-by-case consideration of place structures is demonstrated.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-order-of-places">
<title>Ordering lujvo places.</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo place order</primary></indexterm> So far, we have concentrated on selecting the places to go into the place structure of a lujvo. However, this is only half the story. In using selbri in Lojban, it is important to remember the right order of the sumti. With lujvo, the need to attend to the order of sumti becomes critical: the set of places selected should be ordered in such a way that a reader unfamiliar with the lujvo should be able to tell which place is which.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>prayer</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo place order</primary><secondary>rationale for standardization</secondary></indexterm> If we aim to make understandable lujvo, then, we should make the order of places in the place structure follow some conventions. If this does not occur, very real ambiguities can turn up. Take for example the lujvo
@@ -527,49 +527,49 @@
<gloss>This-utterance is-a-prayer somehow-related-to-Dong.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Dong</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> we must be able to know if Dong is the person making the prayer, giving the meaning</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-b38f">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e7d2"/>
</title>
- <para>This is a prayer by Dong</para>
-
+ <para>This is a prayer by Dong</para>
+
</example>
<para>or is the entity being prayed to, resulting in</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-uL3V">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e7d3"/>
</title>
- <para>This is a prayer to Dong</para>
-
+ <para>This is a prayer to Dong</para>
+
</example>
<para>We could resolve such problems on a case-by-case basis for each lujvo (
<xref linkend="section-anomalous-lujvo"/> discusses when this is actually necessary), but case-by-case resolution for run-of-the-mill lujvo makes the task of learning lujvo place structures unmanageable. People need consistent patterns to make sense of what they learn. Such patterns can be found across gismu place structures (see
<xref linkend="section-gismu-place-structures"/>), and are even more necessary in lujvo place structures. Case-by-case consideration is still necessary; lujvo creation is a subtle art, after all. But it is helpful to take advantage of any available regularities.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>great soldier</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo place order</primary><secondary>symmetrical lujvo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>elimination process</primary></indexterm> We use two different ordering rules: one for symmetrical lujvo and one for asymmetrical ones. A symmetrical lujvo like
<jbophrase>balsoi</jbophrase> (from
<xref linkend="section-symmetrical-asymmetrical"/>) has the places of its tertau followed by whatever places of the seltau survive the elimination process. For
<jbophrase>balsoi</jbophrase>, the surviving places of
<jbophrase>banli</jbophrase> are b2 and b3, leading to the place structure:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-rv1m">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e7d4"/>
</title>
- <para>b1=s1 is a great soldier of army s2 in property b2 by standard b3</para>
-
+ <para>b1=s1 is a great soldier of army s2 in property b2 by standard b3</para>
+
</example>
<para>just what appears in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-7AFc"/>. In fact, all place structures shown until now have been in the correct order by the conventions of this section, though the fact has been left tacit until now.</para>
<para>The motivation for this rule is the parallelism between the lujvo bridi-schema</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7juc">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e7d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>b1 balsoi s2 b2 b3</jbo>
@@ -595,34 +595,34 @@
<jbophrase>dalmikce</jbophrase>, meaning
<quote>veterinarian</quote>: its veljvo is
<jbophrase>danlu mikce</jbophrase>, or
<quote>animal doctor</quote>. The place structures for those gismu are:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-BqPj">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e7d7"/>
</title>
- <para>
- <jbophrase>danlu</jbophrase>: d1 is an animal of species d2</para>
- <para>
- <jbophrase>mikce</jbophrase>: m1 is a doctor to patient m2 for ailment m3 using treatment m4</para>
-
+ <para>
+ <jbophrase>danlu</jbophrase>: d1 is an animal of species d2</para>
+ <para>
+ <jbophrase>mikce</jbophrase>: m1 is a doctor to patient m2 for ailment m3 using treatment m4</para>
+
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ailment</primary></indexterm> and the lujvo place structure is:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-WeBW">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e7d8"/>
</title>
- <para>m1 is a doctor for animal m2=d1 of species d2 for ailment m3 using treatment m4</para>
+ <para>m1 is a doctor for animal m2=d1 of species d2 for ailment m3 using treatment m4</para>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>animal patient</primary></indexterm> Since the shared place is m2=d1, the animal patient, the remaining seltau place d2 is inserted immediately after the shared place; then the remaining tertau places form the last two places of the lujvo.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-n-part-lujvo">
<title>lujvo with more than two parts.</title>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>tomorrow</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo place order</primary><secondary>based on 3-or-more part veljvo</secondary></indexterm> The theory we have outlined so far is an account of lujvo with two parts. But often lujvo are made containing more than two parts. An example is
<jbophrase>bavlamdei</jbophrase>,
<quote>tomorrow</quote>: it is composed of the rafsi for
@@ -635,115 +635,115 @@
<quote>next</quote>, and
<jbophrase>djedi</jbophrase>. If we know or invent the lujvo place structure for the components, we can compose the new lujvo place structure in the usual way.</para>
<para>In this case,
<jbophrase>bavla'i</jbophrase> is given the place structure</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-aCg7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e8d1"/>
</title>
- <para>b1=l1 is next after b2=l2</para>
+ <para>b1=l1 is next after b2=l2</para>
</example>
<para>making it a symmetrical lujvo. We combine this with
<jbophrase>djedi</jbophrase>, which has the place structure:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-Lera">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e8d2"/>
</title>
- <para>duration d1 is d2 days long (default 1) by standard d3</para>
+ <para>duration d1 is d2 days long (default 1) by standard d3</para>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>anomalous ordering of lujvo places</primary></indexterm> While symmetrical lujvo normally put any trailing tertau places before any seltau places, the day standard is a much less important concept than the day the tomorrow follows, in the definition of
<jbophrase>bavlamdei</jbophrase>. This is an example of how the guidelines presented for selecting and ordering lujvo places are just that, not laws that must be rigidly adhered to. In this case, we choose to rank places in order of relative importance. The resulting place structure is:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-KEwW">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e8d3"/>
</title>
- <para>d1=b1=l1 is a day following b2=l2, d2 days later (default 1) by standard d3</para>
+ <para>d1=b1=l1 is a day following b2=l2, d2 days later (default 1) by standard d3</para>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>long-sword</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>medieval weapon</primary></indexterm> Here is another example of a multi-part lujvo:
<jbophrase>cladakyxa'i</jbophrase>, meaning
<quote>long-sword</quote>, a specific type of medieval weapon. The gismu place structures are:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-XpNf">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e8d4"/>
</title>
- <para>
- <jbophrase>clani</jbophrase>: c1 is long in direction c2 by standard c3</para>
- <gloss>
- <jbophrase>dakfu</jbophrase>: d1 is a knife for cutting d2 with blade made of d3</gloss>
- <para>
- <jbophrase>xarci</jbophrase>: xa1 is a weapon for use against xa2 by wielder xa3</para>
+ <para>
+ <jbophrase>clani</jbophrase>: c1 is long in direction c2 by standard c3</para>
+ <gloss>
+ <jbophrase>dakfu</jbophrase>: d1 is a knife for cutting d2 with blade made of d3</gloss>
+ <para>
+ <jbophrase>xarci</jbophrase>: xa1 is a weapon for use against xa2 by wielder xa3</para>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sword blade</primary></indexterm> Since
<jbophrase>cladakyxa'i</jbophrase> is a symmetrical lujvo based on
<jbophrase>cladakfu xarci</jbophrase>, and
<jbophrase>cladakfu</jbophrase> is itself a symmetrical lujvo, we can do the necessary analyses all at once. Plainly c1 (the long thing), d1 (the knife), and xa1 (the weapon) are all the same. Likewise, the d2 place (the thing cut) is the same as the xa2 place (the target of the weapon), given that swords are used to cut victims. Finally, the c2 place (direction of length) is always along the sword blade in a longsword, by definition, and so is dependent on c1=d1=xa1. Adding on the places of the remaining gismu in right-to-left order we get:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-eAbF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e8d5"/>
</title>
- <para>xa1=d1=c1 is a long-sword for use against xa2=d2 by wielder xa3, with a blade made of d3, length measured by standard c3.</para>
+ <para>xa1=d1=c1 is a long-sword for use against xa2=d2 by wielder xa3, with a blade made of d3, length measured by standard c3.</para>
</example>
<para>If the last place sounds unimportant to you, notice that what counts legally as a
<quote>sword</quote>, rather than just a
<quote>knife</quote>, depends on the length of the blade (the legal limit varies in different jurisdictions). This fifth place of
<jbophrase>cladakyxa'i</jbophrase> may not often be explicitly filled, but it is still useful on occasion. Because it is so seldom important, it is best that it be last.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-seltau-SE">
<title>Eliding SE rafsi from seltau</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>dropping SE rafsi</secondary></indexterm> It is common to form lujvo that omit the rafsi based on cmavo of selma'o SE, as well as other cmavo rafsi. Doing so makes lujvo construction for common or useful constructions shorter. Since it puts more strain on the listener who has not heard the lujvo before, the shortness of the word should not necessarily outweigh ease in understanding, especially if the lujvo refers to a rare or unusual concept.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>proposed law</primary></indexterm> Consider as an example the lujvo
<jbophrase>ti'ifla</jbophrase>, from the veljvo
<jbophrase>stidi flalu</jbophrase>, and meaning
<quote>bill, proposed law</quote>. The gismu place structures are:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-n1LH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e9d1"/>
</title>
- <para>
- <jbophrase>stidi</jbophrase>: agent st1 suggests idea/action st2 to audience st3</para>
- <gloss>
- <jbophrase>flalu</jbophrase>: f1 is a law specifying f2 for community f3 under conditions f4</gloss>
- <para>by lawgiver f5</para>
+ <para>
+ <jbophrase>stidi</jbophrase>: agent st1 suggests idea/action st2 to audience st3</para>
+ <gloss>
+ <jbophrase>flalu</jbophrase>: f1 is a law specifying f2 for community f3 under conditions f4</gloss>
+ <para>by lawgiver f5</para>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lined up</primary></indexterm> This lujvo does not fit any of our existing molds: it is the second seltau place, st2, that is equivalent to one of the tertau places, namely f1. However, if we understand
<jbophrase>ti'ifla</jbophrase> as an abbreviation for the lujvo
<jbophrase>selti'ifla</jbophrase>, then we get the first places of seltau and tertau lined up. The place structure of
<jbophrase>selti'i</jbophrase> is:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-j98h">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e9d2"/>
</title>
- <para>
- <jbophrase>selti'i</jbophrase>: idea/action se1 is suggested by agent se2 to audience se3</para>
+ <para>
+ <jbophrase>selti'i</jbophrase>: idea/action se1 is suggested by agent se2 to audience se3</para>
</example>
<para>Here we can see that se1 (what is suggested) is equivalent to f1 (the law), and we get a normal symmetrical lujvo. The final place structure is:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-S0n4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e9d3"/>
</title>
- <para>f1=se1 is a bill specifying f2 for community f3 under conditions f4 by suggester se2 to audience/lawgivers f5=se3</para>
+ <para>f1=se1 is a bill specifying f2 for community f3 under conditions f4 by suggester se2 to audience/lawgivers f5=se3</para>
</example>
<para>or, relabeling the places,</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-RM3D">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e9d4"/>
</title>
- <para>f1=st2 is a bill specifying f2 for community f3 under conditions f4 by suggester st1 to audience/lawgivers f5=st3</para>
+ <para>f1=st2 is a bill specifying f2 for community f3 under conditions f4 by suggester st1 to audience/lawgivers f5=st3</para>
</example>
<para>where the last place (st3) is probably some sort of legislature.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>abbreviated</secondary></indexterm> Abbreviated lujvo like
<jbophrase>ti'ifla</jbophrase> are more intuitive (for the lujvo-maker) than their more explicit counterparts like
<jbophrase>selti'ifla</jbophrase> (as well as shorter). They don't require the coiner to sit down and work out the precise relation between the seltau and the tertau: he or she can just rattle off a rafsi pair. But should the lujvo get to the stage where a place structure needs to be worked out, then the precise relation does need to be specified. And in that case, such abbreviated lujvo form a trap in lujvo place ordering, since they obscure the most straightforward relation between the seltau and tertau. To give our lujvo-making guidelines as wide an application as possible, and to encourage analyzing the seltau-tertau relation in lujvo, lujvo like
@@ -786,21 +786,21 @@
<jbo>la djak. cu se blakanla</jbo>
<gloss>Jack is-the-bearer-of-blue-eyes</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>But look now at the place structure of
<jbophrase>blakanla</jbophrase>: it is a symmetrical lujvo, so the place structure is:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-ncPN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e10d3"/>
</title>
- <para>bl1=k1 is a blue eye of bl2=k2</para>
+ <para>bl1=k1 is a blue eye of bl2=k2</para>
</example>
<para>We end up being most interested in talking about the second place, not the first (we talk much more of people than of their eyes), so
<jbophrase>se</jbophrase> would almost always be required.</para>
<para>What is happening here is that we are translating the tertau wrongly, under the influence of English. The English suffix
<quote>-eyed</quote> does not mean
<quote>eye</quote>, but someone with an eye, which is
<jbophrase>selkanla</jbophrase>.</para>
<para>Because we've got the wrong tertau (eliding a
<jbophrase>se</jbophrase> that really should be there), any attempt to accommodate the resulting lujvo into our guidelines for place structure is fitting a square peg in a round hole. Since they can be so misleading, lujvo with SE rafsi elided from the tertau should be avoided in favor of their more explicit counterparts: in this case,
<jbophrase>blaselkanla</jbophrase>.</para>
@@ -861,36 +861,36 @@
<jbo>[ke] zekri nenri [ke'e] klama</jbo>
<en>(crime inside) go</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>doesn't make much sense. (To go to the inside of a crime? To go into a place where it is criminal to be inside - an interpretation almost identical with
<xref linkend="example-random-id-aXrm"/> anyway?)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>shellfish</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>shellfish</primary></indexterm> There are cases, however, where omitting a KE or KEhE rafsi can produce another lujvo, equally useful. For example,
<jbophrase>xaskemcakcurnu</jbophrase> means
<quote>oceanic shellfish</quote>, and has the veljvo</para>
-<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>shell worm</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>shell worm</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-0W5t">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e11d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xamsi ke calku curnu</jbo>
<gloss>ocean type-of (shell worm)</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>invertebrate</primary></indexterm> (
<quote>worm</quote> in Lojban refers to any invertebrate), but
<jbophrase>xasycakcurnu</jbophrase> has the veljvo</para>
-<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>ocean shell</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>ocean shell</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-HEjn">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e11d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>[ke] xamsi calku [ke'e] curnu</jbo>
<gloss>(ocean shell) type-of worm</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -915,27 +915,27 @@
<jbophrase>selkla</jbophrase>, and the places of
<jbophrase>selkla</jbophrase> are exactly those of
<jbophrase>se klama</jbophrase>. But consider the related lujvo
<jbophrase>dzukla</jbophrase>, meaning
<quote>to walk to somewhere</quote>. It is a symmmetrical lujvo, derived from the veljvo
<jbophrase>cadzu klama</jbophrase> as follows:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-4yG0">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e11d7"/>
</title>
- <para>
- <jbophrase>cadzu</jbophrase>: c1 walks on surface c2 using limbs c3</para>
- <gloss>
- <jbophrase>klama</jbophrase>: k1 goes to k2 from k3 via route k4 using k5</gloss>
- <gloss>
- <jbophrase>dzukla</jbophrase>: c1=k1 walks to k2 from k3 via route k4 using limbs k5=c3</gloss>
- <para>on surface c2</para>
+ <para>
+ <jbophrase>cadzu</jbophrase>: c1 walks on surface c2 using limbs c3</para>
+ <gloss>
+ <jbophrase>klama</jbophrase>: k1 goes to k2 from k3 via route k4 using k5</gloss>
+ <gloss>
+ <jbophrase>dzukla</jbophrase>: c1=k1 walks to k2 from k3 via route k4 using limbs k5=c3</gloss>
+ <para>on surface c2</para>
</example>
<para>We can swap the k1 and k2 places using
<jbophrase>se dzukla</jbophrase>, but we cannot directly make
<jbophrase>se dzukla</jbophrase> into
<jbophrase>seldzukla</jbophrase>, which would represent the veljvo
<jbophrase>selcadzu klama</jbophrase> and plausibly mean something like
<quote>to go to a walking surface</quote>. Instead, we would need
<jbophrase>selkemdzukla</jbophrase>, with an explicit rafsi for
<jbophrase>ke</jbophrase>. Similarly,
<jbophrase>nalbrablo</jbophrase> (from
@@ -972,79 +972,79 @@
<xref linkend="chapter-sumti-tcita"/>.)</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-abstraction-lujvo">
<title>Abstract lujvo</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo place structure</primary><secondary>"nu" lujvo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstract lujvo</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>abstract</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo of NU can participate in the construction of lujvo of a particularly simple and well-patterned kind. Consider that old standard example,
<jbophrase>klama</jbophrase>:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-KEao">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e12d1"/>
</title>
- <para>k1 comes/goes to k2 from k3 via route k4 by means k5.</para>
+ <para>k1 comes/goes to k2 from k3 via route k4 by means k5.</para>
</example>
<para>The selbri
<jbophrase>nu klama [kei]</jbophrase> has only one place, the event-of-going, but the full five places exist implicitly between
<jbophrase>nu</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>kei</jbophrase>, since a full bridi with all sumti may be placed there. In a lujvo, there is no room for such inside places, and consequently the lujvo
<jbophrase>nunkla</jbophrase> (
<jbophrase role="rafsi">nun-</jbophrase> is the rafsi for
<jbophrase>nu</jbophrase>), needs to have six places:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-m60H">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e12d2"/>
</title>
- <para>nu1 is the event of k1's coming/going to k2 from k3 via route k4 by means k5.</para>
+ <para>nu1 is the event of k1's coming/going to k2 from k3 via route k4 by means k5.</para>
</example>
<para>Here the first place of
<jbophrase>nunklama</jbophrase> is the first and only place of
<jbophrase>nu</jbophrase>, and the other five places have been pushed down by one to occupy the second through the sixth places. Full information on
<jbophrase>nu</jbophrase>, as well as the other abstractors mentioned in this section, is given in
<xref linkend="chapter-abstractions"/>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo place structure</primary><secondary>multi-place abstraction lujvo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo place structure</primary><secondary>"ni" lujvo</secondary></indexterm> For those abstractors which have a second place as well, the standard convention is to place this place after, rather than before, the places of the brivla being abstracted. The place structure of
<jbophrase>nilkla</jbophrase>, the lujvo derived from
<jbophrase>ni klama</jbophrase>, is the imposing:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-yURu">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e12d3"/>
</title>
- <para>ni1 is the amount of k1's coming/going to k2 from k3 via route k4 by means k5, measured on scale ni2.</para>
+ <para>ni1 is the amount of k1's coming/going to k2 from k3 via route k4 by means k5, measured on scale ni2.</para>
</example>
<para>It is not uncommon for abstractors to participate in the making of more complex lujvo as well. For example,
<jbophrase>nunsoidji</jbophrase>, from the veljvo</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-RKcH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e12d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>nu sonci kei djica</jbo>
<gloss>event-of being-a-soldier desirer</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>has the place structure</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-8Nos">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e12d5"/>
</title>
- <para>d1 desires the event of (s1 being a soldier of army s2) for purpose d3</para>
+ <para>d1 desires the event of (s1 being a soldier of army s2) for purpose d3</para>
</example>
<para>where the d2 place has disappeared altogether, being replaced by the places of the seltau. As shown in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-8Nos"/>, the ordering follows this idea of replacement: the seltau places are inserted at the point where the omitted abstraction place exists in the tertau.</para>
<para>The lujvo
<jbophrase>nunsoidji</jbophrase> is quite different from the ordinary asymmetric lujvo
<jbophrase>soidji</jbophrase>, a
<quote>soldier desirer</quote>, whose place structure is just</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-2VMP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e12d6"/>
</title>
- <para>d1 desires (a soldier of army s2) for purpose d3</para>
+ <para>d1 desires (a soldier of army s2) for purpose d3</para>
</example>
<para>A
<jbophrase>nunsoidji</jbophrase> might be someone who is about to enlist, whereas a
<jbophrase>soidji</jbophrase> might be a camp-follower.</para>
<para>One use of abstract lujvo is to eliminate the need for explicit
<jbophrase>kei</jbophrase> in tanru:
<jbophrase>nunkalri gasnu</jbophrase> means much the same as
<jbophrase>nu kalri kei gasnu</jbophrase>, but is shorter. In addition, many English words ending in
<jbophrase>-hood</jbophrase> are represented with
@@ -1104,26 +1104,26 @@
<para>Let us make a detailed analysis of the lujvo
<jbophrase>nunctikezgau</jbophrase>, meaning
<quote>to feed</quote>. (If you think this lujvo is excessively longwinded, be patient.) The veljvo of
<jbophrase>nunctikezgau</jbophrase> is
<jbophrase>nu citka kei gasnu</jbophrase>. The relevant place structures are:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-bSDW">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e13d1"/>
</title>
- <para>
- <jbophrase>nu</jbophrase>: n1 is an event</para>
- <para>
- <jbophrase>citka</jbophrase>: c1 eats c2</para>
- <para>
- <jbophrase>gasnu</jbophrase>: g1 does action/is the agent of event g2</para>
+ <para>
+ <jbophrase>nu</jbophrase>: n1 is an event</para>
+ <para>
+ <jbophrase>citka</jbophrase>: c1 eats c2</para>
+ <para>
+ <jbophrase>gasnu</jbophrase>: g1 does action/is the agent of event g2</para>
</example>
<para>In accordance with the procedure for analyzing three-part lujvo given in
<xref linkend="section-n-part-lujvo"/>, we will first create an intermediate lujvo,
<jbophrase>nuncti</jbophrase>, whose veljvo is
<jbophrase>nu citka [kei]</jbophrase>. By the rules given in
<xref linkend="section-abstraction-lujvo"/>,
<jbophrase>nuncti</jbophrase> has the place structure</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Xhrx">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e13d2"/>
@@ -1132,31 +1132,31 @@
<jbo>n1 is the event of c1 eating c2</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Now we can transform the veljvo of
<jbophrase>nunctikezgau</jbophrase> into
<jbophrase>nuncti gasnu</jbophrase>. The g2 place (what is brought about by the actor g1) obviously denotes the same thing as n1 (the event of eating). So we can eliminate g2 as redundant, leaving us with a tentative place structure of</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-izvp">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e13d3"/>
</title>
- <para>g1 is the actor in the event n1=g2 of c1 eating c2</para>
+ <para>g1 is the actor in the event n1=g2 of c1 eating c2</para>
</example>
<para>But it is also possible to omit the n1 place itself! The n1 place describes the event brought about; an event in Lojban is described as a bridi, by a selbri and its sumti; the selbri is already known (it's the seltau), and the sumti are also already known (they're in the lujvo place structure). So n1 would not give us any information we didn't already know. In fact, the n1=g2 place is dependent on c1 and c2 jointly - it does not depend on either c1 or c2 by itself. Being dependent and derived from the seltau, it is omissible. So the final place structure of
<jbophrase>nunctikezgau</jbophrase> is:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-9oTP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e13d4"/>
</title>
- <para>g1 is the actor in the event of c1 eating c2</para>
+ <para>g1 is the actor in the event of c1 eating c2</para>
</example>
<para>There is one further step that can be taken. As we have already seen with
<jbophrase>balsoi</jbophrase> in
<xref linkend="section-symmetrical-asymmetrical"/>, the interpretation of lujvo is constrained by the semantics of gismu and of their sumti places. Now, any asymmetrical lujvo with
<jbophrase>gasnu</jbophrase> as its tertau will involve an event abstraction either implicitly or explicitly, since that is how the g2 place of
<jbophrase>gasnu</jbophrase> is defined.</para>
<para>Therefore, if we assume that
<jbophrase>nu</jbophrase> is the type of abstraction one would expect to be a
<jbophrase>se gasnu</jbophrase>, then the rafsi
@@ -1177,69 +1177,69 @@
<quote>socialize with someone</quote> and
<quote>have sex with someone</quote>, are not relevant to
<jbophrase>gasnu</jbophrase>.)</para>
<para>So we can simply use
<jbophrase>ctigau</jbophrase> with the same place structure as
<jbophrase>nunctikezgau</jbophrase>:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-ITvd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e13d5"/>
</title>
- <para>agent g1 causes c1 to eat c2</para>
- <para>g1 feeds c2 to c1.</para>
+ <para>agent g1 causes c1 to eat c2</para>
+ <para>g1 feeds c2 to c1.</para>
</example>
<para>This particular kind of asymmetrical lujvo, in which the seltau serves as the selbri of an abstraction which is a place of the tertau, is called an implicit-abstraction lujvo, because one deduces the presence of an abstraction which is unexpressed (implicit).</para>
<para>To give another example: the gismu
<jbophrase>basti</jbophrase>, whose place structure is</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-3LIm">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e13d6"/>
</title>
- <para>b1 replaces b2 in circumstances b3</para>
+ <para>b1 replaces b2 in circumstances b3</para>
</example>
<para>can form the lujvo
<jbophrase>basygau</jbophrase>, with the place structure:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-byp8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e13d7"/>
</title>
- <para>g1 (agent) replaces b1 with b2 in circumstances b3</para>
+ <para>g1 (agent) replaces b1 with b2 in circumstances b3</para>
</example>
<para>where both
<jbophrase>basti</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>basygau</jbophrase> are translated
<quote>replace</quote> in English, but represent different relations:
<jbophrase>basti</jbophrase> may be used with no mention of any agent doing the replacing.</para>
<para>In addition,
<jbophrase>gasnu</jbophrase>-based lujvo can be built from what we would consider nouns or adjectives in English. In Lojban, everything is a predicate, so adjectives, nouns and verbs are all treated in the same way. This is consistent with the use of similar causative affixes in other languages. For example, the gismu
<jbophrase>litki</jbophrase>, meaning
<quote>liquid</quote>, with the place structure</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-tDsX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e13d8"/>
</title>
- <para>l1 is a quantity of liquid of composition l2 under conditions l3</para>
+ <para>l1 is a quantity of liquid of composition l2 under conditions l3</para>
</example>
<para>can give
<jbophrase>likygau</jbophrase>, meaning
<quote>to liquefy</quote>:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-p5Bt">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e13d9"/>
</title>
- <para>g1 (agent) causes l1 to be a quantity of liquid of composition l2 under conditions l3.</para>
+ <para>g1 (agent) causes l1 to be a quantity of liquid of composition l2 under conditions l3.</para>
</example>
<para>While
<jbophrase>likygau</jbophrase> correctly represents
<quote>causes to be a liquid</quote>, a different lujvo based on
<jbophrase>galfi</jbophrase> (meaning
<quote>modify</quote>) may be more appropriate for
<quote>causes to become a liquid</quote>. On the other hand,
<jbophrase>fetsygau</jbophrase> is potentially confusing, because it could mean
<quote>agent in the event of something becoming female</quote> (the implicit-abstraction interpretation) or simply
<quote>female agent</quote> (the parallel interpretation), so using implicit-abstraction lujvo is always accompanied with some risk of being misunderstood.</para>
@@ -1247,84 +1247,84 @@
<para>Many other Lojban gismu have places for event abstractions, and therefore are good candidates for the tertau of an implicit-abstraction lujvo. For example, lujvo based on
<jbophrase>rinka</jbophrase>, with its place structure</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-Pmz8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e13d10"/>
</title>
- <para>event r1 causes event r2 to occur</para>
+ <para>event r1 causes event r2 to occur</para>
</example>
<para>are closely related to those based on
<jbophrase>gasnu</jbophrase>. However,
<jbophrase>rinka</jbophrase> is less generally useful than
<jbophrase>gasnu</jbophrase>, because its r1 place is another event rather than a person:
<jbophrase>lo rinka</jbophrase> is a cause, not a causer. Thus the place structure of
<jbophrase>likyri'a</jbophrase>, a lujvo analogous to
<jbophrase>likygau</jbophrase>, is</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-1HT3">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e13d11"/>
</title>
- <para>event r1 causes l1 to be a quantity of liquid of composition l2 under conditions l3</para>
+ <para>event r1 causes l1 to be a quantity of liquid of composition l2 under conditions l3</para>
</example>
<para>and would be useful in translating sentences like
<quote>The heat of the sun liquefied the block of ice.</quote></para>
<para>Implicit-abstraction lujvo are a powerful means in the language of rendering quite verbose bridi into succinct and manageable concepts, and increasing the expressive power of the language.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-anomalous-lujvo">
<title>Anomalous lujvo</title>
<para>Some lujvo that have been coined and actually employed in Lojban writing do not follow the guidelines expressed above, either because the places that are equivalent in the seltau and the tertau are in an unusual position, or because the seltau and tertau are related in a complex way, or both. An example of the first kind is
<jbophrase>jdaselsku</jbophrase>, meaning
<quote>prayer</quote>, which was mentioned in
<xref linkend="section-order-of-places"/>. The gismu places are:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qJEQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e14d1"/>
</title>
- <para>
- <jbophrase>lijda</jbophrase>: l1 is a religion with believers l2 and beliefs l3</para>
- <para>
- <jbophrase>cusku</jbophrase>: c1 expresses text c2 to audience c3 in medium c4</para>
+ <para>
+ <jbophrase>lijda</jbophrase>: l1 is a religion with believers l2 and beliefs l3</para>
+ <para>
+ <jbophrase>cusku</jbophrase>: c1 expresses text c2 to audience c3 in medium c4</para>
</example>
<para>and
<jbophrase>selsku</jbophrase>, the tertau of
<jbophrase>jdaselsku</jbophrase>, has the place structure</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qW3w">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e14d2"/>
</title>
- <para>s1 is a text expressed by s2 to audience s3 in medium s4</para>
+ <para>s1 is a text expressed by s2 to audience s3 in medium s4</para>
</example>
<para>Now it is easy to see that the l2 and s2 places are equivalent: the believer in the religion (l2) is the one who expresses the prayer (s2). This is not one of the cases for which a place ordering rule has been given in
<xref linkend="section-order-of-places"/> or
<xref linkend="section-implicit-abstraction"/>; therefore, for lack of a better rule, we put the tertau places first and the remaining seltau places after them, leading to the place structure:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-41dc">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e14d3"/>
</title>
- <para>s1 is a prayer expressed by s2=l2 to audience s3 in medium s4 pertaining to religion l1</para>
+ <para>s1 is a prayer expressed by s2=l2 to audience s3 in medium s4 pertaining to religion l1</para>
</example>
<para>The l3 place (the beliefs of the religion) is dependent on the l1 place (the religion) and so is omitted.</para>
<para>We could make this lujvo less messy by replacing it with
<jbophrase>se seljdasku</jbophrase>, where
<jbophrase>seljdasku</jbophrase> is a normal symmetrical lujvo with place structure:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-7Tdb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e14d4"/>
</title>
- <para>c1=l2 religiously expresses prayer c2 to audience c3 in medium s4 pertaining to religion l1</para>
+ <para>c1=l2 religiously expresses prayer c2 to audience c3 in medium s4 pertaining to religion l1</para>
</example>
<para>which, according to the rule expressed in
<xref linkend="section-seltau-SE"/>, can be further expressed as
<jbophrase>selseljdasku</jbophrase>. However, there is no need for the ugly
<jbophrase>selsel-</jbophrase> prefix just to get the rules right:
<jbophrase>jdaselsku</jbophrase> is a reasonable, if anomalous, lujvo.</para>
<para>However, there is a further problem with
<jbophrase>jdaselsku</jbophrase>, not resolvable by using
<jbophrase>seljdasku</jbophrase>. No veljvo involving just the two gismu
<jbophrase>lijda</jbophrase> and
@@ -1340,70 +1340,70 @@
<jbophrase>lanme</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>gerku</jbophrase> at all. Rather, the lujvo refers to a dog which controls sheep flocks, a
<jbophrase>terlanme jitro gerku</jbophrase>, the lujvo from which is
<jbophrase>terlantroge'u</jbophrase> with place structure:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-TW5Q">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e14d5"/>
</title>
- <para>g1=j1 is a dog that controls sheep flock l3=j2 made up of sheep l1 in activity j3 of dog breed g2</para>
+ <para>g1=j1 is a dog that controls sheep flock l3=j2 made up of sheep l1 in activity j3 of dog breed g2</para>
</example>
<para>based on the gismu place structures</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-CXeL">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e14d6"/>
</title>
- <para>
- <jbophrase>lanme</jbophrase>: l1 is a sheep of breed l2 belonging to flock l3</para>
- <para>
- <jbophrase>gerku</jbophrase>: g1 is a dog of breed g2</para>
- <para>
- <jbophrase>jitro</jbophrase>: j1 controls j2 in activity j3</para>
+ <para>
+ <jbophrase>lanme</jbophrase>: l1 is a sheep of breed l2 belonging to flock l3</para>
+ <para>
+ <jbophrase>gerku</jbophrase>: g1 is a dog of breed g2</para>
+ <para>
+ <jbophrase>jitro</jbophrase>: j1 controls j2 in activity j3</para>
</example>
<para>Note that this lujvo is symmetrical between
<jbophrase>lantro</jbophrase> (sheep-controller) and
<jbophrase>gerku</jbophrase>, but
<jbophrase>lantro</jbophrase> is itself an asymmetrical lujvo. The l2 place, the breed of sheep, is removed as dependent on l1. However, the lujvo
<jbophrase>lange'u</jbophrase> is both shorter than
<jbophrase>terlantroge'u</jbophrase> and sufficiently clear to warrant its use: its place structure, however, should be the same as that of the longer lujvo, for which
<jbophrase>lange'u</jbophrase> can be understood as an abbreviation.</para>
<para>Another example is
<jbophrase>xanmi'e</jbophrase>,
<quote>to command by hand, to beckon</quote>. The component place structures are:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-VjbP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e14d7"/>
</title>
- <para>
- <jbophrase>xance</jbophrase>: xa1 is the hand of xa2</para>
- <para>
- <jbophrase>minde</jbophrase>: m1 gives commands to m2 to cause m3 to happen</para>
-
+ <para>
+ <jbophrase>xance</jbophrase>: xa1 is the hand of xa2</para>
+ <para>
+ <jbophrase>minde</jbophrase>: m1 gives commands to m2 to cause m3 to happen</para>
+
</example>
<para>The relation between the seltau and tertau is close enough for there to be an overlap: xa2 (the person with the hand) is the same as m1 (the one who commands). But interpreting
<jbophrase>xanmi'e</jbophrase> as a symmetrical lujvo with an elided
<jbophrase>sel-</jbophrase> in the seltau, as if from
<jbophrase>se xance minde</jbophrase>, misses the point: the real relation expressed by the lujvo is not just
<quote>one who commands and has a hand</quote>, but
<quote>to command using the hand</quote>. The concept of
<quote>using</quote> suggests the gismu
<jbophrase>pilno</jbophrase>, with place structure</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-sqQN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e14d8"/>
</title>
- <para>p1 uses tool p2 for purpose p3</para>
+ <para>p1 uses tool p2 for purpose p3</para>
</example>
<para>Some possible three-part veljvo are (depending on how strictly you want to constrain the veljvo)</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qfe4" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e14d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>[ke] xance pilno [ke'e] minde</jbo>
<gloss>(hand user) type-of commander</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1456,34 +1456,34 @@
<jbophrase>zenba</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>jdika</jbophrase>, and
<jbophrase>traji</jbophrase>. In order to make these lujvo regular and easy to make, certain special guidelines are imposed.</para>
<para>We will begin with lujvo based on
<jbophrase>zmadu</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>mleca</jbophrase>, whose place structures are:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-mn8T">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e15d1"/>
</title>
- <para>
- <jbophrase>zmadu</jbophrase>: z1 is more than z2 in property z3 in quantity z4</para>
- <para>
- <jbophrase>mleca</jbophrase>: m1 is less than m2 in property m3 in quantity m4</para>
+ <para>
+ <jbophrase>zmadu</jbophrase>: z1 is more than z2 in property z3 in quantity z4</para>
+ <para>
+ <jbophrase>mleca</jbophrase>: m1 is less than m2 in property m3 in quantity m4</para>
</example>
<para>For example, the concept
<quote>young</quote> is expressed by the gismu
<jbophrase>citno</jbophrase>, with place structure</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-ciaK">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e15d2"/>
</title>
- <para>
- <jbophrase>citno</jbophrase>: c1 is young</para>
+ <para>
+ <jbophrase>citno</jbophrase>: c1 is young</para>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>younger</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo place order</primary><secondary>comparatives</secondary></indexterm> The comparative concept
<quote>younger</quote> can be expressed by the lujvo
<jbophrase>citmau</jbophrase> (based on the veljvo
<jbophrase>citno zmadu</jbophrase>, meaning
<quote>young more-than</quote>).</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-GDt1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e15d3"/>
@@ -1495,22 +1495,22 @@
<en>I am six years younger than you.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The place structure for
<jbophrase>citmau</jbophrase> is</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-I3Uh">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e15d4"/>
</title>
- <para>z1=c1 is younger than z2=c1 by amount z4</para>
-
+ <para>z1=c1 is younger than z2=c1 by amount z4</para>
+
</example>
<para>Similarly, in Lojban you can say:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-tJDa">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e15d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do citme'a mi lo nanca be li xa</jbo>
<gloss>You are-less-young-than me by-years the-number six.</gloss>
<en>You are six years less young than me.</en>
@@ -1539,30 +1539,30 @@
<quote>X goes to Y more than Z does</quote>,
<quote>X goes to Y from Z more than from W</quote>, or what?</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo place structure</primary><secondary>comparative lujvo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>comparative lujvo</primary><secondary>standardized meanings</secondary></indexterm> We answer this concern by putting regularity above any considerations of concept usefulness: by convention, the two things being compared always fit into the first place of the seltau. In that way, each of the different possible interpretations can be expressed by SE-converting the seltau, and making the required place the new first place. As a result, we get the following comparative lujvo place structures:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-eSTr">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e15d6"/>
</title>
- <para>
- <jbophrase>nelcymau</jbophrase>: z1, more than z2, likes n2 by amount z4</para>
- <para>
- <jbophrase>selnelcymau</jbophrase>: z1, more than z2, is liked by n1 in amount z4</para>
- <para>
- <jbophrase>klamau</jbophrase>: z1, more than z2, goes to k2 from k3 via k4 by means of k5</para>
- <para>
- <jbophrase>selklamau</jbophrase>: z1, more than z2, is gone to by k1 from k3 via k4 by means of k5</para>
- <para>
- <jbophrase>terklamau</jbophrase>: z1, more than z2, is an origin point from destination k2 for k1's going via k4 by means of k5</para>
+ <para>
+ <jbophrase>nelcymau</jbophrase>: z1, more than z2, likes n2 by amount z4</para>
+ <para>
+ <jbophrase>selnelcymau</jbophrase>: z1, more than z2, is liked by n1 in amount z4</para>
+ <para>
+ <jbophrase>klamau</jbophrase>: z1, more than z2, goes to k2 from k3 via k4 by means of k5</para>
+ <para>
+ <jbophrase>selklamau</jbophrase>: z1, more than z2, is gone to by k1 from k3 via k4 by means of k5</para>
+ <para>
+ <jbophrase>terklamau</jbophrase>: z1, more than z2, is an origin point from destination k2 for k1's going via k4 by means of k5</para>
</example>
<para>(See
<xref linkend="chapter-abstractions"/> for the way in which this problem is resolved when lujvo aren't used.)</para>
<para>The ordering rule places the things being compared first, and the other seltau places following. Unfortunately the z4 place, which expresses by how much one entity exceeds the other, is displaced into a lujvo place whose number is different for each lujvo. For example, while
<jbophrase>nelcymau</jbophrase> has z4 as its fourth place,
<jbophrase>klamau</jbophrase> has it as its sixth place. In any sentence where a difficulty arises, this amount-place can be redundantly tagged with
<jbophrase>vemau</jbophrase> (for
<jbophrase>zmadu</jbophrase>) or
<jbophrase>veme'a</jbophrase> (for
<jbophrase>mleca</jbophrase>) to help make the speaker's intention clear.</para>
@@ -1607,47 +1607,47 @@
<en>I increase in strength.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Finally, lujvo with a tertau of
<jbophrase>traji</jbophrase> are used to build superlatives. The place structure of
<jbophrase>traji</jbophrase> is</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-N3cU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e15d9"/>
</title>
- <para>t1 is superlative in property t2, being the t3 extremum (largest by default) of set t4</para>
+ <para>t1 is superlative in property t2, being the t3 extremum (largest by default) of set t4</para>
</example>
<para>Consider the gismu
<jbophrase>xamgu</jbophrase>, whose place structure is:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-MWdr">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e15d10"/>
</title>
- <para>xa1 is good for xa2 by standard xa3</para>
+ <para>xa1 is good for xa2 by standard xa3</para>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>better</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> The comparative form is
<jbophrase>xagmau</jbophrase>, corresponding to English
<quote>better</quote>, with a place structure (by the rules given above) of</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-pR5R">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e15d11"/>
</title>
- <para>z1 is better than z2 for xa2 by standard xa3 in amount z4</para>
+ <para>z1 is better than z2 for xa2 by standard xa3 in amount z4</para>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo place order</primary><secondary>superlatives</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo place structure</primary><secondary>superlatives</secondary></indexterm> We would expect the place structure of
<jbophrase>xagrai</jbophrase>, the superlative form, to somehow mirror that, given that comparatives and superlatives are comparable concepts, resulting in:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-Cc6J">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e15d12"/>
</title>
- <para>xa1=t1 is the best of the set t4 for xa2 by standard xa3.</para>
+ <para>xa1=t1 is the best of the set t4 for xa2 by standard xa3.</para>
</example>
<para>The t2 place in
<jbophrase>traji</jbophrase>, normally filled by a property abstraction, is replaced by the seltau places, and the t3 place specifying the extremum of
<jbophrase>traji</jbophrase> (whether the most or the least, that is) is presumed by default to be
<quote>the most</quote>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo place order</primary><secondary>superlatives as exceptions</secondary></indexterm> But the set against which the t1 place of
<jbophrase>traji</jbophrase> is compared is not the t2 place (which would make the place structure of
<jbophrase>traji</jbophrase> fully parallel to that of
@@ -1693,65 +1693,65 @@
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Regularity is a pressure which can also either increase or decrease places. If a gismu has a given place, then gismu which are semantically related to it are likely to have the place also.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
<para>Here are some examples of gismu place structures, with a discussion of the pressures operating on them:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-iu0B">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e16d1"/>
</title>
- <para>
- <jbophrase>xekri</jbophrase>: xe1 is black</para>
+ <para>
+ <jbophrase>xekri</jbophrase>: xe1 is black</para>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>color standards</primary></indexterm> Brevity was the most important goal here, reinforced by one interpretation of metaphysical necessity. There is no mention of color standards here, as many people have pointed out; like all color gismu,
<jbophrase>xekri</jbophrase> is explicitly subjective. Objective color standards can be brought in by an appropriate BAI tag such as
<jbophrase>ci'u</jbophrase> (
<quote>in system</quote>; see
<xref linkend="chapter-sumti-tcita"/>) or by making a lujvo.</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-cuYP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e16d2"/>
</title>
- <para>
- <jbophrase>jbena</jbophrase>: j1 is born to j2 at time j3 and location j4</para>
+ <para>
+ <jbophrase>jbena</jbophrase>: j1 is born to j2 at time j3 and location j4</para>
</example>
<para>The gismu
<jbophrase>jbena</jbophrase> contains places for time and location, which few other gismu have: normally, the time and place at which something is done is supplied by a tense tag (see
<xref linkend="chapter-tenses"/>). However, providing these places makes
<jbophrase>le te jbena</jbophrase> a simple term for
<quote>birthday</quote> and
<jbophrase>le ve jbena</jbophrase> for
<quote>birthplace</quote>, so these places were provided despite their lack of metaphysical necessity.</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-NTJn">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e16d3"/>
</title>
- <para>
- <jbophrase>rinka</jbophrase>: event r1 is the cause of event r2</para>
+ <para>
+ <jbophrase>rinka</jbophrase>: event r1 is the cause of event r2</para>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>melting</primary></indexterm> The place structure of
<jbophrase>rinka</jbophrase> does not have a place for the agent, the one who causes, as a result of the pressure toward metaphysical necessity. A cause-effect relationship does not have to include an agent: an event (such as snow melting in the mountains) may cause another event (such as the flooding of the Nile) without any human intervention or even knowledge.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>as suppliers of agent place</secondary></indexterm> Indeed, there is a general tendency to omit agent places from most gismu except for a few such as
<jbophrase>gasnu</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>zukte</jbophrase> which are then used as tertau in order to restore the agent place when needed: see
<xref linkend="section-implicit-abstraction"/>.</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-Atby">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e16d4"/>
</title>
- <para>
- <jbophrase>cinfo</jbophrase>: c1 is a lion of species/breed c2</para>
+ <para>
+ <jbophrase>cinfo</jbophrase>: c1 is a lion of species/breed c2</para>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>diversified species</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>general terms</primary></indexterm> The c2 place of
<jbophrase>cinfo</jbophrase> is provided as a result of the pressure toward regularity. All animal and plant gismu have such an x2 place; although there is in fact only one species of lion, and breeds of lion, though they exist, aren't all that important in talking about lions. The species/breed place must exist for such diversified species as dogs, and for general terms like
<jbophrase>cinki</jbophrase> (insect), and are provided for all other animals and plants as a matter of regularity.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>place order</secondary><tertiary>rationale</tertiary></indexterm> Less can be said about gismu place structure ordering, but some regularities are apparent. The places tend to appear in decreasing order of psychological saliency or importance. There is an implication within the place structure of
<jbophrase>klama</jbophrase>, for example, that
<jbophrase>lo klama</jbophrase> (the one going) will be talked about more often, and is thus more important, than
diff --git a/todocbook/14.xml b/todocbook/14.xml
index d6b5eda..94b24ac 100644
--- a/todocbook/14.xml
+++ b/todocbook/14.xml
@@ -207,27 +207,27 @@
<row>
<entry><phrase role="logical-vowel">U</phrase></entry>
<entry>TTFF</entry>
<entry>whether or not</entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</informaltable>
<para>More precisely:</para>
<simplelist>
- <member><phrase role="logical-vowel">A</phrase> is true if either or both sentences are true</member>
-
- <member><phrase role="logical-vowel">E</phrase> is true if both sentences are true, but not otherwise</member>
-
- <member><phrase role="logical-vowel">O</phrase> is true if the sentences are both true or both false</member>
-
- <member><phrase role="logical-vowel">U</phrase> is true if the first sentence is true, regardless of the truth value of the second sentence</member>
+ <member><phrase role="logical-vowel">A</phrase> is true if either or both sentences are true</member>
+
+ <member><phrase role="logical-vowel">E</phrase> is true if both sentences are true, but not otherwise</member>
+
+ <member><phrase role="logical-vowel">O</phrase> is true if the sentences are both true or both false</member>
+
+ <member><phrase role="logical-vowel">U</phrase> is true if the first sentence is true, regardless of the truth value of the second sentence</member>
</simplelist>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>truth functions</primary><secondary>creating all 16 with Lojban's basic set</secondary></indexterm> With the four vowels, the ability to negate either sentence, and the ability to exchange the sentences, as if their order had been reversed, we can create all of the 16 possible truth functions except TTTT and FFFF, which are fairly useless anyway. The following table illustrates how to create each of the 14 remaining truth functions:</para>
<informaltable>
<tgroup cols="2">
<colspec colnum="1" colname="col1"/>
<colspec colnum="2" colname="col2"/>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry>TTTF</entry><entry><phrase role="logical-vowel">A</phrase></entry>
</row>
@@ -279,22 +279,22 @@
</section>
<section xml:id="section-six-types">
<title>The six types of logical connectives</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connectives</primary><secondary>rationale for multiple sets in grammar</secondary></indexterm> In order to remain unambiguous, Lojban cannot have only a single logical connective for each truth function. There are many places in the grammar of the language where logical connection is permitted, and each must have its appropriate set of connectives. If the connective suitable for sumti were used to connect selbri, ambiguity would result.</para>
<para>Consider the English sentence:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-ptgf">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e3d1"/>
</title>
- <para>Mary went to the window and ...</para>
-
+ <para>Mary went to the window and ...</para>
+
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>window</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> where the last word could be followed by
<quote>the door</quote>, a noun phrase, or by
<quote>saw the horses</quote>, a sentence with subject omitted, or by
<quote>John went to the door</quote>, a full sentence, or by one of a variety of other English grammatical constructions. Lojban cannot tolerate such grammatical looseness.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GIhA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>A selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connectives</primary><secondary>selma'o</secondary><tertiary>enumerated</tertiary></indexterm> Instead, there are a total of five different selma'o used for logical connection: A, GA, GIhA, GUhA, and JA. Each of these includes four cmavo, one based on each of the four vowels, which is always the last vowel in the cmavo. In selma'o A, the vowel is the entire cmavo.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connectives</primary><secondary>cmavo</secondary><tertiary>format for each selma'o</tertiary></indexterm> Thus, in selma'o A, the cmavo for the function
<phrase role="logical-vowel">A</phrase> is
<jbophrase>a</jbophrase>. (Do not confuse A, which is a selma'o, with
<phrase role="logical-vowel">A</phrase>, which is a truth function, or
@@ -401,21 +401,21 @@
<gloss>John is a man if-and-only-if James is-not-a-woman</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The meaning of both
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qgKB"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qgLH"/> is the same as that of:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-1Kp9">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e4d7"/>
</title>
- <para>John is a man or James is a woman, but not both.</para>
+ <para>John is a man or James is a woman, but not both.</para>
</example>
<para>Here is another example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-FXSC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e4d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. nanmu .ijanai la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
<gloss>John is-a-man or James is-not-a-woman.</gloss>
<en>John is a man if James is a woman.</en>
@@ -479,21 +479,21 @@
<en>Whether or not John is a man, James is a woman.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>se</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>nai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>na</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>na</primary><secondary>order in logical connectives with se</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>se</primary><secondary>order in logical connectives with na</secondary></indexterm> If both
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>se</jbophrase> are present, which is legal but never necessary,
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase> would come before
<jbophrase>se</jbophrase>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>I selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ijeks</primary><secondary>syntax of</secondary></indexterm> The full syntax of ijeks, therefore, is:</para>
<xxx>
- .i [na] [se] JA [nai]
+ .i [na] [se] JA [nai]
</xxx>
<para>where the cmavo in brackets are optional.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-forethought-bridi-connection">
<title>Forethought bridi connection</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>forethought connectives</primary><secondary>contrasted with afterthought connectives</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>afterthought connectives</primary><secondary>contrasted with forethought connectives</secondary></indexterm> Many concepts in Lojban are expressible in two different ways, generally referred to as
<quote>afterthought</quote> and
<quote>forethought</quote>.
