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[bpfk] dag-cll git updates for Tue Dec 21 11:21:05 EST 2010
commit 8d153db4a8c3863349d71a92da705732aa843416
Author: Robin Lee Powell <rlpowell@digitalkingdom.org>
Date: Tue Dec 21 08:01:02 2010 -0800
Many semi-automated id changes.
diff --git a/todocbook/1.xml b/todocbook/1.xml
index a3d3dea..543f03b 100644
--- a/todocbook/1.xml
+++ b/todocbook/1.xml
@@ -79,21 +79,21 @@
<quote>mangle</quote>? As yet, nobody in the real Lojbanistan speaks the language at all well, by the standards of the imaginary Lojbanistan; that is one of the circumstances this book is meant to help remedy.</para>
<!-- ^^ Lojbanistan, 4 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Lojbanistan</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter1-section3">
<title>What are the typographical conventions of this book?</title>
<!-- ^^ typographical conventions, 4 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>typographical conventions</primary></indexterm>
<para>Each chapter is broken into numbered sections; each section contains a mixture of expository text, numbered examples, and possibly tables.</para>
<para>The reader will notice a certain similarity in the examples used throughout the book. One chapter after another rings the changes on the self-same sentences:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-hrtj">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hrtj">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c1e3d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter1-section3-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I go-to that-which-I-describe-as-a store.</gloss>
<en>I go to the store.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
diff --git a/todocbook/10.xml b/todocbook/10.xml
index 70aede3..e86e4ed 100644
--- a/todocbook/10.xml
+++ b/todocbook/10.xml
@@ -28,21 +28,21 @@
<para>all mean the same thing, even though the first sentence uses the present tense; the second, the future tense; and the third, a compound tense usually called
<!-- ^^ compound tense: compared with multiple tenses in sentence, 234; compared with tense in scope of sticky tense, 234; definition, 218; Lojban contrasted with English in order of specification, 218 -->
<!-- ^^ tense in scope of sticky tense: compared with compound tense, 234 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>tense in scope of sticky tense</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ multiple tenses: effect of order in sentence, 235 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>multiple tenses</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>compound tense</primary></indexterm>
<quote>present progressive</quote>. Likewise, a newspaper headline says
<quote>JONES DIES</quote>, although it is obvious that the time referred to must be in the past. Tense is a mandatory category of English: every sentence must be marked for tense, even if in a way contrary to logic, because every main verb has a tense marker built into to it. By contrast, Lojban brivla have no implicit tense marker attached to them.</para>
<para>In Lojban, the concept of tense extends to every selbri, not merely the verb-like ones. In addition, tense structures provide information about location in space as well as in time. All tense information is optional in Lojban: a sentence like:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-cKSK">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-cKSK">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e1d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section1-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci</jbo>
<en>I go-to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>can be understood as:</para>
@@ -52,58 +52,58 @@
I have gone to the market.
I will go to the market.
I continually go to the market.
</programlisting>
<para>as well as many other possibilities: context resolves which is correct.</para>
<para>The placement of a tense construct within a Lojban bridi is easy: right before the selbri. It goes immediately after the
<quote>cu</quote>, and can in fact always replace the
<quote>cu</quote>(although in very complex sentences the rules for eliding terminators may be changed as a result). In the following examples,
<quote>pu</quote> is the tense marker for
<quote>past time</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-nFgv">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nFgv">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e1d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section1-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cu pu klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>mi pu klama le zarci</gloss>
<gloss>I in-the-past go-to the market.</gloss>
<en>I went to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>It is also possible to put the tense somewhere else in the bridi by adding
<quote>ku</quote> after it. This
<quote>ku</quote> is an elidable terminator, but it's almost never possible to actually elide it except at the end of the bridi:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-5V3Y">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-5V3Y">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e1d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section1-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>puku mi klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>In-the-past I go-to the market.</gloss>
<en>Earlier, I went to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-DpEI">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-DpEI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e1d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section1-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama puku le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I go-to in-the-past the market.</gloss>
<en>I went earlier to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-0f11">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-0f11">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e1d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section1-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci pu [ku]</jbo>
<gloss>I go-to the market in-the-past.</gloss>
<en>I went to the market earlier.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -179,38 +179,38 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section1" />, asks the reader? Because the model to be used in explaining both will be easier to grasp for space than for time. The explanation of time tenses will resume in
<!-- ^^ time tenses: quick-tour version, 25 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>time tenses</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ resume: contrasted with begin, 229 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>resume</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section4" />.</para>
<para>English doesn't have mandatory spatial tenses. Although there are plenty of ways in English of showing where an event happens, there is absolutely no need to do so. Considering this fact may give the reader a feel for what the optional Lojban time tenses are like. From the Lojban point of view, space and time are interchangeable, although they are not treated identically.</para>
<!-- ^^ time tenses: quick-tour version, 25 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>time tenses</primary></indexterm>
<para>Lojban specifies the spatial tense of a bridi (the place at which it occurs) by using words from selma'o FAhA and VA to describe an imaginary journey from the speaker to the place referred to. FAhA cmavo specify the direction taken in the journey, whereas VA cmavo specify the distance gone. For example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-hNAJ">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hNAJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e2d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section2-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu va batci le gerku</jbo>
<gloss>The man [medium distance] bites the dog.</gloss>
<en>Over there the man is biting the dog.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>What is at a medium distance? The event referred to by the bridi: the man biting the dog. What is this event at a medium distance from? The speaker's location. We can understand the
<quote>va</quote> as saying:
<quote>If you want to get from the speaker's location to the location of the bridi, journey for a medium distance (in some direction unspecified).</quote> This
<quote>imaginary journey</quote> can be used to understand not only
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section2-example1" />, but also every other spatial tense construct.</para>
<para>Suppose you specify a direction with a FAhA cmavo, rather than a distance with a VA cmavo:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-5Qxr">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-5Qxr">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e2d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section2-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu zu'a batci le gerku</jbo>
<en>The man [left] bites the dog.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the imaginary journey is again from the speaker's location to the location of the bridi, but it is now performed by going to the left (in the speaker's reference frame) for an unspecified distance. So a reasonable translation is:</para>
@@ -228,35 +228,35 @@
<quote>vi</quote>,
<quote>va</quote>, and
<quote>vu</quote> are intended to be reminiscent of
<quote>ti</quote>,
<quote>ta</quote>, and
<quote>tu</quote>, the demonstrative pronouns
<quote>this-here</quote>,
<quote>that-there</quote>, and
<quote>that-yonder</quote>.)</para>
<para>What about specifying both a direction and a distance? The rule here is that the direction must come before the distance:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-LEIm">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-LEIm">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e2d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section2-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu zu'avi batci le gerku</jbo>
<gloss>The man [left] [short distance] bites the dog.</gloss>
<en>Slightly to my left, the man bites the dog.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>As explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section1" />, it would be perfectly correct to use
<quote>ku</quote> to move this tense to the beginning or the end of the sentence to emphasize it:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-uCGa">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-uCGa">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e2d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section2-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>zu'aviku le nanmu cu batci le gerku</jbo>
<gloss>[Left] [short distance] the man bites the dog.</gloss>
<en>Slightly to my left, the man bites the dog.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -268,21 +268,21 @@
<quote>zu'a</quote> means
<quote>on the left</quote> and
<quote>vi</quote> means
<quote>nearby</quote>, and there's no more to be said. The imaginary-journey model becomes more useful when so-called compound tenses are involved. A compound tense is exactly like a simple tense, but has several FAhAs run together:</para>
<!-- ^^ compound tense: compared with multiple tenses in sentence, 234; compared with tense in scope of sticky tense, 234; definition, 218; Lojban contrasted with English in order of specification, 218 -->
<!-- ^^ tense in scope of sticky tense: compared with compound tense, 234 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>tense in scope of sticky tense</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ multiple tenses: effect of order in sentence, 235 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>multiple tenses</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>compound tense</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-rWtP">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rWtP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e3d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section3-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu ga'u zu'a batci le gerku</jbo>
<en>The man [up] [left] bites the dog.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The proper interpretation of
@@ -291,65 +291,65 @@
Left of a place above me, the man bites the dog.
