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Author: Eitan Postavsky <eitanp32@gmail.com>
Date: Sun Jan 9 21:23:38 2011 -0500
Chapter 12: <quote>s to <jbophrase>s.
diff --git a/todocbook/12.xml b/todocbook/12.xml
index ff68685..07c8f01 100644
--- a/todocbook/12.xml
+++ b/todocbook/12.xml
@@ -32,34 +32,34 @@
<gloss>That is-ashes.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Although the lujvo
<jbophrase>fagyfesti</jbophrase> is derived from the tanru
<jbophrase>fagri festi</jbophrase>, it is not equivalent in meaning to it. In particular,
<jbophrase>fagyfesti</jbophrase> has a distinct place structure of its own, not the same as that of
<jbophrase>festi</jbophrase>. (In contrast, the tanru does have the same place structure as
<jbophrase>festi</jbophrase>.) The lujvo needs to take account of the places of
<jbophrase>fagri</jbophrase> as well. When a tanru is made into a lujvo, there is no equivalent of
- <quote>be ... bei ... be'o</quote> (described in
+ <jbophrase>be ... bei ... be'o</jbophrase> (described in
<xref linkend="chapter-selbri"/>) to incorporate sumti into the middle of the lujvo.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>rationale for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>creative understanding</primary></indexterm> So why have lujvo? Primarily to reduce semantic ambiguity. On hearing a tanru, there is a burden on the listener to figure out what the tanru might mean. Adding further terms to the tanru reduces ambiguity in one sense, by providing more information; but it increases ambiguity in another sense, because there are more and more tanru joints, each with an ambiguous significance. Since lujvo, like other brivla, have a fixed place structure and a single meaning, encapsulating a commonly-used tanru into a lujvo relieves the listener of the burden of creative understanding. In addition, lujvo are typically shorter than the corresponding tanru.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo place structure</primary><secondary>guidelines</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>guidelines for place structure</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>absolute laws</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>alternative guidelines</primary></indexterm> There are no absolute laws fixing the place structure of a newly created lujvo. The maker must consider the place structures of all the components of the tanru and then decide which are still relevant and which can be removed. What is said in this chapter represents guidelines, presented as one possible standard, not necessarily complete, and not the only possible standard. There may well be lujvo that are built without regard for these guidelines, or in accordance with entirely different guidelines, should such alternative guidelines someday be developed. The reason for presenting any guidelines at all is so that Lojbanists have a starting point for deciding on a likely place structure - one that others seeing the same word can also arrive at by similar consideration.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>cmavo incorporation</secondary></indexterm> If the tanru includes connective cmavo such as
- <quote>bo</quote>,
- <quote>ke</quote>,
- <quote>ke'e</quote>, or
+ <jbophrase>bo</jbophrase>,
+ <jbophrase>ke</jbophrase>,
+ <jbophrase>ke'e</jbophrase>, or
<jbophrase>je</jbophrase>, or conversion or abstraction cmavo such as
- <quote>se</quote> or
- <quote>nu</quote>, there are ways of incorporating them into the lujvo as well. Sometimes this makes the lujvo excessively long; if so, the cmavo may be dropped. This leads to the possibility that more than one tanru could produce the same lujvo. Typically, however, only one of the possible tanru is useful enough to justify making a lujvo for it.</para>
+ <jbophrase>se</jbophrase> or
+ <jbophrase>nu</jbophrase>, there are ways of incorporating them into the lujvo as well. Sometimes this makes the lujvo excessively long; if so, the cmavo may be dropped. This leads to the possibility that more than one tanru could produce the same lujvo. Typically, however, only one of the possible tanru is useful enough to justify making a lujvo for it.</para>
<para>The exact workings of the lujvo-making algorithm, which takes a tanru built from gismu (and possibly cmavo) and produces a lujvo from it, are described in
<xref linkend="chapter-morphology"/>.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter12-section2">
<title>The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour</title>
<para>The meaning of a lujvo is controlled by - but is not the same as - the meaning of the tanru from which the lujvo was constructed. The tanru corresponding to a lujvo is called its
<jbophrase>veljvo</jbophrase> in Lojban, and since there is no concise English equivalent, that term will be used in this chapter. Furthermore, the left (modifier) part of a tanru will be called the
<jbophrase>seltau</jbophrase>, and the right (modified) part the
<jbophrase>tertau</jbophrase>, following the usage of
@@ -870,36 +870,36 @@
<jbophrase>blakanla</jbophrase>: it is a symmetrical lujvo, so the place structure is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ncPN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e10d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>bl1=k1 is a blue eye of bl2=k2</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>We end up being most interested in talking about the second place, not the first (we talk much more of people than of their eyes), so
- <quote>se</quote> would almost always be required.</para>
+ <jbophrase>se</jbophrase> would almost always be required.</para>
<para>What is happening here is that we are translating the tertau wrongly, under the influence of English. The English suffix
<quote>-eyed</quote> does not mean
<quote>eye</quote>, but someone with an eye, which is
<jbophrase>selkanla</jbophrase>.</para>
<para>Because we've got the wrong tertau (eliding a
- <quote>se</quote> that really should be there), any attempt to accommodate the resulting lujvo into our guidelines for place structure is fitting a square peg in a round hole. Since they can be so misleading, lujvo with SE rafsi elided from the tertau should be avoided in favor of their more explicit counterparts: in this case,
+ <jbophrase>se</jbophrase> that really should be there), any attempt to accommodate the resulting lujvo into our guidelines for place structure is fitting a square peg in a round hole. Since they can be so misleading, lujvo with SE rafsi elided from the tertau should be avoided in favor of their more explicit counterparts: in this case,
<jbophrase>blaselkanla</jbophrase>.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter12-section11">
<title>Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo place structure</primary><secondary>dropping "KEhE"</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo place structure</primary><secondary>dropping "KE"</secondary></indexterm> People constructing lujvo usually want them to be as short as possible. To that end, they will discard any cmavo they regard as niceties. The first such cmavo to get thrown out are usually
- <quote>ke</quote> and
- <quote>ke'e</quote>, the cmavo used to structure and group tanru. We can usually get away with this, because the interpretation of the tertau with
- <quote>ke</quote> and
- <quote>ke'e</quote> missing is less plausible than that with the cmavo inserted, or because the distinction isn't really important.</para>
+ <jbophrase>ke</jbophrase> and
+ <jbophrase>ke'e</jbophrase>, the cmavo used to structure and group tanru. We can usually get away with this, because the interpretation of the tertau with
+ <jbophrase>ke</jbophrase> and
+ <jbophrase>ke'e</jbophrase> missing is less plausible than that with the cmavo inserted, or because the distinction isn't really important.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>beefsteak</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>beefsteak</primary></indexterm> For example, in
<jbophrase>bakrecpa'o</jbophrase>, meaning
<quote>beefsteak</quote>, the veljvo is</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-TgVR">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e11d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>[ke] bakni rectu [ke'e] panlo</jbo>
@@ -973,31 +973,31 @@
<jbo>[ke] xamsi calku [ke'e] curnu</jbo>
<gloss>(ocean shell) type-of worm</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>clamshells</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>parasitic worms</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> and might refer to the parasitic worms that infest clamshells.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo creation</primary><secondary>interaction of KE with NAhE</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo creation</primary><secondary>interaction of KE with SE</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>misinterpretation</primary></indexterm> Such misinterpretation is more likely than not in a lujvo starting with
- <quote>sel-</quote> (from
- <quote>se</quote>),
- <quote>nal-</quote> (from
- <quote>na'e</quote>) or
- <quote>tol-</quote> (from
- <quote>to'e</quote>): the scope of the rafsi will likeliest be presumed to be as narrow as possible, since all of these cmavo normally bind only to the following brivla or
- <quote>ke ... ke'e</quote> group. For that reason, if we want to modify an entire lujvo by putting
- <quote>se</quote>,
- <quote>na'e</quote> or
- <quote>to'e</quote> before it, it's better to leave the result as two words, or else to insert
- <quote>ke</quote>, than to just stick the SE or NAhE rafsi on.</para>
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">sel-</jbophrase> (from
+ <jbophrase>se</jbophrase>),
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">nal-</jbophrase> (from
+ <jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase>) or
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">tol-</jbophrase> (from
+ <jbophrase>to'e</jbophrase>): the scope of the rafsi will likeliest be presumed to be as narrow as possible, since all of these cmavo normally bind only to the following brivla or
+ <jbophrase>ke ... ke'e</jbophrase> group. For that reason, if we want to modify an entire lujvo by putting
+ <jbophrase>se</jbophrase>,
+ <jbophrase>na'e</jbophrase> or
+ <jbophrase>to'e</jbophrase> before it, it's better to leave the result as two words, or else to insert
+ <jbophrase>ke</jbophrase>, than to just stick the SE or NAhE rafsi on.</para>
<para>It is all right to replace the phrase
<jbophrase>se klama</jbophrase> with
<jbophrase>selkla</jbophrase>, and the places of
<jbophrase>selkla</jbophrase> are exactly those of
<jbophrase>se klama</jbophrase>. But consider the related lujvo
<jbophrase>dzukla</jbophrase>, meaning
<quote>to walk to somewhere</quote>. It is a symmmetrical lujvo, derived from the veljvo
<jbophrase>cadzu klama</jbophrase> as follows:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4yG0">
<title>
@@ -1013,85 +1013,85 @@
<en>on surface c2</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>We can swap the k1 and k2 places using
<jbophrase>se dzukla</jbophrase>, but we cannot directly make
<jbophrase>se dzukla</jbophrase> into
<jbophrase>seldzukla</jbophrase>, which would represent the veljvo
<jbophrase>selcadzu klama</jbophrase> and plausibly mean something like
<quote>to go to a walking surface</quote>. Instead, we would need
<jbophrase>selkemdzukla</jbophrase>, with an explicit rafsi for
- <quote>ke</quote>. Similarly,
+ <jbophrase>ke</jbophrase>. Similarly,
<jbophrase>nalbrablo</jbophrase> (from
<jbophrase>na'e barda bloti</jbophrase>) means
<quote>non-big boat</quote>, whereas
<jbophrase>na'e brablo</jbophrase> means
<quote>other than a big boat</quote>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo creation</primary><secondary>use of multiple SE in</secondary></indexterm> If the lujvo we want to modify with SE has a seltau already starting with a SE rafsi, we can take a shortcut. For instance,
<jbophrase>gekmau</jbophrase> means
<quote>happier than</quote>, while
<jbophrase>selgekmau</jbophrase> means
<quote>making people happier than, more enjoyable than, more of a 'se gleki' than</quote>. If something is less enjoyable than something else, we can say it is
<jbophrase>se selgekmau</jbophrase>.</para>
<para>But we can also say it is
<jbophrase>selselgekmau</jbophrase>. Two
<quote>se</quote> cmavo in a row cancel each other (
<jbophrase>se se gleki</jbophrase> means the same as just
<jbophrase>gleki</jbophrase>), so there would be no good reason to have
- <quote>selsel</quote> in a lujvo with that meaning. Instead, we can feel free to interpret
- <quote>selsel-</quote> as
- <quote>selkemsel-</quote>. The rafsi combinations
- <quote>terter-</quote>,
- <quote>velvel-</quote> and
- <quote>xelxel-</quote> work in the same way.</para>
+ <jbophrase>selsel</jbophrase> in a lujvo with that meaning. Instead, we can feel free to interpret
+ <jbophrase>selsel-</jbophrase> as
+ <jbophrase>selkemsel-</jbophrase>. The rafsi combinations
+ <jbophrase>terter-</jbophrase>,
+ <jbophrase>velvel-</jbophrase> and
+ <jbophrase>xelxel-</jbophrase> work in the same way.</para>
<para>Other SE combinations like
- <quote>selter-</quote>, although they might conceivably mean
- <quote>se te</quote>, more than likely should be interpreted in the same way, namely as
+ <jbophrase>selter-</jbophrase>, although they might conceivably mean
+ <jbophrase>se te</jbophrase>, more than likely should be interpreted in the same way, namely as
- <quote>se ke te</quote>, since there is no need to re-order places in the way that
- <quote>se te</quote> provides. (See
+ <jbophrase>se ke te</jbophrase>, since there is no need to re-order places in the way that
+ <jbophrase>se te</jbophrase> provides. (See
<xref linkend="chapter-sumti-tcita"/>.)</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter12-section12">
<title>Abstract lujvo</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo place structure</primary><secondary>"nu" lujvo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstract lujvo</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>abstract</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo of NU can participate in the construction of lujvo of a particularly simple and well-patterned kind. Consider that old standard example,
<jbophrase>klama</jbophrase>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KEao">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e12d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>k1 comes/goes to k2 from k3 via route k4 by means k5.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The selbri
- <quote>nu klama [kei]</quote> has only one place, the event-of-going, but the full five places exist implicitly between
- <quote>nu</quote> and
- <quote>kei</quote>, since a full bridi with all sumti may be placed there. In a lujvo, there is no room for such inside places, and consequently the lujvo
+ <jbophrase>nu klama [kei]</jbophrase> has only one place, the event-of-going, but the full five places exist implicitly between
+ <jbophrase>nu</jbophrase> and
+ <jbophrase>kei</jbophrase>, since a full bridi with all sumti may be placed there. In a lujvo, there is no room for such inside places, and consequently the lujvo
<jbophrase>nunkla</jbophrase> (
- <quote>nun-</quote> is the rafsi for
- <quote>nu</quote>), needs to have six places:</para>
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">nun-</jbophrase> is the rafsi for
+ <jbophrase>nu</jbophrase>), needs to have six places:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-m60H">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e12d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>nu1 is the event of k1's coming/going to k2 from k3 via route k4 by means k5.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the first place of
<jbophrase>nunklama</jbophrase> is the first and only place of
- <quote>nu</quote>, and the other five places have been pushed down by one to occupy the second through the sixth places. Full information on
- <quote>nu</quote>, as well as the other abstractors mentioned in this section, is given in
+ <jbophrase>nu</jbophrase>, and the other five places have been pushed down by one to occupy the second through the sixth places. Full information on
+ <jbophrase>nu</jbophrase>, as well as the other abstractors mentioned in this section, is given in
<xref linkend="chapter-abstractions"/>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo place structure</primary><secondary>multi-place abstraction lujvo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo place structure</primary><secondary>"ni" lujvo</secondary></indexterm> For those abstractors which have a second place as well, the standard convention is to place this place after, rather than before, the places of the brivla being abstracted. The place structure of
<jbophrase>nilkla</jbophrase>, the lujvo derived from
<jbophrase>ni klama</jbophrase>, is the imposing:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-yURu">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e12d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ni1 is the amount of k1's coming/going to k2 from k3 via route k4</jbo>
@@ -1131,36 +1131,36 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>d1 desires (a soldier of army s2) for purpose d3</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>A
<jbophrase>nunsoidji</jbophrase> might be someone who is about to enlist, whereas a
<jbophrase>soidji</jbophrase> might be a camp-follower.</para>
<para>One use of abstract lujvo is to eliminate the need for explicit
- <quote>kei</quote> in tanru:
+ <jbophrase>kei</jbophrase> in tanru:
<jbophrase>nunkalri gasnu</jbophrase> means much the same as
<jbophrase>nu kalri kei gasnu</jbophrase>, but is shorter. In addition, many English words ending in
- <quote>-hood</quote> are represented with
- <quote>nun-</quote> lujvo, and other words ending in
+ <jbophrase>-hood</jbophrase> are represented with
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">nun-</jbophrase> lujvo, and other words ending in
<quote>-ness</quote> or
<quote>-dom</quote> are often representable with
- <quote>kam-</quote> lujvo (
- <quote>kam-</quote> is the rafsi for
- <quote>ka</quote>);
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">kam-</jbophrase> lujvo (
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">kam-</jbophrase> is the rafsi for
+ <jbophrase>ka</jbophrase>);
<jbophrase>kambla</jbophrase> is
<quote>blueness</quote>.</para>
<para>Even though the cmavo of NU are long-scope in nature, governing the whole following bridi, the NU rafsi should generally be used as short-scope modifiers, like the SE and NAhE rafsi discussed in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12-section9"/>.</para>
<para>There is also a rafsi for the cmavo
- <quote>jai</quote>, namely
+ <jbophrase>jai</jbophrase>, namely
<jbophrase>jax</jbophrase>, which allows sentences like</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-jWYr">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e12d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi jai rinka le nu do morsi</jbo>
<gloss>I am-associated-with causing the event-of your death.</gloss>
<en>I cause your death.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1170,61 +1170,61 @@
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Wrpr">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e12d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi jaxri'a le nu do morsi</jbo>
<gloss>I am-part-of-the-cause-of the event-of your dying.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In making a lujvo that contains
- <quote>jax-</quote> for a selbri that contains
- <quote>jai</quote>, the rule is to leave the
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">jax-</jbophrase> for a selbri that contains
+ <jbophrase>jai</jbophrase>, the rule is to leave the
<jbophrase>fai</jbophrase> place as a
<jbophrase>fai</jbophrase> place of the lujvo; it does not participate in the regular lujvo place structure. (The use of
<jbophrase>fai</jbophrase> is also explained in
<xref linkend="chapter-abstractions"/>.)</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter12-section13">
<title>Implicit-abstraction lujvo</title>
<para>Eliding NU rafsi involves the same restrictions as eliding SE rafsi, plus additional ones. In general, NU rafsi should not be elided from the tertau, since that changes the kind of thing the lujvo is talking about from an abstraction to a concrete sumti. However, they may be elided from the seltau if no reasonable ambiguity would result.</para>
<para>A major difference, however, between SE elision and NU elision is that the former is a rather sparse process, providing a few convenient shortenings. Eliding
- <quote>nu</quote>, however, is extremely important in producing a class of lujvo called
+ <jbophrase>nu</jbophrase>, however, is extremely important in producing a class of lujvo called
<quote>implicit-abstraction lujvo</quote>.</para>
<para>Let us make a detailed analysis of the lujvo
<jbophrase>nunctikezgau</jbophrase>, meaning
<quote>to feed</quote>. (If you think this lujvo is excessively longwinded, be patient.) The veljvo of
<jbophrase>nunctikezgau</jbophrase> is
<jbophrase>nu citka kei gasnu</jbophrase>. The relevant place structures are:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-bSDW">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e13d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
- <quote>nu</quote>: n1 is an event</jbo>
+ <jbophrase>nu</jbophrase>: n1 is an event</jbo>
<gloss>
<jbophrase>citka</jbophrase>: c1 eats c2</gloss>
<en>
<jbophrase>gasnu</jbophrase>: g1 does action/is the agent of event g2</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In accordance with the procedure for analyzing three-part lujvo given in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12-section8"/>, we will first create an intermediate lujvo,
<jbophrase>nuncti</jbophrase>, whose veljvo is
- <quote>nu citka [kei]</quote>. By the rules given in
+ <jbophrase>nu citka [kei]</jbophrase>. By the rules given in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12-section12"/>,
<jbophrase>nuncti</jbophrase> has the place structure</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Xhrx">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e13d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>n1 is the event of c1 eating c2</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1251,24 +1251,24 @@
<jbo>g1 is the actor in the event of c1 eating c2</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>There is one further step that can be taken. As we have already seen with
<jbophrase>balsoi</jbophrase> in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12-section5"/>, the interpretation of lujvo is constrained by the semantics of gismu and of their sumti places. Now, any asymmetrical lujvo with
<jbophrase>gasnu</jbophrase> as its tertau will involve an event abstraction either implicitly or explicitly, since that is how the g2 place of
<jbophrase>gasnu</jbophrase> is defined.</para>
<para>Therefore, if we assume that
- <quote>nu</quote> is the type of abstraction one would expect to be a
+ <jbophrase>nu</jbophrase> is the type of abstraction one would expect to be a
<jbophrase>se gasnu</jbophrase>, then the rafsi
- <quote>nun</quote> and
- <quote>kez</quote> in
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">nun</jbophrase> and
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">kez</jbophrase> in
<jbophrase>nunctikezgau</jbophrase> are only telling us what we would already have guessed - that the seltau of a
<jbophrase>gasnu</jbophrase> lujvo is an event. If we drop these rafsi out, and use instead the shorter lujvo
<jbophrase>ctigau</jbophrase>, rejecting its symmetrical interpretation (
<quote>someone who both does and eats</quote>;
<quote>an eating doer</quote>), we can still deduce that the seltau refers to an event.</para>
<para>(You can't
<quote>do an eater</quote>/
<jbophrase>gasnu lo citka</jbophrase>, with the meaning of
<jbophrase>do</jbophrase> as
<quote>bring about an event</quote>; so the seltau must refer to an event,
@@ -1441,21 +1441,21 @@
<anchor xml:id="c12e14d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>c1=l2 religiously expresses prayer c2 to audience c3 in medium s4</jbo>
<en>pertaining to religion l1</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which, according to the rule expressed in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12-section9"/>, can be further expressed as
<jbophrase>selseljdasku</jbophrase>. However, there is no need for the ugly
- <quote>selsel-</quote> prefix just to get the rules right:
+ <jbophrase>selsel-</jbophrase> prefix just to get the rules right:
<jbophrase>jdaselsku</jbophrase> is a reasonable, if anomalous, lujvo.</para>
<para>However, there is a further problem with
<jbophrase>jdaselsku</jbophrase>, not resolvable by using
<jbophrase>seljdasku</jbophrase>. No veljvo involving just the two gismu
<jbophrase>lijda</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>cusku</jbophrase> can fully express the relationship implicit in prayer. A prayer is not just anything said by the adherents of a religion; nor is it even anything said by them acting as adherents of that religion. Rather, it is what they say under the authority of that religion, or using the religion as a medium, or following the rules associated with the religion, or something of the kind. So the veljvo is somewhat elliptical.</para>
<para>As a result, both
<jbophrase>seljdasku</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>jdaselsku</jbophrase> belong to the second class of anomalous lujvo: the veljvo doesn't really supply all that the lujvo requires.</para>
<para>Another example of this kind of anomalous lujvo, drawn from the tanru lists in
@@ -1512,21 +1512,21 @@
<jbo>
<jbophrase>xance</jbophrase>: xa1 is the hand of xa2</jbo>
<en>
<jbophrase>minde</jbophrase>: m1 gives commands to m2 to cause m3 to happen</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The relation between the seltau and tertau is close enough for there to be an overlap: xa2 (the person with the hand) is the same as m1 (the one who commands). But interpreting
<jbophrase>xanmi'e</jbophrase> as a symmetrical lujvo with an elided
- <quote>sel-</quote> in the seltau, as if from
+ <jbophrase>sel-</jbophrase> in the seltau, as if from
<jbophrase>se xance minde</jbophrase>, misses the point: the real relation expressed by the lujvo is not just
<quote>one who commands and has a hand</quote>, but
<quote>to command using the hand</quote>. The concept of
<quote>using</quote> suggests the gismu
<jbophrase>pilno</jbophrase>, with place structure</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sqQN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e14d8"/>
</title>
@@ -1657,23 +1657,23 @@
<gloss>You are-less-young-than me by-years the-number six.</gloss>
<en>You are six years less young than me.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In English,
<quote>more</quote> comparatives are easier to make and use than
<quote>less</quote> comparatives, but in Lojban the two forms are equally easy.</para>
<para>Because of their much simpler place structure, lujvo ending in
- <quote>-mau</quote> and
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">-mau</jbophrase> and
- <quote>-me'a</quote> are in fact used much more frequently than
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">-me'a</jbophrase> are in fact used much more frequently than
<jbophrase>zmadu</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>mleca</jbophrase> themselves as selbri. It is highly unlikely for such lujvo to be construed as anything other than implicit-abstraction lujvo. But there is another type of ambiguity relevant to these lujvo, and which has to do with what is being compared.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>comparative lujvo</primary><secondary>potential ambiguity in</secondary></indexterm> For example, does
<jbophrase>nelcymau</jbophrase> mean
<quote>X likes Y more than X likes Z</quote>, or
<quote>X likes Y more than Z likes Y</quote>? Does
<jbophrase>klamau</jbophrase> mean:
commit 851a8d6234a4cf1e5b8ee945debcd9ff5708980d
Author: Eitan Postavsky <eitanp32@gmail.com>
Date: Sun Jan 9 20:33:19 2011 -0500
Chapter 11: tables, example tags, indentation. Chapter 5: example tags.
diff --git a/todocbook/11.xml b/todocbook/11.xml
index 580c9ec..e7d6a38 100644
--- a/todocbook/11.xml
+++ b/todocbook/11.xml
@@ -139,23 +139,23 @@
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qf97" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e2d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nu klama</jbo>
<en>the event of someone coming to somewhere from somewhere by some route using some means</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qF0u"/> through
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qf4x"/> are descriptions that isolate the five individual sumti places of the selbri
- <jbophrase>klama</jbophrase>.
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qF0u"/> through
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qf4x"/> are descriptions that isolate the five individual sumti places of the selbri
+ <jbophrase>klama</jbophrase>.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qf97"/> describes something associated with the bridi as a whole: the event of it.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>events</primary><secondary>duration</secondary></indexterm> In Lojban, the term
<quote>event</quote> is divorced from its ordinary English sense of something that happens over a short period of time. The description:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mxAt">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e2d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nu mi vasxu</jbo>
<gloss>the event-of my breathing</gloss>
@@ -214,45 +214,43 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e2d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le se nelci cu cafne</jbo>
<gloss>The liked-thing is-frequent.</gloss>
<en>The thing which I like happens often.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which in this context means</para>
- <programlisting>
- My swimming happens often.
-</programlisting>
+ <place-structure>
+ My swimming happens often.
+ </place-structure>
<para>Event descriptions with
<jbophrase>le nu</jbophrase> are commonly used to fill the
<quote>under conditions...</quote> places, among others, of gismu and lujvo place structures:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Ia6f">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e2d12"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la lojban. cu frili mi</jbo>
- <gloss>le nu mi tadni [kei]</gloss>
- <gloss>Lojban is-easy for-me</gloss>
- <gloss>under-conditions-the event-of I study</gloss>
+ <jbo>la lojban. cu frili mi le nu mi tadni [kei]</jbo>
+ <gloss>Lojban is-easy for-me under-conditions-the event-of I study</gloss>
<en>Lojban is easy for me when I study.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>under conditions</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> (The
<quote>when</quote> of the English would also be appropriate for a construction involving a Lojban tense, but the Lojban sentence says more than that the studying is concurrent with the ease.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>nu</primary><secondary>place structure</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>events</primary><secondary>place structure</secondary></indexterm> The place structure of a
<jbophrase>nu</jbophrase> abstraction selbri is simply:</para>
- <programlisting>
+ <place-structure>
x1 is an event of (the bridi)
-</programlisting>
+ </place-structure>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-event-types">
<title>Types of event abstractions</title>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>NU selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>za'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>zu'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>pu'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>mu'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>event abstractions</primary><secondary>types</secondary></indexterm> The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>mu'e</cmavo>
<selmaho>NU</selmaho>
@@ -305,30 +303,24 @@
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>pu'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>killing Jim</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstractions</primary><secondary>process</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>process abstractions</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>process abstractor</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>killing Jim</primary></indexterm> An event considered as extended in time, and structured with a beginning, a middle containing one or more stages, and an end, is called a
<quote>process</quote>. The abstractor
<jbophrase>pu'u</jbophrase> means
<quote>process-of</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-WaxD">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e3d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ca'o le pu'u le latmo balje'a</jbo>
+ <jbo>ca'o le pu'u le latmo balje'a cu porpi kei so'i je'atru cu selcatra</jbo>
- <gloss>cu porpi kei</gloss>
- <gloss>so'i je'atru cu selcatra</gloss>
-
- <gloss>[continuitive] the process-of( the Latin great-state breaking-up )</gloss>
- <gloss>many state-rulers were-killed</gloss>
- <gloss>During the fall of the Roman Empire,</gloss>
-
- <en>many Emperors were killed.</en>
+ <gloss>[continuitive] the process-of( the Latin great-state breaking-up ) many state-rulers were-killed</gloss>
+ <en>During the fall of the Roman Empire, many Emperors were killed.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>zu'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Roman Empire</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstractions</primary><secondary>activity</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>activity abstractions</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>activity abstractor</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Roman Empire</primary></indexterm> An event considered as extended in time and cyclic or repetitive is called an
<quote>activity</quote>. The abstractor
<jbophrase>zu'o</jbophrase> means
<quote>activity-of</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-89nw">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e3d3"/>
@@ -383,62 +375,62 @@
<quote>Pheidippides' run from Marathon to Athens</quote> (the original marathon).</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
<para>Further information on types of events can be found in
<xref linkend="section-abstractor-connection"/>.</para>
<para>The four event type abstractors have the following place structures:</para>
- <programlisting>
-<!--
-FIXME: put the index entries in
+ <place-structure>
+ <!--
+ FIXME: put the index entries in
<cx "achievement abstraction: place structure"> XE "achievement abstraction: place structure"
-
+
<cx "point-event abstraction: place structure"> XE "point-event abstraction: place structure"
-
+
<cx "mu'e: place structure"> XE "mu'e: place structure"
-
+
<dt><dd>"mu'e”: x1 is a point event of (the bridi)
<cx "process abstraction: place structure"> XE "process abstraction: place structure"
-
+
<cx "pu'u: place structure"> XE "pu'u: place structure"
- "pu'u”: x1 is a process of (the bridi) with stages x2
+"pu'u”: x1 is a process of (the bridi) with stages x2
<cx "state abstraction: place structure"> XE "state abstraction: place structure"
-
+
<cx "za'i: place structure"> XE "za'i: place structure"
- "za'i”: x1 is a continuous state of (the bridi) being true
+"za'i”: x1 is a continuous state of (the bridi) being true
<cx "activity abstraction: place structure"> XE "activity abstraction: place structure"
-
+
<cx "zu'o: place structure"> XE "zu'o: place structure"
- "zu'o”: x1 is an activity of (the bridi) consisting of repeated actions x2
-
--->
+"zu'o”: x1 is an activity of (the bridi) consisting of repeated actions x2
-<jbophrase>mu'e</jbophrase>: x1 is a point event of (the bridi)
+ -->
-
-<jbophrase>pu'u</jbophrase>: x1 is a process of (the bridi) with stages x2
+ <jbophrase>mu'e</jbophrase>: x1 is a point event of (the bridi)
-
-<jbophrase>za'i</jbophrase>: x1 is a continuous state of (the bridi) being true
+
+ <jbophrase>pu'u</jbophrase>: x1 is a process of (the bridi) with stages x2
+
+ <jbophrase>za'i</jbophrase>: x1 is a continuous state of (the bridi) being true
-
-<jbophrase>zu'o</jbophrase>: x1 is an activity of (the bridi) consisting of repeated actions x2
-</programlisting>
+
+ <jbophrase>zu'o</jbophrase>: x1 is an activity of (the bridi) consisting of repeated actions x2
+
+ </place-structure>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-properties">
<title>Property abstractions</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ka</cmavo>
<selmaho>NU</selmaho>
<description>property abstractor</description>
@@ -468,42 +460,38 @@ FIXME: put the index entries in
<en>John has a heart.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>has a heart</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> has the same truth conditions as</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1PPS">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e4d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la djan. cu ckaji</jbo>
- <gloss>le ka se risna [zo'e] [kei]</gloss>
- <gloss>John has-the-property</gloss>
- <gloss>the property-of having-as-heart something.</gloss>
+ <jbo>la djan. cu ckaji le ka se risna [zo'e] [kei]</jbo>
+ <gloss>John has-the-property the property-of having-as-heart something.</gloss>
<en>John has the property of having a heart.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>having</primary><secondary>of properties</secondary></indexterm> (The English word
<quote>have</quote> frequently appears in any discussion of Lojban properties: things are said to
<quote>have</quote> properties, but this is not the same sense of
<quote>have</quote> as in
<quote>I have money</quote>, which is possession.)</para>
<para>Property descriptions, like event descriptions, are often wanted to fill places in brivla place structures:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-v3Ba">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e4d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>do cnino mi</jbo>
- <gloss>le ka xunre [kei]</gloss>
- <gloss>You are-new to-me</gloss>
- <gloss>in-the-quality-of-the property-of being-red.</gloss>
+ <jbo>do cnino mi le ka xunre [kei]</jbo>
+ <gloss>You are-new to-me in-the-quality-of-the property-of being-red.</gloss>
<en>You are new to me in redness.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>-ity</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>-ness</primary></indexterm> (The English suffix
<quote>-ness</quote> often signals a property abstraction, as does the suffix
<quote>-ity</quote>.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>property description</primary></indexterm> We can also move the property description to the x1 place of
@@ -550,25 +538,25 @@ FIXME: put the index entries in
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qfAM" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e4d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. cu zmadu la djordj. le ka mi prami</jbo>
<gloss>John exceeds George in-the property-of (I love X)</gloss>
<en>I love John more than I love George.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
-<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>KOhA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ce'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>love more</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>KOhA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ce'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>love more</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qfav" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e4d8"/>
- </title>
+ </title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. cu zmadu la djordj. le ka prami mi</jbo>
<gloss>John exceeds George in the property of (X loves me).</gloss>
<en>John loves me more than George loves me.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>property abstractions</primary><secondary>specifying determining place with ce'u</secondary></indexterm> The
<quote>X</quote> used in the glosses of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qfAM"/> through
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qfav"/> as a place-holder cannot be represented only by ellipsis in Lojban, because ellipsis means that there must be a specific value that can fill the ellipsis, as mentioned in
@@ -609,60 +597,56 @@ FIXME: put the index entries in
<gloss>the property-of giving the horse</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>giving the horse</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> into</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1vc4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e4d12"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le ka ce'u dunda le xirma</jbo>
- <gloss>[zo'e] [kei]</gloss>
- <gloss>the property-of (X is-a-giver of-the horse</gloss>
- <gloss>to someone-unspecified)</gloss>
+ <jbo>le ka ce'u dunda le xirma [zo'e] [kei]</jbo>
+ <gloss>the property-of (X is-a-giver of-the horse to someone-unspecified)</gloss>
<en>the property of being a giver of the horse</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which is the most natural interpretation of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-GiJp"/>, versus</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rDtg">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e4d13"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le ka [zo'e] dunda</jbo>
- <gloss>le xirma ce'u [kei]</gloss>
- <gloss>the property-of (someone-unspecified</gloss>
- <gloss>is-a-giver of-the horse to X)</gloss>
+ <jbo>le ka [zo'e] dunda le xirma ce'u [kei]</jbo>
+ <gloss>the property-of (someone-unspecified is-a-giver of-the horse to X)</gloss>
<en>the property of being one to whom the horse is given</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which is also a possible interpretation.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>property abstractions</primary><secondary>use of multiple ce'u for relationship abstraction</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relationship abstraction</primary></indexterm> It is also possible to have more than one
<jbophrase>ce'u</jbophrase> in a
<jbophrase>ka</jbophrase> abstraction, which transforms it from a property abstraction into a relationship abstraction. Relationship abstractions
<quote>package up</quote> a complex relationship for future use; such an abstraction can be translated back into a selbri by placing it in the x2 place of the selbri
<jbophrase>bridi</jbophrase>, whose place structure is:</para>
- <programlisting>
-
-<jbophrase>bridi</jbophrase>: x1 is a predicate relationship with relation
- x2 (abstraction) among arguments (sequence/set) x3
-</programlisting>
+ <place-structure>
+
+ <jbophrase>bridi</jbophrase>: x1 is a predicate relationship with relation
+ x2 (abstraction) among arguments (sequence/set) x3
+ </place-structure>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>properties</primary><secondary>place structure</secondary></indexterm> The place structure of
<jbophrase>ka</jbophrase> abstraction selbri is simply:</para>
- <programlisting>
- ka: x1 is a property of (the bridi)
-</programlisting>
+ <place-structure>
+ <jbophrase>ka</jbophrase>: x1 is a property of (the bridi)
+ </place-structure>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-amounts">
<title>Amount abstractions</title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ni</cmavo>
<selmaho>NU</selmaho>
<description>amount abstraction</description>
@@ -700,26 +684,23 @@ FIXME: put the index entries in
<para>Semantically, a sumti with
<jbophrase>le ni</jbophrase> is a number; however, it cannot be treated grammatically as a quantifier in Lojban unless prefixed by the mathematical cmavo
<jbophrase>mo'e</jbophrase>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-SaTi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e5d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>li pa vu'u mo'e</jbo>
-
- <gloss>le ni le pixra cu blanu [kei]</gloss>
- <gloss>the-number 1 minus the-operand</gloss>
- <gloss>the amount-of (the picture being-blue)</gloss>
- <gloss>1 - B, where B = blueness of the picture</gloss>
+ <jbo>li pa vu'u mo'e le ni le pixra cu blanu [kei]</jbo>
+ <gloss>the-number 1 minus the-operand the amount-of (the picture being-blue)</gloss>
+ <en><inlineequation><mathphrase>1 - B</mathphrase></inlineequation>, where <varname>B</varname> = blueness of the picture</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Mathematical Lojban is beyond the scope of this chapter, and is explained more fully in
<xref linkend="chapter-mekso"/>.</para>
<para>There are contexts where either property or amount abstractions make sense, and in such constructions, amount abstractions can make use of
<jbophrase>ce'u</jbophrase> just like property abstractors. Thus,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1LtX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e5d4"/>
</title>
@@ -736,27 +717,27 @@ FIXME: put the index entries in
<anchor xml:id="c11e5d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le pixra cu cenba le ni ce'u blanu [kei]</jbo>
<gloss>The picture varies in-the amount-of (X is blue).</gloss>
<gloss>The picture varies in how blue it is.</gloss>
<en>The picture varies in blueness.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-1LtX"/> conveys that the blueness comes and goes, whereas
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-1LtX"/> conveys that the blueness comes and goes, whereas
<xref linkend="example-random-id-QKpo"/> conveys that its quantity changes over time.</para>
<para>Whenever we talk of measurement of an amount, there is some sort of scale, and so the place structure of
<jbophrase>ni</jbophrase> abstraction selbri is:</para>
- <programlisting>
- ni: x1 is the amount of (the bridi) on scale x2
-</programlisting>
+ <place-structure>
+ ni: x1 is the amount of (the bridi) on scale x2
+ </place-structure>
<para>Note: the best way to express the x2 places of abstract sumti is to use something like
<jbophrase>le ni ... kei be</jbophrase>. See
<xref linkend="example-random-id-zvfX"/> for the use of this construction.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-truth-values">
<title>Truth-value abstraction:
<jbophrase>jei</jbophrase></title>
<para>The
<quote>blueness of the picture</quote> discussed in
@@ -788,35 +769,33 @@ FIXME: put the index entries in
</example>
<para>is equivalent to
<quote>falsehood</quote>.</para>
<para>However, not everything in life (or even in Lojban) is simply true or false. There are shades of gray even in truth value, and
<jbophrase>jei</jbophrase> is Lojban's mechanism for indicating the shade of grey intended:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-MRD8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e6d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi ba jdice le jei</jbo>
- <gloss>la djordj. cu zekri gasnu [kei]</gloss>
- <gloss>I [future] decide the truth-value of</gloss>
- <gloss>(George being-a-(crime doer)).</gloss>
+ <jbo>mi ba jdice le jei la djordj. cu zekri gasnu [kei]</jbo>
+ <gloss>I [future] decide the truth-value of (George being-a-(crime doer)).</gloss>
<en>I will decide whether George is a criminal.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>whether criminal</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>jei</primary><secondary>place structure</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>truth-value abstractions</primary><secondary>place structure</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>legal system</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-MRD8"/> does not imply that George is, or is not, definitely a criminal. Depending on the legal system I am using, I may make some intermediate decision. As a result,
<jbophrase>jei</jbophrase> requires an x2 place analogous to that of
<jbophrase>ni</jbophrase>:</para>
- <programlisting>
- jei: x1 is the truth value of (the bridi) under epistemology x2
-</programlisting>
+ <place-structure>
+ jei: x1 is the truth value of (the bridi) under epistemology x2
+ </place-structure>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fuzzy logic and truth-value abstraction</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstractions</primary><secondary>truth-value and fuzzy logic</secondary></indexterm> Abstractions using
<jbophrase>jei</jbophrase> are the mechanism for fuzzy logic in Lojban; the
<jbophrase>jei</jbophrase> abstraction refers to a number between 0 and 1 inclusive (as distinct from
<jbophrase>ni</jbophrase> abstractions, which are often on open-ended scales). The detailed conventions for using
<jbophrase>jei</jbophrase> in fuzzy-logic contexts have not yet been established.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-predications">
<title>Predication/sentence abstraction</title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
@@ -824,21 +803,21 @@ FIXME: put the index entries in
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>du'u</cmavo>
<selmaho>NU</selmaho>
<description>predication abstraction</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstractions</primary><secondary>mental activity</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstractions</primary><secondary>with knowing</secondary><tertiary>believing, etc.</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>propositional attitudes</primary></indexterm> There are some selbri which demand an entire predication as a sumti; they make claims about some predication considered as a whole. Logicians call these the
<quote>propositional attitudes</quote>, and they include (in English) things like knowing, believing, learning, seeing, hearing, and the like. Consider the English sentence:</para>
-<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Frank is a fool</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>know</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Frank is a fool</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>know</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7N2q">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e7d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>I know that Frank is a fool.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>How's that in Lojban? Let us try:</para>
@@ -865,21 +844,21 @@ FIXME: put the index entries in
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi djuno le jei la frank. cu bebna [kei]</jbo>
<gloss>I know the truth-value of Frank being a fool.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Closer.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-oCgP"/> says that I know whether or not Frank is a fool, but doesn't say that he is one, as
<xref linkend="example-random-id-7N2q"/> does. To catch that nuance, we must say:</para>
-<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>NU selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>du'u</primary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>NU selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>du'u</primary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-6p1K">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e7d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi djuno le du'u la frank. cu bebna [kei]</jbo>
<en>I know the predication that Frank is a fool.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -898,37 +877,37 @@ FIXME: put the index entries in
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi kucli le du'u la frank. cu bebna [kei]</jbo>
<en>I am curious about whether Frank is a fool.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Frank is a fool</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>curious</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>curious</primary></indexterm> and here
<jbophrase>du'u</jbophrase> could probably be replaced by
<jbophrase>jei</jbophrase> without much change in meaning:</para>
-<para>FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
+ <para>FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-h4De">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e7d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi kucli le jei la frank. cu bebna [kei]</jbo>
<en>I am curious about how true it is that Frank is a fool.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>truth-value abstractions</primary><secondary>place structure</secondary></indexterm> As a matter of convenience rather than logical necessity,
<jbophrase>du'u</jbophrase> has been given an x2 place, which is a sentence (piece of language) expressing the bridi:</para>
- <programlisting>
- du'u: x1 is the predication (the bridi), expressed in sentence x2
-</programlisting>
+ <place-structure>
+ du'u: x1 is the predication (the bridi), expressed in sentence x2
+ </place-structure>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstractions</primary><secondary>speaking</secondary><tertiary>writing, etc.</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>se du'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>linguistic behavior</primary></indexterm> and
<jbophrase>le se du'u ...</jbophrase> is very useful in filling places of selbri which refer to speaking, writing, or other linguistic behavior regarding bridi:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hzd8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e7d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. cusku le se du'u la djordj. klama le zarci [kei]</jbo>
<gloss>John expresses the sentence-expressing-that George goes-to the store</gloss>
@@ -1026,62 +1005,52 @@ FIXME: put the index entries in
<jbophrase>zo'e</jbophrase> or
<jbophrase>da</jbophrase> or even
<jbophrase>la djan.</jbophrase>. Using