@@ -549,21 +549,21 @@
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qGLh" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e5d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ge la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
<en>(It is true that) both John is a man and James is a woman.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
-<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GU selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>gu</primary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GU selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>gu</primary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qgMN" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e5d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>gu la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
<en>It is true that John is a man, whether or not James is a woman.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>It is worth emphasizing that
@@ -605,21 +605,21 @@
<anchor xml:id="c14e5d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nu do cidja dunda fi le xarju cu rinka le nu ri ba banro</jbo>
<gloss>The event-of (you food-give to the pig) causes the event-of (it will grow).</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Causality is discussed in far more detail in
<xref linkend="chapter-sumti-tcita"/>.</para>
<para>
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-I2jU"/> and
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-I2jU"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Tiz6"/> illustrates a truth function, FTTF, which needs to negate either the first or the second bridi. We already understand how to negate the first bridi:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-I2jU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e5d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>gonai la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
<gloss>John is-not-a-man if-and-only-if James is-a-woman,</gloss>
<en>Either John is a man or James is a woman but not both.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -734,21 +734,21 @@
<anchor xml:id="c14e6d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ga la djan. gi la .alis. klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>Either John or Alice (or both) goes-to the market.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>A selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>se writing convention</primary><secondary>in eks</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>na writing convention</primary><secondary>in eks</secondary></indexterm> Of course, eks include all the same patterns of compound cmavo that ijeks do. When
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase> or
<jbophrase>se</jbophrase> is part of an ek, a special writing convention is invoked, as in the following example:</para>
-<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>A selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>na.a</primary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>A selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>na.a</primary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-caoY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e6d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. na.a la .alis. klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>John only if Alice goes-to the market.</gloss>
<en>John goes to the market only if Alice does.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -794,52 +794,52 @@
<anchor xml:id="c14e7d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi dotco .ijo mi ricfu .ijo mi nanmu</jbo>
<gloss>I am-German. If-and-only-if I am-rich. If-and-only-if I am-a-man.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>shows that
<xref linkend="example-random-id-3zE1"/> does not mean that either I am all three of these things or none of them; instead, an accurate translation would be:</para>
<place-structure>
- Of the three properties - German-ness, wealth, and manhood - I possess either exactly one or else all three.
+ Of the three properties - German-ness, wealth, and manhood - I possess either exactly one or else all three.
</place-structure>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>negation in connecting more than 2 sentences</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>of more than 2 sentences</secondary><tertiary>things to avoid</tertiary></indexterm> Because of the counterintuitiveness of this outcome, it is safest to avoid
<phrase role="logical-vowel">O</phrase> with more than two sentences. Likewise, the connectives which involve negation also have unexpected truth values when used with more than two sentences.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>of more than 2 sentences</secondary><tertiary>all or none</tertiary></indexterm> In fact, no combination of logical connectives can produce the
<quote>all or none</quote> interpretation intended (but not achieved) by
<xref linkend="example-random-id-3zE1"/> without repeating one of the bridi. See
<xref linkend="example-random-id-KyHw"/>.</para>
<para>There is an additional difficulty with the use of more than two sentences. What is the meaning of:</para>
-<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection of more than 2 sentences</primary><secondary>mixed "and" and "or"</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection of more than 2 sentences</primary><secondary>mixed "and" and "or"</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mLo1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e7d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci la djan. .ije mi nelci la martas. .ija mi nelci la meris.</jbo>
<en>I like John. And I like Martha. Or I like Mary.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Does this mean:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-BSuT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e7d5"/>
</title>
- <para>I like John, and I like either Martha or Mary or both.</para>
+ <para>I like John, and I like either Martha or Mary or both.</para>
</example>
<para>Or is the correct translation:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-dPcI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e7d6"/>
</title>
- <para>Either I like John and I like Martha, or I like Mary, or both.</para>
+ <para>Either I like John and I like Martha, or I like Mary, or both.</para>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>of more than 2 sentences</secondary><tertiary>forethought</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connectives</primary><secondary>pairing from left</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-dPcI"/> is the correct translation of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-mLo1"/>. The reason is that Lojban logical connectives pair off from the left, like many constructs in the language. This rule, called the left-grouping rule, is easy to forget, especially when intuition pulls the other way. Forethought connectives are not subject to this problem:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-487z">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e7d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ga ge mi nelci la djan. gi mi nelci la martas. gi mi nelci la meris.</jbo>
@@ -928,21 +928,21 @@
<jbophrase>tu'e</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>tu'u</jbophrase> are used with ijeks, and
<jbophrase>ke</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>ke'e</jbophrase> with eks and other connectives to be discussed later. (
<jbophrase>ke</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>ke'e</jbophrase> are also used in other roles in the language, but always as grouping markers). Consider the English sentence:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-aqIg">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e8d4"/>
</title>
- <para>I kiss you and you kiss me, if I love you and you love me.</para>
+ <para>I kiss you and you kiss me, if I love you and you love me.</para>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>bo</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>BO selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>complex logical connectives</primary><secondary>grouping with bo</secondary></indexterm> where the semantics tells us that the instances of
<quote>and</quote> are meant to have higher precedence than that of
<quote>if</quote>. If we wish to express
<xref linkend="example-random-id-aqIg"/> in afterthought, we can say:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1PSK">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e8d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -979,21 +979,21 @@
<jbo>mi cinba do .ije do cinba mi .ijanai tu'e mi prami do .ije do prami mi [tu'u]</jbo>
<gloss>I kiss you and you kiss me if ( I love you and you love me ).</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>What about parenthesized sumti connection? Consider</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-y9CC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e8d8"/>
</title>
- <para>I walk to either the market and the house, or the school and the office.</para>
+ <para>I walk to either the market and the house, or the school and the office.</para>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>KE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ke</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>beginning with "ke"</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>of sumti</secondary><tertiary>restriction on ke</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>of sumti</secondary><tertiary>grouping with parentheses</tertiary></indexterm> Two pairs of parentheses, analogous to
<xref linkend="example-random-id-erTb"/>, would seem to be the right approach. However, it is a rule of Lojban grammar that a sumti may not begin with
<jbophrase>ke</jbophrase>, so the first set of parentheses must be omitted, producing
<xref linkend="example-random-id-0mJM"/>, which is instead parallel to
<xref linkend="example-random-id-QGBz"/>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-0mJM">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e8d9"/>
</title>
@@ -1222,21 +1222,21 @@
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1asY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e10d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi dejni lo rupnu la djan. .inaja mi dunda le cukta la djan. .ijabo mi lebna le cukta la djan.</jbo>
<gloss>[If] I owe some currency-units to John, then I give the book to John or I take the book from John.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is equivalent in meaning to:</para>
-<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>owe money</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>owe money</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-901t">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e10d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi dejni lo rupnu nagi'a dunda gi'abo lebna vau le cukta vau la djan.</jbo>
<gloss>[If] I owe some currency-units then (give or take) a book to/from John.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The literal English translation in
@@ -1333,35 +1333,35 @@
<section xml:id="section-termsets">
<title>Termset logical connection</title>
<para>So far we have seen sentences that differ in all components, and require bridi connection; sentences that differ in one sumti only, and permit sumti connection; and sentences that differ in the selbri and possibly one or more sumti, and permit bridi-tail connection. Termset logical connectives are employed for sentences that differ in more than one sumti but not in the selbri, such as:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-G02C">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e11d1"/>
</title>
- <para>I go to the market from the office and to the house from the school.</para>
-
+ <para>I go to the market from the office and to the house from the school.</para>
+
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>PEhE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>pe'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>CEhE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ce'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>termsets</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>termset</primary><secondary>formation</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>term</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> The Lojban version of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-G02C"/> requires two termsets joined by a logical connective. A
<quote>term</quote> is either a sumti or a sumti preceded by a tense or modal tag such as
<jbophrase>pu</jbophrase> or
<jbophrase>bai</jbophrase>. Afterthought termsets are formed by linking terms together by inserting the cmavo
<jbophrase>ce'e</jbophrase> (of selma'o CEhE) between each of them. Furthermore, the logical connective (which is a jek) must be prefixed by the cmavo
<jbophrase>pe'e</jbophrase> (of selma'o PEhE). (We could refer to the combination of
<jbophrase>pe'e</jbophrase> and a jek as a
<quote>pehejek</quote>, I suppose.)</para>
-<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>to the market from the office</primary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>to the market from the office</primary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-UVPj">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e11d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci ce'e le briju pe'e je le zdani ce'e le ckule</jbo>
<gloss>I go to-the market [plus] from-the office [joint] and to-the house [plus] from-the school.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The literal translation uses
@@ -1470,21 +1470,21 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>blue house</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>unconnected tanru</primary><secondary>contrasted with logically connected version</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>in tanru</secondary><tertiary>contrasted with unconnected version</tertiary></indexterm> But of course
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qGoH"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qgoW"/> are not necessarily equivalent in meaning! It is the most elementary point about Lojban tanru that
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qGoH"/> might just as well mean</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-DxVB">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e12d3"/>
</title>
- <para>This is a house for blue inhabitants.</para>
+ <para>This is a house for blue inhabitants.</para>
</example>
<para>and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qgoW"/> certainly is not equivalent in meaning to
<xref linkend="example-random-id-DxVB"/>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>in tanru</secondary><tertiary>expandability of</tertiary></indexterm> A full explanation of logical connection within tanru belongs rather to a discussion of selbri structure than to logical connectives in general. Why? Because although
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qgoW"/> happens to mean the same as</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-XXX6">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e12d4"/>
</title>
@@ -1506,25 +1506,25 @@
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-DG5K">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e12d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .alis. cu blanu je zdani prenu</jbo>
<gloss>Alice is-a ( blue and house ) type-of-person.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
-<indexterm type="general">
- <primary>tanru grouping</primary>
- <secondary>effect of jeks</secondary>
-</indexterm>
- would be true, because tanru grouping with a jek has higher precedence than unmarked tanru grouping, but:</para>
+ <indexterm type="general">
+ <primary>tanru grouping</primary>
+ <secondary>effect of jeks</secondary>
+ </indexterm>
+ would be true, because tanru grouping with a jek has higher precedence than unmarked tanru grouping, but:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-eh2i">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e12d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .alis. cu blanu prenu .ije la .alis. cu zdani prenu</jbo>
<gloss>Alice is-a blue person, and Alice is-a house person.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is probably false, because the blueness is associated with the house, not with Alice, even leaving aside the question of what it means to say
@@ -1537,61 +1537,61 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e12d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la teris. cu ricfu je nakni jabo fetsi</jbo>
<en>Terry is rich and ( male or female ).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>KE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ke</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>in tanru</secondary><tertiary>grouping with ke</tertiary></indexterm>
- The components of tanru may be grouped with
+ The components of tanru may be grouped with
<jbophrase>ke</jbophrase> both before and after a logical connective:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-JdID">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e12d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .teris. cu [ke] ricfu ja pindi [ke'e] je ke nakni ja fetsi [ke'e]</jbo>
<en>Terry is (rich or poor) and (male or female).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where the first
<jbophrase>ke ... ke'e</jbophrase> pair may be omitted altogether by the rule of left-grouping, but is optionally permitted. In any case, the last instance of
<jbophrase>ke'e</jbophrase> may be elided.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>nai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>se</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>na</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>jeks</primary><secondary>syntax of</secondary></indexterm> The syntax of jeks is:</para>
<compound-syntax>
- [na] [se] JA [nai]
+ [na] [se] JA [nai]
</compound-syntax>
<para>parallel to eks and giheks.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GUhA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>guhek</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>forethought tanru connection</primary></indexterm> Forethought tanru connection does not use geks, but uses guheks instead. Guheks have exactly the same form as geks:</para>
-<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GUhA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>nai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>se</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>guheks</primary><secondary>syntax of</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GUhA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>nai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>se</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>guheks</primary><secondary>syntax of</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<compound-syntax>
- [se] GUhA [nai]
+ [se] GUhA [nai]
</compound-syntax>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>of tanru as opposed to bridi-tail</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>of bridi-tail as opposed to tanru</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>guheks for tanru connection</primary><secondary>rationale</secondary></indexterm> Using guheks in tanru connection (rather than geks) resolves what would otherwise be an unacceptable ambiguity between bridi-tail and tanru connection:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mjog">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e12d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .alis. gu'e ricfu gi fetsi</jbo>
<en>Alice is both rich and female.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GUhA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru connection grouping</primary><secondary>guheks unmarked tanru</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru grouping</primary><secondary>guheks compared with jeks</secondary></indexterm>
- Note that giks are used with guheks in exactly the same way they are used with geks. Like jeks, guheks bind more closely than unmarked tanru grouping does:</para>
+ Note that giks are used with guheks in exactly the same way they are used with geks. Like jeks, guheks bind more closely than unmarked tanru grouping does:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Gyrc">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e12d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .alis. gu'e blanu gi zdani prenu</jbo>
<gloss>Alice is-a-(both blue and a-house) type-of-person.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1612,21 +1612,21 @@
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-qf3n">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e12d13"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska pa nanmu .e pa ninmu</jbo>
<en>I see a man and a woman.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>there is a great temptation to reduce further to:</para>
-<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>man-woman</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>man-woman</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ag8r">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e12d14"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska pa nanmu je ninmu</jbo>
<en>I see a man and woman.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>But
@@ -1640,39 +1640,39 @@
<para>So far we have addressed only sentences which are statements. Lojban, like all human languages, needs also to deal with sentences which are questions. There are many ways of asking questions in Lojban, but some of these (like questions about quantity, tense, and emotion) are discussed in other chapters.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>truth questions</primary><secondary>simple</secondary></indexterm> The simplest kind of question is of the type
<quote>Is it true that ...</quote> where some statement follows. This type is called a
<quote>truth question</quote>, and can be represented in English by
<xref linkend="example-random-id-bMjE"/>:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-bMjE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d1"/>
</title>
- <para>Is it true that Fido is a dog?</para>
- <para>Is Fido a dog?</para>
+ <para>Is it true that Fido is a dog?</para>
+ <para>Is Fido a dog?</para>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>UI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>xu</primary></indexterm> Note the two formulations. English truth questions can always be formed by prefixing
<quote>Is is true that</quote> to the beginning of a statement; there is also usually a more idiomatic way involving putting the verb before its subject.
<quote>Is Fido a dog?</quote> is the truth question corresponding to
<quote>Fido is a dog</quote>. In Lojban, the equivalent mechanism is to prefix the cmavo
<jbophrase>xu</jbophrase> (of selma'o UI) to the statement:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gKaM">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xu la faidon. gerku</jbo>
<gloss>Is-it-true-that Fido is-a-dog?</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-bMjE"/> and
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-bMjE"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-gKaM"/> are equivalent in meaning.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>truth questions</primary><secondary>answering "no"</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>truth questions</primary><secondary>answering "yes"</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>truth questions</primary><secondary>as yes-or-no questions</secondary></indexterm> A truth question can be answered
<quote>yes</quote> or
<jbophrase>no</jbophrase>, depending on the truth or falsity, respectively, of the underlying statement. The standard way of saying
<quote>yes</quote> in Lojban is
<jbophrase>go'i</jbophrase> and of saying
<jbophrase>no</jbophrase> is
<jbophrase>nago'i</jbophrase>. (The reasons for this rule are explained in
<xref linkend="chapter-anaphoric-cmavo"/>.) In answer to
@@ -1691,34 +1691,34 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>nago'i</jbo>
<en>Fido is not a dog.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>truth questions</primary><secondary>contrasted with connection questions</secondary></indexterm> Some English questions seemingly have the same form as the truth questions so far discussed. Consider</para>
-<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>dog or cat</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>dog or cat</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-mftC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d5"/>
</title>
- <para>Is Fido a dog or a cat?</para>
+ <para>Is Fido a dog or a cat?</para>
</example>
<para>Superficially,
<xref linkend="example-random-id-mftC"/> seems like a truth question with the underlying statement:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-n6Ec">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d6"/>
</title>
- <para>Fido is a dog or a cat.</para>
+ <para>Fido is a dog or a cat.</para>
</example>
<para>By translating
<xref linkend="example-random-id-n6Ec"/> into Lojban and prefixing
<jbophrase>xu</jbophrase> to signal a truth question, we get:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hz4S">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xu la faidon. gerku gi'onai mlatu</jbo>
@@ -1911,49 +1911,49 @@
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>and</primary><secondary>as non-logical connective</secondary></indexterm> Way back in
<xref linkend="section-introduction"/>, the point was made that not every use of English
<quote>and</quote>,
<quote>if ... then</quote>, and so on represents a Lojban logical connective. In particular, consider the
<quote>and</quote> of:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-x6JW">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d1"/>
</title>
- <para>John and Alice carried the piano.</para>
+ <para>John and Alice carried the piano.</para>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>carried piano</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mass</primary><secondary>joining elements into a</secondary></indexterm> Given the nature of pianos, this probably means that John carried one end and Alice the other. So it is not true that:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-58yv">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d2"/>
</title>
- <para>John carried the piano, and Alice carried the piano.</para>
+ <para>John carried the piano, and Alice carried the piano.</para>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JOI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>joi</primary></indexterm> which would mean that each of them carried the piano by himself/herself. Lojban deals with this particular linguistic phenomenon as a
<quote>mass</quote>. John and Alice are joined together into a mass, John-and-Alice, and it is this mass which carried the piano, not either of them separately. The cmavo
<jbophrase>joi</jbophrase> (of selma'o JOI) is used to join two or more components into a mass:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pC5x">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. joi la .alis. cu bevri le pipno</jbo>
<gloss>John massed-with Alice carry the piano.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>components contrasted with mass</primary><secondary>in properties of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mass contrasted with components</primary><secondary>in properties of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>supervising</primary><secondary>as a contribution to mass action</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-pC5x"/> covers the case mentioned, where John and Alice divide the labor; it also could mean that John did all the hauling and Alice did the supervising. This possibility arises because the properties of a mass are the properties of its components, which can lead to apparent contradictions: if John is small and Alice is large, then John-and-Alice is both small and large. Masses are also discussed in
<xref linkend="chapter-sumti"/>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>A selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JOI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-logical connection</primary><secondary>in tanru</secondary><tertiary>distinguishing from connection of sumti</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-logical connection</primary><secondary>of sumti</secondary><tertiary>distinguishing from connection in tanru</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>joi grammar</primary><secondary>contrasted with jeks</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>joi grammar</primary><secondary>contrasted with eks</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-logical connection</primary><secondary>and elidability of terminators</secondary></indexterm> Grammatically,
<jbophrase>joi</jbophrase> can appear between two sumti (like an ek) or between two tanru components (like a jek). This flexibility must be paid for in the form of occasional terminators that cannot be elided:</para>
-<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>LE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>KU selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>le</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ku</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>terminators</primary><secondary>eliding ku in non-logical connections</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>LE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>KU selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>le</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ku</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>terminators</primary><secondary>eliding ku in non-logical connections</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-NN93">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu ku joi le ninmu [ku] cu klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>The man massed-with the woman go-to the market.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The cmavo
@@ -2283,21 +2283,21 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>asserts that there is a set of two items each of which is a mass.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>termsets</primary><secondary>non-logical connection of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-logical connection</primary><secondary>of termsets</secondary></indexterm> Non-logical connection is permitted at the joint of a termset; this is useful for associating more than one sumti or tagged sumti with each side of the non-logical connection. The place structure of
<jbophrase>casnu</jbophrase> is:</para>
<place-structure>
casnu: the mass x1 discusses/talks about x2
</place-structure>
<para>so the x1 place must be occupied by a mass (for reasons not explained here); however, different components of the mass may discuss in different languages. To associate each participant with his or her language, we can say:</para>
-<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>discuss in language</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>discuss in language</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sdba">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e15d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ce'e bau la lojban. pe'e joi do ce'e bau la gliban. nu'u casnu</jbo>
<gloss>( I [plus] in-language Lojban massed-with you [plus] in-language English ) discuss.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -2443,38 +2443,38 @@
<gloss>I walk simultaneous-with First-hour [ordered-interval] Second-hour.</gloss>
<en>I walk from one o'clock to two o'clock.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>bi'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>from one to two o'clock</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-logical connectives</primary><secondary>ordered intervals</secondary></indexterm> In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-rYv4"/>, on the other hand, it is essential that
<jbophrase>la pacac.</jbophrase> comes before
<jbophrase>la recac.</jbophrase>; otherwise we have an 11-hour (or 23-hour) interval rather than a one-hour interval. In this use of an interval, the whole interval is probably intended, or at least most of it.</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-rYv4"/> is equivalent to:</para>
-<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>sebi'o</primary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>sebi'o</primary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-qqIr">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e16d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cadzu ca la recac. sebi'o la pacac.</jbo>
<gloss>I walk simultaneous-with Second-hour [reverse] [ordered] First-hour.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>English cannot readily express
<jbophrase>sebi'o</jbophrase>, but its meaning can be understood by reversing the two sumti.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>mi'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>intervals</primary><secondary>expressed as center and distance</secondary></indexterm> The third cmavo of selma'o BIhI, namely
<jbophrase>mi'i</jbophrase>, expresses an interval seen from a different viewpoint: not a pair of endpoints, but a center point and a distance. For example:</para>
-<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>bomb destroyed fifty miles</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>bomb destroyed fifty miles</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-wm5E">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e16d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le jbama pu daspo la .uacintyn. mi'i lo minli be li muno</jbo>
<gloss>The bomb [past] destroys Washington [center] what-is measured-in-miles by 50.</gloss>
<en>The bomb destroyed Washington and fifty miles around.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -2533,58 +2533,58 @@
<jbophrase>ga'o</jbophrase> is derived from
<jbophrase>ganlo</jbophrase>, which means
<quote>closed</quote>, and
<jbophrase>ke'i</jbophrase> from
<jbophrase>kalri</jbophrase>, which means
<quote>open</quote>. In mathematics, inclusive intervals are referred to as closed intervals, and exclusive intervals as open ones.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>BIhI selma'o</primary><secondary>grammar of</secondary></indexterm> BIhI joiks are grammatical anywhere that other joiks are, including in tanru connection and (as ijoiks) between sentences. No meanings have been found for these uses.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>intervals</primary><secondary>effect of nai on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>nai</primary><secondary>effect on intervals</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>negated intervals</primary><secondary>meaning of</secondary></indexterm> Negated intervals, marked with a
<jbophrase>-nai</jbophrase> following the BIhI cmavo, indicate an interval that includes everything but what is between the endpoints (with respect to some understood scale):</para>
-<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>except from 10 to 12</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>except from 10 to 12</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-39EI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e16d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do dicra .e'a mi ca la daucac. bi'onai la gaicac.</jbo>
<gloss>You disturb (allowed) me at 10 not-from ... to 12</gloss>
<en>You can contact me except from 10 to 12.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The complete syntax of joiks is:</para>
-<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GAhO selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>BIhI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JOI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>nai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>se</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>joiks</primary><secondary>syntax of</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GAhO selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>BIhI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JOI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>nai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>se</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>joiks</primary><secondary>syntax of</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<compound-syntax>
- [se] JOI [nai] [se] BIhI [nai] GAhO [se] BIhI [nai] GAhO
+ [se] JOI [nai] [se] BIhI [nai] GAhO [se] BIhI [nai] GAhO
</compound-syntax>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JOI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>gi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>joigik</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>intervals</primary><secondary>forethought</secondary></indexterm> Notice that the colloquial English translations of
<jbophrase>bi'i</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>bi'o</jbophrase> have forethought form:
<quote>between ... and</quote> for
<jbophrase>bi'i</jbophrase>, and
<quote>from ... to</quote> for
<jbophrase>bi'o</jbophrase>. In Lojban too, non-logical connectives can be expressed in forethought. Rather than using a separate selma'o, the forethought logical connectives are constructed from the afterthought ones by suffixing
<jbophrase>gi</jbophrase>. Such a compound cmavo is not unnaturally called a
<jbophrase>joigik</jbophrase>; the syntax of joigiks is any of:</para>
-<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GAhO selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JOI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>BIhI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>nai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>se</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>joigiks</primary><secondary>syntax of</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GAhO selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JOI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>BIhI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>nai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>se</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>joigiks</primary><secondary>syntax of</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<compound-syntax>
- [se] JOI [nai] GI [se] BIhI [nai] GI GAhO [se] BIhI [nai] GAhO GI
+ [se] JOI [nai] GI [se] BIhI [nai] GI GAhO [se] BIhI [nai] GAhO GI
</compound-syntax>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>joigiks</primary><secondary>connection types</secondary></indexterm> Joigiks may be used to non-logically connect bridi, sumti, and bridi-tails; and also in termsets.</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-pC5x"/> in forethought becomes:</para>
-<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>carry the piano</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>carry the piano</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-iBpP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e16d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>joigi la djan. gi la .alis. bevri le pipno</jbo>
<gloss>[Together] John and Alice carry the piano.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -2697,22 +2697,22 @@
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-8rEL">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e17d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xy. boi xi vei by. ce'o dy. [ve'o]</jbo>
<gloss>
- <quote>x</quote> sub (
- <quote>b</quote> sequence
+ <quote>x</quote> sub (
+ <quote>b</quote> sequence
<quote>d</quote>)</gloss>
<en><inlineequation><mathphrase>x<subscript>b,d</subscript></mathphrase></inlineequation></en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>boi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>x{b</primary><secondary>d}</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm> Note that the
<jbophrase>boi</jbophrase> in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-8rEL"/> is not elidable, because the
<jbophrase>xi</jbophrase> subscript needs something to attach to.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-sumtcita">
@@ -2741,68 +2741,68 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e18d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .artr. pu je ba nolraitru</jbo>
<gloss>Arthur [past] and [future] is-a-noblest-governor.</gloss>
<en>Arthur was and will be king.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-g6iT"/> and
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-g6iT"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-PLgw"/> are equivalent in meaning; neither says anything about whether Arthur is king now.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-logically connected tenses</primary></indexterm> Non-logical connection with joiks is also possible between tenses:</para>
-<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>breathe</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>breathe</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Mcsi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e18d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu bi'o ba vasxu</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] from ... to [future] breathe.</gloss>
<en>I breathe from a past time until a future time.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The full tense system makes more interesting tense intervals expressible, such as
<quote>from a medium time ago until a long time from now</quote>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tenses</primary><secondary>grouping of connectives in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>grouping</primary><secondary>of connection in tenses</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tenses</primary><secondary>forethought connection in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>forethought connection</primary><secondary>in tenses</secondary></indexterm> No forethought connections between tenses are permitted by the grammar, nor is there any way to override the default left-grouping rule; these limitations are imposed to keep the tense grammar simpler. Whatever can be said with tenses or modals can be said with subordinate bridi stating the time, place, or mode explicitly, so it is reasonable to try to remove at least some complications.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tensed logical connection</primary></indexterm> Tensed logical connections are both more complex and more important than logical connections between tenses. Consider the English sentence:</para>
-<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>went and bought</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>went and bought</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-efav">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e18d4"/>
</title>
- <para>I went to the market, and I bought food.</para>
+ <para>I went to the market, and I bought food.</para>
</example>
<para>The verbatim translation of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-efav"/>, namely:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PMTu">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e18d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu klama le zarci .ije mi pu tervecnu lo cidja</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] go-to the market. And I [past] buy items-of food.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>fails to fully represent a feature of the English, namely that the buying came after the going. (It also fails to represent that the buying was a consequence of the going, which can be expressed by a modal that is discussed in
<xref linkend="chapter-sumti-tcita"/>.) However, the tense information - that the event of my going to the market preceded the event of my buying food - can be added to the logical connective as follows. The
<jbophrase>.ije</jbophrase> is replaced by
<jbophrase>.ijebo</jbophrase>, and the tense cmavo
<jbophrase>ba</jbophrase> is inserted between
<jbophrase>.ije</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>bo</jbophrase>:</para>
-<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ba</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>.ijebabo</primary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ba</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>.ijebabo</primary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-BPG1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e18d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu klama le zarci .ijebabo mi pu tervecnu lo cidja</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] go-to the market. And [later] I [past] buy items-of food.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
diff --git a/todocbook/15.xml b/todocbook/15.xml
index 9c988b4..b724d07 100644
--- a/todocbook/15.xml
+++ b/todocbook/15.xml
@@ -8,125 +8,125 @@
<quote>not</quote> with different grammatical effect must be different words, and even different grammatical structures.</para>
<para>Logical assertions are implicitly required in a logical language; thus, an apparatus for expressing them is built into Lojban's logical connectives and other structures.</para>
<para>In natural languages, especially those of Indo-European grammar, we have sentences composed of two parts which are typically called
<quote>subject</quote> and
<quote>predicate</quote>. In the statement</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-vrXe">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e1d1"/>
</title>
- <para>John goes to the store</para>
+ <para>John goes to the store</para>
</example>
<para>
- <quote>John</quote> is the subject, and
- <quote>goes to the store</quote> is the predicate. Negating
+ <quote>John</quote> is the subject, and
+ <quote>goes to the store</quote> is the predicate. Negating
<xref linkend="example-random-id-vrXe"/> to produce</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-gm3I">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e1d2"/>
</title>
- <para>John doesn't go to the store.</para>
+ <para>John doesn't go to the store.</para>
</example>
<para>has the effect of declaring that the predicate does not hold for the subject.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-gm3I"/> says nothing about whether John goes somewhere else, or whether someone else besides John goes to the store.</para>
<para>We will call this kind of negation
<quote>natural language negation</quote>. This kind of negation is difficult to manipulate by the tools of logic, because it doesn't always follow the rules of logic. Logical negation is bi-polar: either a statement is true, or it is false. If a statement is false, then its negation must be true. Such negation is termed contradictory negation.</para>
<para>Let's look at some examples of how natural language negation can violate the rules of contradictory negation.</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qGWR">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e1d3"/>
</title>
- <para>Some animals are not white.</para>
+ <para>Some animals are not white.</para>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qgXI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e1d4"/>
</title>
- <para>Some animals are white.</para>
+ <para>Some animals are white.</para>
</example>
<para>Both of these statements are true; yet one is apparently the negation of the other. Another example:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qgxL">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e1d5"/>
</title>
- <para>I mustn't go to the dance.</para>
+ <para>I mustn't go to the dance.</para>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qGXL">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e1d6"/>
</title>
- <para>I must go to the dance.</para>
+ <para>I must go to the dance.</para>
</example>
<para>At first thought,
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qgxL"/> negates
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qGXL"/>. Thinking further, we realize that there is an intermediate state wherein I am permitted to go to the dance, but not obligated to do so. Thus, it is possible that both statements are false.</para>
<para>Sometimes order is significant:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qgyb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e1d7"/>
</title>
- <para>The falling rock didn't kill Sam.</para>
+ <para>The falling rock didn't kill Sam.</para>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qGYX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e1d8"/>
</title>
- <para>Sam wasn't killed by the falling rock.</para>
+ <para>Sam wasn't killed by the falling rock.</para>
</example>
<para>Our minds play tricks on us with this one. Because
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qgyb"/> is written in what is called the
<quote>active voice</quote>, we immediately get confused about whether
<quote>the falling rock</quote> is a suitable subject for the predicate
<quote>did kill Sam</quote>.