</programlisting>
<para>(Perhaps the speaker is at the bottom of a manhole, and the dog-biting is going on at the edge of the street.)</para>
<!-- ^^ manhole: example, 218 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>manhole</primary></indexterm>
<para>In the English translation, the keywords
<quote>left</quote> and
<quote>above</quote> occur in reverse order to the Lojban order. This effect is typical of what happens when we
<quote>unfold</quote> Lojban compound tenses into their English equivalents, and shows why it is not very useful to try to memorize a list of Lojban tense constructs and their colloquial English equivalents.</para>
<para>The opposite order also makes sense:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-d1gU">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-d1gU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e3d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section3-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu zu'a ga'u batci le gerku</jbo>
<gloss>The man [left] [up] bites the dog.</gloss>
<en>Above a place to the left of me, the man bites the dog.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In ordinary space, the result of going up and then to the left is the same as that of going left and then up, but such a simple relationship does not apply in all environments or to all directions: going south, then east, then north may return one to the starting point, if that point is the North Pole.</para>
<para>Each direction can have a distance following:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-G9at">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-G9at">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e3d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section3-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu zu'avi ga'uvu batci le gerku</jbo>
<gloss>The man [left] [short distance] [up] [long distance] bites the dog.</gloss>
<en>Far above a place slightly to the left of me, the man bites the dog.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>A distance can also come at the beginning of the tense construct, without any specified direction. (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section2-example1" />, with VA alone, is really a special case of this rule when no directions at all follow.)</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-9Tpz">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9Tpz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e3d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section3-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu vi zu'a batci le gerku</jbo>
<gloss>The man [short distance] [left] bites the dog.</gloss>
<en>Left of a place near me, the man bites the dog.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Any number of directions may be used in a compound tense, with or without specified distances for each:</para>
<!-- ^^ compound tense: compared with multiple tenses in sentence, 234; compared with tense in scope of sticky tense, 234; definition, 218; Lojban contrasted with English in order of specification, 218 -->
<!-- ^^ tense in scope of sticky tense: compared with compound tense, 234 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>tense in scope of sticky tense</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ multiple tenses: effect of order in sentence, 235 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>multiple tenses</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>compound tense</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-mqTU">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mqTU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e3d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section3-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu ca'uvi ni'ava ri'uvu ne'i</jbo>
<gloss>batci le gerku</gloss>
<gloss>The man [front] [short] [down] [medium] [right] [long] [within]</gloss>
<gloss>bites the dog.</gloss>
<gloss>Within a place a long distance to the right of a place which is a medium</gloss>
@@ -393,21 +393,21 @@
<cmavo>zu</cmavo>
<selmaho>ZI</selmaho>
<description>long time distance</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>Now that the reader understands spatial tenses, there are only two main facts to understand about temporal tenses: they work exactly like the spatial tenses, with selma'o PU and ZI standing in for FAhA and VA; and when both spatial and temporal tense cmavo are given in a single tense construct, the temporal tense is expressed first. (If space could be expressed before or after time at will, then certain constructions would be ambiguous.)</para>
<!-- ^^ temporal tenses: compared with spatial tenses, 219 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>temporal tenses</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ temporal tense: as mandatory in English, 215; compared with spatial tense in elidability, 217; historical definition, 215; interaction with 4-dimensional spatial tense, 224; Lojban contrasted with English in necessity, 215; order relative to spatial, 219; quantified with direction, 227; real relationship to time in English, 215 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>temporal tense</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ameb">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ameb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e4d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section4-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu pu batci le gerku</jbo>
<gloss>The man [past] bites the dog.</gloss>
<en>The man bit the dog.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -440,21 +440,21 @@
<!-- ^^ time tenses: quick-tour version, 25 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>time tenses</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ relativity theory: relation to Lojban tense system, 220 -->
<!-- ^^ tense system: and space location, 215 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>tense system</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>relativity theory</primary></indexterm>
<quote>point-like observer</quote> in the relativistic sense: they do not say anything about physical relationships of relativistic interval, still less about implicit causality. The nature of tense is not only subjective but also observer-based.)</para>
<para>Here are some examples of temporal tenses:</para>
<!-- ^^ temporal tenses: compared with spatial tenses, 219 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>temporal tenses</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-2Az7">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2Az7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e4d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section4-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e4d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section4-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e4d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section4-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu puzi batci le gerku</jbo>
@@ -467,21 +467,21 @@
<en>The man had been biting the dog.</en>
<jbo>le nanmu ba puzi batci le gerku</jbo>
<gloss>The man [future] [past] [short] bites the dog.</gloss>
<gloss>Shortly earlier than some time later than now, the man will bite the dog.</gloss>
<gloss>Soon before then, the man will have bitten the dog.</gloss>
<gloss>The man will have just bitten the dog.</gloss>
<en>The man will just have been biting the dog.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>What about the analogue of an initial VA without a direction? Lojban does allow an initial ZI with or without following PUs:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Rpdw">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Rpdw">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e4d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section4-example5" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e4d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section4-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu zi pu batci le gerku</jbo>
<gloss>The man [short] [past] bites the dog.</gloss>
<en>Before a short time from or before now, the man bit or will bite the dog.</en>
@@ -495,33 +495,33 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section4-example6" /> are perfectly legitimate, but may not be very much used:
<quote>zi</quote> by itself signals an event that happens at a time close to the present, but without saying whether it is in the past or the future. A rough translation might be
<quote>about now, but not exactly now</quote>.</para>
<para>Because we can move in any direction in space, we are comfortable with the idea of events happening in an unspecified space direction (
<quote>nearby</quote> or
<quote>far away</quote>), but we live only from past to future, and the idea of an event which happens
<quote>nearby in time</quote> is a peculiar one. Lojban provides lots of such possibilities that don't seem all that useful to English-speakers, even though you can put them together productively; this fact may be a limitation of English.</para>
<!-- ^^ nearby in time: example, 220 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>nearby in time</primary></indexterm>
<para>Finally, here are examples which combine temporal and spatial tense:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-vtUw">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-vtUw">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e4d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section4-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu puzu vu batci le gerku</jbo>
<gloss>The man [past] [long time] [long space] bites the dog.</gloss>
<en>Long ago and far away, the man bit the dog.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Alternatively,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Jsw5">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Jsw5">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e4d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section4-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu batci le gerku puzuvuku</jbo>
<gloss>The man bites the dog [past] [long time] [long space].</gloss>
<en>The man bit the dog long ago and far away.</en>
<!-- ^^ long ago and far away: example, 220 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>long ago and far away</primary></indexterm>
@@ -561,160 +561,160 @@
<cmavo>ze'u</cmavo>
<selmaho>ZEhA</selmaho>
<description>long time interval</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>So far, we have considered only events that are usually thought of as happening at a particular point in space and time: a man biting a dog at a specified place and time. But Lojbanic events may be much more
<quote>spread out</quote> than that:
<quote>mi vasxu</quote>(I breathe) is something which is true during the whole of my life from birth to death, and over the entire part of the earth where I spend my life. The cmavo of VEhA (for space) and ZEhA (for time) can be added to any of the tense constructs we have already studied to specify the size of the space or length of the time over which the bridi is claimed to be true.</para>
<!-- ^^ breathe: example, 363 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>breathe</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Pgzz">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Pgzz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e5d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section5-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le verba ve'i cadzu le bisli</jbo>
<gloss>The child [small space interval] walks-on the ice.</gloss>
<gloss>In a small space, the child walks on the ice.</gloss>
<en>The child walks about a small area of the ice.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means that her walking was done in a small area. Like the distances, the interval sizes are classified only roughly as
<quote>small, medium, large</quote>, and are relative to the context: a small part of a room might be a large part of a table in that room.</para>
<para>Here is an example using a time interval:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ap7g">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ap7g">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e5d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section5-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le verba ze'a cadzu le bisli</jbo>
<gloss>The child [medium time interval] walks-on the ice.</gloss>
<en>For a medium time, the child walks/walked/will walk on the ice.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that with no time direction word,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section5-example2" /> does not say when the walking happened: that would be determined by context. It is possible to specify both directions or distances and an interval, in which case the interval always comes afterward:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-gHPI">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gHPI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e5d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section5-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le verba pu ze'a cadzu le bisli</jbo>
<gloss>The child [past] [medium time interval] walks-on the ice.</gloss>
<gloss>For a medium time, the child walked on the ice.</gloss>
<en>The child walked on the ice for a while.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section5-example3" />, the relationship of the interval to the specified point in time or space is indeterminate. Does the interval start at the point, end at the point, or is it centered on the point? By adding an additional direction cmavo after the interval, this question can be conclusively answered:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-q4Aw">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-q4Aw">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e5d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section5-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ca ze'ica cusku dei</jbo>
<gloss>I [present] [short time interval – present] express this-utterance.</gloss>
<en>I am now saying this sentence.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means that for an interval starting a short time in the past and extending to a short time in the future, I am expressing the utterance which is