<jbophrase>la djan.</jbophrase> would suggest that it was John who I knew had gone to the store, however:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hmDo">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e8d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi djuno le du'u</jbo>
- <gloss>la djan. kau pu</gloss>
-
- <gloss>klama le zarci</gloss>
- <gloss>I know the predication-of/fact-that</gloss>
- <gloss>John [indirect question] [past]</gloss>
-
- <gloss>going to the store.</gloss>
- <gloss>I know who went to the store, namely John.</gloss>
+ <jbo>mi djuno le du'u la djan. kau pu klama le zarci</jbo>
+ <gloss>I know the predication-of/fact-that John [indirect question] [past] going to the store.</gloss>
+ <en>I know who went to the store, namely John.</en>
<en>I know that it was John who went to the store.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Using one of the indefinite pro-sumti such as
<jbophrase>ma</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>zo'e</jbophrase>, or
<jbophrase>da</jbophrase> does not suggest any particular value.</para>
<para>Why does Lojban require the
<jbophrase>kau</jbophrase> marker, rather than using
<jbophrase>ma</jbophrase> as English and Chinese and many other languages do? Because
<jbophrase>ma</jbophrase> always signals a direct question, and so</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-5WU4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e8d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi djuno le du'u</jbo>
- <gloss>ma pu klama le zarci</gloss>
- <gloss>I know the predication-of</gloss>
- <gloss>[what sumti?] [past] goes-to the store</gloss>
+ <jbo>mi djuno le du'u ma pu klama le zarci</jbo>
+ <gloss>I know the predication-of [what sumti?] [past] goes-to the store</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-LDrc">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-LDrc">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e8d6"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>Who is it that I know goes to the store?</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>Who is it that I know goes to the store?</para>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>indirect questions without "kau"</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>indirect question involving sumti</primary></indexterm> It is actually not necessary to use
<jbophrase>le du'u</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>kau</jbophrase> at all if the indirect question involves a sumti; there is generally a paraphrase of the type:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-b6VT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e8d7"/>
</title>
@@ -1093,29 +1062,23 @@ FIXME: put the index entries in
</example>
<para>because the x3 place of
<jbophrase>djuno</jbophrase> is the subject of knowledge, as opposed to the fact that is known. But when the questioned point is not a sumti, but (say) a logical connection, then there is no good alternative to
<jbophrase>kau</jbophrase>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2nIX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e8d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi ba zgana le du'u</jbo>
- <gloss>la djan. jikau la djordj.</gloss>
- <gloss>cu zvati le panka</gloss>
- <gloss>I [future] observe the predication-of/fact-that</gloss>
- <gloss>John [connective indirect question] George</gloss>
-
- <gloss>is-at the park.</gloss>
- <gloss>I will see whether John or George (or both)</gloss>
- <en>is at the park.</en>
+ <jbo>mi ba zgana le du'u la djan. jikau la djordj. cu zvati le panka</jbo>
+ <gloss>I [future] observe the predication-of/fact-that John [connective indirect question] George is-at the park.</gloss>
+ <en>I will see whether John or George (or both) is at the park.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In addition,
<xref linkend="example-random-id-b6VT"/> is only a loose paraphrase of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-QUxG"/>, because it is left to the listener's insight to realize that what is known about the goer-to-the-store is his identity rather than some other of his attributes.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-minor-abstractions">
<title>Minor abstraction types</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
@@ -1163,47 +1126,45 @@ FIXME: put the index entries in
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>su'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstractions</primary><secondary>vague</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vague abstraction</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vague abstractor</primary></indexterm> Finally, the abstractor
<jbophrase>su'u</jbophrase> is a vague abstractor, whose meaning must be grasped from context:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ycKt">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e9d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ko zgana le su'u</jbo>
- <gloss>le ci smacu cu bajra</gloss>
- <gloss>you [imperative] observe the abstract-nature-of</gloss>
- <gloss>the three mice running</gloss>
+ <jbo>ko zgana le su'u le ci smacu cu bajra</jbo>
+ <gloss>you [imperative] observe the abstract-nature-of the three mice running</gloss>
<en>See how the three mice run!</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>mice</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>experience abstractions</primary><secondary>place structure</secondary></indexterm> All three of these abstractors have an x2 place. An experience requires an experiencer, so the place structure of
<jbophrase>li'i</jbophrase> is:</para>
- <programlisting>
- li'i: x1 is the experience of (the bridi) as experienced by x2
+ <place-structure>
+ <jbophrase>li'i</jbophrase>: x1 is the experience of (the bridi) as experienced by x2
-</programlisting>
+ </place-structure>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>idea abstractions</primary><secondary>place structure</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>concept abstractions</primary><secondary>place structure</secondary></indexterm> Similarly, an idea requires a mind to hold it, so the place structure of
<jbophrase>si'o</jbophrase> is:</para>
- <programlisting>
- si'o: x1 is the idea/concept of (the bridi) in the mind of x2
-</programlisting>
+ <place-structure>
+ si'o: x1 is the idea/concept of (the bridi) in the mind of x2
+ </place-structure>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vague abstractions</primary><secondary>place structure</secondary></indexterm> Finally, there needs to be some way of specifying just what sort of abstraction
<jbophrase>su'u</jbophrase> is representing, so its place structure is:</para>
- <programlisting>
- su'u: x1 is an abstract nature of (the bridi) of type x2
-</programlisting>
+ <place-structure>
+ su'u: x1 is an abstract nature of (the bridi) of type x2
+ </place-structure>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstractions</primary><secondary>creating new types</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>template</primary></indexterm> The x2 place of
<jbophrase>su'u</jbophrase> allows it to serve as a substitute for any of the other abstractors, or as a template for creating new ones. For example,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-FnNR">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e9d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nu mi klama</jbo>
<gloss>the event-of my going</gloss>
@@ -1213,36 +1174,28 @@ FIXME: put the index entries in
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-zvfX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e9d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le su'u mi klama kei be lo fasnu</jbo>
<gloss>the abstract-nature-of (my going) of-type an event</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and there is a book whose title might be rendered in Lojban as:</para>
-<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>bicycle race</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Jesus</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>intersect</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Jesus</primary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>bicycle race</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Jesus</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>intersect</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Jesus</primary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-5Kw7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e9d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le su'u la .iecuas. kuctai</jbo>
- <gloss>selcatra kei</gloss>
- <gloss>be lo sa'ordzifa'a</gloss>
- <gloss>ke nalmatma'e sutyterjvi</gloss>
- <gloss>the abstract-nature-of (Jesus is-an-intersect-shape</gloss>
-
-
- <gloss>type-of-killed-one)</gloss>
- <gloss>of-type a slope-low-direction</gloss>
- <gloss>type-of non-motor-vehicle speed-competition</gloss>
+ <jbo>le su'u la .iecuas. kuctai selcatra kei be lo sa'ordzifa'a ke nalmatma'e sutyterjvi</jbo>
+ <gloss>the abstract-nature-of (Jesus is-an-intersect-shape type-of-killed-one) of-type a slope-low-direction type-of non-motor-vehicle speed-competition</gloss>
<en>The Crucifixion of Jesus Considered As A Downhill Bicycle Race</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note the importance of using
<jbophrase>kei</jbophrase> after
<jbophrase>su'u</jbophrase> when the x2 of
<jbophrase>su'u</jbophrase> (or any other abstractor) is being specified; otherwise, the
<jbophrase>be lo</jbophrase> ends up inside the abstraction bridi.</para>
@@ -1275,38 +1228,32 @@ FIXME: put the index entries in
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>I try to open the door.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which in Lojban is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1WER">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e10d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi troci le nu</jbo>
- <gloss>[mi] gasnu le nu</gloss>
- <gloss>le vorme cu karbi'o</gloss>
- <gloss>I try the event-of</gloss>
- <gloss>(I am-agent-in the event-of</gloss>
- <gloss>(the door open-becomes)).</gloss>
+ <jbo>mi troci le nu [mi] gasnu le nu le vorme cu karbi'o</jbo>
+ <gloss>I try the event-of (I am-agent-in the event-of (the door open-becomes)).</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which has an abstract description within an abstract description, quite a complex structure. In English (but not in all other languages), we may also say:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-K14X">
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-K14X">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e10d3"/>
</title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>I try the door.</jbo>
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>I try the door.</para>
+
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>LAhE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>tu'a</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>try the door</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstractions</primary><secondary>simplification to sumti with tu'a</secondary></indexterm> where it is understood that what I try is actually not the door itself, but the act of opening it. The same simplification can be done in Lojban, but it must be marked explicitly using a cmavo. The relevant cmavo is
<jbophrase>tu'a</jbophrase>, which belongs to selma'o LAhE. The Lojban equivalent of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-K14X"/> is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gabC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e10d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi troci tu'a le vorme</jbo>
@@ -1355,24 +1302,22 @@ FIXME: put the index entries in
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JAI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>jai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstractions</primary><secondary>simplification to sumti with jai</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstractions</primary><secondary>making concrete</secondary></indexterm> Logically, a counterpart of some sort is needed to
<jbophrase>tu'a</jbophrase> which transposes an abstract sumti into a concrete one. This is achieved at the selbri level by the cmavo
<jbophrase>jai</jbophrase> (of selma'o JAI). This cmavo has more than one function, discussed in
<xref linkend="chapter-sumti-tcita"/> and
<xref linkend="chapter-tenses"/>; for the purposes of this chapter, it operates as a conversion of selbri, similarly to the cmavo of selma'o SE. This conversion changes</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-jAdY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e10d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>tu'a mi rinka</jbo>
- <gloss>le nu do morsi</gloss>
- <gloss>something-to-do-with me causes</gloss>
- <gloss>the event-of you are-dead</gloss>
+ <jbo>tu'a mi rinka le nu do morsi</jbo>
+ <gloss>something-to-do-with me causes the event-of you are-dead</gloss>
<en>My action causes your death.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>cause death</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> into</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-R8SN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e10d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi jai rinka le nu do morsi</jbo>
@@ -1504,65 +1449,126 @@ FIXME: put the index entries in
<title>Abstractor connection</title>
<para>An abstractor may be replaced by two or more abstractors joined by logical or non-logical connectives. Connectives are explained in detail in
<xref linkend="chapter-connectives"/>. The connection can be expanded to one between two bridi which differ only in abstraction marker.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qFBV"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qFdz"/> are equivalent in meaning:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qFBV" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e12d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le ka la frank. ciska cu xlali</jbo>
- <gloss>.ije le ni la frank. ciska cu xlali</gloss>
- <gloss>The quality-of Frank's writing is bad,</gloss>
- <en>and the quantity of Frank's writing is bad.</en>
+ <jbo>le ka la frank. ciska cu xlali .ije le ni la frank. ciska cu xlali</jbo>
+ <gloss>The quality-of Frank's writing is bad, and the quantity of Frank's writing is bad.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qFdz" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e12d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ka je ni la frank. ciska cu xlali</jbo>
<en>The quality and quantity of Frank's writing is bad.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This feature of Lojban has hardly ever been used, and nobody knows what uses it may eventually have.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-summary">
<title>Table of abstractors</title>
<para>The following table gives each abstractor, an English gloss for it, a Lojban gismu which is connected with it (more or less remotely: the associations between abstractors and gismu are meant more as memory hooks than for any kind of inference), the rafsi associated with it, and (on the following line) its place structure.</para>
- <programlisting>
-nu event of fasnu nun
-<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
- x1 is an event of (the bridi)
-ka property of ckaji kam
- x1 is a property of (the bridi)
-ni amount of klani nil
- x1 is an amount of (the bridi) measured on scale x2
-jei truth-value of jetnu jez
- x1 is a truth-value of (the bridi) under epistemology x2
-li'i experience of lifri liz
-
- x1 is an experience of (the bridi) to experiencer x2
-si'o idea of sidbo siz
- x1 is an idea/concept of (the bridi) in the mind of x2
-du'u predication of ----- dum
- x1 is the bridi (the bridi) expressed by sentence x2
-su'u abstraction of sucta sus
- x1 is an abstract nature of (the bridi)
-za'i state of zasti zam
-
- x1 is a state of (the bridi)
-zu'o activity of zukte zum
-
- x1 is an activity of (the bridi)
-pu'u process of pruce pup
-
- x1 is a process of (the bridi)
-mu'e point-event of mulno mub
-
- x1 is a point-event/achievement of (the bridi)
-</programlisting>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tgroup cols="5">
+ <colspec colnum="1" colname="col1"/>
+ <colspec colnum="2" colname="col2"/>
+ <colspec colnum="3" colname="col3"/>
+ <colspec colnum="4" colname="col4"/>
+ <colspec colnum="5" colname="col5"/>
+ <tbody>
+ <row>
+ <entry><jbophrase>nu</jbophrase></entry>
+ <entry>event of</entry>
+ <entry><jbophrase>fasnu</jbophrase></entry>
+ <entry><jbophrase>nun</jbophrase></entry>
+ <entry>x1 is an event of (the bridi)</entry>
+ </row>
+ <row>
+ <entry><jbophrase>ka</jbophrase></entry>
+ <entry>property of</entry>
+ <entry><jbophrase>ckaji</jbophrase></entry>
+ <entry><jbophrase role="rafsi">kam</jbophrase></entry>
+ <entry>x1 is a property of (the bridi)</entry>
+ </row>
+ <row>
+ <entry><jbophrase>ni</jbophrase></entry>
+ <entry>amount of</entry>
+ <entry><jbophrase>klani</jbophrase></entry>
+ <entry><jbophrase role="rafsi">nil</jbophrase></entry>
+ <entry>x1 is an amount of (the bridi) measured on scale x2</entry>
+ </row>
+ <row>
+ <entry><jbophrase>jei</jbophrase></entry>
+ <entry>truth-value of</entry>
+ <entry><jbophrase>jetnu</jbophrase></entry>
+ <entry><jbophrase role="rafsi">jez</jbophrase></entry>
+ <entry>x1 is a truth-value of (the bridi) under epistemology x2</entry>
+ </row>
+ <row>
+ <entry><jbophrase>li'i</jbophrase></entry>
+ <entry>experience of</entry>
+ <entry><jbophrase>lifri</jbophrase></entry>
+ <entry><jbophrase role="rafsi">liz</jbophrase></entry>
+ <entry>x1 is an experience of (the bridi) to experiencer x2</entry>
+ </row>
+ <row>
+ <entry><jbophrase>si'o</jbophrase></entry>
+ <entry>idea of</entry>
+ <entry><jbophrase>sidbo</jbophrase></entry>
+ <entry><jbophrase role="rafsi">siz</jbophrase></entry>
+ <entry>x1 is an idea/concept of (the bridi) in the mind of x2</entry>
+ </row>
+ <row>
+ <entry><jbophrase>du'u</jbophrase></entry>
+ <entry>predication of</entry>
+ <entry>-----</entry>
+ <entry><jbophrase role="rafsi">dum</jbophrase></entry>
+ <entry>x1 is the bridi (the bridi) expressed by sentence x2</entry>
+ </row>
+ <row>
+ <entry><jbophrase>su'u</jbophrase></entry>
+ <entry>abstraction of</entry>
+ <entry><jbophrase>sucta</jbophrase></entry>
+ <entry><jbophrase role="rafsi">sus</jbophrase></entry>
+ <entry>x1 is an abstract nature of (the bridi)</entry>
+ </row>
+ <row>
+ <entry><jbophrase>za'i</jbophrase></entry>
+ <entry>state of</entry>
+ <entry><jbophrase>zasti</jbophrase></entry>
+ <entry><jbophrase role="rafsi">zam</jbophrase></entry>
+ <entry>x1 is a state of (the bridi)</entry>
+ </row>
+ <row>
+ <entry><jbophrase>zu'o</jbophrase></entry>
+ <entry>activity of</entry>
+ <entry><jbophrase>zukte</jbophrase></entry>
+ <entry><jbophrase role="rafsi">zum</jbophrase></entry>
+ <entry>x1 is an activity of (the bridi)</entry>
+ </row>
+ <row>
+ <entry><jbophrase>pu'u</jbophrase></entry>
+ <entry>process of</entry>
+ <entry><jbophrase>pruce</jbophrase></entry>
+ <entry><jbophrase role="rafsi">pup</jbophrase></entry>
+ <entry>x1 is a process of (the bridi)</entry>
+ </row>
+ <row>
+ <entry><jbophrase>mu'e</jbophrase></entry>
+ <entry>point-event of</entry>
+ <entry><jbophrase>mulno</jbophrase></entry>
+ <entry><jbophrase role="rafsi">mub</jbophrase></entry>
+ <entry>x1 is a point-event/achievement of (the bridi)</entry>
+ </row>
+ </tbody>
+ </tgroup>
+ </informaltable>
</section>
</chapter>
diff --git a/todocbook/5.xml b/todocbook/5.xml
index c252915..2c03987 100644
--- a/todocbook/5.xml
+++ b/todocbook/5.xml
@@ -146,39 +146,39 @@
<jbophrase>tanru</jbophrase>. The first component is called the
<jbophrase>seltau</jbophrase>, and the second component is called the
<jbophrase>tertau</jbophrase>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tertau</primary><secondary>effect on meaning of tanru</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>primary meaning of</secondary></indexterm> The most important rule for use in interpreting tanru is that the tertau carries the primary meaning. A
<jbophrase>pelnimre tricu</jbophrase> is primarily a tree, and only secondarily is it connected with lemons in some way. For this reason, an alternative translation of
<xref linkend="example-lemon-tree"/> would be:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hP9j">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e2d5"/>
</title>
- <en>That is a lemon type of tree.</en>
+ <para>That is a lemon type of tree.</para>
</example>
<para>This
<quote>type of</quote> relationship between the components of a tanru is fundamental to the tanru concept.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modifier</primary><secondary>seltau as</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>seltau</primary><secondary>effect on meaning of tanru</secondary></indexterm> We may also say that the seltau modifies the meaning of the tertau:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4fvn">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e2d6"/>
</title>
- <en>That is a tree which is lemon-ish (in the way appropriate to trees)</en>
+ <para>That is a tree which is lemon-ish (in the way appropriate to trees)</para>
</example>
<para>would be another possible translation of
<xref linkend="example-lemon-tree"/>. In the same way, a more explicit translation of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qHNA"/> might be:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-asRA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e2d7"/>
</title>
- <en>John is a boy who is big in the way that boys are big.</en>
+ <para>John is a boy who is big in the way that boys are big.</para>
</example>
<para>This
<quote>way that boys are big</quote> would be quite different from the way in which elephants are big; big-for-a-boy is small-for-an-elephant.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ambiguity of tanru</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>ambiguity of</secondary></indexterm> All tanru are ambiguous semantically. Possible translations of:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-aIfM">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>goer table</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c5e2d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -244,36 +244,36 @@
<description>closest scope grouping</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru grouping</primary><secondary>three-part</secondary></indexterm> Consider the English sentence:</para>
<!-- FIXME: The indexterm "girls' school" applies to all three of the following examples; should it go in all three or just the first? -->
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gCLr">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>girls' school</primary><secondary>little</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c5e3d1"/>
</title>
- <en>That's a little girls' school.</en>
+ <para>That's a little girls' school.</para>
</example>
<para>What does it mean? Two possible readings are:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-5UBW">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>girls' school</primary><secondary>little</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c5e3d2"/>
</title>
- <en>That's a little school for girls.</en>
+ <para>That's a little school for girls.</para>
</example>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-5UBJ">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>girls' school</primary><secondary>little</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c5e3d3"/>
</title>
- <en>That's a school for little girls.</en>
+ <para>That's a school for little girls.</para>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>speech rhythm</primary><secondary>for grouping in English</secondary></indexterm> This ambiguity is quite different from the simple tanru ambiguity described in
<xref linkend="section-simple-tanru"/>. We understand that
<quote>girls' school</quote> means
<quote>a school where girls are the students</quote>, and not
<quote>a school where girls are the teachers</quote> or
<quote>a school which is a girl</quote> (!). Likewise, we understand that
<quote>little girl</quote> means
<quote>girl who is small</quote>. This is an ambiguity of grouping. Is
<quote>girls' school</quote> to be taken as a unit, with
diff --git a/todocbook/TODO b/todocbook/TODO
index bb86b59..dd8656e 100644
--- a/todocbook/TODO
+++ b/todocbook/TODO
@@ -4,21 +4,21 @@
==================
Most of the below is intended to be done as needed as you review a
particular chapter/section. It looks like more complexity than it
actually is; you'll get used to it.
SAY HERE WHAT YOU'VE DONE, including parts you haven't completed
(like index work).
Robin Powell: 5.1, 5.2, 5.3
-Zort: Chapters 3 to 10 (they contain FIXMEs, though, mostly about
+Zort: Chapters 3 to 11 (they contain FIXMEs, though, mostly about
index stuff)
Matthew Walton: 3
------
Ignore Chapter 2 for now.
------
If you have any trouble, add a FIXME comment, like so:
commit 541f080ede127cdc537b331b1eb1a6e20f382fbd
Author: Eitan Postavsky <eitanp32@gmail.com>
Date: Sun Jan 9 17:48:23 2011 -0500
Automated conversion of <en> to <gloss>. Some false positives.
diff --git a/todocbook/12.xml b/todocbook/12.xml
index 9d9710c..ff68685 100644
--- a/todocbook/12.xml
+++ b/todocbook/12.xml
@@ -11,32 +11,32 @@
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>compared with tanru</secondary></indexterm> There is a close relationship between lujvo and tanru. In fact, lujvo are condensed forms of tanru:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-m9zv">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e1d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti fagri festi</jbo>
- <en>That is-fire waste.</en>
+ <gloss>That is-fire waste.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>contains a tanru which can be reduced to the lujvo in:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rYj5">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e1d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti fagyfesti</jbo>
<gloss>That is-fire-waste.</gloss>
- <en>That is-ashes.</en>
+ <gloss>That is-ashes.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Although the lujvo
<jbophrase>fagyfesti</jbophrase> is derived from the tanru
<jbophrase>fagri festi</jbophrase>, it is not equivalent in meaning to it. In particular,
<jbophrase>fagyfesti</jbophrase> has a distinct place structure of its own, not the same as that of
<jbophrase>festi</jbophrase>. (In contrast, the tanru does have the same place structure as
<jbophrase>festi</jbophrase>.) The lujvo needs to take account of the places of
<jbophrase>fagri</jbophrase> as well. When a tanru is made into a lujvo, there is no equivalent of
<quote>be ... bei ... be'o</quote> (described in
@@ -141,21 +141,21 @@
<para>As we have seen, no less than five elements are involved in the definition of
<jbophrase>gerku zdani</jbophrase>: the house, the house dweller, the dog, the dog breed (everywhere a dog goes in Lojban, a dog breed follows), and the relationship between the house and the dog. Since tanru are explicitly ambiguous in Lojban, the relationship r cannot be expressed within a tanru (if it could, it wouldn't be a tanru any more!) All the other places, however, can be expressed - thus:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-tUDa">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e2d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la blabi zdani cu gerku be fa la spot. bei la sankt. berNARD. be'o</jbo>
<gloss>zdani la bil. klinton.</gloss>
<gloss>The White House is-a-dog (namely Spot of-breed Saint Bernard)</gloss>
- <en>type-of-house-for Bill Clinton.</en>
+ <gloss>type-of-house-for Bill Clinton.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>derogatory terms</primary></indexterm> Not the most elegant sentence ever written in either Lojban or English. Yet if there is any relation at all between Spot and the White House,
<xref linkend="example-random-id-tUDa"/> is arguably true. If we concentrate on just one type of relation in interpreting the tanru
<jbophrase>gerku zdani</jbophrase>, then the meaning of
<jbophrase>gerku zdani</jbophrase> changes. So if we understand
<jbophrase>gerku zdani</jbophrase> as having the same meaning as the English word
<quote>doghouse</quote>, the White House would no longer be a
<jbophrase>gerku zdani</jbophrase> with respect to Spot, because as far as we know Spot does not actually live in the White House, and the White House is not a doghouse (derogatory terms for incumbents notwithstanding).</para>
@@ -562,21 +562,21 @@
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>prayer</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo place order</primary><secondary>rationale for standardization</secondary></indexterm> If we aim to make understandable lujvo, then, we should make the order of places in the place structure follow some conventions. If this does not occur, very real ambiguities can turn up. Take for example the lujvo
<jbophrase>jdaselsku</jbophrase>, meaning
<quote>prayer</quote>. In the sentence</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-FfWn">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e7d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>di'e jdaselsku la dong.</jbo>
- <en>This-utterance is-a-prayer somehow-related-to-Dong.</en>
+ <gloss>This-utterance is-a-prayer somehow-related-to-Dong.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Dong</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> we must be able to know if Dong is the person making the prayer, giving the meaning</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-b38f">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e7d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -617,31 +617,31 @@
</example>
<para>just what appears in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-7AFc"/>. In fact, all place structures shown until now have been in the correct order by the conventions of this section, though the fact has been left tacit until now.</para>
<para>The motivation for this rule is the parallelism between the lujvo bridi-schema</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7juc">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e7d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>b1 balsoi s2 b2 b3</jbo>
- <en>b1 is-a-great-soldier of-army-s2 in-property-b2 by-standard-b3</en>
+ <gloss>b1 is-a-great-soldier of-army-s2 in-property-b2 by-standard-b3</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and the more or less equivalent bridi-schema</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-LzCP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e7d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>b1 sonci s2 gi'e banli b2 b3</jbo>
- <en>b1 is-a-soldier of-army-s2 and is-great in-property-b2 by-standard-b3</en>
+ <gloss>b1 is-a-soldier of-army-s2 and is-great in-property-b2 by-standard-b3</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where
<jbophrase>gi'e</jbophrase> is the Lojban word for
<quote>and</quote> when placed between two partial bridi, as explained in
<xref linkend="chapter-connectives"/>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>veterinarian</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo place order</primary><secondary>asymmetrical lujvo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>animal doctor</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> Asymmetrical lujvo like
<jbophrase>gerzda</jbophrase>, on the other hand, employ a different rule. The seltau places are inserted not at the end of the place structure, but rather immediately after the tertau place which is equivalent to the first place of the seltau. Consider
<jbophrase>dalmikce</jbophrase>, meaning
<quote>veterinarian</quote>: its veljvo is
@@ -844,33 +844,33 @@
<jbophrase>blakanla</jbophrase> (from
<jbophrase>blanu kanla</jbophrase>, meaning
<quote>blue eye</quote>). But immediately we are in trouble: we cannot say</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Kyq2">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e10d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djak. cu blakanla</jbo>
- <en>Jack is-a-blue-eye</en>
+ <gloss>Jack is-a-blue-eye</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>because Jack is not an eye,
<jbophrase>kanla</jbophrase>, but someone with an eye,
<jbophrase>se kanla</jbophrase>. At best we can say</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3IKp">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e10d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djak. cu se blakanla</jbo>
- <en>Jack is-the-bearer-of-blue-eyes</en>
+ <gloss>Jack is-the-bearer-of-blue-eyes</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>But look now at the place structure of
<jbophrase>blakanla</jbophrase>: it is a symmetrical lujvo, so the place structure is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ncPN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e10d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>bl1=k1 is a blue eye of bl2=k2</jbo>
@@ -949,36 +949,36 @@
<jbophrase>xaskemcakcurnu</jbophrase> means
<quote>oceanic shellfish</quote>, and has the veljvo</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>shell worm</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-0W5t">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e11d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xamsi ke calku curnu</jbo>
- <en>ocean type-of (shell worm)</en>
+ <gloss>ocean type-of (shell worm)</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>invertebrate</primary></indexterm> (
<quote>worm</quote> in Lojban refers to any invertebrate), but
<jbophrase>xasycakcurnu</jbophrase> has the veljvo</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>ocean shell</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-HEjn">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e11d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>[ke] xamsi calku [ke'e] curnu</jbo>
- <en>(ocean shell) type-of worm</en>
+ <gloss>(ocean shell) type-of worm</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>clamshells</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>parasitic worms</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> and might refer to the parasitic worms that infest clamshells.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo creation</primary><secondary>interaction of KE with NAhE</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo creation</primary><secondary>interaction of KE with SE</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>misinterpretation</primary></indexterm> Such misinterpretation is more likely than not in a lujvo starting with
<quote>sel-</quote> (from
<quote>se</quote>),
@@ -1099,21 +1099,21 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>It is not uncommon for abstractors to participate in the making of more complex lujvo as well. For example,
<jbophrase>nunsoidji</jbophrase>, from the veljvo</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-RKcH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e12d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>nu sonci kei djica</jbo>
- <en>event-of being-a-soldier desirer</en>
+ <gloss>event-of being-a-soldier desirer</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>has the place structure</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-8Nos">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e12d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>d1 desires the event of (s1 being a soldier of army s2) for purpose d3</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1166,21 +1166,21 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>explained in
<xref linkend="chapter-abstractions"/>, to be rendered with lujvo:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Wrpr">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e12d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi jaxri'a le nu do morsi</jbo>
- <en>I am-part-of-the-cause-of the event-of your dying.</en>
+ <gloss>I am-part-of-the-cause-of the event-of your dying.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In making a lujvo that contains
<quote>jax-</quote> for a selbri that contains
<quote>jai</quote>, the rule is to leave the
<jbophrase>fai</jbophrase> place as a
<jbophrase>fai</jbophrase> place of the lujvo; it does not participate in the regular lujvo place structure. (The use of
<jbophrase>fai</jbophrase> is also explained in
@@ -1534,40 +1534,40 @@
<jbo>p1 uses tool p2 for purpose p3</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Some possible three-part veljvo are (depending on how strictly you want to constrain the veljvo)</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qfe4" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e14d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>[ke] xance pilno [ke'e] minde</jbo>
- <en>(hand user) type-of commander</en>
+ <gloss>(hand user) type-of commander</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qFen" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e14d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>[ke] minde xance [ke'e] pilno</jbo>
- <en>(commander hand) type-of user</en>
+ <gloss>(commander hand) type-of user</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>or even</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-yCod">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e14d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>minde ke xance pilno [ke'e]</jbo>
- <en>commander type-of (hand user)</en>
+ <gloss>commander type-of (hand user)</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which lead to the three different lujvo
<jbophrase>xanplimi'e</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>mi'erxanpli</jbophrase>, and
<jbophrase>minkemxanpli</jbophrase> respectively.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>latent component</primary></indexterm> Does this make
<jbophrase>xanmi'e</jbophrase> wrong? By no means. But it does mean that there is a latent component to the meaning of
<jbophrase>xanmi'e</jbophrase>, the gismu
@@ -1733,21 +1733,21 @@
<jbophrase>mleca</jbophrase>). The gismu
<jbophrase>zenba</jbophrase> was included in the language precisely in order to capture those notions of increase which
<jbophrase>zmadu</jbophrase> can't quite cope with; in addition, we don't have to waste a place in lujvo or tanru on something that we'd never fill in with a value anyway. So we can translate
<quote>I'm stronger now</quote> not as</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Uo7S">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e15d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ca tsamau</jbo>
- <en>I now am-stronger.</en>
+ <gloss>I now am-stronger.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which implies that I'm currently stronger than somebody else (the elided occupant of the second or z2 place), but as</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-vR4J">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e15d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ca tsaze'a</jbo>
<en>I increase in strength.</en>
diff --git a/todocbook/13.xml b/todocbook/13.xml
index 9cadb02..f53eaca 100644
--- a/todocbook/13.xml
+++ b/todocbook/13.xml
@@ -26,60 +26,60 @@
<quote>attitudinals</quote>. This rule seems awkward and clunky to English-speakers at first, but is an essential part of the Lojbanic way of doing things.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>attitudinals</primary><secondary>placement for prevailing attitude</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>attitudinals</primary><secondary>prevailing attitude</secondary></indexterm> The simplest way to use attitudinal indicators is to place them at the beginning of a text. In that case, they express the speaker's prevailing attitude. Here are some examples, correlated with the attitudes mentioned following
<xref linkend="example-random-id-EWHQ"/>:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qFfd" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e1d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.ui la djan klama</jbo>
- <en>[Whee!] John is coming!</en>
+ <gloss>[Whee!] John is coming!</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qFFo" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e1d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.uu la djan klama</jbo>
- <en>[Alas!] John is coming.</en>
+ <gloss>[Alas!] John is coming.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qfFV" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e1d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.a'o la djan klama</jbo>
- <en>[Hopefully] John is coming.</en>
+ <gloss>[Hopefully] John is coming.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qffW" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e1d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.ue la djan klama</jbo>
- <en>[Wow!] John is coming!</en>
+ <gloss>[Wow!] John is coming!</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qfgA" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e1d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.ianai la djan klama</jbo>
- <en>[Nonsense!] John is coming.</en>
+ <gloss>[Nonsense!] John is coming.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>UI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>.ianai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>.ue</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>.a'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>.uu</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>.ui</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>John is coming</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>attitudinals</primary><secondary>word-form for primary</secondary></indexterm> The primary Lojban attitudinals are all the cmavo of the form VV or V'V: one of the few cases where cmavo have been classified solely by their form. There are 39 of these cmavo: all 25 possible vowel pairs of the form V'V, the four standard diphthongs (
<jbophrase>.ai</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>.au</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>.ei</jbophrase>, and
<jbophrase>.oi</jbophrase>), and the ten more diphthongs that are permitted only in these attitudinal indicators and in names and borrowings (
@@ -150,69 +150,69 @@
</programlisting>
<para>Here are some typical uses of the
<quote>u</quote> attitudinals:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qFgi" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e2d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.ua mi facki fi le mi mapku</jbo>
- <en>[Eureka!] I found my hat! [emphasizes the discovery of the hat]</en>
+ <gloss>[Eureka!] I found my hat! [emphasizes the discovery of the hat]</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qFgv" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e2d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.u'a mi facki fi le mi mapku</jbo>
- <en>[Gain!] I found my hat! [emphasizes the obtaining of the hat]</en>
+ <gloss>[Gain!] I found my hat! [emphasizes the obtaining of the hat]</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qFh5" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e2d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.ui mi facki fi le mi mapku</jbo>
- <en>[Yay!] I found my hat! [emphasizes the feeling of happiness]</en>
+ <gloss>[Yay!] I found my hat! [emphasizes the feeling of happiness]</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qfHA" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e2d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.uo mi facki fi le mi mapku</jbo>
- <en>[At last!] I found my hat! [emphasizes that the finding is complete]</en>
+ <gloss>[At last!] I found my hat! [emphasizes that the finding is complete]</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qfHC" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e2d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.uu do cortu</jbo>
- <en>[Pity!] You feel-pain. [expresses speaker's sympathy]</en>
+ <gloss>[Pity!] You feel-pain. [expresses speaker's sympathy]</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qfhT" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e2d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.u'u do cortu</jbo>
- <en>[Repentance!] You feel-pain. [expresses that speaker feels guilty]</en>
+ <gloss>[Repentance!] You feel-pain. [expresses that speaker feels guilty]</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qfHA"/>, note that the attitudinal
<jbophrase>.uo</jbophrase> is translated by an English non-attitudinal phrase:
<quote>At last!</quote> It is common for the English equivalents of Lojban attitudinals to be short phrases of this sort, with more or less normal grammar, but actually expressions of emotion.</para>
<para>In particular, both
<jbophrase>.uu</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>.u'u</jbophrase> can be translated into English as
@@ -226,39 +226,39 @@
<jbophrase>nai</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>cu'i</jbophrase> when suffixed to an attitudinal:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qFiE" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e2d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.ue la djan. klama</jbo>
- <en>[Surprise!] John comes.</en>
+ <gloss>[Surprise!] John comes.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qfiI" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e2d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.uecu'i la djan. klama</jbo>
- <en>[Ho hum.] John comes.</en>
+ <gloss>[Ho hum.] John comes.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qfin" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e2d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.uenai la djan. klama</jbo>
- <en>[Expected!] John comes.</en>
+ <gloss>[Expected!] John comes.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qfin"/>, John's coming has been anticipated by the speaker. In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qFiE"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qfiI"/>, no such anticipation has been made, but in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qfiI"/> the lack-of-anticipation goes no further - in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qFiE"/>, it amounts to actual surprise.</para>
<para>It is not possible to firmly distinguish the pure emotion words beginning with
@@ -276,66 +276,66 @@
.o'u relaxation composure stress
</programlisting>
<para>Here are some examples:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ch2s">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e2d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.oi la djan. klama</jbo>
- <en>[Complaint!] John is coming.</en>
+ <gloss>[Complaint!] John is coming.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the speaker is distressed or discomfited over John's coming. The word
<jbophrase>.oi</jbophrase> is derived from the Yiddish word
<quote>oy</quote> of similar meaning. It is the only cmavo with a Yiddish origin.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-V8eD">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e2d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.o'onai la djan. klama</jbo>
- <en>[Anger!] John is coming!</en>
+ <gloss>[Anger!] John is coming!</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the speaker feels anger over John's coming.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-QCTs">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e2d12"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.o'i la djan. klama</jbo>
- <en>[Beware!] John is coming.</en>
+ <gloss>[Beware!] John is coming.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here there is a sense of danger in John's arrival.</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qfIR" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e2d13"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.o'ecu'i la djan. klama</jbo>
- <en>[Detachment!] John is coming.</en>
+ <gloss>[Detachment!] John is coming.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qFJf" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e2d14"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.o'u la djan. klama</jbo>
- <en>[Phew!] John is coming.</en>
+ <gloss>[Phew!] John is coming.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qfIR"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qFJf"/>, John's arrival is no problem: in the former example, the speaker feels emotional distance from the situation; in the latter example, John's coming is actually a relief of some kind.</para>
<para>The pure emotion indicators beginning with
<jbophrase>i</jbophrase> are those which could not be fitted into the
<quote>u</quote> or
<quote>o</quote> groups because there was a lack of room, so they are a mixed lot.
<jbophrase>.ia</jbophrase>,
@@ -363,48 +363,48 @@
<gloss>[Fear!] [Observative:] a-mouse</gloss>
<en>Eek! A mouse!</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qfK3" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e2d16"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. .iu klama</jbo>
- <en>John [love!] is coming.</en>
+ <gloss>John [love!] is coming.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qfKX" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e2d17"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. .ionai klama</jbo>
- <en>John [disrespect!] is coming.</en>
+ <gloss>John [disrespect!] is coming.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qFJV"/> shows an attitude-colored observative; the attitudinal modifies the situation described by the observative, namely the mouse that is causing the emotion. Lojban-speaking toddlers, if there ever are any, will probably use sentences like
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qFJV"/> a lot.</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qfK3"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qfKX"/> use attitudinals that follow
<jbophrase>la djan.</jbophrase> rather than being at the beginning of the sentence. This form means that the attitude is attached to John rather than the event of his coming; the speaker loves or disrespects John specifically. Compare:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-09oC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e2d18"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. klama .iu</jbo>
- <en>John is-coming [love!]</en>
+ <gloss>John is-coming [love!]</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where it is specifically the coming of John that inspires the feeling.</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qfKX"/> is a compact way of swearing at John: you could translate it as
<quote>That good-for-nothing John is coming.</quote></para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter13-section3">
<title>Propositional attitude indicators</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>hypothetical world</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>internal world</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>propositional</primary><secondary>of attitudinals</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>indicators</primary><secondary>placement of</secondary></indexterm> As mentioned at the beginning of
@@ -730,21 +730,21 @@
<jbophrase>pei</jbophrase> (see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section10"/>) to indicate that the emotion is not felt.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>attitudinal</primary><secondary>example of scale effect</secondary></indexterm> The following shows the variations resulting from intensity variation:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qfUc" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e4d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.ei</jbo>
<gloss>I ought to</gloss>
- <en>(a non-specific obligation)</en>
+ <gloss>(a non-specific obligation)</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qFUR" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e4d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.eicai</jbo>
<gloss>I shall/must</gloss>
@@ -764,21 +764,21 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qfvL" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e4d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.eiru'e</jbo>
<gloss>I might</gloss>
- <en>(a weak obligation - in English often mixed with permission and desire)</en>
+ <gloss>(a weak obligation - in English often mixed with permission and desire)</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qfvn" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e4d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.eicu'i</jbo>
@@ -787,21 +787,21 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qFw3" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e4d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.einai</jbo>
<gloss>I need not</gloss>
- <en>(a non-obligation)</en>
+ <gloss>(a non-obligation)</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>.einai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>.eicu'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>.eiru'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>.eisai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>.eicai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>.ei</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>formal requirement</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>attitudinal scale</primary><secondary>stand-alone usage</secondary></indexterm> You can also utter a scale indicator without a specific emotion. This is often used in the language: in order to emphasize a point about which you feel strongly, you mark what you are saying with the scale indicator
<jbophrase>cai</jbophrase>. You could also indicate that you don't care using
<jbophrase>cu'i</jbophrase> by itself.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter13-section5">
<title>The space of emotions</title>
@@ -1058,21 +1058,21 @@
<jbophrase>ri'e</jbophrase> indicates emotional release versus emotional control.