<quote>Kill</quote> implies volition to us, and rocks do not have volition. This confusion is employed by opponents of gun control who use the argument
<quote>Guns don't kill people; people kill people.</quote></para>
<para>Somehow, we don't have the same problem with
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qGYX"/>. The subject is Sam, and we determine the truth or falsity of the statement by whether he was or wasn't killed by the falling rock.</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qGYX"/> also helps us focus on the fact that there are at least two questionable facts implicit in this sentence: whether Sam was killed, and if so, whether the falling rock killed him. If Sam wasn't killed, the question of what killed him is moot.</para>
<para>This type of problem becomes more evident when the subject of the sentence turns out not to exist:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qgzq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e1d9"/>
</title>
- <para>The King of Mexico didn't come to dinner.</para>
+ <para>The King of Mexico didn't come to dinner.</para>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qgzv">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e1d10"/>
</title>
- <para>The King of Mexico did come to dinner.</para>
+ <para>The King of Mexico did come to dinner.</para>
</example>
<para>In the natural languages, we would be inclined to say that both of these statements are false, since there is no King of Mexico.</para>
<para>The rest of this chapter is designed to explain the Lojban model of negation.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-bridi-negation">
<title>bridi negation</title>
<para>In discussing Lojban negation, we will call the form of logical negation that simply denies the truth of a statement
<quote>bridi negation</quote>. Using bridi negation, we can say the equivalent of
<quote>I haven't stopped beating my wife</quote> without implying that I ever started, nor even that I have a wife, meaning simply
<quote>It isn't true that I have stopped beating my wife.</quote> Since Lojban uses bridi as smaller components of complex sentences, bridi negation is permitted in these components as well at the sentence level.</para>
<para>For the bridi negation of a sentence to be true, the sentence being negated must be false. A major use of bridi negation is in making a negative response to a yes/no question; such responses are usually contradictory, denying the truth of the entire sentence. A negative answer to</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-sCNE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d1"/>
</title>
- <para>Did you go to the store?</para>
+ <para>Did you go to the store?</para>
</example>
<para>is taken as a negation of the entire sentence, equivalent to</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-vFYC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d2"/>
</title>
- <para>No, I didn't go to the store.</para>
+ <para>No, I didn't go to the store.</para>
</example>
<para>The most important rule about bridi negation is that if a bridi is true, its negation is false, and vice versa.</para>
<para>The simplest way to express a bridi negation is to use the cmavo
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase> of selma'o NA before the selbri of the affirmative form of the bridi (but after the
<jbophrase>cu</jbophrase>, if there is one):</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7nrv">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -277,21 +277,21 @@
<para>mean the same thing with
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase> before the
<jbophrase>ta'e</jbophrase>, as when the negation occurs afterwards; we'll let future, Lojban-speaking, logicians decide on how they relate to each other.</para>
<para>A final caution on translating English negations into Lojban: if you translate the English literally, you'll get the wrong one. With English causal statements, and other statements with auxiliary clauses, this problem is more likely.</para>
<para>Thus, if you translate the English:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-hEa7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d14"/>
</title>
- <para>I do not go to the market because the car is broken.</para>
+ <para>I do not go to the market because the car is broken.</para>
</example>
<para>as:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-q8su">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d15"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na klama le zarci ki'u lenu le karce cu spofu</jbo>
<gloss>I [false] go-to the market because the car is broken.</gloss>
@@ -314,21 +314,21 @@
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-R3GU"/>, the negation is clearly confined to the event abstraction in the x1 sumti, and does not extend to the whole sentence. The English could also have been expressed by two separate sentences joined by a causal connective (which we'll not go into here).</para>
<para>The problem is not confined to obvious causals. In the English:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-MGvB">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d17"/>
</title>
- <para>I was not conscripted into the Army with the help of my uncle the Senator.</para>
+ <para>I was not conscripted into the Army with the help of my uncle the Senator.</para>
</example>
<para>we do not intend the uncle's help to be part of the negation. We must thus move the negation into an event clause or use two separate sentences. The event-clause version would look like:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-NILi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d18"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<gloss>The event-of (my [false] being-conscripted-into the Army) was aided by my uncle the Senator.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -337,141 +337,141 @@
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase>. However, before using this rafsi, make sure that you intend the contradictory bridi negation, and not the scalar negation described in
<xref linkend="section-scalar-negation"/>, which will be much more common in tanru and lujvo.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-scalar-negation">
<title>Scalar Negation</title>
<para>Let us now consider some other types of negation. For example, when we say:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-GJga">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e3d1"/>
</title>
- <para>The chair is not brown.</para>
+ <para>The chair is not brown.</para>
</example>
<para>we make a positive inference - that the chair is some other color. Thus, it is legitimate to respond:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-DDN8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e3d2"/>
</title>
- <para>It is green.</para>
+ <para>It is green.</para>
</example>
<para>Whether we agree that the chair is brown or not, the fact that the statement refers to color has significant effect on how we interpret some responses. If we hear the following exchange:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-muQB">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e3d3"/>
</title>
- <para>The chair is not brown.</para>
- <para>Correct. The chair is wooden.</para>
+ <para>The chair is not brown.</para>
+ <para>Correct. The chair is wooden.</para>
</example>
<para>we immediately start to wonder about the unusual wood that isn't brown. If we hear the exchange:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-MxWM">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e3d4"/>
</title>
- <para>Is the chair green?</para>
- <para>No, it is in the kitchen.</para>
+ <para>Is the chair green?</para>
+ <para>No, it is in the kitchen.</para>
</example>
<para>we are unsettled because the response seems to be a non-sequitur. But since it might be true and it is a statement about the chair, one can't say it is entirely irrelevant!</para>
<para>What is going on in these statements is something called
<quote>scalar negation</quote>. As the name suggests, scalar negation presumes an implied scale. A negation of this type not only states that one scalar value is false, but implies that another value on the scale must be true. This can easily lead to complications. The following exchange seems reasonably natural (a little suspension of disbelief in such inane conversation will help):</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-s5DJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e3d5"/>
</title>
- <para>That isn't a blue house.</para>
- <para>Right! That is a green house.</para>
+ <para>That isn't a blue house.</para>
+ <para>Right! That is a green house.</para>
</example>
<para>We have acknowledged a scalar negation by providing a correct value which is another color in the set of colors permissible for houses. While a little less likely, the following exchange is also natural:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-M472">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e3d6"/>
</title>
- <para>That isn't a blue house.</para>
- <para>Right! That is a blue car.</para>
+ <para>That isn't a blue house.</para>
+ <para>Right! That is a blue car.</para>
</example>
<para>Again, we have acknowledged a scalar negation, and substituted a different object in the universe of discourse of things that can be blue.</para>
<para>Now, if the following exchange occurs:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-sq36">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e3d7"/>
</title>
- <para>That isn't a blue house.</para>
- <para>Right! That is a green car.</para>
+ <para>That isn't a blue house.</para>
+ <para>Right! That is a green car.</para>
</example>
<para>we find the result unsettling. This is because it seems that two corrections have been applied when there is only one negation. Yet out of context,
<quote>blue house</quote> and
<quote>green car</quote> seem to be reasonably equivalent units that should be mutually replaceable in a sentence. It's just that we don't have a clear way in English to say:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-hd0I">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e3d8"/>
</title>
- <para>That isn't a
- <quote>blue-house</quote>.</para>
+ <para>That isn't a
+ <quote>blue-house</quote>.</para>
</example>
<para>aloud so as to clearly imply that the scalar negation is affecting the pair of words as a single unit.</para>
<para>Another even more confusing example of scalar negation is to the sentence:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-JTrd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e3d9"/>
</title>
- <para>John didn't go to Paris from Rome.</para>
+ <para>John didn't go to Paris from Rome.</para>
</example>
<para>Might
<xref linkend="example-random-id-JTrd"/> imply that John went to Paris from somewhere else? Or did he go somewhere else from Rome? Or perhaps he didn't go anywhere at all: maybe someone else did, or maybe there was no event of going whatsoever. One can devise circumstances where any one, two or all three of these statements might be inferred by a listener.</para>
<para>In English, we have a clear way of distinguishing scalar negation from predicate negation that can be used in many situations. We can use the partial word
<quote>non-</quote> as a prefix. But this is not always considered good usage, even though it would render many statements much clearer. For example, we can clearly distinguish</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-gN3C">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e3d10"/>
</title>
- <para>That is a non-blue house.</para>
+ <para>That is a non-blue house.</para>
</example>
<para>from the related sentence</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-GtQC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e3d11"/>
</title>
- <para>That is a blue non-house.</para>
+ <para>That is a blue non-house.</para>
</example>
<para>
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-gN3C"/> and
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-gN3C"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-GtQC"/> have the advantage that, while they contain a negative indication, they are in fact positive assertions. They say what is true by excluding the false; they do not say what is false.</para>
<para>We can't always use
<quote>non-</quote> though, because of the peculiarities of English's grammar. It would sound strange to say:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-A3yR">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e3d12"/>
</title>
- <para>John went to non-Paris from Rome.</para>
+ <para>John went to non-Paris from Rome.</para>
</example>
<para>or</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-sn2I">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e3d13"/>
</title>
- <para>John went to Paris from non-Rome.</para>
+ <para>John went to Paris from non-Rome.</para>
</example>
<para>although these would clarify the vague negation. Another circumlocution for English scalar negation is
<quote>other than</quote>, which works where
<quote>non-</quote> does not, but is wordier.</para>
<para>Finally, we have natural language negations that are called polar negations, or opposites:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qh2s">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e3d14"/>
</title>
- <para>John is moral</para>
+ <para>John is moral</para>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qh3s">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e3d15"/>
</title>
- <para>John is immoral</para>
+ <para>John is immoral</para>
</example>
<para>To be immoral is much more than to just be not moral: it implies the opposite condition. Statements like
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qh3s"/> are strong negations which not only deny the truth of a statement, but assert its opposite. Since,
<quote>opposite</quote> implies a scale, polar negations are a special variety of scalar negations.</para>
<para>To examine this concept more closely, let us draw a linear scale, showing two examples of how the scale is used:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
Affirmations (positive) Negations (negative)
|-----------|-----------|-----------|-----------|
All Most Some Few None
Excellent Good Fair Poor Awful
@@ -768,24 +768,24 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d17"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu nalkrecau</jbo>
<gloss>An-actual currently noblest-governor of the French country is-non-hair-without.</gloss>
<en>The current King of France is a non-bald-one.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-2maY"/> and
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-wGXL"/> express the predicate negation forms using a negation word (
- <jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase>) or rafsi (
- <jbophrase role="rafsi">-nal-</jbophrase>); yet they make positive assertions about the current King of France; ie., that he is other-than-bald or non-bald. This follows from the close binding of
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-2maY"/> and
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-wGXL"/> express the predicate negation forms using a negation word (
+ <jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase>) or rafsi (
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">-nal-</jbophrase>); yet they make positive assertions about the current King of France; ie., that he is other-than-bald or non-bald. This follows from the close binding of
<jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase> to the brivla. The lujvo form makes this overt by absorbing the negative marker into the word.</para>
<para>Since there is no current King of France, it is false to say that he is bald, or non-bald, or to make any other affirmative claim about him. Any sentence about the current King of France containing only a selbri negation is as false as the sentence without the negation. No amount of selbri negations have any effect on the truth value of the sentence, which is invariably
<quote>false</quote>, since no affirmative statement about the current King of France can be true. On the other hand, bridi negation does produce a truth:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Bwdy">
<title>
@@ -1006,21 +1006,21 @@
<anchor xml:id="c15e6d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>na'ebo lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu krecau</jbo>
<gloss>[Something] other-than-(the-current-noblest-governor of the French country) is-hair-without.</gloss>
<en>Something other than the current King of France is bald.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-LebJ"/> is true provided that something reasonably describable as
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-LebJ"/> is true provided that something reasonably describable as
<quote>other than a current King of France</quote>, such as the King of Saudi Arabia, or a former King of France, is in fact bald.</para>
<para>In place of
<jbophrase>na'ebo</jbophrase>, you may also use
<jbophrase>no'ebo</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>to'ebo</jbophrase>, to be more specific about the sumti which would be appropriate in place of the stated sumti. Good examples are hard to come by, but here's a valiant try:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-S4AU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e6d3"/>
</title>
@@ -1297,158 +1297,158 @@
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-iUfV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e9d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ja'a go'i</jbo>
<gloss>(John truly-(previously went-to) [both] Paris and Rome.)</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
- <jbophrase>ja'a</jbophrase> can replace
+ <jbophrase>ja'a</jbophrase> can replace
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase> in a similar manner wherever the latter is used:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mrtu">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e9d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ja'a klama le zarci</jbo>
<en>I indeed go to the store.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
- <jbophrase>je'a</jbophrase> can replace
+ <jbophrase>je'a</jbophrase> can replace
<jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase> in exactly the same way, stating that scalar negation does not apply, and that the relation indeed holds as stated. In the absence of a negation context, it emphasizes the positive:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-toQK">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e9d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta je'a melbi</jbo>
<gloss>that is-indeed beautiful.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-metalinguistic-negation">
<title>Metalinguistic negation forms</title>
<para>The question of truth or falsity is not entirely synonymous with negation. Consider the English sentence</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-QsJ9">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d1"/>
</title>
- <para>I have not stopped beating my wife.</para>
+ <para>I have not stopped beating my wife.</para>
</example>
<para>If I never started such a heinous activity, then this sentence is neither true nor false. Such a negation simply says that something is wrong with the non-negated statement. Generally, we then use either tone of voice or else a correction to express a preferred true claim:
<quote>I never have beaten my wife.</quote></para>
<para>Negations which follow such a pattern are called
<quote>metalinguistic negations</quote>. In natural languages, the mark of metalinguistic negation is that an indication of a correct statement always, or almost always, follows the negation. Tone of voice or emphasis may be further used to clarify the error.</para>
<para>Negations of every sort must be expressible in Lojban; errors are inherent to human thought, and are not excluded from the language. When such negations are metalinguistic, we must separate them from logical claims about the truth or falsity of the statement, as well as from scalar negations which may not easily express (or imply) the preferred claim. Because Lojban allows concepts to be so freely combined in tanru, limits on what is plausible or not plausible tend to be harder to determine.</para>
<para>Mimicking the muddled nature of natural language negation would destroy this separation. Since Lojban does not use tone of voice, we need other means to metalinguistically indicate what is wrong with a statement. When the statement is entirely inappropriate, we need to be able to express metalinguistic negation in a more non-specific fashion.</para>
<para>Here is a list of some different kinds of metalinguistic negation with English-language examples:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qhbg">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d2"/>
</title>
- <para>I have not
- <emphasis>stopped</emphasis> beating my wife</para>
- <para>(I never started - failure of presupposition).</para>
+ <para>I have not
+ <emphasis>stopped</emphasis> beating my wife</para>
+ <para>(I never started - failure of presupposition).</para>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qHcI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d3"/>
</title>
- <para>5 is not blue</para>
- <para>(color does not apply to abstract concepts - failure of category).</para>
+ <para>5 is not blue</para>
+ <para>(color does not apply to abstract concepts - failure of category).</para>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qHEQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d4"/>
</title>
- <para>The current King of France is not bald.</para>
- <para>(there is no current King of France - existential failure)</para>
-
+ <para>The current King of France is not bald.</para>
+ <para>(there is no current King of France - existential failure)</para>
+
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qhet">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d5"/>
</title>
- <para>I do not have THREE children.</para>
- <para>(I have two - simple undue quantity)</para>
+ <para>I do not have THREE children.</para>
+ <para>(I have two - simple undue quantity)</para>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qhEU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d6"/>
</title>
- <para>I have not held THREE jobs previously, but four.</para>
- <para>(inaccurate quantity; the difference from the previous example is that</para>
- <para>someone who has held four jobs has also held three jobs)</para>
+ <para>I have not held THREE jobs previously, but four.</para>
+ <para>(inaccurate quantity; the difference from the previous example is that</para>
+ <para>someone who has held four jobs has also held three jobs)</para>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qhf5">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d7"/>
</title>
- <para>It is not good, but bad.</para>
- <para>(undue quantity negation indicating that the value on a</para>
- <para>scale for measuring the predicate is incorrect)</para>
+ <para>It is not good, but bad.</para>
+ <para>(undue quantity negation indicating that the value on a</para>
+ <para>scale for measuring the predicate is incorrect)</para>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qHhA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d8"/>
</title>
- <para>She is not PRETTY; she is beautiful.</para>
- <para>(undue quantity transferred to a non-numeric scale)</para>
+ <para>She is not PRETTY; she is beautiful.</para>
+ <para>(undue quantity transferred to a non-numeric scale)</para>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qhHI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d9"/>
</title>
- <para>The house is not blue, but green.</para>
- <para>(the scale/category being used is incorrect, but a related category applies)</para>
+ <para>The house is not blue, but green.</para>
+ <para>(the scale/category being used is incorrect, but a related category applies)</para>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qHHw">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d10"/>
</title>
- <para>The house is not blue, but is colored.</para>
- <para>(the scale/category being used is incorrect, but a broader category applies)</para>
+ <para>The house is not blue, but is colored.</para>
+ <para>(the scale/category being used is incorrect, but a broader category applies)</para>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qHI4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d11"/>
</title>
- <para>The cat is not blue, but long-haired.</para>
- <para>(the scale/category being used is incorrect, but an unrelated category applies)</para>
+ <para>The cat is not blue, but long-haired.</para>
+ <para>(the scale/category being used is incorrect, but an unrelated category applies)</para>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qHja">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d12"/>
</title>
- <para>A: He ain't coming today.</para>
- <para>B:
- <quote>Ain't</quote> ain't a word.</para>
- <para>(solecism, or improper grammatical action)</para>
+ <para>A: He ain't coming today.</para>
+ <para>B:
+ <quote>Ain't</quote> ain't a word.</para>
+ <para>(solecism, or improper grammatical action)</para>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qHJi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d13"/>
</title>
- <para>I haven't STOOPED beating my wife; I've STOPPED.</para>
- <para>(spelling or mispronunciation error)</para>
+ <para>I haven't STOOPED beating my wife; I've STOPPED.</para>
+ <para>(spelling or mispronunciation error)</para>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qhJj">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d14"/>
</title>
- <para>Not only was it a sheep, it was a black sheep.</para>
- <para>(non-contradictory correction)</para>
+ <para>Not only was it a sheep, it was a black sheep.</para>
+ <para>(non-contradictory correction)</para>
</example>
<para>The set of possible metalinguistic errors is open-ended.</para>
<para>Many of these forms have a counterpart in the various examples that we've discussed under logical negation. Metalinguistic negation doesn't claim that the sentence is false or true, though. Rather, it claims that, due to some error in the statement,
<quote>true</quote> and
<quote>false</quote> don't really apply.</para>
<para>Because one can metalinguistically negate a true statement intending a non-contradictory correction (say, a spelling error); we need a way (or ways) to metalinguistically negate a statement which is independent of our logical negation schemes using
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase> and kin. The cmavo
<jbophrase>na'i</jbophrase> is assigned this function. If it is present in a statement, it indicates metalinguistically that something in the statement is incorrect. This metalinguistic negation must override any evaluation of the logic of the statement. It is equally allowed in both positive and negative statements.</para>
<para>Since
commit 6e36e744b5f4fdef95580f6bc81e586c8516cf40
Author: Eitan Postavsky <eitanp32@gmail.com>
Date: Sat Jan 15 22:04:42 2011 -0500
Chapter 16: example tags.
diff --git a/todocbook/16.xml b/todocbook/16.xml
index 89e3af7..783b2cf 100644
--- a/todocbook/16.xml
+++ b/todocbook/16.xml
@@ -1,65 +1,55 @@
<chapter xml:id="chapter-quantifiers">
<title>
<quote>Who Did You Pass On The Road? Nobody</quote>: Lojban And Logic</title>
<section xml:id="section-introduction">
<title>What's wrong with this picture?</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>nobody</primary><secondary>interpretation of</secondary></indexterm> The following brief dialogue is from
<xref linkend="chapter-anaphoric-cmavo"/> of
<citation>Through The Looking Glass</citation> by Lewis Carroll.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KB90">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-KB90">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e1d1"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>
- <quote>Who did you pass on the road?</quote> the King went on, holding out his hand to the Messenger for some more hay.</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>
+ <quote>Who did you pass on the road?</quote> the King went on, holding out his hand to the Messenger for some more hay.</para>
</example>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1UVT">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-1UVT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e1d2"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>
- <quote>Nobody,</quote> said the Messenger.</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>
+ <quote>Nobody,</quote> said the Messenger.</para>
</example>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-x9fC">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-x9fC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e1d3"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>
+ <para>
<quote>Quite right,</quote> said the King:
- <quote>this young lady saw him too. So of course Nobody walks slower than you.</quote></jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <quote>this young lady saw him too. So of course Nobody walks slower than you.</quote></para>
</example>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-105i">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-105i">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e1d4"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>
+ <para>
<quote>I do my best,</quote> the Messenger said in a sulky tone.
- <quote>I'm sure nobody walks much faster than I do!</quote></jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <quote>I'm sure nobody walks much faster than I do!</quote></para>
</example>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ANLu">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-ANLu">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e1d5"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>
+ <para>
<quote>He can't do that,</quote> said the King,
- <quote>or else he'd have been here first.</quote></jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <quote>or else he'd have been here first.</quote></para>
</example>
<para>This nonsensical conversation results because the King insists on treating the word
<quote>nobody</quote> as a name, a name of somebody. However, the essential nature of the English word
<quote>nobody</quote> is that it doesn't refer to somebody; or to put the matter another way, there isn't anybody to which it refers.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>nobody</primary><secondary>ambiguous interpretations of</secondary></indexterm> The central point of contradiction in the dialogue arises in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-x9fC"/>, when the King says
<quote>... Nobody walks slower than you</quote>. This claim would be plausible if
<quote>Nobody</quote> were really a name, since the Messenger could only pass someone who does walk more slowly than he. But the Messenger interprets the word
<quote>nobody</quote> in the ordinary English way, and says (in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-105i"/>)
@@ -91,28 +81,26 @@
<en>I see the man/men.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>that there really is a man; the only thing you can conclude is that there is one thing (or more) that I choose to refer to as a man. You cannot even tell which man is meant for sure without asking me (although communication is served if you already know from the context).</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>attitudinals</primary><secondary>and logic</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logic</primary><secondary>and attitudinals</secondary></indexterm> In addition, the use of attitudinals (see
<xref linkend="chapter-attitudinals"/>) often reduces or removes the ability to make deductions about the bridi to which those attitudinals are applied. From the fact that I hope George will win the election, you can conclude nothing about George's actual victory or defeat.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-da-and-zohu">
<title>Existential claims, prenexes, and variables</title>
<para>Let us consider, to begin with, a sentence that is not in the dialogue:</para>
-<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>something sees me</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Mxj3">
+ <para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>something sees me</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-Mxj3">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e2d1"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>Something sees me.</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>Something sees me.</para>
</example>
<para>There are two plausible Lojban translations of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Mxj3"/>. The simpler one is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-b9pV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e2d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>[zo'e] viska mi</jbo>
<gloss>Something-unspecified sees me.</gloss>
@@ -229,27 +217,25 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Ralph</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> has a variable bound in a prenex whose relevance to the claim of the following bridi is completely unspecified.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-universal-claims">
<title>Universal claims</title>
<para>What happens if we substitute
<quote>everything</quote> for
<quote>something</quote> in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Mxj3"/>? We get:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-UwYG">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-UwYG">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e3d1"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>Everything sees me.</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>Everything sees me.</para>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>universal claims</primary><secondary>explanation</secondary></indexterm> Of course, this example is false, because there are many things which do not see the speaker. It is not easy to find simple truthful examples of so-called universal claims (those which are about everything), so bear with us for a while. (Indeed, some Lojbanists tend to avoid universal claims even in other languages, since they are so rarely true in Lojban.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>everything sees me</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> The Lojban translation of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-UwYG"/> is</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nraD">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e3d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -259,21 +245,21 @@
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ro da</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ro</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>everything</primary><secondary>expressing with "ro da"</secondary></indexterm> When the variable cmavo
<jbophrase>da</jbophrase> is preceded by
<jbophrase>ro</jbophrase>, the combination means
<quote>For every X</quote> rather than
<quote>There is an X</quote>. Superficially, these English formulations look totally unrelated:
<xref linkend="section-quantified-variables"/> will bring them within a common viewpoint. For the moment, accept the use of
<jbophrase>ro da</jbophrase> for
<quote>everything</quote> on faith.</para>
<para>Here is a universal claim with two variables:</para>
-<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>everything loves everything</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>everything loves everything</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-jSrU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e3d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro da ro de zo'u da prami de</jbo>
<gloss>For-every X, for-every Y : X loves Y.</gloss>
<en>Everything loves everything.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -446,42 +432,40 @@
<anchor xml:id="c16e5d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro da poi gerku cu vasxu</jbo>
<gloss>For-every X which is-a-dog, it-breathes.</gloss>
<en>Every dog breathes.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>prenex</primary><secondary>effect of order of variables in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>prenex</primary><secondary>purpose of</secondary></indexterm> You might well suppose, then, that the purpose of the prenex is to allow the variables in it to appear in a different order than the bridi order, and that would be correct. Consider</para>
-<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>everyone bitten by dog</primary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>everyone bitten by dog</primary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Cfnb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e5d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro da poi prenu ku'o de poi gerku ku'o zo'u de batci da</jbo>
<gloss>For-every X which is-a-person, there-is-a-Y which is-a-dog: Y bites X.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The prenex of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Cfnb"/> is like that of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qHKm"/> (but with relative clauses): it notes that the following bridi is true of every person with respect to some dog, not necessarily the same dog for each. But in the main bridi part, the
<jbophrase>de</jbophrase> appears before the
<jbophrase>da</jbophrase>. Therefore, the true translation is</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KLAr">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-KLAr">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e5d4"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>Every person is bitten by some dog (or other).</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>Every person is bitten by some dog (or other).</para>
</example>
<para>If we tried to omit the prenex and move the
<jbophrase>ro</jbophrase> and the relative clauses into the main bridi, we would get:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-c9bq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e5d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>de poi gerku cu batci ro da poi prenu</jbo>
<gloss>There-is-a-Y which is-a-dog which-bites every X which is-a-person</gloss>
@@ -560,21 +544,21 @@
<quote>all persons</quote>, just as
<jbophrase>re prenu</jbophrase> means
<quote>two persons</quote>. In fact, unadorned
<jbophrase>da</jbophrase> is also taken to have an implicit number in front of it, namely
<jbophrase>su'o</jbophrase>, which means
<quote>at least one</quote>. Why is this? Consider
<xref linkend="example-random-id-jjLd"/> again, this time with an explicit
<jbophrase>su'o</jbophrase>:</para>
-<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>su'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>something sees me</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>something</primary><secondary>expressing using "su'o"</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>su'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>something sees me</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>something</primary><secondary>expressing using "su'o"</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-TI8K">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e6d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>su'o da zo'u da viska mi</jbo>
<gloss>For-at-least-one X : X sees me.</gloss>
<en>Something sees me.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -750,21 +734,21 @@
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>NUhU selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>NUhI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>nu'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>nu'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>CEhE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ce'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>termset</primary><secondary>effect on scope of multiple indefinite sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple indefinite sumti scope</primary><secondary>in termset</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple indefinite sumti</primary><secondary>expressing with equal scope</secondary></indexterm> The solution is to use a termset, which is a group of terms either joined by
<jbophrase>ce'e</jbophrase> (of selma'o CEhE) between each term, or else surrounded by
<jbophrase>nu'i</jbophrase> (of selma'o NUhI) on the front and
<jbophrase>nu'u</jbophrase> (of selma'o NUhU) on the rear. Terms (which are either sumti or sumti prefixed by tense or modal tags) that are grouped into a termset are understood to have equal scope:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-JbVH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e7d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ci gerku ce'e re nanmu cu batci</jbo>
- <gloss>nu'i ci gerku re nanmu [nu'u] cu batci</gloss>
+ <jbo>nu'i ci gerku re nanmu [nu'u] cu batci</jbo>
<gloss>Three dogs [plus] two men, bite.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which picks out two groups, one of three dogs and the other of two men, and says that every one of the dogs bites each of the men. The second Lojban version uses forethought; note that
<jbophrase>nu'u</jbophrase> is an elidable terminator, and in this case can be freely elided.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ro</primary><secondary>effect of order when multiple in sentence</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>indefinite sumti</primary><secondary>compared to sumti with lo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti with lo</primary><secondary>compared to indefinite sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>quantified sumti</primary><secondary>different types contrasted for scope for distribution</secondary></indexterm> What about descriptors, like
<jbophrase>ci lo gerku</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>le nanmu</jbophrase> or
<jbophrase>re le ci mlatu</jbophrase>? They too can be grouped in termsets, but usually need not be, except for the
<jbophrase>lo</jbophrase> case which functions like the case without a descriptor. Unless an actual quantifier precedes it,
@@ -782,28 +766,26 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means that each of the dogs specified bites each of the men specified, for six acts of biting altogether. However, if there is an explicit quantifier before
<jbophrase>le</jbophrase> other than
<jbophrase>ro</jbophrase>, the problems of this section reappear.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-any">
<title>The problem of
<quote>any</quote></title>
<para>Consider the English sentence</para>
-<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>anyone who goes</primary><secondary>walks</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>any</primary><secondary>as a translation problem</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-R4mX">
+ <para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>anyone who goes</primary><secondary>walks</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>any</primary><secondary>as a translation problem</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-R4mX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e8d1"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>Anyone who goes to the store, walks across the field.</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>Anyone who goes to the store, walks across the field.</para>
</example>
<para>Using the facilities already discussed, a plausible translation might be</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7Kn8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e8d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro da poi klama le zarci cu cadzu le foldi</jbo>
<gloss>All X such-that-it goes-to the store walks-on the field.</gloss>
<en>Everyone who goes to the store walks across the field.</en>
@@ -829,29 +811,27 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro da zo'u ganai da klama le zarci gi cadzu le foldi</jbo>
<gloss>For-every X: if X is-a-goer-to the store then X is-a-walker-on the field.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>any</primary><secondary>as a universal claim</secondary><tertiary>later restricted</tertiary></indexterm> Although
<xref linkend="example-random-id-BwU7"/> is a universal claim as well, its universality only implies that there are objects of some sort or another in the universe of discourse. Because the claim is conditional, nothing is implied about the existence of goers-to-the-store or of walkers-on-the-field, merely that any entity which is one is also the other.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>any</primary><secondary>as an existential claim</secondary></indexterm> There is another use of
<quote>any</quote> in English that is not universal but existential. Consider</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7Eu9">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-7Eu9">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e8d4"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>I need any box that is bigger than this one.</jbo>
-
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>I need any box that is bigger than this one.</para>
+
+
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>any box</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>need any box</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-7Eu9"/> does not at all mean that I need every box bigger than this one, for indeed I do not; I require only one box. But the naive translation</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KHya">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e8d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nitcu da poi tanxe gi'e bramau ti</jbo>
<gloss>I need some-X which is-a-box and is-bigger-than this-one</gloss>
@@ -879,53 +859,47 @@
<gloss>I need an event-of I possess some box(es) which-are bigger-than this-one.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Rewritten using variables,
<xref linkend="example-random-id-e7ta"/> becomes</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4Pz8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e8d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi nitcu lo nu da zo'u</jbo>
- <gloss>da se ponse mi gi'e tanxe gi'e bramau ti</gloss>
- <gloss>I need an event-of there-being an-X such-that :</gloss>
- <gloss>X is-possessed-by me and is-a-box and is-bigger-than this-thing.</gloss>
+ <jbo>mi nitcu lo nu da zo'u da se ponse mi gi'e tanxe gi'e bramau ti</jbo>
+ <gloss>I need an event-of there-being an-X such-that : X is-possessed-by me and is-a-box and is-bigger-than this-thing.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical variables</primary><secondary>explicitly placing in outer prenex</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical variables</primary><secondary>implicit placement in smallest enclosing bridi prenex</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>prenex</primary><secondary>internal to a bridi</secondary></indexterm> So we see that a prenex can be attached to a bridi that is within a sentence. By default, a variable always behaves as if it is bound in the prenex which (notionally) is attached to the smallest enclosing bridi, and its scope does not extend beyond that bridi. However, the variable may be placed in an outer prenex explicitly:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7KKM">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e8d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>da poi tanxe gi'e bramau ti zo'u</jbo>
- <gloss>mi nitcu le nu mi ponse da</gloss>
- <gloss>There-is-an-X which is-a-box and is-bigger-than this-one such-that :</gloss>
- <gloss>I need the event-of my possessing X.</gloss>
+ <jbo>da poi tanxe gi'e bramau ti zo'u mi nitcu le nu mi ponse da</jbo>
+ <gloss>There-is-an-X which is-a-box and is-bigger-than this-one such-that : I need the event-of my possessing X.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>existential variable</primary><secondary>in main bridi contrasted with in abstraction</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>existential variable</primary><secondary>in abstraction contrasted with in main bridi</secondary></indexterm> But what are the implications of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-e7ta"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-7KKM"/>? The main difference is that in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-7KKM"/>, the
<jbophrase>da</jbophrase> is said to exist in the real world of the outer bridi; but in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-e7ta"/>, the existence is only within the inner bridi, which is a mere event that need not necessarily come to pass. So
<xref linkend="example-random-id-7KKM"/> means</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-xC32">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-xC32">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e8d10"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>There's a box, bigger than this one, that I need</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>There's a box, bigger than this one, that I need</para>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>any</primary><secondary>expressing as existential by variable in subordinate bridi</secondary></indexterm> which is what
<xref linkend="example-random-id-fAo5"/> says, whereas
<xref linkend="example-random-id-e7ta"/> turns out to be an effective translation of our original
<xref linkend="example-random-id-R4mX"/>. So uses of
<quote>any</quote> that aren't universal end up being reflected by variables bound in the prenex of a subordinate bridi.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-negation-boundaries">
<title>Negation boundaries</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>"there is a Y"</primary><secondary>expression</secondary><tertiary>notation convention</tertiary></indexterm> This section, as well as
@@ -1007,21 +981,21 @@
<anchor xml:id="c16e9d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>roda su'ode zo'u da prami de</jbo>
<gloss>For every X, there is a Y, such that X loves Y.</gloss>
<en>Everybody loves at least one thing (each, not necessarily the same thing).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>everybody loves something</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> or:</para>
-<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>something is loved by everybody</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>something is loved by everybody</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Tj99">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e9d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>su'ode roda zo'u da prami de</jbo>
<gloss>There is a Y, such that for each X, X loves Y.</gloss>
<en>There is at least one particular thing that is loved by everybody.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1307,21 +1281,21 @@
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>prenex manipulation</primary><secondary>exporting na from left of prenex</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>prenex manipulation</primary><secondary>importing na from selbri</secondary></indexterm> A
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase> before the selbri is always transformed into a
<jbophrase>naku</jbophrase> at the left-hand end of the prenex, and vice versa.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-na-outside-prenex">
<title>Using
<jbophrase>naku</jbophrase> outside a prenex</title>
<para>Let us consider the English sentence</para>
-<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>some do not go to school</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>some do not go to school</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hp0j">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e11d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>Some children do not go to school.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>We cannot express this directly with
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase>; the apparently obvious translation</para>
@@ -1442,39 +1416,35 @@
<jbophrase>naku</jbophrase> to the prenex because of the quantifiers. The rules for exporting
<jbophrase>naku</jbophrase> require that you export all of the quantified variables (implicit or explicit) along with
<jbophrase>naku</jbophrase>, and you must export them from left to right, in the same order that they appear in the sentence. Thus
<xref linkend="example-random-id-nvtf"/> goes into prenex form as:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3f22">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e11d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>su'oda poi verba ku'o naku</jbo>
- <gloss>su'ode poi ckule zo'u da klama de</gloss>
- <gloss>For some X which is a child, it is not the case that</gloss>
- <en>there is a Y which is a school such that: X goes to Y.</en>
+ <jbo>su'oda poi verba ku'o naku su'ode poi ckule zo'u da klama de</jbo>
+ <gloss>For some X which is a child, it is not the case that there is a Y which is a school such that: X goes to Y.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>We can now move the
<jbophrase>naku</jbophrase> to the left end of the prenex, getting a contradictory negation that can be expressed with
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gPvc">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e11d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>naku roda poi verba</jbo>
- <gloss>su'ode poi ckule zo'u da klama de</gloss>
- <gloss>It is not the case that for all X's which are children,</gloss>
- <en>there is a Y which is a school such that: X goes to Y.</en>
+ <jbo>naku roda poi verba su'ode poi ckule zo'u da klama de</jbo>
+ <gloss>It is not the case that for all X's which are children, there is a Y which is a school such that: X goes to Y.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>from which we can restore the quantified variables to the sentence, giving:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Awc0">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e11d12"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>naku zo'u roda poi verba cu klama su'ode poi ckule</jbo>
@@ -1493,24 +1463,22 @@
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>conversion of sentence with quantified variables</primary><secondary>technique</secondary></indexterm> As noted in
<xref linkend="section-prenex-elision"/>, a sentence with two different quantified variables, such as
<xref linkend="example-random-id-msIC"/>, cannot always be converted with
<jbophrase>se</jbophrase> without first exporting the quantified variables. When the variables have been exported, the sentence proper can be converted, but the quantifier order in the prenex must remain unchanged:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-d8h3">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e11d14"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>roda poi verba</jbo>
- <gloss>su'ode poi ckule zo'u de na se klama da</gloss>
- <gloss>It is not the case that for all X's which are children,</gloss>
- <en>there is a Y which is a school such that: Y is gone to by X.</en>
+ <jbo>roda poi verba su'ode poi ckule zo'u de na se klama da</jbo>
+ <gloss>It is not the case that for all X's which are children, there is a Y which is a school such that: Y is gone to by X.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple quantification</primary><secondary>effect on selbri placement among sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri placement among sumti</primary><secondary>effect of multiple quantification on</secondary></indexterm> While you can't freely convert with
<jbophrase>se</jbophrase> when you have two quantified variables in a sentence, you can still freely move sumti to either side of the selbri, as long as the order isn't changed. If you use
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase> negation in such a sentence, nothing special need be done. If you use
<jbophrase>naku</jbophrase> negation, then quantified variables that cross the negation boundary must be inverted.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>negation manipulation</primary><secondary>"na" contrasted with "naku" in difficulty of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>negation manipulation</primary><secondary>"naku" contrasted with "na" in difficulty of</secondary></indexterm> Clearly, if all of Lojban negation was built on
<jbophrase>naku</jbophrase> negation instead of
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase> negation, logical manipulation in Lojban would be as difficult as in natural languages. In
@@ -1606,24 +1574,22 @@
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>go to Paris or Rome</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>DeMorgan's Law</primary><secondary>and logically connected sentences</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logically connected sentences</primary><secondary>and DeMorgan's Law</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>negator</primary><secondary>movement from bridi to sumti</secondary></indexterm> It is not an acceptable logical manipulation to move a negator from the bridi level to one or more sumti. However,
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qHPi"/> and related examples are not sumti negations, but rather expand to form two logically connected sentences. In such a situation, DeMorgan's Law must be applied. For instance,
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qHPI"/> expands to:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KMct">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e12d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ge la djan. la paris. na klama</jbo>
- <gloss>gi la djan. la rom. na klama</gloss>
- <gloss>[It is true that] both John, to-Paris, [false] goes,</gloss>
- <gloss>and John, to-Rome, [false] goes.</gloss>
+ <jbo>ge la djan. la paris. na klama gi la djan. la rom. na klama</jbo>
+ <gloss>[It is true that] both John, to-Paris, [false] goes, and John, to-Rome, [false] goes.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The
<jbophrase>ga</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>gi</jbophrase>, meaning
<quote>either-or</quote>, have become
<jbophrase>ge</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>gi</jbophrase>, meaning
<quote>both-and</quote>, as a consequence of moving the negators into the individual bridi.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>DeMorgan's Law</primary><secondary>and bridi-tail logical connection</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi-tail logical connection</primary><secondary>and DeMorgan's Law</secondary></indexterm> Here is another example of DeMorgan's Law in action, involving bridi-tail logical connection (explained in
@@ -1664,49 +1630,43 @@
<jbo>naku zo'u la djein. le zarci ge dzukla gi bajrykla</jbo>
<gloss>It is false that : Jane to-the market (both walks and runs).</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>And by dividing the bridi with logically connected selbri into two bridi,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-axCE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e12d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>naku zo'u ge la djein. le zarci cu dzukla</jbo>
- <gloss>gi la djein. le zarci cu bajrykla</gloss>
- <gloss>It-is-false-that: both (Jane to-the market walks)</gloss>
- <gloss>and (Jane to-the market runs).</gloss>
+ <jbo>naku zo'u ge la djein. le zarci cu dzukla gi la djein. le zarci cu bajrykla</jbo>
+ <gloss>It-is-false-that: both (Jane to-the market walks) and (Jane to-the market runs).</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is the result.</para>
<para>At this expanded level, we apply DeMorgan's Law to distribute the negation in the prenex across both sentences, to get</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-bsu7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e12d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ga la djein. le zarci na dzukla</jbo>
- <gloss>gi la djein. le zarci na bajrykla</gloss>
- <gloss>Either Jane to-the market [false] walks,</gloss>
- <gloss>or Jane to-the market [false] runs.</gloss>
+ <jbo>ga la djein. le zarci na dzukla gi la djein. le zarci na bajrykla</jbo>
+ <gloss>Either Jane to-the market [false] walks, or Jane to-the market [false] runs.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which is the same as</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-jYWu">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e12d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ganai la djein. le zarci cu dzukla</jbo>
- <gloss>ginai la djein. le zarci cu bajrykla</gloss>
- <gloss>If Jane to-the market walks,</gloss>
- <gloss>then Jane to-the market [false] runs.</gloss>
+ <jbo>ganai la djein. le zarci cu dzukla ginai la djein. le zarci cu bajrykla</jbo>
+ <gloss>If Jane to-the market walks, then Jane to-the market [false] runs.</gloss>
<en>If Jane walks to the market, then she doesn't run.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which then condenses down to
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qHQ2"/>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>DeMorgan's Law</primary><secondary>and internal naku negations</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>internal naku negations</primary><secondary>and DeMorgan's Law</secondary></indexterm> DeMorgan's Law must also be applied to internal
<jbophrase>naku</jbophrase> negations:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qhQP" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e12d10"/>
@@ -1787,30 +1747,30 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e13d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro bu'a zo'u la djim. bu'a la djan.</jbo>
<gloss>For-every relationship-F : Jim stands-in-relationship-F to-John.</gloss>
<en>Every relationship exists between Jim and John.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-gEWB"/> and
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-XxgT"/> are almost certainly true: Jim and John might be brothers, or might live in the same city, or at least have the property of being jointly human.
-
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-gEWB"/> and
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-XxgT"/> are almost certainly true: Jim and John might be brothers, or might live in the same city, or at least have the property of being jointly human.
+
<xref linkend="example-random-id-L068"/> is palpably false, however; if Jim and John were related by every possible relationship, then they would have to be both brothers and father-and-son, which is impossible.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-notes-on-variables">
<title>A few notes on variables</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>quantifier</primary><secondary>on previously quantified variable</secondary></indexterm> A variable may have a quantifier placed in front of it even though it has already been quantified explicitly or implicitly by a previous appearance, as in:</para>
-<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>three cats white</primary><secondary>and two big</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>three cats white</primary><secondary>and two big</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-x0FP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e14d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ci da poi mlatu cu blabi .ije re da cu barda</jbo>
<gloss>Three Xs which-are cats are white, and two Xs are big.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>What does
commit 2f11cfcf848291f3f3d92d4f8a36872e50ddbd6a
Author: Eitan Postavsky <eitanp32@gmail.com>
Date: Sat Jan 15 17:00:41 2011 -0500
Chapter 16: section titles and <jbophrase>s.