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section5-example4" />. Of course,
<quote>short</quote> is relative, as always in tenses. Even a long sentence takes up only a short part of a whole day; in a geological context, the era of
<emphasis>Homo sapiens</emphasis> would only be a
<quote>ze'i</quote> interval.</para>
<para>By contrast,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-imdX">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-imdX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e5d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section5-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ca ze'ipu cusku dei</jbo>
<gloss>I [present] [short time interval – past] express this-utterance.</gloss>
<en>I have just been saying this sentence.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means that for a short time interval extending from the past to the present I have been expressing
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section5-example5" />. Here the imaginary journey starts at the present, lays down one end point of the interval, moves into the past, and lays down the other endpoint. Another example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-AqvW">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-AqvW">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e5d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section5-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu ze'aba citka le mi sanmi</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] [medium time interval - future] eat my meal.</gloss>
<gloss>For a medium time afterward, I ate my meal.</gloss>
<en>I ate my meal for a while.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>With
<quote>ca</quote> instead of
<quote>ba</quote>,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section5-example6" /> becomes
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section5-example7" />,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-a5dp">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-a5dp">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e5d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section5-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu ze'aca citka le mi sanmi</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] [medium time interval – present] eat my meal.</gloss>
<gloss>For a medium time before and afterward, I ate my meal.</gloss>
<en>I ate my meal for a while.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>because the interval would then be centered on the past moment rather than oriented toward the future of that moment. The colloquial English translations are the same - English is not well-suited to representing this distinction.</para>
<para>Here are some examples of the use of space intervals with and without specified directions:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Mrzt">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Mrzt">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e5d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section5-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta ri'u ve'i finpe</jbo>
<gloss>That-there [right] [short space interval] is-a-fish.</gloss>
<en>That thing on my right is a fish.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section5-example8" />, there is no equivalent in the colloquial English translation of the
<quote>small interval</quote> which the fish occupies. Neither the Lojban nor the English expresses the orientation of the fish. Compare
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section5-example9" />:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-AVU3">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-AVU3">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e5d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section5-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta ri'u ve'ica'u finpe</jbo>
<gloss>That-there [right] [short space interval – front] is-a-fish.</gloss>
<en>That thing on my right extending forwards is a fish.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the space interval occupied by the fish extends from a point on my right to another point in front of the first point.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section6">
<title>Vague intervals and non-specific tenses</title>
<para>What is the significance of failing to specify an interval size of the type discussed in
<!-- ^^ interval size: as context-dependent, 222; meaning as sumti tcita, 233; spatial, 506; time, 507; unspecified, 223; vague, 223 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>interval size</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section5" />? The Lojban rule is that if no interval size is given, the size of the space or time interval is left vague by the speaker. For example:</para>
<!-- ^^ interval size: as context-dependent, 222; meaning as sumti tcita, 233; spatial, 506; time, 507; unspecified, 223; vague, 223 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>interval size</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-naft">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-naft">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e6d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section6-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu klama le zarci</jbo>
<en>I [past] go-to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>really means:</para>
@@ -727,21 +727,21 @@
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section6-example1" /> points up a fundamental difference between Lojban tenses and English tenses. An English past-tense sentence like
<quote>I went to the market</quote> generally signifies that the going-to-the-market is entirely in the past; that is, that the event is complete at the time of speaking. Lojban
<quote>pu</quote> has no such implication.</para>
<para>This property of a past tense is sometimes called
<quote>aorist</quote>, in reference to a similar concept in the tense system of Classical Greek. All of the Lojban tenses have the same property, however:</para>
<!-- ^^ tense system: and space location, 215 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>tense system</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ aorist: definition, 223 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>aorist</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-xQ0w">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-xQ0w">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e6d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section6-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le tricu ba crino</jbo>
<gloss>The tree [future] is-green.</gloss>
<en>The tree will be green.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -784,21 +784,21 @@
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>The cmavo of ZEhA are sufficient to express time intervals. One fundamental difference between space and time, however, is that space is multi-dimensional. Sometimes we want to say not only that something moves over a small interval, but also perhaps that it moves in a line. Lojban allows for this. I can specify that a motion
<quote>in a small space</quote> is more specifically
<quote>in a short line</quote>,
<quote>in a small area</quote>, or
<quote>through a small volume</quote>.</para>
<para>What about the child walking on the ice in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section5-example1" /> through
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section5-example3" />? Given the nature of ice, probably the area interpretation is most sensible. I can make this assumption explicit with the appropriate member of selma'o VIhA:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-vKp6">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-vKp6">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e7d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section7-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le verba ve'a vi'a cadzu le bisli</jbo>
<!-- ^^ vi'a, 224 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>vi'a</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>The child [medium space interval] [2-dimensional] walks-on the ice.</gloss>
<en>In a medium-sized area, the child walks on the ice.</en>
@@ -844,51 +844,51 @@
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>mo'i</cmavo>
<selmaho>MOhI</selmaho>
<description>movement flag</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>All the information carried by the tense constructs so far presented has been presumed to be static: the bridi is occurring somewhere or other in space and time, more or less remote from the speaker. Suppose the truth of the bridi itself depends on the result of a movement, or represents an action being done while the speaker is moving? This too can be represented by the tense system, using the cmavo
<!-- ^^ tense system: and space location, 215 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>tense system</primary></indexterm>
<quote>mo'i</quote>(of selma'o MOhI) plus a spatial direction and optional distance; the direction now refers to a direction of motion rather than a static direction from the speaker.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-d8yP">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-d8yP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e8d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section8-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le verba mo'i ri'u cadzu le bisli</jbo>
<gloss>The child [movement] [right] walks-on the ice.</gloss>
<en>The child walks toward my right on the ice.</en>
<!-- ^^ toward my right: example, 224 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>toward my right</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This is quite different from:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-abBF">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-abBF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e8d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section8-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le verba ri'u cadzu le bisli</jbo>
<gloss>The child [right] walks-on the ice.</gloss>
<en>To the right of me, the child walks on the ice.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In either case, however, the reference frame for defining
<!-- ^^ reference frame: specifying for direction tenses, 224 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>reference frame</primary></indexterm>
<quote>right</quote> and
<quote>left</quote> is the speaker's, not the child's. This can be changed thus:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-mfgA">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mfgA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e8d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section8-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le verba mo'i ri'u cadzu le bisli ma'i vo'a</jbo>
<!-- ^^ ma'i, 224 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ma'i</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>The child [movement] [right] walks on the ice in-reference-frame the-x1-place.</gloss>
<en>The child walks toward her right on the ice.</en>
@@ -901,40 +901,40 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section8-example1" />. The cmavo
<quote>ma'i</quote> belongs to selma'o BAI (explained in
<!-- ^^ ma'i, 224 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ma'i</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9" />), and allows specifying a reference frame.</para>
<!-- ^^ reference frame: specifying for direction tenses, 224 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>reference frame</primary></indexterm>
<para>Both a regular and a
<quote>mo'i</quote>-flagged spatial tense can be combined, with the
<quote>mo'i</quote> construct coming last:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-fusc">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-fusc">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e8d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section8-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le verba zu'avu mo'i ri'uvi cadzu le bisli</jbo>
<gloss>The child [left] [long] [movement] [right] [short] walks-on the ice.</gloss>
<en>Far to the left of me, the child walks a short distance toward my right on the ice.</en>
<!-- ^^ toward my right: example, 224 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>toward my right</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>It is not grammatical to use multiple directions like
<quote>zu'a ca'u</quote> after
<quote>mo'i</quote>, but complex movements can be expressed in a separate bridi.</para>
<!-- ^^ complex movements: expressing, 225 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>complex movements</primary></indexterm>
<para>Here is an example of a movement tense on a bridi not inherently involving movement:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Avnq">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Avnq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e8d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section8-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi mo'i ca'uvu citka le mi sanmi</jbo>
<gloss>I [movement] [front] [long] eat my meal.</gloss>
<en>While moving a long way forward, I eat my meal.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -982,33 +982,33 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ze'e</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ whole time interval: expressing, 227 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>whole time interval</primary></indexterm>
ve'e VEhA whole space interval
<!-- ^^ ve'e, 228 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ve'e</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>Consider Lojban bridi which express events taking place in time. Whether a very short interval (a point) or a long interval of time is involved, the event may not be spread consistently throughout that interval. Lojban can use the cmavo of selma'o TAhE to express the idea of continuous or non-continuous actions.</para>