<quote>I will not let him know how angry I am</quote>, you say to yourself before entering the room. The Lojban is much shorter:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Pwuv">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e7d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.o'onai ri'enai</jbo>
- <en>[anger] [control]</en>
+ <gloss>[anger] [control]</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>On the other hand,
<jbophrase>ri'e</jbophrase> can be used by itself to signal an emotional outburst.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>fu'i</primary></indexterm> The cmavo
<jbophrase>fu'i</jbophrase> may express a reason for feeling the way we do, as opposed to a feeling in itself; but it is a reason that is more emotionally determined than most. For example, it could show the difference between the mental discomfort mentioned in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section6"/> when it is felt on an easy test, as opposed to on a hard test. When someone gives you a back massage, you could use
@@ -1086,37 +1086,37 @@
<jbophrase>du'e</jbophrase> (these belong to selma'o PA, and are discussed in
<xref linkend="chapter-mekso"/>). For example,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-K4aV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e7d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.uiro'obe'unai</jbo>
- <en>[Yay!] [physical] [Enough!]</en>
+ <gloss>[Yay!] [physical] [Enough!]</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>large meal</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> might be something you say after a large meal which you enjoyed.</para>
<para>Like all modifiers,
<jbophrase>be'u</jbophrase> can be used alone:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-U3zm">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e7d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le cukta be'u cu zvati ma</jbo>
<gloss>The book [Needed!] is at-location [what sumti?]</gloss>
- <en>Where's the book? - I need it!</en>
+ <gloss>Where's the book? - I need it!</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>se'a</primary></indexterm> Lastly, the modifier
<jbophrase>se'a</jbophrase> shows whether the feeling is associated with self-sufficiency or with dependence on others.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4S14">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e7d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1190,32 +1190,32 @@
<jbophrase>nai</jbophrase> is the most tightly bound modifier in the language: it always negates exactly one word - the preceding one. Of all the words used in indicator constructs,
<jbophrase>nai</jbophrase> is the only one with any meaning outside the indicator system. If you try to put an indicator between a non-indicator cmavo and its
<jbophrase>nai</jbophrase> negator, the
<jbophrase>nai</jbophrase> will end up negating the last word of the indicator. The result, though unambiguous, is not what you want. For example,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9BBA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e8d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi .e .ui nai do</jbo>
- <en>I and [Yay!] [Not!] you</en>
+ <gloss>I and [Yay!] [Not!] you</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means
<quote>I and (unfortunately) you</quote>, whereas</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-NBhW">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e8d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi .e nai .ui do</jbo>
- <en>I and [Not!] [Yay!] you</en>
+ <gloss>I and [Not!] [Yay!] you</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means
<quote>I but (fortunately) not you</quote>. Attitudinal
<jbophrase>nai</jbophrase> expresses a
<quote>scalar negation</quote>, a concept explained in
<xref linkend="chapter-negation"/>; since every attitudinal word implies exactly one scale, the effect of
<jbophrase>nai</jbophrase> on each should be obvious.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>attitudinals</primary><secondary>grammar of internal compounding</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>attitudinals</primary><secondary>internal grammar</secondary><tertiary>complete</tertiary></indexterm> Thus, the complete internal grammar of UI is as follows, with each listed part optionally present or absent without affecting grammaticality, though it obviously would affect meaning.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
@@ -1251,21 +1251,21 @@
<xref linkend="chapter-structure"/>. It is worth mentioning that real-world interpretation is not necessarily consistent with the formal scope rules. People generally express emotions when they feel them, with only a minimum of grammatical constraint on that expression; complexities of emotional expression are seldom logically analyzable. Lojban attempts to provide a systematic reference that could possibly be ingrained to an instinctive level. However, it should always be assumed that the referent of an indicator has some uncertainty.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple indicators</primary></indexterm> For example, in cases of multiple indicators expressed together, the combined form has some ambiguity of interpretation. It is possible to interpret the second indicator as expressing an attitude about the first, or to interpret both as expressing attitudes about the common referent. For example, in</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Rs6P">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e9d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu tavla do .o'onai .oi</jbo>
- <en>I [past] talk-to you [Grrr!] [Oy!]</en>
+ <gloss>I [past] talk-to you [Grrr!] [Oy!]</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>can be interpreted as expressing complaint about the anger, in which case it means
<quote>Damn, I snapped at you</quote>; or as expressing both anger and complaint about the listener, in which case it means
<quote>I told you, you pest!</quote></para>
<para>Similarly, an indicator after the final brivla of a tanru may be taken to express an attitude about the particular brivla placed there - as the rules have it - or about the entire bridi which hinges on that brivla. Remembering that indicators are supposedly direct expressions of emotion, this ambiguity is acceptable.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>attitudinals</primary><secondary>benefit in written expression</secondary></indexterm> Even if the scope rules given for indicators turn out to be impractical or unintuitive for use in conversation, they are still useful in written expression. There, where you can go back and put in markers or move words around, the scope rules can be used in lieu of elaborate nuances of body language and intonation to convey the writer's intent.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter13-section10">
<title>Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours</title>
@@ -1327,21 +1327,21 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qFYC"/> might appear at the end of a command, to which the response</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sKmg">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e10d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.aicai</jbo>
- <en>[intention] [maximal]</en>
+ <gloss>[intention] [maximal]</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>corresponds to
<quote>Aye! Aye!</quote> (hence the choice of cmavo).</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ugFH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e10d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.e'apei</jbo>
@@ -1534,21 +1534,21 @@
<quote>I now pronounce you husband and wife</quote>, where the very act of uttering the words makes the listeners into husband and wife. A Lojban translation might be:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Po4T">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e11d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ca'e le re do cu simxu speni</jbo>
- <en>[I define!] The two of-you are-mutual spouses.</en>
+ <gloss>[I define!] The two of-you are-mutual spouses.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ba'anai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ba'acu'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ba'a</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>experienced</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>remembered</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>anticipated</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>evidentials</primary><secondary>ba'a scale</secondary></indexterm> The three scale positions of
<jbophrase>ba'a</jbophrase>, when attached to a bridi, indicate that it is based on the speaker's view of the real world. Thus
<jbophrase>ba'a</jbophrase> means that the statement represents a future event as anticipated by the speaker;
diff --git a/todocbook/14.xml b/todocbook/14.xml
index 8c13c1f..0e87b0c 100644
--- a/todocbook/14.xml
+++ b/todocbook/14.xml
@@ -252,83 +252,83 @@
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section4">
<title>Logical connection of bridi</title>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>I selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi</primary><secondary>logical connective for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ijek logical connectives</primary><secondary>connecting bridi</secondary></indexterm> Now we are ready to express
<xref linkend="example-random-id-mJ6y"/> in Lojban! The kind of logical connective which is placed between two Lojban bridi to connect them logically is an ijek:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-h2hN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e4d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. nanmu .ija la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
- <en>John is-a-man or James is-a-woman.</en>
+ <gloss>John is-a-man or James is-a-woman.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here we have two separate Lojban bridi,
<jbophrase>la djan. nanmu</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>la djeimyz. ninmu</jbophrase>. These bridi are connected by
<jbophrase>.ija</jbophrase>, the ijek for the truth function
<phrase role="logical-vowel">A</phrase>. The
<jbophrase>.i</jbophrase> portion of the ijek tells us that we are dealing with separate sentences here. Similarly, we can now say:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qGiu" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e4d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. nanmu .ije la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
- <en>John is-a-man and James is-a-woman.</en>
+ <gloss>John is-a-man and James is-a-woman.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qGIu" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e4d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. nanmu .ijo la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
- <en>John is-a-man if-and-only-if James is-a-woman.</en>
+ <gloss>John is-a-man if-and-only-if James is-a-woman.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qgJC" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e4d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. nanmu .iju la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
- <en>John is-a-man whether-or-not James is-a-woman.</en>
+ <gloss>John is-a-man whether-or-not James is-a-woman.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi</primary><secondary>logical connection with negation</secondary></indexterm> To obtain the other truth tables listed in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section2"/>, we need to know how to negate the two bridi which represent the component sentences. We could negate them directly by inserting
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase> before the selbri, but Lojban also allows us to place the negation within the connective itself.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>I selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JA selma'o</primary></indexterm> To negate the first or left-hand bridi, prefix
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase> to the JA cmavo but after the
<jbophrase>.i</jbophrase>. To negate the second or right-hand bridi, suffix
<quote>-nai</quote> to the JA cmavo. In either case, the negating word is placed on the side of the connective that is closest to the bridi being negated.</para>
<para>So to express the truth table FTTF, which requires
<phrase role="logical-vowel">O</phrase> with either of the two bridi negated (not both), we can say either:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qgKB" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e4d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. nanmu .inajo la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
- <en>John is-not-a-man if-and-only-if James is-a-woman.</en>
+ <gloss>John is-not-a-man if-and-only-if James is-a-woman.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qgLH" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e4d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. nanmu .ijonai la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
- <en>John is a man if-and-only-if James is-not-a-woman</en>
+ <gloss>John is a man if-and-only-if James is-not-a-woman</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The meaning of both
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qgKB"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qgLH"/> is the same as that of:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1Kp9">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e4d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -524,21 +524,21 @@
<quote>If you feed the pig, then it will grow</quote> are not logical connectives of any type, but rather need a translation using
<jbophrase>rinka</jbophrase> as the selbri joining two event abstractions, thus:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-TQP9">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e5d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nu do cidja dunda fi le xarju cu rinka le nu ri ba banro</jbo>
- <en>The event-of (you food-give to the pig) causes the event-of (it will grow).</en>
+ <gloss>The event-of (you food-give to the pig) causes the event-of (it will grow).</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Causality is discussed in far more detail in
<xref linkend="chapter-sumti-tcita"/>.</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-I2jU"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Tiz6"/> illustrates a truth function, FTTF, which needs to negate either the first or the second bridi. We already understand how to negate the first bridi:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-I2jU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e5d8"/>
@@ -567,30 +567,30 @@
<quote>gi</quote> itself and
<quote>ginai</quote>.</para>
<para>Further examples:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qgmv" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e5d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ge la djan. nanmu ginai la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
- <en>John is-a-man and James is-not-a-woman.</en>
+ <gloss>John is-a-man and James is-not-a-woman.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qgMy" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e5d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ganai la djan. nanmu ginai la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
- <en>John is-not-a-man or James is-not-a-woman.</en>
+ <gloss>John is-not-a-man or James is-not-a-woman.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>nai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>se</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ganai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>geks</primary><secondary>syntax of</secondary></indexterm> The syntax of geks is:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
[se] GA [nai]
</programlisting>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>nai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>gi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>giks</primary><secondary>syntax of</secondary></indexterm> and of giks (which are not themselves connectives, but part of the machinery of forethought connection) is:</para>
@@ -611,36 +611,36 @@
<en>John goes to the market, and Alice goes to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here only a single sumti differs between the two bridi. Lojban does not require that both bridi be expressed in full. Instead, a single bridi can be given which contains both of the different sumti and uses a logical connective from a different selma'o to combine the two sumti:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-JTIm">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e6d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan .e la .alis. klama le zarci</jbo>
- <en>John and Alice go-to the market.</en>
+ <gloss>John and Alice go-to the market.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>A selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>.e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>transformation between forms</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-JTIm"/> means exactly the same thing as
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Ecnq"/>: one may be rigorously transformed into the other without any change of logical meaning. This rule is true in general for every different kind of logical connection in Lojban; all of them, with one exception (see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section12"/>), can always be transformed into a logical connection between sentences that expresses the same truth function.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>A selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>eks</primary><secondary>in sumti forethought logical connection</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti connection</primary><secondary>afterthought</secondary></indexterm> The afterthought logical connectives between sumti are eks, which contain a connective cmavo of selma'o A. If ijeks were used in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-JTIm"/>, the meaning would be changed:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7KHA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e6d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. .ije la .alis. klama le zarci</jbo>
- <en>John [is/does something]. And Alices goes-to the market.</en>
+ <gloss>John [is/does something]. And Alices goes-to the market.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>leaving the reader uncertain why John is mentioned at all.</para>
<para>Any ek may be used between sumti, even if there is no direct English equivalent:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-BDLS">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e6d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. .o la .alis. klama le zarci</jbo>
@@ -653,21 +653,21 @@
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>geks</primary><secondary>in forethought sumti connection</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti connection</primary><secondary>forethought</secondary></indexterm> What about forethought sumti connection? As is the case for bridi connection, geks are appropriate. They are not the only selma'o of forethought logical-connectives, but are the most commonly used ones.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-YEa4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e6d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ga la djan. gi la .alis. klama le zarci</jbo>
- <en>Either John or Alice (or both) goes-to the market.</en>
+ <gloss>Either John or Alice (or both) goes-to the market.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>A selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>se writing convention</primary><secondary>in eks</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>na writing convention</primary><secondary>in eks</secondary></indexterm> Of course, eks include all the same patterns of compound cmavo that ijeks do. When
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase> or
<quote>se</quote> is part of an ek, a special writing convention is invoked, as in the following example:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>A selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>na.a</primary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-caoY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e6d6"/>
</title>
@@ -690,46 +690,46 @@
<phrase role="logical-vowel">E</phrase>,
<phrase role="logical-vowel">O</phrase>, and
<phrase role="logical-vowel">U</phrase>, all but
<phrase role="logical-vowel">O</phrase> have the same truth values no matter how their component sentences are associated in pairs. Therefore,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9tHr">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e7d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi dotco .ije mi ricfu .ije mi nanmu</jbo>
- <en>I am-German. And I am-rich. And I am-a-man.</en>
+ <gloss>I am-German. And I am-rich. And I am-a-man.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means that all three component sentences are true. Likewise,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-MCsf">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e7d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi dotco .ija mi ricfu .ija mi nanmu</jbo>
- <en>I am-German. Or I am-rich. Or I am-a-man.</en>
+ <gloss>I am-German. Or I am-rich. Or I am-a-man.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means that one or more of the component sentences is true.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connectives</primary><secondary>equivalence relation on 3 sentences</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connectives</primary><secondary>non-associative</secondary></indexterm>
<phrase role="logical-vowel">O</phrase>, however, is different. Working out the truth table for</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3zE1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e7d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi dotco .ijo mi ricfu</jbo>
<gloss>.ijo mi nanmu</gloss>
<gloss>I am-German. If-and-only-if I am-rich.</gloss>
- <en>If-and-only-if I am-a-man.</en>
+ <gloss>If-and-only-if I am-a-man.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>shows that
<xref linkend="example-random-id-3zE1"/> does not mean that either I am all three of these things or none of them; instead, an accurate translation would be:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
Of the three properties - German-ness, wealth, and manhood - I possess either exactly one or else all three.
</programlisting>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>negation in connecting more than 2 sentences</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>of more than 2 sentences</secondary><tertiary>things to avoid</tertiary></indexterm> Because of the counterintuitiveness of this outcome, it is safest to avoid
<phrase role="logical-vowel">O</phrase> with more than two sentences. Likewise, the connectives which involve negation also have unexpected truth values when used with more than two sentences.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>of more than 2 sentences</secondary><tertiary>all or none</tertiary></indexterm> In fact, no combination of logical connectives can produce the
@@ -931,40 +931,40 @@
<xref linkend="example-random-id-erTb"/>, would seem to be the right approach. However, it is a rule of Lojban grammar that a sumti may not begin with
<quote>ke</quote>, so the first set of parentheses must be omitted, producing
<xref linkend="example-random-id-0mJM"/>, which is instead parallel to
<xref linkend="example-random-id-QGBz"/>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-0mJM">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e8d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi dzukla le zarci .e le zdani .a ke le ckule .e le briju [ke'e]</jbo>
- <en>I walk-to the market and the house or ( the school and the office ).</en>
+ <gloss>I walk-to the market and the house or ( the school and the office ).</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>KE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ke</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ke in sumti grouping</primary><secondary>where allowed</secondary></indexterm> If sumti were allowed to begin with
<quote>ke</quote>, unavoidable ambiguities would result, so
<quote>ke</quote> grouping of sumti is allowed only just after a logical connective. This rule does not apply to
<quote>tu'e</quote> grouping of bridi, as
<xref linkend="example-random-id-erTb"/> shows.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>German rich man</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> Now we have enough facilities to handle the problem of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-3zE1"/>:
<quote>I am German, rich, and a man - or else none of these.</quote> The following paraphrase has the correct meaning:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KyHw">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e8d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>[tu'e] mi dotco .ijo mi ricfu [tu'u]</jbo>
<gloss>.ije tu'e mi dotco .ijo mi nanmu [tu'u]</gloss>
<gloss>( I am-German if-and-only-if I am-rich )</gloss>
- <en>and (I am-German if-and-only-if I am-a-man ).</en>
+ <gloss>and (I am-German if-and-only-if I am-a-man ).</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The truth table, when worked out, produces T if and only if all three component sentences are true or all three are false.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section9">
<title>Compound bridi</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>of selbri</secondary></indexterm> So far we have seen how to handle two sentences that need have no similarity at all (bridi connection) and sentences that are identical except for a difference in one sumti (sumti connection). It would seem natural to ask how to logically connect sentences that are identical except for having different selbri.</para>
@@ -983,95 +983,95 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is equivalent in meaning to the compound bridi:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9H9e">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e9d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci gi'e nelci la djan.</jbo>
- <en>I go-to the market and like John.</en>
+ <gloss>I go-to the market and like John.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GIhA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>gi'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>compound bridi</primary><secondary>logical connection of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi-tail</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gihek</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> As
<xref linkend="example-random-id-9H9e"/> indicates, giheks are used in afterthought to create compound bridi;
<jbophrase>gi'e</jbophrase> is the gihek corresponding to
<quote>and</quote>. The actual phrases
<jbophrase>klama le zarci</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>nelci la djan.</jbophrase> that the gihek connects are known as
<quote>bridi-tails</quote>, because they represent (in this use) the
<quote>tail end</quote> of a bridi, including the selbri and any following sumti, but excluding any sumti that precede the selbri:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-F3RE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e9d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ricfu gi'e klama le zarci</jbo>
- <en>I am-rich and go-to the market.</en>
+ <gloss>I am-rich and go-to the market.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-F3RE"/>, the first bridi-tail is
<jbophrase>ricfu</jbophrase>, a simple selbri, and the second bridi-tail is
<jbophrase>klama le zarci</jbophrase>, a selbri with one following sumti.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>compound bridi</primary><secondary>more than one sumti in common</secondary></indexterm> Suppose that more than a single sumti is identical between the two sentences:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PRxj">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e9d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi dunda le cukta do .ije mi lebna lo rupnu do</jbo>
- <en>I give the book to-you, and I take some currency-units from-you.</en>
+ <gloss>I give the book to-you, and I take some currency-units from-you.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>compound bridi with more than one sumti in common</primary><secondary>with common sumti first</secondary></indexterm> In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-PRxj"/>, the first and last sumti of each bridi are identical; the selbri and the second sumti are different. By moving the final sumti to the beginning, a form analogous to
<xref linkend="example-random-id-9H9e"/> can be achieved:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Evo4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e9d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>fi do fa mi dunda le cukta gi'e lebna lo rupnu</jbo>
- <en>to/from you I give the book and take some currency-units.</en>
+ <gloss>to/from you I give the book and take some currency-units.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tail-terms</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connectives</primary><secondary>bridi-tail connection</secondary></indexterm> where the
<jbophrase>fi</jbophrase> does not have an exact English translation because it merely places
<jbophrase>do</jbophrase> in the third place of both
<jbophrase>lebna</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>dunda</jbophrase>. However, a form that preserves natural sumti order also exists in Lojban. Giheks connect two bridi-tails, but also allow sumti to be added following the bridi-tail. These sumti are known as tail-terms, and apply to both bridi. The straightforward gihek version of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-PRxj"/> therefore is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-DYBN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e9d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi dunda le cukta gi'e lebna lo rupnu vau do</jbo>
- <en>I (give the book) and (take some currency-units) to/from you.</en>
+ <gloss>I (give the book) and (take some currency-units) to/from you.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>VAU selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>vau</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi-tails</primary><secondary>eliding vau in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>compound bridi with more than one sumti in common</primary><secondary>with vau</secondary></indexterm> The
<quote>vau</quote> (of selma'o VAU) serves to separate the bridi-tail from the tail-terms. Every bridi-tail is terminated by an elidable
<quote>vau</quote>, but only in connection with compound bridi is it ever necessary to express this
<quote>vau</quote>. Thus:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-L3eN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e9d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci [vau]</jbo>
- <en>I go-to the market.</en>
+ <gloss>I go-to the market.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>has a single elided
<quote>vau</quote>, and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-9H9e"/> is equivalent to:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-RfIR">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e9d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1083,49 +1083,49 @@
<xref linkend="example-random-id-RfIR"/> terminates both the right-hand bridi-tail and the unexpressed tail-terms.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connectives</primary><secondary>observative sentence connection</secondary></indexterm> A final use of giheks is to combine bridi-tails used as complete sentences, the Lojban observative:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rvUD">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e9d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>klama le zarci gi'e dzukla le briju</jbo>
- <en>A goer to-the market and a walker to-the office.</en>
+ <gloss>A goer to-the market and a walker to-the office.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>of observatives</secondary><tertiary>relation of first places</tertiary></indexterm> Since x1 is omitted in both of the bridi underlying
<xref linkend="example-random-id-rvUD"/>, this compound bridi does not necessarily imply that the goer and the walker are the same. Only the presence of an explicit x1 (other than
<jbophrase>zo'e</jbophrase>, which is equivalent to omission) can force the goer and the walker to be identical.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relation of first places in logical connection of observatives</primary><secondary>rationale</secondary></indexterm> A strong argument for this convention is provided by analysis of the following example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-cBrg">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e9d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>klama la nu,IORK. la finyks. gi'e klama la nu,IORK. la rom.</jbo>
- <en>A goer to-New York from-Phoenix and a goer to-New York from-Rome.</en>
+ <gloss>A goer to-New York from-Phoenix and a goer to-New York from-Rome.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>If the rule were that the x1 places of the two underlying bridi were considered identical, then (since there is nothing special about x1), the unspecified x4 (route) and x5 (means) places would also have to be the same, leading to the absurd result that the route from Phoenix to New York is the same as the route from Rome to New York. Inserting
<jbophrase>da</jbophrase>, meaning roughly
<quote>something</quote>, into the x1 place cures the problem:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ij9G">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e9d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>da klama la nu,IORK. la finyks.</jbo>
<gloss>gi'e klama la nu,IORK. la rom.</gloss>
<gloss>Something is-a-goer to-New York from-Phoenix</gloss>
- <en>and is-a-goer to-New York from-Rome.</en>
+ <gloss>and is-a-goer to-New York from-Rome.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GIhA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>nai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>se</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>na</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>giheks</primary><secondary>syntax of</secondary></indexterm> The syntax of giheks is:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
[na] [se] GIhA [nai]
</programlisting>
<para>which is exactly parallel to the syntax of eks.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section10">
@@ -1148,21 +1148,21 @@
<quote>ke ... ke'e</quote> grouping can be used after giheks:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rH4n">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e10d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi dzukla le zarci gi'e dzukla le zdani</jbo>
<gloss>gi'a ke dzukla le ckule gi'e dzukla le briju [ke'e]</gloss>
<gloss>I walk-to the market and walk-to the house,</gloss>
- <en>or walk-to the school and walk-to the office.</en>
+ <gloss>or walk-to the school and walk-to the office.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>KEhE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ke</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>of bridi-tails</secondary><tertiary>restriction on ke</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple compound bridi</primary><secondary>restriction on ke</secondary></indexterm> is the gihek version of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-0mJM"/>. The same rule about using
<quote>ke ... ke'e</quote> bracketing only just after a connective applies to bridi-tails as to sumti, so the first two bridi-tails in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-rH4n"/> cannot be explicitly grouped; implicit left-grouping suffices to associate them.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>compound bridi</primary><secondary>separate tail-terms for bridi-tails</secondary></indexterm> Each of the pairs of bridi-tails joined by multiple giheks can have its own set of tail-terms:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1asY">
<title>
@@ -1176,21 +1176,21 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is equivalent in meaning to:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>owe money</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-901t">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e10d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi dejni lo rupnu nagi'a dunda gi'abo lebna vau le cukta vau la djan.</jbo>
- <en>[If] I owe some currency-units then (give or take) a book to/from John.</en>
+ <gloss>[If] I owe some currency-units then (give or take) a book to/from John.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The literal English translation in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-901t"/> is almost unintelligible, but the Lojban is perfectly grammatical.
<jbophrase>mi</jbophrase> fills the x1 place of all three selbri;
<jbophrase>lo rupnu</jbophrase> is the x2 of
<jbophrase>dejni</jbophrase>, whereas
<jbophrase>le cukta</jbophrase> is a tail-term shared between
<jbophrase>dunda</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>lebna</jbophrase>;
@@ -1198,21 +1198,21 @@
<jbophrase>dejni</jbophrase> and by
<jbophrase>dunda gi'abo lebna</jbophrase>. In this case, greater clarity is probably achieved by moving
<jbophrase>la djan.</jbophrase> to the beginning of the sentence, as in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Evo4"/>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7NnV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e10d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>fi la djan. fa mi dejni lo rupnu nagi'a dunda gi'abo lebna vau le cukta</jbo>
- <en>To/from John, [if] I owe some currency-units then [I] give or take the book.</en>
+ <gloss>To/from John, [if] I owe some currency-units then [I] give or take the book.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>of bridi-tails</secondary><tertiary>forethought</tertiary></indexterm> Finally, what about forethought logical connection of bridi-tails? There is no direct mechanism for the purpose. Instead, Lojban grammar allows a pair of forethought-connected sentences to function as a single bridi-tail, and of course the sentences need not have terms before their selbri. For example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4gJC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e10d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ge klama le zarci gi nelci la djan.</jbo>
<en>I both go to the market and like John.</en>
@@ -1232,44 +1232,44 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>negating a forethought-connected bridi-tail pair</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>negating a forethought-connected sentence pair</primary></indexterm> The entire gek-connected sentence pair may be negated as a whole by prefixing
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-DzgI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e10d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na ge klama le zarci gi dzukla le zdani</jbo>
- <en>[False!] I both go to the market and walk to the house.</en>
+ <gloss>[False!] I both go to the market and walk to the house.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>compound bridi</primary><secondary>separate tail-terms for forethought-connected bridi-tails</secondary></indexterm> Since a pair of sentences joined by geks is the equivalent of a bridi-tail, it may be followed by tail terms. The forethought equivalent of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-DYBN"/> is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-BUsi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e10d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ge dunda le cukta gi lebna lo rupnu vau do</jbo>
- <en>I both ( give the book ) and ( take some currency-units ) to/from you.</en>
+ <gloss>I both ( give the book ) and ( take some currency-units ) to/from you.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>forethought connection</primary><secondary>observatives</secondary></indexterm> Here is a pair of gek-connected observatives, a forethought equivalent of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-rvUD"/>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-C5Wc">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e10d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ge klama le zarci gi dzukla le briju</jbo>
- <en>Both a goer to-the market and a walker to-the office.</en>
+ <gloss>Both a goer to-the market and a walker to-the office.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Finally, here is an example of gek-connected sentences with both shared and unshared terms before their selbri:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-eJyK">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e10d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi gonai le zarci cu klama gi le bisli cu dansu</jbo>
<gloss>I either-but-not-both to-the office go or on-the ice dance.</gloss>
@@ -1306,94 +1306,94 @@
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>to the market from the office</primary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-UVPj">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e11d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci ce'e le briju pe'e je</jbo>
<gloss>le zdani ce'e le ckule</gloss>
<gloss>I go to-the market [plus] from-the office [joint] and</gloss>
- <en>to-the house [plus] from-the school.</en>
+ <gloss>to-the house [plus] from-the school.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The literal translation uses
<quote>[plus]</quote> to indicate the termset connective, and
<quote>[joint]</quote> to indicate the position of the logical connective joint. As usual, there is an equivalent bridi-connection form:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Bp2v">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e11d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci le briju .ije mi klama le zdani le ckule</jbo>
- <en>I go to-the market from-the office, and I go to-the house from-the school.</en>
+ <gloss>I go to-the market from-the office, and I go to-the house from-the school.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which illustrates that the two bridi differ in the x2 and x3 places only.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>termset logical connection</primary><secondary>unequal length</secondary></indexterm> What happens if the two joined sets of terms are of unequal length? Expanding to bridi connection will always make clear which term goes in which place of which bridi. It can happen that a sumti may fall in the x2 place of one bridi and the x3 place of another:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-yYsr">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e11d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pe'e ja do ce'e le zarci cu klama le briju</jbo>
- <en>I [joint] or you to-the market [plus] go to/from-the office.</en>
+ <gloss>I [joint] or you to-the market [plus] go to/from-the office.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>can be clearly understood by expansion to:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-NIuS">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e11d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le briju .ija do le zarci cu klama le briju</jbo>
- <en>I go to-the office, or you to-the market go from-the office.</en>
+ <gloss>I go to-the office, or you to-the market go from-the office.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>unequal termset connection</primary><secondary>compared with compound bridi connection with unequal separate bridi-tails</secondary></indexterm> So
<jbophrase>le briju</jbophrase> is your origin but my destination, and thus falls in the x2 and x3 places of
<jbophrase>klama</jbophrase> simultaneously! This is legal because even though there is only one selbri,
<jbophrase>klama</jbophrase>, there are two distinct bridi expressed here. In addition,
<jbophrase>mi</jbophrase> in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-yYsr"/> is serving as a termset containing only one term. An analogous paradox applies to compound bridi with tail-terms and unequal numbers of sumti within the connected bridi-tails:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-zsiy">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e11d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci gi'e dzukla vau le briju</jbo>
- <en>I ( go to-the market and walk ) to/from-the office.</en>
+ <gloss>I ( go to-the market and walk ) to/from-the office.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means that I go to the market from the office, and I walk to the office;
<jbophrase>le briju</jbophrase> is the x3 place of
<jbophrase>klama</jbophrase> and the x2 place of
<jbophrase>dzukla</jbophrase>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>NUhU selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>NUhI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>nu'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>nu'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>forethought termsets</primary><secondary>logical connection of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>of forethought termsets</secondary></indexterm> Forethought termsets also exist, and use
<quote>nu'i</quote> of selma'o NUhI to signal the beginning and
<quote>nu'u</quote> of selma'o NUhU (an elidable terminator) to signal the end. Nothing is inserted between the individual terms: they simply sit side-by-side. To make a logical connection in a forethought termset, use a gek, with the gek just after the
<quote>nu'i</quote>, and an extra
<quote>nu'u</quote> just before the gik:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KeLv">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e11d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama nu'i ge le zarci le briju</jbo>
<gloss>nu'u gi le zdani le ckule [nu'u]</gloss>
<gloss>I go [start termset] both to-the market from-the office</gloss>
- <en>[joint] and to-the house from-the school [end termset].</en>
+ <gloss>[joint] and to-the house from-the school [end termset].</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that even though two termsets are being connected, only one
<quote>nu'i</quote> is used.</para>
<para>The grammatical uses of termsets that do not contain logical connectives are explained in
<xref linkend="chapter-lujvo"/> and
<xref linkend="chapter-quantifiers"/>.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section12">
<title>Logical connection within tanru</title>
@@ -1404,30 +1404,30 @@
<jbophrase>blanu je bolci</jbophrase>, using a jek connective within the tanru. (We saw jeks used in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section11"/> also, but there they were always prefixed by
<quote>pe'e</quote>; in this section they are used alone.) Here is a pair of examples:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qGoH" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e12d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti blanu zdani</jbo>
- <en>This is-a-blue type-of house.</en>
+ <gloss>This is-a-blue type-of house.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qgoW" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e12d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti blanu je zdani</jbo>
- <en>This is-blue and a-house.</en>
+ <gloss>This is-blue and a-house.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>blue house</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>unconnected tanru</primary><secondary>contrasted with logically connected version</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>in tanru</secondary><tertiary>contrasted with unconnected version</tertiary></indexterm> But of course
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qGoH"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qgoW"/> are not necessarily equivalent in meaning! It is the most elementary point about Lojban tanru that
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qGoH"/> might just as well mean</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-DxVB">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e12d3"/>
</title>
@@ -1458,36 +1458,36 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>the rule of expansion into separate bridi simply does not always work for tanru connection. Supposing Alice to be a person who lives in blue houses, then</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-DG5K">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e12d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .alis. cu blanu je zdani prenu</jbo>
- <en>Alice is-a ( blue and house ) type-of-person.</en>
+ <gloss>Alice is-a ( blue and house ) type-of-person.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<indexterm type="general">
<primary>tanru grouping</primary>
<secondary>effect of jeks</secondary>
</indexterm>
would be true, because tanru grouping with a jek has higher precedence than unmarked tanru grouping, but:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-eh2i">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e12d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .alis. cu blanu prenu .ije la .alis. cu zdani prenu</jbo>
- <en>Alice is-a blue person, and Alice is-a house person.</en>
+ <gloss>Alice is-a blue person, and Alice is-a house person.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is probably false, because the blueness is associated with the house, not with Alice, even leaving aside the question of what it means to say
<quote>Alice is a blue person</quote>. (Perhaps she belongs to the Blue team, or is wearing blue clothes.) The semantic ambiguity of tanru make such logical manipulations impossible.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>BO selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>bo</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>in tanru</secondary><tertiary>grouping with bo</tertiary></indexterm> It suffices to note here, then, a few purely grammatical points about tanru logical connection.
<quote>bo</quote> may be appended to jeks as to eks, with the same rules:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-RNMY">
<title>
@@ -1542,21 +1542,21 @@
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GUhA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru connection grouping</primary><secondary>guheks unmarked tanru</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru grouping</primary><secondary>guheks compared with jeks</secondary></indexterm>
Note that giks are used with guheks in exactly the same way they are used with geks. Like jeks, guheks bind more closely than unmarked tanru grouping does:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Gyrc">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e12d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .alis. gu'e blanu gi zdani prenu</jbo>
- <en>Alice is-a-(both blue and a-house) type-of-person.</en>
+ <gloss>Alice is-a-(both blue and a-house) type-of-person.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is the forethought version of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-DG5K"/>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti logical connection</primary><secondary>contrasted with tanru logical connection</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru logical connection</primary><secondary>contrasted with sumti logical connection</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>reducing logically connected sumti to</secondary><tertiary>caveat</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>of tanru</secondary><tertiary>caveat</tertiary></indexterm> A word of caution about the use of logically connected tanru within descriptions. English-based intuition can lead the speaker astray. In correctly reducing</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-8wbd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e12d12"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1612,21 +1612,21 @@
<quote>Is is true that</quote> to the beginning of a statement; there is also usually a more idiomatic way involving putting the verb before its subject.