diff --git a/todocbook/16.xml b/todocbook/16.xml
index f4be710..89e3af7 100644
--- a/todocbook/16.xml
+++ b/todocbook/16.xml
@@ -1,14 +1,14 @@
<chapter xml:id="chapter-quantifiers">
<title>
<quote>Who Did You Pass On The Road? Nobody</quote>: Lojban And Logic</title>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter16-section1">
+ <section xml:id="section-introduction">
<title>What's wrong with this picture?</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>nobody</primary><secondary>interpretation of</secondary></indexterm> The following brief dialogue is from
<xref linkend="chapter-anaphoric-cmavo"/> of
<citation>Through The Looking Glass</citation> by Lewis Carroll.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KB90">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e1d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
@@ -73,36 +73,36 @@
<quote>some/no/any/everyone</quote> and
<quote>some/no/any/everything</quote>), but they obey rules which can often be surprising to English-speakers. The dialogue above simply cannot be translated into Lojban without distortion: the name
<quote>Nobody</quote> would have to be represented by a Lojban name, which would spoil the perfection of the wordplay. As a matter of fact, this is the desired result: a logical language should not allow two conversationalists to affirm
<quote>Nobody walks slower than the Messenger</quote> and
<quote>Nobody walks faster than the Messenger</quote> and both be telling the truth. (Unless, of course, nobody but the Messenger walks at all, or everyone walks at exactly the same speed.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logic</primary><secondary>resolving ambiguities of "nobody"</secondary></indexterm> This chapter will explore the Lojban mechanisms that allow the correct and consistent construction of sentences like those in the dialogue. There are no new grammatical constructs explained in this chapter; instead, it discusses the way in which existing facilities that allow Lojban-speakers to resolve problems like the above, using the concepts of modern logic. However, we will not approach the matter from the viewpoint of logicians, although readers who know something of logic will discover familiar notions in Lojban guise.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logic</primary><secondary>limits of</secondary></indexterm> Although Lojban is called a logical language, not every feature of it is
<quote>logical</quote>. In particular, the use of
- <quote>le</quote> is incompatible with logical reasoning based on the description selbri, because that selbri may not truthfully apply: you cannot conclude from my statement that</para>
+ <jbophrase>le</jbophrase> is incompatible with logical reasoning based on the description selbri, because that selbri may not truthfully apply: you cannot conclude from my statement that</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4J5Y">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e1d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska le nanmu</jbo>
<gloss>I see the-one-I-refer-to-as-the man.</gloss>
<en>I see the man/men.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>that there really is a man; the only thing you can conclude is that there is one thing (or more) that I choose to refer to as a man. You cannot even tell which man is meant for sure without asking me (although communication is served if you already know from the context).</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>attitudinals</primary><secondary>and logic</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logic</primary><secondary>and attitudinals</secondary></indexterm> In addition, the use of attitudinals (see
<xref linkend="chapter-attitudinals"/>) often reduces or removes the ability to make deductions about the bridi to which those attitudinals are applied. From the fact that I hope George will win the election, you can conclude nothing about George's actual victory or defeat.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter16-section2">
+ <section xml:id="section-da-and-zohu">
<title>Existential claims, prenexes, and variables</title>
<para>Let us consider, to begin with, a sentence that is not in the dialogue:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>something sees me</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Mxj3">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e2d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>Something sees me.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -133,26 +133,26 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>da zo'u da viska mi</jbo>
<gloss>There-is-an-X such-that X sees me.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>da</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>zo'e</primary><secondary>contrasted with da</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>da</primary><secondary>contrasted with zo'e</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>existential claims</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>da</primary><secondary>as a translation for "something"</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-jjLd"/> does not presuppose that the listener knows who sees the speaker, but simply tells the listener that there is someone who sees the speaker. Statements of this kind are called
<quote>existential claims</quote>. (Formally, the one doing the seeing is not restricted to being a person; it could be an animal or - in principle - an inanimate object. We will see in
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section4"/> how to represent such restrictions.)</para>
+ <xref linkend="section-restricted-claims"/> how to represent such restrictions.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ZOhU selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>zo'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical variables</primary><secondary>notation convention</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>variables</primary><secondary>logical</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>prenex</primary><secondary>syntax of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>prenex</primary><secondary>explanation</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-jjLd"/> has a two-part structure: there is the part
<jbophrase>da zo'u</jbophrase>, called the prenex, and the part
<jbophrase>da viska mi</jbophrase>, the main bridi. Almost any Lojban bridi can be preceded by a prenex, which syntactically is any number of sumti followed by the cmavo
- <quote>zo'u</quote> (of selma'o ZOhU). For the moment, the sumti will consist of one or more of the cmavo
+ <jbophrase>zo'u</jbophrase> (of selma'o ZOhU). For the moment, the sumti will consist of one or more of the cmavo
<jbophrase>da</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>de</jbophrase>, and
<jbophrase>di</jbophrase> (of selma'o KOhA), glossed in the literal translations as
<quote>X</quote>,
<quote>Y</quote>, and
<quote>Z</quote> respectively. By analogy to the terminology of symbolic logic, these cmavo are called
<quote>variables</quote>.</para>
<para>Here is an example of a prenex with two variables:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-t4qI">
<title>
@@ -223,21 +223,21 @@
<anchor xml:id="c16e2d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>da zo'u la ralf. gerku</jbo>
<en>There is something such that Ralph is a dog.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Ralph</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> has a variable bound in a prenex whose relevance to the claim of the following bridi is completely unspecified.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter16-section3">
+ <section xml:id="section-universal-claims">
<title>Universal claims</title>
<para>What happens if we substitute
<quote>everything</quote> for
<quote>something</quote> in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Mxj3"/>? We get:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-UwYG">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e3d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -255,21 +255,21 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro da zo'u da viska mi</jbo>
<gloss>For-every X : X sees me.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ro da</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ro</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>everything</primary><secondary>expressing with "ro da"</secondary></indexterm> When the variable cmavo
<jbophrase>da</jbophrase> is preceded by
<jbophrase>ro</jbophrase>, the combination means
<quote>For every X</quote> rather than
<quote>There is an X</quote>. Superficially, these English formulations look totally unrelated:
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section6"/> will bring them within a common viewpoint. For the moment, accept the use of
+ <xref linkend="section-quantified-variables"/> will bring them within a common viewpoint. For the moment, accept the use of
<jbophrase>ro da</jbophrase> for
<quote>everything</quote> on faith.</para>
<para>Here is a universal claim with two variables:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>everything loves everything</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-jSrU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e3d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro da ro de zo'u da prami de</jbo>
@@ -281,21 +281,21 @@
<xref linkend="example-random-id-jSrU"/> does not mean
<quote>Everything loves everything else.</quote> Furthermore, because the claim is universal, it is about every thing, not merely every person, so we cannot use
<quote>everyone</quote> or
<quote>everybody</quote> in the translation.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>universal</primary><secondary>mixed claim with existential</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>existential</primary><secondary>mixed claim with universal</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mixed claim</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> Note that
<jbophrase>ro</jbophrase> appears before both
<jbophrase>da</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>de</jbophrase>. If
<jbophrase>ro</jbophrase> is omitted before either variable, we get a mixed claim, partly existential like those of
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section2"/>, partly universal.</para>
+ <xref linkend="section-da-and-zohu"/>, partly universal.</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qHKm" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e3d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro da de zo'u da viska de</jbo>
<gloss>For-every X, there-is-a-Y : X sees Y.</gloss>
<en>Everything sees something.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -312,41 +312,41 @@
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>something sees everything</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>everything sees something</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical variables</primary><secondary>effect of order in prenex</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qHKm"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qHKo"/> mean completely different things.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qHKm"/> says that for everything, there is something which it sees, not necessarily the same thing seen for every seer.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qHKo"/>, on the other hand, says that there is a particular thing which can see everything that there is (including itself). Both of these are fairly silly, but they are different kinds of silliness.</para>
<para>There are various possible translations of universal claims in English: sometimes we use
<quote>anybody/anything</quote> rather than
<quote>everybody/everything</quote>. Often it makes no difference which of these is used: when it does make a difference, it is a rather subtle one which is explained in
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section8"/>.</para>
+ <xref linkend="section-any"/>.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter16-section4">
+ <section xml:id="section-restricted-claims">
<title>Restricted claims:
- <quote>da poi</quote></title>
+ <jbophrase>da poi</jbophrase></title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>restricted claims</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>universal claims</primary><secondary>restricting</secondary></indexterm> The universal claims of
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section3"/> are not only false but absurd: there is really very little to be said that is both true and non-trivial about every object whatsoever. Furthermore, we have been glossing over the distinction between
+ <xref linkend="section-universal-claims"/> are not only false but absurd: there is really very little to be said that is both true and non-trivial about every object whatsoever. Furthermore, we have been glossing over the distinction between
<quote>everything</quote> and
<quote>everybody</quote> and the other pairs ending in
<quote>-thing</quote> and
<quote>-body</quote>. It is time to bring up the most useful feature of Lojban variables: the ability to restrict their ranges.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>vau</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ku'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>da poi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>poi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>existential claims</primary><secondary>restricting</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>use in restricting existential claims</secondary></indexterm> In Lojban, a variable
<jbophrase>da</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>de</jbophrase>, or
<jbophrase>di</jbophrase> may be followed by a
- <quote>poi</quote> relative clause in order to restrict the range of things that the variable describes. Relative clauses are described in detail in
+ <jbophrase>poi</jbophrase> relative clause in order to restrict the range of things that the variable describes. Relative clauses are described in detail in
<xref linkend="chapter-relative-clauses"/>, but the kind we will need at present consist of
- <quote>poi</quote> followed by a bridi (often just a selbri) terminated with
- <quote>ku'o</quote> or
- <quote>vau</quote> (which can usually be elided). Consider the difference between</para>
+ <jbophrase>poi</jbophrase> followed by a bridi (often just a selbri) terminated with
+ <jbophrase>ku'o</jbophrase> or
+ <jbophrase>vau</jbophrase> (which can usually be elided). Consider the difference between</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-NPX7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e4d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>da zo'u da viska la djim.</jbo>
<gloss>There-is-an-X : X sees Jim.</gloss>
<en>Something sees Jim.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -416,25 +416,25 @@
<anchor xml:id="c16e4d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>da poi gerku zo'u da vasxu</jbo>
<gloss>There-is-an-X which is-a-dog : X breathes.</gloss>
<en>Some dog breathes.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter16-section5">
+ <section xml:id="section-prenex-elision">
<title>Dropping the prenex</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>prenex</primary><secondary>considerations for dropping</secondary></indexterm> It isn't really necessary for every Lojban bridi involving variables to have a prenex on the front. In fact, none of the examples we've seen so far required prenexes at all! The rule for dropping the prenex is simple: if the variables appear in the same order within the bridi as they did in the prenex, then the prenex is superfluous. However, any
<jbophrase>ro</jbophrase> or
- <quote>poi</quote> appearing in the prenex must be transferred to the first occurrence of the variable in the main part of the bridi. Thus,
+ <jbophrase>poi</jbophrase> appearing in the prenex must be transferred to the first occurrence of the variable in the main part of the bridi. Thus,
<xref linkend="example-random-id-jjLd"/> becomes just:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9zAo">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e5d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>da viska mi</jbo>
<gloss>There-is-an-X-which sees me.</gloss>
<en>Something sees me.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -505,34 +505,34 @@
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-y90e">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e5d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro da poi prenu cu se batci de poi gerku</jbo>
<gloss>Every-X which is-a-person is-bitten-by some-Y which is-a-dog.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>using the conversion operator
- <quote>se</quote> (explained in
+ <jbophrase>se</jbophrase> (explained in
<xref linkend="chapter-selbri"/>) to change the selbri
<jbophrase>batci</jbophrase> (
<quote>bites</quote>) into
<jbophrase>se batci</jbophrase> (
<quote>is bitten by</quote>). The translation given in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-KLAr"/> uses the corresponding strategy in English, since English does not have prenexes (except in strained
<quote>logician's English</quote>). This implies that a sentence with both a universal and an existential variable can't be freely converted with
- <quote>se</quote>; one must be careful to preserve the order of the variables.</para>
+ <jbophrase>se</jbophrase>; one must be careful to preserve the order of the variables.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>poi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ro</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>poi</primary><secondary>dropping from multiple appearances on logical variables</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ro</primary><secondary>dropping from multiple appearances on logical variables</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical variables</primary><secondary>with poi</secondary><tertiary>in multiple appearances</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical variables</primary><secondary>with ro</secondary><tertiary>in multiple appearances</tertiary></indexterm> If a variable occurs more than once, then any
<jbophrase>ro</jbophrase> or
- <quote>poi</quote> decorations are moved only to the first occurrence of the variable when the prenex is dropped. For example,</para>
+ <jbophrase>poi</jbophrase> decorations are moved only to the first occurrence of the variable when the prenex is dropped. For example,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4nqt">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e5d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>di poi prenu zo'u ti xarci di di</jbo>
<gloss>There-is-a-Z which is-a-person : this-thing is-a-weapon for-use-against-Z by-Z</gloss>
<en>This is a weapon for someone to use against himself/herself.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -543,21 +543,21 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e5d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti xarci di poi prenu ku'o di</jbo>
<gloss>This-thing is-a-weapon-for-use-against some-Z which is-a-person by-Z.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>prenex</primary><secondary>dropping for terseness</secondary></indexterm> As the examples in this section show, dropping the prenex makes for terseness of expression often even greater than that of English (Lojban is meant to be an unambiguous language, not necessarily a terse or verbose one), provided the rules are observed.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter16-section6">
+ <section xml:id="section-quantified-variables">
<title>Variables with generalized quantifiers</title>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>PA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>quantifiers</primary><secondary>with logical variables</secondary></indexterm> So far, we have seen variables with either nothing in front, or with the cmavo
<jbophrase>ro</jbophrase> in front. Now
<jbophrase>ro</jbophrase> is a Lojban number, and means
<quote>all</quote>; thus
<jbophrase>ro prenu</jbophrase> means
<quote>all persons</quote>, just as
<jbophrase>re prenu</jbophrase> means
@@ -630,39 +630,39 @@
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-GWoD">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e6d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>su'ore da viska mi</jbo>
<gloss>At-least-two Xes see me.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>respectively, subject to the rules prescribed in
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section5"/>.</para>
+ <xref linkend="section-prenex-elision"/>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ro prenu</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>all persons</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>restricted variable</primary><secondary>compared with indefinite description</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>indefinite description</primary><secondary>compared with restricted variable</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>indefinite description</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> Now we can explain the constructions
<jbophrase>ro prenu</jbophrase> for
<quote>all persons</quote> and
<jbophrase>re prenu</jbophrase> for
<quote>two persons</quote> which were casually mentioned at the beginning of this Section. In fact,
<jbophrase>ro prenu</jbophrase>, a so-called
<quote>indefinite description</quote>, is shorthand for
<jbophrase>ro DA poi prenu</jbophrase>, where
<quote>DA</quote> represents a fictitious variable that hasn't been used yet and will not be used in future. (Even if all three of
<jbophrase>da</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>de</jbophrase>, and
<jbophrase>di</jbophrase> have been used up, it does not matter, for there are ways of getting more variables, discussed in
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section14"/>.) So in fact</para>
+ <xref linkend="section-notes-on-variables"/>.) So in fact</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Kr4S">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e6d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>re prenu cu viska mi</jbo>
<en>Two persons see me.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is short for</para>
@@ -680,21 +680,21 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e6d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>re da poi prenu zo'u da viska mi</jbo>
<gloss>For-two Xes which are-persons : X sees me.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>order of variables</primary><secondary>in moving to prenex</secondary></indexterm> Note that when we move more than one variable to the prenex (along with its attached relative clause), we must make sure that the variables are in the same order in the prenex as in the bridi proper.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter16-section7">
+ <section xml:id="section-grouping">
<title>Grouping of quantifiers</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>distribution of quantified sumti</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>indefinite sumti</primary><secondary>multiple in sentence</secondary></indexterm> Let us consider a sentence containing two quantifier expressions neither of which is
<jbophrase>ro</jbophrase> or
<jbophrase>su'o</jbophrase> (remembering that
<jbophrase>su'o</jbophrase> is implicit where no explicit quantifier is given):</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Uovr">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e7d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -741,58 +741,58 @@
<gloss>For-two Ys which are-men, for-three Xes which are-dogs, X bites Y</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>for although we have now limited the number of men to exactly two, we end up with an indeterminate number of dogs, from three to six. The distinction is called a
<quote>scope distinction</quote>: in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-neNT"/>,
<jbophrase>ci gerku</jbophrase> is said to have wider scope than
<jbophrase>re nanmu</jbophrase>, and therefore precedes it in the prenex. In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-4Qxe"/> the reverse is true.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>NUhU selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>NUhI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>nu'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>nu'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>CEhE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ce'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>termset</primary><secondary>effect on scope of multiple indefinite sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple indefinite sumti scope</primary><secondary>in termset</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple indefinite sumti</primary><secondary>expressing with equal scope</secondary></indexterm> The solution is to use a termset, which is a group of terms either joined by
- <quote>ce'e</quote> (of selma'o CEhE) between each term, or else surrounded by
- <quote>nu'i</quote> (of selma'o NUhI) on the front and
- <quote>nu'u</quote> (of selma'o NUhU) on the rear. Terms (which are either sumti or sumti prefixed by tense or modal tags) that are grouped into a termset are understood to have equal scope:</para>
+ <jbophrase>ce'e</jbophrase> (of selma'o CEhE) between each term, or else surrounded by
+ <jbophrase>nu'i</jbophrase> (of selma'o NUhI) on the front and
+ <jbophrase>nu'u</jbophrase> (of selma'o NUhU) on the rear. Terms (which are either sumti or sumti prefixed by tense or modal tags) that are grouped into a termset are understood to have equal scope:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-JbVH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e7d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ci gerku ce'e re nanmu cu batci</jbo>
<gloss>nu'i ci gerku re nanmu [nu'u] cu batci</gloss>
<gloss>Three dogs [plus] two men, bite.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which picks out two groups, one of three dogs and the other of two men, and says that every one of the dogs bites each of the men. The second Lojban version uses forethought; note that
- <quote>nu'u</quote> is an elidable terminator, and in this case can be freely elided.</para>
+ <jbophrase>nu'u</jbophrase> is an elidable terminator, and in this case can be freely elided.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ro</primary><secondary>effect of order when multiple in sentence</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>indefinite sumti</primary><secondary>compared to sumti with lo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti with lo</primary><secondary>compared to indefinite sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>quantified sumti</primary><secondary>different types contrasted for scope for distribution</secondary></indexterm> What about descriptors, like
<jbophrase>ci lo gerku</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>le nanmu</jbophrase> or
<jbophrase>re le ci mlatu</jbophrase>? They too can be grouped in termsets, but usually need not be, except for the
- <quote>lo</quote> case which functions like the case without a descriptor. Unless an actual quantifier precedes it,
+ <jbophrase>lo</jbophrase> case which functions like the case without a descriptor. Unless an actual quantifier precedes it,
<jbophrase>le nanmu</jbophrase> means
<jbophrase>ro le nanmu</jbophrase>, as is explained in
<xref linkend="chapter-sumti"/>. Two sumti with
<jbophrase>ro</jbophrase> quantifiers are independent of order, so:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-MADY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e7d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>[ro] le ci gerku cu batci [ro] le re nanmu</jbo>
<gloss>[All of] the three dogs bite [all of] the two men.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means that each of the dogs specified bites each of the men specified, for six acts of biting altogether. However, if there is an explicit quantifier before
- <quote>le</quote> other than
+ <jbophrase>le</jbophrase> other than
<jbophrase>ro</jbophrase>, the problems of this section reappear.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter16-section8">
+ <section xml:id="section-any">
<title>The problem of
<quote>any</quote></title>
<para>Consider the English sentence</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>anyone who goes</primary><secondary>walks</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>any</primary><secondary>as a translation problem</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-R4mX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e8d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>Anyone who goes to the store, walks across the field.</jbo>
@@ -919,25 +919,25 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>There's a box, bigger than this one, that I need</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>any</primary><secondary>expressing as existential by variable in subordinate bridi</secondary></indexterm> which is what
<xref linkend="example-random-id-fAo5"/> says, whereas
<xref linkend="example-random-id-e7ta"/> turns out to be an effective translation of our original
<xref linkend="example-random-id-R4mX"/>. So uses of
<quote>any</quote> that aren't universal end up being reflected by variables bound in the prenex of a subordinate bridi.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter16-section9">
+ <section xml:id="section-negation-boundaries">
<title>Negation boundaries</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>"there is a Y"</primary><secondary>expression</secondary><tertiary>notation convention</tertiary></indexterm> This section, as well as
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section10"/> through
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section12"/>, are in effect a continuation of
+ <xref linkend="section-connectives"/> through
+ <xref linkend="section-demorgans-law"/>, are in effect a continuation of
<xref linkend="chapter-negation"/>, introducing features of Lojban negation that require an understanding of prenexes and variables. In the examples below,
<quote>there is a Y</quote> and the like must be understood as
<quote>there is at least one Y, possibly more</quote>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi negation</primary><secondary>two forms of</secondary></indexterm> As explained in
<xref linkend="chapter-negation"/>, the negation of a bridi is usually accomplished by inserting
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase> at the beginning of the selbri:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hBRH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e9d1"/>
@@ -948,21 +948,21 @@
<gloss>It is false that I go to the store.</gloss>
<en>I don't go to the store.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>naku</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>na</primary></indexterm> The other form of bridi negation is expressed by using the compound cmavo
<jbophrase>naku</jbophrase> in the prenex, which is identified and compounded by the lexer before looking at the sentence grammar. In Lojban grammar,
<jbophrase>naku</jbophrase> is then treated like a sumti. In a prenex,
<jbophrase>naku</jbophrase> means precisely the same thing as the logician's
<quote>it is not the case that</quote> in a similar English context. (Outside of a prenex,
<jbophrase>naku</jbophrase> is also grammatically treated as a single entity - the equivalent of a sumti - but does not have this exact meaning; we'll discuss these other situations in
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section11"/>.)</para>
+ <xref linkend="section-na-outside-prenex"/>.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>external bridi negation</primary><secondary>compared to internal bridi negation</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>internal bridi negation</primary><secondary>compared to external bridi negation</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>internal bridi negation</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>external bridi negation</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi negation</primary><secondary>na before selbri compared to naku in prenex</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi negation</primary><secondary>naku in prenex compared to na before selbri</secondary></indexterm> To represent a bridi negation using a prenex, remove the
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase> from before the selbri and place
<jbophrase>naku</jbophrase> at the left end of the prenex. This form is called
<quote>external bridi negation</quote>, as opposed to
<quote>internal bridi negation</quote> using
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase>. The prenex version of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-hBRH"/> is</para>
@@ -1166,21 +1166,21 @@
<en>At least one person loves everything.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which is clearly the desired contradiction of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qCph"/>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>double negatives</primary><secondary>effect of interactions between quantifiers and negation on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>interactions between quantifiers and negation</primary><secondary>effect</secondary></indexterm> The interactions between quantifiers and negation mean that you cannot eliminate double negatives that are not adjacent. You must first move the negation phrases so that they are adjacent, inverting any quantifiers they cross, and then the double negative can be eliminated.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter16-section10">
+ <section xml:id="section-connectives">
<title>bridi negation and logical connectives</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connectives and bridi negation</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi negation and logical connectives</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connectives and negation</primary><secondary>caveat for logic chapter discussions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>negation and logical connectives</primary><secondary>caveat for logic chapter discussions</secondary></indexterm> A complete discussion of logical connectives appears in
<xref linkend="chapter-connectives"/>. What is said here is intentionally quite incomplete and makes several oversimplifications.</para>
<para>A logical connective is a cmavo or compound cmavo. In this chapter, we will make use of the logical connectives
<quote>and</quote> and
<quote>or</quote> (where
@@ -1303,21 +1303,21 @@
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>prenex manipulation</primary><secondary>moving naku past bound variable</secondary></indexterm> Within a prenex, whenever you move
<jbophrase>naku</jbophrase> past a bound variable (da, de, di, etc.), you must invert the quantifier.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>prenex manipulation</primary><secondary>exporting na from left of prenex</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>prenex manipulation</primary><secondary>importing na from selbri</secondary></indexterm> A
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase> before the selbri is always transformed into a
<jbophrase>naku</jbophrase> at the left-hand end of the prenex, and vice versa.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter16-section11">
+ <section xml:id="section-na-outside-prenex">
<title>Using
<jbophrase>naku</jbophrase> outside a prenex</title>
<para>Let us consider the English sentence</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>some do not go to school</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hp0j">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e11d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>Some children do not go to school.</jbo>
@@ -1358,21 +1358,21 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>su'oda poi verba naku klama su'ode poi ckule</jbo>
<gloss>Some which-are children don't go-to some which-are schools.</gloss>
<en>Some children don't go to a school.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>naku</primary><secondary>compared with sumti in grammar</secondary></indexterm> Although it is not technically a sumti,
<jbophrase>naku</jbophrase> can be used in most of the places where a sumti may appear. We'll see what this means in a moment.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>inverting quantifiers</primary><secondary>with movement relative to naku</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>quantifiers</primary><secondary>effect of moving naku</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>naku</primary><secondary>effect on moving quantifiers</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>naku</primary><secondary>as creating a negation boundary</secondary></indexterm> When you use
<jbophrase>naku</jbophrase> within a bridi, you are explicitly creating a negation boundary. As explained in
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section9"/>, when a prenex negation boundary expressed by
+ <xref linkend="section-negation-boundaries"/>, when a prenex negation boundary expressed by
<jbophrase>naku</jbophrase> moves past a quantifier, the quantifier has to be inverted. The same is true for
<jbophrase>naku</jbophrase> in the bridi proper. We can move
<jbophrase>naku</jbophrase> to any place in the sentence where a sumti can go, inverting any quantifiers that the negation boundary crosses. Thus, the following are equivalent to
<xref linkend="example-random-id-nvtf"/> (no good English translations exist):</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qhLG" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e11d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>su'oda poi verba cu klama rode poi ckule naku</jbo>
@@ -1410,42 +1410,42 @@
<anchor xml:id="c16e11d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>su'ode poi ckule ku'o naku se klama roda poi verba</jbo>
<gloss>Some schools aren't gone-to-by every child.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>naku negation</primary><secondary>rationale for considering an advanced technique</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>naku negation boundary</primary><secondary>effect on conversion with se</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>conversion with se</primary><secondary>effect of naku negation boundary on</secondary></indexterm> or rather,
<xref linkend="example-random-id-rHwu"/> means something completely different from
<xref linkend="example-random-id-nvtf"/>. Conversion with
- <quote>se</quote> under
+ <jbophrase>se</jbophrase> under
<jbophrase>naku</jbophrase> negation is not symmetric; not all sumti are treated identically, and some sumti are not invariant under conversion. Thus, internal negation with
<jbophrase>naku</jbophrase> is considered an advanced technique, used to achieve stylistic compatibility with natural languages.</para>
<para>It isn't always easy to see which quantifiers have to be inverted in a sentence.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-nvtf"/> is identical in meaning to:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-S6y4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e11d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>su'o verba naku klama su'o ckule</jbo>
<gloss>Some children don't go-to some school.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>indefinite sumti</primary><secondary>as implicit quantification</secondary></indexterm> but in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-S6y4"/>, the bound variables
<jbophrase>da</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>de</jbophrase> have been hidden.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>exporting negation to prenex</primary><secondary>"naku" contrasted with internal bridi negation</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>exporting negation to prenex</primary><secondary>internal bridi negation contrasted with "naku"</secondary></indexterm> It is trivial to export an internal bridi negation expressed with
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase> to the prenex, as we saw in
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section9"/>; you just move it to the left end of the prenex. In comparison, it is non-trivial to export a
+ <xref linkend="section-negation-boundaries"/>; you just move it to the left end of the prenex. In comparison, it is non-trivial to export a
<jbophrase>naku</jbophrase> to the prenex because of the quantifiers. The rules for exporting
<jbophrase>naku</jbophrase> require that you export all of the quantified variables (implicit or explicit) along with
<jbophrase>naku</jbophrase>, and you must export them from left to right, in the same order that they appear in the sentence. Thus
<xref linkend="example-random-id-nvtf"/> goes into prenex form as:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3f22">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e11d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1485,105 +1485,105 @@
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-msIC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e11d13"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro verba cu na klama su'o ckule</jbo>
<gloss>All children [false] go-to some school(s).</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>conversion of sentence with quantified variables</primary><secondary>technique</secondary></indexterm> As noted in
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section5"/>, a sentence with two different quantified variables, such as
+ <xref linkend="section-prenex-elision"/>, a sentence with two different quantified variables, such as
<xref linkend="example-random-id-msIC"/>, cannot always be converted with
- <quote>se</quote> without first exporting the quantified variables. When the variables have been exported, the sentence proper can be converted, but the quantifier order in the prenex must remain unchanged:</para>
+ <jbophrase>se</jbophrase> without first exporting the quantified variables. When the variables have been exported, the sentence proper can be converted, but the quantifier order in the prenex must remain unchanged:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-d8h3">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e11d14"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>roda poi verba</jbo>
<gloss>su'ode poi ckule zo'u de na se klama da</gloss>
<gloss>It is not the case that for all X's which are children,</gloss>
<en>there is a Y which is a school such that: Y is gone to by X.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple quantification</primary><secondary>effect on selbri placement among sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri placement among sumti</primary><secondary>effect of multiple quantification on</secondary></indexterm> While you can't freely convert with
- <quote>se</quote> when you have two quantified variables in a sentence, you can still freely move sumti to either side of the selbri, as long as the order isn't changed. If you use
+ <jbophrase>se</jbophrase> when you have two quantified variables in a sentence, you can still freely move sumti to either side of the selbri, as long as the order isn't changed. If you use
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase> negation in such a sentence, nothing special need be done. If you use
<jbophrase>naku</jbophrase> negation, then quantified variables that cross the negation boundary must be inverted.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>negation manipulation</primary><secondary>"na" contrasted with "naku" in difficulty of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>negation manipulation</primary><secondary>"naku" contrasted with "na" in difficulty of</secondary></indexterm> Clearly, if all of Lojban negation was built on
<jbophrase>naku</jbophrase> negation instead of
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase> negation, logical manipulation in Lojban would be as difficult as in natural languages. In
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section12"/>, for example, we'll discuss DeMorgan's Law, which must be used whenever a sumti with a logical connection is moved across a negation boundary.</para>
+ <xref linkend="section-demorgans-law"/>, for example, we'll discuss DeMorgan's Law, which must be used whenever a sumti with a logical connection is moved across a negation boundary.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>naku</primary><secondary>in linked sumti places</secondary></indexterm> Since
<jbophrase>naku</jbophrase> has the grammar of a sumti, it can be placed almost anywhere a sumti can go, including
- <quote>be</quote> and
- <quote>bei</quote> clauses; it isn't clear what these mean, and we recommend avoiding such constructs.</para>
+ <jbophrase>be</jbophrase> and
+ <jbophrase>bei</jbophrase> clauses; it isn't clear what these mean, and we recommend avoiding such constructs.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>double negation</primary><secondary>and naku</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>naku</primary><secondary>multiple in sentence</secondary></indexterm> You can put multiple
<jbophrase>naku</jbophrase> s in a sentence, each forming a separate negation boundary. Two adjacent
<jbophrase>naku</jbophrase> s in a bridi are a double negative and cancel out:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-u784">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e11d15"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi naku naku le zarci cu klama</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Other expressions using two
<jbophrase>naku</jbophrase> s may or may not cancel out. If there is no quantified variable between them, then the
<jbophrase>naku</jbophrase> s cancel.</para>
<para>Negation with internal
<jbophrase>naku</jbophrase> is clumsy and non-intuitive for logical manipulations, but then, so are the natural language features it is emulating.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter16-section12">
+ <section xml:id="section-demorgans-law">
<title>Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>negations with logical connectives</primary><secondary>effects on expansion of sentence</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connectives within negation</primary><secondary>effects of expansion on</secondary></indexterm> DeMorgan's Law states that when a logical connective between terms falls within a negation, then expanding the negation requires a change in the connective. Thus (where
<quote>p</quote> and
<quote>q</quote> stand for terms or sentences)
<quote>not (p or q)</quote> is identical to
<quote>not p and not q</quote>, and
<quote>not (p and q)</quote> is identical to
<quote>not p or not q</quote>. The corresponding changes for the other two basic Lojban connectives are:
<quote>not (p equivalent to q)</quote> is identical to
<quote>not p exclusive-or not q</quote>, and
<quote>not (p whether-or-not q)</quote> is identical to both
<quote>not p whether-or-not q</quote> and
<quote>not p whether-or-not not q</quote>. In any Lojban sentence having one of the basic connectives, you can substitute in either direction from these identities. (These basic connectives are explained in
<xref linkend="chapter-connectives"/>.)</para>
<para>The effects of DeMorgan's Law on the logical connectives made by modifying the basic connectives with
<jbophrase>nai</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase> and
- <quote>se</quote> can be derived directly from these rules; modify the basic connective for DeMorgan's Law by substituting from the above identities, and then, apply each
+ <jbophrase>se</jbophrase> can be derived directly from these rules; modify the basic connective for DeMorgan's Law by substituting from the above identities, and then, apply each
<jbophrase>nai</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase> and
- <quote>se</quote> modifier of the original connectives. Cancel any double negatives that result.</para>
+ <jbophrase>se</jbophrase> modifier of the original connectives. Cancel any double negatives that result.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>DeMorgan's Law</primary><secondary>and moving a logical connective relative to "naku"</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>DeMorgan's Law</primary><secondary>and distributing a negation</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>distributing a negation</primary></indexterm> When do we apply DeMorgan's Law? Whenever we wish to
<quote>distribute</quote> a negation over a logical connective; and, for internal
<jbophrase>naku</jbophrase> negation, whenever a logical connective moves in to, or out of, the scope of a negation - when it crosses a negation boundary.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>nai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>gi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ge</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ga</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>DeMorgan's Law</primary><secondary>sample applications</secondary></indexterm> Let us apply DeMorgan's Law to some sample sentences. These sentences make use of forethought logical connectives, which are explained in
<xref linkend="chapter-connectives"/>. It suffices to know that
- <quote>ga</quote> and
- <quote>gi</quote>, used before each of a pair of sumti or bridi, mean
+ <jbophrase>ga</jbophrase> and
+ <jbophrase>gi</jbophrase>, used before each of a pair of sumti or bridi, mean
<quote>either</quote> and
<quote>or</quote> respectively, and that
- <quote>ge</quote> and
- <quote>gi</quote> used similarly mean
+ <jbophrase>ge</jbophrase> and
+ <jbophrase>gi</jbophrase> used similarly mean
<quote>both</quote> and
<quote>and</quote>. Furthermore,
- <quote>ga</quote>,
- <quote>ge</quote>, and
- <quote>gi</quote> can all be suffixed with
+ <jbophrase>ga</jbophrase>,
+ <jbophrase>ge</jbophrase>, and
+ <jbophrase>gi</jbophrase> can all be suffixed with
<jbophrase>nai</jbophrase> to negate the bridi or sumti that follows.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>naku zo'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>na</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi negation</primary><secondary>and DeMorgan's Law</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi negation</primary><secondary>and negation boundary</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>naku zo'u</primary><secondary>and negation boundary</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>na</primary><secondary>and negation boundary</secondary></indexterm> We have defined
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>naku zo'u</jbophrase> as, respectively, internal and external bridi negation. These forms being identical, the negation boundary always remains at the left end of the prenex. Thus, exporting or importing negation between external and internal bridi negation forms never requires DeMorgan's Law to be applied.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qHPi"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qHPI"/> are exactly equivalent:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qHPi" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
@@ -1613,25 +1613,25 @@
<anchor xml:id="c16e12d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ge la djan. la paris. na klama</jbo>
<gloss>gi la djan. la rom. na klama</gloss>
<gloss>[It is true that] both John, to-Paris, [false] goes,</gloss>
<gloss>and John, to-Rome, [false] goes.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The
- <quote>ga</quote> and
- <quote>gi</quote>, meaning
+ <jbophrase>ga</jbophrase> and
+ <jbophrase>gi</jbophrase>, meaning
<quote>either-or</quote>, have become
- <quote>ge</quote> and
- <quote>gi</quote>, meaning
+ <jbophrase>ge</jbophrase> and
+ <jbophrase>gi</jbophrase>, meaning
<quote>both-and</quote>, as a consequence of moving the negators into the individual bridi.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>DeMorgan's Law</primary><secondary>and bridi-tail logical connection</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi-tail logical connection</primary><secondary>and DeMorgan's Law</secondary></indexterm> Here is another example of DeMorgan's Law in action, involving bridi-tail logical connection (explained in
<xref linkend="chapter-connectives"/>):</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qHpR" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e12d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djein. le zarci na ge dzukla gi bajrykla</jbo>
@@ -1722,21 +1722,21 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. naku klama ge la paris. gi la rom.</jbo>
<gloss>John doesn't go-to both Paris and Rome.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>That
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qhQP"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qhQw"/> mean the same should become evident by studying the English. It is a good exercise to work through the Lojban and prove that they are the same.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter16-section13">
+ <section xml:id="section-selbri-variables">
<title>selbri variables</title>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>bu'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>bu'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>bu'a</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GOhA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri logical variables</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical variables</primary><secondary>for selbri</secondary></indexterm> In addition to the variables
<jbophrase>da</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>de</jbophrase>, and
<jbophrase>di</jbophrase> that we have seen so far, which function as sumti and belong to selma'o KOhA, there are three corresponding variables
<jbophrase>bu'a</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>bu'e</jbophrase>, and
<jbophrase>bu'i</jbophrase> which function as selbri and belong to selma'o GOhA. These new variables allow existential or universal claims which are about the relationships between objects rather than the objects themselves. We will start with the usual silly examples; the literal translation will represent
@@ -1757,21 +1757,21 @@
<gloss>For-at-least-one relationship-F : Jim stands-in-relationship-F to-John.</gloss>
<en>There's some relationship between Jim and John.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>some relationship</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri variables</primary><secondary>prenex form as indefinite description</secondary></indexterm> The translations of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-gEWB"/> show how unidiomatic selbri variables are in English; Lojban sentences like
<xref linkend="example-random-id-gEWB"/> need to be totally reworded in English. Furthermore, when a selbri variable appears in the prenex, it is necessary to precede it with a quantifier such as
<jbophrase>su'o</jbophrase>; it is ungrammatical to just say
- <quote>bu'a zo'u</quote>. This rule is necessary because only sumti can appear in the prenex, and
+ <jbophrase>bu'a zo'u</jbophrase>. This rule is necessary because only sumti can appear in the prenex, and
<jbophrase>su'o bu'a</jbophrase> is technically a sumti - in fact, it is an indefinite description like
<jbophrase>re nanmu</jbophrase>, since
<jbophrase>bu'a</jbophrase> is grammatically equivalent to a brivla like
<jbophrase>nanmu</jbophrase>. However, indefinite descriptions involving the bu'a-series cannot be imported from the prenex.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri variables</primary><secondary>form when not in prenex</secondary></indexterm> When the prenex is omitted, the preceding number has to be omitted too:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-XxgT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e13d2"/>
@@ -1793,21 +1793,21 @@
<en>Every relationship exists between Jim and John.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-gEWB"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-XxgT"/> are almost certainly true: Jim and John might be brothers, or might live in the same city, or at least have the property of being jointly human.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-L068"/> is palpably false, however; if Jim and John were related by every possible relationship, then they would have to be both brothers and father-and-son, which is impossible.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter16-section14">
+ <section xml:id="section-notes-on-variables">
<title>A few notes on variables</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>quantifier</primary><secondary>on previously quantified variable</secondary></indexterm> A variable may have a quantifier placed in front of it even though it has already been quantified explicitly or implicitly by a previous appearance, as in:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>three cats white</primary><secondary>and two big</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-x0FP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e14d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ci da poi mlatu cu blabi .ije re da cu barda</jbo>
<gloss>Three Xs which-are cats are white, and two Xs are big.</gloss>
@@ -1820,49 +1820,49 @@
<jbophrase>re da</jbophrase> appears later, it refers to two of those three things - there is no saying which ones. Further uses of
<jbophrase>da</jbophrase> alone, if there were any, would refer once more to the three cats, so the requantification of
<jbophrase>da</jbophrase> is purely local.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>prenex scope</primary><secondary>in abstractions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>prenex scope</primary><secondary>in relative clauses</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>prenex scope</primary><secondary>in embedded bridi</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>prenex scope</primary><secondary>informal</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>prenex scope</primary><secondary>for sentences joined by .i</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>prenex scope</primary><secondary>for sentences joined by ijeks</secondary></indexterm> In general, the scope of a prenex that precedes a sentence extends to following sentences that are joined by ijeks (explained in
<xref linkend="chapter-connectives"/>) such as the
<jbophrase>.ije</jbophrase> in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-x0FP"/>. Theoretically, a bare
<jbophrase>.i</jbophrase> terminates the scope of the prenex. Informally, however, variables may persist for a while even after an
<jbophrase>.i</jbophrase>, as if it were an
<jbophrase>.ije</jbophrase>. Prenexes that precede embedded bridi such as relative clauses and abstractions extend only to the end of the clause, as explained in
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section8"/>. A prenex preceding
- <quote>tu'e ... tu'u</quote> long-scope brackets persists until the
- <quote>tu'u</quote>, which may be many sentences or even paragraphs later.</para>
+ <xref linkend="section-any"/>. A prenex preceding
+ <jbophrase>tu'e ... tu'u</jbophrase> long-scope brackets persists until the
+ <jbophrase>tu'u</jbophrase>, which may be many sentences or even paragraphs later.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>subscripts</primary><secondary>use with logical variables</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical variables</primary><secondary>creating more by subscripting</secondary></indexterm> If the variables
<jbophrase>da</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>de</jbophrase>, and
<jbophrase>di</jbophrase> (or the selbri variables
<jbophrase>bu'a</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>bu'e</jbophrase>, and
<jbophrase>bu'i</jbophrase>) are insufficient in number for handling a particular problem, the Lojban approach is to add a subscript to any of them. Each possible different combination of a subscript and a variable cmavo counts as a distinct variable in Lojban. Subscripts are explained in full in
<xref linkend="chapter-structure"/>, but in general consist of the cmavo
- <quote>xi</quote> (of selma'o XI) followed by a number, one or more lerfu words forming a single string, or a general mathematical expression enclosed in parentheses.</para>
+ <jbophrase>xi</jbophrase> (of selma'o XI) followed by a number, one or more lerfu words forming a single string, or a general mathematical expression enclosed in parentheses.</para>
<para>A quantifier can be prefixed to a variable that has already been bound either in a prenex or earlier in the bridi, thus:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-6gyb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e14d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ci da poi prenu cu se ralju pa da</jbo>
<gloss>Three Xs which are-persons are-led-by one-of X</gloss>
<en>Three people are led by one of them.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The
<jbophrase>pa da</jbophrase> in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-6gyb"/> does not specify the number of things to which
<jbophrase>da</jbophrase> refers, as the preceding
<jbophrase>ci da</jbophrase> does. Instead, it selects one of them for use in this sumti only. The number of referents of
<jbophrase>da</jbophrase> remains three, but a single one (there is no way of knowing which one) is selected to be the leader.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter16-section15">
+ <section xml:id="section-conclusion">
<title>Conclusion</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logic and Lojban</primary><secondary>more aspects</secondary></indexterm> This chapter is incomplete. There are many more aspects of logic that I neither fully understand nor feel competent to explain, neither in abstract nor in their Lojban realization. Lojban was designed to be a language that makes predicate logic speakable, and achieving that goal completely will need to wait for someone who understands both logic and Lojban better than I do. I can only hope to have pointed out the areas that are well-understood (and by implication, those that are not).</para>
</section>
</chapter>
diff --git a/todocbook/20.xml b/todocbook/20.xml
index dc10c57..74ac11a 100644
--- a/todocbook/20.xml
+++ b/todocbook/20.xml
@@ -166,21 +166,21 @@
.i le crino broda cu barda .i le xunre broda cu cmalu
This is a plastic cat-food can cover, or thingy.
The green thingy is large. The red thingy is small.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="CEhE"/> selma'o CEhE (
<xref linkend="chapter-connectives-section-termsets"/>,
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section7"/>)</bridgehead>
+ <xref linkend="chapter-quantifiers-section-grouping"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Joins multiple terms into a termset. Termsets are used to associate several terms for logical connectives, for equal quantifier scope, or for special constructs in tenses.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi ce'e do pe'e je la djan. ce'e la djeimyz. cu pendo
I [,] you [joint] and John [,] James are-friends-of.
I am a friend of you, and John is a friend of James.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="CO"/> selma'o CO (
@@ -856,21 +856,21 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section19"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Creates a selbri from a mathematical operator. See
<xref linkend="VUhU"/>.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
li ni'umu cu nu'a va'a li ma'umu
The-number -5 is-the-negation-of the-number +5
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="NUhI"/> selma'o NUhI (
<xref linkend="chapter-connectives-section-termsets"/>,
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section7"/>)</bridgehead>
+ <xref linkend="chapter-quantifiers-section-grouping"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Marks the beginning of a termset, which is used to make simultaneous claims involving two or more different places of a selbri. Terminated by
<xref linkend="NUhU"/>.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi klama nu'i ge le zarci le briju nu'u gi le zdani le ckule [nu'u]
I go [start] to-the market from-the office [joint] and to-the house from-the school.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="NUhU"/> selma'o NUhU (
<xref linkend="chapter-connectives-section-termsets"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Elidable terminator for
@@ -1252,20 +1252,20 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section10"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Non-Lojban quotation: quotes any text using a delimiting word (which can be any single Lojban word) placed before and after the text. The delimiting word must not appear in the text, and must be separated from the text by pauses.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
zoi kuot. Socrates is mortal .kuot. cu glico jufra
The-text “Socrates is mortal” is-an-English sentence.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="ZOhU"/> selma'o ZOhU (
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section2"/>,
+ <xref linkend="chapter-quantifiers-section-da-and-zohu"/>,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section4"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Separates a logical prenex from a bridi or group of sentences to which it applies. Also separates a topic from a comment in topic/comment sentences.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
su'o da poi remna ro da poi finpe zo'u da prami de
For-at-least-one X which is-a-man, for-all Ys which are-fish : X loves Y
There is a man who loves all fish.
</programlisting>
</section>
</chapter>
commit 8ad9a8063294a8b7e0fd90c7d4dc71b1f8e54cb6
Author: Eitan Postavsky <eitanp32@gmail.com>
Date: Sat Jan 15 16:52:23 2011 -0500
Chapter 15: section titles.
diff --git a/todocbook/15.xml b/todocbook/15.xml
index a7efcc4..9c988b4 100644
--- a/todocbook/15.xml
+++ b/todocbook/15.xml
@@ -1,14 +1,14 @@
<chapter xml:id="chapter-negation">
<title>
<quote>No</quote> Problems: On Lojban Negation</title>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter15-section1">
+ <section xml:id="section-introduction">
<title>Introductory</title>
<para>The grammatical expression of negation is a critical part of Lojban's claim to being logical. The problem of negation, simply put, is to come up with a complete definition of the word
<quote>not</quote>. For Lojban's unambiguous grammar, this means further that meanings of
<quote>not</quote> with different grammatical effect must be different words, and even different grammatical structures.</para>
<para>Logical assertions are implicitly required in a logical language; thus, an apparatus for expressing them is built into Lojban's logical connectives and other structures.</para>
<para>In natural languages, especially those of Indo-European grammar, we have sentences composed of two parts which are typically called
<quote>subject</quote> and
<quote>predicate</quote>. In the statement</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-vrXe">
@@ -93,21 +93,21 @@
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qgzv">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e1d10"/>
</title>
<para>The King of Mexico did come to dinner.</para>
</example>
<para>In the natural languages, we would be inclined to say that both of these statements are false, since there is no King of Mexico.</para>
<para>The rest of this chapter is designed to explain the Lojban model of negation.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter15-section2">
+ <section xml:id="section-bridi-negation">
<title>bridi negation</title>
<para>In discussing Lojban negation, we will call the form of logical negation that simply denies the truth of a statement
<quote>bridi negation</quote>. Using bridi negation, we can say the equivalent of
<quote>I haven't stopped beating my wife</quote> without implying that I ever started, nor even that I have a wife, meaning simply
<quote>It isn't true that I have stopped beating my wife.</quote> Since Lojban uses bridi as smaller components of complex sentences, bridi negation is permitted in these components as well at the sentence level.</para>
<para>For the bridi negation of a sentence to be true, the sentence being negated must be false. A major use of bridi negation is in making a negative response to a yes/no question; such responses are usually contradictory, denying the truth of the entire sentence. A negative answer to</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-sCNE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d1"/>
@@ -328,23 +328,23 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d18"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<gloss>The event-of (my [false] being-conscripted-into the Army) was aided by my uncle the Senator.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>It is possible that someone will want to incorporate bridi negations into lujvo. For this reason, the rafsi
<jbophrase role="rafsi">-nar-</jbophrase> has been reserved for
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase>. However, before using this rafsi, make sure that you intend the contradictory bridi negation, and not the scalar negation described in
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section3"/>, which will be much more common in tanru and lujvo.</para>
+ <xref linkend="section-scalar-negation"/>, which will be much more common in tanru and lujvo.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter15-section3">
+ <section xml:id="section-scalar-negation">
<title>Scalar Negation</title>
<para>Let us now consider some other types of negation. For example, when we say:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-GJga">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e3d1"/>
</title>
<para>The chair is not brown.</para>
</example>
<para>we make a positive inference - that the chair is some other color. Thus, it is legitimate to respond:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-DDN8">
@@ -490,28 +490,28 @@
<para>Using this paradigm, contradictory negation is less restrictive than scalar negation - it says that the point or value stated is incorrect (false), and makes no statement about the truth of any other point or value, whether or not on the scale.</para>
<para>In English, scalar negation semantically includes phrases such as
<quote>other than</quote>,
<quote>reverse of</quote>, or
<quote>opposite from</quote> expressions and their equivalents. More commonly, scalar negation is expressed in English by the prefixes
<quote>non-</quote>,
<quote>un-</quote>,
<quote>il-</quote>, and
<quote>im-</quote>. Just which form and permissible values are implied by a scalar negation is dependent on the semantics of the word or concept which is being negated, and on the context. Much confusion in English results from the uncontrolled variations in meaning of these phrases and prefixes.</para>
<para>In the examples of
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section4"/>, we will translate the general case of scalar negation using the general formula
+ <xref linkend="section-nahe"/>, we will translate the general case of scalar negation using the general formula
<quote>other than</quote> when a phrase is scalar-negated, and
<quote>non-</quote> when a single word is scalar-negated.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter15-section4">
+ <section xml:id="section-nahe">
<title>selbri and tanru negation</title>
<para>All the scalar negations illustrated in
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section3"/> are expressed in Lojban using the cmavo
+ <xref linkend="section-scalar-negation"/> are expressed in Lojban using the cmavo
<jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase> (of selma'o NAhE). The most common use of
<jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase> is as a prefix to the selbri:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qh42" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci</jbo>
<en>I go to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -797,24 +797,24 @@
<en>It is false that the current King of France is bald.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note:
<jbophrase>lo</jbophrase> is used in these sentences because negation relates to truth conditions. To meaningfully talk about truth conditions in sentences carrying a description, it must be clear that the description actually applies to the referent. A sentence using
<jbophrase>le</jbophrase> instead of
<jbophrase>lo</jbophrase> can be true even if there is no current king of France, as long as the speaker and the listener agree to describe something as the current king of France. (See the explanations of
<jbophrase>le</jbophrase> in
<xref linkend="chapter-sumti"/>.)</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter15-section5">
+ <section xml:id="section-scales-negation">
<title>Expressing scales in selbri negation</title>
<para>In expressing a scalar negation, we can provide some indication of the scale, range, frame-of-reference, or universe of discourse that is being dealt with in an assertion. As stated in
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section4"/>, the default is the set of plausible alternatives. Thus if we say:</para>
+ <xref linkend="section-nahe"/>, the default is the set of plausible alternatives. Thus if we say:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mw3B">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e5d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le stizu cu na'e xunre</jbo>
<gloss>The chair is a non-(red-thing).</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>the pragmatic interpretation is that we mean a different color and not</para>
@@ -971,21 +971,21 @@
<jbophrase>tolmle</jbophrase> respectively.</para>
<para>This large variety of scalar negations is provided because different scales have different properties. Some scales are open-ended in both directions: there is no
<quote>ultimately ugly</quote> or
<quote>ultimately beautiful</quote>. Other scales, like temperature, are open at one end and closed at the other: there is a minimum temperature (so-called
<quote>absolute zero</quote>) but no maximum temperature. Still other scales are closed at both ends.</para>
<para>Correspondingly, some selbri have no obvious
<jbophrase>to'e</jbophrase>- what is the opposite of a dog? - while others have more than one, and need
<jbophrase>ci'u</jbophrase> to specify which opposite is meant.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter15-section6">
+ <section xml:id="section-sumti-negation">
<title>sumti negation</title>
<para>There are two ways of negating sumti in Lojban. We have the choice of quantifying the sumti with zero, or of applying the sumti-negator
<jbophrase>na'ebo</jbophrase> before the sumti. It turns out that a zero quantification serves for contradictory negation. As the cmavo we use implies,
<jbophrase>na'ebo</jbophrase> forms a scalar negation.</para>
<para>Let us show examples of each.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PL1E">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e6d1"/>
@@ -1029,21 +1029,21 @@
<gloss>I go to the-opposite-of Boston.</gloss>
<en>I go to Perth.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(Boston and Perth are nearly, but not quite, antipodal cities. In a purely United States context, San Francisco might be a better
<quote>opposite</quote>.) Coming up with good examples is difficult, because attaching
<jbophrase>to'ebo</jbophrase> to a description sumti is usually the same as attaching
<jbophrase>to'e</jbophrase> to the selbri of the description.</para>
<para>It is not possible to transform sumti negations of either type into bridi negations or scalar selbri negations. Negations of sumti will be used in Lojban conversation. The inability to manipulate these negations logically will, it is hoped, prevent the logical errors that result when natural languages attempt corresponding manipulations.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter15-section7">
+ <section xml:id="section-other-negation">
<title>Negation of minor grammatical constructs</title>
<para>We have a few other constructs that can be negated, all of them based on negating individual words. For such negation, we use the suffix-combining negator, which is
<jbophrase>nai</jbophrase>.