<!-- ^^ continuous: of tense intervals, 225 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>continuous</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-GCXM">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-GCXM">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e9d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section9-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi puzu ze'u velckule</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] [long distance] [long interval] am-a-school-attendee (pupil).</gloss>
<en>Long ago I attended school for a long time.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>probably does not mean that I attended school continuously throughout the whole of that long-ago interval. Actually, I attended school every day, except for school holidays. More explicitly,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-JM1W">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-JM1W">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e9d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section9-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi puzu ze'u di'i velckule</jbo>
<!-- ^^ di'i, 226 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>di'i</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I [past] [long distance] [long interval] [regularly] am-a-pupil.</gloss>
<en>Long ago I regularly attended school for a long time.</en>
@@ -1021,57 +1021,57 @@
<quote>di'i</quote> covers the parts of the interval which are systematically spaced subintervals;
<!-- ^^ di'i, 226 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>di'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>na'o</quote> covers part of the interval, but exactly which part is determined by context;
<!-- ^^ na'o, 226 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>na'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ta'e</quote> covers part of the interval, selected with reference to the behavior of the actor (who often, but not always, appears in the x1 place of the bridi).</para>
<!-- ^^ ta'e, 226, 324 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ta'e</primary></indexterm>
<para>Using TAhE does not require being so specific. Either the time direction or the time interval or both may be omitted (in which case they are vague). For example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-eb2h">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-eb2h">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e9d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section9-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ba ta'e klama le zarci</jbo>
<!-- ^^ ta'e, 226, 324 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ta'e</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I [future] [habitually] go-to the market.</gloss>
<gloss>I will habitually go to the market.</gloss>
<en>I will make a habit of going to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>specifies the future, but the duration of the interval is indefinite. Similarly,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-RQTF">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-RQTF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e9d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section9-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na'o klama le zarci</jbo>
<!-- ^^ na'o, 226 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>na'o</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I [typically] go-to the market.</gloss>
<en>I typically go/went/will go to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>illustrates an interval property in isolation. There are no distance or direction cmavo, so the point of time is vague; likewise, there is no interval cmavo, so the length of the interval during which these goings-to-the-market take place is also vague. As always, context will determine these vague values.</para>
<para>
<quote>Intermittently</quote> is the polar opposite notion to
<quote>continuously</quote>, and is expressed not with its own cmavo, but by adding the negation suffix
<quote>-nai</quote>(which belongs to selma'o NAI) to
<quote>ru'i</quote>. For example:</para>
<!-- ^^ ru'i, 226 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ru'i</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-mvdN">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mvdN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e9d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section9-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le verba ru'inai cadzu le bisli</jbo>
<gloss>The child [continuously-not] walks-on the ice.</gloss>
<en>The child intermittently walks on the ice.</en>
<!-- ^^ intermittently: example, 226 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>intermittently</primary></indexterm>
@@ -1091,56 +1091,56 @@
<quote>once</quote>,
<quote>twice</quote>,
<quote>thrice</quote>, ...
<quote>always</quote>, and by the related phrases
<quote>many times</quote>,
<quote>a few times</quote>,
<quote>too many times</quote>, and so on. All of these are handled in Lojban by a number plus
<quote>-roi</quote>:</para>
<!-- ^^ roi, 226, 458 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>roi</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Ifzq">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Ifzq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e9d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section9-example6" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e9d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section9-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi paroi klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [one time] go-to the market.</gloss>
<en>I go to the market once.</en>
<jbo>mi du'eroi klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [too-many times] go-to the market.</gloss>
<en>I go to the market too often.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>With the quantified tense alone, we don't know whether the past, the present, or the future is intended, but of course the quantified tense need not stand alone:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-TYve">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-TYve">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e9d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section9-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu reroi klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] [two times] go-to the market.</gloss>
<en>I went to the market twice.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The English is slightly over-specific here: it entails that both goings-to-the-market were in the past, which may or may not be true in the Lojban sentence, since the implied interval is vague. Therefore, the interval may start in the past but extend into the present or even the future.</para>
<para>Adding
<quote>-nai</quote> to
<quote>roi</quote> is also permitted, and has the meaning
<!-- ^^ roi, 226, 458 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>roi</primary></indexterm>
<quote>other than (the number specified)</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-rXXf">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rXXf">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e9d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section9-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ratcu reroinai citka le cirla</jbo>
<gloss>The rat [twice-not] eats the cheese.</gloss>
<en>The rat eats the cheese other than twice.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1150,21 +1150,21 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section9-example8" />, where a quantified tense appears without an interval. What
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section9-example8" /> really says is that during an interval of unspecified size, at least part of which was set in the past, the event of my going to the market happened twice. The example says nothing about what happened outside that vague time interval. This is often less than we mean. If we want to nail down that I went to the market once and only once, we can use the cmavo
<!-- ^^ only once: example, 227 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>only once</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ze'e</quote> which represents the
<!-- ^^ ze'e, 227; effect on following PU direction, 227 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ze'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>whole time interval</quote>: conceptually, an interval which stretches from time's beginning to its end:</para>
<!-- ^^ whole time interval: expressing, 227 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>whole time interval</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-8WJS">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-8WJS">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e9d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section9-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ze'e paroi klama le zarci</jbo>
<!-- ^^ ze'e, 227; effect on following PU direction, 227 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ze'e</primary></indexterm>
<en>I [whole interval] [once] go-to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1182,21 +1182,21 @@
<quote>ze'epu</quote> signifies the interval stretching from the infinite past to the reference point (wherever the imaginary journey has taken you);
<!-- ^^ ze'epu, 227; meaning of, 227 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ze'epu</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ze'eba</quote> is the interval stretching from the reference point to the infinite future. The remaining form,
<!-- ^^ ze'eba, 227; meaning of, 227 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ze'eba</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ze'eca</quote>, makes specific the
<!-- ^^ ze'eca, 227; meaning of, 227 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ze'eca</primary></indexterm>
<quote>whole of time</quote> interpretation just given. These compound forms make it possible to assert that something has never happened without asserting that it never will.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-gA7X">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gA7X">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e9d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section9-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ze'epu noroi klama le zarci</jbo>
<!-- ^^ ze'epu, 227; meaning of, 227 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ze'epu</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I [whole interval] [past] [never] go-to the market.</gloss>
<en>I have never gone to the market.</en>
@@ -1310,21 +1310,21 @@
<!-- ^^ PU tenses: contrasted with ZAhO tenses in viewpoint, 228 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>PU tenses</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ event-relative viewpoint: contrasted with speaker-relative viewpoint, 228 -->
<!-- ^^ speaker-relative viewpoint: contrasted with event-relative viewpoint, 228 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>speaker-relative viewpoint</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>event-relative viewpoint</primary></indexterm>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>pu'o</quote>,
<quote>ca'o</quote>, and
<quote>ba'o</quote>(etymologically derived from the PU cmavo) refer to an event that has not yet begun, that is in progress, or that has ended, respectively:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-RvHN">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-RvHN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e10d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section10-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e10d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section10-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e10d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section10-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu'o damba</jbo>
@@ -1372,59 +1372,59 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section10-example1" /> through
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section10-example3" /> refer to spans of time. There are also two points of time that can be usefully associated with an event: the beginning, marked by
<quote>co'a</quote>, and the end, marked by
<quote>co'u</quote>. Specifically,
<quote>co'a</quote> marks the boundary between the
<quote>pu'o</quote> and
<quote>ca'o</quote> parts of an event, and
<quote>co'u</quote> marks the boundary between the
<quote>ca'o</quote> and
<quote>ba'o</quote> parts:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-KPRG">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KPRG">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e10d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section10-example4" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e10d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section10-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ba co'a citka le mi sanmi</jbo>
<gloss>I [future] [initiative] eat my meal.</gloss>
<en>I will begin to eat my meal.</en>
<jbo>mi pu co'u citka le mi sanmi</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] [cessitive] eat my meal.</gloss>
<en>I ceased eating my meal.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Compare
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section10-example4" /> with:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ChHI">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ChHI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e10d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section10-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ba di'i co'a bajra</jbo>
<!-- ^^ di'i, 226 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>di'i</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I [future] [regularly] [initiative] run.</gloss>
<en>I will regularly begin to run.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which illustrates the combination of a TAhE with a ZAhO.</para>
<para>A process can have two end points, one reflecting the
<quote>natural end</quote>(when the process is complete) and the other reflecting the
<!-- ^^ natural end: continuing beyond, 230; contrasted with actual stop, 229 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>natural end</primary></indexterm>
<quote>actual stopping point</quote>(whether complete or not).