<quote>Is Fido a dog?</quote> is the truth question corresponding to
<quote>Fido is a dog</quote>. In Lojban, the equivalent mechanism is to prefix the cmavo
<jbophrase>xu</jbophrase> (of selma'o UI) to the statement:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gKaM">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xu la faidon. gerku</jbo>
- <en>Is-it-true-that Fido is-a-dog?</en>
+ <gloss>Is-it-true-that Fido is-a-dog?</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-bMjE"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-gKaM"/> are equivalent in meaning.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>truth questions</primary><secondary>answering "no"</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>truth questions</primary><secondary>answering "yes"</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>truth questions</primary><secondary>as yes-or-no questions</secondary></indexterm> A truth question can be answered
<quote>yes</quote> or
<jbophrase>no</jbophrase>, depending on the truth or falsity, respectively, of the underlying statement. The standard way of saying
<quote>yes</quote> in Lojban is
<jbophrase>go'i</jbophrase> and of saying
@@ -1677,21 +1677,21 @@
</example>
<para>By translating
<xref linkend="example-random-id-n6Ec"/> into Lojban and prefixing
<jbophrase>xu</jbophrase> to signal a truth question, we get:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hz4S">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xu la faidon. gerku gi'onai mlatu</jbo>
- <en>Is-it-true-that Fido is-a-dog or is-a-cat (but not both)?</en>
+ <gloss>Is-it-true-that Fido is-a-dog or is-a-cat (but not both)?</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Given that Fido really is either a dog or a cat, the appropriate answer would be
<jbophrase>go'i</jbophrase>; if Fido were a fish, the appropriate answer would be
<jbophrase>nago'i</jbophrase>.</para>
<para>But that is not what an English-speaker who utters
<xref linkend="example-random-id-mftC"/> is asking! The true significance of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-mftC"/> is that the speaker desires to know the truth value of either of the two underlying bridi (it is presupposed that only one is true).</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>questions</primary><secondary>connection</secondary></indexterm> Lojban has an elegant mechanism for rendering this kind of question which is very unlike that used in English. Instead of asking about the truth value of the connected bridi, Lojban users ask about the truth function which connects them. This is done by using a special question cmavo: there is one of these for each of the logical connective selma'o, as shown by the following table:</para>
@@ -1734,21 +1734,21 @@
<jbophrase>.i</jbophrase> were not available, and different cmavo had to be chosen. This table must simply be memorized, like most other non-connective cmavo assignments.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>connective questions</primary><secondary>answering</secondary></indexterm> One correct translation of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-mftC"/> employs a question gihek:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-G1Xs">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .alis gerku gi'i mlatu</jbo>
- <en>Alice is-a-dog [truth function?] is-a-cat?</en>
+ <gloss>Alice is-a-dog [truth function?] is-a-cat?</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here are some plausible answers:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qGPp" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>nagi'e</jbo>
<en>Alice is not a dog and is a cat.</en>
@@ -1815,21 +1815,21 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d14"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do djica tu'a</jbo>
<gloss>ge'i loi ckafi</gloss>
<gloss>gi loi tcati</gloss>
<gloss>You desire something-about</gloss>
<gloss>[truth function?] a-mass-of coffee</gloss>
- <en>[or] a-mass-of tea?</en>
+ <gloss>[or] a-mass-of tea?</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>the answer must be in afterthought form.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>connective questions</primary><secondary>compared with other languages</secondary></indexterm> There are natural languages, notably Chinese, which employ the Lojbanic form of connective question. The Chinese sentence</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-HyVv">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d15"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ni</jbo>
@@ -1837,21 +1837,21 @@
</example>
<para>means
<quote>Do you walk or run?</quote>, and is exactly parallel to the Lojban:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3jIq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d16"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do cadzu gi'i bajra</jbo>
- <en>You walk [or?] run?</en>
+ <gloss>You walk [or?] run?</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>connective question answers</primary><secondary>contrasted with other languages</secondary></indexterm> However, Chinese does not use logical connectives in the reply to such a question, so the resemblance, though striking, is superficial.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>if coffee</primary><secondary>bring tea</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Abraham Lincoln</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>imperatives</primary><secondary>and truth</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>truth</primary><secondary>in imperative sentences</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi connection</primary><secondary>use of imperatives in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi connection</primary><secondary>use of truth questions in</secondary></indexterm> Truth questions may be used in bridi connection. This form of sentence is perfectly legitimate, and can be interpreted by using the convention that a truth question is true if the answer is
<quote>yes</quote> and false if the answer is
<jbophrase>no</jbophrase>. Analogously, an imperative sentence (involving the special pro-sumti
<jbophrase>ko</jbophrase>, which means
<quote>you</quote> but marks the sentence as a command) is true if the command is obeyed, and false otherwise. A request of Abraham Lincoln's may be translated thus:</para>
@@ -1904,38 +1904,38 @@
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JOI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>joi</primary></indexterm> which would mean that each of them carried the piano by himself/herself. Lojban deals with this particular linguistic phenomenon as a
<quote>mass</quote>. John and Alice are joined together into a mass, John-and-Alice, and it is this mass which carried the piano, not either of them separately. The cmavo
<jbophrase>joi</jbophrase> (of selma'o JOI) is used to join two or more components into a mass:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pC5x">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. joi la .alis. cu bevri le pipno</jbo>
- <en>John massed-with Alice carry the piano.</en>
+ <gloss>John massed-with Alice carry the piano.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>components contrasted with mass</primary><secondary>in properties of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mass contrasted with components</primary><secondary>in properties of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>supervising</primary><secondary>as a contribution to mass action</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-pC5x"/> covers the case mentioned, where John and Alice divide the labor; it also could mean that John did all the hauling and Alice did the supervising. This possibility arises because the properties of a mass are the properties of its components, which can lead to apparent contradictions: if John is small and Alice is large, then John-and-Alice is both small and large. Masses are also discussed in
<xref linkend="chapter-sumti"/>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>A selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JOI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-logical connection</primary><secondary>in tanru</secondary><tertiary>distinguishing from connection of sumti</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-logical connection</primary><secondary>of sumti</secondary><tertiary>distinguishing from connection in tanru</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>joi grammar</primary><secondary>contrasted with jeks</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>joi grammar</primary><secondary>contrasted with eks</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-logical connection</primary><secondary>and elidability of terminators</secondary></indexterm> Grammatically,
<jbophrase>joi</jbophrase> can appear between two sumti (like an ek) or between two tanru components (like a jek). This flexibility must be paid for in the form of occasional terminators that cannot be elided:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>LE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>KU selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>le</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ku</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>terminators</primary><secondary>eliding ku in non-logical connections</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-NN93">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu ku joi le ninmu [ku] cu klama le zarci</jbo>
- <en>The man massed-with the woman go-to the market.</en>
+ <gloss>The man massed-with the woman go-to the market.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>ku</quote> is the elidable terminator for
<quote>le</quote>, which can almost always be elided, but not in this case. If the first
<quote>ku</quote> were elided here, Lojban's parsing rules would see
<quote>le nanmu joi</quote> and assume that another tanru component is to follow; since the second
<quote>le</quote> cannot be part of a tanru, a parsing error results. No such problem can occur with logical connectives, because an ek signals a following sumti and a jek a following tanru component unambiguously.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JOI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>joik</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> Single or compound cmavo involving members of selma'o JOI are called joiks, by analogy with the names for logical connectives. It is not grammatical to use joiks to connect bridi-tails.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>blue and red</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>mixed with</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru connection</primary><secondary>connotation of non-logical</secondary></indexterm> In tanru,
@@ -2026,63 +2026,63 @@
<jbophrase>jo'u</jbophrase> serves as a fourth element in this pattern: the sumti connected are individuals, and the result is still individuals - but inseparably so. The normal Lojban way of saying that James and George are brothers is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sy2V">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djeimyz. bruna la djordj.</jbo>
- <en>James is-the-brother-of George.</en>
+ <gloss>James is-the-brother-of George.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>brothers</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> possibly adding a discursive element meaning
<quote>and vice versa</quote>. However,
<quote>James and George are brothers</quote> cannot be correctly translated as:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1PHN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djeimyz. .e la djordj. bruna</jbo>
- <en>James and George is-a-brother.</en>
+ <gloss>James and George is-a-brother.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>since that expands to two bridi and means that James is a brother and so is George, but not necessarily of each other. If the
<jbophrase>.e</jbophrase> is changed to
<jbophrase>jo'u</jbophrase>, however, the meaning of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-sy2V"/> is preserved:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gnwy">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djeimyz. jo'u la djordj. cu remei bruna</jbo>
- <en>James in-common-with George are-a-twosome type-of-brothers.</en>
+ <gloss>James in-common-with George are-a-twosome type-of-brothers.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The tanru
<jbophrase>remei bruna</jbophrase> is not strictly necessary in this sentence, but is used to make clear that we are not saying that James and George are both brothers of some third person not specified. Alternatively, we could turn the tanru around: the x1 place of
<jbophrase>remei</jbophrase> is a mass with two components, leading to:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-t0FJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djeimyz. joi la djordj. cu bruna remei</jbo>
- <en>James massed-with George are-a-brother type-of-twosome.</en>
+ <gloss>James massed-with George are-a-brother type-of-twosome.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>joi</primary></indexterm> where
<jbophrase>joi</jbophrase> is used to create the necessary mass.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>fa'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>respectively</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>respectively</primary><secondary>specifying with fa'u</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>connection</primary><secondary>non-distributed</secondary></indexterm> Likewise,
<jbophrase>fa'u</jbophrase> can be used to put two individuals together where order matters. Typically, there will be another
<jbophrase>fa'u</jbophrase> somewhere else in the same bridi:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-MBsp">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d12"/>
@@ -2122,32 +2122,32 @@
<para>which represents quite a different state of affairs from
<xref linkend="example-random-id-MBsp"/>. The meaning of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-MBsp"/> can also be conveyed by a termset:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nER7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d15"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djeimyz. ce'e la meris. pe'e .e la djordj. ce'e la martas. prami</jbo>
- <en>James [plus] Mary [joint] and George [plus] Martha loves.</en>
+ <gloss>James [plus] Mary [joint] and George [plus] Martha loves.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>termsets</primary><secondary>compared to fa'u</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fa'u</primary><secondary>compared to termsets</secondary></indexterm> at the expense of re-ordering the list of names so as to make the pairs explicit. This option is not available when one of the lists is only described rather than enumerated:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1r61">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d16"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djeimyz. fa'u la djordj. prami re mensi</jbo>
- <en>James and-respectively George love two sisters.</en>
+ <gloss>James and-respectively George love two sisters.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which conveys that James loves one sister and George the other, though we are not able to tell which of the sisters is which.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section15">
<title>More about non-logical connectives</title>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>pi'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ku'a</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>jo'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cross-product</primary><secondary>of sets</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>intersection</primary><secondary>of sets</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>union</primary><secondary>of sets</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>set operations</primary></indexterm> The final three JOI cmavo,
<jbophrase>jo'e</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>ku'a</jbophrase>, and
@@ -2165,107 +2165,107 @@
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qGSA" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e15d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo'i ricfu ku jo'e lo'i dotco cu barda</jbo>
- <en>The-set-of rich-things union the-set-of German-things is large.</en>
+ <gloss>The-set-of rich-things union the-set-of German-things is large.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qgSe" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e15d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo'i ricfu ku ku'a lo'i dotco cu cmalu</jbo>
- <en>The set-of rich-things intersection the-set-of German-things is small.</en>
+ <gloss>The set-of rich-things intersection the-set-of German-things is small.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>rich and German</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>intersection of sets</primary><secondary>compared with and</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>union of sets</primary><secondary>compared with or</secondary></indexterm> There is a parallelism between logic and set theory that makes
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qGSA"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qgSe"/> equivalent respectively to:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-azCQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e15d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo'i ricfu ja dotco cu barda</jbo>
- <en>The-set-of rich-or-German-things is large.</en>
+ <gloss>The-set-of rich-or-German-things is large.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-QjD7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e15d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo'i ricfu je dotco cu cmalu</jbo>
- <en>The-set-of rich-and-German-things is small.</en>
+ <gloss>The-set-of rich-and-German-things is small.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The following example uses
<jbophrase>se remei</jbophrase>, which is a set (not a mass) of two elements:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-D9gz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e15d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djeimyz. ce[bo] la djordj. pi'u la meris. cebo la martas.</jbo>
<gloss>cu prami se remei</gloss>
<gloss>James and-set George cross-product Mary and-set Martha</gloss>
- <en>are-lover type-of-pairs.</en>
+ <gloss>are-lover type-of-pairs.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>and</primary><secondary>contrasted with cross-product</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cross-product</primary><secondary>contrasted with and</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>e</primary><secondary>contrasted with pi'u</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pi'u</primary><secondary>contrasted with .e</secondary></indexterm> means that each of the pairs James/Mary, George/Mary, James/Martha, and George/Martha love each other. Therefore it is similar in meaning to
<xref linkend="example-random-id-7bv3"/>; however, that example speaks only of the men loving the women, not vice versa.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JOI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-logical connectives</primary><secondary>grouping</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>joiks</primary><secondary>grouping</secondary></indexterm> Joiks may be combined with
<quote>bo</quote> or with
<quote>ke</quote> in the same way as eks and jeks; this allows grouping of non-logical connections between sumti and tanru units, in complete parallelism with logical connections:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mwpo">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e15d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi joibo do ce la djan. joibo la djein.</jbo>
<gloss>cu gunma se remei</gloss>
<gloss>(I massed-with you) and (John massed-with Jane)</gloss>
- <en>are-a-mass type-of-two-set</en>
+ <gloss>are-a-mass type-of-two-set</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>asserts that there is a set of two items each of which is a mass.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>termsets</primary><secondary>non-logical connection of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-logical connection</primary><secondary>of termsets</secondary></indexterm> Non-logical connection is permitted at the joint of a termset; this is useful for associating more than one sumti or tagged sumti with each side of the non-logical connection. The place structure of
<jbophrase>casnu</jbophrase> is:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
casnu: the mass x1 discusses/talks about x2
</programlisting>
<para>so the x1 place must be occupied by a mass (for reasons not explained here); however, different components of the mass may discuss in different languages. To associate each participant with his or her language, we can say:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>discuss in language</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sdba">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e15d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ce'e bau la lojban.</jbo>
<gloss>pe'e joi do ce'e bau la gliban. nu'u casnu</gloss>
<gloss>( I [plus] in-language Lojban</gloss>
- <en>massed-with you [plus] in-language English ) discuss.</en>
+ <gloss>massed-with you [plus] in-language English ) discuss.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Like all non-logical connectives, the usage shown in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-sdba"/> cannot be mechanically converted into a non-logical connective placed at another location in the bridi. The forethought equivalent of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-sdba"/> is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-DgXI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e15d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -2334,21 +2334,21 @@
<quote>Fran fell out of the boat</quote> with
<jbophrase>.ijoi</jbophrase>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>nai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>scalar negation of non-logical connective</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-logical connectives</primary><secondary>effect of nai on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>joiks</primary><secondary>effect of nai on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>nai</primary><secondary>effect on joiks</secondary></indexterm> The following
<jbophrase>nai</jbophrase>, if present, does not negate either of the things to be connected, but instead specifies that some other connection (logical or non-logical) is applicable: it is a scalar negation:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mMdb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e15d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi jo'unai do cu remei</jbo>
- <en>I in-common-with [not!] you are-a-twosome</en>
+ <gloss>I in-common-with [not!] you are-a-twosome</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The result of
<jbophrase>mi jo'u do</jbophrase> would be two individuals, not a mass, therefore
<jbophrase>jo'u</jbophrase> is not applicable;
<jbophrase>joi</jbophrase> would be the correct connective.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>connective answers</primary><secondary>non-logical</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>connective questions</primary><secondary>non-logical</secondary></indexterm> There is no joik question cmavo as such; however, joiks and ijoiks may be uttered in isolation in response to a logical connective question, as in the following exchange:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qGSm" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
@@ -2428,21 +2428,21 @@
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-rYv4"/> is equivalent to:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>sebi'o</primary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-qqIr">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e16d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cadzu ca la recac. sebi'o la pacac.</jbo>
- <en>I walk simultaneous-with Second-hour [reverse] [ordered] First-hour.</en>
+ <gloss>I walk simultaneous-with Second-hour [reverse] [ordered] First-hour.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>English cannot readily express
<jbophrase>sebi'o</jbophrase>, but its meaning can be understood by reversing the two sumti.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>mi'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>intervals</primary><secondary>expressed as center and distance</secondary></indexterm> The third cmavo of selma'o BIhI, namely
<jbophrase>mi'i</jbophrase>, expresses an interval seen from a different viewpoint: not a pair of endpoints, but a center point and a distance. For example:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>bomb destroyed fifty miles</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-wm5E">
@@ -2558,21 +2558,21 @@
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>joigiks</primary><secondary>connection types</secondary></indexterm> Joigiks may be used to non-logically connect bridi, sumti, and bridi-tails; and also in termsets.</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-pC5x"/> in forethought becomes:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>carry the piano</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-iBpP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e16d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>joigi la djan. gi la .alis. bevri le pipno</jbo>
- <en>[Together] John and Alice carry the piano.</en>
+ <gloss>[Together] John and Alice carry the piano.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The first
<quote>gi</quote> is part of the joigik; the second
<quote>gi</quote> is the regular gik that separates the two things being connected in all forethought forms.</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qGtv"/> can be expressed in forethought as:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-u51K">
@@ -2605,34 +2605,34 @@
<para>Only a few examples of each kind of mekso connection will be given. Despite the large number of rules required to support this feature, it is of relatively minor importance in either the mekso or the logical-connective scheme of things. These examples are drawn from
<xref linkend="chapter-mekso"/>, and contain many mekso features not explained in this chapter.</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-gMU4"/> exhibits afterthought logical connection between operands:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gMU4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e17d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>vei ci .a vo [ve'o] prenu cu klama le zarci</jbo>
- <en>( Three or four ) people go-to the market.</en>
+ <gloss>( Three or four ) people go-to the market.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>three of four people</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-ftNY"/> is equivalent in meaning, but uses forethought connection:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ftNY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e17d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>vei ga ci gi vo [ve'o] prenu cu klama le zarci</jbo>
- <en>( Either 3 or 4 ) people go-to the market.</en>
+ <gloss>( Either 3 or 4 ) people go-to the market.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ve'o</primary></indexterm> Note that the mekso in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-gMU4"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-ftNY"/> are being used as quantifiers. Lojban requires that any mekso other than a simple number be enclosed in
<quote>vei</quote> and
<quote>ve'o</quote> parentheses when used as a quantifier. The right parenthesis mark,
<quote>ve'o</quote>, is an elidable terminator.</para>
<para>Simple examples of logical connection between operators are hard to come by. A contrived example is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-dCxf">
@@ -2763,39 +2763,39 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The verbatim translation of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-efav"/>, namely:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PMTu">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e18d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu klama le zarci .ije mi pu tervecnu lo cidja</jbo>
- <en>I [past] go-to the market. And I [past] buy items-of food.</en>
+ <gloss>I [past] go-to the market. And I [past] buy items-of food.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>fails to fully represent a feature of the English, namely that the buying came after the going. (It also fails to represent that the buying was a consequence of the going, which can be expressed by a modal that is discussed in
<xref linkend="chapter-sumti-tcita"/>.) However, the tense information - that the event of my going to the market preceded the event of my buying food - can be added to the logical connective as follows. The
<jbophrase>.ije</jbophrase> is replaced by
<jbophrase>.ijebo</jbophrase>, and the tense cmavo
<jbophrase>ba</jbophrase> is inserted between
<jbophrase>.ije</jbophrase> and
<quote>bo</quote>:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ba</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>.ijebabo</primary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-BPG1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e18d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu klama le zarci .ijebabo mi pu tervecnu lo cidja</jbo>
- <en>I [past] go-to the market. And [later] I [past] buy items-of food.</en>
+ <gloss>I [past] go-to the market. And [later] I [past] buy items-of food.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the
<jbophrase>pu</jbophrase> cmavo in the two bridi-tails express the time of both actions with respect to the speaker: in the past. The
<jbophrase>ba</jbophrase> relates the two items to one another: the second item is later than the first item. The grammar does not permit omitting the
<quote>bo</quote>; if it were omitted, the
<jbophrase>ba</jbophrase> and the second
<jbophrase>pu</jbophrase> would run together to form a compound tense
@@ -2937,21 +2937,21 @@
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qGVP"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qgVR"/> are equivalent in meaning:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qGVP" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e19d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ka la frank. ciska cu xlali .ije le ni la frank. ciska cu xlali</jbo>
- <en>The quality-of Frank's writing is bad, and the quantity of Frank's writing is bad.</en>
+ <gloss>The quality-of Frank's writing is bad, and the quantity of Frank's writing is bad.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qgVR" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e19d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ka je ni la frank. ciska cu xlali</jbo>
<en>The quality and quantity of Frank's writing is bad.</en>
@@ -2971,21 +2971,21 @@
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Jupiter life</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> is true, since the embedded sentence is a tautology, but:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-X69J">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e19d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi jinvi le du'u loi jmive cu zvati la .iupiter.</jbo>
<gloss>.ijonai mi jinvi le du'u loi jmive cu zvati la .iupiter.</gloss>
<gloss>I opine the fact-that a-mass-of living-things is-at Jupiter</gloss>
- <en>or-else I opine the fact-that a-mass-of living-things isn't-at Jupiter</en>
+ <gloss>or-else I opine the fact-that a-mass-of living-things isn't-at Jupiter</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is false, since I have no evidence one way or the other (
<jbophrase>jinvi</jbophrase> requires some sort of evidence, real or fancied, unlike
<jbophrase>krici</jbophrase>).</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section20">
<title>Constructs and appropriate connectives</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>connectives</primary><secondary>table by constructs connected</secondary></indexterm> The following table specifies, for each kind of construct that can be logically or non-logically connected in Lojban, what kind of connective is required for both afterthought and (when possible) forethought modes. An asterisk (*) indicates that tensed connection is permitted.</para>
<para>A dash indicates that connection of the specified type is not possible.</para>
diff --git a/todocbook/15.xml b/todocbook/15.xml
index 61e294b..57d06ea 100644
--- a/todocbook/15.xml
+++ b/todocbook/15.xml
@@ -148,31 +148,31 @@
<para>The most important rule about bridi negation is that if a bridi is true, its negation is false, and vice versa.</para>
<para>The simplest way to express a bridi negation is to use the cmavo
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase> of selma'o NA before the selbri of the affirmative form of the bridi (but after the
<quote>cu</quote>, if there is one):</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7nrv">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci</jbo>
- <en>I go-to the store.</en>
+ <gloss>I go-to the store.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>when negated becomes:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-bV3b">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na klama le zarci</jbo>
- <en>I [false] go-to the store.</en>
+ <gloss>I [false] go-to the store.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that we have used a special convention to show in the English that a bridi negation is present. We would like to use the word
<quote>not</quote>, because this highlights the naturalness of putting the negation marker just before the selbri, and makes the form easier to learn. But there is a major difference between Lojban's bridi negation with
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase> and natural language negation with
<quote>not</quote>. In English, the word
<quote>not</quote> can apply to a single word, to a phrase, to an English predicate, or to the entire sentence. In addition,
<quote>not</quote> may indicate either contradictory negation or another form of negation, depending on the sentence. Lojban's internal bridi negation, on the other hand, always applies to an entire bridi, and is always a contradictory negation; that is, it contradicts the claim of the whole bridi.</para>
<para>Because of the ambiguity of English
@@ -268,32 +268,32 @@
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase> inside a tanru. In fact, the grammar currently does not allow you to do so (except in a lujvo and in elaborate constructs involving GUhA, the forethought connector for selbri). Any situation where you might want to do so can be expressed in a less-compressed non-tanru form. This grammatical restriction helps ensure that bridi negation is kept separate from other forms of negation.</para>
<para>The grammar of
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase> allows multiple adjacent negations, which cancel out, as in normal logic:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-RJKu">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti na na barda prenu co melbi mi</jbo>
- <en>This [false] [false] is-a-big person that is (beautiful to me).</en>
+ <gloss>This [false] [false] is-a-big person that is (beautiful to me).</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which is the same as:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2UpW">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d12"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti barda prenu co melbi mi</jbo>
- <en>This is a big-person that is (beautiful to me).</en>
+ <gloss>This is a big-person that is (beautiful to me).</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>When a selbri is tagged with a tense or a modal, negation with
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase> is permitted in two positions: before or after the tag. No semantic difference between these forms has yet been defined, but this is not finally determined, since the interactions between tenses/modals and bridi negation have not been fully explored. In particular, it remains to be seen whether sentences using less familiar tenses, such as:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-fgmv">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d13"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi [cu] ta'e klama le zarci</jbo>
@@ -584,21 +584,21 @@
<jbo>mi klama le zarci</jbo>
<en>I go to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qH4n" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na'e klama le zarci</jbo>
- <en>I non-go to the market.</en>
+ <gloss>I non-go to the market.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Comparing these two, we see that the negation operator being used in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qH4n"/> is
<quote>na'e</quote>. But what exactly does
<quote>na'e</quote> negate? Does the negation include only the gismu
@@ -607,56 +607,56 @@
<quote>only the gismu</quote>. The cmavo
<quote>na'e</quote> always applies only to what follows it.</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qH4n"/> looks as if it were parallel to:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-tqX1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na klama le zarci</jbo>
- <en>I [false] go-to the market.</en>
+ <gloss>I [false] go-to the market.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>but in fact there is no real parallelism at all. A negation using
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase> denies the truth of a relationship, but a selbri negation with
<quote>na'e</quote> asserts that a relationship exists other than that stated, one which specifically involves the sumti identified in the statement. The grammar allotted to
<quote>na'e</quote> allows us to unambiguously express scalar negations in terms of scope, scale, and range within the scale. Before we explain the scalar aspects, let us show how the scope of
<quote>na'e</quote> is determined.</para>
<para>In tanru, we may wish to negate an individual element before combining it with another to form the tanru. We in effect need a shorter-than-selbri-scope negation, for which we can use
<quote>na'e</quote> as well. The positive sentence</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ETuV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cadzu klama le zarci</jbo>
- <en>I walking-ly go to the market.</en>
+ <gloss>I walking-ly go to the market.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>can be subjected to selbri negation in several ways. Two are:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qh4w" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na'e cadzu klama le zarci</jbo>
- <en>I (other-than-walkingly)-go-to the market.</en>
+ <gloss>I (other-than-walkingly)-go-to the market.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qH6w" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cadzu na'e klama le zarci</jbo>
- <en>I walkingly-(other-than-go-to) the market.</en>
+ <gloss>I walkingly-(other-than-go-to) the market.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>These negations show the default scope of
<quote>na'e</quote> is close-binding on an individual brivla in a tanru.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qh4w"/> says that I am going to the market, but in some kind of a non-walking manner. (As with most tanru, there are a few other possible interpretations, but we'll assume this one - see
<xref linkend="chapter-selbri"/> for a discussion of tanru meaning).</para>
<para>In neither
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qh4w"/> nor
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qH6w"/> does the
@@ -670,78 +670,78 @@
<jbophrase>mo</jbophrase> question must be plausible - the result must not only have the right number of places and have sumti values appropriate to the place structure, it must also be appropriate or relevant to the context.) This minimal condition allows a speaker to be intentionally vague, while still communicating meaningful information. The speaker who uses selbri negation is denying one relationship, while minimally asserting a different relationship.</para>
<para>We also need a scalar negation form that has a scope longer than a single brivla. There exists such a longer-scope selbri negation form, as exemplified by (each Lojban sentence in the next several examples is given twice, with parentheses in the second copy showing the scope of the
<quote>na'e</quote>):</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-t20b">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na'eke cadzu klama [ke'e] le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>mi na'e (ke cadzu klama [ke'e]) le zarci</gloss>
- <en>I other-than-(walkingly-go-to) the market.</en>
+ <gloss>I other-than-(walkingly-go-to) the market.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This negation uses the same
<quote>ke</quote> and
<quote>ke'e</quote> delimiters (the
<quote>ke'e</quote> is always elidable at the end of a selbri) that are used in tanru. The sentence clearly negates the entire selbri. The
<quote>ke'e</quote>, whether elided or not, reminds us that the negation does not include the trailing sumti. While the trailing-sumti place-structure is defined as that of the final brivla, the trailing sumti themselves are not part of the selbri and are thus not negated by
<quote>na'e</quote>.</para>
<para>Negations of just part of the selbri are also permitted:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PVct">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na'eke sutra cadzu ke'e klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>mi na'e (ke sutra cadzu ke'e) klama le zarci</gloss>
- <en>I other-than-(quickly-walkingly) go-to the market.</en>
+ <gloss>I other-than-(quickly-walkingly) go-to the market.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-PVct"/>, only the
<jbophrase>sutra cadzu</jbophrase> tanru is negated, so the speaker is indeed going to the market, but not by walking quickly.</para>
<para>Negations made with
<quote>na'e</quote> or
<quote>na'eke</quote> also include within their scope any sumti attached to the brivla or tanru with
<quote>be</quote> or
<quote>bei</quote>. Such attached sumti are considered part of the brivla or tanru:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-MYYa">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be le mi birka ke'e klama le zarci</jbo>
- <en>I other-than-(quickly walking-on-my-arms-ly) go-to the market.</en>
+ <gloss>I other-than-(quickly walking-on-my-arms-ly) go-to the market.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qh7T"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qH8J"/> do not express the same thing:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qh7T" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na'eke sutra cadzu [ke'e] lemi birka</jbo>
<gloss>mi na'e (ke sutra cadzu [ke'e]) lemi birka</gloss>
- <en>I other-than-(quickly-walk-on) my-arms.</en>
+ <gloss>I other-than-(quickly-walk-on) my-arms.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qH8J" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na'eke sutra cadzu be lemi birka [ke'e]</jbo>
<gloss>mi na'e (ke sutra cadzu be lemi birka [ke'e])</gloss>
- <en>I other-than-(quickly-walk-on my-arms).</en>
+ <gloss>I other-than-(quickly-walk-on my-arms).</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The translations show that the negation in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qh7T"/> is more restricted in scope; i.e. less of the sentence is negated with respect to x1 (
<jbophrase>mi</jbophrase>).</para>
<para>Logical scope being an important factor in Lojban's claims to be unambiguous, let us indicate the relative precedence of
<quote>na'e</quote> as an operator. Grouping with
<quote>ke</quote> and
<quote>ke'e</quote>, of course, has an overt scope, which is its advantage.
<quote>na'e</quote> is very close binding to its brivla. Internal binding of tanru, with
@@ -786,30 +786,30 @@
<quote>other than</quote>,
<quote>non-</quote>, or another negator for
<quote>na'e</quote> in tanru; the translator must render the Lojban into English so it is clear in context. Let's go back to our simplest example:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qh9c" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d13"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na'e klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I am other-than-(going-to) the market.</gloss>
- <en>?I am not going-to the market.</en>
+ <gloss>?I am not going-to the market.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qH9e" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d14"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nalkla le zarci</jbo>
- <en>I am-a-non-go-er-to the market.</en>
+ <gloss>I am-a-non-go-er-to the market.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that to compare with the English translation form using
<quote>non-</quote>, we've translated the Lojban as if the selbri were a noun. Since Lojban
<jbophrase>klama</jbophrase> is indifferently a noun, verb, or adjective, the difference is purely a translation change, not a true change in meaning. The English difference seems significant, though, due to the strongly different English grammatical forms and the ambiguity of English negation.</para>
<para>Consider the following highly problematic sentence:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-GFFo">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d15"/>
</title>
@@ -822,32 +822,32 @@
<para>The selbri
<jbophrase>krecau</jbophrase> negates with
<quote>na'e</quote> as:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2maY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d16"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu na'e krecau</jbo>
<gloss>An-actual currently noblest-governor of the French country is-other-than hair-without.</gloss>
- <en>The current King of France is other-than-bald.</en>
+ <gloss>The current King of France is other-than-bald.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>or, as a lujvo:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-wGXL">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d17"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu nalkrecau</jbo>
<gloss>An-actual currently noblest-governor of the French country is-non-hair-without.</gloss>
- <en>The current King of France is a non-bald-one.</en>
+ <gloss>The current King of France is a non-bald-one.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-2maY"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-wGXL"/> express the predicate negation forms using a negation word (
<quote>na'e</quote>) or rafsi (
<quote>-nal-</quote>); yet they make positive assertions about the current King of France; ie., that he is other-than-bald or non-bald. This follows from the close binding of
<quote>na'e</quote> to the brivla. The lujvo form makes this overt by absorbing the negative marker into the word.</para>
@@ -876,41 +876,41 @@
<section xml:id="cll_chapter15-section5">
<title>Expressing scales in selbri negation</title>
<para>In expressing a scalar negation, we can provide some indication of the scale, range, frame-of-reference, or universe of discourse that is being dealt with in an assertion. As stated in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section4"/>, the default is the set of plausible alternatives. Thus if we say:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mw3B">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e5d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le stizu cu na'e xunre</jbo>
- <en>The chair is a non-(red-thing).</en>
+ <gloss>The chair is a non-(red-thing).</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>the pragmatic interpretation is that we mean a different color and not</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7iMz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e5d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le stizu cu dzukla be le zarci</jbo>
- <en>The chair walkingly-goes-to-the-market.</en>
+ <gloss>The chair walkingly-goes-to-the-market.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>However, if we have reason to be more explicit (an obtuse or contrary listener, or simply an overt logical analysis), we can clarify that we are referring to a color by saying:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-yWSC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e5d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le stizu cu na'e xunre skari</jbo>
- <en>The chair is of a non-(red)-color (as perceived by something under some conditions).</en>
+ <gloss>The chair is of a non-(red)-color (as perceived by something under some conditions).</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>We might also have reduced the pragmatic ambiguity by making the two trailing sumti values explicit (the
<quote>as perceived by</quote> and
<quote>under conditions</quote> places have been added to the place structure of
<jbophrase>xunre</jbophrase>). But assume we have a really stubborn listener (an artificially semi-intelligent computer?) who will find a way to misinterpret
<xref linkend="example-random-id-yWSC"/> even with three specific sumti provided.</para>
<para>In this case, we use a sumti tagged with the sumti tcita
<jbophrase>ci'u</jbophrase>, which translates roughly as
@@ -918,109 +918,109 @@
<quote>X</quote> is the sumti. For maximal clarity, the tagged sumti can be bound into the negated selbri with
<quote>be</quote>. To clarify
<xref linkend="example-random-id-yWSC"/>, we might say:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-a8S1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e5d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le stizu cu na'e xunre be ci'u loka skari</jbo>
- <en>The chair is a non-(red on-a-scale-of-colorness)-thing.</en>
+ <gloss>The chair is a non-(red on-a-scale-of-colorness)-thing.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>We can alternately use the sumti tcita
<jbophrase>teci'e</jbophrase>, based on
<jbophrase>ciste</jbophrase>, which translates roughly as
<quote>of a system of components X</quote>, for universes of discourse; in this case, we would express
<xref linkend="example-random-id-yWSC"/> as:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-I0eV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e5d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le stizu cu na'e xunre be teci'e le skari</jbo>
- <en>The chair is a non-(red of-a-system-with-components-the-colors)-thing.</en>
+ <gloss>The chair is a non-(red of-a-system-with-components-the-colors)-thing.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Other places of
<jbophrase>ciste</jbophrase> can be brought out using the grammar of selma'o BAI modals, allowing slightly different forms of expression, thus:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Rj71">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e5d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le stizu cu na'e xunre be ci'e lo'i skari</jbo>
- <en>The chair is a non-(red of-a-system-which-is-the-set-of-colors)-thing.</en>
+ <gloss>The chair is a non-(red of-a-system-which-is-the-set-of-colors)-thing.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The cmavo
<jbophrase>le'a</jbophrase>, also in selma'o BAI, can be used to specify a category:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-5ibb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e5d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le stizu cu na'e xunre be le'a lo'i skari</jbo>
- <en>The chair is a non-(red of-a-category-which-is-the-set-of-colors)-thing.</en>
+ <gloss>The chair is a non-(red of-a-category-which-is-the-set-of-colors)-thing.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which is minimally different in meaning from
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Rj71"/>.</para>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>na'e</quote> is not the only member of selma'o NAhE. If we want to express a scalar negation which is a polar opposite, we use the cmavo
<quote>to'e</quote>, which is grammatically equivalent to
<quote>na'e</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-RuvP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e5d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le stizu cu to'e xunre be ci'u loka skari</jbo>
- <en>The chair is a (opposite-of red) on-scale a-property-of color-ness.</en>
+ <gloss>The chair is a (opposite-of red) on-scale a-property-of color-ness.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Likewise, the midpoint of a scale can be expressed with the cmavo
<quote>no'e</quote>, also grammatically equivalent to
<quote>na'e</quote>. Here are some parallel examples of
<quote>na'e</quote>,
<quote>no'e</quote>, and
<quote>to'e</quote>:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qH9T" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e5d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta melbi</jbo>
- <en>That is-beautiful.</en>
+ <gloss>That is-beautiful.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qh9U" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e5d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta na'e melbi</jbo>
<gloss>That is-non-beautiful.</gloss>
<gloss>That is other than beautiful.</gloss>
- <en>That is ugly [in one sense].</en>
+ <gloss>That is ugly [in one sense].</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qhAI" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e5d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta no'e melbi</jbo>
<gloss>That is-neutrally beautiful.</gloss>
- <en>That is plain/ordinary-looking (neither ugly nor beautiful).</en>
+ <gloss>That is plain/ordinary-looking (neither ugly nor beautiful).</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qHAV" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e5d12"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta to'e melbi</jbo>
<gloss>That is-opposite-of beautiful.</gloss>
<en>That is ugly/very ugly/repulsive.</en>
@@ -1146,21 +1146,21 @@
<jbophrase>pu naje ca</jbophrase>.</para>
<para>As a special case, a
<quote>-nai</quote> attached to the interval modifiers of selma'o TAhE, ROI, or ZAhO (explained in
<xref linkend="chapter-tenses"/>) signals a scalar negation:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4YYQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e7d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi paroinai dansu le bisli</jbo>
- <en>I [once] [not] dance-on the ice</en>
+ <gloss>I [once] [not] dance-on the ice</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means that I dance on the ice either zero or else two or more times within the relevant time interval described by the bridi.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-4YYQ"/> is very different from the English use of
<quote>not once</quote>, which is an emphatic way of saying
<quote>never</quote>- that is, exactly zero times.</para>
<para>In indicators and attitudinals of selma'o UI or CAI,
<jbophrase>nai</jbophrase> denotes a polar negation. As discussed in
<xref linkend="chapter-attitudinals"/>, most indicators have an implicit scale, and
<jbophrase>nai</jbophrase> changes the indicator to refer to the opposite end of the scale. Thus
@@ -1197,21 +1197,21 @@
<para>One application of negation is in answer to truth questions (those which expect the answers
<quote>Yes</quote> or
<quote>No</quote>). The truth question cmavo
<jbophrase>xu</jbophrase> is in selma'o UI; placed at the beginning of a sentence, it asks whether the sentence as a whole is true or false.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-5y84">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e8d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xu la djan. pu klama la paris. .e la rom.</jbo>
- <en>Is it true that: (John previously went-to [both] Paris and Rome.)</en>
+ <gloss>Is it true that: (John previously went-to [both] Paris and Rome.)</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>You can now use each of the several kinds of negation we've discussed in answer to this (presuming the same question and context for each answer).</para>
<para>The straightforward negative answer is grammatically equivalent to the expanded sentence with the
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase> immediately after the
<quote>cu</quote> (and before any tense/modal):</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-DMAd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e8d2"/>
@@ -1234,111 +1234,111 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The respondent can change the tense, putting the
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase> in either before or after the new tense:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rii2">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e8d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>na ba go'i</jbo>
- <en>[false] [future] [repeat previous]</en>
+ <gloss>[false] [future] [repeat previous]</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>meaning</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Fn2c">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e8d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. [cu] na ba klama la paris. .e la rom.</jbo>
<gloss>John [false] later-will-go-to [both] Paris and Rome.</gloss>
<en>It is false that John will go to Paris and Rome.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>or alternatively</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-acM9">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e8d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ba na go'i</jbo>
- <en>[false] [future] [repeat previous]</en>
+ <gloss>[false] [future] [repeat previous]</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>meaning</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2SK0">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e8d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. [cu] ba na klama la paris. .e la rom.</jbo>
- <en>John later-will [false] go-to [both] Paris and Rome.</en>
+ <gloss>John later-will [false] go-to [both] Paris and Rome.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>We stated in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section3"/> that sentences like
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Fn2c"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-2SK0"/> appear to be semantically identical, but that subtle semantic distinctions may eventually be found.</para>
<para>You can also use a scalar negation with
<quote>na'e</quote>, in which case, it is equivalent to putting a
<quote>na'eke</quote> immediately after any tense:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-q70h">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e8d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>na'e go'i</jbo>
- <en>other-than [repeat previous]</en>
+ <gloss>other-than [repeat previous]</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which means</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nQRQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e8d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. [cu] pu na'eke klama</jbo>
<gloss>[ke'e] la paris. .e la rom.</gloss>
<gloss>John previously other-than(went-to)</gloss>
- <en>[both] Paris and Rome.</en>
+ <gloss>[both] Paris and Rome.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>He might have telephoned the two cities instead of going there. The unnecessary
<quote>ke</quote> and
<quote>ke'e</quote> would have been essential if the selbri had been a tanru.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter15-section9">
<title>Affirmations</title>
<para>There is an explicit positive form for both selma'o NA (
<jbophrase>ja'a</jbophrase>) and selma'o NAhE (
<quote>je'a</quote>), each of which would supplant the corresponding negator in the grammatical position used, allowing one to assert the positive in response to a negative question or statement without confusion. Assuming the same context as in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section8"/>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KhoH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e9d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xu na go'i</jbo>
- <en>Is-it-true-that [false] [repeat previous]?</en>
+ <gloss>Is-it-true-that [false] [repeat previous]?</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>or equivalently</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-8VCt">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e9d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xu la djan. [cu] na pu klama</jbo>
<gloss>la paris. .e la rom.</gloss>
<gloss>Is it true that: John [false] previously-went-to</gloss>
- <en>[both] Paris and Rome.]</en>
+ <gloss>[both] Paris and Rome.]</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The obvious, but incorrect, positive response to this negative question is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-F3LE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e9d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>go'i</jbo>
<en>[repeat previous]</en>
@@ -1348,39 +1348,39 @@
<jbophrase>go'i</jbophrase> does not mean
<quote>Yes it is</quote>; it merely abbreviates repeating the previous statement unmodified, including any negators present; and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-F3LE"/> actually states that it is false that John went to both Paris and Rome.</para>
<para>When considering:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Pgrw">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e9d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>na go'i</jbo>
- <en>[false] [repeat previous]</en>
+ <gloss>[false] [repeat previous]</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>as a response to a negative question like
<xref linkend="example-random-id-8VCt"/>, Lojban designers had to choose between two equally plausible interpretations with opposite effects. Does
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Pgrw"/> create a double negative in the sentence by adding a new
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase> to the one already there (forming a double negative and hence a positive statement), or does the
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase> replace the previous one, leaving the sentence unchanged?</para>
<para>It was decided that substitution, the latter alternative, is the preferable choice, since it is then clear whether we intend a positive or a negative sentence without performing any manipulations. This is the way English usually works, but not all languages work this way - Russian, Japanese, and Navajo all interpret a negative reply to a negative question as positive.</para>
<para>The positive assertion cmavo of selma'o NA, which is "ja'a", can also replace the
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase> in the context, giving:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-iUfV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e9d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ja'a go'i</jbo>
- <en>(John truly-(previously went-to) [both] Paris and Rome.)</en>
+ <gloss>(John truly-(previously went-to) [both] Paris and Rome.)</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<jbophrase>ja'a</jbophrase> can replace
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase> in a similar manner wherever the latter is used:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mrtu">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e9d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1390,21 +1390,21 @@
</example>
<para>
<quote>je'a</quote> can replace
<quote>na'e</quote> in exactly the same way, stating that scalar negation does not apply, and that the relation indeed holds as stated. In the absence of a negation context, it emphasizes the positive:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-toQK">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e9d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta je'a melbi</jbo>
- <en>that is-indeed beautiful.</en>
+ <gloss>that is-indeed beautiful.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter15-section10">
<title>Metalinguistic negation forms</title>
<para>The question of truth or falsity is not entirely synonymous with negation. Consider the English sentence</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-QsJ9">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d1"/>
</title>
@@ -1422,49 +1422,49 @@
<para>Here is a list of some different kinds of metalinguistic negation with English-language examples:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qhbg" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>I have not
<emphasis>stopped</emphasis> beating my wife</jbo>
<jbo>beating my wife</jbo>
- <en>(I never started - failure of presupposition).</en>
+ <gloss>(I never started - failure of presupposition).</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qHcI" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>5 is not blue</jbo>
- <en>(color does not apply to abstract concepts - failure of category).</en>
+ <gloss>(color does not apply to abstract concepts - failure of category).</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qHEQ" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>The current King of France is not bald.</jbo>
- <en>(there is no current King of France - existential failure)</en>
+ <gloss>(there is no current King of France - existential failure)</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qhet" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>I do not have THREE children.</jbo>
- <en>(I have two - simple undue quantity)</en>
+ <gloss>(I have two - simple undue quantity)</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qhEU" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>I have not held THREE jobs previously, but four.</jbo>
<gloss>(inaccurate quantity; the difference from the previous example is that</gloss>
<en>someone who has held four jobs has also held three jobs)</en>
@@ -1479,21 +1479,21 @@
<gloss>(undue quantity negation indicating that the value on a</gloss>
<en>scale for measuring the predicate is incorrect)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qHhA" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>She is not PRETTY; she is beautiful.</jbo>
- <en>(undue quantity transferred to a non-numeric scale)</en>
+ <gloss>(undue quantity transferred to a non-numeric scale)</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qhHI" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>The house is not blue, but green.</jbo>
<en>(the scale/category being used is incorrect, but a related category applies)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1535,21 +1535,21 @@
<jbo>I haven't STOOPED beating my wife; I've STOPPED.</jbo>
<en>(spelling or mispronunciation error)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qhJj" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d14"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>Not only was it a sheep, it was a black sheep.</jbo>
- <en>(non-contradictory correction)</en>
+ <gloss>(non-contradictory correction)</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The set of possible metalinguistic errors is open-ended.</para>
<para>Many of these forms have a counterpart in the various examples that we've discussed under logical negation. Metalinguistic negation doesn't claim that the sentence is false or true, though. Rather, it claims that, due to some error in the statement,
<quote>true</quote> and
<quote>false</quote> don't really apply.</para>
<para>Because one can metalinguistically negate a true statement intending a non-contradictory correction (say, a spelling error); we need a way (or ways) to metalinguistically negate a statement which is independent of our logical negation schemes using
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase>,
<quote>na'e</quote> and kin. The cmavo
<jbophrase>na'i</jbophrase> is assigned this function. If it is present in a statement, it indicates metalinguistically that something in the statement is incorrect. This metalinguistic negation must override any evaluation of the logic of the statement. It is equally allowed in both positive and negative statements.</para>
@@ -1614,21 +1614,21 @@
<jbophrase>xu</jbophrase> question (see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section8"/>).