<jbophrase>nai</jbophrase>, by the way, is almost always written as a compound into the previous word that it is negating, although it is a regular separate-word cmavo and the sole member of selma'o NAI.</para>
<para>Most of these negation forms are straightforward, and should be discussed and interpreted in connection with an analysis of the particular construct being negated. Thus, we will not go into much detail here.</para>
<para>The following are places where
<jbophrase>nai</jbophrase> is used:</para>
<para>When attached to tenses and modals (see
<xref linkend="chapter-tenses"/>), the
<jbophrase>nai</jbophrase> suffix usually indicates a contradictory negation of the tagged bridi. Thus
@@ -1116,21 +1116,21 @@
<para>The abstractors of selma'o NU follow the pattern of the tenses and modals. NU allows negative abstractions, especially in compound abstractions connected by logical connectives:
<jbophrase>su'ujeninai</jbophrase>, which corresponds to
<jbophrase>su'u jenai ni</jbophrase> just as
<jbophrase>punai je ca</jbophrase> corresponds to
<jbophrase>pu naje ca</jbophrase>. It is not clear how much use logically connected abstractors will be: see
<xref linkend="chapter-attitudinals"/>.</para>
<para>A
<jbophrase>nai</jbophrase> attached to a non-logical connective (of selma'o JOI or BIhI) is a scalar negation, and says that the bridi is false under the specified mixture, but that another connective is applicable. Non-logical connectives are discussed in
<xref linkend="chapter-connectives"/>.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter15-section8">
+ <section xml:id="section-questions">
<title>Truth questions</title>
<para>One application of negation is in answer to truth questions (those which expect the answers
<quote>Yes</quote> or
<quote>No</quote>). The truth question cmavo
<jbophrase>xu</jbophrase> is in selma'o UI; placed at the beginning of a sentence, it asks whether the sentence as a whole is true or false.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-5y84">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e8d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1200,21 +1200,21 @@
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2SK0">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e8d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. [cu] ba na klama la paris. .e la rom.</jbo>
<gloss>John later-will [false] go-to [both] Paris and Rome.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>We stated in
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section3"/> that sentences like
+ <xref linkend="section-scalar-negation"/> that sentences like
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Fn2c"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-2SK0"/> appear to be semantically identical, but that subtle semantic distinctions may eventually be found.</para>
<para>You can also use a scalar negation with
<jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase>, in which case, it is equivalent to putting a
<jbophrase>na'eke</jbophrase> immediately after any tense:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-q70h">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e8d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1229,26 +1229,26 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. [cu] pu na'eke klama [ke'e] la paris. .e la rom.</jbo>
<gloss>John previously other-than(went-to) [both] Paris and Rome.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>He might have telephoned the two cities instead of going there. The unnecessary
<jbophrase>ke</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>ke'e</jbophrase> would have been essential if the selbri had been a tanru.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter15-section9">
+ <section xml:id="section-affirmations">
<title>Affirmations</title>
<para>There is an explicit positive form for both selma'o NA (
<jbophrase>ja'a</jbophrase>) and selma'o NAhE (
<jbophrase>je'a</jbophrase>), each of which would supplant the corresponding negator in the grammatical position used, allowing one to assert the positive in response to a negative question or statement without confusion. Assuming the same context as in
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section8"/>:</para>
+ <xref linkend="section-questions"/>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KhoH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e9d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xu na go'i</jbo>
<gloss>Is-it-true-that [false] [repeat previous]?</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>or equivalently</para>
@@ -1321,21 +1321,21 @@
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-toQK">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e9d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta je'a melbi</jbo>
<gloss>that is-indeed beautiful.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter15-section10">
+ <section xml:id="section-metalinguistic-negation">
<title>Metalinguistic negation forms</title>
<para>The question of truth or falsity is not entirely synonymous with negation. Consider the English sentence</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-QsJ9">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d1"/>
</title>
<para>I have not stopped beating my wife.</para>
</example>
<para>If I never started such a heinous activity, then this sentence is neither true nor false. Such a negation simply says that something is wrong with the non-negated statement. Generally, we then use either tone of voice or else a correction to express a preferred true claim:
@@ -1474,21 +1474,21 @@
<jbophrase>ji'una'iku</jbophrase> metalinguistically says that something is wrong with that assumption. (See
<xref linkend="chapter-tenses"/>.)</para>
<para>Scale errors and category errors can be similarly expressed with selma'o BAI.
<jbophrase>le'a</jbophrase> has meaning
<quote>of category/class/type X</quote>,
<jbophrase>ci'u</jbophrase> has meaning
<quote>on scale X</quote>, and
<jbophrase>ci'e</jbophrase>, based on
<jbophrase>ciste</jbophrase>, can be used to talk about universes of discourse defined either as systems or sets of components, as shown in
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section8"/>.
+ <xref linkend="section-questions"/>.
<jbophrase>kai</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>la'u</jbophrase> also exist in BAI for discussing other quality and quantity errors.</para>
<para>We have to make particular note of potential problems in the areas of undue quantity and incorrect scale/category. Assertions about the relationships between gismu are among the basic substance of the language. It is thus invalid to logically require that if something is blue, that it is colored, or if it is not-blue, then it is some other color. In Lojban,
<jbophrase>blanu</jbophrase> (
<quote>blue</quote>) is not explicitly defined as a
<jbophrase>skari</jbophrase> (
<quote>color</quote>). Similarly, it is not implicit that the opposite of
<quote>good</quote> is
<quote>bad</quote>.</para>
@@ -1503,21 +1503,21 @@
<xref linkend="chapter-structure"/> for explanations of these usages.</para>
<para>In summary, metalinguistic negation will typically take the form of referring to a previous statement and marking it with one or more
<jbophrase>na'i</jbophrase> to indicate what metalinguistic errors have been made, and then repeating the statement with corrections. References to previous statements may be full repetitions, or may use members of selma'o GOhA.
<jbophrase>na'i</jbophrase> at the beginning of a statement merely says that something is inappropriate about the statement, without specificity.</para>
<para>In normal use, metalinguistic negation requires that a corrected statement follow the negated statement. In Lojban, however, it is possible to completely and unambiguously specify metalinguistic errors without correcting them. It will eventually be seen whether an uncorrected metalinguistic negation remains an acceptable form in Lojban. In such a statement, metalinguistic expression would involve an ellipsis not unlike that of tenseless expression.</para>
<para>Note that metalinguistic negation gives us another kind of legitimate negative answer to a
<jbophrase>xu</jbophrase> question (see
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section8"/>).
+ <xref linkend="section-questions"/>).
<jbophrase>na'i</jbophrase> will be used when something about the questioned statement is inappropriate, such as in questions like
<quote>Have you stopped beating your wife?</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-SfSU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d15"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xu do sisti lezu'o do rapydarxi ledo fetspe</jbo>
<gloss>Have you ceased the activity of repeat-hitting your female-spouse?</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1550,21 +1550,21 @@
<jbo>go'i ji'una'iku</jbo>
<en>Some presupposition is wrong with the previous bridi.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Finally, one may metalinguistically affirm a bridi with
<jbophrase>jo'a</jbophrase>, another cmavo of selma'o UI. A common use for
<jbophrase>jo'a</jbophrase> might be to affirm that a particular construction, though unusual or counterintuitive, is in fact correct; another usage would be to disagree with - by overriding - a respondent's metalinguistic negation.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter15-section11">
+ <section xml:id="section-are-all-questions-answered">
<title>Summary - Are All Possible Questions About Negation Now Answered?</title>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-MdRP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e11d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>na go'i .ije na'e go'i .ije na'i go'i</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
diff --git a/todocbook/20.xml b/todocbook/20.xml
index 460c975..dc10c57 100644
--- a/todocbook/20.xml
+++ b/todocbook/20.xml
@@ -90,21 +90,21 @@
<xref linkend="GAhO"/>.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi ca sanli la drezdn. bi'i la frankfurt.
I [present] stand-on-surface Dresden [interval] Frankfurt.
I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="BO"/> selma'o BO (
<xref linkend="section-three-part-tanru"/>,
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section6"/>,
+ <xref linkend="chapter-negation-section-sumti-negation"/>,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section17"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Joins tanru units, binding them together closely. Also used to bind logically or non-logically connected phrases, sentences, etc.
<xref linkend="BO"/> is always high precedence and right-grouping.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ta cmalu nixli bo ckule
That is-a-small type-of (girl type-of school).
That is a small school for girls.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="BOI"/> selma'o BOI (
@@ -769,35 +769,35 @@
<xref linkend="FAhA"/> cmavo.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
le verba mo'i ri'u cadzu le bisli
The child [movement] [right] walks-on the ice.
The child walks toward my right on the ice.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="NA"/> selma'o NA (
<xref linkend="chapter-connectives-section-six-types"/>,
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section7"/>)</bridgehead>
+ <xref linkend="chapter-negation-section-other-negation"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Contradictory negators, asserting that a whole bridi is false (or true).</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi na klama le zarci
It is not true that I go to the market.
</programlisting>
<para>Also used to construct logical connective compound cmavo.</para>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="NAI"/> selma'o NAI (
<xref linkend="chapter-connectives-section-six-types"/>,
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section7"/>)</bridgehead>
+ <xref linkend="chapter-negation-section-other-negation"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Negates the previous word, but can only be used with certain selma'o as specified by the grammar.</para>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="NAhE"/> selma'o NAhE (
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section4"/>)</bridgehead>
+ <xref linkend="chapter-negation-section-nahe"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Scalar negators, modifying a selbri or a sumti to a value other than the one stated, the opposite of the one stated, etc. Also used with following
<xref linkend="BO"/> to construct a sumti qualifier; see
<xref linkend="LAhE"/>.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ta na'e blanu zdani
That is-a-non- blue house.
That is a house which is other than blue.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="NAhU"/> selma'o NAhU (
commit d35279157927bd452e05d0311cdc3c723da6f5d1
Author: Eitan Postavsky <eitanp32@gmail.com>
Date: Sat Jan 15 16:46:49 2011 -0500
Chapter 15: example tags.
diff --git a/todocbook/15.xml b/todocbook/15.xml
index 17c4890..a7efcc4 100644
--- a/todocbook/15.xml
+++ b/todocbook/15.xml
@@ -197,26 +197,23 @@
<quote>isn't</quote> or
<quote>doesn't</quote>, as appropriate).</para>
<para>The most important rule about bridi negation is that if a bridi is true, its negation is false, and vice versa.</para>
<para>In Lojban, there are several structures that implicitly contain bridi, so that Lojban sentences may contain more than one occurrence of
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase>. For example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-WU9u">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi na gleki le nu</jbo>
- <gloss>na klama le nu dansu</gloss>
- <gloss>I [false] am-happy-about the event-of</gloss>
- <gloss>([false] going-to the event-of dancing).</gloss>
- <gloss>It is not the case that I am happy about it not being</gloss>
- <gloss>the case that I am going to the dance.</gloss>
+ <jbo>mi na gleki le nu na klama le nu dansu</jbo>
+ <gloss>I [false] am-happy-about the event-of ([false] going-to the event-of dancing).</gloss>
+ <gloss>It is not the case that I am happy about it not being the case that I am going to the dance.</gloss>
<en>I am not happy about not going to the dance.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In the previous example, we used internal negations in abstraction bridi; bridi negation may also be found in descriptions within sumti. For example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-N65f">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -276,27 +273,25 @@
<en>I habitually go to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>mean the same thing with
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase> before the
<jbophrase>ta'e</jbophrase>, as when the negation occurs afterwards; we'll let future, Lojban-speaking, logicians decide on how they relate to each other.</para>
<para>A final caution on translating English negations into Lojban: if you translate the English literally, you'll get the wrong one. With English causal statements, and other statements with auxiliary clauses, this problem is more likely.</para>
<para>Thus, if you translate the English:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hEa7">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-hEa7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d14"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>I do not go to the market because the car is broken.</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>I do not go to the market because the car is broken.</para>
</example>
<para>as:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-q8su">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d15"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na klama le zarci ki'u lenu le karce cu spofu</jbo>
<gloss>I [false] go-to the market because the car is broken.</gloss>
@@ -305,229 +300,189 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>you end up negating too much.</para>
<para>Such mistranslations result from the ambiguity of English compounded by the messiness of natural language negation. A correct translation of the normal interpretation of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-hEa7"/> is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-R3GU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d16"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>lenu mi na klama le zarci cu se krinu</jbo>
- <gloss>lenu le karce cu spofu</gloss>
- <gloss>The event-of (my [false] going-to the market) is justified by</gloss>
- <gloss>the event-of (the car being broken).</gloss>
+ <jbo>lenu mi na klama le zarci cu se krinu lenu le karce cu spofu</jbo>
+ <gloss>The event-of (my [false] going-to the market) is justified by the event-of (the car being broken).</gloss>
<en>My not going to the market is because the car is broken.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-R3GU"/>, the negation is clearly confined to the event abstraction in the x1 sumti, and does not extend to the whole sentence. The English could also have been expressed by two separate sentences joined by a causal connective (which we'll not go into here).</para>
<para>The problem is not confined to obvious causals. In the English:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-MGvB">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-MGvB">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d17"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>I was not conscripted into the Army with the help of my uncle the Senator.</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>I was not conscripted into the Army with the help of my uncle the Senator.</para>
</example>
<para>we do not intend the uncle's help to be part of the negation. We must thus move the negation into an event clause or use two separate sentences. The event-clause version would look like:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-NILi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d18"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>The event-of (my [false] being-conscripted-into the Army) was aided by my uncle the Senator.</jbo>
+ <gloss>The event-of (my [false] being-conscripted-into the Army) was aided by my uncle the Senator.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>It is possible that someone will want to incorporate bridi negations into lujvo. For this reason, the rafsi
<jbophrase role="rafsi">-nar-</jbophrase> has been reserved for
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase>. However, before using this rafsi, make sure that you intend the contradictory bridi negation, and not the scalar negation described in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section3"/>, which will be much more common in tanru and lujvo.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter15-section3">
<title>Scalar Negation</title>
<para>Let us now consider some other types of negation. For example, when we say:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-GJga">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-GJga">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e3d1"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>The chair is not brown.</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>The chair is not brown.</para>
</example>
<para>we make a positive inference - that the chair is some other color. Thus, it is legitimate to respond:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-DDN8">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-DDN8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e3d2"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>It is green.</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>It is green.</para>
</example>
<para>Whether we agree that the chair is brown or not, the fact that the statement refers to color has significant effect on how we interpret some responses. If we hear the following exchange:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-muQB">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-muQB">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e3d3"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>The chair is not brown.</jbo>
- <en>Correct. The chair is wooden.</en>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>The chair is not brown.</para>
+ <para>Correct. The chair is wooden.</para>
</example>
<para>we immediately start to wonder about the unusual wood that isn't brown. If we hear the exchange:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-MxWM">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-MxWM">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e3d4"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>Is the chair green?</jbo>
- <en>No, it is in the kitchen.</en>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>Is the chair green?</para>
+ <para>No, it is in the kitchen.</para>
</example>
<para>we are unsettled because the response seems to be a non-sequitur. But since it might be true and it is a statement about the chair, one can't say it is entirely irrelevant!</para>
<para>What is going on in these statements is something called
<quote>scalar negation</quote>. As the name suggests, scalar negation presumes an implied scale. A negation of this type not only states that one scalar value is false, but implies that another value on the scale must be true. This can easily lead to complications. The following exchange seems reasonably natural (a little suspension of disbelief in such inane conversation will help):</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-s5DJ">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-s5DJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e3d5"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>That isn't a blue house.</jbo>
- <en>Right! That is a green house.</en>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>That isn't a blue house.</para>
+ <para>Right! That is a green house.</para>
</example>
<para>We have acknowledged a scalar negation by providing a correct value which is another color in the set of colors permissible for houses. While a little less likely, the following exchange is also natural:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-M472">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-M472">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e3d6"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>That isn't a blue house.</jbo>
- <en>Right! That is a blue car.</en>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>That isn't a blue house.</para>
+ <para>Right! That is a blue car.</para>
</example>
<para>Again, we have acknowledged a scalar negation, and substituted a different object in the universe of discourse of things that can be blue.</para>
<para>Now, if the following exchange occurs:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sq36">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-sq36">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e3d7"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>That isn't a blue house.</jbo>
- <en>Right! That is a green car.</en>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>That isn't a blue house.</para>
+ <para>Right! That is a green car.</para>
</example>
<para>we find the result unsettling. This is because it seems that two corrections have been applied when there is only one negation. Yet out of context,
<quote>blue house</quote> and
<quote>green car</quote> seem to be reasonably equivalent units that should be mutually replaceable in a sentence. It's just that we don't have a clear way in English to say:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hd0I">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-hd0I">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e3d8"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>That isn't a
- <quote>blue-house</quote>.</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>That isn't a
+ <quote>blue-house</quote>.</para>
</example>
<para>aloud so as to clearly imply that the scalar negation is affecting the pair of words as a single unit.</para>
<para>Another even more confusing example of scalar negation is to the sentence:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-JTrd">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-JTrd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e3d9"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>John didn't go to Paris from Rome.</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>John didn't go to Paris from Rome.</para>
</example>
<para>Might
<xref linkend="example-random-id-JTrd"/> imply that John went to Paris from somewhere else? Or did he go somewhere else from Rome? Or perhaps he didn't go anywhere at all: maybe someone else did, or maybe there was no event of going whatsoever. One can devise circumstances where any one, two or all three of these statements might be inferred by a listener.</para>
<para>In English, we have a clear way of distinguishing scalar negation from predicate negation that can be used in many situations. We can use the partial word
<quote>non-</quote> as a prefix. But this is not always considered good usage, even though it would render many statements much clearer. For example, we can clearly distinguish</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gN3C">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-gN3C">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e3d10"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>That is a non-blue house.</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>That is a non-blue house.</para>
</example>
<para>from the related sentence</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-GtQC">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-GtQC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e3d11"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>That is a blue non-house.</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>That is a blue non-house.</para>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-gN3C"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-GtQC"/> have the advantage that, while they contain a negative indication, they are in fact positive assertions. They say what is true by excluding the false; they do not say what is false.</para>
<para>We can't always use
<quote>non-</quote> though, because of the peculiarities of English's grammar. It would sound strange to say:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-A3yR">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-A3yR">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e3d12"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>John went to non-Paris from Rome.</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>John went to non-Paris from Rome.</para>
</example>
<para>or</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sn2I">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-sn2I">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e3d13"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>John went to Paris from non-Rome.</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>John went to Paris from non-Rome.</para>
</example>
<para>although these would clarify the vague negation. Another circumlocution for English scalar negation is
<quote>other than</quote>, which works where
<quote>non-</quote> does not, but is wordier.</para>
<para>Finally, we have natural language negations that are called polar negations, or opposites:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qh2s" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qh2s">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e3d14"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>John is moral</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>John is moral</para>
</example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qh3s" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qh3s">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e3d15"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>John is immoral</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>John is immoral</para>
</example>
<para>To be immoral is much more than to just be not moral: it implies the opposite condition. Statements like
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qh3s"/> are strong negations which not only deny the truth of a statement, but assert its opposite. Since,
<quote>opposite</quote> implies a scale, polar negations are a special variety of scalar negations.</para>
<para>To examine this concept more closely, let us draw a linear scale, showing two examples of how the scale is used:</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>All Most Some</cmavo>
- <selmaho>Few</selmaho>
- <description>None</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>Excellent Good Fair</cmavo>
- <selmaho>Poor</selmaho>
- <description>Awful</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
+ <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ Affirmations (positive) Negations (negative)
+ |-----------|-----------|-----------|-----------|
+ All Most Some Few None
+ Excellent Good Fair Poor Awful
+ </programlisting>
<para>Some scales are more binary than the examples we diagrammed. Thus we have
<quote>not necessary</quote> or
<quote>unnecessary</quote> being the polar opposite of necessary. Another scale, especially relevant to Lojban, is interpreted based on situations modified by one's philosophy:
<quote>not true</quote> may be equated with
<quote>false</quote> in a bi-valued truth-functional logic, while in tri-valued logic an intermediate between
<quote>true</quote> and
<quote>false</quote> is permitted, and in fuzzy logic a continuous scale exists from true to false. The meaning of
<quote>not true</quote> requires a knowledge of which variety of truth scale is being considered.</para>
<para>We will define the most general form of scalar negation as indicating only that the particular point or value in the scale or range is not valid and that some other (unspecified) point on the scale is correct. This is the intent expressed in most contexts by
@@ -645,38 +600,38 @@
<quote>set</quote>, implied in Lojban tanru negations is anything which plausibly can be substituted into the tanru. (Plausibility here is interpreted in the same way that answers to a
<jbophrase>mo</jbophrase> question must be plausible - the result must not only have the right number of places and have sumti values appropriate to the place structure, it must also be appropriate or relevant to the context.) This minimal condition allows a speaker to be intentionally vague, while still communicating meaningful information. The speaker who uses selbri negation is denying one relationship, while minimally asserting a different relationship.</para>
<para>We also need a scalar negation form that has a scope longer than a single brivla. There exists such a longer-scope selbri negation form, as exemplified by (each Lojban sentence in the next several examples is given twice, with parentheses in the second copy showing the scope of the
<jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase>):</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-t20b">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na'eke cadzu klama [ke'e] le zarci</jbo>
- <gloss>mi na'e (ke cadzu klama [ke'e]) le zarci</gloss>
+ <jbo>mi na'e (ke cadzu klama [ke'e]) le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I other-than-(walkingly-go-to) the market.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This negation uses the same
<jbophrase>ke</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>ke'e</jbophrase> delimiters (the
<jbophrase>ke'e</jbophrase> is always elidable at the end of a selbri) that are used in tanru. The sentence clearly negates the entire selbri. The
<jbophrase>ke'e</jbophrase>, whether elided or not, reminds us that the negation does not include the trailing sumti. While the trailing-sumti place-structure is defined as that of the final brivla, the trailing sumti themselves are not part of the selbri and are thus not negated by
<jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase>.</para>
<para>Negations of just part of the selbri are also permitted:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PVct">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na'eke sutra cadzu ke'e klama le zarci</jbo>
- <gloss>mi na'e (ke sutra cadzu ke'e) klama le zarci</gloss>
+ <jbo>mi na'e (ke sutra cadzu ke'e) klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I other-than-(quickly-walkingly) go-to the market.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-PVct"/>, only the
<jbophrase>sutra cadzu</jbophrase> tanru is negated, so the speaker is indeed going to the market, but not by walking quickly.</para>
<para>Negations made with
<jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase> or
<jbophrase>na'eke</jbophrase> also include within their scope any sumti attached to the brivla or tanru with
<jbophrase>be</jbophrase> or
@@ -692,31 +647,31 @@
</example>
<para>Note that
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qh7T"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qH8J"/> do not express the same thing:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qh7T" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na'eke sutra cadzu [ke'e] lemi birka</jbo>
- <gloss>mi na'e (ke sutra cadzu [ke'e]) lemi birka</gloss>
+ <jbo>mi na'e (ke sutra cadzu [ke'e]) lemi birka</jbo>
<gloss>I other-than-(quickly-walk-on) my-arms.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qH8J" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na'eke sutra cadzu be lemi birka [ke'e]</jbo>
- <gloss>mi na'e (ke sutra cadzu be lemi birka [ke'e])</gloss>
+ <jbo>mi na'e (ke sutra cadzu be lemi birka [ke'e])</jbo>
<gloss>I other-than-(quickly-walk-on my-arms).</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The translations show that the negation in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qh7T"/> is more restricted in scope; i.e. less of the sentence is negated with respect to x1 (
<jbophrase>mi</jbophrase>).</para>
<para>Logical scope being an important factor in Lojban's claims to be unambiguous, let us indicate the relative precedence of
<jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase> as an operator. Grouping with
<jbophrase>ke</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>ke'e</jbophrase>, of course, has an overt scope, which is its advantage.
@@ -726,29 +681,29 @@
<jbophrase>co</jbophrase>, the tanru inversion operator has a scope that is longer than all other tanru constructs.</para>
<para>In short,
<jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>na'eke</jbophrase> define a type of negation, which is shorter in scope than bridi negation, and which affects all or part of a selbri. The result of
<jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase> negation remains an assertion of some specific truth and not merely a denial of another claim.</para>
<para>The similarity becomes striking when it is noticed that the rafsi
<jbophrase role="rafsi">-nal-</jbophrase>, representing
<jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase> when a tanru is condensed into a lujvo, forms an exact parallel to the English usage of
<jbophrase>non-</jbophrase>. Turning a series of related negations into lujvo gives:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2buq">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2buq"> <!-- FIXME: this "example" should probably just be a simplelist -->
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d12"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>na'e klama becomes nalkla</jbo>
- <gloss>na'e cadzu klama becomes naldzukla</gloss>
- <gloss>na'e sutra cadzu klama becomes nalsu'adzukla</gloss>
- <en>nake sutra cadzu ke'e klama becomes nalsu'adzuke'ekla</en>
+ <jbo>na'e cadzu klama becomes naldzukla</jbo>
+ <jbo>na'e sutra cadzu klama becomes nalsu'adzukla</jbo>
+ <jbo>nake sutra cadzu ke'e klama becomes nalsu'adzuke'ekla</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note:
<jbophrase role="rafsi">-kem-</jbophrase> is the rafsi for
<jbophrase>ke</jbophrase>, but it is omitted in the final lujvo as superfluous -
<jbophrase>ke'e</jbophrase> is its own rafsi, and its inclusion in the lujvo implies a
<jbophrase>ke</jbophrase> after the
<jbophrase role="rafsi">-nal-</jbophrase>, since it needs to close something; only a
<jbophrase>ke</jbophrase> immediately after the negation would make the
@@ -762,21 +717,21 @@
<quote>other than</quote>,
<quote>non-</quote>, or another negator for
<jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase> in tanru; the translator must render the Lojban into English so it is clear in context. Let's go back to our simplest example:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qh9c" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d13"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na'e klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I am other-than-(going-to) the market.</gloss>
- <gloss>?I am not going-to the market.</gloss>
+ <gloss>I am not going-to the market.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qH9e" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d14"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nalkla le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I am-a-non-go-er-to the market.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -798,39 +753,39 @@
<para>The selbri
<jbophrase>krecau</jbophrase> negates with
<jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase> as:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2maY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d16"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu na'e krecau</jbo>
<gloss>An-actual currently noblest-governor of the French country is-other-than hair-without.</gloss>
- <gloss>The current King of France is other-than-bald.</gloss>
+ <en>The current King of France is other-than-bald.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>or, as a lujvo:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-wGXL">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d17"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu nalkrecau</jbo>
<gloss>An-actual currently noblest-governor of the French country is-non-hair-without.</gloss>
- <gloss>The current King of France is a non-bald-one.</gloss>
+ <en>The current King of France is a non-bald-one.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-2maY"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-wGXL"/> express the predicate negation forms using a negation word (
<jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase>) or rafsi (
- <jbophrase>-nal-</jbophrase>); yet they make positive assertions about the current King of France; ie., that he is other-than-bald or non-bald. This follows from the close binding of
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">-nal-</jbophrase>); yet they make positive assertions about the current King of France; ie., that he is other-than-bald or non-bald. This follows from the close binding of
<jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase> to the brivla. The lujvo form makes this overt by absorbing the negative marker into the word.</para>
<para>Since there is no current King of France, it is false to say that he is bald, or non-bald, or to make any other affirmative claim about him. Any sentence about the current King of France containing only a selbri negation is as false as the sentence without the negation. No amount of selbri negations have any effect on the truth value of the sentence, which is invariably
<quote>false</quote>, since no affirmative statement about the current King of France can be true. On the other hand, bridi negation does produce a truth:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Bwdy">
<title>
@@ -884,21 +839,21 @@
</example>
<para>We might also have reduced the pragmatic ambiguity by making the two trailing sumti values explicit (the
<quote>as perceived by</quote> and
<quote>under conditions</quote> places have been added to the place structure of
<jbophrase>xunre</jbophrase>). But assume we have a really stubborn listener (an artificially semi-intelligent computer?) who will find a way to misinterpret
<xref linkend="example-random-id-yWSC"/> even with three specific sumti provided.</para>
<para>In this case, we use a sumti tagged with the sumti tcita
<jbophrase>ci'u</jbophrase>, which translates roughly as
<quote>on a scale of X</quote>, where
- <quote>X</quote> is the sumti. For maximal clarity, the tagged sumti can be bound into the negated selbri with
+ <varname>X</varname> is the sumti. For maximal clarity, the tagged sumti can be bound into the negated selbri with
<jbophrase>be</jbophrase>. To clarify
<xref linkend="example-random-id-yWSC"/>, we might say:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-a8S1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e5d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le stizu cu na'e xunre be ci'u loka skari</jbo>
<gloss>The chair is a non-(red on-a-scale-of-colorness)-thing.</gloss>
@@ -972,31 +927,31 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qh9U" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e5d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta na'e melbi</jbo>
<gloss>That is-non-beautiful.</gloss>
<gloss>That is other than beautiful.</gloss>
- <gloss>That is ugly [in one sense].</gloss>
+ <en>That is ugly [in one sense].</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qhAI" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e5d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta no'e melbi</jbo>
<gloss>That is-neutrally beautiful.</gloss>
- <gloss>That is plain/ordinary-looking (neither ugly nor beautiful).</gloss>
+ <en>That is plain/ordinary-looking (neither ugly nor beautiful).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qHAV" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e5d12"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta to'e melbi</jbo>
<gloss>That is-opposite-of beautiful.</gloss>
<en>That is ugly/very ugly/repulsive.</en>
@@ -1266,24 +1221,22 @@
<jbo>na'e go'i</jbo>
<gloss>other-than [repeat previous]</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which means</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nQRQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e8d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la djan. [cu] pu na'eke klama</jbo>
- <gloss>[ke'e] la paris. .e la rom.</gloss>
- <gloss>John previously other-than(went-to)</gloss>
- <gloss>[both] Paris and Rome.</gloss>
+ <jbo>la djan. [cu] pu na'eke klama [ke'e] la paris. .e la rom.</jbo>
+ <gloss>John previously other-than(went-to) [both] Paris and Rome.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>He might have telephoned the two cities instead of going there. The unnecessary
<jbophrase>ke</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>ke'e</jbophrase> would have been essential if the selbri had been a tanru.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter15-section9">
<title>Affirmations</title>
<para>There is an explicit positive form for both selma'o NA (
<jbophrase>ja'a</jbophrase>) and selma'o NAhE (
@@ -1297,24 +1250,22 @@
<jbo>xu na go'i</jbo>
<gloss>Is-it-true-that [false] [repeat previous]?</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>or equivalently</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-8VCt">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e9d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>xu la djan. [cu] na pu klama</jbo>
- <gloss>la paris. .e la rom.</gloss>
- <gloss>Is it true that: John [false] previously-went-to</gloss>
- <gloss>[both] Paris and Rome.]</gloss>
+ <jbo>xu la djan. [cu] na pu klama la paris. .e la rom.</jbo>
+ <gloss>Is it true that: John [false] previously-went-to [both] Paris and Rome.]</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The obvious, but incorrect, positive response to this negative question is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-F3LE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e9d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>go'i</jbo>
<en>[repeat previous]</en>
@@ -1373,160 +1324,131 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta je'a melbi</jbo>
<gloss>that is-indeed beautiful.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter15-section10">
<title>Metalinguistic negation forms</title>
<para>The question of truth or falsity is not entirely synonymous with negation. Consider the English sentence</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-QsJ9">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-QsJ9">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d1"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>I have not stopped beating my wife.</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>I have not stopped beating my wife.</para>
</example>
<para>If I never started such a heinous activity, then this sentence is neither true nor false. Such a negation simply says that something is wrong with the non-negated statement. Generally, we then use either tone of voice or else a correction to express a preferred true claim:
<quote>I never have beaten my wife.</quote></para>
<para>Negations which follow such a pattern are called
<quote>metalinguistic negations</quote>. In natural languages, the mark of metalinguistic negation is that an indication of a correct statement always, or almost always, follows the negation. Tone of voice or emphasis may be further used to clarify the error.</para>
<para>Negations of every sort must be expressible in Lojban; errors are inherent to human thought, and are not excluded from the language. When such negations are metalinguistic, we must separate them from logical claims about the truth or falsity of the statement, as well as from scalar negations which may not easily express (or imply) the preferred claim. Because Lojban allows concepts to be so freely combined in tanru, limits on what is plausible or not plausible tend to be harder to determine.</para>
<para>Mimicking the muddled nature of natural language negation would destroy this separation. Since Lojban does not use tone of voice, we need other means to metalinguistically indicate what is wrong with a statement. When the statement is entirely inappropriate, we need to be able to express metalinguistic negation in a more non-specific fashion.</para>
<para>Here is a list of some different kinds of metalinguistic negation with English-language examples:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qhbg" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qhbg">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d2"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>I have not
- <emphasis>stopped</emphasis> beating my wife</jbo>
- <jbo>beating my wife</jbo>
- <gloss>(I never started - failure of presupposition).</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>I have not
+ <emphasis>stopped</emphasis> beating my wife</para>
+ <para>(I never started - failure of presupposition).</para>
</example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qHcI" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qHcI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d3"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>5 is not blue</jbo>
- <gloss>(color does not apply to abstract concepts - failure of category).</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>5 is not blue</para>
+ <para>(color does not apply to abstract concepts - failure of category).</para>
</example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qHEQ" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qHEQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d4"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>The current King of France is not bald.</jbo>
- <gloss>(there is no current King of France - existential failure)</gloss>
+ <para>The current King of France is not bald.</para>
+ <para>(there is no current King of France - existential failure)</para>
- </interlinear-gloss>
</example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qhet" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qhet">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d5"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>I do not have THREE children.</jbo>
- <gloss>(I have two - simple undue quantity)</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>I do not have THREE children.</para>
+ <para>(I have two - simple undue quantity)</para>
</example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qhEU" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qhEU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d6"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>I have not held THREE jobs previously, but four.</jbo>
- <gloss>(inaccurate quantity; the difference from the previous example is that</gloss>
- <en>someone who has held four jobs has also held three jobs)</en>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>I have not held THREE jobs previously, but four.</para>
+ <para>(inaccurate quantity; the difference from the previous example is that</para>
+ <para>someone who has held four jobs has also held three jobs)</para>
</example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qhf5" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qhf5">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d7"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>It is not good, but bad.</jbo>
- <gloss>(undue quantity negation indicating that the value on a</gloss>
- <en>scale for measuring the predicate is incorrect)</en>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>It is not good, but bad.</para>
+ <para>(undue quantity negation indicating that the value on a</para>
+ <para>scale for measuring the predicate is incorrect)</para>
</example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qHhA" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qHhA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d8"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>She is not PRETTY; she is beautiful.</jbo>
- <gloss>(undue quantity transferred to a non-numeric scale)</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>She is not PRETTY; she is beautiful.</para>
+ <para>(undue quantity transferred to a non-numeric scale)</para>
</example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qhHI" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qhHI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d9"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>The house is not blue, but green.</jbo>
- <en>(the scale/category being used is incorrect, but a related category applies)</en>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>The house is not blue, but green.</para>
+ <para>(the scale/category being used is incorrect, but a related category applies)</para>
</example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qHHw" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qHHw">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d10"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>The house is not blue, but is colored.</jbo>
- <en>(the scale/category being used is incorrect, but a broader category applies)</en>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>The house is not blue, but is colored.</para>
+ <para>(the scale/category being used is incorrect, but a broader category applies)</para>
</example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qHI4" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qHI4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d11"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>The cat is not blue, but long-haired.</jbo>
- <en>(the scale/category being used is incorrect, but an unrelated category applies)</en>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>The cat is not blue, but long-haired.</para>
+ <para>(the scale/category being used is incorrect, but an unrelated category applies)</para>
</example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qHja" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qHja">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d12"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>A: He ain't coming today.</jbo>
- <gloss>B:
- <quote>Ain't</quote> ain't a word.</gloss>
- <en>(solecism, or improper grammatical action)</en>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>A: He ain't coming today.</para>
+ <para>B:
+ <quote>Ain't</quote> ain't a word.</para>
+ <para>(solecism, or improper grammatical action)</para>
</example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qHJi" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qHJi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d13"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>I haven't STOOPED beating my wife; I've STOPPED.</jbo>
- <en>(spelling or mispronunciation error)</en>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>I haven't STOOPED beating my wife; I've STOPPED.</para>
+ <para>(spelling or mispronunciation error)</para>
</example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qhJj" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qhJj">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d14"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>Not only was it a sheep, it was a black sheep.</jbo>
- <gloss>(non-contradictory correction)</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>Not only was it a sheep, it was a black sheep.</para>
+ <para>(non-contradictory correction)</para>
</example>
<para>The set of possible metalinguistic errors is open-ended.</para>
<para>Many of these forms have a counterpart in the various examples that we've discussed under logical negation. Metalinguistic negation doesn't claim that the sentence is false or true, though. Rather, it claims that, due to some error in the statement,
<quote>true</quote> and
<quote>false</quote> don't really apply.</para>
<para>Because one can metalinguistically negate a true statement intending a non-contradictory correction (say, a spelling error); we need a way (or ways) to metalinguistically negate a statement which is independent of our logical negation schemes using
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase> and kin. The cmavo
<jbophrase>na'i</jbophrase> is assigned this function. If it is present in a statement, it indicates metalinguistically that something in the statement is incorrect. This metalinguistic negation must override any evaluation of the logic of the statement. It is equally allowed in both positive and negative statements.</para>
<para>Since
@@ -1609,21 +1531,21 @@
<jbo>na'i go'i</jbo>
<en>The bridi as a whole is inappropriate in some way.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qHKe" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d17"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>go'i na'i</jbo>
- <en>The selbri (sisti) is inappropriate in some way.</en>
+ <en>The selbri (<jbophrase>sisti</jbophrase>) is inappropriate in some way.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>One can also specifically qualify the metalinguistic negation, by explicitly repeating the erroneous portion of the bridi to be metalinguistically negated, or adding on of the selma'o BAI qualifiers mentioned above:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ANpd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d18"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>go'i ji'una'iku</jbo>
<en>Some presupposition is wrong with the previous bridi.</en>
commit 0e60af080458faf9d216822a274ecafbf83205df
Author: Eitan Postavsky <eitanp32@gmail.com>
Date: Sat Jan 15 16:26:21 2011 -0500
Chapter 15: <jbophrase>s.
diff --git a/todocbook/15.xml b/todocbook/15.xml
index 57d06ea..17c4890 100644
--- a/todocbook/15.xml
+++ b/todocbook/15.xml
@@ -4,158 +4,134 @@
<section xml:id="cll_chapter15-section1">
<title>Introductory</title>
<para>The grammatical expression of negation is a critical part of Lojban's claim to being logical. The problem of negation, simply put, is to come up with a complete definition of the word
<quote>not</quote>. For Lojban's unambiguous grammar, this means further that meanings of
<quote>not</quote> with different grammatical effect must be different words, and even different grammatical structures.</para>
<para>Logical assertions are implicitly required in a logical language; thus, an apparatus for expressing them is built into Lojban's logical connectives and other structures.</para>
<para>In natural languages, especially those of Indo-European grammar, we have sentences composed of two parts which are typically called
<quote>subject</quote> and
<quote>predicate</quote>. In the statement</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-vrXe">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-vrXe">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e1d1"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>John goes to the store</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>John goes to the store</para>
</example>
<para>
<quote>John</quote> is the subject, and
<quote>goes to the store</quote> is the predicate. Negating
<xref linkend="example-random-id-vrXe"/> to produce</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gm3I">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-gm3I">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e1d2"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>John doesn't go to the store.</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>John doesn't go to the store.</para>
</example>
<para>has the effect of declaring that the predicate does not hold for the subject.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-gm3I"/> says nothing about whether John goes somewhere else, or whether someone else besides John goes to the store.</para>
<para>We will call this kind of negation
<quote>natural language negation</quote>. This kind of negation is difficult to manipulate by the tools of logic, because it doesn't always follow the rules of logic. Logical negation is bi-polar: either a statement is true, or it is false. If a statement is false, then its negation must be true. Such negation is termed contradictory negation.</para>
<para>Let's look at some examples of how natural language negation can violate the rules of contradictory negation.</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qGWR" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qGWR">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e1d3"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>Some animals are not white.</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>Some animals are not white.</para>
</example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qgXI" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qgXI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e1d4"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>Some animals are white.</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>Some animals are white.</para>
</example>
<para>Both of these statements are true; yet one is apparently the negation of the other. Another example:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qgxL" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qgxL">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e1d5"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>I mustn't go to the dance.</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>I mustn't go to the dance.</para>
</example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qGXL" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qGXL">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e1d6"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>I must go to the dance.</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>I must go to the dance.</para>
</example>
<para>At first thought,
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qgxL"/> negates
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qGXL"/>. Thinking further, we realize that there is an intermediate state wherein I am permitted to go to the dance, but not obligated to do so. Thus, it is possible that both statements are false.</para>
<para>Sometimes order is significant:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qgyb" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qgyb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e1d7"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>The falling rock didn't kill Sam.</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>The falling rock didn't kill Sam.</para>
</example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qGYX" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qGYX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e1d8"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>Sam wasn't killed by the falling rock.</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>Sam wasn't killed by the falling rock.</para>
</example>
<para>Our minds play tricks on us with this one. Because
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qgyb"/> is written in what is called the
<quote>active voice</quote>, we immediately get confused about whether
<quote>the falling rock</quote> is a suitable subject for the predicate
<quote>did kill Sam</quote>.