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section10-example5" /> may be contrasted with:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-3s6c">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3s6c">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e10d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section10-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu mo'u citka le mi sanmi</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] [completitive] eat my meal.</gloss>
<en>I finished eating my meal.</en>
<!-- ^^ finished: example, 229 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>finished</primary></indexterm>
@@ -1437,21 +1437,21 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section10-example5" />, the meal has merely ceased, without necessarily reaching its natural end.</para>
<!-- ^^ natural end: continuing beyond, 230; contrasted with actual stop, 229 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>natural end</primary></indexterm>
<para>A process such as eating a meal does not necessarily proceed uninterrupted. If it is interrupted, there are two more relevant point events: the point just before the interruption, marked by
<quote>de'a</quote>, and the point just after the interruption, marked by
<!-- ^^ de'a, 229 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>de'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>di'a</quote>. Some examples:</para>
<!-- ^^ di'a, 229 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>di'a</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Gqm1">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Gqm1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e10d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section10-example8" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e10d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section10-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu de'a citka le mi sanmi</jbo>
<!-- ^^ de'a, 229 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>de'a</primary></indexterm>
@@ -1465,82 +1465,82 @@
<!-- ^^ resume: contrasted with begin, 229 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>resume</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In addition, it is possible for a process to continue beyond its natural end. The span of time between the natural and the actual end points is represented by
<!-- ^^ natural end: continuing beyond, 230; contrasted with actual stop, 229 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>natural end</primary></indexterm>
<quote>za'o</quote>:</para>
<!-- ^^ za'o, 230 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>za'o</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-jSQ4">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-jSQ4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e10d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section10-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ctuca pu za'o ciksi le cmaci seldanfu le tadgri</jbo>
<!-- ^^ za'o, 230 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>za'o</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>The teacher [past] [superfective] explained the mathematics problem to the student-group.</gloss>
<en>The teacher kept on explaining the mathematics problem to the class too long.</en>
<!-- ^^ too long: example, 233; Example, 230 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>too long</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>That is, the teacher went on explaining after the class already understood the problem.</para>
<para>An entire event can be treated as a single moment using the cmavo
<quote>co'i</quote>:</para>
<!-- ^^ co'i, 230 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>co'i</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-odH5">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-odH5">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e10d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section10-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. pu co'i catra la djim</jbo>
<!-- ^^ co'i, 230 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>co'i</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>John [past] [achievative] kills Jim.</gloss>
<en>John was at the point in time where he killed Jim.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Finally, since an activity is cyclical, an individual cycle can be referred to using a number followed by
<quote>re'u</quote>, which is the other cmavo of selma'o ROI:</para>
<!-- ^^ re'u, 230 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>re'u</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-msrS">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-msrS">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e10d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section10-example12" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pare'u klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [first time] go-to the store.</gloss>
<en>I go to the store for the first time (within a vague interval).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note the difference between:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-j3DQ">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-j3DQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e10d13" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section10-example13" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pare'u paroi klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [first time] [one time] go-to the store.</gloss>
<en>For the first time, I go to the store once.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-IBns">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-IBns">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e10d14" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section10-example14" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi paroi pare'u klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [one time] [first time] go-to the store.</gloss>
<en>There is one occasion on which I go to the store for the first time.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1560,21 +1560,21 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>interval properties</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ continuous: of tense intervals, 225 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>continuous</primary></indexterm>
<quote>fe'e</quote> to the cmavo used for time interval properties. A space interval property would be placed just after the space interval size and/or dimensionality cmavo:</para>
<!-- ^^ interval size: as context-dependent, 222; meaning as sumti tcita, 233; spatial, 506; time, 507; unspecified, 223; vague, 223 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>interval size</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ interval properties: meaning as sumti tcita, 233; strings of, 246 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>interval properties</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ dimensionality: of walking, 224; order with size in spatial tense intervals, 224; spatial, 506 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>dimensionality</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-MFQ7">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-MFQ7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e11d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section11-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e11d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section11-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e11d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section11-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ko vi'i fe'e di'i sombo le gurni</jbo>
@@ -1600,21 +1600,21 @@
</example>
<para>As shown in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section11-example3" />, when a tense comes first in a bridi, rather than in its normal position before the selbri (in this case
<quote>du</quote>), it is emphasized.</para>
<para>The
<quote>fe'e</quote> marker can also be used for the same purpose before members of ZAhO. (The cmavo
<quote>be'a</quote> belongs to selma'o FAhA; it is the space direction meaning
<!-- ^^ be'a, 231 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>be'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>north of</quote>.)</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-L4un">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-L4un">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e11d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section11-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>tu ve'abe'a fe'e co'a rokci</jbo>
<gloss>That-yonder [medium space interval – north] [space] [initiative] is-a-rock.</gloss>
<gloss>That is the beginning of a rock extending to my north.</gloss>
<en>That is the south face of a rock.</en>
<!-- ^^ south face: example, 231 -->
@@ -1640,60 +1640,60 @@
<quote>fe'e</quote> flag must be prefixed to each.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section12">
<title>Tenses as sumti tcita</title>
<para>So far, we have seen tenses only just before the selbri, or (equivalently in meaning) floating about the bridi with
<quote>ku</quote>. There is another major use for tenses in Lojban: as sumti tcita, or argument tags. A tense may be used to add spatial or temporal information to a bridi as, in effect, an additional place:</para>
<!-- ^^ temporal information: adding to a sentence with tense sumti tcita, 231 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>temporal information</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ argument tags: based on tenses (see also sumti tcita), 231 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>argument tags</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-v761">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-v761">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e12d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section12-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci ca le nu do klama le zdani</jbo>
<gloss>I go-to the market [present] the event-of you go-to the house.</gloss>
<en>I go to the market when you go to the house.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here
<quote>ca</quote> does not appear before the selbri, nor with
<quote>ku</quote>; instead, it governs the following sumti, the
<quote>le nu</quote> construct. What
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section12-example1" /> asserts is that the action of the main bridi is happening at the same time as the event mentioned by that sumti. So
<quote>ca</quote>, which means
<quote>now</quote> when used with a selbri, means
<quote>simultaneously-with</quote> when used with a sumti. Consider another example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-4aPT">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4aPT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e12d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section12-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci pu le nu do pu klama le zdani</jbo>
<en>I go-to the market [past] the event-of you [past] go-to the house.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The second
<quote>pu</quote> is simply the past tense marker for the event of your going to the house, and says that this event is in the speaker's past. How are we to understand the first
<quote>pu</quote>, the sumti tcita?</para>
<para>All of our imaginary journeys so far have started at the speaker's location in space and time. Now we are specifying an imaginary journey that starts at a different location, namely at the event of your going to the house.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section12-example2" /> then says that my going to the market is in the past, relative not to the speaker's present moment, but instead relative to the moment when you went to the house.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section12-example2" /> can therefore be translated:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
I had gone to the market before you went to the house.