<jbophrase>na'i</jbophrase> will be used when something about the questioned statement is inappropriate, such as in questions like
<quote>Have you stopped beating your wife?</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-SfSU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d15"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xu do sisti lezu'o do rapydarxi ledo fetspe</jbo>
- <en>Have you ceased the activity of repeat-hitting your female-spouse?</en>
+ <gloss>Have you ceased the activity of repeat-hitting your female-spouse?</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Responses could include:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qHJJ" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d16"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>na'i go'i</jbo>
<en>The bridi as a whole is inappropriate in some way.</en>
diff --git a/todocbook/16.xml b/todocbook/16.xml
index 2867040..f4be710 100644
--- a/todocbook/16.xml
+++ b/todocbook/16.xml
@@ -108,38 +108,38 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>There are two plausible Lojban translations of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Mxj3"/>. The simpler one is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-b9pV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e2d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>[zo'e] viska mi</jbo>
- <en>Something-unspecified sees me.</en>
+ <gloss>Something-unspecified sees me.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>zo'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>something</primary><secondary>unspecified definite with "zo'e"</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>zo'e</primary><secondary>as a translation for "something"</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo
<jbophrase>zo'e</jbophrase> indicates that a sumti has been omitted (indeed, even
<jbophrase>zo'e</jbophrase> itself can be omitted in this case, as explained in
<xref linkend="chapter-anaphoric-cmavo"/>) and the listener must fill in the correct value from context. In other words,
<xref linkend="example-random-id-b9pV"/> means
<quote>‘You-know-what' sees me.</quote></para>
<para>However,
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Mxj3"/> is just as likely to assert simply that there is someone who sees me, in which case a correct translation is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-jjLd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e2d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>da zo'u da viska mi</jbo>
- <en>There-is-an-X such-that X sees me.</en>
+ <gloss>There-is-an-X such-that X sees me.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>da</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>zo'e</primary><secondary>contrasted with da</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>da</primary><secondary>contrasted with zo'e</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>existential claims</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>da</primary><secondary>as a translation for "something"</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-jjLd"/> does not presuppose that the listener knows who sees the speaker, but simply tells the listener that there is someone who sees the speaker. Statements of this kind are called
<quote>existential claims</quote>. (Formally, the one doing the seeing is not restricted to being a person; it could be an animal or - in principle - an inanimate object. We will see in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section4"/> how to represent such restrictions.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ZOhU selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>zo'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical variables</primary><secondary>notation convention</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>variables</primary><secondary>logical</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>prenex</primary><secondary>syntax of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>prenex</primary><secondary>explanation</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-jjLd"/> has a two-part structure: there is the part
@@ -191,21 +191,21 @@
<xref linkend="example-random-id-t4qI"/> claims, because
<jbophrase>da prami da</jbophrase> is not structurally the same as
<jbophrase>da prami de</jbophrase>. However,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3QV5">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e2d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>de zo'u de prami de</jbo>
- <en>There-is-a-Y such that Y loves Y</en>
+ <gloss>There-is-a-Y such that Y loves Y</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical variables</primary><secondary>effect of global substitution</secondary></indexterm> means exactly the same thing as
<xref linkend="example-random-id-wBYE"/>; it does not matter which variable is used as long as they are used consistently.</para>
<para>It is not necessary for a variable to be a sumti of the main bridi directly:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ArXX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e2d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -247,21 +247,21 @@
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>universal claims</primary><secondary>explanation</secondary></indexterm> Of course, this example is false, because there are many things which do not see the speaker. It is not easy to find simple truthful examples of so-called universal claims (those which are about everything), so bear with us for a while. (Indeed, some Lojbanists tend to avoid universal claims even in other languages, since they are so rarely true in Lojban.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>everything sees me</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> The Lojban translation of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-UwYG"/> is</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nraD">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e3d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro da zo'u da viska mi</jbo>
- <en>For-every X : X sees me.</en>
+ <gloss>For-every X : X sees me.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ro da</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ro</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>everything</primary><secondary>expressing with "ro da"</secondary></indexterm> When the variable cmavo
<jbophrase>da</jbophrase> is preceded by
<jbophrase>ro</jbophrase>, the combination means
<quote>For every X</quote> rather than
<quote>There is an X</quote>. Superficially, these English formulations look totally unrelated:
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section6"/> will bring them within a common viewpoint. For the moment, accept the use of
<jbophrase>ro da</jbophrase> for
<quote>everything</quote> on faith.</para>
@@ -453,21 +453,21 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>prenex</primary><secondary>effect of order of variables in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>prenex</primary><secondary>purpose of</secondary></indexterm> You might well suppose, then, that the purpose of the prenex is to allow the variables in it to appear in a different order than the bridi order, and that would be correct. Consider</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>everyone bitten by dog</primary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Cfnb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e5d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro da poi prenu ku'o de poi gerku ku'o zo'u de batci da</jbo>
- <en>For-every X which is-a-person, there-is-a-Y which is-a-dog: Y bites X.</en>
+ <gloss>For-every X which is-a-person, there-is-a-Y which is-a-dog: Y bites X.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The prenex of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Cfnb"/> is like that of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qHKm"/> (but with relative clauses): it notes that the following bridi is true of every person with respect to some dog, not necessarily the same dog for each. But in the main bridi part, the
<jbophrase>de</jbophrase> appears before the
<jbophrase>da</jbophrase>. Therefore, the true translation is</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KLAr">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e5d4"/>
@@ -501,21 +501,21 @@
<quote>Everybody does</quote> or that
<quote>Everything is</quote> when in fact there are obvious counterexamples which we are ignoring for the sake of making a rhetorical point. Such statements are plain falsehoods in Lojban, unless saved by a context (such as tense) which implicitly restricts them.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>SE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>se</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>re-ordering logical variables with se</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>se</primary><secondary>using to re-order logical variables</secondary></indexterm> How can we express
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Cfnb"/> in Lojban without a prenex? Since it is the order in which variables appear that matters, we can say:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-y90e">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e5d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro da poi prenu cu se batci de poi gerku</jbo>
- <en>Every-X which is-a-person is-bitten-by some-Y which is-a-dog.</en>
+ <gloss>Every-X which is-a-person is-bitten-by some-Y which is-a-dog.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>using the conversion operator
<quote>se</quote> (explained in
<xref linkend="chapter-selbri"/>) to change the selbri
<jbophrase>batci</jbophrase> (
<quote>bites</quote>) into
<jbophrase>se batci</jbophrase> (
<quote>is bitten by</quote>). The translation given in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-KLAr"/> uses the corresponding strategy in English, since English does not have prenexes (except in strained
@@ -538,21 +538,21 @@
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>weapon against self</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> (in which
<jbophrase>di</jbophrase> is used rather than
<jbophrase>da</jbophrase> just for variety) loses its prenex as follows:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-CseH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e5d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti xarci di poi prenu ku'o di</jbo>
- <en>This-thing is-a-weapon-for-use-against some-Z which is-a-person by-Z.</en>
+ <gloss>This-thing is-a-weapon-for-use-against some-Z which is-a-person by-Z.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>prenex</primary><secondary>dropping for terseness</secondary></indexterm> As the examples in this section show, dropping the prenex makes for terseness of expression often even greater than that of English (Lojban is meant to be an unambiguous language, not necessarily a terse or verbose one), provided the rules are observed.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter16-section6">
<title>Variables with generalized quantifiers</title>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>PA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>quantifiers</primary><secondary>with logical variables</secondary></indexterm> So far, we have seen variables with either nothing in front, or with the cmavo
<jbophrase>ro</jbophrase> in front. Now
<jbophrase>ro</jbophrase> is a Lojban number, and means
<quote>all</quote>; thus
@@ -596,21 +596,21 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>numbers</primary><secondary>English contrasted with Lojban on exactness</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>numbers</primary><secondary>Lojban contrasted with English on exactness</secondary></indexterm> This means that exactly two things, no more or less, saw the speaker on the relevant occasion. In English, we might take
<quote>Two things see me</quote> to mean that at least two things see the speaker, but there might be more; in Lojban, though, that claim would have to be made as:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mSzo">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e6d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>su'ore da zo'u da viska mi</jbo>
- <en>For-at-least-two Xes : X sees me.</en>
+ <gloss>For-at-least-two Xes : X sees me.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which would be false if nothing, or only one thing, saw the speaker, but not otherwise. We note the
<jbophrase>su'o</jbophrase> here meaning
<quote>at least</quote>;
<jbophrase>su'o</jbophrase> by itself is short for
<jbophrase>su'opa</jbophrase> where
<jbophrase>pa</jbophrase> means
<quote>one</quote>, as is explained in
<xref linkend="chapter-mekso"/>.</para>
@@ -626,21 +626,21 @@
<en>Two Xes see me.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-GWoD">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e6d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>su'ore da viska mi</jbo>
- <en>At-least-two Xes see me.</en>
+ <gloss>At-least-two Xes see me.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>respectively, subject to the rules prescribed in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section5"/>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ro prenu</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>all persons</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>restricted variable</primary><secondary>compared with indefinite description</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>indefinite description</primary><secondary>compared with restricted variable</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>indefinite description</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> Now we can explain the constructions
<jbophrase>ro prenu</jbophrase> for
<quote>all persons</quote> and
<jbophrase>re prenu</jbophrase> for
@@ -665,31 +665,31 @@
<en>Two persons see me.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is short for</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-E6wI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e6d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>re da poi prenu cu viska mi</jbo>
- <en>Two Xes which are-persons see me.</en>
+ <gloss>Two Xes which are-persons see me.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which in turn is short for:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-u1sb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e6d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>re da poi prenu zo'u da viska mi</jbo>
- <en>For-two Xes which are-persons : X sees me.</en>
+ <gloss>For-two Xes which are-persons : X sees me.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>order of variables</primary><secondary>in moving to prenex</secondary></indexterm> Note that when we move more than one variable to the prenex (along with its attached relative clause), we must make sure that the variables are in the same order in the prenex as in the bridi proper.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter16-section7">
<title>Grouping of quantifiers</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>distribution of quantified sumti</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>indefinite sumti</primary><secondary>multiple in sentence</secondary></indexterm> Let us consider a sentence containing two quantifier expressions neither of which is
<jbophrase>ro</jbophrase> or
<jbophrase>su'o</jbophrase> (remembering that
<jbophrase>su'o</jbophrase> is implicit where no explicit quantifier is given):</para>
@@ -705,87 +705,87 @@
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>dogs bite</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>three dogs bite two men</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple indefinite sumti</primary><secondary>meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>indefinite sumti</primary><secondary>meaning when multiple in sentence</secondary></indexterm> The question raised by
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Uovr"/> is, does each of the dogs bite the same two men, or is it possible that there are two different men per dog, for six men altogether? If the former interpretation is taken, the number of men involved is fixed at two; but if the latter, then the speaker has to be taken as saying that there might be any number of men between two and six inclusive. Let us transform
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Uovr"/> step by step as we did with
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Kr4S"/>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-neNT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e7d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ci da poi gerku cu batci re de poi nanmu</jbo>
- <en>Three Xes which are-dogs bite two Ys which are-men.</en>
+ <gloss>Three Xes which are-dogs bite two Ys which are-men.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(Note that we need separate variables
<jbophrase>da</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>de</jbophrase>, because of the rule that says each indefinite description gets a variable never used before or since.)</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Iuj2">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e7d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ci da poi gerku ku'o re de poi nanmu zo'u da batci de</jbo>
- <en>For-three Xes which are-dogs, for-two Ys which are-men : X bites Y.</en>
+ <gloss>For-three Xes which are-dogs, for-two Ys which are-men : X bites Y.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here we see that indeed each of the dogs is said to bite two men, and it might be different men each time; a total of six biting events altogether.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple indefinite sumti</primary><secondary>effect of re-ordering in sentence</secondary></indexterm> How then are we to express the other interpretation, in which just two men are involved? We cannot just reverse the order of variables in the prenex to</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4Qxe">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e7d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>re de poi nanmu ku'o ci da poi gerku zo'u da batci de</jbo>
- <en>For-two Ys which are-men, for-three Xes which are-dogs, X bites Y</en>
+ <gloss>For-two Ys which are-men, for-three Xes which are-dogs, X bites Y</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>for although we have now limited the number of men to exactly two, we end up with an indeterminate number of dogs, from three to six. The distinction is called a
<quote>scope distinction</quote>: in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-neNT"/>,
<jbophrase>ci gerku</jbophrase> is said to have wider scope than
<jbophrase>re nanmu</jbophrase>, and therefore precedes it in the prenex. In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-4Qxe"/> the reverse is true.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>NUhU selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>NUhI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>nu'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>nu'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>CEhE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ce'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>termset</primary><secondary>effect on scope of multiple indefinite sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple indefinite sumti scope</primary><secondary>in termset</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple indefinite sumti</primary><secondary>expressing with equal scope</secondary></indexterm> The solution is to use a termset, which is a group of terms either joined by
<quote>ce'e</quote> (of selma'o CEhE) between each term, or else surrounded by
<quote>nu'i</quote> (of selma'o NUhI) on the front and
<quote>nu'u</quote> (of selma'o NUhU) on the rear. Terms (which are either sumti or sumti prefixed by tense or modal tags) that are grouped into a termset are understood to have equal scope:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-JbVH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e7d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ci gerku ce'e re nanmu cu batci</jbo>
<gloss>nu'i ci gerku re nanmu [nu'u] cu batci</gloss>
- <en>Three dogs [plus] two men, bite.</en>
+ <gloss>Three dogs [plus] two men, bite.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which picks out two groups, one of three dogs and the other of two men, and says that every one of the dogs bites each of the men. The second Lojban version uses forethought; note that
<quote>nu'u</quote> is an elidable terminator, and in this case can be freely elided.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ro</primary><secondary>effect of order when multiple in sentence</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>indefinite sumti</primary><secondary>compared to sumti with lo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti with lo</primary><secondary>compared to indefinite sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>quantified sumti</primary><secondary>different types contrasted for scope for distribution</secondary></indexterm> What about descriptors, like
<jbophrase>ci lo gerku</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>le nanmu</jbophrase> or
<jbophrase>re le ci mlatu</jbophrase>? They too can be grouped in termsets, but usually need not be, except for the
<quote>lo</quote> case which functions like the case without a descriptor. Unless an actual quantifier precedes it,
<jbophrase>le nanmu</jbophrase> means
<jbophrase>ro le nanmu</jbophrase>, as is explained in
<xref linkend="chapter-sumti"/>. Two sumti with
<jbophrase>ro</jbophrase> quantifiers are independent of order, so:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-MADY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e7d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>[ro] le ci gerku cu batci [ro] le re nanmu</jbo>
- <en>[All of] the three dogs bite [all of] the two men.</en>
+ <gloss>[All of] the three dogs bite [all of] the two men.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means that each of the dogs specified bites each of the men specified, for six acts of biting altogether. However, if there is an explicit quantifier before
<quote>le</quote> other than
<jbophrase>ro</jbophrase>, the problems of this section reappear.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter16-section8">
<title>The problem of
<quote>any</quote></title>
<para>Consider the English sentence</para>
@@ -821,21 +821,21 @@
<xref linkend="example-random-id-R4mX"/>, on the other hand, does not require that there are any people who go to the store: it simply states, conditionally, that if there is anyone who goes to the store, he or she walks across the field as well. This conditional form mirrors the true Lojban translation of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-R4mX"/>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-BwU7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e8d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro da zo'u ganai da klama le zarci gi cadzu le foldi</jbo>
- <en>For-every X: if X is-a-goer-to the store then X is-a-walker-on the field.</en>
+ <gloss>For-every X: if X is-a-goer-to the store then X is-a-walker-on the field.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>any</primary><secondary>as a universal claim</secondary><tertiary>later restricted</tertiary></indexterm> Although
<xref linkend="example-random-id-BwU7"/> is a universal claim as well, its universality only implies that there are objects of some sort or another in the universe of discourse. Because the claim is conditional, nothing is implied about the existence of goers-to-the-store or of walkers-on-the-field, merely that any entity which is one is also the other.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>any</primary><secondary>as an existential claim</secondary></indexterm> There is another use of
<quote>any</quote> in English that is not universal but existential. Consider</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7Eu9">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e8d4"/>
@@ -847,68 +847,68 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>any box</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>need any box</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-7Eu9"/> does not at all mean that I need every box bigger than this one, for indeed I do not; I require only one box. But the naive translation</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KHya">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e8d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nitcu da poi tanxe gi'e bramau ti</jbo>
- <en>I need some-X which is-a-box and is-bigger-than this-one</en>
+ <gloss>I need some-X which is-a-box and is-bigger-than this-one</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>does not work either, because it asserts that there really is such a box, as the prenex paraphrase demonstrates:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-fAo5">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e8d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>da poi tanxe gi'e bramau ti zo'u mi nitcu da</jbo>
- <en>There-is-an-X which is-a-box and is-bigger-than this : I need X.</en>
+ <gloss>There-is-an-X which is-a-box and is-bigger-than this : I need X.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>What to do? Well, the x2 place of
<jbophrase>nitcu</jbophrase> can be filled with an event as well as an object, and in fact
<xref linkend="example-random-id-KHya"/> can also be paraphrased as:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-e7ta">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e8d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nitcu lo nu mi ponse lo tanxe poi bramau ti</jbo>
- <en>I need an event-of I possess some box(es) which-are bigger-than this-one.</en>
+ <gloss>I need an event-of I possess some box(es) which-are bigger-than this-one.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Rewritten using variables,
<xref linkend="example-random-id-e7ta"/> becomes</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4Pz8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e8d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nitcu lo nu da zo'u</jbo>
<gloss>da se ponse mi gi'e tanxe gi'e bramau ti</gloss>
<gloss>I need an event-of there-being an-X such-that :</gloss>
- <en>X is-possessed-by me and is-a-box and is-bigger-than this-thing.</en>
+ <gloss>X is-possessed-by me and is-a-box and is-bigger-than this-thing.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical variables</primary><secondary>explicitly placing in outer prenex</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical variables</primary><secondary>implicit placement in smallest enclosing bridi prenex</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>prenex</primary><secondary>internal to a bridi</secondary></indexterm> So we see that a prenex can be attached to a bridi that is within a sentence. By default, a variable always behaves as if it is bound in the prenex which (notionally) is attached to the smallest enclosing bridi, and its scope does not extend beyond that bridi. However, the variable may be placed in an outer prenex explicitly:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7KKM">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e8d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>da poi tanxe gi'e bramau ti zo'u</jbo>
<gloss>mi nitcu le nu mi ponse da</gloss>
<gloss>There-is-an-X which is-a-box and is-bigger-than this-one such-that :</gloss>
- <en>I need the event-of my possessing X.</en>
+ <gloss>I need the event-of my possessing X.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>existential variable</primary><secondary>in main bridi contrasted with in abstraction</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>existential variable</primary><secondary>in abstraction contrasted with in main bridi</secondary></indexterm> But what are the implications of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-e7ta"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-7KKM"/>? The main difference is that in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-7KKM"/>, the
<jbophrase>da</jbophrase> is said to exist in the real world of the outer bridi; but in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-e7ta"/>, the existence is only within the inner bridi, which is a mere event that need not necessarily come to pass. So
<xref linkend="example-random-id-7KKM"/> means</para>
@@ -1259,21 +1259,21 @@
<en>I, and not you, love everything.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>expands to:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-h6Wz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e10d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi prami roda .ijenai do prami roda</jbo>
- <en>I love everything, and-not, you love everything.</en>
+ <gloss>I love everything, and-not, you love everything.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and then into prenex form as:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-JxDJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e10d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>roda zo'u mi prami da .ije naku zo'u do prami da</jbo>
<en>For each thing: I love it, and it is false that you love (the same) it.</en>
@@ -1324,21 +1324,21 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>We cannot express this directly with
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase>; the apparently obvious translation</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-6mHh">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e11d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>su'oda poi verba na klama su'ode poi ckule</jbo>
- <en>At-least-one X which-are child(ren) [false] go-to at-least-one Y which-are school(s).</en>
+ <gloss>At-least-one X which-are child(ren) [false] go-to at-least-one Y which-are school(s).</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>when converted to the external negation form produces:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nGTc">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e11d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>naku zo'u su'oda poi verba cu klama su'ode poi ckule</jbo>
<gloss>It is false that some which are children go-to some which are schools.</gloss>
@@ -1404,38 +1404,38 @@
<jbophrase>da</jbophrase>, forcing us to invert it instead.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qhnP"/> merely switched the selbri and the negation boundary, with no effect on the quantifiers.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>inverting quantifiers</primary><secondary>with movement relative to fixed negation</secondary></indexterm> The same rules apply if you rearrange the sentence so that the quantifier crosses an otherwise fixed negation. You can't just convert the selbri of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-nvtf"/> and rearrange the sumti to produce</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rHwu">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e11d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>su'ode poi ckule ku'o naku se klama roda poi verba</jbo>
- <en>Some schools aren't gone-to-by every child.</en>
+ <gloss>Some schools aren't gone-to-by every child.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>naku negation</primary><secondary>rationale for considering an advanced technique</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>naku negation boundary</primary><secondary>effect on conversion with se</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>conversion with se</primary><secondary>effect of naku negation boundary on</secondary></indexterm> or rather,
<xref linkend="example-random-id-rHwu"/> means something completely different from
<xref linkend="example-random-id-nvtf"/>. Conversion with
<quote>se</quote> under
<jbophrase>naku</jbophrase> negation is not symmetric; not all sumti are treated identically, and some sumti are not invariant under conversion. Thus, internal negation with
<jbophrase>naku</jbophrase> is considered an advanced technique, used to achieve stylistic compatibility with natural languages.</para>
<para>It isn't always easy to see which quantifiers have to be inverted in a sentence.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-nvtf"/> is identical in meaning to:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-S6y4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e11d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>su'o verba naku klama su'o ckule</jbo>
- <en>Some children don't go-to some school.</en>
+ <gloss>Some children don't go-to some school.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>indefinite sumti</primary><secondary>as implicit quantification</secondary></indexterm> but in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-S6y4"/>, the bound variables
<jbophrase>da</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>de</jbophrase> have been hidden.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>exporting negation to prenex</primary><secondary>"naku" contrasted with internal bridi negation</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>exporting negation to prenex</primary><secondary>internal bridi negation contrasted with "naku"</secondary></indexterm> It is trivial to export an internal bridi negation expressed with
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase> to the prenex, as we saw in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section9"/>; you just move it to the left end of the prenex. In comparison, it is non-trivial to export a
@@ -1481,21 +1481,21 @@
<en>It is not the case that all children go to some school.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>or more briefly</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-msIC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e11d13"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro verba cu na klama su'o ckule</jbo>
- <en>All children [false] go-to some school(s).</en>
+ <gloss>All children [false] go-to some school(s).</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>conversion of sentence with quantified variables</primary><secondary>technique</secondary></indexterm> As noted in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section5"/>, a sentence with two different quantified variables, such as
<xref linkend="example-random-id-msIC"/>, cannot always be converted with
<quote>se</quote> without first exporting the quantified variables. When the variables have been exported, the sentence proper can be converted, but the quantifier order in the prenex must remain unchanged:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-d8h3">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e11d14"/>
</title>
@@ -1585,116 +1585,116 @@
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qHPi"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qHPI"/> are exactly equivalent:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qHPi" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e12d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. na klama ga la paris. gi la rom.</jbo>
- <en>John [false] goes-to either Paris or Rome.</en>
+ <gloss>John [false] goes-to either Paris or Rome.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qHPI" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e12d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>naku zo'u la djan. klama ga la paris. gi la rom.</jbo>
- <en>It-is-false that: John goes-to either Paris or Rome.</en>
+ <gloss>It-is-false that: John goes-to either Paris or Rome.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>go to Paris or Rome</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>DeMorgan's Law</primary><secondary>and logically connected sentences</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logically connected sentences</primary><secondary>and DeMorgan's Law</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>negator</primary><secondary>movement from bridi to sumti</secondary></indexterm> It is not an acceptable logical manipulation to move a negator from the bridi level to one or more sumti. However,
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qHPi"/> and related examples are not sumti negations, but rather expand to form two logically connected sentences. In such a situation, DeMorgan's Law must be applied. For instance,
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qHPI"/> expands to:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KMct">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e12d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ge la djan. la paris. na klama</jbo>
<gloss>gi la djan. la rom. na klama</gloss>
<gloss>[It is true that] both John, to-Paris, [false] goes,</gloss>
- <en>and John, to-Rome, [false] goes.</en>
+ <gloss>and John, to-Rome, [false] goes.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The
<quote>ga</quote> and
<quote>gi</quote>, meaning
<quote>either-or</quote>, have become
<quote>ge</quote> and
<quote>gi</quote>, meaning
<quote>both-and</quote>, as a consequence of moving the negators into the individual bridi.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>DeMorgan's Law</primary><secondary>and bridi-tail logical connection</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi-tail logical connection</primary><secondary>and DeMorgan's Law</secondary></indexterm> Here is another example of DeMorgan's Law in action, involving bridi-tail logical connection (explained in
<xref linkend="chapter-connectives"/>):</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qHpR" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e12d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djein. le zarci na ge dzukla gi bajrykla</jbo>
- <en>Jane to-the market [false] both walks and runs.</en>
+ <gloss>Jane to-the market [false] both walks and runs.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qHQ2" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e12d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djein. le zarci ganai dzukla ginai bajrykla</jbo>
<gloss>Jane to-the market either [false] walks or [false] runs.</gloss>
- <en>Jane to-the market if walks then ([false] runs).</en>
+ <gloss>Jane to-the market if walks then ([false] runs).</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(Placing
<jbophrase>le zarci</jbophrase> before the selbri makes sure that it is properly associated with both parts of the logical connection. Otherwise, it is easy to erroneously leave it off one of the two sentences.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>transformations with logical connectives</primary><secondary>steps</secondary></indexterm> It is wise, before freely doing transformations such as the one from
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qHpR"/> to
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qHQ2"/>, that you become familiar with expanding logical connectives to separate sentences, transforming the sentences, and then recondensing. Thus, you would prove the transformation correct by the following steps. By moving its
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase> to the beginning of the prenex as a
<jbophrase>naku</jbophrase>,
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qHpR"/> becomes:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-g5PI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e12d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>naku zo'u la djein. le zarci ge dzukla gi bajrykla</jbo>
- <en>It is false that : Jane to-the market (both walks and runs).</en>
+ <gloss>It is false that : Jane to-the market (both walks and runs).</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>And by dividing the bridi with logically connected selbri into two bridi,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-axCE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e12d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>naku zo'u ge la djein. le zarci cu dzukla</jbo>
<gloss>gi la djein. le zarci cu bajrykla</gloss>
<gloss>It-is-false-that: both (Jane to-the market walks)</gloss>
- <en>and (Jane to-the market runs).</en>
+ <gloss>and (Jane to-the market runs).</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is the result.</para>
<para>At this expanded level, we apply DeMorgan's Law to distribute the negation in the prenex across both sentences, to get</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-bsu7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e12d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ga la djein. le zarci na dzukla</jbo>
<gloss>gi la djein. le zarci na bajrykla</gloss>
<gloss>Either Jane to-the market [false] walks,</gloss>
- <en>or Jane to-the market [false] runs.</en>
+ <gloss>or Jane to-the market [false] runs.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which is the same as</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-jYWu">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e12d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ganai la djein. le zarci cu dzukla</jbo>
<gloss>ginai la djein. le zarci cu bajrykla</gloss>
@@ -1706,30 +1706,30 @@
<para>which then condenses down to
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qHQ2"/>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>DeMorgan's Law</primary><secondary>and internal naku negations</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>internal naku negations</primary><secondary>and DeMorgan's Law</secondary></indexterm> DeMorgan's Law must also be applied to internal
<jbophrase>naku</jbophrase> negations:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qhQP" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e12d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ga la paris. gi la rom. naku se klama la djan.</jbo>
- <en>(Either Paris or Rome) is-not gone-to-by John.</en>
+ <gloss>(Either Paris or Rome) is-not gone-to-by John.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qhQw" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e12d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. naku klama ge la paris. gi la rom.</jbo>
- <en>John doesn't go-to both Paris and Rome.</en>
+ <gloss>John doesn't go-to both Paris and Rome.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>That
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qhQP"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qhQw"/> mean the same should become evident by studying the English. It is a good exercise to work through the Lojban and prove that they are the same.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter16-section13">
<title>selbri variables</title>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>bu'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>bu'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>bu'a</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GOhA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri logical variables</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical variables</primary><secondary>for selbri</secondary></indexterm> In addition to the variables
@@ -1771,21 +1771,21 @@
<jbophrase>re nanmu</jbophrase>, since
<jbophrase>bu'a</jbophrase> is grammatically equivalent to a brivla like
<jbophrase>nanmu</jbophrase>. However, indefinite descriptions involving the bu'a-series cannot be imported from the prenex.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri variables</primary><secondary>form when not in prenex</secondary></indexterm> When the prenex is omitted, the preceding number has to be omitted too:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-XxgT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e13d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djim. bu'a la djan.</jbo>
- <en>Jim stands-in-at-least-one-relationship to-John.</en>
+ <gloss>Jim stands-in-at-least-one-relationship to-John.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri variables</primary><secondary>quantified</secondary></indexterm> As a result, if the number before the variable is anything but
<jbophrase>su'o</jbophrase>, the prenex is required:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-L068">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e13d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro bu'a zo'u la djim. bu'a la djan.</jbo>
@@ -1803,21 +1803,21 @@
<section xml:id="cll_chapter16-section14">
<title>A few notes on variables</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>quantifier</primary><secondary>on previously quantified variable</secondary></indexterm> A variable may have a quantifier placed in front of it even though it has already been quantified explicitly or implicitly by a previous appearance, as in:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>three cats white</primary><secondary>and two big</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-x0FP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e14d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ci da poi mlatu cu blabi .ije re da cu barda</jbo>
- <en>Three Xs which-are cats are white, and two Xs are big.</en>
+ <gloss>Three Xs which-are cats are white, and two Xs are big.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>What does
<xref linkend="example-random-id-x0FP"/> mean? The appearance of
<jbophrase>ci da</jbophrase> quantifies
<jbophrase>da</jbophrase> as referring to three things, which are restricted by the relative clause to be cats. When
<jbophrase>re da</jbophrase> appears later, it refers to two of those three things - there is no saying which ones. Further uses of
<jbophrase>da</jbophrase> alone, if there were any, would refer once more to the three cats, so the requantification of
<jbophrase>da</jbophrase> is purely local.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>prenex scope</primary><secondary>in abstractions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>prenex scope</primary><secondary>in relative clauses</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>prenex scope</primary><secondary>in embedded bridi</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>prenex scope</primary><secondary>informal</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>prenex scope</primary><secondary>for sentences joined by .i</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>prenex scope</primary><secondary>for sentences joined by ijeks</secondary></indexterm> In general, the scope of a prenex that precedes a sentence extends to following sentences that are joined by ijeks (explained in
diff --git a/todocbook/17.xml b/todocbook/17.xml
index e680459..08ac12c 100644
--- a/todocbook/17.xml
+++ b/todocbook/17.xml
@@ -216,21 +216,21 @@
<quote>a</quote> but
<quote>A</quote>, and Ivan's name may be spelled out thus:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-q6pw">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e3d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.ibu ga'e vy. .abu ny. to'a</jbo>
- <en>i [upper] V A N [lower]</en>
+ <gloss>i [upper] V A N [lower]</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The cmavo and compound cmavo of this type will be called
<quote>shift words</quote>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>shift word</primary><secondary>scope</secondary></indexterm> How long does a shift word last? Theoretically, until the next shift word that contradicts it or until the end of text. In practice, it is common to presume that a shift word is only in effect until the next word other than a lerfu word is found.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>LAU selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>shift</primary><secondary>single-letter</secondary><tertiary>grammar of</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>shift word</primary><secondary>for single letter</secondary></indexterm> It is often convenient to shift just a single letter to upper case. The cmavo
<quote>tau</quote>, of selma'o LAU, is useful for the purpose. A LAU cmavo must always be immediately followed by a BY cmavo or its equivalent: the combination is grammatically equivalent to a single BY. (See
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17-section14"/> for details.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>chemical elements</primary><secondary>use of single-letter shift for</secondary></indexterm> A likely use of
<quote>tau</quote> is in the internationally standardized symbols for the chemical elements. Each element is represented using either a single upper-case lerfu or one upper-case lerfu followed by one lower-case lerfu:</para>
@@ -501,21 +501,21 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qhVb" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e5d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ce'a .pavrel. bu</jbo>
- <en>12-point font size</en>
+ <gloss>12-point font size</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>BY selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>na'a</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>font</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>12-point</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>handwriting</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Helvetica font</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo'a</primary><secondary>contrasted with na'a</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>na'a</primary><secondary>contrasted with lo'a</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>canceling letter shifts</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>shift words</primary><secondary>canceling effect</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo
<jbophrase>na'a</jbophrase> (of selma'o BY) is a universal shift-word cancel: it returns the interpretation of lerfu words to the default of lower-case Lojban with no specific font. It is more general than
<jbophrase>lo'a</jbophrase>, which changes the alphabet only, potentially leaving font and case shifts in place.</para>
@@ -746,21 +746,21 @@
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-uAAF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e9d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la stivn. mark. djonz. merko .i la .aleksandr. paliitc. kuzNIETsyf. rusko</jbo>
<gloss>.i symyjy. tavla .abupyky. bau la lojban.</gloss>
<gloss>Steven Mark Jones is-American. Alexander Pavlovitch Kuznetsov is-Russian.</gloss>
- <en>SMJ talks-to APK in Lojban.</en>
+ <gloss>SMJ talks-to APK in Lojban.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Perhaps Alexander's name should be given as
<jbophrase>ru'o.abupyky</jbophrase> instead.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu strings</primary><secondary>as pro-sumti</secondary><tertiary>for multiple sumti separated by boi</tertiary></indexterm> What about</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>A gives BC</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gJFz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e9d5"/>
</title>
@@ -807,21 +807,21 @@
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section10">
<title>References to lerfu</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>lerfu string</secondary><tertiary>effect on reference to lerfu itself</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu</primary><secondary>reference to</secondary></indexterm> The rules of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17-section9"/> make it impossible to use unmarked lerfu words to refer to lerfu themselves. In the sentence:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-CYny">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e10d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.abu. cu lerfu</jbo>
- <en>A is-a-letteral.</en>
+ <gloss>A is-a-letteral.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>LI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>me'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu</primary><secondary>referring to with me'o</secondary></indexterm> the hearer would try to find what previous sumti
<jbophrase>.abu</jbophrase> refers to. The solution to this problem makes use of the cmavo
<quote>me'o</quote> of selma'o LI, which makes a lerfu string into a sumti representing that very string of lerfu. This use of
<quote>me'o</quote> is a special case of its mathematical use, which is to introduce a mathematical expression used literally rather than for its value.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>"a" is letteral</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Yy32">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e10d2"/>
@@ -856,21 +856,21 @@
<xref linkend="example-random-id-pbDf"/> is also true!</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>la'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>lu</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>me'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>la'e lu</primary><secondary>compared with me'o</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>me'o</primary><secondary>compared with la'e lu</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>representing lerfu</primary><secondary>lu contrasted with me'o</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lu</primary><secondary>contrasted with me'o for representing lerfu</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>me'o</primary><secondary>contrasted with lu…li'u for representing lerfu</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>me'o</primary><secondary>contrasted with quotation for representing lerfu</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>quotation</primary><secondary>contrasted with me'o for representing lerfu</secondary></indexterm> The reader might be tempted to use quotation with
<quote>lu ... li'u</quote> instead of
<quote>me'o</quote>, producing:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pbDf">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e10d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lu .abu li'u cu lerfu</jbo>
- <en>[quote] .abu [unquote] is-a-letteral.</en>
+ <gloss>[quote] .abu [unquote] is-a-letteral.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(The single-word quote
<quote>zo</quote> cannot be used, because
<jbophrase>.abu</jbophrase> is a compound cmavo.) But
<xref linkend="example-random-id-pbDf"/> is false, because it says:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-P8Ag">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e10d5"/>
</title>
@@ -881,21 +881,21 @@
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>word "abu"</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> which is not the case; rather, the thing symbolized by the word
<jbophrase>.abu</jbophrase> is a letteral. In Lojban, that would be:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Da4r">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e10d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la'e lu .abu li'u cu lerfu</jbo>
- <en>The-referent-of [quote] .abu [unquote] is-a-letteral.</en>
+ <gloss>The-referent-of [quote] .abu [unquote] is-a-letteral.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which is correct.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section11">
<title>Mathematical uses of lerfu strings</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu strings</primary><secondary>uses in mathematics</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mathematics</primary><secondary>use of lerfu strings in</secondary></indexterm> This chapter is not about Lojban mathematics, which is explained in
<xref linkend="chapter-mekso"/>, so the mathematical uses of lerfu strings will be listed and exemplified but not explained.</para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
@@ -1185,21 +1185,21 @@
<jbophrase>se'e</jbophrase> convention is only intelligible to those who know the underlying character set. For precisely specifying a particular character, however, it has the advantages of unambiguity and (relative) cultural neutrality, and therefore Lojban provides a means for those with access to descriptions of such character sets to take advantage of them.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>peace symbol</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Unicode</primary></indexterm> As another example, the Unicode character set (also known as ISO 10646) represents the international symbol of peace, an inverted trident in a circle, using the base-16 value 262E. In a suitable context, a Lojbanist may say:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-MXET">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e13d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>me'o se'erexarerei sinxa le ka panpi</jbo>
- <en>the-expression [code] 262E is-a-sign-of the quality-of being-at-peace</en>
+ <gloss>the-expression [code] 262E is-a-sign-of the quality-of being-at-peace</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>se'e</primary><secondary>and number base convention</secondary></indexterm> When a
<jbophrase>se'e</jbophrase> string appears in running discourse, some metalinguistic convention must specify whether the number is base 10 or some other base, and which character set is in use.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section14">
<title>List of all auxiliary lerfu-word cmavo</title>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
diff --git a/todocbook/18.xml b/todocbook/18.xml
index 245adf4..e4f2b13 100644
--- a/todocbook/18.xml
+++ b/todocbook/18.xml
@@ -121,21 +121,21 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gjzw">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e2d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>pa re ci vo mu xa ze bi so no</jbo>
<gloss>one two three four five six seven eight nine zero</gloss>
<gloss>1234567890</gloss>
- <en>one billion, two hundred and thirty-four million, five hundred and sixty-seven thousand, eight hundred and ninety.</en>
+ <gloss>one billion, two hundred and thirty-four million, five hundred and sixty-seven thousand, eight hundred and ninety.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>123</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>numbers</primary><secondary>greater than 9</secondary></indexterm> Therefore, there are no separate cmavo for
<quote>ten</quote>,
<quote>hundred</quote>, etc.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>number words</primary><secondary>pattern in</secondary></indexterm> There is a pattern to the digit cmavo (except for
<jbophrase>no</jbophrase>, 0) which is worth explaining. The cmavo from 1 to 5 end in the vowels
<quote>a</quote>,
@@ -413,21 +413,21 @@
<jbo>pa pi re pi ci</jbo>
<en>1.2.3</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qHya" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e4d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>pa ni'u re</jbo>
- <en>1 negative-sign 2</en>
+ <gloss>1 negative-sign 2</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>subtraction operator</primary><secondary>contrasted with negative sign</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>negative sign</primary><secondary>contrasted with subtraction operator</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qHya"/> is not
<quote>1 minus 2</quote>, which is represented by a different cmavo sequence altogether. It is a single number which has not been assigned a meaning. There are many such numbers which have no well-defined meaning; they may be used for experimental purposes or for future expansion of the Lojban number system.</para>
<para>It is possible, of course, that some of these
<quote>oddities</quote> do have a meaningful use in some restricted area of mathematics. A mathematician appropriating these structures for specialized use needs to consider whether some other branch of mathematics would use the structure differently.</para>
<para>More information on numbers may be found in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section8"/> to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section12"/>.</para>
@@ -500,39 +500,39 @@
<quote>li</quote> for
<quote>le</quote> in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-nSU9"/> would produce</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gJe1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e5d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li ci prenu</jbo>
- <en>The-number 3 is-a-person.</en>
+ <gloss>The-number 3 is-a-person.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which is grammatical but nonsensical: numbers are not persons.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>VUhU selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>su'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>addition operator</primary><secondary>contrasted with positive sign</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>positive sign</primary><secondary>contrasted with addition operator</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>addition</primary><secondary>a mathematical operator</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mathematical operators</primary></indexterm> The cmavo
<quote>su'i</quote> belongs to selma'o VUhU, which is composed of mathematical operators, and means
<quote>addition</quote>. As mentioned before, it is distinct from
<jbophrase>ma'u</jbophrase> which means the positive sign as an indication of a positive number:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>+1 + -1 = 0</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4gsp">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e5d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li ma'u pa su'i ni'u pa du li no</jbo>
<gloss>The-number positive-sign one plus negative-sign one equals the-number zero.</gloss>
- <en>+1 + -1 = 0</en>
+ <gloss>+1 + -1 = 0</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Of course, it is legal to have complex mekso on both sides of
<jbophrase>du</jbophrase>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-d6bM">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e5d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li mu su'i pa du li ci su'i ci</jbo>
@@ -700,21 +700,21 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e6d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li py. su'i va'a ny. ku'e su'i zy du li xy.</jbo>
<gloss>The-number
<quote>p</quote> plus negative-of(
<quote>n</quote>) plus
<jbophrase>z</jbophrase> equals the-number
<quote>x</quote>.</gloss>
- <en>p + -n + z = x</en>
+ <gloss>p + -n + z = x</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where we know that
<quote>va'a</quote> is a forethought operator because there is no operand preceding it.</para>
<para>
<quote>va'a</quote> is the numerical negation operator, of selma'o VUhU. In contrast,
@@ -807,21 +807,21 @@
<title>Other useful selbri for mekso bridi</title>
<para>So far our examples have been isolated mekso (it is legal to have a bare mekso as a sentence in Lojban) and equation bridi involving
<jbophrase>du</jbophrase>. What about inequalities such as
<quote>x < 5</quote>? The answer is to use a bridi with an appropriate selbri, thus:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-s4TW">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e7d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li xy. mleca li mu</jbo>
- <en>The-number x is-less-than the-number 5.</en>
+ <gloss>The-number x is-less-than the-number 5.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here is a partial list of selbri useful in mathematical bridi:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
du x1 is identical to x2, x3, x4, ...