<quote>Kill</quote> implies volition to us, and rocks do not have volition. This confusion is employed by opponents of gun control who use the argument
<quote>Guns don't kill people; people kill people.</quote></para>
<para>Somehow, we don't have the same problem with
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qGYX"/>. The subject is Sam, and we determine the truth or falsity of the statement by whether he was or wasn't killed by the falling rock.</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qGYX"/> also helps us focus on the fact that there are at least two questionable facts implicit in this sentence: whether Sam was killed, and if so, whether the falling rock killed him. If Sam wasn't killed, the question of what killed him is moot.</para>
<para>This type of problem becomes more evident when the subject of the sentence turns out not to exist:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qgzq" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qgzq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e1d9"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>The King of Mexico didn't come to dinner.</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>The King of Mexico didn't come to dinner.</para>
</example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qgzv" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qgzv">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e1d10"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>The King of Mexico did come to dinner.</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>The King of Mexico did come to dinner.</para>
</example>
<para>In the natural languages, we would be inclined to say that both of these statements are false, since there is no King of Mexico.</para>
<para>The rest of this chapter is designed to explain the Lojban model of negation.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter15-section2">
<title>bridi negation</title>
<para>In discussing Lojban negation, we will call the form of logical negation that simply denies the truth of a statement
<quote>bridi negation</quote>. Using bridi negation, we can say the equivalent of
<quote>I haven't stopped beating my wife</quote> without implying that I ever started, nor even that I have a wife, meaning simply
<quote>It isn't true that I have stopped beating my wife.</quote> Since Lojban uses bridi as smaller components of complex sentences, bridi negation is permitted in these components as well at the sentence level.</para>
<para>For the bridi negation of a sentence to be true, the sentence being negated must be false. A major use of bridi negation is in making a negative response to a yes/no question; such responses are usually contradictory, denying the truth of the entire sentence. A negative answer to</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sCNE">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-sCNE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d1"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>Did you go to the store?</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>Did you go to the store?</para>
</example>
<para>is taken as a negation of the entire sentence, equivalent to</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-vFYC">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-vFYC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d2"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>No, I didn't go to the store.</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>No, I didn't go to the store.</para>
</example>
<para>The most important rule about bridi negation is that if a bridi is true, its negation is false, and vice versa.</para>
<para>The simplest way to express a bridi negation is to use the cmavo
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase> of selma'o NA before the selbri of the affirmative form of the bridi (but after the
- <quote>cu</quote>, if there is one):</para>
+ <jbophrase>cu</jbophrase>, if there is one):</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7nrv">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I go-to the store.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>when negated becomes:</para>
@@ -359,21 +335,21 @@
<para>we do not intend the uncle's help to be part of the negation. We must thus move the negation into an event clause or use two separate sentences. The event-clause version would look like:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-NILi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d18"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>The event-of (my [false] being-conscripted-into the Army) was aided by my uncle the Senator.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>It is possible that someone will want to incorporate bridi negations into lujvo. For this reason, the rafsi
- <quote>-nar-</quote> has been reserved for
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">-nar-</jbophrase> has been reserved for
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase>. However, before using this rafsi, make sure that you intend the contradictory bridi negation, and not the scalar negation described in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section3"/>, which will be much more common in tanru and lujvo.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter15-section3">
<title>Scalar Negation</title>
<para>Let us now consider some other types of negation. For example, when we say:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-GJga">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e3d1"/>
</title>
@@ -567,22 +543,22 @@
<quote>im-</quote>. Just which form and permissible values are implied by a scalar negation is dependent on the semantics of the word or concept which is being negated, and on the context. Much confusion in English results from the uncontrolled variations in meaning of these phrases and prefixes.</para>
<para>In the examples of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section4"/>, we will translate the general case of scalar negation using the general formula
<quote>other than</quote> when a phrase is scalar-negated, and
<quote>non-</quote> when a single word is scalar-negated.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter15-section4">
<title>selbri and tanru negation</title>
<para>All the scalar negations illustrated in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section3"/> are expressed in Lojban using the cmavo
- <quote>na'e</quote> (of selma'o NAhE). The most common use of
- <quote>na'e</quote> is as a prefix to the selbri:</para>
+ <jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase> (of selma'o NAhE). The most common use of
+ <jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase> is as a prefix to the selbri:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qh42" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci</jbo>
<en>I go to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qH4n" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
@@ -593,44 +569,44 @@
<jbo>mi na'e klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I non-go to the market.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Comparing these two, we see that the negation operator being used in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qH4n"/> is
- <quote>na'e</quote>. But what exactly does
- <quote>na'e</quote> negate? Does the negation include only the gismu
+ <jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase>. But what exactly does
+ <jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase> negate? Does the negation include only the gismu
<jbophrase>klama</jbophrase>, which is the entire selbri in this case, or does it include the
<jbophrase>le zarci</jbophrase> as well? In Lojban, the answer is unambiguously
<quote>only the gismu</quote>. The cmavo
- <quote>na'e</quote> always applies only to what follows it.</para>
+ <jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase> always applies only to what follows it.</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qH4n"/> looks as if it were parallel to:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-tqX1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [false] go-to the market.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>but in fact there is no real parallelism at all. A negation using
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase> denies the truth of a relationship, but a selbri negation with
- <quote>na'e</quote> asserts that a relationship exists other than that stated, one which specifically involves the sumti identified in the statement. The grammar allotted to
- <quote>na'e</quote> allows us to unambiguously express scalar negations in terms of scope, scale, and range within the scale. Before we explain the scalar aspects, let us show how the scope of
- <quote>na'e</quote> is determined.</para>
+ <jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase> asserts that a relationship exists other than that stated, one which specifically involves the sumti identified in the statement. The grammar allotted to
+ <jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase> allows us to unambiguously express scalar negations in terms of scope, scale, and range within the scale. Before we explain the scalar aspects, let us show how the scope of
+ <jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase> is determined.</para>
<para>In tanru, we may wish to negate an individual element before combining it with another to form the tanru. We in effect need a shorter-than-selbri-scope negation, for which we can use
- <quote>na'e</quote> as well. The positive sentence</para>
+ <jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase> as well. The positive sentence</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ETuV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cadzu klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I walking-ly go to the market.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>can be subjected to selbri negation in several ways. Two are:</para>
@@ -646,72 +622,72 @@
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qH6w" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cadzu na'e klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I walkingly-(other-than-go-to) the market.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>These negations show the default scope of
- <quote>na'e</quote> is close-binding on an individual brivla in a tanru.
+ <jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase> is close-binding on an individual brivla in a tanru.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qh4w"/> says that I am going to the market, but in some kind of a non-walking manner. (As with most tanru, there are a few other possible interpretations, but we'll assume this one - see
<xref linkend="chapter-selbri"/> for a discussion of tanru meaning).</para>
<para>In neither
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qh4w"/> nor
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qH6w"/> does the
- <quote>na'e</quote> negate the entire selbri. While both sentences contain negations that deny a particular relationship between the sumti, they also have a component which makes a positive claim about such a relationship. This is clearer in
+ <jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase> negate the entire selbri. While both sentences contain negations that deny a particular relationship between the sumti, they also have a component which makes a positive claim about such a relationship. This is clearer in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qh4w"/>, which says that I am going, but in a non-walking manner. In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qH6w"/>, we have claimed that the relationship between me and the market in some way involves walking, but is not one of
<quote>going to</quote> (perhaps we are walking around the market, or walking-in-place while at the market).</para>
<para>The
<quote>scale</quote>, or actually the
<quote>set</quote>, implied in Lojban tanru negations is anything which plausibly can be substituted into the tanru. (Plausibility here is interpreted in the same way that answers to a
<jbophrase>mo</jbophrase> question must be plausible - the result must not only have the right number of places and have sumti values appropriate to the place structure, it must also be appropriate or relevant to the context.) This minimal condition allows a speaker to be intentionally vague, while still communicating meaningful information. The speaker who uses selbri negation is denying one relationship, while minimally asserting a different relationship.</para>
<para>We also need a scalar negation form that has a scope longer than a single brivla. There exists such a longer-scope selbri negation form, as exemplified by (each Lojban sentence in the next several examples is given twice, with parentheses in the second copy showing the scope of the
- <quote>na'e</quote>):</para>
+ <jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase>):</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-t20b">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na'eke cadzu klama [ke'e] le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>mi na'e (ke cadzu klama [ke'e]) le zarci</gloss>
<gloss>I other-than-(walkingly-go-to) the market.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This negation uses the same
- <quote>ke</quote> and
- <quote>ke'e</quote> delimiters (the
- <quote>ke'e</quote> is always elidable at the end of a selbri) that are used in tanru. The sentence clearly negates the entire selbri. The
- <quote>ke'e</quote>, whether elided or not, reminds us that the negation does not include the trailing sumti. While the trailing-sumti place-structure is defined as that of the final brivla, the trailing sumti themselves are not part of the selbri and are thus not negated by
- <quote>na'e</quote>.</para>
+ <jbophrase>ke</jbophrase> and
+ <jbophrase>ke'e</jbophrase> delimiters (the
+ <jbophrase>ke'e</jbophrase> is always elidable at the end of a selbri) that are used in tanru. The sentence clearly negates the entire selbri. The
+ <jbophrase>ke'e</jbophrase>, whether elided or not, reminds us that the negation does not include the trailing sumti. While the trailing-sumti place-structure is defined as that of the final brivla, the trailing sumti themselves are not part of the selbri and are thus not negated by
+ <jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase>.</para>
<para>Negations of just part of the selbri are also permitted:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PVct">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na'eke sutra cadzu ke'e klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>mi na'e (ke sutra cadzu ke'e) klama le zarci</gloss>
<gloss>I other-than-(quickly-walkingly) go-to the market.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-PVct"/>, only the
<jbophrase>sutra cadzu</jbophrase> tanru is negated, so the speaker is indeed going to the market, but not by walking quickly.</para>
<para>Negations made with
- <quote>na'e</quote> or
- <quote>na'eke</quote> also include within their scope any sumti attached to the brivla or tanru with
- <quote>be</quote> or
- <quote>bei</quote>. Such attached sumti are considered part of the brivla or tanru:</para>
+ <jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase> or
+ <jbophrase>na'eke</jbophrase> also include within their scope any sumti attached to the brivla or tanru with
+ <jbophrase>be</jbophrase> or
+ <jbophrase>bei</jbophrase>. Such attached sumti are considered part of the brivla or tanru:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-MYYa">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be le mi birka ke'e klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I other-than-(quickly walking-on-my-arms-ly) go-to the market.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that
@@ -734,65 +710,65 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na'eke sutra cadzu be lemi birka [ke'e]</jbo>
<gloss>mi na'e (ke sutra cadzu be lemi birka [ke'e])</gloss>
<gloss>I other-than-(quickly-walk-on my-arms).</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The translations show that the negation in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qh7T"/> is more restricted in scope; i.e. less of the sentence is negated with respect to x1 (
<jbophrase>mi</jbophrase>).</para>
<para>Logical scope being an important factor in Lojban's claims to be unambiguous, let us indicate the relative precedence of
- <quote>na'e</quote> as an operator. Grouping with
- <quote>ke</quote> and
- <quote>ke'e</quote>, of course, has an overt scope, which is its advantage.
- <quote>na'e</quote> is very close binding to its brivla. Internal binding of tanru, with
- <quote>bo</quote>, is not as tightly bound as
- <quote>na'e</quote>.
- <quote>co</quote>, the tanru inversion operator has a scope that is longer than all other tanru constructs.</para>
+ <jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase> as an operator. Grouping with
+ <jbophrase>ke</jbophrase> and
+ <jbophrase>ke'e</jbophrase>, of course, has an overt scope, which is its advantage.
+ <jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase> is very close binding to its brivla. Internal binding of tanru, with
+ <jbophrase>bo</jbophrase>, is not as tightly bound as
+ <jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase>.
+ <jbophrase>co</jbophrase>, the tanru inversion operator has a scope that is longer than all other tanru constructs.</para>
<para>In short,
- <quote>na'e</quote> and
- <quote>na'eke</quote> define a type of negation, which is shorter in scope than bridi negation, and which affects all or part of a selbri. The result of
- <quote>na'e</quote> negation remains an assertion of some specific truth and not merely a denial of another claim.</para>
+ <jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase> and
+ <jbophrase>na'eke</jbophrase> define a type of negation, which is shorter in scope than bridi negation, and which affects all or part of a selbri. The result of
+ <jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase> negation remains an assertion of some specific truth and not merely a denial of another claim.</para>
<para>The similarity becomes striking when it is noticed that the rafsi
- <quote>-nal-</quote>, representing
- <quote>na'e</quote> when a tanru is condensed into a lujvo, forms an exact parallel to the English usage of
- <quote>non-</quote>. Turning a series of related negations into lujvo gives:</para>
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">-nal-</jbophrase>, representing
+ <jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase> when a tanru is condensed into a lujvo, forms an exact parallel to the English usage of
+ <jbophrase>non-</jbophrase>. Turning a series of related negations into lujvo gives:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2buq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d12"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>na'e klama becomes nalkla</jbo>
<gloss>na'e cadzu klama becomes naldzukla</gloss>
<gloss>na'e sutra cadzu klama becomes nalsu'adzukla</gloss>
<en>nake sutra cadzu ke'e klama becomes nalsu'adzuke'ekla</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note:
- <quote>-kem-</quote> is the rafsi for
- <quote>ke</quote>, but it is omitted in the final lujvo as superfluous -
- <quote>ke'e</quote> is its own rafsi, and its inclusion in the lujvo implies a
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">-kem-</jbophrase> is the rafsi for
+ <jbophrase>ke</jbophrase>, but it is omitted in the final lujvo as superfluous -
+ <jbophrase>ke'e</jbophrase> is its own rafsi, and its inclusion in the lujvo implies a
- <quote>ke</quote> after the
- <quote>-nal-</quote>, since it needs to close something; only a
- <quote>ke</quote> immediately after the negation would make the
- <quote>ke'e</quote> meaningful in the tanru expressed in this lujvo.</para>
+ <jbophrase>ke</jbophrase> after the
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">-nal-</jbophrase>, since it needs to close something; only a
+ <jbophrase>ke</jbophrase> immediately after the negation would make the
+ <jbophrase>ke'e</jbophrase> meaningful in the tanru expressed in this lujvo.</para>
<para>In a lujvo, it is probably clearest to translate
- <quote>-nal-</quote> as
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">-nal-</jbophrase> as
<quote>non-</quote>, to match the English combining forms, except when the
- <quote>na'e</quote> has single word scope and English uses
+ <jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase> has single word scope and English uses
<quote>un-</quote> or
<quote>im-</quote> to negate that single word. Translation style should determine the use of
<quote>other than</quote>,
<quote>non-</quote>, or another negator for
- <quote>na'e</quote> in tanru; the translator must render the Lojban into English so it is clear in context. Let's go back to our simplest example:</para>
+ <jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase> in tanru; the translator must render the Lojban into English so it is clear in context. Let's go back to our simplest example:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qh9c" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d13"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na'e klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I am other-than-(going-to) the market.</gloss>
<gloss>?I am not going-to the market.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -814,21 +790,21 @@
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d15"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu krecau</jbo>
<gloss>An-actual currently noblest-governor of the French country is-hair-without.</gloss>
<en>The current King of France is bald.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The selbri
<jbophrase>krecau</jbophrase> negates with
- <quote>na'e</quote> as:</para>
+ <jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase> as:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2maY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d16"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu na'e krecau</jbo>
<gloss>An-actual currently noblest-governor of the French country is-other-than hair-without.</gloss>
<gloss>The current King of France is other-than-bald.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -839,45 +815,45 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu nalkrecau</jbo>
<gloss>An-actual currently noblest-governor of the French country is-non-hair-without.</gloss>
<gloss>The current King of France is a non-bald-one.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-2maY"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-wGXL"/> express the predicate negation forms using a negation word (
- <quote>na'e</quote>) or rafsi (
- <quote>-nal-</quote>); yet they make positive assertions about the current King of France; ie., that he is other-than-bald or non-bald. This follows from the close binding of
- <quote>na'e</quote> to the brivla. The lujvo form makes this overt by absorbing the negative marker into the word.</para>
+ <jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase>) or rafsi (
+ <jbophrase>-nal-</jbophrase>); yet they make positive assertions about the current King of France; ie., that he is other-than-bald or non-bald. This follows from the close binding of
+ <jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase> to the brivla. The lujvo form makes this overt by absorbing the negative marker into the word.</para>
<para>Since there is no current King of France, it is false to say that he is bald, or non-bald, or to make any other affirmative claim about him. Any sentence about the current King of France containing only a selbri negation is as false as the sentence without the negation. No amount of selbri negations have any effect on the truth value of the sentence, which is invariably
<quote>false</quote>, since no affirmative statement about the current King of France can be true. On the other hand, bridi negation does produce a truth:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Bwdy">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d18"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu na krecau</jbo>
<gloss>An-actual current noblest-governor of the French Country [false] is-hair-without.</gloss>
<en>It is false that the current King of France is bald.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note:
- <quote>lo</quote> is used in these sentences because negation relates to truth conditions. To meaningfully talk about truth conditions in sentences carrying a description, it must be clear that the description actually applies to the referent. A sentence using
- <quote>le</quote> instead of
- <quote>lo</quote> can be true even if there is no current king of France, as long as the speaker and the listener agree to describe something as the current king of France. (See the explanations of
- <quote>le</quote> in
+ <jbophrase>lo</jbophrase> is used in these sentences because negation relates to truth conditions. To meaningfully talk about truth conditions in sentences carrying a description, it must be clear that the description actually applies to the referent. A sentence using
+ <jbophrase>le</jbophrase> instead of
+ <jbophrase>lo</jbophrase> can be true even if there is no current king of France, as long as the speaker and the listener agree to describe something as the current king of France. (See the explanations of
+ <jbophrase>le</jbophrase> in
<xref linkend="chapter-sumti"/>.)</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter15-section5">
<title>Expressing scales in selbri negation</title>
<para>In expressing a scalar negation, we can provide some indication of the scale, range, frame-of-reference, or universe of discourse that is being dealt with in an assertion. As stated in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section4"/>, the default is the set of plausible alternatives. Thus if we say:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mw3B">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e5d1"/>
</title>
@@ -909,21 +885,21 @@
<para>We might also have reduced the pragmatic ambiguity by making the two trailing sumti values explicit (the
<quote>as perceived by</quote> and
<quote>under conditions</quote> places have been added to the place structure of
<jbophrase>xunre</jbophrase>). But assume we have a really stubborn listener (an artificially semi-intelligent computer?) who will find a way to misinterpret
<xref linkend="example-random-id-yWSC"/> even with three specific sumti provided.</para>
<para>In this case, we use a sumti tagged with the sumti tcita
<jbophrase>ci'u</jbophrase>, which translates roughly as
<quote>on a scale of X</quote>, where
<quote>X</quote> is the sumti. For maximal clarity, the tagged sumti can be bound into the negated selbri with
- <quote>be</quote>. To clarify
+ <jbophrase>be</jbophrase>. To clarify
<xref linkend="example-random-id-yWSC"/>, we might say:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-a8S1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e5d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le stizu cu na'e xunre be ci'u loka skari</jbo>
<gloss>The chair is a non-(red on-a-scale-of-colorness)-thing.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -960,39 +936,39 @@
<anchor xml:id="c15e5d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le stizu cu na'e xunre be le'a lo'i skari</jbo>
<gloss>The chair is a non-(red of-a-category-which-is-the-set-of-colors)-thing.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which is minimally different in meaning from
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Rj71"/>.</para>
<para>The cmavo
- <quote>na'e</quote> is not the only member of selma'o NAhE. If we want to express a scalar negation which is a polar opposite, we use the cmavo
- <quote>to'e</quote>, which is grammatically equivalent to
- <quote>na'e</quote>:</para>
+ <jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase> is not the only member of selma'o NAhE. If we want to express a scalar negation which is a polar opposite, we use the cmavo
+ <jbophrase>to'e</jbophrase>, which is grammatically equivalent to
+ <jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-RuvP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e5d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le stizu cu to'e xunre be ci'u loka skari</jbo>
<gloss>The chair is a (opposite-of red) on-scale a-property-of color-ness.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Likewise, the midpoint of a scale can be expressed with the cmavo
- <quote>no'e</quote>, also grammatically equivalent to
- <quote>na'e</quote>. Here are some parallel examples of
- <quote>na'e</quote>,
- <quote>no'e</quote>, and
- <quote>to'e</quote>:</para>
+ <jbophrase>no'e</jbophrase>, also grammatically equivalent to
+ <jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase>. Here are some parallel examples of
+ <jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase>,
+ <jbophrase>no'e</jbophrase>, and
+ <jbophrase>to'e</jbophrase>:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qH9T" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e5d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta melbi</jbo>
<gloss>That is-beautiful.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qh9U" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
@@ -1020,96 +996,96 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e5d12"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta to'e melbi</jbo>
<gloss>That is-opposite-of beautiful.</gloss>
<en>That is ugly/very ugly/repulsive.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The cmavo
- <quote>to'e</quote> has the assigned rafsi
- <quote>-tol-</quote> and
- <quote>-to'e-</quote>; the cmavo
- <quote>no'e</quote> has the assigned rafsi
- <quote>-nor-</quote> and
- <quote>-no'e-</quote>. The selbri in
+ <jbophrase>to'e</jbophrase> has the assigned rafsi
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">-tol-</jbophrase> and
+ <jbophrase>-to'e-</jbophrase>; the cmavo
+ <jbophrase>no'e</jbophrase> has the assigned rafsi
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">-nor-</jbophrase> and
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">-no'e-</jbophrase>. The selbri in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qh9U"/> through
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qHAV"/> could be replaced by the lujvo
<jbophrase>nalmle</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>normle</jbophrase>, and
<jbophrase>tolmle</jbophrase> respectively.</para>
<para>This large variety of scalar negations is provided because different scales have different properties. Some scales are open-ended in both directions: there is no
<quote>ultimately ugly</quote> or
<quote>ultimately beautiful</quote>. Other scales, like temperature, are open at one end and closed at the other: there is a minimum temperature (so-called
<quote>absolute zero</quote>) but no maximum temperature. Still other scales are closed at both ends.</para>
<para>Correspondingly, some selbri have no obvious
- <quote>to'e</quote>- what is the opposite of a dog? - while others have more than one, and need
+ <jbophrase>to'e</jbophrase>- what is the opposite of a dog? - while others have more than one, and need
<jbophrase>ci'u</jbophrase> to specify which opposite is meant.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter15-section6">
<title>sumti negation</title>
<para>There are two ways of negating sumti in Lojban. We have the choice of quantifying the sumti with zero, or of applying the sumti-negator
- <quote>na'ebo</quote> before the sumti. It turns out that a zero quantification serves for contradictory negation. As the cmavo we use implies,
+ <jbophrase>na'ebo</jbophrase> before the sumti. It turns out that a zero quantification serves for contradictory negation. As the cmavo we use implies,
- <quote>na'ebo</quote> forms a scalar negation.</para>
+ <jbophrase>na'ebo</jbophrase> forms a scalar negation.</para>
<para>Let us show examples of each.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PL1E">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e6d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>no lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu krecau</jbo>
<gloss>Zero of those who are currently noblest-governors of the French country are-hair-without.</gloss>
<en>No current king of France is bald.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Is
<xref linkend="example-random-id-PL1E"/> true? Yes, because it merely claims that of the current Kings of France, however many there may be, none are bald, which is plainly true, since there are no such current Kings of France.</para>
<para>Now let us look at the same sentence using
- <quote>na'ebo</quote> negation:</para>
+ <jbophrase>na'ebo</jbophrase> negation:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-LebJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e6d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>na'ebo lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu krecau</jbo>
<gloss>[Something] other-than-(the-current-noblest-governor of the French country) is-hair-without.</gloss>
<en>Something other than the current King of France is bald.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-LebJ"/> is true provided that something reasonably describable as
<quote>other than a current King of France</quote>, such as the King of Saudi Arabia, or a former King of France, is in fact bald.</para>
<para>In place of
- <quote>na'ebo</quote>, you may also use
+ <jbophrase>na'ebo</jbophrase>, you may also use
- <quote>no'ebo</quote> and
- <quote>to'ebo</quote>, to be more specific about the sumti which would be appropriate in place of the stated sumti. Good examples are hard to come by, but here's a valiant try:</para>
+ <jbophrase>no'ebo</jbophrase> and
+ <jbophrase>to'ebo</jbophrase>, to be more specific about the sumti which would be appropriate in place of the stated sumti. Good examples are hard to come by, but here's a valiant try:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-S4AU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e6d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama to'ebo la bastn.</jbo>
<gloss>I go to the-opposite-of Boston.</gloss>
<en>I go to Perth.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(Boston and Perth are nearly, but not quite, antipodal cities. In a purely United States context, San Francisco might be a better
<quote>opposite</quote>.) Coming up with good examples is difficult, because attaching
- <quote>to'ebo</quote> to a description sumti is usually the same as attaching
- <quote>to'e</quote> to the selbri of the description.</para>
+ <jbophrase>to'ebo</jbophrase> to a description sumti is usually the same as attaching
+ <jbophrase>to'e</jbophrase> to the selbri of the description.</para>
<para>It is not possible to transform sumti negations of either type into bridi negations or scalar selbri negations. Negations of sumti will be used in Lojban conversation. The inability to manipulate these negations logically will, it is hoped, prevent the logical errors that result when natural languages attempt corresponding manipulations.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter15-section7">
<title>Negation of minor grammatical constructs</title>
<para>We have a few other constructs that can be negated, all of them based on negating individual words. For such negation, we use the suffix-combining negator, which is
<jbophrase>nai</jbophrase>.
<jbophrase>nai</jbophrase>, by the way, is almost always written as a compound into the previous word that it is negating, although it is a regular separate-word cmavo and the sole member of selma'o NAI.</para>
<para>Most of these negation forms are straightforward, and should be discussed and interpreted in connection with an analysis of the particular construct being negated. Thus, we will not go into much detail here.</para>
<para>The following are places where
<jbophrase>nai</jbophrase> is used:</para>
@@ -1138,21 +1114,21 @@
<jbo>mi punai klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [past-not] go-to the store.</gloss>
<en>I didn't go to the store.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>mean exactly the same thing, although there may be a difference of emphasis.</para>
<para>Tenses and modals can be logically connected, with the logical connectives containing contradictory negations; this allows negated tenses and modals to be expressed positively using logical connectives. Thus
<jbophrase>punai je ca</jbophrase> means the same thing as
<jbophrase>pu naje ca</jbophrase>.</para>
<para>As a special case, a
- <quote>-nai</quote> attached to the interval modifiers of selma'o TAhE, ROI, or ZAhO (explained in
+ <jbophrase>-nai</jbophrase> attached to the interval modifiers of selma'o TAhE, ROI, or ZAhO (explained in
<xref linkend="chapter-tenses"/>) signals a scalar negation:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4YYQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e7d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi paroinai dansu le bisli</jbo>
<gloss>I [once] [not] dance-on the ice</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1176,22 +1152,22 @@
<jbophrase>nai</jbophrase>: negative acknowledgement, which is
<jbophrase>je'enai</jbophrase> (
<quote>I didn't get that</quote>).</para>
<para>Unlike the attitudinal indicators, which tend to be unimportant in noisy situations, the protocol vocatives become more important. So if, in a noisy environment, a protocol listener makes out only
<jbophrase>nai</jbophrase>, he or she can presume it is a negative acknowledgement and repeat transmission or otherwise respond accordingly.
<xref linkend="chapter-attitudinals"/> provides more detail on this topic.</para>
<para>The abstractors of selma'o NU follow the pattern of the tenses and modals. NU allows negative abstractions, especially in compound abstractions connected by logical connectives:
- <quote>su'ujeninai</quote>, which corresponds to
- <quote>su'u jenai ni</quote> just as
+ <jbophrase>su'ujeninai</jbophrase>, which corresponds to
+ <jbophrase>su'u jenai ni</jbophrase> just as
<jbophrase>punai je ca</jbophrase> corresponds to
<jbophrase>pu naje ca</jbophrase>. It is not clear how much use logically connected abstractors will be: see
<xref linkend="chapter-attitudinals"/>.</para>
<para>A
<jbophrase>nai</jbophrase> attached to a non-logical connective (of selma'o JOI or BIhI) is a scalar negation, and says that the bridi is false under the specified mixture, but that another connective is applicable. Non-logical connectives are discussed in
<xref linkend="chapter-connectives"/>.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter15-section8">
<title>Truth questions</title>
<para>One application of negation is in answer to truth questions (those which expect the answers
@@ -1204,21 +1180,21 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xu la djan. pu klama la paris. .e la rom.</jbo>
<gloss>Is it true that: (John previously went-to [both] Paris and Rome.)</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>You can now use each of the several kinds of negation we've discussed in answer to this (presuming the same question and context for each answer).</para>
<para>The straightforward negative answer is grammatically equivalent to the expanded sentence with the
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase> immediately after the
- <quote>cu</quote> (and before any tense/modal):</para>
+ <jbophrase>cu</jbophrase> (and before any tense/modal):</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-DMAd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e8d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>na go'i</jbo>
<gloss>[false] [repeat previous]</gloss>
<en>No.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1273,22 +1249,22 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. [cu] ba na klama la paris. .e la rom.</jbo>
<gloss>John later-will [false] go-to [both] Paris and Rome.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>We stated in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section3"/> that sentences like
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Fn2c"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-2SK0"/> appear to be semantically identical, but that subtle semantic distinctions may eventually be found.</para>
<para>You can also use a scalar negation with
- <quote>na'e</quote>, in which case, it is equivalent to putting a
- <quote>na'eke</quote> immediately after any tense:</para>
+ <jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase>, in which case, it is equivalent to putting a
+ <jbophrase>na'eke</jbophrase> immediately after any tense:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-q70h">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e8d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>na'e go'i</jbo>
<gloss>other-than [repeat previous]</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which means</para>
@@ -1297,28 +1273,28 @@
<anchor xml:id="c15e8d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. [cu] pu na'eke klama</jbo>
<gloss>[ke'e] la paris. .e la rom.</gloss>
<gloss>John previously other-than(went-to)</gloss>
<gloss>[both] Paris and Rome.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>He might have telephoned the two cities instead of going there. The unnecessary
- <quote>ke</quote> and
- <quote>ke'e</quote> would have been essential if the selbri had been a tanru.</para>
+ <jbophrase>ke</jbophrase> and
+ <jbophrase>ke'e</jbophrase> would have been essential if the selbri had been a tanru.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter15-section9">
<title>Affirmations</title>
<para>There is an explicit positive form for both selma'o NA (
<jbophrase>ja'a</jbophrase>) and selma'o NAhE (
- <quote>je'a</quote>), each of which would supplant the corresponding negator in the grammatical position used, allowing one to assert the positive in response to a negative question or statement without confusion. Assuming the same context as in
+ <jbophrase>je'a</jbophrase>), each of which would supplant the corresponding negator in the grammatical position used, allowing one to assert the positive in response to a negative question or statement without confusion. Assuming the same context as in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section8"/>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KhoH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e9d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xu na go'i</jbo>
<gloss>Is-it-true-that [false] [repeat previous]?</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1382,22 +1358,22 @@
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mrtu">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e9d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ja'a klama le zarci</jbo>
<en>I indeed go to the store.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
- <quote>je'a</quote> can replace
- <quote>na'e</quote> in exactly the same way, stating that scalar negation does not apply, and that the relation indeed holds as stated. In the absence of a negation context, it emphasizes the positive:</para>
+ <jbophrase>je'a</jbophrase> can replace
+ <jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase> in exactly the same way, stating that scalar negation does not apply, and that the relation indeed holds as stated. In the absence of a negation context, it emphasizes the positive:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-toQK">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e9d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta je'a melbi</jbo>
<gloss>that is-indeed beautiful.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
@@ -1544,37 +1520,37 @@
<jbo>Not only was it a sheep, it was a black sheep.</jbo>
<gloss>(non-contradictory correction)</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The set of possible metalinguistic errors is open-ended.</para>
<para>Many of these forms have a counterpart in the various examples that we've discussed under logical negation. Metalinguistic negation doesn't claim that the sentence is false or true, though. Rather, it claims that, due to some error in the statement,
<quote>true</quote> and
<quote>false</quote> don't really apply.</para>
<para>Because one can metalinguistically negate a true statement intending a non-contradictory correction (say, a spelling error); we need a way (or ways) to metalinguistically negate a statement which is independent of our logical negation schemes using
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase>,
- <quote>na'e</quote> and kin. The cmavo
+ <jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase> and kin. The cmavo
<jbophrase>na'i</jbophrase> is assigned this function. If it is present in a statement, it indicates metalinguistically that something in the statement is incorrect. This metalinguistic negation must override any evaluation of the logic of the statement. It is equally allowed in both positive and negative statements.</para>
<para>Since
<jbophrase>na'i</jbophrase> is not a logical operator, multiple occurrences of
<jbophrase>na'i</jbophrase> need not be assumed to cancel each other. Indeed, we can use the position of
<jbophrase>na'i</jbophrase> to indicate metalinguistically what is incorrect, preparatory to correcting it in a later sentence; for this reason, we give
<jbophrase>na'i</jbophrase> the grammar of UI. The inclusion of
<jbophrase>na'i</jbophrase> anywhere in a sentence makes it a non-assertion, and suggests one or more pitfalls in assigning a truth value.</para>
<para>Let us briefly indicate how the above-mentioned metalinguistic errors can be identified. Other metalinguistic problems can then be marked by devising analogies to these examples:</para>
<para>Existential failure can be marked by attaching
<jbophrase>na'i</jbophrase> to the descriptor
- <quote>lo</quote> or the
- <quote>poi</quote> in a
- <quote>da poi</quote>-form sumti. (See Chapter 6 and
+ <jbophrase>lo</jbophrase> or the
+ <jbophrase>poi</jbophrase> in a
+ <jbophrase>da poi</jbophrase>-form sumti. (See Chapter 6 and
<xref linkend="chapter-quantifiers"/> for details on these constructions.) Remember that if a
- <quote>le</quote> sumti seems to refer to a non-existent referent, you may not understand what the speaker has in mind - the appropriate response is then
+ <jbophrase>le</jbophrase> sumti seems to refer to a non-existent referent, you may not understand what the speaker has in mind - the appropriate response is then
<jbophrase>ki'a</jbophrase>, asking for clarification.</para>
<para>Presupposition failure can be marked directly if the presupposition is overt; if not, one can insert a
<quote>mock presupposition</quote> to question with the sumti tcita (selma'o BAI) word
<jbophrase>ji'u</jbophrase>;
<jbophrase>ji'uku</jbophrase> thus explicitly refers to an unexpressed assumption, and
<jbophrase>ji'una'iku</jbophrase> metalinguistically says that something is wrong with that assumption. (See
<xref linkend="chapter-tenses"/>.)</para>
<para>Scale errors and category errors can be similarly expressed with selma'o BAI.
<jbophrase>le'a</jbophrase> has meaning
<quote>of category/class/type X</quote>,
commit 3acfeefd028ea0e0e0ffc87ab3215d2697917c1c
Author: Eitan Postavsky <eitanp32@gmail.com>
Date: Fri Jan 14 22:52:30 2011 -0500
Chapter 13: tables, example tags, and section titles.
diff --git a/todocbook/14.xml b/todocbook/14.xml
index 075531e..d6b5eda 100644
--- a/todocbook/14.xml
+++ b/todocbook/14.xml
@@ -1,28 +1,28 @@
<chapter xml:id="chapter-connectives">
<title>If Wishes Were Horses: The Lojban Connective System</title>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section1">
+ <section xml:id="section-introduction">
<title>Logical connection and truth tables</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>truth functions</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical language</primary><secondary>truth functions</secondary></indexterm> Lojban is a logical language: the name of the language itself means
<quote>logical language</quote>. The fundamentals of ordinary logic (there are variant logics, which aren't addressed in this book) include the notions of a
<quote>sentence</quote> (sometimes called a
<quote>statement</quote> or
<quote>proposition</quote>), which asserts a truth or falsehood, and a small set of
<quote>truth functions</quote>, which combine two sentences to create a new sentence. The truth functions have the special characteristic that the truth value (that is, the truth or falsehood) of the results depends only on the truth value of the component sentences. For example,</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-mJ6y">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e1d1"/>
</title>
- <para>John is a man or James is a woman.</para>
+ <para>John is a man or James is a woman.</para>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>man or woman</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> is true if
<quote>John is a man</quote> is true, or if
<quote>James is a woman</quote> is true. If we know whether John is a man, and we know whether James is a woman, we know whether
<quote>John is a man or James is a woman</quote> is true, provided we know the meaning of
<quote>or</quote>. Here
<quote>John is a man</quote> and
<quote>James is a woman</quote> are the component sentences.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>negating a sentence</primary><secondary>and truth value</secondary></indexterm> We will use the phrase
<quote>negating a sentence</quote> to mean changing its truth value. An English sentence may always be negated by prefixing
@@ -81,130 +81,211 @@
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</informaltable>
<para>This table means that if the first sentence stated is true, and the second sentence stated is true, then the result of the truth function is also true. The same is true for every other possible combination of truth values except the one where both the first and the second sentences are false, in which case the truth value of the result is also false.</para>
<para>Suppose that
<quote>John is a man</quote> is true (and
<quote>John is not a man</quote> is false), and that
<quote>James is a woman</quote> is false (and
<quote>James is not a woman</quote> is true). Then the truth table tells us that</para>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
-
-<quote>John is a man, or James is not a woman</quote> (true true ) is true;
-
-<quote>John is a man, or James is a woman</quote> (true , false) is true;
-
-<quote>John is not a man, or James is not a woman</quote> (false, true ) is true;
-
-<quote>John is not a man, or James is a woman</quote> (false, false) is false.
-</programlisting>
+ <simplelist>
+
+ <member><quote>John is a man, or James is not a woman</quote> (true true ) is true</member>
+
+ <member><quote>John is a man, or James is a woman</quote> (true , false) is true</member>
+
+ <member><quote>John is not a man, or James is not a woman</quote> (false, true ) is true</member>
+
+ <member><quote>John is not a man, or James is a woman</quote> (false, false) is false</member>
+ </simplelist>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>"or"</primary><secondary>"and/or" contrasted with "either … or … but not both"</secondary></indexterm> Note that the kind of
<quote>or</quote> used in this example can also be expressed (in formal English) with
<quote>and/or</quote>. There is a different truth table for the kind of
<quote>or</quote> that means
<quote>either ... or ... but not both</quote>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>truth tables</primary><secondary>notation convention</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>truth tables</primary><secondary>abbreviated format</secondary></indexterm> To save space, we will write truth tables in a shorter format henceforth. Let the letters T and F stand for True and False. The rows will always be given in the order shown above: TT, TF, FT, FF for the two sentences. Then it is only necessary to give the four letters from the result column, which can be written TTTF, as can be seen by reading down the third column of the table above. So TTTF is the abbreviated truth table for the
<quote>or</quote> truth function. Here are the 16 possible truth functions, with an English version of what it means to assert that each function is, in fact, true (
<quote>first</quote> refers to the first sentence, and
<quote>second</quote> to the second sentence):</para>
-<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>truth tables</primary><secondary>list of 16 in abbreviated form</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
- TTTT (always true)
- TTTF first is true and/or second is true.
- TTFT first is true if second is true.
- TTFF first is true whether or not second is true.
- TFTT first is true only if second is true.
- TFTF whether or not first is true, second is true.
- TFFT first is true if and only if second is true.
- TFFF first is true and second is true
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>truth tables</primary><secondary>list of 16 in abbreviated form</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tgroup cols="2">
+ <colspec colnum="1" colname="col1"/>
+ <colspec colnum="2" colname="col2"/>
+ <tbody>
+ <row>
+ <entry>TTTT</entry><entry>(always true)</entry>
+ </row>
+ <row>
+ <entry>TTTF</entry><entry>first is true and/or second is true.</entry>
+ </row>
+ <row>
+ <entry>TTFT</entry><entry>first is true if second is true.</entry>
+ </row>
+ <row>
+ <entry>TTFF</entry><entry>first is true whether or not second is true.</entry>
+ </row>
+ <row>
+ <entry>TFTT</entry><entry>first is true only if second is true.</entry>
+ </row>
+ <row>
+ <entry>TFTF</entry><entry>whether or not first is true, second is true.</entry>
+ </row>
+ <row>
+ <entry>TFFT</entry><entry>first is true if and only if second is true.</entry>
+ </row>
+ <row>
+ <entry>TFFF</entry><entry>first is true and second is true</entry>
+ </row>
- FTTT first and second are not both true.
- FTTF first or second is true, but not both.
- FTFT whether or not first is true, second is false.
- FTFF first is true, but second is false.
- FFTT first is false whether or not second is true.
- FFTF first is false, but second is true.
- FFFT neither first nor second is true.
- FFFF (always false)
-</programlisting>
+ <row>
+ <entry>FTTT</entry><entry>first and second are not both true.</entry>
+ </row>
+ <row>
+ <entry>FTTF</entry><entry>first or second is true, but not both.</entry>
+ </row>
+ <row>
+ <entry>FTFT</entry><entry>whether or not first is true, second is false.</entry>
+ </row>
+ <row>
+ <entry>FTFF</entry><entry>first is true, but second is false.</entry>
+ </row>
+ <row>
+ <entry>FFTT</entry><entry>first is false whether or not second is true.</entry>
+ </row>
+ <row>
+ <entry>FFTF</entry><entry>first is false, but second is true.</entry>
+ </row>
+ <row>
+ <entry>FFFT</entry><entry>neither first nor second is true.</entry>
+ </row>
+ <row>
+ <entry>FFFF</entry><entry>(always false)</entry>
+ </row>
+ </tbody>
+ </tgroup>
+ </informaltable>
<para>Skeptics may work out the detailed truth tables for themselves.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section2">
+ <section xml:id="section-four-basics">
<title>The Four basic vowels</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connectives</primary><secondary>relation to truth functions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>truth functions</primary><secondary>relation to logical connectives</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>truth functions</primary><secondary>fundamental 4 in Lojban</secondary></indexterm> Lojban regards four of these 16 truth functions as fundamental, and assigns them the four vowels
<phrase role="logical-vowel">A</phrase>,
<phrase role="logical-vowel">E</phrase>,
<phrase role="logical-vowel">O</phrase>, and
<phrase role="logical-vowel">U</phrase>. These letters do not represent actual cmavo or selma'o, but rather a component vowel from which actual logical-connective cmavo are built up, as explained in the next section. Here are the four vowels, their truth tables, and rough English equivalents:</para>
-<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fancy U</primary><secondary>notation convention</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fancy O</primary><secondary>notation convention</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fancy E</primary><secondary>notation convention</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fancy A</primary><secondary>notation convention</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>truth tables</primary><secondary>for 4 fundamental Lojban truth functions</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
-<phrase role="logical-vowel">A</phrase> TTTF or, and/or
-
-<phrase role="logical-vowel">E</phrase> TFFF and
-
-<phrase role="logical-vowel">O</phrase> TFFT if and only if
-
-<phrase role="logical-vowel">U</phrase> TTFF whether or not
-</programlisting>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fancy U</primary><secondary>notation convention</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fancy O</primary><secondary>notation convention</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fancy E</primary><secondary>notation convention</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fancy A</primary><secondary>notation convention</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>truth tables</primary><secondary>for 4 fundamental Lojban truth functions</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tgroup cols="3">
+ <colspec colnum="1" colname="col1"/>
+ <colspec colnum="2" colname="col2"/>
+ <colspec colnum="3" colname="col3"/>
+ <tbody>
+ <row>
+ <entry><phrase role="logical-vowel">A</phrase></entry>
+ <entry>TTTF</entry>
+ <entry>or, and/or</entry>
+ </row>
+
+ <row>
+ <entry><phrase role="logical-vowel">E</phrase></entry>
+ <entry>TFFF</entry>
+ <entry>and</entry>
+ </row>
+
+ <row>
+ <entry><phrase role="logical-vowel">O</phrase></entry>
+ <entry>TFFT</entry>
+ <entry>if and only if</entry>
+ </row>
+
+ <row>
+ <entry><phrase role="logical-vowel">U</phrase></entry>
+ <entry>TTFF</entry>
+ <entry>whether or not</entry>
+ </row>
+ </tbody>
+ </tgroup>
+ </informaltable>
<para>More precisely:</para>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
-<phrase role="logical-vowel">A</phrase> is true if either or both sentences are true;
-
-<phrase role="logical-vowel">E</phrase> is true if both sentences are true, but not otherwise;
-
-<phrase role="logical-vowel">O</phrase> is true if the sentences are both true or both false;
-
-<phrase role="logical-vowel">U</phrase> is true if the first sentence is true, regardless of the truth value of the second sentence.