</programlisting>
<para>(Other translations are possible, depending on the ever-present context.) Spatial direction and distance sumti tcita are exactly analogous:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-UMGj">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-UMGj">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e12d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section12-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e12d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section12-example4" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e12d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section12-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ratcu cu citka le cirla vi le panka</jbo>
@@ -1708,75 +1708,75 @@
<gloss>The rat eats the cheese [long distance] the [short distance] park</gloss>
<en>The rat eats the cheese far away from the nearby park.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The event contours of selma'o ZAhO (and their space equivalents, prefixed with
<!-- ^^ event contours: achievative, 230; as characteristic portions of events, 228; as sumti tcita, 232; as timeless in perspective, 228; cessative, 229; completitive, 229; continuitive, 228; contrasted with tense direction in implication of extent, 229; definition, 228; division of the event into, 229; implications on scope of event, 229; inchoative, 228; initiative, 229; interruption, 229; order with respect to TAhE and ROI, 228; pausative, 229; perfective, 229; points associated with, 229; resumption, 229; resumptive, 229; strings of, 246; superfective, 230; syntax of, 228; temporal contrasted with spatial, 231 -->
<!-- ^^ tense direction: as sumti tcita, 232; contrasted with event contours in implication of extent, 229; implications on scope of event, 223 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>tense direction</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>event contours</primary></indexterm>
<quote>fe'e</quote>) are also useful as sumti tcita. The interpretation of ZAhO tcita differs from that of FAhA, VA, PU, and ZI tcita, however. The event described in the sumti is viewed as a process, and the action of the main bridi occurs at the phase of the process which the ZAhO specifies, or at least some part of that phase. The action of the main bridi itself is seen as a point event, so that there is no issue about which phase of the main bridi is intended. For example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Y2Kb">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Y2Kb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e12d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section12-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi morsi ba'o le nu mi jmive</jbo>
<gloss>I am-dead [perfective] the event-of I live.</gloss>
<en>I die in the aftermath of my living.</en>
<!-- ^^ in the aftermath: example, 232 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>in the aftermath</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the (point-)event of my being dead is the portion of my living-process which occurs after the process is complete. Contrast
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section12-example6" /> with:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-18dT">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-18dT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e12d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section12-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi morsi ba le nu mi jmive</jbo>
<en>I am-dead [future] the event-of I live.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>As explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section6" />,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section12-example7" /> does not exclude the possibility that I died before I ceased to live!</para>
<para>Likewise, we might say:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-jJzr">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-jJzr">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e12d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section12-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci pu'o le nu mi citka</jbo>
<en>I go-to the store [inchoative] the event-of I eat</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which indicates that before my eating begins, I go to the store, whereas</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-0VJp">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-0VJp">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e12d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section12-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci ba'o le nu mi citka</jbo>
<en>I go-to the store [perfective] the event-of I eat</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>would indicate that I go to the store after I am finished eating.</para>
<!-- ^^ finished: example, 229 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>finished</primary></indexterm>
<para>Here is an example which mixes temporal ZAhO (as a tense) and spatial ZAhO (as a sumti tcita):</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-PABV">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PABV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e12d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section12-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le bloti pu za'o xelklama</jbo>
<!-- ^^ za'o, 230 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>za'o</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>fe'e ba'o le lalxu</gloss>
<gloss>The boat [past] [superfective] is-a-transport-mechanism</gloss>
@@ -1792,50 +1792,50 @@
<quote>xelklama</quote> appears to mean simply
<quote>is-a-mode-of-transport</quote>, it does not - the bridi of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section12-example10" /> has four omitted arguments, and thus has the (physical) journey which goes on too long as part of its meaning.</para>
<!-- ^^ too long: example, 233; Example, 230 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>too long</primary></indexterm>
<para>The remaining tense cmavo, which have to do with interval size, dimension, and continuousness (or lack thereof) are interpreted to let the sumti specify the particular interval over which the main bridi operates:</para>
<!-- ^^ interval size: as context-dependent, 222; meaning as sumti tcita, 233; spatial, 506; time, 507; unspecified, 223; vague, 223 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>interval size</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ dimension: meaning as sumti tcita, 233 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>dimension</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-bLaQ">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-bLaQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e12d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section12-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci reroi le ca djedi</jbo>
<gloss>I go-to the market [twice] the [present] day.</gloss>
<en>I go/went/will go to the market twice today.</en>
<!-- ^^ twice today: example, 233 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>twice today</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Be careful not to confuse a tense used as a sumti tcita with a tense used within a seltcita sumti:</para>
<!-- ^^ seltcita sumti: definition (see also modal sumti), 195 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>seltcita sumti</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-sTxE">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sTxE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e12d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section12-example12" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>loi snime cu carvi ze'u le ca dunra</jbo>
<gloss>Some-of-the-mass-of snow rains [long time interval] the [present] winter.</gloss>
<en>Snow falls during this winter.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>claims that the interval specified by
<quote>this winter</quote> is long, as events of snowfall go, whereas</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-MXvK">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-MXvK">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e12d13" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section12-example13" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>loi snime cu carvi ca le ze'u dunra</jbo>
<gloss>Some-of-the-mass-of snow rains [present] the [long time] winter.</gloss>
<en>Snow falls in the long winter.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1854,149 +1854,149 @@
<selmaho>KI</selmaho>
<description>sticky tense set/reset</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>So far we have only considered tenses in isolated bridi. Lojban provides several ways for a tense to continue in effect over more than a single bridi. This property is known as
<quote>stickiness</quote>: the tense gets
<quote>stuck</quote> and remains in effect until explicitly
<quote>unstuck</quote>. In the metaphor of the imaginary journey, the place and time set by a sticky tense may be thought of as a campsite or way-station: it provides a permanent origin with respect to which other tenses are understood. Later imaginary journeys start from that point rather than from the speaker.</para>
<para>To make a tense sticky, suffix
<quote>ki</quote> to it:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-rIuI">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rIuI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e13d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section13-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi puki klama le zarci .i le nanmu cu batci le gerku</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] [sticky] go-to the market. The man bites the dog.</gloss>
<en>I went to the market. The man bit the dog.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the use of
<quote>puki</quote> rather than just
<quote>pu</quote> ensures that the tense will affect the next sentence as well. Otherwise, since the second sentence is tenseless, there would be no way of determining its tense; the event of the second sentence might happen before, after, or simultaneously with that of the first sentence.</para>
<para>(The last statement does not apply when the two sentences form part of a narrative. See
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section14" /> for an explanation of
<quote>story time</quote>, which employs a different set of conventions.)</para>
<!-- ^^ story time: as a convention for inferring tense, 236; definition, 236; rationale for, 236; tenseless sentences in, 236; with no initial sticky time, 237 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>story time</primary></indexterm>
<para>What if the second sentence has a tense anyway?</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-L9GA">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-L9GA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e13d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section13-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi puki klama le zarci .i le nanmu pu batci le gerku</jbo>
<en>I [past] [sticky] go-to the market. The man [past] bites the dog.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the second
<quote>pu</quote> does not replace the sticky tense, but adds to it, in the sense that the starting point of its imaginary journey is taken to be the previously set sticky time. So the translation of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section13-example2" /> is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-oJQz">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-oJQz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e13d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section13-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>I went to the market. The man had earlier bitten the dog.</jbo>
<!-- ^^ had earlier: example, 234 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>had earlier</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and it is equivalent in meaning (when considered in isolation from any other sentences) to:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-N5xa">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-N5xa">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e13d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section13-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu klama le zarci .i le nanmu pupu batci le gerku</jbo>
<en>I [past] go-to the market. The man [past] [past] bites the dog.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The point has not been discussed so far, but it is perfectly grammatical to have more than one tense construct in a sentence:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-t7YR">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-t7YR">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e13d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section13-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>puku mi ba klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>[past] I [future] go-to the market.</gloss>
<en>Earlier, I was going to go to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here there are two tenses in the same bridi, the first floating free and specified by
<quote>puku</quote>, the second in the usual place and specified by
<quote>ba</quote>. They are considered cumulative in the same way as the two tenses in separate sentences of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section13-example4" />.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section13-example5" /> is therefore equivalent in meaning, except for emphasis, to:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-mRPV">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mRPV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e13d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section13-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi puba klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] [future] go-to the market.</gloss>
<en>I was going to go to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Compare
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section13-example7" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section13-example8" />, which have a different meaning from
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section13-example5" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section13-example6" />:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Y9Ve">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Y9Ve">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e13d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section13-example7" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e13d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section13-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ba klama le zarci puku</jbo>
<gloss>I [future] go-to the market [past].</gloss>
<en>I will have gone to the market earlier.</en>
<jbo>mi bapu klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [future] [past] go-to the market.</gloss>
<en>I will have gone to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>So when multiple tense constructs in a single bridi are involved, order counts - the tenses cannot be shifted around as freely as if there were only one tense to worry about.</para>
<para>But why bother to allow multiple tense constructs at all? They specify separate portions of the imaginary journey, and can be useful in order to make part of a tense sticky. Consider
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section13-example9" />, which adds a second bridi and a
<quote>ki</quote> to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section13-example5" />:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-gg9C">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gg9C">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e13d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section13-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>pukiku mi ba klama le zarci .i le nanmu cu batci le gerku</jbo>
<en>[past] [sticky] I [future] go-to the market. The man bites the dog.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>What is the implied tense of the second sentence? Not
<quote>puba</quote>, but only
<quote>pu</quote>, since only
<quote>pu</quote> was made sticky with
<quote>ki</quote>. So the translation is:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
I was going to go to the market. The man bit the dog.