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
dunli x1 is equal/congruent to x2 in/on property/quality/dimension/quantity x3
mleca x1 is less than x2
@@ -950,31 +950,31 @@
<quote>each</quote>. This number does not have a definite value in the abstract:
<jbophrase>li ro</jbophrase> is undefined. But when used to count or quantify something, the parallel between
<jbophrase>ro</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>pa</jbophrase> is clearer:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qI27" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi catlu pa prenu</jbo>
- <en>I look-at one person</en>
+ <gloss>I look-at one person</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qI3P" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi catlu ro prenu</jbo>
- <en>I look-at all persons</en>
+ <gloss>I look-at all persons</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qI27"/> might be true, whereas
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qI3P"/> is almost certainly false.</para>
<para>The cmavo
<jbophrase>so'a</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>so'e</jbophrase>,
@@ -988,63 +988,63 @@
<jbophrase>ro</jbophrase>. As you go down an alphabetical list, the magnitude decreases:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qi4a" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi catlu so'a prenu</jbo>
- <en>I look-at almost-all persons</en>
+ <gloss>I look-at almost-all persons</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qi55" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi catlu so'e prenu</jbo>
- <en>I look-at most persons</en>
+ <gloss>I look-at most persons</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qi5m" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi catlu so'i prenu</jbo>
- <en>I look-at many persons</en>
+ <gloss>I look-at many persons</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qi5U" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi catlu so'o prenu</jbo>
- <en>I look-at several persons</en>
+ <gloss>I look-at several persons</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qI6B" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi catlu so'u prenu</jbo>
- <en>I look-at a-few persons</en>
+ <gloss>I look-at a-few persons</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The English equivalents are only rough: the cmavo provide space for up to five indefinite numbers between
<jbophrase>ro</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>no</jbophrase>, with a built-in ordering. In particular,
<jbophrase>so'e</jbophrase> does not mean
<quote>most</quote> in the sense of
<quote>a majority</quote> or
@@ -1054,21 +1054,21 @@
<jbophrase>pi</jbophrase> (the decimal point) in order to make a fractional form which represents part of a whole rather than some elements of a totality.
<jbophrase>piro</jbophrase> therefore means
<quote>the whole of</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-dwJI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi citka piro lei nanba</jbo>
- <en>I eat the-whole-of the-mass-of bread</en>
+ <gloss>I eat the-whole-of the-mass-of bread</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Similarly,
<jbophrase>piso'a</jbophrase> means
<quote>almost the whole of</quote>; and so on down to
<jbophrase>piso'u</jbophrase>,
<quote>a tiny part of</quote>. These numbers are particularly appropriate with masses, which are usually measured rather than counted, as
<xref linkend="example-random-id-dwJI"/> shows.</para>
<para>In addition to these cmavo, there is
<jbophrase>no'o</jbophrase>, meaning
@@ -1080,52 +1080,52 @@
<jbophrase>no'o</jbophrase> can be translated
<quote>the average value</quote>, but the average in question is not, in general, a mathematical mean, median, or mode; these would be more appropriately represented by operators.</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qi7Q" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi catlu no'o prenu</jbo>
- <en>I look-at a-typical-number-of persons</en>
+ <gloss>I look-at a-typical-number-of persons</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qI8K" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi citka pino'o lei nanba</jbo>
- <en>I eat a-typical-amount-of the-mass-of bread.</en>
+ <gloss>I eat a-typical-amount-of the-mass-of bread.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>da'a</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>times</primary><secondary>implicit expression of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>times</primary><secondary>explicit expression of</secondary></indexterm>
<jbophrase>da'a</jbophrase> is a related cmavo meaning
<quote>all but</quote>:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qi94" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi catlu da'a re prenu</jbo>
- <en>I look-at all-but two persons</en>
+ <gloss>I look-at all-but two persons</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qia0" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d12"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi catlu da'a so'u prenu</jbo>
- <en>I look-at all-but a-few persons</en>
+ <gloss>I look-at all-but a-few persons</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qia0"/> is similar in meaning to
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qi4a"/>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>da'a</primary><secondary>default number for</secondary></indexterm> If no number follows
<jbophrase>da'a</jbophrase>, then
<jbophrase>pa</jbophrase> is assumed;
<jbophrase>da'a</jbophrase> by itself means
<quote>all but one</quote>, or in ordinal contexts
@@ -1152,39 +1152,39 @@
<jbophrase>ma'u</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>ni'u</jbophrase> are also legal numbers, and they mean
<quote>some positive number</quote> and
<quote>some negative number</quote> respectively.</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qiaK" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d14"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li ci vu'u re du li ma'u</jbo>
- <en>the-number 3 − 2 = some-positive-number</en>
+ <gloss>the-number 3 − 2 = some-positive-number</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qiAq" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d15"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li ci vu'u vo du li ni'u</jbo>
- <en>the-number 3 − 4 = some-negative-number</en>
+ <gloss>the-number 3 − 4 = some-negative-number</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qiAR" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d16"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ponse ma'u rupnu</jbo>
- <en>I possess a-positive-number-of currency-units.</en>
+ <gloss>I possess a-positive-number-of currency-units.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>mo'a</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>du'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>rau</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>indefinite values</primary><secondary>subjective</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>subjective amounts</primary><secondary>expressing</secondary></indexterm> All of the numbers discussed so far are objective, even if indefinite. If there are exactly six superpowers (
<jbophrase>rairgugde</jbophrase>,
<quote>superlative-states</quote>) in the world, then
<jbophrase>ro rairgugde</jbophrase> means the same as
<jbophrase>xa rairgugde</jbophrase>. It is often useful, however, to express subjective indefinite values. The cmavo
<jbophrase>rau</jbophrase> (enough),
@@ -1192,21 +1192,21 @@
<jbophrase>mo'a</jbophrase> (too few) are then appropriate:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-TIiE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d17"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ponse rau rupnu</jbo>
- <en>I possess enough currency-units.</en>
+ <gloss>I possess enough currency-units.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>pi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>enough currency</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>indefinite portions</primary><secondary>subjective</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>subjective portions</primary><secondary>expressing</secondary></indexterm> Like the
<jbophrase>so'a</jbophrase>-series,
<jbophrase>rau</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>du'e</jbophrase>, and
@@ -1337,71 +1337,71 @@
<jbophrase>za'u</jbophrase>, also of selma'o PA, express inexact numbers with upper or lower bounds:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qidi" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e9d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi catlu su'e re prenu</jbo>
- <en>I look-at at-most two persons</en>
+ <gloss>I look-at at-most two persons</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qiE3" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e9d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi catlu su'o re prenu</jbo>
- <en>I look-at at-least two persons</en>
+ <gloss>I look-at at-least two persons</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qIe7" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e9d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi catlu me'i re prenu</jbo>
- <en>I look-at less-than two persons</en>
+ <gloss>I look-at less-than two persons</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qIfM" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e9d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi catlu za'u re prenu</jbo>
- <en>I look-at more-than two persons</en>
+ <gloss>I look-at more-than two persons</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>exactly two</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>more than</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>less than</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>at least</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>at most</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>plural</primary><secondary>Lojban equivalent of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>exact number</primary><secondary>expressing</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>at most</primary><secondary>contrasted with more than</secondary><tertiary>at least, less than</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>at least</primary><secondary>contrasted with more than</secondary><tertiary>less than, at most</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>more than</primary><secondary>contrasted with less than</secondary><tertiary>at least, at most</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>less than</primary><secondary>contrasted with more than</secondary><tertiary>at least, at most</tertiary></indexterm> Each of these is a subtly different claim:
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qiE3"/> is true of two or any greater number, whereas
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qIfM"/> requires three persons or more. Likewise,
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qidi"/> refers to zero, one, or two;
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qIe7"/> to zero or one. (Of course, when the context allows numbers other than non-negative integers,
<jbophrase>me'i re</jbophrase> can be any number less than 2, and likewise with the other cases.) The exact quantifier,
<quote>exactly 2, neither more nor less</quote> is just
<jbophrase>re</jbophrase>. Note that
<jbophrase>su'ore</jbophrase> is the exact Lojban equivalent of English plurals.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>za'u</primary><secondary>with elided number</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>me'i</primary><secondary>with elided number</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>su'o</primary><secondary>with elided number</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>su'e</primary><secondary>with elided number</secondary></indexterm> If no number follows one of these cmavo,
<jbophrase>pa</jbophrase> is understood: therefore,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-brir">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e9d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi catlu su'o prenu</jbo>
- <en>I look-at at-least [one] person</en>
+ <gloss>I look-at at-least [one] person</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is a meaningful claim.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>pi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>inexact portions with bounds</primary></indexterm> Like the numbers in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section8"/>, all of these cmavo may be preceded by
<jbophrase>pi</jbophrase> to make the corresponding quantifiers for part of a whole. For example,
<jbophrase>pisu'o</jbophrase> means
<quote>at least some part of</quote>. The quantifiers
<jbophrase>ro</jbophrase>,
@@ -1460,59 +1460,59 @@
</cmavo-list>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>radix</primary><secondary>decimal (see also base)</secondary></indexterm> In normal contexts, Lojban assumes that all numbers are expressed in the decimal (base 10) system. However, other bases are possible, and may be appropriate in particular circumstances.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>octal system</primary><secondary>specifying numbers in (see also base)</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>binary system</primary><secondary>specifying numbers in (see also base)</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>base</primary><secondary>specifying</secondary></indexterm> To specify a number in a particular base, the VUhU operator
<quote>ju'u</quote> is suitable:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Iw8u">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e10d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li pa no pa no ju'u re du li pa no</jbo>
- <en>The-number 1010 base 2 equals the-number 10.</en>
+ <gloss>The-number 1010 base 2 equals the-number 10.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>base</primary><secondary>changing permanently</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>base</primary><secondary>assumed</secondary></indexterm> Here, the final
<jbophrase>pa no</jbophrase> is assumed to be base 10, as usual; so is the base specification. (The base may also be changed permanently by a metalinguistic specification; no standard way of doing so has as yet been worked out.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>hexadecimal system</primary><secondary>specifying numbers in (see also base)</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>digits</primary><secondary>rationale for having 16</secondary></indexterm> Lojban has digits for representing bases up to 16, because 16 is a base often used in computer applications. In English, it is customary to use the letters A-F as the base 16 digits equivalent to the numbers ten through fifteen. In Lojban, this ambiguity is avoided:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qIgb" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e10d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li daufeigai ju'u paxa du li rezevobi</jbo>
- <en>The-number ABC base 16 equals the-number 2748.</en>
+ <gloss>The-number ABC base 16 equals the-number 2748.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qIha" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e10d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li jaureivai ju'u paxa du li cimuxaze</jbo>
- <en>The-number DEF base 16 equals the-number 3567.</en>
+ <gloss>The-number DEF base 16 equals the-number 3567.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>ABC base 16</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>digits beyond 9</primary><secondary>word pattern</secondary></indexterm> Note the pattern in the cmavo: the diphthongs
<jbophrase>au</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>ei</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>ai</jbophrase> are used twice in the same order. The digits for A to D use consonants different from those used in the decimal digit cmavo; E and F unfortunately overlap 2 and 4 - there was simply not enough available cmavo space to make a full differentiation possible. The cmavo are also in alphabetical order.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>decimal point</primary><secondary>in bases other than 10</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>base point</primary><secondary>in bases other than 10</secondary></indexterm> The base point
<jbophrase>pi</jbophrase> is used in non-decimal bases just as in base 10:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gCo4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e10d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li vai pi bi ju'u paxa du li pamu pi mu</jbo>
- <en>The-number F.8 base 16 equals the-number 15.5.</en>
+ <gloss>The-number F.8 base 16 equals the-number 15.5.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>VUhU selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>F.8 base 16</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>base</primary><secondary>non-constant</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ju'u</primary><secondary>grammar of</secondary></indexterm> Since
<quote>ju'u</quote> is an operator of selma'o VUhU, it is grammatical to use any operand as the left argument. Semantically, however, it is undefined to use anything but a numeral string on the left. The reason for making
<quote>ju'u</quote> an operator is to allow reference to a base which is not a constant.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>pi'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>hours</primary><secondary>minutes</secondary><tertiary>seconds: example</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>compound base</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>compound base</primary><secondary>separator for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>base varying for each digit</primary><secondary>separator for</secondary></indexterm> There are some numerical values that require a
<quote>base</quote> that varies from digit to digit. For example, times represented in hours, minutes, and seconds have, in effect, three
<quote>digits</quote>: the first is base 24, the second and third are base 60. To express such numbers, the compound base separator
@@ -1548,31 +1548,31 @@
<jbophrase>no</jbophrase> to
<jbophrase>paso</jbophrase>, each separated by
<jbophrase>pi'e</jbophrase>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Nx5T">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e10d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li pa pi'e re pi'e ci ju'u reno du li vovoci</jbo>
- <en>the-number 1;2;3 base 20 equals the-number 443</en>
+ <gloss>the-number 1;2;3 base 20 equals the-number 443</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>base greater than 16</primary><secondary>two digits contrasted with compound single-digits</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>base greater than 16</primary><secondary>compound single-digits contrasted with two digits</secondary></indexterm> Carefully note the difference between:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ydwP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e10d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>pano ju'u reno</jbo>
- <en>the-digit-10 base 20</en>
+ <gloss>the-digit-10 base 20</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which is equal to ten, and:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-QBQx">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e10d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>pa pi'e no ju'u reno</jbo>
<en>1;0 base 20</en>
@@ -1582,21 +1582,21 @@
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>large-base decimal fraction</primary><secondary>expressing</secondary></indexterm> Both
<jbophrase>pi</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>pi'e</jbophrase> can be used to express large-base fractions:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-26Li">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e10d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li pa pi'e vo pi ze ju'u reno du li re vo pi ci mu</jbo>
- <en>The-number 1;4.7 base 20 equals the-number 24.35.</en>
+ <gloss>The-number 1;4.7 base 20 equals the-number 24.35.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>base</primary><secondary>vague</secondary></indexterm>
<jbophrase>pi'e</jbophrase> is also used where the base of each digit is vague, as in the numbering of the examples in this chapter:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-U161">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e10d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>dei jufra panopi'epapamoi</jbo>
@@ -1680,21 +1680,21 @@
<para>Here, the mass of my rats is said to have three components; that is, I have three rats.</para>
<para>Another example, with one element this time:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>singular me</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>individual</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1Pen">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e11d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi poi pamei cu cusku dei</jbo>
- <en>I who am-an-individual express this-sentence.</en>
+ <gloss>I who am-an-individual express this-sentence.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-1Pen"/>,
<jbophrase>mi</jbophrase> refers to a mass,
<quote>the mass consisting of me</quote>. Personal pronouns are vague between masses, sets, and individuals.</para>
<para>However, when the number expressed before
<quote>-mei</quote> is an objective indefinite number of the kind explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section8"/>, a slightly different place structure is required:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>individuals of set</primary><secondary>expressing measurement standard for indefinites</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>set</primary><secondary>expressing measurement standard for indefinites</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mass</primary><secondary>expressing measurement standard for indefinites</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mei</primary><secondary>place structure formed for objective indefinites</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
@@ -1768,59 +1768,59 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qIiA" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e11d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi raumoi le velskina porsi</jbo>
<gloss>I am-enough-th-in the movie-audience sequence</gloss>
- <en>I am enough-th in the movie line.</en>
+ <gloss>I am enough-th in the movie line.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>enough-th</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>all-th</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>first rat</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qIiA"/> means, in the appropriate context, that my position in line is sufficiently far to the front that I will get a seat for the movie.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>si'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>portion selbri</primary><secondary>place structure</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>portion selbri</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo
<quote>si'e</quote> creates portion selbri. The place structure is:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
x1 is an (n)th portion of mass x2
</programlisting>
<para>Some examples:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-i8r4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e11d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>levi sanmi cu fi'ucisi'e lei mi djedi cidja</jbo>
<gloss>This-here meal is-a-slash-three-portion-of my day-food.</gloss>
- <en>This meal is one-third of my daily food.</en>
+ <gloss>This meal is one-third of my daily food.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>cu'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>probability selbri</primary><secondary>place structure</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>probability selbri</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>one-third of food</primary></indexterm> The cmavo
<quote>cu'o</quote> creates probability selbri. The place structure is:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
event x1 has probability (n) of occurring under conditions x2
</programlisting>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>probability selbri</primary><secondary>values</secondary></indexterm> The number must be between 0 and 1 inclusive. For example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9sf6">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e11d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nu lo sicni cu sedja'o cu pimucu'o</jbo>
- <en>The event of a coin being a head-displayer has probability .5.</en>
+ <gloss>The event of a coin being a head-displayer has probability .5.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>va'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>coin heads</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>probability .5</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>scale selbri</primary><secondary>place structure</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>scale selbri</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo
<quote>va'e</quote> creates a scale selbri. The place structure is:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
x1 is at scale position (n) on the scale x2
</programlisting>
@@ -1885,21 +1885,21 @@
<quote>me</quote> (of selma'o ME) has the function of making a sumti into a selbri. A whole
<quote>me</quote> construction can have a member of MOI added to the end to create a complex mekso selbri:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>(n+1)-th rat</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-xaYd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e11d13"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta me li ny. su'i pa me'u moi le'i mi ratcu</jbo>
<gloss>That is the-number n plus one-th-of the-set-of my rats.</gloss>
- <en>That is my (n+1)-th rat.</en>
+ <gloss>That is my (n+1)-th rat.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the mekso
<quote>ny. su'i pa</quote> is made into a sumti (with
<quote>li</quote>) and then changed into a mekso selbri with
<quote>me</quote> and
<quote>me'u moi</quote>. The elidable terminator
<quote>me'u</quote> is required here in order to keep the
<jbophrase>pa</jbophrase> and the
<quote>moi</quote> separate; otherwise, the parser will combine them into the compound
@@ -1955,34 +1955,34 @@
<en>What is 2 + 2?</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qiIQ" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e12d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le xomoi prenu cu darxi do</jbo>
<gloss>The what-number-th person hit you?</gloss>
- <en>Which person [as in a police lineup] hit you?</en>
+ <gloss>Which person [as in a police lineup] hit you?</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>questions</primary><secondary>digit</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>digit questions</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>police lineup</primary></indexterm>
<jbophrase>xo</jbophrase> can also be combined with other digits to ask questions whose answers are already partly specified. This ability could be very useful in writing tests of elementary arithmetical knowledge:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hSee">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e12d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li remu pi'i xa du li paxono</jbo>
- <en>The-number 25 times 6 equals the-number 1?0</en>
+ <gloss>The-number 25 times 6 equals the-number 1?0</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>number questions</primary><secondary>answers to</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>numbers</primary><secondary>as grammatically complete utterances</secondary></indexterm> to which the correct reply would be
<jbophrase>mu</jbophrase>, or 5. The ability to utter bare numbers as grammatical Lojban sentences is primarily intended for giving answers to
<jbophrase>xo</jbophrase> questions. (Another use, obviously, is for counting off physical objects one by one.)</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter18-section13">
<title>Subscripts</title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
@@ -2213,32 +2213,32 @@
4 9 2
</programlisting>
<para>can be represented either as:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-zbJP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e15d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>jo'i biboi paboi xa pi'a jo'i ciboi muboi ze ge'a jo'i voboi soboi re</jbo>
- <en>the-vector (8 1 6) matrix-row the-vector (3 5 7), the-vector (4 9 2)</en>
+ <gloss>the-vector (8 1 6) matrix-row the-vector (3 5 7), the-vector (4 9 2)</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>or as</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-06dx">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e15d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>jo'i biboi ciboi vo sa'i jo'i paboi muboi so ge'a jo'i xaboi zeboi re</jbo>
- <en>the-vector (8 3 4) matrix-column the-vector (1 5 9), the-vector (6 7 2)</en>
+ <gloss>the-vector (8 3 4) matrix-column the-vector (1 5 9), the-vector (6 7 2)</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>matrices</primary><secondary>use of parentheses with</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vectors</primary><secondary>use of parentheses with</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>matrices</primary><secondary>use as operands</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vectors</primary><secondary>use as operands</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>inner product</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>outer product</primary></indexterm> The regular mekso operators can be applied to vectors and to matrices, since grammatically both of these are expressions. It is usually necessary to parenthesize matrices when used with operators in order to avoid incorrect groupings. There are no VUhU operators for the matrix operators of inner or outer products, but appropriate operators can be created using a suitable symbolic lerfu word or string prefixed by
<quote>ma'o</quote>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>xi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>subscripts</primary><secondary>to form matrices of more than 2 dimensions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>matrix</primary><secondary>with more than 2 dimensions</secondary></indexterm> Matrices of more than two dimensions can be built up using either
<quote>pi'a</quote> or
<quote>sa'i</quote> with an appropriate subscript numbering the dimension. When subscripted, there is no difference between
@@ -2266,36 +2266,36 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section6"/>.) The number of operands per operator is always fixed. No parentheses are required or permitted. In Lojban, RP notation is always explicitly marked by a
<quote>fu'a</quote> at the beginning of the expression; there is no terminator. Here is a simple example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-V4xe">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e16d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li fu'a reboi ci su'i du li mu</jbo>
- <en>the-number (RP!) two, three, plus equals the-number five.</en>
+ <gloss>the-number (RP!) two, three, plus equals the-number five.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The operands are
<jbophrase>re</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>ci</jbophrase>; the operator is
<quote>su'i</quote>.</para>
<para>Here is a more complex example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PSpq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e16d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li fu'a reboi ci pi'i voboi mu pi'i su'i du li rexa</jbo>
- <en>the-number (RP!) (two, three, times), (four, five, times), plus equals the-number two-six</en>
+ <gloss>the-number (RP!) (two, three, times), (four, five, times), plus equals the-number two-six</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the operands of the first
<quote>pi'i</quote> are
<jbophrase>re</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>ci</jbophrase>; the operands of the second
<quote>pi'i</quote> are
<jbophrase>vo</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>mu</jbophrase> (with
<quote>boi</quote> inserted where needed), and the operands of the
@@ -2327,21 +2327,21 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li fu'a ciboi muboi vu'u du</jbo>
<gloss>li fu'a reboi tu'o va'a</gloss>
<gloss>The-number (RP!) (three, five, minus) equals</gloss>
<gloss>the-number (RP!) two, null, negative-of.</gloss>
- <en>3 − 5 = -2</en>
+ <gloss>3 − 5 = -2</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qijY" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e16d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li cinoki'oki'o du</jbo>
<gloss>li fu'a biboi ciboi panoboi ge'a gei</gloss>
@@ -2372,53 +2372,53 @@
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>KE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>BO selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>connection of operators</primary><secondary>grouping</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>connection of operands</primary><secondary>grouping</secondary></indexterm> In addition, A+BO and A+KE constructs are allowed for grouping logically connected operands, and
<quote>ke ... ke'e</quote> is allowed for grouping logically connected operators, although there are no analogues of tanru among the operators.</para>
<para>Despite the large number of rules required to support this feature, it is of relatively minor importance in the mekso scheme of things.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-e9Xi"/> exhibits afterthought logical connection between operands:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-e9Xi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e17d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>vei ci .a vo ve'o prenu cu klama le zarci</jbo>
- <en>( Three or four ) people go-to the market.</en>
+ <gloss>( Three or four ) people go-to the market.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>three or four people</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-eiTM"/> is equivalent in meaning, but uses forethought connection:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-eiTM">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e17d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>vei ga ci gi vo ve'o prenu cu klama le zarci</jbo>
- <en>( Either 3 or 4 ) people go-to the market.</en>
+ <gloss>( Either 3 or 4 ) people go-to the market.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>parentheses</primary><secondary>for complex mekso used as quantifier</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mekso</primary><secondary>complex used as quantifier</secondary></indexterm> Note that the mekso here are being used as quantifiers. Lojban requires that any mekso other than a simple number be enclosed in parentheses when used as a quantifier. This rule prevents ambiguities that do not exist when using
<quote>li</quote>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>lo'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo'o</primary><secondary>effect of logical connective on elidability of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>effect on elidability of lo'o</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>li</primary><secondary>terminator for</secondary></indexterm> By the way,
<quote>li</quote> has an elidable terminator,
<quote>lo'o</quote>, which is needed when a
<quote>li</quote> sumti is followed by a logical connective that could seem to be within the mekso. For example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-LXtp">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e17d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li re su'i re du</jbo>
<gloss>li vo lo'o .onai lo nalseldjuno namcu</gloss>
<gloss>The-number two plus two equals</gloss>
- <en>the-number four or else a non-known number.</en>
+ <gloss>the-number four or else a non-known number.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Omitting the
<quote>lo'o</quote> would cause the parser to assume that another operand followed the
<jbophrase>.onai</jbophrase> and reject
<quote>lo</quote> as an invalid operand.</para>
<para>Simple examples of logical connection between operators are hard to come by. A contrived example is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-YoFg">
<title>
@@ -2509,34 +2509,34 @@
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>mi'i</primary></indexterm> Intervals defined by a midpoint and range rather than beginning and end points can be expressed by
<jbophrase>mi'i</jbophrase>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-LvBT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e17d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li pimu ga'o mi'i ke'i pimu</jbo>
- <en>the-number 0.5 ± 0.5</en>
+ <gloss>the-number 0.5 ± 0.5</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>closed interval</primary><secondary>expressed with mi'i</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>open interval</primary><secondary>expressed with mi'i</secondary></indexterm> which expresses the same interval as
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Bzf6"/>. Note that the
<quote>ga'o</quote> and
<quote>ke'i</quote> still refer to the endpoints, although these are now implied rather than expressed. Another way of expressing the same thing:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-CEvD">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e17d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li pimu su'i ni'upimu bi'o ma'upimu</jbo>
- <en>the-number 0.5 plus [-0.5 from-to +0.5]</en>
+ <gloss>the-number 0.5 plus [-0.5 from-to +0.5]</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>connection of operands</primary><secondary>precedence over operator</secondary></indexterm> Here we have the sum of a number and an interval, which produces another interval centered on the number. As
<xref linkend="example-random-id-CEvD"/> shows, non-logical (or logical) connection of operands has higher precedence than any mekso operator.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>subscripts</primary><secondary>multiple for same base word</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>compound subscript</primary></indexterm> You can also combine two operands with
<jbophrase>ce'o</jbophrase>, the sequence connective of selma'o JOI, to make a compound subscript:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-eMsd">
@@ -2741,21 +2741,21 @@
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
x1 is the result of applying (operator) to x2, x3, ...
</programlisting>
<para>for as many places as may be required. For example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9idi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e19d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li ni'umu cu nu'a va'a li ma'umu</jbo>
- <en>The-number -5 is-the-negation-of the-number +5.</en>
+ <gloss>The-number -5 is-the-negation-of the-number +5.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>uses
<quote>nu'a</quote> to make the operator
<quote>va'a</quote> into a two-place bridi</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>nu'a</primary><secondary>use in answering operator questions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>na'u</primary><secondary>use in asking operator questions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>answers</primary><secondary>to operator questions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>questions</primary><secondary>operator</secondary></indexterm> Used together,
<quote>nu'a</quote> and
<quote>na'u</quote> make it possible to ask questions about mekso operators, even though there is no specific cmavo for an operator question, nor is it grammatical to utter an operator in isolation. Consider
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qIKp"/>, to which
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qILi"/> is one correct answer:</para>
@@ -2787,21 +2787,21 @@
<quote>su'i</quote> into a selbri (which is a legal utterance) with the inverse cmavo
<quote>nu'a</quote>. Mechanically speaking, inserting
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qILi"/> into
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qIKp"/> produces:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-M5YX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e19d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li re na'u nu'a su'i re du li vo</jbo>
- <en>The-number two (the-operator the-selbri plus) two equals the-number four.</en>
+ <gloss>The-number two (the-operator the-selbri plus) two equals the-number four.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where the
<quote>na'u nu'a</quote> cancels out, leaving a truthful bridi</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>MAI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>mai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>firstly</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>digit string</primary><secondary>definition of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>section numbering</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>text</primary><secondary>sub-division numbering with -mai</secondary></indexterm> Numerical free modifiers, corresponding to English
<quote>firstly</quote>,
<quote>secondly</quote>, and so on, can be created by suffixing a member of selma'o MAI to a digit string or a lerfu string. (Digit strings are compound cmavo beginning with a cmavo of selma'o PA, and containing only cmavo of PA or BY; lerfu strings begin with a cmavo of selma'o BY, and likewise contain only PA or BY cmavo.) Here are some examples:</para>
@@ -2833,21 +2833,21 @@
<gloss>all-ly</gloss>
<en>lastly</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qIoY" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e19d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ny.mai</jbo>
- <en>nth-ly</en>
+ <gloss>nth-ly</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qiPq" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e19d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>pasomo'o</jbo>
<en>nineteenthly (higher order)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -2906,31 +2906,31 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>SE selma'o</primary></indexterm> The other converters of selma'o SE can also be used on operators with more than two operands, and they can be compounded to create (probably unintelligible) operators as needed.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>NAhE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>negation</primary><secondary>of operator</secondary></indexterm> Members of selma'o NAhE are also legal on an operator to produce a scalar negation of it. The implication is that some other operator would apply to make the bridi true:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qIPR" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e21d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li ci na'e su'i vo du li pare</jbo>
- <en>The-number 3 non-plus 4 equals the-number 12.</en>
+ <gloss>The-number 3 non-plus 4 equals the-number 12.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>opposite-of-minus</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qiqd" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e21d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li ci to'e vu'u re du li mu</jbo>
- <en>The-number 3 opposite-of-minus 2 equals the-number 5.</en>
+ <gloss>The-number 3 opposite-of-minus 2 equals the-number 5.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The sense in which
<quote>plus</quote> is the opposite of
<quote>minus</quote> is not a mathematical but rather a linguistic one; negated operators are defined only loosely.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>bo</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>lu'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>la'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>negation</primary><secondary>of operand</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>symbol</primary><secondary>for operand</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>referent</primary><secondary>of operand</secondary></indexterm>
<quote>la'e</quote> and
<quote>lu'e</quote> can be used on operands with the usual semantics to get the referent of or a symbol for an operand. Likewise, a member of selma'o NAhE followed by
<quote>bo</quote> serves to scalar-negate an operand, implying that some other operand would make the bridi true:</para>
@@ -2959,21 +2959,21 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Of course, there is no guarantee that the name
<quote>zel.</quote> is connected with the number rafsi: an alternative which cannot be misconstrued is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pf3n">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e21d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la zemei poi gunta la tebes. pu nanmu</jbo>
- <en>Those-named-the Sevensome who attack Thebes [past] are-men.</en>
+ <gloss>Those-named-the Sevensome who attack Thebes [past] are-men.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>conventional meaning for frinu</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>PA selma'o</primary><secondary>members with rafsi</secondary></indexterm> Certain other members of PA also have assigned rafsi:
<jbophrase>so'a</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>so'e</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>so'i</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>so'o</jbophrase>,
@@ -3059,21 +3059,21 @@
<quote>Score</quote> is not a word for 20 in the same way that
<quote>ten</quote> is a word for 10: it contains the implication of 20 objects. The original may be taken as short for
<quote>Four score years and seven years ago</quote>. Thinking of a score as a twentysome rather than as 20 leads to:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-iwba">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e22d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li mo'e voboi renomei te'u su'i ze</jbo>
- <en>the-number-of four twentysomes plus seven</en>
+ <gloss>the-number-of four twentysomes plus seven</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-iwba"/>,
<jbophrase>voboi renomei</jbophrase> is a sumti signifying four things each of which are groups of twenty; the
<quote>mo'e</quote> and
<quote>te'u</quote> then make this sumti into a number in order to allow it to be the operand of
<quote>su'i</quote>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>base-20 arithmetic</primary><secondary>remnants of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>score</primary><secondary>as alternate base for years</secondary></indexterm> Another approach is to think of
diff --git a/todocbook/19.xml b/todocbook/19.xml
index 8f25b3e..6f40590 100644
--- a/todocbook/19.xml
+++ b/todocbook/19.xml
@@ -18,21 +18,21 @@
</cmavo-list>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>I selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>.i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>audio-visually isomorphic</primary></indexterm> Since Lojban is audio-visually isomorphic, there needs to be a spoken and written way of signaling the end of a sentence and the start of the following one. In written English, a period serves this purpose; in spoken English, a tone contour (rising or falling) usually does the job, or sometimes a long pause. Lojban uses a single separator: the cmavo
<jbophrase>.i</jbophrase> (of selma'o I):</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-XKAG">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e2d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci .i do cadzu le bisli</jbo>
- <en>I go to-the store. You walk on-the ice.</en>
+ <gloss>I go to-the store. You walk on-the ice.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sentences</primary><secondary>separator for joining</secondary></indexterm> The word
<quote>separator</quote> should be noted.
<jbophrase>.i</jbophrase> is not normally used after the last sentence nor before the first one, although both positions are technically grammatical.