-</programlisting>
+ <simplelist>
+ <member><phrase role="logical-vowel">A</phrase> is true if either or both sentences are true</member>
+
+ <member><phrase role="logical-vowel">E</phrase> is true if both sentences are true, but not otherwise</member>
+
+ <member><phrase role="logical-vowel">O</phrase> is true if the sentences are both true or both false</member>
+
+ <member><phrase role="logical-vowel">U</phrase> is true if the first sentence is true, regardless of the truth value of the second sentence</member>
+ </simplelist>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>truth functions</primary><secondary>creating all 16 with Lojban's basic set</secondary></indexterm> With the four vowels, the ability to negate either sentence, and the ability to exchange the sentences, as if their order had been reversed, we can create all of the 16 possible truth functions except TTTT and FFFF, which are fairly useless anyway. The following table illustrates how to create each of the 14 remaining truth functions:</para>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
- TTTF
-<phrase role="logical-vowel">A</phrase>
- TTFT
-<phrase role="logical-vowel">A</phrase> with second sentence negated
- TTFF
-<phrase role="logical-vowel">U</phrase>
- TFTT
-<phrase role="logical-vowel">A</phrase> with first sentence negated
- TFTF
-<phrase role="logical-vowel">U</phrase> with sentences exchanged
- TFFT
-<phrase role="logical-vowel">O</phrase>
- TFFF
-<phrase role="logical-vowel">E</phrase>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tgroup cols="2">
+ <colspec colnum="1" colname="col1"/>
+ <colspec colnum="2" colname="col2"/>
+ <tbody>
+ <row>
+ <entry>TTTF</entry><entry><phrase role="logical-vowel">A</phrase></entry>
+ </row>
+ <row>
+ <entry>TTFT</entry><entry><phrase role="logical-vowel">A</phrase> with second sentence negated</entry>
+ </row>
+ <row>
+ <entry>TTFF</entry><entry><phrase role="logical-vowel">U</phrase></entry>
+ </row>
+ <row>
+ <entry>TFTT</entry><entry><phrase role="logical-vowel">A</phrase> with first sentence negated</entry>
+ </row>
+ <row>
+ <entry>TFTF</entry><entry><phrase role="logical-vowel">U</phrase> with sentences exchanged</entry>
+ </row>
+ <row>
+ <entry>TFFT</entry><entry><phrase role="logical-vowel">O</phrase></entry>
+ </row>
+ <row>
+ <entry>TFFF</entry><entry><phrase role="logical-vowel">E</phrase></entry>
+ </row>
- FTTT
-<phrase role="logical-vowel">A</phrase> with both sentences negated
- FTTF
-<phrase role="logical-vowel">O</phrase> with either first or second negated (not both)
- FTFT
-<phrase role="logical-vowel">U</phrase> with sentences exchanged and then second negated
- FTFF
-<phrase role="logical-vowel">E</phrase> with second sentence negated
- FFTT
-<phrase role="logical-vowel">U</phrase> with first sentence negated
- FFTF
-<phrase role="logical-vowel">E</phrase> with first sentence negated
- FFFT
-<phrase role="logical-vowel">E</phrase> with both sentences negated
-</programlisting>
+ <row>
+ <entry>FTTT</entry><entry><phrase role="logical-vowel">A</phrase> with both sentences negated</entry>
+ </row>
+ <row>
+ <entry>FTTF</entry><entry><phrase role="logical-vowel">O</phrase> with either first or second negated (not both)</entry>
+ </row>
+ <row>
+ <entry>FTFT</entry><entry><phrase role="logical-vowel">U</phrase> with sentences exchanged and then second negated</entry>
+ </row>
+ <row>
+ <entry>FTFF</entry><entry><phrase role="logical-vowel">E</phrase> with second sentence negated</entry>
+ </row>
+ <row>
+ <entry>FFTT</entry><entry><phrase role="logical-vowel">U</phrase> with first sentence negated</entry>
+ </row>
+ <row>
+ <entry>FFTF</entry><entry><phrase role="logical-vowel">E</phrase> with first sentence negated</entry>
+ </row>
+ <row>
+ <entry>FFFT</entry><entry><phrase role="logical-vowel">E</phrase> with both sentences negated</entry>
+ </row>
+ </tbody>
+ </tgroup>
+ </informaltable>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>truth functions</primary><secondary>commutative</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>commutative truth functions</primary></indexterm> Note that exchanging the sentences is only necessary with
<phrase role="logical-vowel">U</phrase>. The three other basic truth functions are commutative; that is, they mean the same thing regardless of the order of the component sentences. There are other ways of getting some of these truth tables; these just happen to be the methods usually employed.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section3">
+ <section xml:id="section-six-types">
<title>The six types of logical connectives</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connectives</primary><secondary>rationale for multiple sets in grammar</secondary></indexterm> In order to remain unambiguous, Lojban cannot have only a single logical connective for each truth function. There are many places in the grammar of the language where logical connection is permitted, and each must have its appropriate set of connectives. If the connective suitable for sumti were used to connect selbri, ambiguity would result.</para>
<para>Consider the English sentence:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-ptgf">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e3d1"/>
</title>
<para>Mary went to the window and ...</para>
</example>
@@ -216,21 +297,21 @@
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connectives</primary><secondary>cmavo</secondary><tertiary>format for each selma'o</tertiary></indexterm> Thus, in selma'o A, the cmavo for the function
<phrase role="logical-vowel">A</phrase> is
<jbophrase>a</jbophrase>. (Do not confuse A, which is a selma'o, with
<phrase role="logical-vowel">A</phrase>, which is a truth function, or
<jbophrase>a</jbophrase>, which is a cmavo.) Likewise, the cmavo for
<phrase role="logical-vowel">E</phrase> in selma'o GIhA is
<jbophrase>gi'e</jbophrase>, and the cmavo for
<phrase role="logical-vowel">U</phrase> in selma'o GA is
<jbophrase>gu</jbophrase>. This systematic regularity makes the cmavo easier to learn.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>compound logical connectives</primary><secondary>components</secondary></indexterm> Obviously, four cmavo are not enough to express the 14 truth functions explained in
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section1"/>. Therefore, compound cmavo must be used. These compound cmavo follow a systematic pattern: each has one cmavo from the five logical connection selma'o at its heart, and may also contain one or more of the auxiliary cmavo
+ <xref linkend="section-introduction"/>. Therefore, compound cmavo must be used. These compound cmavo follow a systematic pattern: each has one cmavo from the five logical connection selma'o at its heart, and may also contain one or more of the auxiliary cmavo
<jbophrase>se</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase>, or
<jbophrase>nai</jbophrase>. Which auxiliaries are used with which logical connection cmavo, and with what grammar and meaning, will be explained in the following sections. The uses of each of these auxiliary cmavo relates to its other uses in other parts of Lojban grammar.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>A selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>jek</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ek</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>-ek</primary><secondary>in name for logical connectives</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>compound logical connectives</primary><secondary>naming convention</secondary></indexterm> For convenience, each of the types of compound cmavo used for logical connection is designated by a Lojban name. The name is derived by changing the final
<quote>-A</quote> of the selma'o name to
<quote>-ek</quote>; the reasons for using
<quote>-ek</quote> are buried deep in the history of the Loglan Project. Thus, compound cmavo based on selma'o A are known as eks, and those based on selma'o JA are known as jeks. (When writing in English, it is conventional to use
<quote>eks</quote> as the plural of
<quote>ek</quote>.) When the term
@@ -238,21 +319,21 @@
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>I selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ijek</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> Why does the title of this section refer to
<quote>six types</quote> when there are only five selma'o? A jek may be preceded by
<jbophrase>.i</jbophrase>, the usual Lojban cmavo for connecting two sentences. The compound produced by
<jbophrase>.i</jbophrase> followed by a jek is known as an ijek. It is useful to think of ijeks as a sixth kind of logical connective, parallel to eks, jeks, geks, giheks, and guheks.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>I selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JOI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ijoik</primary><secondary>as name for compound cmavo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>joigik</primary><secondary>as name for compound cmavo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>joik</primary><secondary>as name for compound cmavo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gik</primary><secondary>as name for compound cmavo</secondary></indexterm> There also exist giks, joiks, ijoiks, and joigiks, which are not logical connectives, but are other kinds of compound cmavo which will be introduced later.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section4">
+ <section xml:id="section-bridi-connection">
<title>Logical connection of bridi</title>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>I selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi</primary><secondary>logical connective for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ijek logical connectives</primary><secondary>connecting bridi</secondary></indexterm> Now we are ready to express
<xref linkend="example-random-id-mJ6y"/> in Lojban! The kind of logical connective which is placed between two Lojban bridi to connect them logically is an ijek:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-h2hN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e4d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. nanmu .ija la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
<gloss>John is-a-man or James is-a-woman.</gloss>
@@ -286,21 +367,21 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e4d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. nanmu .iju la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
<gloss>John is-a-man whether-or-not James is-a-woman.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi</primary><secondary>logical connection with negation</secondary></indexterm> To obtain the other truth tables listed in
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section2"/>, we need to know how to negate the two bridi which represent the component sentences. We could negate them directly by inserting
+ <xref linkend="section-four-basics"/>, we need to know how to negate the two bridi which represent the component sentences. We could negate them directly by inserting
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase> before the selbri, but Lojban also allows us to place the negation within the connective itself.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>I selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JA selma'o</primary></indexterm> To negate the first or left-hand bridi, prefix
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase> to the JA cmavo but after the
<jbophrase>.i</jbophrase>. To negate the second or right-hand bridi, suffix
<jbophrase>-nai</jbophrase> to the JA cmavo. In either case, the negating word is placed on the side of the connective that is closest to the bridi being negated.</para>
<para>So to express the truth table FTTF, which requires
<phrase role="logical-vowel">O</phrase> with either of the two bridi negated (not both), we can say either:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qgKB" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
@@ -316,48 +397,46 @@
<anchor xml:id="c14e4d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. nanmu .ijonai la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
<gloss>John is a man if-and-only-if James is-not-a-woman</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The meaning of both
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qgKB"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qgLH"/> is the same as that of:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1Kp9">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-1Kp9">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e4d7"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>John is a man or James is a woman, but not both.</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>John is a man or James is a woman, but not both.</para>
</example>
<para>Here is another example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-FXSC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e4d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. nanmu .ijanai la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
<gloss>John is-a-man or James is-not-a-woman.</gloss>
<en>John is a man if James is a woman.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>if</primary><secondary>English usage contrasted with Lojban logical connective</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>if</primary><secondary>meaning in logical connections</secondary></indexterm> How's that again? Are those two English sentences in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-FXSC"/> really equivalent? In English, no. The Lojban TTFT truth function can be glossed
<quote>A if B</quote>, but the
<quote>if</quote> does not quite have its English sense.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-FXSC"/> is true so long as John is a man, even if James is not a woman; likewise, it is true just because James is not a woman, regardless of John's gender. This kind of
<quote>if-then</quote> is technically known as a
<quote>material conditional</quote>.</para>
<para>Since James is not a woman (by our assertions in
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section1"/>), the English sentence
+ <xref linkend="section-introduction"/>), the English sentence
<quote>John is a man if James is a woman</quote> seems to be neither true nor false, since it assumes something which is not true. It turns out to be most convenient to treat this
<quote>if</quote> as TTFT, which on investigation means that
<xref linkend="example-random-id-FXSC"/> is true.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-EdY5"/>, however, is equally true:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-EdY5">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e4d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. ninmu .ijanai la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
@@ -376,21 +455,21 @@
<quote>if ... then</quote> as a more natural substitute for
<quote>only if</quote>.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9CCS">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e4d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. nanmu .inaja la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
<gloss>John is-not-a-man or James is-a-woman.</gloss>
- <gloss>John is a man only if James is a woman.</gloss>
+ <en>John is a man only if James is a woman.</en>
<en>If John is a man, then James is a woman.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>se</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>se</primary><secondary>in logical connective to exchange sentences</secondary></indexterm> The following example illustrates the use of
<jbophrase>se</jbophrase> to, in effect, exchange the two sentences. The normal use of
<jbophrase>se</jbophrase> is to (in effect) transpose places of a bridi, as explained in
<xref linkend="chapter-selbri"/>.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-z43X">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e4d11"/>
@@ -399,33 +478,33 @@
<jbo>la djan. nanmu .iseju la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
<en>Whether or not John is a man, James is a woman.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>se</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>nai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>na</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>na</primary><secondary>order in logical connectives with se</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>se</primary><secondary>order in logical connectives with na</secondary></indexterm> If both
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>se</jbophrase> are present, which is legal but never necessary,
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase> would come before
<jbophrase>se</jbophrase>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>I selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ijeks</primary><secondary>syntax of</secondary></indexterm> The full syntax of ijeks, therefore, is:</para>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ <xxx>
.i [na] [se] JA [nai]
-</programlisting>
+ </xxx>
<para>where the cmavo in brackets are optional.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section5">
+ <section xml:id="section-forethought-bridi-connection">
<title>Forethought bridi connection</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>forethought connectives</primary><secondary>contrasted with afterthought connectives</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>afterthought connectives</primary><secondary>contrasted with forethought connectives</secondary></indexterm> Many concepts in Lojban are expressible in two different ways, generally referred to as
<quote>afterthought</quote> and
<quote>forethought</quote>.
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section4"/> discussed what is called
+ <xref linkend="section-bridi-connection"/> discussed what is called
<quote>afterthought bridi logical connection</quote>. The word
<quote>afterthought</quote> is used because the connective cmavo and the second bridi were added, as it were, afterwards and without changing the form of the first bridi. This form might be used by someone who makes a statement and then wishes to add or qualify that statement after it has been completed. Thus,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-dp8V">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e5d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. nanmu</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -509,21 +588,21 @@
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Xcg1"/>. When added to afterthought selma'o such as JA, a following
<jbophrase>nai</jbophrase> negates the second bridi, to which it is adjacent. Since GA cmavo precede the first bridi, a following
<jbophrase>nai</jbophrase> negates the first bridi instead.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connectives</primary><secondary>negated first sentence as a potential problem for understanding</secondary></indexterm> Why does English insist on forethought in the translation of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Xcg1"/>? Possibly because it would be confusing to seemingly assert a sentence and then make it conditional (which, as the Lojban form shows, involves a negation). Truth functions which involve negating the first sentence may be confusing, even to the Lojbanic understanding, when expressed using afterthought.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>if … then</primary><secondary>logical connectives contrasted with other translations</secondary></indexterm> It must be reiterated here that not every use of English
<quote>if ... then</quote> is properly translated by
<jbophrase>.inaja</jbophrase> or
<jbophrase>ganai ... gi</jbophrase>; anything with implications of time needs a somewhat different Lojban translation, which will be discussed in
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section18"/>. Causal sentences like
+ <xref linkend="section-sumtcita"/>. Causal sentences like
<quote>If you feed the pig, then it will grow</quote> are not logical connectives of any type, but rather need a translation using
<jbophrase>rinka</jbophrase> as the selbri joining two event abstractions, thus:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-TQP9">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e5d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nu do cidja dunda fi le xarju cu rinka le nu ri ba banro</jbo>
@@ -576,32 +655,32 @@
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qgMy" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e5d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ganai la djan. nanmu ginai la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
<gloss>John is-not-a-man or James is-not-a-woman.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>nai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>se</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ganai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>geks</primary><secondary>syntax of</secondary></indexterm> The syntax of geks is:</para>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ <compound-syntax>
[se] GA [nai]
-</programlisting>
+ </compound-syntax>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>nai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>gi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>giks</primary><secondary>syntax of</secondary></indexterm> and of giks (which are not themselves connectives, but part of the machinery of forethought connection) is:</para>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
- gi [nai]
-</programlisting>
+ <compound-syntax>
+ <jbophrase>gi</jbophrase> [nai]
+ </compound-syntax>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section6">
+ <section xml:id="section-sumti-connection">
<title>sumti connection</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi logical connection</primary><secondary>compared with sumti logical connections</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti logical connection</primary><secondary>compared with bridi logical connections</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti logical connection</primary><secondary>rationale for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti logical connection</primary></indexterm> Geks and ijeks are sufficient to state every possible logical connection between two bridi. However, it is often the case that two bridi to be logically connected have one or more portions in common:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Ecnq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e6d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. klama le zarci .ije la .alis. klama le zarci</jbo>
<en>John goes to the market, and Alice goes to the market.</en>
@@ -613,21 +692,21 @@
<anchor xml:id="c14e6d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan .e la .alis. klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>John and Alice go-to the market.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>A selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>.e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>transformation between forms</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-JTIm"/> means exactly the same thing as
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Ecnq"/>: one may be rigorously transformed into the other without any change of logical meaning. This rule is true in general for every different kind of logical connection in Lojban; all of them, with one exception (see
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section12"/>), can always be transformed into a logical connection between sentences that expresses the same truth function.</para>
+ <xref linkend="section-tanru"/>), can always be transformed into a logical connection between sentences that expresses the same truth function.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>A selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>eks</primary><secondary>in sumti forethought logical connection</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti connection</primary><secondary>afterthought</secondary></indexterm> The afterthought logical connectives between sumti are eks, which contain a connective cmavo of selma'o A. If ijeks were used in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-JTIm"/>, the meaning would be changed:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7KHA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e6d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. .ije la .alis. klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>John [is/does something]. And Alices goes-to the market.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -671,21 +750,21 @@
<jbo>la djan. na.a la .alis. klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>John only if Alice goes-to the market.</gloss>
<en>John goes to the market only if Alice does.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note the period in
<jbophrase>na.a</jbophrase>. The cmavo of A begin with vowels, and therefore must always be preceded by a pause. It is conventional to write all connective compounds as single words (with no spaces), but this pause must still be marked in writing as in speech; otherwise, the
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>a</jbophrase> would tend to run together.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section7">
+ <section xml:id="section-more-propositions">
<title>More than two propositions</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connectives</primary><secondary>more than 2 sentences</secondary></indexterm> So far we have seen logical connectives used to connect exactly two sentences. How about connecting three or more? Is this possible in Lojban? The answer is yes, subject to some warnings and some restrictions.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connectives</primary><secondary>associative</secondary></indexterm> Of the four primitive truth functions
<phrase role="logical-vowel">A</phrase>,
<phrase role="logical-vowel">E</phrase>,
<phrase role="logical-vowel">O</phrase>, and
<phrase role="logical-vowel">U</phrase>, all but
<phrase role="logical-vowel">O</phrase> have the same truth values no matter how their component sentences are associated in pairs. Therefore,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9tHr">
<title>
@@ -708,65 +787,59 @@
</example>
<para>means that one or more of the component sentences is true.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connectives</primary><secondary>equivalence relation on 3 sentences</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connectives</primary><secondary>non-associative</secondary></indexterm>
<phrase role="logical-vowel">O</phrase>, however, is different. Working out the truth table for</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3zE1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e7d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi dotco .ijo mi ricfu</jbo>
- <gloss>.ijo mi nanmu</gloss>
- <gloss>I am-German. If-and-only-if I am-rich.</gloss>
- <gloss>If-and-only-if I am-a-man.</gloss>
+ <jbo>mi dotco .ijo mi ricfu .ijo mi nanmu</jbo>
+ <gloss>I am-German. If-and-only-if I am-rich. If-and-only-if I am-a-man.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>shows that
<xref linkend="example-random-id-3zE1"/> does not mean that either I am all three of these things or none of them; instead, an accurate translation would be:</para>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ <place-structure>
Of the three properties - German-ness, wealth, and manhood - I possess either exactly one or else all three.
-</programlisting>
+ </place-structure>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>negation in connecting more than 2 sentences</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>of more than 2 sentences</secondary><tertiary>things to avoid</tertiary></indexterm> Because of the counterintuitiveness of this outcome, it is safest to avoid
<phrase role="logical-vowel">O</phrase> with more than two sentences. Likewise, the connectives which involve negation also have unexpected truth values when used with more than two sentences.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>of more than 2 sentences</secondary><tertiary>all or none</tertiary></indexterm> In fact, no combination of logical connectives can produce the
<quote>all or none</quote> interpretation intended (but not achieved) by
<xref linkend="example-random-id-3zE1"/> without repeating one of the bridi. See
<xref linkend="example-random-id-KyHw"/>.</para>
<para>There is an additional difficulty with the use of more than two sentences. What is the meaning of:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection of more than 2 sentences</primary><secondary>mixed "and" and "or"</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mLo1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e7d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci la djan. .ije mi nelci la martas. .ija mi nelci la meris.</jbo>
<en>I like John. And I like Martha. Or I like Mary.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Does this mean:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-BSuT">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-BSuT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e7d5"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>I like John, and I like either Martha or Mary or both.</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>I like John, and I like either Martha or Mary or both.</para>
</example>
<para>Or is the correct translation:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-dPcI">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-dPcI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e7d6"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>Either I like John and I like Martha, or I like Mary, or both.</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>Either I like John and I like Martha, or I like Mary, or both.</para>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>of more than 2 sentences</secondary><tertiary>forethought</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connectives</primary><secondary>pairing from left</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-dPcI"/> is the correct translation of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-mLo1"/>. The reason is that Lojban logical connectives pair off from the left, like many constructs in the language. This rule, called the left-grouping rule, is easy to forget, especially when intuition pulls the other way. Forethought connectives are not subject to this problem:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-487z">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e7d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ga ge mi nelci la djan. gi mi nelci la martas. gi mi nelci la meris.</jbo>
@@ -781,21 +854,21 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ge mi nelci la djan. gi ga mi nelci la martas. gi mi nelci la meris.</jbo>
<en>Both I like John and (Either I like Martha or I like Mary).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is not equivalent to
<xref linkend="example-random-id-mLo1"/>, but is instead a valid translation into Lojban, using forethought, of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-BSuT"/>.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section8">
+ <section xml:id="section-grouping">
<title>Grouping of afterthought connectives</title>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>BO selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>bo</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bo</primary><secondary>in logical connectives</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>with bo</secondary><tertiary>precedence</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connectives</primary><secondary>grouping with bo</secondary></indexterm> There are several ways in Lojban to render
<xref linkend="example-random-id-BSuT"/> using afterthought only. The simplest method is to make use of the cmavo
<jbophrase>bo</jbophrase> (of selma'o BO). This cmavo has several functions in Lojban, but is always associated with high precedence and short scope. In particular, if
<jbophrase>bo</jbophrase> is placed after an ijek, the result is a grammatically distinct kind of ijek which overrides the regular left-grouping rule. Connections marked with
<jbophrase>bo</jbophrase> are interpreted before connections not so marked.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Uu7D"/> is equivalent in meaning to
<xref linkend="example-random-id-1Dd2"/>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Uu7D">
<title>
@@ -851,27 +924,25 @@
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>KEhE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>KE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>TUhU selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>TUhE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ke'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ke</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>tu'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>tu'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>complex logical connectives</primary><secondary>grouping with parentheses</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>grouping strategies for complex cases contrasted</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>complex logical connection</primary><secondary>grouping strategies contrasted</secondary></indexterm> The use of
<jbophrase>bo</jbophrase>, therefore, gets tricky in complex connections of more than three sentences. Looking back at the English translations of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-487z"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-1Dd2"/>, parentheses were used to clarify the grouping. These parentheses have their Lojban equivalents, two sets of them actually.
<jbophrase>tu'e</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>tu'u</jbophrase> are used with ijeks, and
<jbophrase>ke</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>ke'e</jbophrase> with eks and other connectives to be discussed later. (
<jbophrase>ke</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>ke'e</jbophrase> are also used in other roles in the language, but always as grouping markers). Consider the English sentence:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-aqIg">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-aqIg">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e8d4"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>I kiss you and you kiss me, if I love you and you love me.</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>I kiss you and you kiss me, if I love you and you love me.</para>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>bo</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>BO selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>complex logical connectives</primary><secondary>grouping with bo</secondary></indexterm> where the semantics tells us that the instances of
<quote>and</quote> are meant to have higher precedence than that of
<quote>if</quote>. If we wish to express
<xref linkend="example-random-id-aqIg"/> in afterthought, we can say:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1PSK">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e8d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -881,54 +952,48 @@
</example>
<para>marking two of the ijeks with
<jbophrase>bo</jbophrase> for high precedence. (The first
<jbophrase>bo</jbophrase> is not strictly necessary, because of the left-grouping rule, and is shown here in brackets.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>complex logical connectives</primary><secondary>grouping with parentheses</secondary></indexterm> But it may be clearer to use explicit parenthesis words and say:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-erTb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e8d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>tu'e mi cinba do .ije do cinba mi tu'u</jbo>
- <gloss>.ijanai tu'e mi prami do .ije do prami mi [tu'u]</gloss>
- <gloss>( I kiss you and you kiss me )</gloss>
- <en>if ( I love you and you love me ).</en>
+ <jbo>tu'e mi cinba do .ije do cinba mi tu'u .ijanai tu'e mi prami do .ije do prami mi [tu'u]</jbo>
+ <gloss>( I kiss you and you kiss me ) if ( I love you and you love me ).</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where the
<jbophrase>tu'e ... tu'u</jbophrase> pairs set off the structure. The cmavo
<jbophrase>tu'u</jbophrase> is an elidable terminator, and its second occurrence in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-erTb"/> is bracketed, because all terminators may be elided at the end of a text.</para>
<para>In addition, parentheses are a general solution: multiple parentheses may be nested inside one another, and additional afterthought material may be added without upsetting the existing structure. Neither of these two advantages apply to
<jbophrase>bo</jbophrase> grouping. In general, afterthought constructions trade generality for simplicity.</para>
<para>Because of the left-grouping rule, the first set of
<jbophrase>tu'e ... tu'u</jbophrase> parentheses may actually be left off altogether, producing:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-QGBz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e8d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi cinba do .ije do cinba mi</jbo>
- <gloss>.ijanai tu'e mi prami do .ije do prami mi [tu'u]</gloss>
- <gloss>I kiss you and you kiss me</gloss>
- <en>if ( I love you and you love me ).</en>
+ <jbo>mi cinba do .ije do cinba mi .ijanai tu'e mi prami do .ije do prami mi [tu'u]</jbo>
+ <gloss>I kiss you and you kiss me if ( I love you and you love me ).</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>What about parenthesized sumti connection? Consider</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-y9CC">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-y9CC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e8d8"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>I walk to either the market and the house, or the school and the office.</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>I walk to either the market and the house, or the school and the office.</para>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>KE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ke</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>beginning with "ke"</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>of sumti</secondary><tertiary>restriction on ke</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>of sumti</secondary><tertiary>grouping with parentheses</tertiary></indexterm> Two pairs of parentheses, analogous to
<xref linkend="example-random-id-erTb"/>, would seem to be the right approach. However, it is a rule of Lojban grammar that a sumti may not begin with
<jbophrase>ke</jbophrase>, so the first set of parentheses must be omitted, producing
<xref linkend="example-random-id-0mJM"/>, which is instead parallel to
<xref linkend="example-random-id-QGBz"/>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-0mJM">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e8d9"/>
</title>
@@ -943,30 +1008,28 @@
<jbophrase>tu'e</jbophrase> grouping of bridi, as
<xref linkend="example-random-id-erTb"/> shows.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>German rich man</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> Now we have enough facilities to handle the problem of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-3zE1"/>:
<quote>I am German, rich, and a man - or else none of these.</quote> The following paraphrase has the correct meaning:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KyHw">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e8d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>[tu'e] mi dotco .ijo mi ricfu [tu'u]</jbo>
- <gloss>.ije tu'e mi dotco .ijo mi nanmu [tu'u]</gloss>
- <gloss>( I am-German if-and-only-if I am-rich )</gloss>
- <gloss>and (I am-German if-and-only-if I am-a-man ).</gloss>
+ <jbo>[tu'e] mi dotco .ijo mi ricfu [tu'u] .ije tu'e mi dotco .ijo mi nanmu [tu'u]</jbo>
+ <gloss>( I am-German if-and-only-if I am-rich ) and (I am-German if-and-only-if I am-a-man ).</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The truth table, when worked out, produces T if and only if all three component sentences are true or all three are false.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section9">
+ <section xml:id="section-compound-bridi">
<title>Compound bridi</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>of selbri</secondary></indexterm> So far we have seen how to handle two sentences that need have no similarity at all (bridi connection) and sentences that are identical except for a difference in one sumti (sumti connection). It would seem natural to ask how to logically connect sentences that are identical except for having different selbri.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>compound bridi</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> Surprise! Lojban provides no logical connective that is designed to handle selbri and nothing else. Instead, selbri connection is provided as part of a more general-purpose mechanism called
<quote>compound bridi</quote>. Compound bridi result from logically connecting sentences that differ in their selbri and possibly some of their sumti.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>compound bridi</primary><secondary>one sumti in common</secondary></indexterm> The simplest cases result when the x1 sumti is the only common point:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-WebJ">
@@ -1104,34 +1167,32 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>If the rule were that the x1 places of the two underlying bridi were considered identical, then (since there is nothing special about x1), the unspecified x4 (route) and x5 (means) places would also have to be the same, leading to the absurd result that the route from Phoenix to New York is the same as the route from Rome to New York. Inserting
<jbophrase>da</jbophrase>, meaning roughly
<quote>something</quote>, into the x1 place cures the problem:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ij9G">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e9d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>da klama la nu,IORK. la finyks.</jbo>
- <gloss>gi'e klama la nu,IORK. la rom.</gloss>
- <gloss>Something is-a-goer to-New York from-Phoenix</gloss>
- <gloss>and is-a-goer to-New York from-Rome.</gloss>
+ <jbo>da klama la nu,IORK. la finyks. gi'e klama la nu,IORK. la rom.</jbo>
+ <gloss>Something is-a-goer to-New York from-Phoenix and is-a-goer to-New York from-Rome.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GIhA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>nai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>se</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>na</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>giheks</primary><secondary>syntax of</secondary></indexterm> The syntax of giheks is:</para>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ <compound-syntax>
[na] [se] GIhA [nai]
-</programlisting>
+ </compound-syntax>
<para>which is exactly parallel to the syntax of eks.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section10">
+ <section xml:id="section-multiple-compound-bridi">
<title>Multiple compound bridi</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>compound bridi</primary><secondary>multiple with bo</secondary></indexterm> Giheks can be combined with
<jbophrase>bo</jbophrase> in the same way as eks:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-DpCN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e10d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci la djan. gi'e nelci la martas. gi'abo nelci la meris.</jbo>
@@ -1141,41 +1202,37 @@
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>compound bridi</primary><secondary>multiple with ke…ke'e</secondary></indexterm> is equivalent in meaning to
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Uu7D"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-JVhK"/>. Likewise,
<jbophrase>ke ... ke'e</jbophrase> grouping can be used after giheks:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rH4n">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e10d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi dzukla le zarci gi'e dzukla le zdani</jbo>
- <gloss>gi'a ke dzukla le ckule gi'e dzukla le briju [ke'e]</gloss>
- <gloss>I walk-to the market and walk-to the house,</gloss>
- <gloss>or walk-to the school and walk-to the office.</gloss>
+ <jbo>mi dzukla le zarci gi'e dzukla le zdani gi'a ke dzukla le ckule gi'e dzukla le briju [ke'e]</jbo>
+ <gloss>I walk-to the market and walk-to the house, or walk-to the school and walk-to the office.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>KEhE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ke</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>of bridi-tails</secondary><tertiary>restriction on ke</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple compound bridi</primary><secondary>restriction on ke</secondary></indexterm> is the gihek version of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-0mJM"/>. The same rule about using
<jbophrase>ke ... ke'e</jbophrase> bracketing only just after a connective applies to bridi-tails as to sumti, so the first two bridi-tails in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-rH4n"/> cannot be explicitly grouped; implicit left-grouping suffices to associate them.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>compound bridi</primary><secondary>separate tail-terms for bridi-tails</secondary></indexterm> Each of the pairs of bridi-tails joined by multiple giheks can have its own set of tail-terms:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1asY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e10d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi dejni lo rupnu la djan. .inaja mi dunda le cukta la djan.</jbo>
- <gloss>.ijabo mi lebna le cukta la djan.</gloss>
- <gloss>[If] I owe some currency-units to John, then I give the book to John</gloss>
- <en>or I take the book from John.</en>
+ <jbo>mi dejni lo rupnu la djan. .inaja mi dunda le cukta la djan. .ijabo mi lebna le cukta la djan.</jbo>
+ <gloss>[If] I owe some currency-units to John, then I give the book to John or I take the book from John.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is equivalent in meaning to:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>owe money</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-901t">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e10d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi dejni lo rupnu nagi'a dunda gi'abo lebna vau le cukta vau la djan.</jbo>
@@ -1266,57 +1323,52 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e10d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi gonai le zarci cu klama gi le bisli cu dansu</jbo>
<gloss>I either-but-not-both to-the office go or on-the ice dance.</gloss>
<en>I either go to the office or dance on the ice (but not both).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section11">
+ <section xml:id="section-termsets">
<title>Termset logical connection</title>
<para>So far we have seen sentences that differ in all components, and require bridi connection; sentences that differ in one sumti only, and permit sumti connection; and sentences that differ in the selbri and possibly one or more sumti, and permit bridi-tail connection. Termset logical connectives are employed for sentences that differ in more than one sumti but not in the selbri, such as:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-G02C">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-G02C">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e11d1"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>I go to the market from the office and to the house from the school.</jbo>
+ <para>I go to the market from the office and to the house from the school.</para>
- </interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>PEhE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>pe'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>CEhE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ce'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>termsets</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>termset</primary><secondary>formation</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>term</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> The Lojban version of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-G02C"/> requires two termsets joined by a logical connective. A
<quote>term</quote> is either a sumti or a sumti preceded by a tense or modal tag such as
<jbophrase>pu</jbophrase> or
<jbophrase>bai</jbophrase>. Afterthought termsets are formed by linking terms together by inserting the cmavo
<jbophrase>ce'e</jbophrase> (of selma'o CEhE) between each of them. Furthermore, the logical connective (which is a jek) must be prefixed by the cmavo
<jbophrase>pe'e</jbophrase> (of selma'o PEhE). (We could refer to the combination of
<jbophrase>pe'e</jbophrase> and a jek as a
<quote>pehejek</quote>, I suppose.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>to the market from the office</primary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-UVPj">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e11d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi klama le zarci ce'e le briju pe'e je</jbo>
-
- <gloss>le zdani ce'e le ckule</gloss>
- <gloss>I go to-the market [plus] from-the office [joint] and</gloss>
- <gloss>to-the house [plus] from-the school.</gloss>
+ <jbo>mi klama le zarci ce'e le briju pe'e je le zdani ce'e le ckule</jbo>
+ <gloss>I go to-the market [plus] from-the office [joint] and to-the house [plus] from-the school.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The literal translation uses
<quote>[plus]</quote> to indicate the termset connective, and
<quote>[joint]</quote> to indicate the position of the logical connective joint. As usual, there is an equivalent bridi-connection form:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Bp2v">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e11d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1372,40 +1424,38 @@
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>NUhU selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>NUhI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>nu'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>nu'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>forethought termsets</primary><secondary>logical connection of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>of forethought termsets</secondary></indexterm> Forethought termsets also exist, and use
<jbophrase>nu'i</jbophrase> of selma'o NUhI to signal the beginning and
<jbophrase>nu'u</jbophrase> of selma'o NUhU (an elidable terminator) to signal the end. Nothing is inserted between the individual terms: they simply sit side-by-side. To make a logical connection in a forethought termset, use a gek, with the gek just after the
<jbophrase>nu'i</jbophrase>, and an extra
<jbophrase>nu'u</jbophrase> just before the gik:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KeLv">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e11d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi klama nu'i ge le zarci le briju</jbo>
- <gloss>nu'u gi le zdani le ckule [nu'u]</gloss>
- <gloss>I go [start termset] both to-the market from-the office</gloss>
- <gloss>[joint] and to-the house from-the school [end termset].</gloss>
+ <jbo>mi klama nu'i ge le zarci le briju nu'u gi le zdani le ckule [nu'u]</jbo>
+ <gloss>I go [start termset] both to-the market from-the office [joint] and to-the house from-the school [end termset].</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that even though two termsets are being connected, only one
<jbophrase>nu'i</jbophrase> is used.</para>
<para>The grammatical uses of termsets that do not contain logical connectives are explained in
<xref linkend="chapter-lujvo"/> and
<xref linkend="chapter-quantifiers"/>.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section12">
+ <section xml:id="section-tanru">
<title>Logical connection within tanru</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connectives in tanru</primary></indexterm> As noted at the beginning of
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section9"/>, there is no logical connective in Lojban that joins selbri and nothing but selbri. However, it is possible to have logical connectives within a selbri, forming a kind of tanru that involves a logical connection. Consider the simple tanru
+ <xref linkend="section-compound-bridi"/>, there is no logical connective in Lojban that joins selbri and nothing but selbri. However, it is possible to have logical connectives within a selbri, forming a kind of tanru that involves a logical connection. Consider the simple tanru
<jbophrase>blanu zdani</jbophrase>, blue house. Now anything that is a blue ball, in the most ordinary understanding of the phrase at least, is both blue and a ball. And indeed, instead of
<jbophrase>blanu bolci</jbophrase>, Lojbanists can say
<jbophrase>blanu je bolci</jbophrase>, using a jek connective within the tanru. (We saw jeks used in
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section11"/> also, but there they were always prefixed by
+ <xref linkend="section-termsets"/> also, but there they were always prefixed by
<jbophrase>pe'e</jbophrase>; in this section they are used alone.) Here is a pair of examples:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qGoH" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e12d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti blanu zdani</jbo>
<gloss>This is-a-blue type-of house.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1416,27 +1466,25 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti blanu je zdani</jbo>
<gloss>This is-blue and a-house.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>blue house</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>unconnected tanru</primary><secondary>contrasted with logically connected version</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>in tanru</secondary><tertiary>contrasted with unconnected version</tertiary></indexterm> But of course
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qGoH"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qgoW"/> are not necessarily equivalent in meaning! It is the most elementary point about Lojban tanru that
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qGoH"/> might just as well mean</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-DxVB">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-DxVB">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e12d3"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>This is a house for blue inhabitants.</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>This is a house for blue inhabitants.</para>
</example>
<para>and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qgoW"/> certainly is not equivalent in meaning to
<xref linkend="example-random-id-DxVB"/>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>in tanru</secondary><tertiary>expandability of</tertiary></indexterm> A full explanation of logical connection within tanru belongs rather to a discussion of selbri structure than to logical connectives in general. Why? Because although
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qgoW"/> happens to mean the same as</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-XXX6">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e12d4"/>
</title>
@@ -1504,32 +1552,32 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .teris. cu [ke] ricfu ja pindi [ke'e] je ke nakni ja fetsi [ke'e]</jbo>
<en>Terry is (rich or poor) and (male or female).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where the first
<jbophrase>ke ... ke'e</jbophrase> pair may be omitted altogether by the rule of left-grouping, but is optionally permitted. In any case, the last instance of
<jbophrase>ke'e</jbophrase> may be elided.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>nai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>se</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>na</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>jeks</primary><secondary>syntax of</secondary></indexterm> The syntax of jeks is:</para>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ <compound-syntax>
[na] [se] JA [nai]
-</programlisting>
+ </compound-syntax>
<para>parallel to eks and giheks.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GUhA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>guhek</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>forethought tanru connection</primary></indexterm> Forethought tanru connection does not use geks, but uses guheks instead. Guheks have exactly the same form as geks:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GUhA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>nai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>se</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>guheks</primary><secondary>syntax of</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ <compound-syntax>
[se] GUhA [nai]
-</programlisting>
+ </compound-syntax>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>of tanru as opposed to bridi-tail</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>of bridi-tail as opposed to tanru</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>guheks for tanru connection</primary><secondary>rationale</secondary></indexterm> Using guheks in tanru connection (rather than geks) resolves what would otherwise be an unacceptable ambiguity between bridi-tail and tanru connection:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mjog">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e12d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .alis. gu'e ricfu gi fetsi</jbo>
<en>Alice is both rich and female.</en>
@@ -1580,36 +1628,34 @@
<jbo>mi viska pa nanmu je ninmu</jbo>
<en>I see a man and woman.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>But
<xref linkend="example-random-id-ag8r"/> means that you see one thing which is both a man and a woman simultaneously! A
<jbophrase>nanmu je ninmu</jbophrase> is a manwoman, a presumably non-existent creature who is both a
<jbophrase>nanmu</jbophrase> and a
<jbophrase>ninmu</jbophrase>.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section13">
+ <section xml:id="section-questions">
<title>Truth questions and connective questions</title>
<para>So far we have addressed only sentences which are statements. Lojban, like all human languages, needs also to deal with sentences which are questions. There are many ways of asking questions in Lojban, but some of these (like questions about quantity, tense, and emotion) are discussed in other chapters.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>truth questions</primary><secondary>simple</secondary></indexterm> The simplest kind of question is of the type
<quote>Is it true that ...</quote> where some statement follows. This type is called a
<quote>truth question</quote>, and can be represented in English by
<xref linkend="example-random-id-bMjE"/>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-bMjE">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-bMjE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d1"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>Is it true that Fido is a dog?</jbo>
- <en>Is Fido a dog?</en>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>Is it true that Fido is a dog?</para>
+ <para>Is Fido a dog?</para>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>UI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>xu</primary></indexterm> Note the two formulations. English truth questions can always be formed by prefixing
<quote>Is is true that</quote> to the beginning of a statement; there is also usually a more idiomatic way involving putting the verb before its subject.