</programlisting>
<para>Lojban has several ways of embedding a bridi within another bridi: descriptions, abstractors, relative clauses. (Technically, descriptions contain selbri rather than bridi.) Any of the selbri of these subordinate bridi may have tenses attached. These tenses are interpreted relative to the tense of the main bridi:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-yxFP">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-yxFP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e13d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section13-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu klama le ba'o zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] go-to the [perfective] market</gloss>
<en>I went to the former market.</en>
<!-- ^^ former market: example, 235 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>former market</primary></indexterm>
@@ -2006,21 +2006,21 @@
<quote>ba'o</quote> in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section13-example10" /> is that the speaker's destination is described as being
<quote>in the aftermath of being a market</quote>; that is, it is a market no longer. In particular, the time at which it was no longer a market is in the speaker's past, because the
<!-- ^^ in the aftermath: example, 232 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>in the aftermath</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ba'o</quote> is interpreted relative to the
<quote>pu</quote> tense of the main bridi.</para>
<para>Here is an example involving an abstraction bridi:</para>
<!-- ^^ abstraction bridi: contrasted with component non-abstraction bridi in meaning, 98; effect on claim of bridi, 198 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>abstraction bridi</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-NfS1">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-NfS1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e13d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section13-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ca jinvi le du'u mi ba morsi</jbo>
<gloss>I now opine the fact-that I will-be dead.</gloss>
<en>I now believe that I will be dead.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -2043,21 +2043,21 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section13" /> would be intolerably awkward when a story is being told. The time at which a story is told by the narrator is usually unimportant to the story. What matters is the flow of time within the story itself. The term
<quote>story</quote> in this section refers to any series of statements related in more-or-less time-sequential order, not just a fictional one.</para>
<para>Lojban speakers use a different set of conventions, commonly called
<quote>story time</quote>, for inferring tense within a story. It is presumed that the event described by each sentence takes place some time more or less after the previous ones. Therefore, tenseless sentences are implicitly tensed as
<!-- ^^ story time: as a convention for inferring tense, 236; definition, 236; rationale for, 236; tenseless sentences in, 236; with no initial sticky time, 237 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>story time</primary></indexterm>
<quote>what happens next</quote>. In particular, any sticky time setting is advanced by each sentence.</para>
<para>The following mini-story illustrates the important features of story time. A sentence-by-sentence explication follows:</para>
<!-- ^^ story time: as a convention for inferring tense, 236; definition, 236; rationale for, 236; tenseless sentences in, 236; with no initial sticky time, 237 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>story time</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-CDcb">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-CDcb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e14d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section14-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e14d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section14-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e14d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section14-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e14d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section14-example4" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e14d5" />
@@ -2143,21 +2143,21 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>stories</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ jokes, 4 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>jokes</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section15">
<title>Tenses in subordinate bridi</title>
<para>English has a set of rules, formally known as
<quote>sequence of tense rules</quote>, for determining what tense should be used in a subordinate clause, depending on the tense used in the main sentence. Here are some examples:</para>
<!-- ^^ sequence of tense rules: Lojban contrasted with English, 238 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>sequence of tense rules</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-AVLX">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-AVLX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e15d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section15-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e15d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section15-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e15d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section15-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e15d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section15-example4" />
</title>
@@ -2177,21 +2177,21 @@
<quote>went</quote>. But if the tense of the main sentence is the past, with
<quote>said</quote>, then the tense required in the subordinate clause is different. If George goes when John speaks, we get the past tense
<quote>went</quote>; if George goes before John speaks, we get the past-perfect tense
<quote>had gone</quote>.</para>
<para>The rule of English, therefore, is that both the tense of the main sentence and the tense of the subordinate clause are understood relative to the speaker of the main sentence (not John, but the person who speaks
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section15-example1" /> through
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section15-example4" />).</para>
<para>Lojban, like Russian and Esperanto, uses a different convention. A tense in a subordinate bridi is understood to be relative to the tense already set in the main bridi. Thus
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section15-example1" /> through
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section15-example4" /> can be expressed in Lojban respectively thus:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-VUhU">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-VUhU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e15d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section15-example5" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e15d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section15-example6" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e15d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section15-example7" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e15d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section15-example8" />
</title>
@@ -2222,21 +2222,21 @@
<quote>now</quote>.) It is not grammatical to combine
<quote>nau</quote> with any other cmavo in a tense, except by way of a logical or non-logical connection (see
<!-- ^^ non-logical connection: and elidability of terminators, 354; in mathematical expressions, 361; in tanru, distinguishing from connection of sumti, 354; of individuals into mass, 355; of individuals into set, 355; of modals, 208; of operands, 455; of operators, 455; of sumti, distinguishing from connection in tanru, 354; of termsets, 357 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>non-logical connection</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ nau, 238; effect on sticky tenses, 238; syntax, 238 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>nau</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section20" />). Here is a convoluted sentence with several nested bridi which uses
<quote>nau</quote> at the lowest level:</para>
<!-- ^^ nau, 238; effect on sticky tenses, 238; syntax, 238 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>nau</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Yjop">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Yjop">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e15d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section15-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. pu cusku le se du'u la .alis pu cusku le se du'u</jbo>
<gloss>la djordj. pu cusku le se du'u la maris. nau klama le zarci</gloss>
<!-- ^^ nau, 238; effect on sticky tenses, 238; syntax, 238 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>nau</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>John [past] says the statement-that Alice [past] says the statement-that</gloss>
@@ -2248,35 +2248,35 @@
</example>
<para>The use of
<quote>nau</quote> does not affect sticky tenses.</para>
<!-- ^^ nau, 238; effect on sticky tenses, 238; syntax, 238 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>nau</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section16">
<title>Tense relations between sentences</title>
<para>The sumti tcita method, explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section12" />, of asserting a tense relationship between two events suffers from asymmetry. Specifically,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-vreo">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-vreo">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e16d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section16-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le verba cu cadzu le bisli zu'a le nu le nanmu cu batci le gerku</jbo>
<gloss>The child walks-on the ice [left] the event-of the man bites the dog.</gloss>
<en>The child walks on the ice to the left of where the man bites the dog.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which specifies an imaginary journey leftward from the man biting the dog to the child walking on the ice, claims only that the child walks on the ice. By the nature of
<quote>le nu</quote>, the man's biting the dog is merely referred to without being claimed. If it seems desirable to claim both, each event can be expressed as a main sentence bridi, with a special form of
<quote>.i</quote> connecting them:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-9Q0x">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9Q0x">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e16d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section16-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu cu batci le gerku .izu'abo le verba cu cadzu le bisli</jbo>
<gloss>The man bites the dog. [Left] the child walks-on the ice.</gloss>
<en>The man bites the dog. To the left, the child walks on the ice.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -2288,56 +2288,56 @@
<quote>zu'a</quote> from gobbling up the following sumti, namely
<quote>le verba</quote>.</para>
<para>Note that the bridi in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section16-example2" /> appear in the reverse order from their appearance in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section16-example1" />. With
<quote>.izu'abo</quote>(and all other afterthought tense connectives) the sentence specifying the origin of the journey comes first. This is a natural order for sentences, but requires some care when converting between this form and the sumti tcita form.</para>
<!-- ^^ converting: operand to operator, 500; operator to selbri, 502; quantifier to selbri, 500; selbri to operand, 501; selbri to operator, 501; sumti to operand, 500; sumti to tanru unit, 500 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>converting</primary></indexterm>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section16-example2" /> means the same thing as:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Ne2C">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Ne2C">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e16d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section16-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu cu batci le gerku</jbo>
<gloss>.i zu'a la'edi'u le verba cu cadzu le bisli</gloss>
<!-- ^^ la'edi'u, 149; contrasted with di'u, 149; quick-tour version, 21 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>la'edi'u</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>The man bites the dog.</gloss>
<gloss>[Left] the-referent-of-the-last-sentence the child walks-on the ice.</gloss>
<en>The man bites the dog. Left of what I just mentioned, the child walks on the ice.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>If the
<quote>bo</quote> is omitted in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section16-example2" />, the meaning changes:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-jThf">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-jThf">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e16d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section16-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu cu batci le gerku .i zu'a le verba cu cadzu le bisli</jbo>
<gloss>The man bites the dog. [Left] the child [something] walks-on the ice.</gloss>
<en>The man bites the dog. To the left of the child, something walks on the ice.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the first place of the second sentence is unspecified, because
<quote>zu'a</quote> has absorbed the sumti
<quote>le verba</quote>.</para>
<para>Do not confuse either
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section16-example2" /> or
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section16-example4" /> with the following:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-MzxF">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-MzxF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e16d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section16-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu cu batci le gerku .i zu'aku le verba cu cadzu le bisli</jbo>
<gloss>The man bites the dog. [Left] the child walks-on the ice.</gloss>
<en>The man bites the dog. Left of me, the child walks on the ice.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -2356,33 +2356,33 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>tense connection</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ afterthought tense connection: contrasted with forethought in likeness to modal connection, 249 -->
<!-- ^^ tense connection: equivalent meanings, 240; expansions of, 240 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>tense connection</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>afterthought tense connection</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ tense connection: equivalent meanings, 240; expansions of, 240 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>tense connection</primary></indexterm>
<para>The origin sentence is placed first, preceded by a tense plus
<quote>gi</quote>. Another
<quote>gi</quote> is used to separate the sentences:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-9cXU">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9cXU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e16d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section16-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>pugi mi klama le zarci gi mi klama le zdani</jbo>
<gloss>[past] I go-to the market [,] I go-to the house.</gloss>
<en>Before I go to the market, I go to the house.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>A parallel construction can be used to express a tense relationship between sumti:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-o3Yg">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-o3Yg">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e16d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section16-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama pugi le zarci gi le zdani</jbo>
<en>I go-to [past] the market [,] the house.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Because English does not have any direct way of expressing a tense-like relationship between nouns,
@@ -2390,21 +2390,21 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>nouns</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section16-example7" /> cannot be expressed in English without paraphrasing it either into
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section16-example6" /> or else into
<quote>I go to the house before the market</quote>, which is ambiguous - is the market going?</para>
<para>Finally, a third forethought construction expresses a tense relationship between bridi-tails rather than whole bridi. (The construct known as a
<quote>bridi-tail</quote> is explained fully in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14" />; roughly speaking, it is a selbri, possibly with following sumti.)