<jbophrase>.i</jbophrase> signals a new sentence on the same topic, not necessarily by the same speaker. The relationship between the sentences is left vague, except in stories, where the relationship usually is temporal, and the following sentence states something that happened after the previous sentence.</para>
<para>Note that although the first letter of an English sentence is capitalized, the cmavo
<jbophrase>.i</jbophrase> is never capitalized. In writing, it is appropriate to place extra space before
<jbophrase>.i</jbophrase> to make it stand out better for the reader. In some styles of Lojban writing, every
@@ -172,35 +172,35 @@
<quote>I know already</quote>).</para>
<para>Lojban uses the cmavo
<quote>zo'u</quote> (of selma'o ZOhU) to separate topic (a sumti) from comment (a bridi):</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-p4ww">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e4d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nuzba zo'u mi ba'o djuno</jbo>
- <en>The news : I [perfective] know.</en>
+ <gloss>The news : I [perfective] know.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-p4ww"/> is the literal Lojban translation of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-ovFJ"/>. Of course, the topic-comment structure can be changed to a straightforward bridi structure:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-V2B4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e4d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ba'o djuno le nuzba</jbo>
- <en>I [perfective] know the news.</en>
+ <gloss>I [perfective] know the news.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-V2B4"/> means the same as
<xref linkend="example-random-id-p4ww"/>, and it is simpler. However, often the position of the topic in the place structure of the selbri within the comment is vague:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>fish eat</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-tpcK">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e4d5"/>
@@ -270,34 +270,34 @@
<quote>want money</quote>; you
<quote>want to have money</quote> or something of the sort, as the x2 place of
<jbophrase>djica</jbophrase> demands an event. As a result, the straightforward rendering of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-ggMy"/> without a topic is not:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Mdjd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e4d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do ponse loi jdini .inaja do djica ri</jbo>
- <en>You possess money only-if you desire its-mere-existence.</en>
+ <gloss>You possess money only-if you desire its-mere-existence.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where
<jbophrase>ri</jbophrase> means
<jbophrase>loi jdini</jbophrase> and is interpreted as
<quote>the mere existence of money</quote>, but rather:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-fx2b">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e4d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do ponse loi jdini .inaja do djica tu'a ri</jbo>
- <en>You possess money only-if you desire something-about it.</en>
+ <gloss>You possess money only-if you desire something-about it.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>namely, the possession of money. But topic-comment sentences like
<xref linkend="example-random-id-mK5Y"/> are inherently vague, and this difference between
<jbophrase>ponse</jbophrase> (which expects a physical object in x2) and
<jbophrase>djica</jbophrase> is ignored. See
<xref linkend="example-random-id-EXeq"/> for another topic/comment sentence.</para>
<para>The subject of an English sentence is often the topic as well, but in Lojban the sumti in the x1 place is not necessarily the topic, especially if it is the normal (unconverted) x1 for the selbri. Thus Lojban sentences don't necessarily have a
@@ -517,21 +517,21 @@
<en>How many people did you see?</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The answer would be a simple number, another kind of non-bridi utterance:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-zjVx">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e5d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>vomu</jbo>
- <en>Forty-five.</en>
+ <gloss>Forty-five.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Fill-in-the-blank questions may also be asked about: logical connectives (using cmavo
<jbophrase>ji</jbophrase> of A,
<quote>ge'i</quote> of GA,
<jbophrase>gi'i</jbophrase> of GIhA,
<quote>gu'i</quote> of GUhA, or
@@ -621,92 +621,92 @@
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>XI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>xi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>subscripting</primary></indexterm> The cmavo
<quote>xi</quote> (of selma'o XI) indicates that a subscript (a number, a lerfu string, or a parenthesized mekso) follows. Subscripts can be attached to almost any construction and are placed following the construction (or its terminator word, which is generally required). They are useful either to extend the finite cmavo list to infinite length, or to make more refined distinctions than the standard cmavo list permits. The remainder of this section mentions some places where subscripts might naturally be used.</para>
<para>Lojban gismu have at most five places:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-GuYz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e6d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cu klama le zarci le zdani le dargu le karce</jbo>
- <en>I go to-the market from-the house via-the road using-the car.</en>
+ <gloss>I go to-the market from-the house via-the road using-the car.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Consequently, selma'o SE (which operates on a selbri to change the order of its places) and selma'o FA (which provides place number tags for individual sumti) have only enough members to handle up to five places. Conversion of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-GuYz"/>, using
<quote>xe</quote> to swap the x1 and x5 places, would produce:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-QPGC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e6d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le karce cu xe klama le zarci le zdani le dargu mi</jbo>
- <en>The car is-a-transportation-means to-the market from-the house via-the road for-me.</en>
+ <gloss>The car is-a-transportation-means to-the market from-the house via-the road for-me.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>And reordering of the place structures might produce:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PaKo">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e6d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>fo le dargu fi le zdani fa mi fe le zarci fu le karce cu klama</jbo>
- <en>Via the road, from the house, I, to the market, using-the car, go.</en>
+ <gloss>Via the road, from the house, I, to the market, using-the car, go.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-GuYz"/> to
<xref linkend="example-random-id-PaKo"/> all mean the same thing. But consider the lujvo
<jbophrase>nunkla</jbophrase>, formed by applying the abstraction operator
<quote>nu</quote> to
<jbophrase>klama</jbophrase>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sMPn">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e6d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la'edi'u cu nunkla</jbo>
<gloss>mi le zarci le zdani le dargu le karce</gloss>
<gloss>The-referent-of-the-previous-sentence is-an-event-of-going</gloss>
- <en>by-me to-the market from-the house via-the road using-the car.</en>
+ <gloss>by-me to-the market from-the house via-the road using-the car.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>SE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>se</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>FA selma'o</primary><secondary>after 5th place</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>SE selma'o</primary><secondary>after 5th place</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>subscripts</primary><secondary>and sumti re-ordering</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-sMPn"/> shows that
<jbophrase>nunkla</jbophrase> has six places: the five places of
<jbophrase>klama</jbophrase> plus a new one (placed first) for the event itself. Performing transformations similar to that of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-QPGC"/> requires an additional conversion cmavo that exchanges the x1 and x6 places. The solution is to use any cmavo of SE with a subscript "6" (<xref linkend="chapter-structure"/>):</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-zGhw">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e6d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le karce cu sexixa nunkla mi</jbo>
<gloss>le zarci le zdani le dargu la'edi'u</gloss>
<gloss>The car is-a-transportation-means-in-the-event-of-going by-me</gloss>
- <en>to-the market via-the road which-is-referred-to-by-the-last-sentence.</en>
+ <gloss>to-the market via-the road which-is-referred-to-by-the-last-sentence.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Likewise, a sixth place tag can be created by using any cmavo of FA with a subscript:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-EW1n">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e6d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>fu le dargu fo le zdani fe mi fa la'edi'u</jbo>
<gloss>fi le zarci faxixa le karce cu nunkla</gloss>
<gloss>Via the road, from the house, by me, the-referent-of-the-last-sentence,</gloss>
- <en>to the market, using the car, is-an-event-of-going.</en>
+ <gloss>to the market, using the car, is-an-event-of-going.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-sMPn"/> to
<xref linkend="example-random-id-EW1n"/> also all mean the same thing, and each is derived straightforwardly from any of the others, despite the tortured nature of the English glosses. In addition, any other member of SE or FA could be substituted into
<quote>sexixa</quote> and
<jbophrase>faxixa</jbophrase> without change of meaning:
<quote>vexixa</quote> means the same thing as
<quote>sexixa</quote>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ko'a-series</primary><secondary>after tenth</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>da-series</primary><secondary>after third</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>subscripts</primary><secondary>and pro-sumti</secondary></indexterm> Lojban provides two groups of pro-sumti, both belonging to selma'o KOhA. The ko'a-series cmavo are used to refer to explicitly specified sumti to which they have been bound using
@@ -722,21 +722,21 @@
<en>X sub 4</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is the 4th bound variable of the 1st sequence of the da-series, and</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gfXT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e6d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ko'ixipaso</jbo>
- <en>something-3 sub 18</en>
+ <gloss>something-3 sub 18</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is the 18th free variable of the 3rd sequence of the ko'a-series. This convention allows 10 sequences of ko'a-type pro-sumti and 3 sequences of da-type pro-sumti, each with as many members as needed. Note that
<jbophrase>daxivo</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>dexivo</jbophrase> are considered to be distinct pro-sumti, unlike the situation with
<quote>sexixa</quote> and
<quote>vexixa</quote> above. Exactly similar treatment can be given to the bu'a-series of selma'o GOhA and to the gismu pro-bridi
<jbophrase>broda</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>brode</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>brodi</jbophrase>,
@@ -776,33 +776,33 @@
<jbophrase>ja'a</jbophrase>, the bridi affirmative of selma'o NA, to express so-called fuzzy truths. The usual machinery for fuzzy logic (statements whose truth value is not merely
<quote>true</quote> or
<quote>false</quote>, but is expressed by a number in the range 0 to 1) in Lojban is the abstractor
<quote>jei</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-NGGv">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e6d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li pimu jei mi ganra</jbo>
- <en>The-number .5 is-the-truth-value-of my being-broad.</en>
+ <gloss>The-number .5 is-the-truth-value-of my being-broad.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>However, by convention we can attach a subscript to
<jbophrase>ja'a</jbophrase> to indicate fuzzy truth (or to
<jbophrase>na</jbophrase> if we change the amount):</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-xpiI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e6d12"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ja'a xipimu ganra</jbo>
- <en>I truly-sub-.5 am-broad</en>
+ <gloss>I truly-sub-.5 am-broad</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>subscripts</primary><secondary>and paragraph separators</secondary></indexterm> Finally, as mentioned in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section2"/>,
<jbophrase>ni'o</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>no'i</jbophrase> cmavo with matching subscripts mark the start and the continuation of a given topic respectively. Different topics can be assigned to different subscripts.</para>
<para>Other uses of subscripts will doubtless be devised in future.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter19-section7">
<title>Utterance ordinals: MAI</title>
@@ -828,21 +828,21 @@
<quote>secondly</quote>, and so on, can be created by suffixing
<quote>mai</quote> or
<quote>mo'o</quote> of selma'o MAI to a number or a lerfu string. Here are some examples:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ymMz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e7d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama pamai le zarci .e remai le zdani</jbo>
- <en>I go-to (firstly) the store and (secondly) the house.</en>
+ <gloss>I go-to (firstly) the store and (secondly) the house.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This does not imply that I go to the store before I go to the house: that meaning requires a tense. The sumti are simply numbered for convenience of reference. Like other free modifiers, the utterance ordinals can be inserted almost anywhere in a sentence without affecting its grammar or its meaning.</para>
<para>Any of the Lojban numbers can be used with MAI:
<jbophrase>romai</jbophrase>, for example, means
<quote>all-thly</quote> or
<quote>lastly</quote>. Likewise, if you are enumerating a long list and have forgotten which number is wanted next, you can say
@@ -1022,21 +1022,21 @@
<quote>le'u</quote> (of selma'o LEhU) are used to surround a quotation that is not necessarily grammatical Lojban. However, the text must consist of morphologically correct Lojban words (as defined in
<xref linkend="chapter-morphology"/>), so that the
<quote>le'u</quote> can be picked out reliably. The words need not be meaningful, but they must be recognizable as cmavo, brivla, or cmene. Quotation with
<quote>lo'u</quote> is essential to quoting ungrammatical Lojban for teaching in the language, the equivalent of the * that is used in English to mark such errors:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-IUz8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e9d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo'u mi du do du la djan. le'u na tergerna la lojban.</jbo>
- <en>[quote] mi du do du la djan. [unquote] is-not a-grammatical-structure in Lojban.</en>
+ <gloss>[quote] mi du do du la djan. [unquote] is-not a-grammatical-structure in Lojban.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-IUz8"/> is grammatical even though the embedded quotation is not. Similarly,
<quote>lo'u</quote> quotation can quote fragments of a text which themselves do not constitute grammatical utterances:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-EXeq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e9d3"/>
</title>
@@ -1260,21 +1260,21 @@
<quote>Bob</quote> is-the-name-of the-referent-of the-word
<quote>Bob</quote>.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qiTd" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e10d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lu'e la bab. cmene la bab.</jbo>
- <en>A-symbol-for Bob is-the-name-of Bob.</en>
+ <gloss>A-symbol-for Bob is-the-name-of Bob.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-56m5"/> through
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qiTd"/> all mean approximately the same thing, except for differences in emphasis.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-3yXJ"/> is different:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3yXJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e10d9"/>
</title>
@@ -1422,21 +1422,21 @@
<para>For completeness, the cmavo
<quote>za'e</quote> should be mentioned, also of selma'o BAhE. It marks a word as possibly irregular, non-standard, or nonce (created for the occasion):</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-XtRW">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e11d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama la za'e. .albeinias</jbo>
- <en>I go-to so-called Albania</en>
+ <gloss>I go-to so-called Albania</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>marks a Lojbanization of an English name, where a more appropriate standard form might be something like
<jbophrase>la ctiipyris.</jbophrase>, reflecting the country's name in Albanian.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>unabridged dictionary</primary></indexterm> Before a lujvo or fu'ivla,
<quote>za'e</quote> indicates that the word has been made up on the spot and may be used in a sense that is not found in the unabridged dictionary (when we have an unabridged dictionary!).</para>
@@ -1651,33 +1651,33 @@
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>SI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>si</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>erasure</primary><secondary>word</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo
<jbophrase>si</jbophrase> (of selma'o SI) is a metalinguistic operator that erases the preceding word, as if it had never been spoken:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-JErC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e13d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti gerku si mlatu</jbo>
- <en>This is-a-dog, er, is-a-cat.</en>
+ <gloss>This is-a-dog, er, is-a-cat.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means the same thing as
<jbophrase>ti mlatu</jbophrase>. Multiple
<jbophrase>si</jbophrase> cmavo in succession erase the appropriate number of words:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rjyy">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e13d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta blanu zdani si si xekri zdani</jbo>
- <en>That is-a-blue house, er, er, is-a-black house.</en>
+ <gloss>That is-a-blue house, er, er, is-a-black house.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>erasure</primary><secondary>zo</secondary></indexterm> In order to erase the word
<quote>zo</quote>, it is necessary to use three
<jbophrase>si</jbophrase> cmavo in a row:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-zSQi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e13d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
commit edab8546e3c5b4720b91b8fb4d3a766f517ffe7b
Author: Eitan Postavsky <eitanp32@gmail.com>
Date: Sun Jan 9 17:16:43 2011 -0500
Chapter 11: section titles, <quote>s to <jbophrase>s, and <en>s to <gloss>s.
diff --git a/todocbook/11.xml b/todocbook/11.xml
index c4761bb..580c9ec 100644
--- a/todocbook/11.xml
+++ b/todocbook/11.xml
@@ -1,101 +1,101 @@
<chapter xml:id="chapter-abstractions">
<title>Events, Qualities, Quantities, And Other Vague Words: On Lojban Abstraction</title>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter11-section1">
+ <section xml:id="section-syntax">
<title>The syntax of abstraction</title>
<para>The purpose of the feature of Lojban known as
<quote>abstraction</quote> is to provide a means for taking whole bridi and packaging them up, as it were, into simple selbri. Syntactically, abstractions are very simple and uniform; semantically, they are rich and complex, with few features in common between one variety of abstraction and another. We will begin by discussing syntax without regard to semantics; as a result, the notion of abstraction may seem unmotivated at first. Bear with this difficulty until
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section2"/>.</para>
+ <xref linkend="section-events"/>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>KEI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>kei</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>NU selma'o</primary></indexterm> An abstraction selbri is formed by taking a full bridi and preceding it by any cmavo of selma'o NU. There are twelve such cmavo; they are known as
<quote>abstractors</quote>. The bridi is closed by the elidable terminator
- <quote>kei</quote>, of selma'o KEI. Thus, to change the bridi</para>
+ <jbophrase>kei</jbophrase>, of selma'o KEI. Thus, to change the bridi</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-6EI1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e1d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci</jbo>
- <en>I go-to the store</en>
+ <gloss>I go-to the store</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>into an abstraction using
- <quote>nu</quote>, one of the members of selma'o NU, we change it into</para>
+ <jbophrase>nu</jbophrase>, one of the members of selma'o NU, we change it into</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Via0">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e1d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>nu mi klama le zarci [kei]</jbo>
- <en>an-event-of my going-to the store</en>
+ <gloss>an-event-of my going-to the store</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>KEI selma'o</primary><secondary>eliding</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>observatives</primary><secondary>and abstractions</secondary></indexterm> The bridi may be a simple selbri, or it may have associated sumti, as here. It is important to beware of eliding
- <quote>kei</quote> improperly, as many of the common uses of abstraction selbri involve following them with words that would appear to be part of the abstraction if
- <quote>kei</quote> had been elided.</para>
+ <jbophrase>kei</jbophrase> improperly, as many of the common uses of abstraction selbri involve following them with words that would appear to be part of the abstraction if
+ <jbophrase>kei</jbophrase> had been elided.</para>
<para>(Technically,
- <quote>kei</quote> is never necessary, because the elidable terminator
- <quote>vau</quote> that closes every bridi can substitute for it; however,
- <quote>kei</quote> is specific to abstractions, and using it is almost always clearer.)</para>
+ <jbophrase>kei</jbophrase> is never necessary, because the elidable terminator
+ <jbophrase>vau</jbophrase> that closes every bridi can substitute for it; however,
+ <jbophrase>kei</jbophrase> is specific to abstractions, and using it is almost always clearer.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>and abstractions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstractions</primary><secondary>grammatical uses</secondary></indexterm> The grammatical uses of an abstraction selbri are exactly the same as those of a simple brivla. In particular, abstraction selbri may be used as observatives, as in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Via0"/>, or used in tanru:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-0Ff4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e1d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. cu nu sonci kei djica</jbo>
<gloss>John is-an-(event-of being-a-soldier) type-of desirer.</gloss>
<en>John wants to be a soldier.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>want to be a soldier</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>descriptions</primary><secondary>and abstractions</secondary></indexterm> Abstraction selbri may also be used in descriptions, preceded by
- <quote>le</quote> (or any other member of selma'o LE):</para>
+ <jbophrase>le</jbophrase> (or any other member of selma'o LE):</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sQ33">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e1d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. cu djica le nu sonci [kei]</jbo>
- <en>John desires the event-of being-a-soldier.</en>
+ <gloss>John desires the event-of being-a-soldier.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>We will most often use descriptions containing abstraction either at the end of a bridi, or just before the main selbri with its
- <quote>cu</quote>; in either of these circumstances,
- <quote>kei</quote> can normally be elided.</para>
+ <jbophrase>cu</jbophrase>; in either of these circumstances,
+ <jbophrase>kei</jbophrase> can normally be elided.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstractions</primary><secondary>place structure</secondary></indexterm> The place structure of an abstraction selbri depends on the particular abstractor, and will be explained individually in the following sections.</para>
<para>Note: In glosses of bridi within abstractions, the grammatical form used in the English changes. Thus, in the gloss of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Via0"/> we see
<quote>my going-to the store</quote> rather than
<quote>I go-to the store</quote>; likewise, in the glosses of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-0Ff4"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-sQ33"/> we see
<quote>being-a-soldier</quote> rather than
<quote>is-a-soldier</quote>. This procedure reflects the desire for more understandable glosses, and does not indicate any change in the Lojban form. A bridi is a bridi, and undergoes no change when it is used as part of an abstraction selbri.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter11-section2">
+ <section xml:id="section-events">
<title>Event abstraction</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstractions</primary><secondary>event</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>event abstractions</primary></indexterm> The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>nu</cmavo>
<selmaho>NU</selmaho>
<description>event abstractor</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>NU selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>nu</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le nu</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>nu</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>common abstractor</primary></indexterm> The examples in
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section1"/> made use of
- <quote>nu</quote> as the abstractor, and it is certainly the most common abstractor in Lojban text. Its purpose is to capture the event or state of the bridi considered as a whole. Do not confuse the
+ <xref linkend="section-syntax"/> made use of
+ <jbophrase>nu</jbophrase> as the abstractor, and it is certainly the most common abstractor in Lojban text. Its purpose is to capture the event or state of the bridi considered as a whole. Do not confuse the
- <quote>le</quote> description built on a
- <quote>nu</quote> abstraction with ordinary descriptions based on
- <quote>le</quote> alone. The following sumti are quite distinct:</para>
+ <jbophrase>le</jbophrase> description built on a
+ <jbophrase>nu</jbophrase> abstraction with ordinary descriptions based on
+ <jbophrase>le</jbophrase> alone. The following sumti are quite distinct:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qF0u" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e2d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le klama</jbo>
<en>the comer, that which comes</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qF0U" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
@@ -151,62 +151,62 @@
<jbophrase>klama</jbophrase>.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qf97"/> describes something associated with the bridi as a whole: the event of it.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>events</primary><secondary>duration</secondary></indexterm> In Lojban, the term
<quote>event</quote> is divorced from its ordinary English sense of something that happens over a short period of time. The description:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mxAt">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e2d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nu mi vasxu</jbo>
- <en>the event-of my breathing</en>
+ <gloss>the event-of my breathing</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is an event which lasts for the whole of my life (under normal circumstances). On the other hand,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-BPcI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e2d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nu la djan. cinba la djein.</jbo>
- <en>the event-of John kissing Jane</en>
+ <gloss>the event-of John kissing Jane</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>kissing Jane</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>normal circumstances</primary></indexterm> is relatively brief by comparison (again, under normal circumstances).</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstractions</primary><secondary>sumti ellipsis in</secondary></indexterm> We can see from
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qf97"/> through
<xref linkend="example-random-id-BPcI"/> that ellipsis of sumti is valid in the bridi of abstraction selbri, just as in the main bridi of a sentence. Any sumti may be ellipsized if the listener will be able to figure out from context what the proper value of it is, or else to recognize that the proper value is unimportant. It is extremely common for
- <quote>nu</quote> abstractions in descriptions to have the x1 place ellipsized:</para>
+ <jbophrase>nu</jbophrase> abstractions in descriptions to have the x1 place ellipsized:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-FRoP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e2d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci le nu limna</jbo>
<gloss>I like the event-of swimming.</gloss>
<en>I like swimming.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is elliptical, and most probably means:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Ys8w">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e2d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci le nu mi limna</jbo>
- <en>I like the event-of I swim.</en>
+ <gloss>I like the event-of I swim.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In the proper context, of course,
<xref linkend="example-random-id-FRoP"/> could refer to the event of somebody else swimming. Its English equivalent,
<quote>I like swimming</quote>, can't be interpreted as
<quote>I like Frank's swimming</quote>; this is a fundamental distinction between English and Lojban. In Lojban, an omitted sumti can mean whatever the context indicates that it should mean.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstractions</primary><secondary>implicit in sumti</secondary></indexterm> Note that the lack of an explicit NU cmavo in a sumti can sometimes hide an implicit abstraction. In the context of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Ys8w"/>, the appearance of
<jbophrase>le se nelci</jbophrase> (
<quote>that which is liked</quote>) is in effect an abstraction:</para>
@@ -214,47 +214,47 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e2d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le se nelci cu cafne</jbo>
<gloss>The liked-thing is-frequent.</gloss>
<en>The thing which I like happens often.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which in this context means</para>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ <programlisting>
My swimming happens often.
</programlisting>
<para>Event descriptions with
- <quote>le nu</quote> are commonly used to fill the
+ <jbophrase>le nu</jbophrase> are commonly used to fill the
<quote>under conditions...</quote> places, among others, of gismu and lujvo place structures:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Ia6f">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e2d12"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la lojban. cu frili mi</jbo>
<gloss>le nu mi tadni [kei]</gloss>
<gloss>Lojban is-easy for-me</gloss>
<gloss>under-conditions-the event-of I study</gloss>
<en>Lojban is easy for me when I study.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>under conditions</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> (The
<quote>when</quote> of the English would also be appropriate for a construction involving a Lojban tense, but the Lojban sentence says more than that the studying is concurrent with the ease.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>nu</primary><secondary>place structure</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>events</primary><secondary>place structure</secondary></indexterm> The place structure of a
- <quote>nu</quote> abstraction selbri is simply:</para>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ <jbophrase>nu</jbophrase> abstraction selbri is simply:</para>
+ <programlisting>
x1 is an event of (the bridi)
</programlisting>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter11-section3">
+ <section xml:id="section-event-types">
<title>Types of event abstractions</title>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>NU selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>za'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>zu'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>pu'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>mu'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>event abstractions</primary><secondary>types</secondary></indexterm> The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>mu'e</cmavo>
<selmaho>NU</selmaho>
<description>point-event abstractor</description>
@@ -275,43 +275,43 @@
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>za'i</cmavo>
<selmaho>NU</selmaho>
<description>state abstractor</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>Event abstractions with
- <quote>nu</quote> suffice to express all kinds of events, whether long, short, unique, repetitive, or whatever. Lojban also has more finely discriminating machinery for talking about events, however. There are four other abstractors of selma'o NU for talking about four specific types of events, or four ways of looking at the same event.</para>
+ <jbophrase>nu</jbophrase> suffice to express all kinds of events, whether long, short, unique, repetitive, or whatever. Lojban also has more finely discriminating machinery for talking about events, however. There are four other abstractors of selma'o NU for talking about four specific types of events, or four ways of looking at the same event.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>mu'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>achievement abstractions</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>point-event abstractions</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstractions</primary><secondary>achievement</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstractions</primary><secondary>point-event</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>triumph</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>point-event abstractor</primary></indexterm> An event considered as a point in time is called a
<quote>point-event</quote>, or sometimes an
<quote>achievement</quote>. (This latter word should be divorced, in this context, from all connotations of success or triumph.) A point-event can be extended in duration, but it is still a point-event if it is thought of as unitary, having no internal structure. The abstractor
- <quote>mu'e</quote> means
+ <jbophrase>mu'e</jbophrase> means
<quote>point-event-of</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nFR1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e3d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le mu'e la djan. catra la djim. cu zekri</jbo>
<gloss>The point-event-of (John kills Jim) is-a-crime.</gloss>
<en>John's killing Jim (considered as a point in time) is a crime.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>pu'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>killing Jim</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstractions</primary><secondary>process</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>process abstractions</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>process abstractor</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>killing Jim</primary></indexterm> An event considered as extended in time, and structured with a beginning, a middle containing one or more stages, and an end, is called a
<quote>process</quote>. The abstractor
- <quote>pu'u</quote> means
+ <jbophrase>pu'u</jbophrase> means
<quote>process-of</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-WaxD">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e3d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ca'o le pu'u le latmo balje'a</jbo>
<gloss>cu porpi kei</gloss>
@@ -319,55 +319,55 @@
<gloss>[continuitive] the process-of( the Latin great-state breaking-up )</gloss>
<gloss>many state-rulers were-killed</gloss>
<gloss>During the fall of the Roman Empire,</gloss>
<en>many Emperors were killed.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>zu'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Roman Empire</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstractions</primary><secondary>activity</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>activity abstractions</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>activity abstractor</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Roman Empire</primary></indexterm> An event considered as extended in time and cyclic or repetitive is called an
<quote>activity</quote>. The abstractor
- <quote>zu'o</quote> means
+ <jbophrase>zu'o</jbophrase> means
<quote>activity-of</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-89nw">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e3d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi tatpi ri'a le zu'o mi plipe</jbo>
<gloss>I am-tired because-of the activity-of (I jump).</gloss>
<en>I am tired because I jump.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>za'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstractions</primary><secondary>state</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>state abstractions</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>state abstractor</primary></indexterm> An event considered as something that is either happening or not happening, with sharp boundaries, is called a
<quote>state</quote>. The abstractor
- <quote>za'i</quote> means
+ <jbophrase>za'i</jbophrase> means
<quote>state-of</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-WztQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e3d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le za'i mi jmive cu ckape do</jbo>
<gloss>The state-of (I am-alive) is-dangerous-to you.</gloss>
<en>My being alive is dangerous to you.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>being alive</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>event types</primary><secondary>described</secondary></indexterm> The abstractors in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-nFR1"/> through
<xref linkend="example-random-id-WztQ"/> could all have been replaced by
- <quote>nu</quote>, with some loss of precision. Note that Lojban allows every sort of event to be viewed in any of these four ways:</para>
+ <jbophrase>nu</jbophrase>, with some loss of precision. Note that Lojban allows every sort of event to be viewed in any of these four ways:</para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>state event</primary><secondary>described</secondary></indexterm> the
<quote>state of running</quote> begins when the runner starts and ends when the runner stops;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>activity event</primary><secondary>described</secondary></indexterm> the
<quote>activity of running</quote> consists of the cycle
<quote>lift leg, step forward, drop leg, lift other leg...</quote> (each such cycle is a process, but the activity consists in the repetition of the cycle);</para>
</listitem>
@@ -381,23 +381,23 @@
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>achievement event</primary><secondary>described</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Athens</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>indivisible</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>marathon</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Pheidippides</primary></indexterm> the
<quote>achievement of running</quote> is most alien to English, but sees the event of running as a single indivisible thing, like
<quote>Pheidippides' run from Marathon to Athens</quote> (the original marathon).</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
<para>Further information on types of events can be found in
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section12"/>.</para>
+ <xref linkend="section-abstractor-connection"/>.</para>
<para>The four event type abstractors have the following place structures:</para>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ <programlisting>
<!--
FIXME: put the index entries in
<cx "achievement abstraction: place structure"> XE "achievement abstraction: place structure"
<cx "point-event abstraction: place structure"> XE "point-event abstraction: place structure"
<cx "mu'e: place structure"> XE "mu'e: place structure"
<dt><dd>"mu'e”: x1 is a point event of (the bridi)
@@ -412,53 +412,53 @@ FIXME: put the index entries in
<cx "za'i: place structure"> XE "za'i: place structure"
"za'i”: x1 is a continuous state of (the bridi) being true
<cx "activity abstraction: place structure"> XE "activity abstraction: place structure"
<cx "zu'o: place structure"> XE "zu'o: place structure"
"zu'o”: x1 is an activity of (the bridi) consisting of repeated actions x2
-->
-<quote>mu'e</quote>: x1 is a point event of (the bridi)
+<jbophrase>mu'e</jbophrase>: x1 is a point event of (the bridi)
-<quote>pu'u</quote>: x1 is a process of (the bridi) with stages x2
+<jbophrase>pu'u</jbophrase>: x1 is a process of (the bridi) with stages x2
-<quote>za'i</quote>: x1 is a continuous state of (the bridi) being true
+<jbophrase>za'i</jbophrase>: x1 is a continuous state of (the bridi) being true
-<quote>zu'o</quote>: x1 is an activity of (the bridi) consisting of repeated actions x2
+<jbophrase>zu'o</jbophrase>: x1 is an activity of (the bridi) consisting of repeated actions x2
</programlisting>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter11-section4">
+ <section xml:id="section-properties">
<title>Property abstractions</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ka</cmavo>
<selmaho>NU</selmaho>
<description>property abstractor</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ce'u</cmavo>
<selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
<description>abstraction focus</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>The things described by
- <quote>le nu</quote> descriptions (or, to put it another way, the things of which
- <quote>nu</quote> selbri may correctly be predicated) are only moderately
+ <jbophrase>le nu</jbophrase> descriptions (or, to put it another way, the things of which
+ <jbophrase>nu</jbophrase> selbri may correctly be predicated) are only moderately
<quote>abstract</quote>. They are still closely tied to happenings in space and time. Properties, however, are much more ethereal. What is
<quote>the property of being blue</quote>, or
<quote>the property of being a go-er</quote>? They are what logicians call
<quote>intensions</quote>. If John has a heart, then
<quote>the property of having a heart</quote> is an abstract object which, when applied to John, is true. In fact,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-YSUx">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e4d1"/>
</title>
@@ -524,31 +524,31 @@ FIXME: put the index entries in
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>property abstractions</primary><secondary>specifying determining place by sumti ellipsis</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>property abstractions</primary><secondary>sumti ellipsis in</secondary></indexterm> There are several different properties that can be extracted from a bridi, depending on which place of the bridi is
<quote>understood</quote> as being specified externally. Thus:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-H71J">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e4d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ka mi prami [zo'e] [kei]</jbo>
- <en>a-property-of me loving something-unspecified</en>
+ <gloss>a-property-of me loving something-unspecified</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>property of loving</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> is quite different from</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-wcxY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e4d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ka [zo'e] prami mi [kei]</jbo>
- <en>a-property-of something-unspecified loving me</en>
+ <gloss>a-property-of something-unspecified loving me</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In particular, sentences like
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qfAM"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qfav"/> are quite different in meaning:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qfAM" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e4d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -566,54 +566,54 @@ FIXME: put the index entries in
<jbo>la djan. cu zmadu la djordj. le ka prami mi</jbo>
<gloss>John exceeds George in the property of (X loves me).</gloss>
<en>John loves me more than George loves me.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>property abstractions</primary><secondary>specifying determining place with ce'u</secondary></indexterm> The
<quote>X</quote> used in the glosses of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qfAM"/> through
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qfav"/> as a place-holder cannot be represented only by ellipsis in Lojban, because ellipsis means that there must be a specific value that can fill the ellipsis, as mentioned in
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section2"/>. Instead, the cmavo
+ <xref linkend="section-events"/>. Instead, the cmavo
<jbophrase>ce'u</jbophrase> of selma'o KOhA is employed when an explicit sumti is wanted. (The form
<quote>X</quote> will be used in literal translations.)</para>
<para>Therefore, an explicit equivalent of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qfAM"/>, with no ellipsis, is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-8DD8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e4d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. cu zmadu la djordj. le ka mi prami ce'u</jbo>
- <en>John exceeds George in-the property-of (I love X).</en>
+ <gloss>John exceeds George in-the property-of (I love X).</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qfav"/> is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-JKBQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e4d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. cu zmadu la djordj. le ka ce'u prami mi</jbo>
- <en>John exceeds George in-the property-of (X loves me).</en>
+ <gloss>John exceeds George in-the property-of (X loves me).</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This convention allows disambiguation of cases like:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-GiJp">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e4d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ka [zo'e] dunda le xirma [zo'e] [kei]</jbo>
- <en>the property-of giving the horse</en>
+ <gloss>the property-of giving the horse</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>giving the horse</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> into</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1vc4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e4d12"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ka ce'u dunda le xirma</jbo>
@@ -633,38 +633,38 @@ FIXME: put the index entries in
<jbo>le ka [zo'e] dunda</jbo>
<gloss>le xirma ce'u [kei]</gloss>
<gloss>the property-of (someone-unspecified</gloss>
<gloss>is-a-giver of-the horse to X)</gloss>
<en>the property of being one to whom the horse is given</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which is also a possible interpretation.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>property abstractions</primary><secondary>use of multiple ce'u for relationship abstraction</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relationship abstraction</primary></indexterm> It is also possible to have more than one
<jbophrase>ce'u</jbophrase> in a
- <quote>ka</quote> abstraction, which transforms it from a property abstraction into a relationship abstraction. Relationship abstractions
+ <jbophrase>ka</jbophrase> abstraction, which transforms it from a property abstraction into a relationship abstraction. Relationship abstractions
<quote>package up</quote> a complex relationship for future use; such an abstraction can be translated back into a selbri by placing it in the x2 place of the selbri
<jbophrase>bridi</jbophrase>, whose place structure is:</para>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ <programlisting>
<jbophrase>bridi</jbophrase>: x1 is a predicate relationship with relation
x2 (abstraction) among arguments (sequence/set) x3
</programlisting>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>properties</primary><secondary>place structure</secondary></indexterm> The place structure of
- <quote>ka</quote> abstraction selbri is simply:</para>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ <jbophrase>ka</jbophrase> abstraction selbri is simply:</para>
+ <programlisting>
ka: x1 is a property of (the bridi)
</programlisting>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter11-section5">
+ <section xml:id="section-amounts">
<title>Amount abstractions</title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ni</cmavo>
<selmaho>NU</selmaho>
<description>amount abstraction</description>
@@ -686,40 +686,40 @@ FIXME: put the index entries in
<quote>blueness</quote> could be measured with a colorimeter or a similar device. However,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-FyL4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e5d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ni la djein. cu mamta [kei]</jbo>
<gloss>the amount-of (Jane being-a-mother)</gloss>
<gloss>the amount of Jane's mother-ness (?)</gloss>
- <en>the amount of mother-ness in Jane (?)</en>
+ <gloss>the amount of mother-ness in Jane (?)</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>makes very little sense in either Lojban or English. We simply do not have any sort of measurement scale for being a mother.</para>
<para>Semantically, a sumti with
- <quote>le ni</quote> is a number; however, it cannot be treated grammatically as a quantifier in Lojban unless prefixed by the mathematical cmavo
- <quote>mo'e</quote>:</para>
+ <jbophrase>le ni</jbophrase> is a number; however, it cannot be treated grammatically as a quantifier in Lojban unless prefixed by the mathematical cmavo
+ <jbophrase>mo'e</jbophrase>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-SaTi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e5d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li pa vu'u mo'e</jbo>
<gloss>le ni le pixra cu blanu [kei]</gloss>
<gloss>the-number 1 minus the-operand</gloss>
<gloss>the amount-of (the picture being-blue)</gloss>
- <en>1 - B, where B = blueness of the picture</en>
+ <gloss>1 - B, where B = blueness of the picture</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Mathematical Lojban is beyond the scope of this chapter, and is explained more fully in
<xref linkend="chapter-mekso"/>.</para>
<para>There are contexts where either property or amount abstractions make sense, and in such constructions, amount abstractions can make use of
<jbophrase>ce'u</jbophrase> just like property abstractors. Thus,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1LtX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e5d4"/>
</title>
@@ -739,38 +739,38 @@ FIXME: put the index entries in
<jbo>le pixra cu cenba le ni ce'u blanu [kei]</jbo>
<gloss>The picture varies in-the amount-of (X is blue).</gloss>
<gloss>The picture varies in how blue it is.</gloss>
<en>The picture varies in blueness.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-1LtX"/> conveys that the blueness comes and goes, whereas
<xref linkend="example-random-id-QKpo"/> conveys that its quantity changes over time.</para>
<para>Whenever we talk of measurement of an amount, there is some sort of scale, and so the place structure of
- <quote>ni</quote> abstraction selbri is:</para>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ <jbophrase>ni</jbophrase> abstraction selbri is:</para>
+ <programlisting>
ni: x1 is the amount of (the bridi) on scale x2
</programlisting>
<para>Note: the best way to express the x2 places of abstract sumti is to use something like
- <quote>le ni ... kei be</quote>. See
+ <jbophrase>le ni ... kei be</jbophrase>. See
<xref linkend="example-random-id-zvfX"/> for the use of this construction.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter11-section6">
+ <section xml:id="section-truth-values">
<title>Truth-value abstraction:
- <quote>jei</quote></title>
+ <jbophrase>jei</jbophrase></title>
<para>The
<quote>blueness of the picture</quote> discussed in
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section5"/> refers to the measurable amount of blue pigment (or other source of blueness), not to the degree of truth of the claim that blueness is present. That abstraction is expressed in Lojban using
- <quote>jei</quote>, which is closely related semantically to
- <quote>ni</quote>. In the simplest cases,
- <quote>le jei</quote> produces not a number but a truth value:</para>
+ <xref linkend="section-amounts"/> refers to the measurable amount of blue pigment (or other source of blueness), not to the degree of truth of the claim that blueness is present. That abstraction is expressed in Lojban using
+ <jbophrase>jei</jbophrase>, which is closely related semantically to
+ <jbophrase>ni</jbophrase>. In the simplest cases,
+ <jbophrase>le jei</jbophrase> produces not a number but a truth value:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KuTE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e6d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le jei li re su'i re du li vo [kei]</jbo>
<gloss>the truth-value-of the-number 2 + 2 = the-number 4</gloss>
<en>the truth of 2 + 2 being 4</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -782,48 +782,48 @@ FIXME: put the index entries in
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le jei li re su'i re du li mu [kei]</jbo>
<gloss>the truth-value-of the-number 2 + 2 = the-number 5</gloss>
<en>the truth of 2 + 2 being 5</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is equivalent to
<quote>falsehood</quote>.</para>
<para>However, not everything in life (or even in Lojban) is simply true or false. There are shades of gray even in truth value, and
- <quote>jei</quote> is Lojban's mechanism for indicating the shade of grey intended:</para>
+ <jbophrase>jei</jbophrase> is Lojban's mechanism for indicating the shade of grey intended:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-MRD8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e6d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ba jdice le jei</jbo>
<gloss>la djordj. cu zekri gasnu [kei]</gloss>
<gloss>I [future] decide the truth-value of</gloss>
<gloss>(George being-a-(crime doer)).</gloss>
<en>I will decide whether George is a criminal.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>whether criminal</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>jei</primary><secondary>place structure</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>truth-value abstractions</primary><secondary>place structure</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>legal system</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-MRD8"/> does not imply that George is, or is not, definitely a criminal. Depending on the legal system I am using, I may make some intermediate decision. As a result,
- <quote>jei</quote> requires an x2 place analogous to that of
- <quote>ni</quote>:</para>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ <jbophrase>jei</jbophrase> requires an x2 place analogous to that of
+ <jbophrase>ni</jbophrase>:</para>
+ <programlisting>
jei: x1 is the truth value of (the bridi) under epistemology x2
</programlisting>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fuzzy logic and truth-value abstraction</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstractions</primary><secondary>truth-value and fuzzy logic</secondary></indexterm> Abstractions using
- <quote>jei</quote> are the mechanism for fuzzy logic in Lojban; the
- <quote>jei</quote> abstraction refers to a number between 0 and 1 inclusive (as distinct from
- <quote>ni</quote> abstractions, which are often on open-ended scales). The detailed conventions for using
- <quote>jei</quote> in fuzzy-logic contexts have not yet been established.</para>
+ <jbophrase>jei</jbophrase> are the mechanism for fuzzy logic in Lojban; the
+ <jbophrase>jei</jbophrase> abstraction refers to a number between 0 and 1 inclusive (as distinct from
+ <jbophrase>ni</jbophrase> abstractions, which are often on open-ended scales). The detailed conventions for using
+ <jbophrase>jei</jbophrase> in fuzzy-logic contexts have not yet been established.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter11-section7">
+ <section xml:id="section-predications">
<title>Predication/sentence abstraction</title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>du'u</cmavo>
<selmaho>NU</selmaho>
<description>predication abstraction</description>
</cmavo-entry>
@@ -850,87 +850,87 @@ FIXME: put the index entries in
<jbo>mi djuno le nu la frank. cu bebna [kei]</jbo>
<en>I know the event of Frank being a fool.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mental activity</primary></indexterm> Not quite right. Events are actually or potentially physical, and can't be contained inside one's mind, except for events of thinking, feeling, and the like;
<xref linkend="example-random-id-brpf"/> comes close to claiming that Frank's being-a-fool is purely a mental activity on the part of the speaker. (In fact,
<xref linkend="example-random-id-brpf"/> is an instance of improperly marked
<quote>sumti raising</quote>, a concept discussed further in
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section10"/>).</para>
+ <xref linkend="section-sumti-raising"/>).</para>
<para>Try again:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-oCgP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e7d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi djuno le jei la frank. cu bebna [kei]</jbo>
- <en>I know the truth-value of Frank being a fool.</en>
+ <gloss>I know the truth-value of Frank being a fool.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Closer.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-oCgP"/> says that I know whether or not Frank is a fool, but doesn't say that he is one, as
<xref linkend="example-random-id-7N2q"/> does. To catch that nuance, we must say:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>NU selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>du'u</primary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-6p1K">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e7d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi djuno le du'u la frank. cu bebna [kei]</jbo>
<en>I know the predication that Frank is a fool.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Now we have it. Note that the implied assertion
<quote>Frank is a fool</quote> is not a property of
- <quote>le du'u</quote> abstraction, but of
+ <jbophrase>le du'u</jbophrase> abstraction, but of
<jbophrase>djuno</jbophrase>; we can only know what is in fact true. (As a result,
<jbophrase>djuno</jbophrase> like
- <quote>jei</quote> has a place for epistemology, which specifies how we know.)
+ <jbophrase>jei</jbophrase> has a place for epistemology, which specifies how we know.)