<quote>Is Fido a dog?</quote> is the truth question corresponding to
<quote>Fido is a dog</quote>. In Lojban, the equivalent mechanism is to prefix the cmavo
<jbophrase>xu</jbophrase> (of selma'o UI) to the statement:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gKaM">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d2"/>
</title>
@@ -1646,37 +1692,33 @@
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>nago'i</jbo>
<en>Fido is not a dog.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>truth questions</primary><secondary>contrasted with connection questions</secondary></indexterm> Some English questions seemingly have the same form as the truth questions so far discussed. Consider</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>dog or cat</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mftC">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-mftC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d5"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>Is Fido a dog or a cat?</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>Is Fido a dog or a cat?</para>
</example>
<para>Superficially,
<xref linkend="example-random-id-mftC"/> seems like a truth question with the underlying statement:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-n6Ec">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-n6Ec">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d6"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>Fido is a dog or a cat.</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>Fido is a dog or a cat.</para>
</example>
<para>By translating
<xref linkend="example-random-id-n6Ec"/> into Lojban and prefixing
<jbophrase>xu</jbophrase> to signal a truth question, we get:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hz4S">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xu la faidon. gerku gi'onai mlatu</jbo>
@@ -1767,75 +1809,68 @@
<jbo>nagi'enai</jbo>
<en>Alice is not a dog and is not a cat.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qGRz" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d12"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>nagi'o</jbo>
- <gloss>gi'onai</gloss>
+ <jbo>gi'onai</jbo>
<en>Alice is a dog or is a cat but not both (I'm not saying which).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qGRz"/> is correct but uncooperative.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>afterthought connectives</primary><secondary>as complete grammatical utterance</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>connectives</primary><secondary>as complete grammatical utterance</secondary></indexterm> As usual, Lojban questions are answered by filling in the blank left by the question. Here the blank is a logical connective, and therefore it is grammatical in Lojban to utter a bare logical connective without anything for it to connect.</para>
<para>The answer
<jbophrase>gi'e</jbophrase>, meaning that Alice is a dog and is a cat, is impossible in the real world, but for:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-xtIf">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d13"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>do djica tu'a loi ckafi</jbo>
- <gloss>ji loi tcati</gloss>
- <gloss>You desire something-about a-mass-of coffee</gloss>
- <gloss>[truth function?] a-mass-of tea?</gloss>
+ <jbo>do djica tu'a loi ckafi ji loi tcati</jbo>
+ <gloss>You desire something-about a-mass-of coffee [truth function?] a-mass-of tea?</gloss>
<en>Do you want coffee or tea?</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>coffee or tea</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> the answer
<jbophrase>.e</jbophrase>, meaning that I want both, is perfectly plausible, if not necessarily polite.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>afterthought connection</primary><secondary>contrasted with forethought for grammatical utterances</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>forethought connection</primary><secondary>contrasted with afterthought for grammatical utterances</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>forethought connectives</primary><secondary>as ungrammatical utterance</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>connectives</primary><secondary>as ungrammatical utterance</secondary></indexterm> The forethought questions
<jbophrase>ge'i</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>gu'i</jbophrase> are used like the others, but ambiguity forbids the use of isolated forethought connectives as answers - they sound like the start of forethought-connected bridi. So although
<xref linkend="example-random-id-286J"/> is the forethought version of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-xtIf"/>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-286J">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d14"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>do djica tu'a</jbo>
- <gloss>ge'i loi ckafi</gloss>
-
- <gloss>gi loi tcati</gloss>
- <gloss>You desire something-about</gloss>
- <gloss>[truth function?] a-mass-of coffee</gloss>
- <gloss>[or] a-mass-of tea?</gloss>
+ <jbo>do djica tu'a ge'i loi ckafi gi loi tcati</jbo>
+ <gloss>You desire something-about [truth function?] a-mass-of coffee [or] a-mass-of tea?</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>the answer must be in afterthought form.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>connective questions</primary><secondary>compared with other languages</secondary></indexterm> There are natural languages, notably Chinese, which employ the Lojbanic form of connective question. The Chinese sentence</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-HyVv">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d15"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ni</jbo>
+ <foreign xml:lang="zh">ni<superscript>3</superscript> zou<superscript>3</superscript> hai<superscript>2</superscript>shi pao</foreign>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means
<quote>Do you walk or run?</quote>, and is exactly parallel to the Lojban:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3jIq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d16"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do cadzu gi'i bajra</jbo>
@@ -1850,60 +1885,54 @@
<quote>yes</quote> and false if the answer is
<jbophrase>no</jbophrase>. Analogously, an imperative sentence (involving the special pro-sumti
<jbophrase>ko</jbophrase>, which means
<quote>you</quote> but marks the sentence as a command) is true if the command is obeyed, and false otherwise. A request of Abraham Lincoln's may be translated thus:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-BPv0">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d17"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ganai ti ckafi gi ko bevri loi tcati mi</jbo>
- <gloss>.ije ganai ti tcati gi ko bevri loi ckafi mi</gloss>
- <gloss>If this is-coffee then [you!] bring a-mass-of tea to-me,</gloss>
- <gloss>and if this is-tea then [you!] bring a-mass-of coffee to-me.</gloss>
+ <jbo>ganai ti ckafi gi ko bevri loi tcati mi .ije ganai ti tcati gi ko bevri loi ckafi mi</jbo>
+ <gloss>If this is-coffee then [you!] bring a-mass-of tea to-me, and if this is-tea then [you!] bring a-mass-of coffee to-me.</gloss>
<en>If this is coffee, bring me tea; but if this is tea, bring me coffee.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>UI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ku'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>and</primary><secondary>compared with but</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>but</primary><secondary>compared with and</secondary></indexterm> In logical terms, however,
<quote>but</quote> is the same as
<quote>and</quote>; the difference is that the sentence after a
<quote>but</quote> is felt to be in tension or opposition to the sentence before it. Lojban represents this distinction by adding the discursive cmavo
<jbophrase>ku'i</jbophrase> (of selma'o UI), which is explained in
<xref linkend="chapter-attitudinals"/>, to the logical
<jbophrase>.ije</jbophrase>.)</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section14">
+ <section xml:id="section-non-logical-connectives">
<title>Non-logical connectives</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>and</primary><secondary>as non-logical connective</secondary></indexterm> Way back in
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section1"/>, the point was made that not every use of English
+ <xref linkend="section-introduction"/>, the point was made that not every use of English
<quote>and</quote>,
<quote>if ... then</quote>, and so on represents a Lojban logical connective. In particular, consider the
<quote>and</quote> of:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-x6JW">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-x6JW">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d1"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>John and Alice carried the piano.</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>John and Alice carried the piano.</para>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>carried piano</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mass</primary><secondary>joining elements into a</secondary></indexterm> Given the nature of pianos, this probably means that John carried one end and Alice the other. So it is not true that:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-58yv">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-58yv">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d2"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>John carried the piano, and Alice carried the piano.</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>John carried the piano, and Alice carried the piano.</para>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JOI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>joi</primary></indexterm> which would mean that each of them carried the piano by himself/herself. Lojban deals with this particular linguistic phenomenon as a
<quote>mass</quote>. John and Alice are joined together into a mass, John-and-Alice, and it is this mass which carried the piano, not either of them separately. The cmavo
<jbophrase>joi</jbophrase> (of selma'o JOI) is used to join two or more components into a mass:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pC5x">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. joi la .alis. cu bevri le pipno</jbo>
@@ -1946,47 +1975,72 @@
<jbo>ti blanu joi xunre bolci</jbo>
<gloss>This is-a-(blue mixed-with red) ball.</gloss>
<en>This is a blue and red ball.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the ball is neither wholly blue nor wholly red, but partly blue and partly red. Its blue/redness is a mass property. (Just how blue something has to be to count as
<quote>wholly blue</quote> is an unsettled question, though. A
<jbophrase>blanu zdani</jbophrase> may be so even though not every part of it is blue.)</para>
<para>There are several other cmavo in selma'o JOI which can be used in the same grammatical constructions. Not all of them are well-defined as yet in all contexts. All have clear definitions as sumti connectives; those definitions are shown in the following table:</para>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
- A joi B the mass with components A and B
- A ce B the set with elements A and B
- A ce'o B the sequence with elements A and B in order
-
- A sece'o B the sequence with elements B and A in order
-
- A jo'u B A and B considered jointly
-
- A fa'u B A and B respectively
- A sefa'u B B and A respectively
-
- A jo'e B the union of sets A and B
-
-
-
- A ku'a B the intersection of sets A and B
-
-
-
- A pi'u B the cross product of sets A and B
-
-
- A sepi'u B the cross product of sets B and A
-
-
-</programlisting>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tgroup cols="2">
+ <colspec colnum="1" colname="col1"/>
+ <colspec colnum="2" colname="col2"/>
+ <tbody>
+ <row>
+ <entry>A <jbophrase>joi</jbophrase> B</entry>
+ <entry>the mass with components A and B</entry>
+ </row>
+ <row>
+ <entry>A <jbophrase>ce</jbophrase> B</entry>
+ <entry>the set with elements A and B</entry>
+ </row>
+ <row>
+ <entry>A <jbophrase>ce'o</jbophrase> B</entry>
+ <entry>the sequence with elements A and B in order</entry>
+ </row>
+ <row>
+ <entry>A <jbophrase>sece'o</jbophrase> B</entry>
+ <entry>the sequence with elements B and A in order</entry>
+ </row>
+ <row>
+ <entry>A <jbophrase>jo'u</jbophrase> B</entry>
+ <entry>A and B considered jointly</entry>
+ </row>
+ <row>
+ <entry>A <jbophrase>fa'u</jbophrase> B</entry>
+ <entry>A and B respectively</entry>
+ </row>
+ <row>
+ <entry>A <jbophrase>sefa'u</jbophrase> B</entry>
+ <entry>B and A respectively</entry>
+ </row>
+ <row>
+ <entry>A <jbophrase>jo'e</jbophrase> B</entry>
+ <entry>the union of sets A and B</entry>
+ </row>
+ <row>
+ <entry>A <jbophrase>ku'a</jbophrase> B</entry>
+ <entry>the intersection of sets A and B</entry>
+ </row>
+ <row>
+ <entry>A <jbophrase>pi'u</jbophrase> B</entry>
+ <entry>the cross product of sets A and B</entry>
+ </row>
+ <row>
+ <entry>A <jbophrase>sepi'u</jbophrase> B</entry>
+ <entry>the cross product of sets B and A</entry>
+ </row>
+ </tbody>
+ </tgroup>
+ </informaltable>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JOI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>se</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>sepi'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>pi'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ku'a</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>jo'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>sefa'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>fa'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>jo'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>sece'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ce'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ce</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>joi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JOI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>joiks</primary><secondary>use of "se" in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>se</primary><secondary>as grammatical in JOI compounds</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo
<jbophrase>se</jbophrase> is grammatical before any JOI cmavo, but only useful with those that have inherent order. Here are some examples of joiks:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-cwG8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cuxna la .alis. la frank. ce la .alis. ce la djeimyz.</jbo>
<gloss>I choose Alice from Frank and-member Alice and-member James.</gloss>
<en>I choose Alice from among Frank, Alice, and James.</en>
@@ -2102,24 +2156,22 @@
<jbo>la djeimyz. .e la djordj. prami la meris. .e la martas.</jbo>
<en>James and George love Mary and Martha.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which can be transformed to four bridi:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-I3gH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d14"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la djeimyz. prami la meris. .ije la djordj. prami la meris.</jbo>
- <gloss>.ije la djeimyz. prami la martas. .ije la djordj. prami la martas.</gloss>
- <gloss>James loves Mary, and George loves Mary,</gloss>
- <en>and James loves Martha, and George loves Martha.</en>
+ <jbo>la djeimyz. prami la meris. .ije la djordj. prami la meris. .ije la djeimyz. prami la martas. .ije la djordj. prami la martas.</jbo>
+ <en>James loves Mary, and George loves Mary, and James loves Martha, and George loves Martha.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which represents quite a different state of affairs from
<xref linkend="example-random-id-MBsp"/>. The meaning of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-MBsp"/> can also be conveyed by a termset:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nER7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d15"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -2134,21 +2186,21 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d16"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djeimyz. fa'u la djordj. prami re mensi</jbo>
<gloss>James and-respectively George love two sisters.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which conveys that James loves one sister and George the other, though we are not able to tell which of the sisters is which.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section15">
+ <section xml:id="section-non-logical-continued">
<title>More about non-logical connectives</title>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>pi'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ku'a</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>jo'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cross-product</primary><secondary>of sets</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>intersection</primary><secondary>of sets</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>union</primary><secondary>of sets</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>set operations</primary></indexterm> The final three JOI cmavo,
<jbophrase>jo'e</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>ku'a</jbophrase>, and
<jbophrase>pi'u</jbophrase>, are probably only useful when talking explicitly about sets. They represent three standard set operators usually called
<quote>union</quote>,
@@ -2205,127 +2257,104 @@
<gloss>The-set-of rich-and-German-things is small.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The following example uses
<jbophrase>se remei</jbophrase>, which is a set (not a mass) of two elements:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-D9gz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e15d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la djeimyz. ce[bo] la djordj. pi'u la meris. cebo la martas.</jbo>
-
- <gloss>cu prami se remei</gloss>
- <gloss>James and-set George cross-product Mary and-set Martha</gloss>
-
- <gloss>are-lover type-of-pairs.</gloss>
+ <jbo>la djeimyz. ce[bo] la djordj. pi'u la meris. cebo la martas. cu prami se remei</jbo>
+ <gloss>James and-set George cross-product Mary and-set Martha are-lover type-of-pairs.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>and</primary><secondary>contrasted with cross-product</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cross-product</primary><secondary>contrasted with and</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>e</primary><secondary>contrasted with pi'u</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pi'u</primary><secondary>contrasted with .e</secondary></indexterm> means that each of the pairs James/Mary, George/Mary, James/Martha, and George/Martha love each other. Therefore it is similar in meaning to
<xref linkend="example-random-id-7bv3"/>; however, that example speaks only of the men loving the women, not vice versa.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JOI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-logical connectives</primary><secondary>grouping</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>joiks</primary><secondary>grouping</secondary></indexterm> Joiks may be combined with
<jbophrase>bo</jbophrase> or with
<jbophrase>ke</jbophrase> in the same way as eks and jeks; this allows grouping of non-logical connections between sumti and tanru units, in complete parallelism with logical connections:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mwpo">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e15d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi joibo do ce la djan. joibo la djein.</jbo>
- <gloss>cu gunma se remei</gloss>
- <gloss>(I massed-with you) and (John massed-with Jane)</gloss>
- <gloss>are-a-mass type-of-two-set</gloss>
+ <jbo>mi joibo do ce la djan. joibo la djein. cu gunma se remei</jbo>
+ <gloss>(I massed-with you) and (John massed-with Jane) are-a-mass type-of-two-set</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>asserts that there is a set of two items each of which is a mass.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>termsets</primary><secondary>non-logical connection of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-logical connection</primary><secondary>of termsets</secondary></indexterm> Non-logical connection is permitted at the joint of a termset; this is useful for associating more than one sumti or tagged sumti with each side of the non-logical connection. The place structure of
<jbophrase>casnu</jbophrase> is:</para>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ <place-structure>
casnu: the mass x1 discusses/talks about x2
-</programlisting>
+ </place-structure>
<para>so the x1 place must be occupied by a mass (for reasons not explained here); however, different components of the mass may discuss in different languages. To associate each participant with his or her language, we can say:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>discuss in language</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sdba">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e15d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi ce'e bau la lojban.</jbo>
- <gloss>pe'e joi do ce'e bau la gliban. nu'u casnu</gloss>
+ <jbo>mi ce'e bau la lojban. pe'e joi do ce'e bau la gliban. nu'u casnu</jbo>
- <gloss>( I [plus] in-language Lojban</gloss>
- <gloss>massed-with you [plus] in-language English ) discuss.</gloss>
+ <gloss>( I [plus] in-language Lojban massed-with you [plus] in-language English ) discuss.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Like all non-logical connectives, the usage shown in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-sdba"/> cannot be mechanically converted into a non-logical connective placed at another location in the bridi. The forethought equivalent of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-sdba"/> is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-DgXI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e15d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>nu'i joigi mi bau la lojban gi do bau la gliban. nu'u casnu</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>respectively</primary><secondary>with different relationships</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tagged sumti termsets</primary><secondary>connecting with non-logical forethought connectives</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-logical forethought termsets</primary><secondary>connecting tagged sumti</secondary></indexterm> Non-logical forethought termsets are also useful when the things to be non-logically connected are sumti preceded with tense or modal (BAI) tags:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-wVSG">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e15d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la djan. fa'u la frank. cusku nu'i bau la lojban.</jbo>
- <gloss>nu'u fa'u bai tu'a la djordj. [nu'u]</gloss>
- <gloss>John respectively-with Frank express [start termset] in-language Lojban</gloss>
- <gloss>[joint] respectively-with under-compulsion-by George.</gloss>
+ <jbo>la djan. fa'u la frank. cusku nu'i bau la lojban. nu'u fa'u bai tu'a la djordj. [nu'u]</jbo>
+ <gloss>John respectively-with Frank express [start termset] in-language Lojban [joint] respectively-with under-compulsion-by George.</gloss>
<en>John and Frank speak in Lojban and under George's compulsion, respectively.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-wVSG"/> associates speaking in Lojban with John, and speaking under George's compulsion with Frank. We do not know what language Frank uses, or whether John speaks under anyone's compulsion.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JOI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>I selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sequence of events</primary><secondary>expressing non-time-related sequences</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ice'o</primary><secondary>contrasted with .ibabo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sentences</primary><secondary>connecting non-logically</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-logical connectives</primary><secondary>sentence</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ijoik</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> Joiks may be prefixed with
<jbophrase>.i</jbophrase> to produce ijoiks, which serve to non-logically connect sentences. The ijoik
<jbophrase>.ice'o</jbophrase> indicates that the event of the second bridi follows that of the first bridi in some way other than a time relationship (which is handled with a tense):</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-27xU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e15d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi ba gasnu la'edi'e</jbo>
- <gloss>.i tu'e kanji lo ni cteki</gloss>
-
+ <jbo>mi ba gasnu la'edi'e .i tu'e kanji lo ni cteki .ice'o lumci le karce .ice'o dzukansa le gerku tu'u</jbo>
-
- <gloss>.ice'o lumci le karce</gloss>
-
- <gloss>.ice'o dzukansa le gerku tu'u</gloss>
-
- <gloss>I [future] do the-referent-of-the-following:</gloss>
- <gloss>( Compute the quantity of taxes.</gloss>
- <gloss>And-then wash the car.</gloss>
- <gloss>And-then walkingly-accompany the dog. )</gloss>
- <gloss>List of things to do:</gloss>
- <gloss>Figure taxes.</gloss>
- <gloss>Wash car.</gloss>
- <en>Walk dog.</en>
+ <gloss>I [future] do the-referent-of-the-following: ( Compute the quantity of taxes. And-then wash the car. And-then walkingly-accompany the dog. )</gloss>
+ <en>List of things to do: Figure taxes. Wash car. Walk dog.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>tu'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>tu'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>di'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>TUhU selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>TUhE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>list of things to do</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>to-do list</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tu'e</primary><secondary>use in lists</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tu'e</primary><secondary>effect on di'e</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>di'e</primary><secondary>effect of tu'e/tu'u on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lists</primary><secondary>use of tu'e/tu'u in</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-27xU"/> represents a list of things to be done in priority order. The order is important, hence the need for a sequence connective, but does not necessarily represent a time order (the dog may end up getting walked first). Note the use of
<jbophrase>tu'e</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>tu'u</jbophrase> as general brackets around the whole list. This is related to, but distinct from, their use in
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section8"/>, because there is no logical connective between the introductory phrase
+ <xref linkend="section-grouping"/>, because there is no logical connective between the introductory phrase
<jbophrase>mi ba gasnu la'edi'e</jbophrase> and the rest. The brackets effectively show how large an utterance the word
<jbophrase>di'e</jbophrase>, which means
<quote>the following utterance</quote>, refers to.</para>
<para>Similarly,
<jbophrase>.ijoi</jbophrase> is used to connect sentences that represent the components of a joint event such as a joint cause: the Lojban equivalent of
<quote>Fran hit her head and fell out of the boat, so that she drowned</quote> would join the events
<quote>Fran hit her head</quote> and
<quote>Fran fell out of the boat</quote> with
<jbophrase>.ijoi</jbophrase>.</para>
@@ -2345,46 +2374,44 @@
<jbophrase>jo'u</jbophrase> is not applicable;
<jbophrase>joi</jbophrase> would be the correct connective.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>connective answers</primary><secondary>non-logical</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>connective questions</primary><secondary>non-logical</secondary></indexterm> There is no joik question cmavo as such; however, joiks and ijoiks may be uttered in isolation in response to a logical connective question, as in the following exchange:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qGSm" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e15d12"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>do djica tu'a</jbo>
- <gloss>loi ckafi ji loi tcati</gloss>
- <gloss>You desire something-about</gloss>
- <gloss>a-mass-of coffee [what connective?] a-mass-of tea?</gloss>
+ <jbo>do djica tu'a loi ckafi ji loi tcati</jbo>
+ <gloss>You desire something-about a-mass-of coffee [what connective?] a-mass-of tea?</gloss>
<en>Do you want coffee or tea?</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qgsp" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e15d13"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>joi</jbo>
<gloss>Mixed-mass-and.</gloss>
<en>Both as a mass (i.e, mixed together).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>ugh</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>coffee mixed with tea</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> Ugh. (Or in Lojban: .a'unaisairo'o.)</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section16">
+ <section xml:id="section-non-logical-continued-continued">
<title>Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection</title>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>mi'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>bi'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>bi'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>BIhI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>intervals</primary><secondary>expressed as endpoints</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-logical connectives</primary><secondary>intervals</secondary></indexterm> In addition to the non-logical connectives of selma'o JOI explained in
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section14"/> and
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section15"/>, there are three other connectives which can appear in joiks:
+ <xref linkend="section-non-logical-connectives"/> and
+ <xref linkend="section-non-logical-continued"/>, there are three other connectives which can appear in joiks:
<jbophrase>bi'i</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>bi'o</jbophrase>, and
<jbophrase>mi'i</jbophrase>, all of selma'o BIhI. The first two cmavo are used to specify intervals: abstract objects defined by two endpoints. The cmavo
<jbophrase>bi'i</jbophrase> is correct if the endpoints are independent of order, whereas
<jbophrase>bi'o</jbophrase> or
<jbophrase>sebi'o</jbophrase> are used when order matters.</para>
<para>An example of
<jbophrase>bi'i</jbophrase> in sumti connection:</para>
@@ -2521,43 +2548,39 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do dicra .e'a mi ca la daucac. bi'onai la gaicac.</jbo>
<gloss>You disturb (allowed) me at 10 not-from ... to 12</gloss>
<en>You can contact me except from 10 to 12.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The complete syntax of joiks is:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GAhO selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>BIhI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JOI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>nai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>se</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>joiks</primary><secondary>syntax of</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
- [se] JOI [nai]
- [se] BIhI [nai]
- GAhO [se] BIhI [nai] GAhO
-</programlisting>
+ <compound-syntax>
+ [se] JOI [nai] [se] BIhI [nai] GAhO [se] BIhI [nai] GAhO
+ </compound-syntax>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JOI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>gi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>joigik</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>intervals</primary><secondary>forethought</secondary></indexterm> Notice that the colloquial English translations of
<jbophrase>bi'i</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>bi'o</jbophrase> have forethought form:
<quote>between ... and</quote> for
<jbophrase>bi'i</jbophrase>, and
<quote>from ... to</quote> for
<jbophrase>bi'o</jbophrase>. In Lojban too, non-logical connectives can be expressed in forethought. Rather than using a separate selma'o, the forethought logical connectives are constructed from the afterthought ones by suffixing
<jbophrase>gi</jbophrase>. Such a compound cmavo is not unnaturally called a
<jbophrase>joigik</jbophrase>; the syntax of joigiks is any of:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GAhO selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JOI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>BIhI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>nai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>se</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>joigiks</primary><secondary>syntax of</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
- [se] JOI [nai] GI
- [se] BIhI [nai] GI
- GAhO [se] BIhI [nai] GAhO GI
-</programlisting>
+ <compound-syntax>
+ [se] JOI [nai] GI [se] BIhI [nai] GI GAhO [se] BIhI [nai] GAhO GI
+ </compound-syntax>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>joigiks</primary><secondary>connection types</secondary></indexterm> Joigiks may be used to non-logically connect bridi, sumti, and bridi-tails; and also in termsets.</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-pC5x"/> in forethought becomes:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>carry the piano</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-iBpP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e16d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>joigi la djan. gi la .alis. bevri le pipno</jbo>
@@ -2576,21 +2599,21 @@
<anchor xml:id="c14e16d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ca sanli ke'i bi'i ga'o gi la drezdn. gi la frankfurt.</jbo>
<gloss>I [present] stand [exclusive] between [inclusive] Dresden and Frankfurt.</gloss>
<en>I am standing between Dresden (exclusive) and Frankfurt (inclusive).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>between Dresden and Frankfurt</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>GAhO position in forethought intervals</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>forethought intervals</primary><secondary>GAhO position</secondary></indexterm> In forethought, unfortunately, the GAhOs become physically separated from the endpoints, but the same rule applies: the first GAhO refers to the first endpoint.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section17">
+ <section xml:id="section-mekso-connections">
<title>Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mathematical expressions</primary><secondary>connectives in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-logical connection</primary><secondary>in mathematical expressions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>in mathematical expressions</secondary></indexterm> Lojban has a separate grammar embedded within the main grammar for representing mathematical expressions (or mekso in Lojban) such as
<quote>2 + 2</quote>. Mathematical expressions are explained fully in
<xref linkend="chapter-mekso"/>. The basic components of mekso are operands, like
<quote>2</quote>, and operators, like
<quote>+</quote>. Both of these may be either logically or non-logically connected.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JOI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GUhA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>A selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>BO selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>bo</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>connecting operators</primary><secondary>with bo in connective</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bo</primary><secondary>in joiks for operators</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bo</primary><secondary>in jeks for operators</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>guheks</primary><secondary>connecting operators</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>jeks</primary><secondary>connecting operators</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>operators</primary><secondary>connecting</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>operands</primary><secondary>connecting</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>geks</primary><secondary>connecting operands</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>eks</primary><secondary>connecting operands</secondary></indexterm> Operands are connected in afterthought with eks and in forethought with geks, just like sumti. Operators, on the other hand, are connected in afterthought with jeks and in forethought with guheks, just like tanru components. (However, jeks and joiks with
<jbophrase>bo</jbophrase> are not allowed for operators.) This parallelism is no accident.</para>
@@ -2631,94 +2654,92 @@
<jbophrase>ve'o</jbophrase> parentheses when used as a quantifier. The right parenthesis mark,
<jbophrase>ve'o</jbophrase>, is an elidable terminator.</para>
<para>Simple examples of logical connection between operators are hard to come by. A contrived example is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-dCxf">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e17d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li re su'i je pi'i re du li vo</jbo>
<gloss>The-number 2 plus and times 2 equals the-number 4.</gloss>
- <en>2 + 2 = 4 and 2 x 2 = 4.</en>
+ <en><inlineequation><mathphrase>2 + 2 = 4</mathphrase></inlineequation> and <inlineequation><mathphrase>2 x 2 = 4</mathphrase></inlineequation>.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The forethought form of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-dCxf"/> is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-YBD6">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e17d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li re ge su'i gi pi'i re du li vo</jbo>
<gloss>The-number two both plus and times two equals the-number four.</gloss>
- <en>Both 2 + 2 = 4 and 2 x 2 = 4.</en>
+ <en>Both <inlineequation><mathphrase>2 + 2 = 4</mathphrase></inlineequation> and <inlineequation><mathphrase>2 x 2 = 4</mathphrase></inlineequation>.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ke'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ga'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>bi'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mathematical intervals</primary></indexterm> Non-logical connection with joiks or joigiks is also permitted between operands and between operators. One use for this construct is to connect operands with
<jbophrase>bi'i</jbophrase> to create mathematical intervals:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-z2oF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e17d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li no ga'o bi'i ke'i pa</jbo>
<gloss>the-number zero (inclusive) from-to (exclusive) one</gloss>
- <gloss>[0,1)</gloss>
+ <en><inlineequation><mathphrase>[0,1)</mathphrase></inlineequation></en>
<en>the numbers from zero to one, including zero but not including one</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ce'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>zero to one</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>compound subscript</primary></indexterm> You can also combine two operands with
<jbophrase>ce'o</jbophrase>, the sequence connective of selma'o JOI, to make a compound subscript:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-8rEL">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e17d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xy. boi xi vei by. ce'o dy. [ve'o]</jbo>
<gloss>
<quote>x</quote> sub (
<quote>b</quote> sequence
<quote>d</quote>)</gloss>
- <en>x</en>
+ <en><inlineequation><mathphrase>x<subscript>b,d</subscript></mathphrase></inlineequation></en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>boi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>x{b</primary><secondary>d}</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm> Note that the
<jbophrase>boi</jbophrase> in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-8rEL"/> is not elidable, because the
<jbophrase>xi</jbophrase> subscript needs something to attach to.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section18">
+ <section xml:id="section-sumtcita">
<title>Tenses, modals, and logical connection</title>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>PU selma'o</primary></indexterm> The tense and modal systems of Lojban interact with the logical connective system. No one chapter can explain all of these simultaneously, so each chapter must present its own view of the area of interaction with emphasis on its own concepts and terminology. In the examples of this chapter, the many tenses of various selma'o as well as the modals of selma'o BAI are represented by the simple time cmavo
<jbophrase>pu</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>ca</jbophrase>, and
<jbophrase>ba</jbophrase> (of selma'o PU) representing the past, the present, and the future respectively. Preceding a selbri, these cmavo state the time when the bridi was, is, or will be true (analogous to English verb tenses); preceding a sumti, they state that the event of the main bridi is before, simultaneous with, or after the event given by the sumti (which is generally a
<jbophrase>le nu</jbophrase> abstraction; see
<xref linkend="chapter-abstractions"/>).</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logically connected tenses</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>interaction with tenses</secondary></indexterm> The two types of interaction between tenses and logical connectives are logically connected tenses and tensed logical connections. The former are fairly simple. Jeks may be used between tense cmavo to specify two connected bridi that differ only in tense:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-g6iT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e18d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la .artr. pu nolraitru</jbo>
- <gloss>.ije la .artr. ba nolraitru</gloss>
- <gloss>Arthur [past] is-a-noblest-governor.</gloss>
- <gloss>And Arthur [future] is-a-noblest-governor.</gloss>
+ <jbo>la .artr. pu nolraitru .ije la .artr. ba nolraitru</jbo>
+ <gloss>Arthur [past] is-a-noblest-governor. And Arthur [future] is-a-noblest-governor.</gloss>
<en>Arthur was a king, and Arthur will be a king.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>once and future king</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> can be reduced to:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PLgw">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e18d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .artr. pu je ba nolraitru</jbo>
@@ -2743,27 +2764,25 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The full tense system makes more interesting tense intervals expressible, such as
<quote>from a medium time ago until a long time from now</quote>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tenses</primary><secondary>grouping of connectives in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>grouping</primary><secondary>of connection in tenses</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tenses</primary><secondary>forethought connection in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>forethought connection</primary><secondary>in tenses</secondary></indexterm> No forethought connections between tenses are permitted by the grammar, nor is there any way to override the default left-grouping rule; these limitations are imposed to keep the tense grammar simpler. Whatever can be said with tenses or modals can be said with subordinate bridi stating the time, place, or mode explicitly, so it is reasonable to try to remove at least some complications.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tensed logical connection</primary></indexterm> Tensed logical connections are both more complex and more important than logical connections between tenses. Consider the English sentence:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>went and bought</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-efav">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-efav">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e18d4"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>I went to the market, and I bought food.</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>I went to the market, and I bought food.</para>
</example>
<para>The verbatim translation of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-efav"/>, namely:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PMTu">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e18d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu klama le zarci .ije mi pu tervecnu lo cidja</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] go-to the market. And I [past] buy items-of food.</gloss>
@@ -2920,21 +2939,21 @@
<jbo>mi pu ge klama le zarci gi tervecnu lo cidja</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] both go-to the market and buy some food</gloss>
<en>I went to the market and bought some food.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>pu ge</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>went and bought</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-DxuA"/> is similar to
<xref linkend="example-random-id-PMTu"/>. There is no time relationship specified between the going and the buying; both are simply set in the past.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section19">
+ <section xml:id="section-abstractors">
<title>Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions</title>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>NU selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>jeks</primary><secondary>connecting abstractors</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstractions</primary><secondary>logical connection of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection of abstractors</primary></indexterm> Last and (as a matter of fact) least: a logical connective is allowed between abstraction markers of selma'o NU. As usual, the connection can be expanded to a bridi connection between two bridi which differ only in abstraction marker. Jeks are the appropriate connective.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qGVP"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qgVR"/> are equivalent in meaning:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qGVP" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e19d1"/>
</title>
@@ -2964,31 +2983,29 @@
<gloss>I opine the fact-that a-mass-of living-things (is-at or-else isn't-at) Jupiter.</gloss>
<en>I believe there either is or isn't life on Jupiter.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Jupiter life</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> is true, since the embedded sentence is a tautology, but:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-X69J">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e19d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi jinvi le du'u loi jmive cu zvati la .iupiter.</jbo>
- <gloss>.ijonai mi jinvi le du'u loi jmive cu zvati la .iupiter.</gloss>
- <gloss>I opine the fact-that a-mass-of living-things is-at Jupiter</gloss>
- <gloss>or-else I opine the fact-that a-mass-of living-things isn't-at Jupiter</gloss>
+ <jbo>mi jinvi le du'u loi jmive cu zvati la .iupiter. .ijonai mi jinvi le du'u loi jmive cu zvati la .iupiter.</jbo>
+ <gloss>I opine the fact-that a-mass-of living-things is-at Jupiter or-else I opine the fact-that a-mass-of living-things isn't-at Jupiter</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is false, since I have no evidence one way or the other (
<jbophrase>jinvi</jbophrase> requires some sort of evidence, real or fancied, unlike
<jbophrase>krici</jbophrase>).</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section20">
+ <section xml:id="section-constructs-summary">
<title>Constructs and appropriate connectives</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>connectives</primary><secondary>table by constructs connected</secondary></indexterm> The following table specifies, for each kind of construct that can be logically or non-logically connected in Lojban, what kind of connective is required for both afterthought and (when possible) forethought modes. An asterisk (*) indicates that tensed connection is permitted.</para>
<para>A dash indicates that connection of the specified type is not possible.</para>
<informaltable>
<tgroup cols="5">
<colspec colnum="1" colname="col1"/>
<colspec colnum="2" colname="col2"/>
<colspec colnum="3" colname="col3"/>
<colspec colnum="4" colname="col4"/>
<colspec colnum="5" colname="col5"/>
@@ -3062,21 +3079,21 @@
<entry>abstractors</entry>
<entry>jek</entry>
<entry>-</entry>
<entry>joik</entry>
<entry>-</entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</informaltable>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section21">
+ <section xml:id="section-truth-functions-summary">
<title>Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connectives</primary><secondary>table by truth function value</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>truth functions</primary><secondary>table of logical connectives</secondary></indexterm> The following table specifies, for each truth function, the most-often used cmavo or compound cmavo which expresses it for each of the six types of logical connective. (Other compound cmavo are often possible: for example,
<jbophrase>se.a</jbophrase> means the same as
<jbophrase>a</jbophrase>, and could be used instead.)</para>
<informaltable>
<tgroup cols="6">
<colspec colnum="1" colname="col1"/>
<colspec colnum="2" colname="col2"/>
<colspec colnum="3" colname="col3"/>
<colspec colnum="4" colname="col4"/>
@@ -3201,24 +3218,24 @@
<entry>FFFT</entry>
<entry>na.enai</entry>
<entry>najenai</entry>
<entry>nagi'enai</entry>
<entry>genai–ginai</entry>
<entry>gu'enai–ginai</entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</informaltable>
- <para>Note: Ijeks are exactly the same as the corresponding jeks, except for the prefixed
+ <para>Note: Ijeks are exactly the same as the corresponding jeks, except for the prefixed <!-- FIXME: "ijeks", not "Ijeks"? -->
<jbophrase>.i</jbophrase>.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section22">
+ <section xml:id="section-construction-summary">
<title>Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-logical connectives</primary><secondary>syntax rules summary</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connectives</primary><secondary>syntax rules summary</secondary></indexterm> The full set of rules for inserting
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>se</jbophrase>, and
<jbophrase>nai</jbophrase> into any connective is:</para>
<para>Afterthought logical connectives (eks, jeks, giheks, ijeks):</para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Negate first construct: Place
@@ -3260,23 +3277,23 @@
<jbophrase>nai</jbophrase> after the connective cmavo (but before the
<jbophrase>gi</jbophrase> of a joigik).</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Exchange constructs: Place
<jbophrase>se</jbophrase> before the connective cmavo.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section23">
+ <section xml:id="section-other-tables">
<title>Locations of other tables</title>
<para>
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section1"/>: a table explaining the meaning of each truth function in English.</para>
+ <xref linkend="section-introduction"/>: a table explaining the meaning of each truth function in English.</para>
<para>
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section2"/>: a table relating the truth functions to the four basic vowels.</para>
+ <xref linkend="section-four-basics"/>: a table relating the truth functions to the four basic vowels.</para>
<para>
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section13"/>: a table of the connective question cmavo.</para>
+ <xref linkend="section-questions"/>: a table of the connective question cmavo.</para>
<para>
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section14"/>: a table of the meanings of JOI cmavo when used to connect sumti.</para>
+ <xref linkend="section-non-logical-connectives"/>: a table of the meanings of JOI cmavo when used to connect sumti.</para>
</section>
</chapter>
diff --git a/todocbook/20.xml b/todocbook/20.xml
index 1ed6a84..460c975 100644
--- a/todocbook/20.xml
+++ b/todocbook/20.xml
@@ -2,21 +2,21 @@
<title>A Catalogue of selma'o</title>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter20-sectionindex.html">
<title/>
<!--
<h6>$Revision: 4.3 $<br />
mkhtml: 1.1</h6>
-->
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selma'o</primary><secondary>cross-reference list of</secondary><tertiary>selma'o catalog</tertiary></indexterm> The following paragraphs list all the selma'o of Lojban, with a brief explanation of what each one is about, and reference to the chapter number where each is explained more fully. As usual, all selma'o names are given in capital letters (with “h” serving as the capital of “'”) and are the names of a representative cmavo, often the most important or the first in alphabetical order. One example is given of each selma'o: for selma'o which have several uses, the most common use is shown.</para>
<bridgehead> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>A</primary><secondary>selma'o catalog</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>connection</primary><secondary>of sumti</secondary><tertiary>selma'o catalog</tertiary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="A"/> selma'o A (<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section6"/>)</bridgehead>
+ <anchor xml:id="A"/> selma'o A (<xref linkend="chapter-connectives-section-sumti-connection"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Specifies a logical connection (e.g. “and”, “or”, “if”), usually between sumti.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
la djan. .a la djein. klama le zarci
John and/or Jane goes to the store.
</programlisting>
<para>Also used to create vowel lerfu words when followed with “bu”.</para>
<bridgehead> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>BAI</primary><secondary>selma'o catalog</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti place</primary><secondary>additional</secondary><tertiary>selma'o catalog</tertiary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="BAI"/> selma'o BAI (
<xref linkend="chapter-sumti-tcita-section-BAI"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>May be prefixed to a sumti to specify an additional place, not otherwise present in the place structure of the selbri, and derived from a single place of some other selbri.</para>
@@ -78,21 +78,21 @@
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
li ci bi'e pi'u vo su'i mu du li paze
The-number 3 [priority] times 4 plus 5 equals the-number 17.
3 × 4 + 5 = 17
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="BIhI"/> selma'o BIhI (
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section16"/>)</bridgehead>
+ <xref linkend="chapter-connectives-section-non-logical-continued-continued"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Joins sumti or tanru units (as well as some other things) to form intervals. See
<xref linkend="GAhO"/>.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi ca sanli la drezdn. bi'i la frankfurt.
I [present] stand-on-surface Dresden [interval] Frankfurt.
I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="BO"/> selma'o BO (
@@ -165,21 +165,21 @@
ti slasi je mlatu bo cidja lante gacri cei broda
.i le crino broda cu barda .i le xunre broda cu cmalu
This is a plastic cat-food can cover, or thingy.
The green thingy is large. The red thingy is small.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="CEhE"/> selma'o CEhE (
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section11"/>,
+ <xref linkend="chapter-connectives-section-termsets"/>,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section7"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Joins multiple terms into a termset. Termsets are used to associate several terms for logical connectives, for equal quantifier scope, or for special constructs in tenses.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi ce'e do pe'e je la djan. ce'e la djeimyz. cu pendo
I [,] you [joint] and John [,] James are-friends-of.
I am a friend of you, and John is a friend of James.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
@@ -356,31 +356,31 @@
<xref linkend="UI"/> which are in effect.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi viska le fu'e .ia blanu zdani fu'o ponse
I see the [start] [belief] blue house [end] possessor.
I see the owner of what I believe to be a blue house.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="GA"/> selma'o GA (
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section5"/>)</bridgehead>
+ <xref linkend="chapter-connectives-section-forethought-bridi-connection"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Indicates the beginning of two logically connected sumti, bridi-tails, or various other things. Logical connections include “both ... and”, “either ... or”, “if ... then”, and so on. See
<xref linkend="GI"/>.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ga la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu
Either John is a man or James is a woman (or both).
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="GAhO"/> selma'o GAhO (
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section16"/>)</bridgehead>
+ <xref linkend="chapter-connectives-section-non-logical-continued-continued"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Specifies whether an interval specified by
<xref linkend="BIhI"/> includes or excludes its endpoints. Used in pairs before and after the
<xref linkend="BIhI"/> cmavo, to specify the nature of both the left- and the right-hand endpoints.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi ca sanli la drezdn. ga'o bi'i ga'o la frankfurt.
I [present] stand Dresden [inclusive] [interval] [inclusive] Frankfurt.
I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt, inclusive of both.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
@@ -388,33 +388,33 @@
<xref linkend="chapter-relative-clauses-section-relative-phrases"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Elidable terminator for
<xref linkend="GOI"/>. Marks the end of a relative phrase. See
<xref linkend="KUhO"/>.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
la djan. goi ko'a ge'u blanu
John (referred to as it-1) is-blue.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="GI"/> selma'o GI (
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section5"/>)</bridgehead>
+ <xref linkend="chapter-connectives-section-forethought-bridi-connection"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Separates two logically or non-logically connected sumti, tanru units, bridi-tails, or other things, when the prefix is a forethought connective involving
<xref linkend="GA"/>,
<xref linkend="GUhA"/>, or
<xref linkend="JOI"/>.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ge la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu
(It is true that) both John is a man and James is a woman.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="GIhA"/> selma'o GIhA (
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section3"/>)</bridgehead>
+ <xref linkend="chapter-connectives-section-six-types"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Specifies a logical connective (e.g. “and”, “or”, “if”) between two bridi-tails: a bridi-tail is a selbri with any associated following sumti, but not including any preceding sumti.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi klama le zarci gi'e nelci la djan.
I go-to the market and like John.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="GOI"/> selma'o GOI (
<xref linkend="chapter-relative-clauses-section-relative-phrases"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Specifies the beginning of a relative phrase, which associates a subordinate sumti (following) to another sumti (preceding). Terminated by
<xref linkend="GEhU"/> See
@@ -429,57 +429,57 @@
<para>A general selma'o for all cmavo which can take the place of brivla. There are several groups of these.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
A: mi klama le zarci
B: mi go'i
A: I’m going to the market.
B: Me, too.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="GUhA"/> selma'o GUhA (
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section3"/>)</bridgehead>
+ <xref linkend="chapter-connectives-section-six-types"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Indicates the beginning of two logically connected tanru units. Takes the place of
<xref linkend="GA"/> when forming logically-connected tanru. See
<xref linkend="GI"/>.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
la .alis. gu'e ricfu gi blanu
Alice is both rich and blue.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="I"/> selma'o I (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section2"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Separates two sentences from each other.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi klama le zarci .i mi klama le zdani
I go-to the market. I go-to the office.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="JA"/> selma'o JA (
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section3"/>)</bridgehead>
+ <xref linkend="chapter-connectives-section-six-types"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Specifies a logical connection (e.g. “and”, “or”, “if”) between two tanru units, mathematical operands, tenses, or abstractions.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ti blanu je zdani
This is-blue and a-house.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="JAI"/> selma'o JAI (
<xref linkend="chapter-sumti-tcita-section-jai"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>When followed by a tense or modal, creates a conversion operator attachable to a selbri which exchanges the modal place with the x1 place of the selbri. When alone, is a conversion operator exchanging the x1 place of the selbri (which should be an abstract sumti) with one of the places of the abstracted-over bridi.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi jai gau galfi le bitmu skari
I am-the-actor-in modifying the wall color.
I act so as to modify the wall color.
I change the color of the wall.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="JOI"/> selma'o JOI (
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section14"/>)</bridgehead>
+ <xref linkend="chapter-connectives-section-non-logical-connectives"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Specifies a non-logical connection (e.g. together-with-as-mass, -set, or -sequence) between two sumti, tanru units, or various other things. When immediately followed by
<xref linkend="GI"/>, provides forethought non-logical connection analogous to
<xref linkend="GA"/>.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
la djan. joi la .alis. cu bevri le pipno
John massed-with Alice carry the piano.
</programlisting>
@@ -768,31 +768,31 @@
<para>A tense flag indicating movement in space, in a direction specified by a following
<xref linkend="FAhA"/> cmavo.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
le verba mo'i ri'u cadzu le bisli
The child [movement] [right] walks-on the ice.
The child walks toward my right on the ice.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="NA"/> selma'o NA (
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section3"/>,
+ <xref linkend="chapter-connectives-section-six-types"/>,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section7"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Contradictory negators, asserting that a whole bridi is false (or true).</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi na klama le zarci
It is not true that I go to the market.
</programlisting>
<para>Also used to construct logical connective compound cmavo.</para>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="NAI"/> selma'o NAI (
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section3"/>,
+ <xref linkend="chapter-connectives-section-six-types"/>,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section7"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Negates the previous word, but can only be used with certain selma'o as specified by the grammar.</para>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="NAhE"/> selma'o NAhE (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section4"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Scalar negators, modifying a selbri or a sumti to a value other than the one stated, the opposite of the one stated, etc. Also used with following
<xref linkend="BO"/> to construct a sumti qualifier; see
<xref linkend="LAhE"/>.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ta na'e blanu zdani
@@ -855,49 +855,49 @@
<anchor xml:id="NUhA"/> selma'o NUhA (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section19"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Creates a selbri from a mathematical operator. See
<xref linkend="VUhU"/>.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
li ni'umu cu nu'a va'a li ma'umu
The-number -5 is-the-negation-of the-number +5
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="NUhI"/> selma'o NUhI (
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section11"/>,
+ <xref linkend="chapter-connectives-section-termsets"/>,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section7"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Marks the beginning of a termset, which is used to make simultaneous claims involving two or more different places of a selbri. Terminated by
<xref linkend="NUhU"/>.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi klama nu'i ge le zarci le briju nu'u gi le zdani le ckule [nu'u]
I go [start] to-the market from-the office [joint] and to-the house from-the school.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="NUhU"/> selma'o NUhU (
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section11"/>)</bridgehead>
+ <xref linkend="chapter-connectives-section-termsets"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Elidable terminator for
<xref linkend="NUhI"/>. Marks the end of a termset.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi klama nu'i ge le zarci le briju nu'u gi le zdani le ckule [nu'u]
I go [start] to-the market from-the office [joint] and to-the house from-the school.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="PA"/> selma'o PA (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section2"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Digits and related quantifiers (some, all, many, etc.). Terminated by
<xref linkend="BOI"/>.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi speni re ninmu
I am-married-to two women.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="PEhE"/> selma'o PEhE (
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section11"/>)</bridgehead>
+ <xref linkend="chapter-connectives-section-termsets"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Precedes a logical or non-logical connective that joins two termsets. Termsets (see
<xref linkend="CEhE"/>) are used to associate several terms for logical connectives, for equal quantifier scope, or for special constructs in tenses.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi ce'e do pe'e je la djan. ce'e la djeimyz. cu pendo
I [,] you [joint] and John [,] James are-friends-of.
I am a friend of you, and John is a friend of James.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
@@ -1093,21 +1093,21 @@
<anchor xml:id="VA"/> selma'o VA (
<xref linkend="chapter-tenses-section-spatial-tenses"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>A tense indicating distance in space (near, far, or neither).</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
le nanmu va batci le gerku
The man [medium distance] bites the dog.
Over there the man is biting the dog.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="VAU"/> selma'o VAU (
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section9"/>)</bridgehead>
+ <xref linkend="chapter-connectives-section-compound-bridi"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Elidable terminator for a simple bridi, or for each bridi-tail of a
<xref linkend="GIhA"/> logical connection.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi dunda le cukta [vau] gi'e lebna lo rupnu vau do [vau]
I (give the book) and (take some currency-units) to/from you.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="VEI"/> selma'o VEI (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section5"/>)</bridgehead>
diff --git a/todocbook/4.xml b/todocbook/4.xml
index 6e207d2..041cb43 100644
--- a/todocbook/4.xml
+++ b/todocbook/4.xml
@@ -1285,21 +1285,21 @@
<jbophrase role="rafsi">sask-</jbophrase> represents
<jbophrase>saske</jbophrase> (
<quote>science</quote>). Note the extra vowel
<jbophrase role="letteral">a</jbophrase> added to the end of the word, and the diphthong
<jbophrase role="diphthong">ua</jbophrase>, which never appears in gismu or lujvo, but may appear in fu'ivla.</para>
<example role="lojbanization-example" xml:id="example-random-id-FTfQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e7d8"/>
</title>
<lojbanization>
- <foreign>자모 (from Korean)</foreign>
+ <foreign xml:lang="ko">자모 (from Korean)</foreign>
<jbo>djamo (Lojbanize)</jbo>
<jbo>lerf,r,djamo (prefix rafsi)</jbo>
<jbo>ler,l,djamo (prefix rafsi)</jbo>
</lojbanization>
</example>
<para>where
<jbophrase role="rafsi">ler-</jbophrase> represents
<jbophrase>lerfu</jbophrase> (
<quote>letter</quote>). Note the l-hyphen in "lerldjamo", since "lerndjamo" contains the forbidden cluster "ndj".</para>
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