<xref linkend="example-random-id-eYiD"/> has no such implied assertion:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-eYiD">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e7d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi kucli le du'u la frank. cu bebna [kei]</jbo>
<en>I am curious about whether Frank is a fool.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Frank is a fool</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>curious</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>curious</primary></indexterm> and here
- <quote>du'u</quote> could probably be replaced by
- <quote>jei</quote> without much change in meaning:</para>
+ <jbophrase>du'u</jbophrase> could probably be replaced by
+ <jbophrase>jei</jbophrase> without much change in meaning:</para>
<para>FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-h4De">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e7d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi kucli le jei la frank. cu bebna [kei]</jbo>
<en>I am curious about how true it is that Frank is a fool.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>truth-value abstractions</primary><secondary>place structure</secondary></indexterm> As a matter of convenience rather than logical necessity,
- <quote>du'u</quote> has been given an x2 place, which is a sentence (piece of language) expressing the bridi:</para>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ <jbophrase>du'u</jbophrase> has been given an x2 place, which is a sentence (piece of language) expressing the bridi:</para>
+ <programlisting>
du'u: x1 is the predication (the bridi), expressed in sentence x2
</programlisting>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstractions</primary><secondary>speaking</secondary><tertiary>writing, etc.</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>se du'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>linguistic behavior</primary></indexterm> and
- <quote>le se du'u ...</quote> is very useful in filling places of selbri which refer to speaking, writing, or other linguistic behavior regarding bridi:</para>
+ <jbophrase>le se du'u ...</jbophrase> is very useful in filling places of selbri which refer to speaking, writing, or other linguistic behavior regarding bridi:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hzd8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e7d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. cusku le se du'u la djordj. klama le zarci [kei]</jbo>
<gloss>John expresses the sentence-expressing-that George goes-to the store</gloss>
<en>John says that George goes to the store.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -945,41 +945,41 @@ FIXME: put the index entries in
<jbo>la djan cusku lu la djordj. klama le zarci li'u</jbo>
<gloss>John expresses, quote, George goes to the store, unquote.</gloss>
<en>John says
<quote>George goes to the store</quote>.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>because
<xref linkend="example-random-id-AX2I"/> claims that John actually said the quoted words, whereas
<xref linkend="example-random-id-hzd8"/> claims only that he said some words or other which were to the same purpose.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>lu'e</primary></indexterm>
- <quote>le se du'u</quote> is much the same as
- <quote>lu'e le du'u</quote>, a symbol for the predication, but
- <quote>se du'u</quote> can be used as a selbri, whereas
- <quote>lu'e</quote> is ungrammatical in a selbri. (See
+ <jbophrase>le se du'u</jbophrase> is much the same as
+ <jbophrase>lu'e le du'u</jbophrase>, a symbol for the predication, but
+ <jbophrase>se du'u</jbophrase> can be used as a selbri, whereas
+ <jbophrase>lu'e</jbophrase> is ungrammatical in a selbri. (See
<xref linkend="chapter-sumti"/> for a discussion of
- <quote>lu'e</quote>.)</para>
+ <jbophrase>lu'e</jbophrase>.)</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter11-section8">
+ <section xml:id="section-indirect-questions">
<title>Indirect questions</title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>kau</cmavo>
<selmaho>UI</selmaho>
<description>indirect question marker</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>du'u</primary></indexterm> There is an alternative type of sentence involving
- <quote>du'u</quote> and a selbri expressing a propositional attitude. In addition to sentences like</para>
+ <jbophrase>du'u</jbophrase> and a selbri expressing a propositional attitude. In addition to sentences like</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Fpid">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e8d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>I know that John went to the store.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>we can also say things like</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-N4Ja">
@@ -994,35 +994,35 @@ FIXME: put the index entries in
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>know who</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstractions</primary><secondary>with wonder</secondary><tertiary>doubt, etc.</tertiary></indexterm> This form is called an
<quote>indirect question</quote> in English because the embedded English sentence is a question:
<quote>Who went to the store?</quote> A person who says
<xref linkend="example-random-id-N4Ja"/> is claiming to know the answer to this question. Indirect questions can occur with many other English verbs as well: I can wonder, or doubt, or see, or hear, as well as know who went to the store.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>UI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>kau</primary></indexterm> To express indirect questions in Lojban, we use a
- <quote>le du'u</quote> abstraction, but rather than using a question word like
+ <jbophrase>le du'u</jbophrase> abstraction, but rather than using a question word like
<quote>who</quote> (
<jbophrase>ma</jbophrase> in Lojban), we use any word that will fit grammatically and mark it with the suffix particle
<jbophrase>kau</jbophrase>. This cmavo belongs to selma'o UI, so grammatically it can appear anywhere. The simplest Lojban translation of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-N4Ja"/> is therefore:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-QUxG">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e8d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi djuno le du'u</jbo>
<gloss>makau pu klama le zarci</gloss>
<gloss>I know the predication-of</gloss>
- <en>X [indirect question] [past] going to the store.</en>
+ <gloss>X [indirect question] [past] going to the store.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>know who</primary><secondary>contrasted with know that</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>indirect questions</primary><secondary>"ma kau" contrasted with "la djan. kau"</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>kau</primary><secondary>"ma kau" contrasted with "la djan. kau"</secondary></indexterm> In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-QUxG"/>, we have chosen to use
<jbophrase>ma</jbophrase> as the word marked by
<jbophrase>kau</jbophrase>. In fact, any other sumti would have done as well:
<jbophrase>zo'e</jbophrase> or
<jbophrase>da</jbophrase> or even
@@ -1057,34 +1057,34 @@ FIXME: put the index entries in
<jbophrase>ma</jbophrase> as English and Chinese and many other languages do? Because
<jbophrase>ma</jbophrase> always signals a direct question, and so</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-5WU4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e8d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi djuno le du'u</jbo>
<gloss>ma pu klama le zarci</gloss>
<gloss>I know the predication-of</gloss>
- <en>[what sumti?] [past] goes-to the store</en>
+ <gloss>[what sumti?] [past] goes-to the store</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-LDrc">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e8d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>Who is it that I know goes to the store?</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>indirect questions without "kau"</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>indirect question involving sumti</primary></indexterm> It is actually not necessary to use
- <quote>le du'u</quote> and
+ <jbophrase>le du'u</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>kau</jbophrase> at all if the indirect question involves a sumti; there is generally a paraphrase of the type:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-b6VT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e8d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi djuno fi le pu klama be le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I know about the [past] goer to-the store.</gloss>
@@ -1108,21 +1108,21 @@ FIXME: put the index entries in
<gloss>is-at the park.</gloss>
<gloss>I will see whether John or George (or both)</gloss>
<en>is at the park.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In addition,
<xref linkend="example-random-id-b6VT"/> is only a loose paraphrase of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-QUxG"/>, because it is left to the listener's insight to realize that what is known about the goer-to-the-store is his identity rather than some other of his attributes.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter11-section9">
+ <section xml:id="section-minor-abstractions">
<title>Minor abstraction types</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>li'i</cmavo>
<selmaho>NU</selmaho>
<description>experience abstractor</description>
</cmavo-entry>
@@ -1132,98 +1132,98 @@ FIXME: put the index entries in
<description>concept abstractor</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>su'u</cmavo>
<selmaho>NU</selmaho>
<description>general abstractor</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>li'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstractions</primary><secondary>experience</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>experience abstraction</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>experience abstractor</primary></indexterm> There are three more abstractors in Lojban, all of them little used so far. The abstractor
- <quote>li'i</quote> expresses experience:</para>
+ <jbophrase>li'i</jbophrase> expresses experience:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-FS6r">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e9d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi morji le li'i mi verba</jbo>
- <en>I remember the experience-of (my being-a-child)</en>
+ <gloss>I remember the experience-of (my being-a-child)</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>si'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstractions</primary><secondary>concept</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstractions</primary><secondary>idea</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>concept abstraction</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>idea abstraction</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>concept abstractor</primary></indexterm> The abstractor
- <quote>si'o</quote> expresses a mental image, a concept, an idea:</para>
+ <jbophrase>si'o</jbophrase> expresses a mental image, a concept, an idea:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Yh42">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e9d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci le si'o la lojban. cu mulno</jbo>
- <en>I enjoy the concept-of Lojban being-complete.</en>
+ <gloss>I enjoy the concept-of Lojban being-complete.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>su'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstractions</primary><secondary>vague</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vague abstraction</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vague abstractor</primary></indexterm> Finally, the abstractor
- <quote>su'u</quote> is a vague abstractor, whose meaning must be grasped from context:</para>
+ <jbophrase>su'u</jbophrase> is a vague abstractor, whose meaning must be grasped from context:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ycKt">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e9d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ko zgana le su'u</jbo>
<gloss>le ci smacu cu bajra</gloss>
<gloss>you [imperative] observe the abstract-nature-of</gloss>
<gloss>the three mice running</gloss>
<en>See how the three mice run!</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>mice</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>experience abstractions</primary><secondary>place structure</secondary></indexterm> All three of these abstractors have an x2 place. An experience requires an experiencer, so the place structure of
- <quote>li'i</quote> is:</para>
+ <jbophrase>li'i</jbophrase> is:</para>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ <programlisting>
li'i: x1 is the experience of (the bridi) as experienced by x2
</programlisting>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>idea abstractions</primary><secondary>place structure</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>concept abstractions</primary><secondary>place structure</secondary></indexterm> Similarly, an idea requires a mind to hold it, so the place structure of
- <quote>si'o</quote> is:</para>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ <jbophrase>si'o</jbophrase> is:</para>
+ <programlisting>
si'o: x1 is the idea/concept of (the bridi) in the mind of x2
</programlisting>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vague abstractions</primary><secondary>place structure</secondary></indexterm> Finally, there needs to be some way of specifying just what sort of abstraction
- <quote>su'u</quote> is representing, so its place structure is:</para>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ <jbophrase>su'u</jbophrase> is representing, so its place structure is:</para>
+ <programlisting>
su'u: x1 is an abstract nature of (the bridi) of type x2
</programlisting>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstractions</primary><secondary>creating new types</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>template</primary></indexterm> The x2 place of
- <quote>su'u</quote> allows it to serve as a substitute for any of the other abstractors, or as a template for creating new ones. For example,</para>
+ <jbophrase>su'u</jbophrase> allows it to serve as a substitute for any of the other abstractors, or as a template for creating new ones. For example,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-FnNR">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e9d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nu mi klama</jbo>
- <en>the event-of my going</en>
+ <gloss>the event-of my going</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>can be paraphrased as</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-zvfX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e9d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le su'u mi klama kei be lo fasnu</jbo>
- <en>the abstract-nature-of (my going) of-type an event</en>
+ <gloss>the abstract-nature-of (my going) of-type an event</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and there is a book whose title might be rendered in Lojban as:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>bicycle race</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Jesus</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>intersect</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Jesus</primary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-5Kw7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e9d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le su'u la .iecuas. kuctai</jbo>
@@ -1234,27 +1234,27 @@ FIXME: put the index entries in
<gloss>type-of-killed-one)</gloss>
<gloss>of-type a slope-low-direction</gloss>
<gloss>type-of non-motor-vehicle speed-competition</gloss>
<en>The Crucifixion of Jesus Considered As A Downhill Bicycle Race</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note the importance of using
- <quote>kei</quote> after
- <quote>su'u</quote> when the x2 of
- <quote>su'u</quote> (or any other abstractor) is being specified; otherwise, the
- <quote>be lo</quote> ends up inside the abstraction bridi.</para>
+ <jbophrase>kei</jbophrase> after
+ <jbophrase>su'u</jbophrase> when the x2 of
+ <jbophrase>su'u</jbophrase> (or any other abstractor) is being specified; otherwise, the
+ <jbophrase>be lo</jbophrase> ends up inside the abstraction bridi.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter11-section10">
+ <section xml:id="section-sumti-raising">
<title>Lojban sumti raising</title>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>LAhE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JAI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>jai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>tu'a</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstraction conversion</primary></indexterm> The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>tu'a</cmavo>
<selmaho>LAhE</selmaho>
<description>an abstraction involving</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
@@ -1280,88 +1280,88 @@ FIXME: put the index entries in
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1WER">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e10d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi troci le nu</jbo>
<gloss>[mi] gasnu le nu</gloss>
<gloss>le vorme cu karbi'o</gloss>
<gloss>I try the event-of</gloss>
<gloss>(I am-agent-in the event-of</gloss>
- <en>(the door open-becomes)).</en>
+ <gloss>(the door open-becomes)).</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which has an abstract description within an abstract description, quite a complex structure. In English (but not in all other languages), we may also say:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-K14X">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e10d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>I try the door.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>LAhE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>tu'a</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>try the door</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstractions</primary><secondary>simplification to sumti with tu'a</secondary></indexterm> where it is understood that what I try is actually not the door itself, but the act of opening it. The same simplification can be done in Lojban, but it must be marked explicitly using a cmavo. The relevant cmavo is
- <quote>tu'a</quote>, which belongs to selma'o LAhE. The Lojban equivalent of
+ <jbophrase>tu'a</jbophrase>, which belongs to selma'o LAhE. The Lojban equivalent of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-K14X"/> is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gabC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e10d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi troci tu'a le vorme</jbo>
- <en>I try some-action-to-do-with the door.</en>
+ <gloss>I try some-action-to-do-with the door.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>intermediate abstraction</primary></indexterm> The term
<quote>sumti-raising</quote>, as in the title of this section, signifies that a sumti which logically belongs within an abstraction (or even within an abstraction which is itself inside an intermediate abstraction) is
<quote>raised</quote> to the main bridi level. This transformation from
<xref linkend="example-random-id-1WER"/> to
<xref linkend="example-random-id-gabC"/> loses information: nothing except convention tells us what the abstraction was.</para>
<para>Using
- <quote>tu'a</quote> is a kind of laziness: it makes speaking easier at the possible expense of clarity for the listener. The speaker must be prepared for the listener to respond something like:</para>
+ <jbophrase>tu'a</jbophrase> is a kind of laziness: it makes speaking easier at the possible expense of clarity for the listener. The speaker must be prepared for the listener to respond something like:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mKBy">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e10d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>tu'a le vorme lu'u ki'a</jbo>
- <en>something-to-do-with the door [terminator] [confusion!]</en>
+ <gloss>something-to-do-with the door [terminator] [confusion!]</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>LUhU selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>lu'u</primary></indexterm> which indicates that
<jbophrase>tu'a le vorme</jbophrase> cannot be understood. (The terminator for
- <quote>tu'a</quote> is
- <quote>lu'u</quote>, and is used in
+ <jbophrase>tu'a</jbophrase> is
+ <jbophrase>lu'u</jbophrase>, and is used in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-mKBy"/> to make clear just what is being questioned: the sumti-raising, rather than the word
<jbophrase>vorme</jbophrase> as such.) An example of a confusing raised sumti might be:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9S5B">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e10d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>tu'a la djan. cu cafne</jbo>
- <en>something-to-do-with John frequently-occurs</en>
+ <gloss>something-to-do-with John frequently-occurs</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This must mean that something which John does, or which happens to John, occurs frequently: but without more context there is no way to figure out what. Note that without the
- <quote>tu'a</quote>,
+ <jbophrase>tu'a</jbophrase>,
<xref linkend="example-random-id-9S5B"/> would mean that John considered as an event frequently occurs - in other words, that John has some sort of on-and-off existence! Normally we do not think of people as events in English, but the x1 place of
<jbophrase>cafne</jbophrase> is an event, and if something that does not seem to be an event is put there, the Lojbanic listener will attempt to construe it as one. (Of course, this analysis assumes that
<jbophrase>djan.</jbophrase> is the name of a person, and not the name of some event.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JAI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>jai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstractions</primary><secondary>simplification to sumti with jai</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstractions</primary><secondary>making concrete</secondary></indexterm> Logically, a counterpart of some sort is needed to
- <quote>tu'a</quote> which transposes an abstract sumti into a concrete one. This is achieved at the selbri level by the cmavo
- <quote>jai</quote> (of selma'o JAI). This cmavo has more than one function, discussed in
+ <jbophrase>tu'a</jbophrase> which transposes an abstract sumti into a concrete one. This is achieved at the selbri level by the cmavo
+ <jbophrase>jai</jbophrase> (of selma'o JAI). This cmavo has more than one function, discussed in
<xref linkend="chapter-sumti-tcita"/> and
<xref linkend="chapter-tenses"/>; for the purposes of this chapter, it operates as a conversion of selbri, similarly to the cmavo of selma'o SE. This conversion changes</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-jAdY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e10d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>tu'a mi rinka</jbo>
<gloss>le nu do morsi</gloss>
<gloss>something-to-do-with me causes</gloss>
@@ -1384,52 +1384,48 @@ FIXME: put the index entries in
<quote>cause</quote> can either be the actual cause (an event), or else the agent of the cause (a person, typically); not so in Lojban, where the x1 of
<jbophrase>rinka</jbophrase> is always an event.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-jAdY"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-R8SN"/> look equally convenient (or inconvenient), but in making descriptions,
<xref linkend="example-random-id-R8SN"/> can be altered to:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Jt1n">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e10d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le jai rinka</jbo>
- <gloss>be le nu do morsi</gloss>
- <gloss>that-which-is associated-with causing</gloss>
- <gloss>(the event-of your death)</gloss>
+ <jbo>le jai rinka be le nu do morsi</jbo>
+ <gloss>that-which-is associated-with causing (the event-of your death)</gloss>
<en>the one who caused your death</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>because
- <quote>jai</quote> modifies the selbri and can be incorporated into the description - not so for
- <quote>tu'a</quote>.</para>
+ <jbophrase>jai</jbophrase> modifies the selbri and can be incorporated into the description - not so for
+ <jbophrase>tu'a</jbophrase>.</para>
<para>The weakness of
- <quote>jai</quote> used in descriptions in this way is that it does not specify which argument of the implicit abstraction is being raised into the x1 place of the description selbri. One can be more specific by using the modal form of
- <quote>jai</quote> explained in
+ <jbophrase>jai</jbophrase> used in descriptions in this way is that it does not specify which argument of the implicit abstraction is being raised into the x1 place of the description selbri. One can be more specific by using the modal form of
+ <jbophrase>jai</jbophrase> explained in
<xref linkend="chapter-sumti-tcita"/>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-LPbo">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e10d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le jai gau rinka</jbo>
- <gloss>be le nu do morsi</gloss>
- <gloss>that-which-is agent-in causing</gloss>
- <en>(the event-of your death)</en>
+ <jbo>le jai gau rinka be le nu do morsi</jbo>
+ <gloss>that-which-is agent-in causing (the event-of your death)</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter11-section11">
+ <section xml:id="section-events-and-contours">
<title>Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses</title>
<para>This section is a logical continuation of
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section3"/>.</para>
+ <xref linkend="section-event-types"/>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ZAhO selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>NU selma'o</primary></indexterm> There exists a relationship between the four types of events explained in
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section3"/> and the event contour tense cmavo of selma'o ZAhO. The specific cmavo of NU and of ZAhO are mutually interdefining; the ZAhO contours were chosen to fit the needs of the NU event types and vice versa. Event contours are explained in full in
+ <xref linkend="section-event-types"/> and the event contour tense cmavo of selma'o ZAhO. The specific cmavo of NU and of ZAhO are mutually interdefining; the ZAhO contours were chosen to fit the needs of the NU event types and vice versa. Event contours are explained in full in
<xref linkend="chapter-tenses"/>, and only summarized here.</para>
<para>The purpose of ZAhO cmavo is to represent the natural portions of an event, such as the beginning, the middle, and the end. They fall into several groups:</para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>process abstractions</primary><secondary>related tense contours</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo
<jbophrase>pu'o</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>ca'o</jbophrase>, and
<jbophrase>ba'o</jbophrase> represent spans of time: before an event begins, while it is going on, and after it is over, respectively.</para>
</listitem>
@@ -1459,59 +1455,59 @@ FIXME: put the index entries in
<quote>excessive</quote> or
<quote>superfective</quote> part of the event).</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>The cmavo
<jbophrase>co'i</jbophrase> represents an entire event considered as a point-event or achievement.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>pu'u</primary></indexterm> All these cmavo are applicable to events seen as processes and abstracted with
- <quote>pu'u</quote>. Only processes have enough internal structure to make all these points and spans of time meaningful.</para>
+ <jbophrase>pu'u</jbophrase>. Only processes have enough internal structure to make all these points and spans of time meaningful.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>za'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>state abstractions</primary><secondary>related tense contours</secondary></indexterm> For events seen as states and abstracted with
- <quote>za'i</quote>, the meaningful event contours are the spans
+ <jbophrase>za'i</jbophrase>, the meaningful event contours are the spans
<jbophrase>pu'o</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>ca'o</jbophrase>, and
<jbophrase>ba'o</jbophrase>; the starting and ending points
<jbophrase>co'a</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>co'u</jbophrase>, and the achievement contour
<jbophrase>co'i</jbophrase>. States do not have natural endings distinct from their actual endings. (It is an open question whether states can be stopped and resumed.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>zu'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>activity abstractions</primary><secondary>related tense contours</secondary></indexterm> For events seen as activities and abstracted with
- <quote>zu'o</quote>, the meaningful event contours are the spans
+ <jbophrase>zu'o</jbophrase>, the meaningful event contours are the spans
<jbophrase>pu'o</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>ca'o</jbophrase>, and
<jbophrase>ba'o</jbophrase>, and the achievement contour
<jbophrase>co'i</jbophrase>. Because activities are inherently cyclic and repetitive, the beginning and ending points are not well-defined: you do not know whether an activity has truly begun until it begins to repeat.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>achievement abstractions</primary><secondary>related tense contours</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>point-event abstractions</primary><secondary>related tense contours</secondary></indexterm> For events seen as point-events and abstracted with
- <quote>mu'e</quote>, the meaningful event contours are the spans
+ <jbophrase>mu'e</jbophrase>, the meaningful event contours are the spans
<jbophrase>pu'o</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>ba'o</jbophrase> but not
<jbophrase>ca'o</jbophrase> (a point-event has no duration), and the achievement contour
<jbophrase>co'i</jbophrase>.</para>
<para>Note that the parts of events are themselves events, and may be treated as such. The points in time may be seen as
- <quote>mu'e</quote> point-events; the spans of time may constitute processes or activities. Therefore, Lojban allows us to refer to processes within processes, activities within states, and many other complicated abstract things.</para>
+ <jbophrase>mu'e</jbophrase> point-events; the spans of time may constitute processes or activities. Therefore, Lojban allows us to refer to processes within processes, activities within states, and many other complicated abstract things.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter11-section12">
+ <section xml:id="section-abstractor-connection">
<title>Abstractor connection</title>
<para>An abstractor may be replaced by two or more abstractors joined by logical or non-logical connectives. Connectives are explained in detail in
<xref linkend="chapter-connectives"/>. The connection can be expanded to one between two bridi which differ only in abstraction marker.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qFBV"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qFdz"/> are equivalent in meaning:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qFBV" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e12d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1526,24 +1522,24 @@ FIXME: put the index entries in
<anchor xml:id="c11e12d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ka je ni la frank. ciska cu xlali</jbo>
<en>The quality and quantity of Frank's writing is bad.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This feature of Lojban has hardly ever been used, and nobody knows what uses it may eventually have.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter11-section13">
+ <section xml:id="section-summary">
<title>Table of abstractors</title>
<para>The following table gives each abstractor, an English gloss for it, a Lojban gismu which is connected with it (more or less remotely: the associations between abstractors and gismu are meant more as memory hooks than for any kind of inference), the rafsi associated with it, and (on the following line) its place structure.</para>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ <programlisting>
nu event of fasnu nun
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
x1 is an event of (the bridi)
ka property of ckaji kam
x1 is a property of (the bridi)
ni amount of klani nil
x1 is an amount of (the bridi) measured on scale x2
jei truth-value of jetnu jez
x1 is a truth-value of (the bridi) under epistemology x2
li'i experience of lifri liz
diff --git a/todocbook/20.xml b/todocbook/20.xml
index e755a68..ee526a0 100644
--- a/todocbook/20.xml
+++ b/todocbook/20.xml
@@ -506,21 +506,21 @@
<xref linkend="VEhO"/>) or discursive (see
<xref linkend="TO"/> and
<xref linkend="TOI"/>) purposes.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ta ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ckule
That is-a-( pretty little ) girl school.
That is a school for girls who are pretty in their littleness.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="KEI"/> selma'o KEI (
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section1"/>)</bridgehead>
+ <xref linkend="chapter-abstractions-section-syntax"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Elidable terminator for
<xref linkend="NU"/>. Marks the end of an abstraction bridi.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
la djan. cu nu sonci kei djica
John is-an-(event-of being-a-soldier) type-of desirer.
John wants to be a soldier.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="KEhE"/> selma'o KEhE (
@@ -837,21 +837,21 @@
<xref linkend="chapter-relative-clauses-section-poi"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Introduces relative clauses. The following bridi modifies the preceding sumti. Terminated by
<xref linkend="KUhO"/>. See
<xref linkend="GOI"/>.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
le zdani poi blanu cu cmalu
The house which is blue is small.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="NU"/> selma'o NU (
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section1"/>)</bridgehead>
+ <xref linkend="chapter-abstractions-section-syntax"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Abstractors which, when prefixed to a bridi, create abstraction selbri. Terminated by
<xref linkend="KEI"/>.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
la djan. cu djica le nu sonci [kei]
John desires the event-of being-a-soldier.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="NUhA"/> selma'o NUhA (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section19"/>)</bridgehead>
<para>Creates a selbri from a mathematical operator. See
commit c55bcf32c790b110a7854f162aa616485d016d41
Merge: 73a869a 3e8b80d
Author: Eitan Postavsky <eitanp32@gmail.com>
Date: Sun Jan 9 12:42:55 2011 -0500
Merge remote branch 'mathw/gh-pages' into gh-pages
Conflicts:
todocbook/3.xml
todocbook/TODO
commit 3e8b80de9cb71d1632e219215f34199ae1befc11
Author: Matthew Walton <matthew@matthew-walton.co.uk>
Date: Tue Dec 28 15:16:19 2010 +0000
Chapter 3 title and section tags
diff --git a/todocbook/3.xml b/todocbook/3.xml
index ce5d757..b1041ab 100644
--- a/todocbook/3.xml
+++ b/todocbook/3.xml
@@ -1,13 +1,13 @@
<chapter xml:id="chapter-phonology">
- <title>Chapter 3 The Hills Are Alive With The Sounds Of Lojban</title>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter3-section1">
+ <title><quote>The Hills Are Alive With The Sounds Of Lojban</quote></title>
+ <section xml:id="section-orthography">
<title>Orthography</title>
<para>Lojban is designed so that any properly spoken Lojban utterance can be uniquely transcribed in writing, and any properly written Lojban can be spoken so as to be uniquely reproduced by another person. As a consequence, the standard Lojban orthography must assign to each distinct sound, or phoneme, a unique letter or symbol. Each letter or symbol has only one sound or, more accurately, a limited range of sounds that are permitted pronunciations for that phoneme. Some symbols indicate stress (speech emphasis) and pause, which are also essential to Lojban word recognition. In addition, everything that is represented in other languages by punctuation (when written) or by tone of voice (when spoken) is represented in Lojban by words. These two properties together are known technically as
<!-- ^^ tone of voice, 297 -->
<indexterm type="general">
<primary>tone of voice</primary>
</indexterm>
<!-- ^^ orthography: non-standard, 45; relation to pronunciation, 29 -->
<indexterm type="general">
<primary>orthography</primary>
</indexterm>
@@ -42,47 +42,47 @@
<primary>ASCII</primary>
</indexterm>
<!-- ^^ alphabetic order, 29 -->
<indexterm type="general">
<primary>alphabetic order</primary>
</indexterm>
<para>Capital letters are used only to represent non-standard stress, which can appear only in the representation of Lojbanized names. Thus the English name
<quote>Josephine</quote>, as normally pronounced, is Lojbanized as
<quote>DJOsefin.</quote>, pronounced
<phrase role="IPA">['dʒosɛfinʔ]</phrase>. (See
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter3-section2" /> for an explanation of the symbols within square brackets.) Technically, it is sufficient to capitalize the vowel letter, in this case
+ <xref linkend="section-basic-phonetics" /> for an explanation of the symbols within square brackets.) Technically, it is sufficient to capitalize the vowel letter, in this case
<!-- ^^ square brackets: use of in notation, 5 -->
<indexterm type="general">
<primary>square brackets</primary>
</indexterm>
<quote>O</quote>, but it is easier on the reader to capitalize the whole syllable.</para>
<para>Without the capitalization, the ordinary rules of Lojban stress would cause the
<!-- ^^ capitalization: for unusual stress in names, 66; use in names, 66; use of, 66 -->
<indexterm type="general">
<primary>capitalization</primary>
</indexterm>
<quote>se</quote> syllable to be stressed. Lojbanized names are meant to represent the pronunciation of names from other languages with as little distortion as may be; as such, they are exempt from many of the regular rules of Lojban phonology, as will appear in the rest of this chapter.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter3-section2">
+ <section xml:id="section-basic-phonetics">
<title>Basic Phonetics</title>
<para>Lojban pronunciations are defined using the International Phonetic Alphabet, or IPA, a standard method of transcribing pronunciations. By convention, IPA transcriptions are always within square brackets: for example, the word
<!-- ^^ square brackets: use of in notation, 5 -->
<indexterm type="general">
<primary>square brackets</primary>
</indexterm>
<quote>cat</quote> is pronounced (in General American pronunciation)
<!-- ^^ General American, 42 -->
<indexterm type="general">
<primary>General American</primary>
</indexterm>
<phrase role="IPA">[kæt]</phrase>.
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter3-section10" /> contains a brief explanation of the IPA characters used in this chapter, with their nearest analogues in English, and will be especially useful to those not familiar with the technical terms used in describing speech sounds.</para>
+ <xref linkend="section-ipa" /> contains a brief explanation of the IPA characters used in this chapter, with their nearest analogues in English, and will be especially useful to those not familiar with the technical terms used in describing speech sounds.</para>
<!-- ^^ technical terms, 5 -->
<indexterm type="general">
<primary>technical terms</primary>
</indexterm>
<para>The standard pronunciations and permitted variants of the Lojban letters are listed in the table below. The descriptions have deliberately been made a bit ambiguous to cover variations in pronunciation by speakers of different native languages and dialects. In all cases except
<!-- ^^ Lojban letters: IPA for pronouncing, 30; list with IPA pronunciation, 30 -->
<indexterm type="general">
<primary>Lojban letters</primary>
</indexterm>
<quote>r</quote> the first IPA symbol shown represents the preferred pronunciation; for
@@ -339,21 +339,21 @@
<quote>ch</quote> of
<quote>church</quote> and the
<quote>j</quote> of
<quote>judge</quote>. In Lojban, these are considered two consonant sounds spoken together without an intervening vowel sound, and so are represented in Lojban by the two separate consonants:
<quote>tc</quote> (IPA
<phrase role="IPA">[tʃ]</phrase>) and
<quote>dj</quote> (IPA
<phrase role="IPA">[dʒ]</phrase>). In general, whether a complex sound is considered one sound or two depends on the language: Russian views
<quote>ts</quote> as a single sound, whereas English, French, and Lojban consider it to be a consonant cluster.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter3-section3">
+ <section xml:id="section-special-lojban-characters">
<title>The Special Lojban Characters</title>
<para>The apostrophe, period, and comma need special attention. They are all used as indicators of a division between syllables, but each has a different pronunciation, and each is used for different reasons:</para>
<para>The apostrophe represents a phoneme similar to a short, breathy English
<quote>h</quote>, (IPA
<phrase role="IPA">[h]</phrase>). The letter
<quote>h</quote> is not used to represent this sound for two reasons: primarily in order to simplify explanations of the morphology, but also because the sound is very common, and the apostrophe is a visually lightweight representation of it. The apostrophe sound is a consonant in nature, but is not treated as either a consonant or a vowel for purposes of Lojban morphology (word-formation), which is explained in
<xref linkend="chapter-morphology" />. In addition, the apostrophe visually parallels the comma and the period, which are also used (in different ways) to separate syllables.</para>
<para>The apostrophe is included in Lojban only to enable a smooth transition between vowels, while joining the vowels within a single word. In fact, one way to think of the apostrophe is as representing an unvoiced vowel glide.</para>
<!-- ^^ unvoiced vowel glide: apostrophe as, 31 -->
<indexterm type="general">
@@ -442,21 +442,21 @@
</title>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
3.4) .i'ai'i'ai'on.
<phrase role="IPA">[ʔi hai hi hai honʔ]</phrase>
</programlisting>
</example>
<para>which preserves the rhythm and length, if not the exact sounds, of the original English.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter3-section4">
+ <section xml:id="section-diphthongs">
<title>Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants</title>
<para>There exist 16 diphthongs in the Lojban language. A diphthong is a vowel sound that consists of two elements, a short vowel sound and a glide, either a labial (IPA
<phrase role="IPA">[w]</phrase>) or palatal (IPA
<phrase role="IPA">[j]</phrase>) glide, that either precedes (an on-glide) or follows (an off-glide) the main vowel. Diphthongs always constitute a single syllable.</para>
<para>For Lojban purposes, a vowel sound is a relatively long speech-sound that forms the nucleus of a syllable. Consonant sounds are relatively brief and normally require an accompanying vowel sound in order to be audible. Consonants may occur at the beginning or end of a syllable, around the vowel, and there may be several consonants in a cluster in either position. Each separate vowel sound constitutes a distinct syllable; consonant sounds do not affect the determination of syllables.</para>
<para>The six Lojban vowels are
<quote>a</quote>,
<quote>e</quote>,
<quote>i</quote>,
<quote>o</quote>,
@@ -510,21 +510,21 @@
<phrase role="IPA">[wo]</phrase> a back mid vowel with labial on-glide
uu
<phrase role="IPA">[wu]</phrase> a back close vowel with labial on-glide
iy
<phrase role="IPA">[jə]</phrase> a central mid vowel with palatal on-glide
uy
<phrase role="IPA">[wə]</phrase> a central mid vowel with labial on-glide
</programlisting>
<para>(Approximate English equivalents of most of these diphthongs exist: see
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter3-section11" /> for examples.)</para>
+ <xref linkend="section-english-diphthong-analogues" /> for examples.)</para>
<para>The first four diphthongs above (
<quote>ai</quote>,
<quote>ei</quote>,
<quote>oi</quote>, and
<quote>au</quote>, the ones with off-glides) are freely used in most types of Lojban words; the ten following ones are used only as stand-alone words and in Lojbanized names and borrowings; and the last two (
<!-- ^^ borrowings: fu'ivla form with categorizing rafsi, 61; fu'ivla form without categorizing rafsi, 62; most common form for, 61; Stage 1, 61; Stage 2, 61; Stage 3, 61; Stage 3 contrasted with Stage 4 in ease of construction, 62; Stage 4, 62; using foreign-language name, 61; using lojbanized name, 61 -->
<indexterm type="general">
<primary>borrowings</primary>
</indexterm>
<quote>iy</quote> and
@@ -585,23 +585,23 @@
</indexterm>
<!-- ^^ Earl: example, 34 -->
<indexterm type="general">
<primary>Earl</primary>
</indexterm>
<para>Syllables with syllabic consonants and no vowel are never stressed or counted when determining which syllables to stress (see
<!-- ^^ syllabic consonants, 34; effect on stress, 34; final in word, 34 -->
<indexterm type="general">
<primary>syllabic consonants</primary>
</indexterm>
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter3-section9" />).</para>
+ <xref linkend="section-syllabication" />).</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter3-section5">
+ <section xml:id="section-vowel-pairs">
<title>Vowel Pairs</title>
<para>Lojban vowels also occur in pairs, where each vowel sound is in a separate syllable. These two vowel sounds are connected (and separated) by an apostrophe. Lojban vowel pairs should be pronounced continuously with the
<!-- ^^ vowel pairs: contrasted with diphthongs, 34; definition of, 34; grouping of, 35; involving y, 35; list of, 35; use of apostrophe in, 34 -->
<indexterm type="general">
<primary>vowel pairs</primary>
</indexterm>
<phrase role="IPA">[h]</phrase> sound between (and not by a glottal stop or pause, which would split the two vowels into separate words).</para>
<!-- ^^ glottal stop: as pause in Lojban, 31 -->
<indexterm type="general">
<primary>glottal stop</primary>
@@ -701,21 +701,21 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which contains the vowel
<quote>e</quote> followed by the diphthong
<quote>ii</quote>. In rough English representation,
<xref linkend="example-random-id-RxtI" /> is
<quote>May Een</quote>, whereas
<xref linkend="example-random-id-H0wB" /> is
<quote>Meh Yeen</quote>.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter3-section6">
+ <section xml:id="section-consonant-clusters">
<title>Consonant Clusters</title>
<para>A consonant sound is a relatively brief speech-sound that precedes or follows a vowel sound in a syllable; its presence either preceding or following does not add to the count of syllables, nor is a consonant required in either position for any syllable. Lojban has seventeen consonants: for the purposes of this section, the apostrophe is not counted as a consonant.</para>
<para>An important distinction dividing Lojban consonants is that of voicing. The following table shows the unvoiced consonants and the corresponding voiced ones:</para>
<!-- ^^ unvoiced consonants: contrasted with voiced in allowable consonant pairs, 37 -->
<indexterm type="general">
<primary>unvoiced consonants</primary>
</indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
UNVOICED VOICED
p b
@@ -810,28 +810,28 @@
<phrase role="IPA">[dʒɛj məzʔ]</phrase>
James
</programlisting>
</example>
<para>The regular English pronunciation of
<quote>James</quote>, which is
<phrase role="IPA">[dʒɛjmz]</phrase>, would Lojbanize as
<quote>djeimz.</quote>, which contains a forbidden consonant pair.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter3-section7">
+ <section xml:id="section-initial-consonant-pairs">
<title>Initial Consonant Pairs</title>
<para>The set of consonant pairs that may appear at the beginning of a word (excluding Lojbanized names) is far more restricted than the fairly large group of permissible consonant pairs described in
<!-- ^^ consonant pairs: in brivla, 53; initial, 36; letter y within, 53; restrictions on, 36 -->
<indexterm type="general">
<primary>consonant pairs</primary>
</indexterm>
- <xref linkend="cll_chapter3-section6" />. Even so, it is more than English allows, although hopefully not more than English-speakers (and others) can learn to pronounce.</para>
+ <xref linkend="section-consonant-clusters" />. Even so, it is more than English allows, although hopefully not more than English-speakers (and others) can learn to pronounce.</para>
<para>There are just 48 such permissible initial consonant pairs, as follows:</para>
<!-- ^^ initial consonant pairs: list of, 37 -->
<indexterm type="general">
<primary>initial consonant pairs</primary>
</indexterm>
<!-- ^^ consonant pairs: in brivla, 53; initial, 36; letter y within, 53; restrictions on, 36 -->
<indexterm type="general">
<primary>consonant pairs</primary>
</indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
@@ -896,21 +896,21 @@
</indexterm>
<!-- ^^ consonant clusters: buffering of, 38; contrasted with doubled consonants, 35; contrasted with single consonants, 35; definition of, 35; more than three consonants in, 37 -->
<!-- ^^ doubled consonants: contrasted with consonant clusters, 35; contrasted with single consonants, 35 -->
<indexterm type="general">
<primary>doubled consonants</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm type="general">
<primary>consonant clusters</primary>
</indexterm>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter3-section8">
+ <section xml:id="section-buffering-consonant-clusters">
<title>Buffering Of Consonant Clusters</title>
<para>Many languages do not have consonant clusters at all, and even those languages that do have them often allow only a subset of the full Lojban set. As a result, the Lojban design allows the use of a buffer sound between consonant combinations which a speaker finds unpronounceable. This sound may be any non-Lojbanic vowel which is clearly separable by the listener from the Lojban vowels. Some possibilities are IPA
<!-- ^^ consonant clusters: buffering of, 38; contrasted with doubled consonants, 35; contrasted with single consonants, 35; definition of, 35; more than three consonants in, 37 -->
<!-- ^^ doubled consonants: contrasted with consonant clusters, 35; contrasted with single consonants, 35 -->
<indexterm type="general">
<primary>doubled consonants</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm type="general">
<primary>consonant clusters</primary>
</indexterm>
@@ -1061,21 +1061,21 @@
<anchor xml:id="c3e8d9" />
</title>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
8.9)
<phrase role="IPA">[boːŋ gɪ ˈnaːn baː]</phrase>
</programlisting>
</example>
<para>with lengthened vowels.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter3-section9">
+ <section xml:id="section-syllabication">
<title>Syllabication And Stress</title>
<para>A Lojban word has one syllable for each of its vowels, diphthongs, and syllabic consonants (referred to simply as
<!-- ^^ syllabic consonants, 34; effect on stress, 34; final in word, 34 -->
<indexterm type="general">
<primary>syllabic consonants</primary>
</indexterm>
<quote>vowels</quote> for the purposes of this section.) Syllabication rules determine which of the consonants separating two vowels belong to the preceding vowel and which to the following vowel. These rules are conventional only; the phonetic facts of the matter about how utterances are syllabified in any language are always very complex.</para>
<para>A single consonant always belongs to the following vowel. A consonant pair is normally divided between the two vowels; however, if the pair constitute a valid initial consonant pair, they are normally both assigned to the following vowel. A consonant triple is divided between the first and second consonants. Apostrophes and commas, of course, also represent syllable breaks. Syllabic consonants usually appear alone in their syllables.</para>
<para>It is permissible to vary from these rules in Lojbanized names. For example, there are no definitive rules for the syllabication of names with consonant clusters longer than three consonants. The comma is used to indicate variant syllabication or to explicitly mark normal syllabication.</para>
<!-- ^^ syllabication: and names, 39; definition of, 39; examples of, 39; rules for, 39; variants of, 41 -->
@@ -1356,21 +1356,21 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le re no bliprenu</jbo>
<en>le re no bliPREnu</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>If the cmavo
<quote>no</quote> in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qiXR" /> were to be stressed, the phrase would sound exactly like the given pronunciation of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qIXo" />, which is unacceptable in Lojban: a single pronunciation cannot represent both.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter3-section10">
+ <section xml:id="section-ipa">
<title>IPA For English Speakers</title>
<para>There are many dialects of English, thus making it difficult to define the standardized symbols of the IPA in terms useful to every reader. All the symbols used in this chapter are repeated here, in more or less alphabetical order, with examples drawn from General American. In addition, some attention is given to the Received Pronunciation of (British) English. These two dialects are referred to as GA and RP respectively. Speakers of other dialects should consult a book on phonetics or their local television sets.</para>
<!-- ^^ television, 42 -->
<indexterm type="general">
<primary>television</primary>
</indexterm>
<!-- ^^ Received Pronunciation, 42 -->
<indexterm type="general">
<primary>Received Pronunciation</primary>
</indexterm>
@@ -1885,21 +1885,21 @@
<varlistentry>
<term>[ʐ]</term>
<listitem>
<para>An allowed variant of Lojban
<quote>z</quote>. Not an English sound. The voiced version of
<phrase role="IPA">[ʂ]</phrase>.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter3-section11">
+ <section xml:id="section-english-diphthong-analogues">
<title>English Analogues For Lojban Diphthongs</title>
<para>Here is a list of English words that contain diphthongs that are similar to the Lojban diphthongs. This list does not constitute an official pronunciation guide; it is intended as a help to English-speakers.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
Lojban English
ai
<quote>pie</quote>
ei
<quote>pay</quote>
oi
@@ -1935,21 +1935,21 @@
uu
<quote>woo</quote>
iy
<quote>million</quote> (the
<quote>io</quote> part, that is)
uy
<quote>was</quote> (when unstressed)
</programlisting>
</section>
- <section xml:id="cll_chapter3-section12">
+ <section xml:id="section-oddball-orthographies">
<title>Oddball Orthographies</title>
<para>The following notes describe ways in which Lojban has been written or could be written that differ from the standard orthography explained in the rest of this chapter. Nobody needs to read this section except people with an interest in the obscure. Technicalities are used without explanation or further apology.</para>
<!-- ^^ orthography: non-standard, 45; relation to pronunciation, 29 -->
<indexterm type="general">
<primary>orthography</primary>
</indexterm>
<para>There exists an alternative orthography for Lojban, which is designed to be as compatible as possible (but no more so) with the orthography used in pre-Lojban versions of Loglan. The consonants undergo no change, except that
<!-- ^^ orthography: non-standard, 45; relation to pronunciation, 29 -->
<indexterm type="general">
<primary>orthography</primary>
diff --git a/todocbook/TODO b/todocbook/TODO
index ba095a3..acaa18f 100644
--- a/todocbook/TODO
+++ b/todocbook/TODO
@@ -4,20 +4,21 @@
==================
Most of the below is intended to be done as needed as you review a
particular chapter/section. It looks like more complexity than it
actually is; you'll get used to it.
SAY HERE WHAT YOU'VE DONE, including parts you haven't completed
(like index work).
Robin Powell: 5.1, 5.2, 5.3
+Matthew Walton: 3
------
Ignore Chapter 2 for now.
------
Fix the chapter name so it's just the second part, i.e.
<title>Chapter 5
--
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