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section16-example8" /> is equivalent in meaning to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section16-example6" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section16-example7" />:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-vSCv">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-vSCv">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e16d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section16-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pugi klama le zarci gi klama le zdani</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] go-to the market [,] go-to the house.</gloss>
<en>I, before going to the market, go to the house.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -2420,42 +2420,42 @@
forethought coordinate: TENSE+gi X gi Y
</programlisting>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section17">
<title>Tensed logical connectives</title>
<para>The Lojban tense system interacts with the Lojban logical connective system. That system is a separate topic, explained in
<!-- ^^ tense system: and space location, 215 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>tense system</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14" /> and touched on only in summary here. By the rules of the logical connective system,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section17-example1" /> through 17.3 are equivalent in meaning:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-QyUo">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-QyUo">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e17d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section17-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e17d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section17-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e17d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section17-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la teris. satre le mlatu .ije la teris. satre le ractu</jbo>
<en>Terry strokes the cat. And Terry strokes the rabbit.</en>
<jbo>la teris. satre le mlatu gi'e satre le ractu</jbo>
<en>Terry strokes the cat and strokes the rabbit.</en>
<jbo>la teris. satre le mlatu .e le ractu</jbo>
<en>Terry strokes the cat and the rabbit.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Suppose we wish to add a tense relationship to the logical connective
<quote>and</quote>? To say that Terry strokes the cat and later strokes the rabbit, we can combine a logical connective with a tense connective by placing the logical connective first, then the tense, and then the cmavo
<quote>bo</quote>, thus:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-oyx1">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-oyx1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e17d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section17-example4" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e17d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section17-example5" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e17d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section17-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la teris. satre le mlatu .ijebabo la teris. satre le ractu</jbo>
@@ -2485,21 +2485,21 @@
<!-- ^^ tensed logical connective, 240; forethought, 364; with ke...ke'e, 241; with tu'e...tu'u, 241 -->
<!-- ^^ tensed logical connective(s): in ek...bo, 364; in ek...ke, 364; in gihek...bo, 364; in gihek...ke, 364; in ijek...bo, 364; in ijek...tu'e, 364; in ijoik...bo, 364; in ijoik...tu'e, 364; in jek...bo, 364; in joik...bo, 364; in joik...ke, 364 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>tensed logical connective</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>tensed logical connective</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ tensed logical connective(s): in ek...bo, 364; in ek...ke, 364; in gihek...bo, 364; in gihek...ke, 364; in ijek...bo, 364; in ijek...tu'e, 364; in ijoik...bo, 364; in ijoik...tu'e, 364; in jek...bo, 364; in joik...bo, 364; in joik...ke, 364 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>tensed logical connective</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ke ... ke'e</quote>(
<quote>tu'e ... tu'u</quote> for sentences). The logical connective system makes
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section17-example7" /> through
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section17-example9" /> equivalent in meaning:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-FgKB">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-FgKB">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e17d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section17-example7" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e17d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section17-example8" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e17d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section17-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi bevri le dakli .ije tu'e mi bevri le gerku .ija mi bevri le mlatu tu'u</jbo>
@@ -2510,21 +2510,21 @@
<en>I carry the sack, and also carry the dog or carry the cat or carry both.</en>
<jbo>mi bevri le dakli .eke le gerku .a le mlatu</jbo>
<gloss>I carry the sack and (the dog or the cat).</gloss>
<en>I carry the sack and also the dog or the cat or both.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note the uniformity of the Lojban, as contrasted with the variety of ways in which the English provides for the correct grouping. In all cases, the meaning is that I carry the sack in any case, and either the cat or the dog or both.</para>
<para>To express that I carry the sack first (earlier in time), and then the dog or the cat or both simultaneously, I can insert tenses to form
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section17-example10" /> through
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section17-example12" />:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-xtPy">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-xtPy">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e17d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section17-example10" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e17d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section17-example11" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e17d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section17-example12" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi bevri le dakli .ije ba tu'e mi bevri le gerku</jbo>
@@ -2544,35 +2544,35 @@
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section17-example10" /> through
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section17-example12" /> are equivalent in meaning to each other, and correspond to the tenseless
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section17-example7" /> through
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section17-example9" /> respectively.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section18">
<title>Tense negation</title>
<para>Any bridi which involves tenses of selma'o PU, FAhA, or ZAhO can be contradicted by a
<quote>-nai</quote> suffixed to the tense cmavo. Some examples:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-qXWF">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-qXWF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e18d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section18-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi punai klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] [not] go-to the market.</gloss>
<en>I didn't go to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>As a contradictory negation,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section18-example1" /> implies that the bridi as a whole is false without saying anything about what is true. When the negated tense is a sumti tcita,
<quote>-nai</quote> negation indicates that the stated relationship does not hold:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-K15M">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-K15M">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e18d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section18-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e18d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section18-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e18d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section18-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci canai le nu do klama le zdani</jbo>
@@ -2582,21 +2582,21 @@
<gloss>The man bites the dog [within] [not] the room.</gloss>
<en>The man didn't bite the dog inside the room.</en>
<jbo>mi morsi ca'onai le nu mi jmive</jbo>
<gloss>I am-dead [continuitive - negated] the event-of I live.</gloss>
<en>It is false that I am dead during my life.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>It is also possible to perform scalar negation of whole tense constructs by placing a member of NAhE before them. Unlike contradictory negation, scalar negation asserts a truth: that the bridi is true with some tense other than that specified. The following examples are scalar negation analogues of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section18-example1" /> to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section18-example3" />:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-L3IS">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-L3IS">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e18d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section18-example5" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e18d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section18-example6" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e18d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section18-example7" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e18d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section18-example8" />
</title>
@@ -2614,21 +2614,21 @@
<gloss>I am-dead [non-] [continuitive] the event-of I live.</gloss>
<en>I am dead other than during my life.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Unlike
<quote>-nai</quote> contradictory negation, scalar negation of tenses is not limited to PU and FAhA:</para>
<!-- ^^ scalar negation of tenses: selma'o allowed with, 242 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>scalar negation of tenses</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ negation of tenses: meaning of, 241 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>negation of tenses</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-THJJ">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-THJJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e18d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section18-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le verba na'e ri'u cadzu le bisli</jbo>
<gloss>The child [non-] [right] walks-on the ice</gloss>
<en>The child walks on the ice other than to my right.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -2667,50 +2667,50 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>pu'i</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>CAhA</selmaho>
<description>can and has</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>Lojban bridi without tense markers may not necessarily refer to actual events: they may also refer to capabilities or potential events. For example:</para>
<!-- ^^ potential events: expressing implicitly, 243 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>potential events</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ actual events: explicitly expressing, 243 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>actual events</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-HjjN">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-HjjN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e19d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section19-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro datka cu flulimna</jbo>
<gloss>All ducks are-float-swimmers.</gloss>
<en>All ducks swim by floating.</en>
<!-- ^^ ducks swim: example, 243 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ducks swim</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is a Lojban truth, even though the colloquial English translation is false or at best ambiguous. This is because the tenseless Lojban bridi doesn't necessarily claim that every duck is swimming or floating now or even at a specific time or place. Even if we add a tense marker to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section19-example1" />,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-o9Yu">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-o9Yu">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e19d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section19-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro datka ca flulimna</jbo>
<gloss>All ducks [present] are-float-swimmers.</gloss>
<en>All ducks are now swimming by floating.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>the resulting
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section19-example2" /> might still be considered a truth, even though the colloquial English seems even more likely to be false. All ducks have the potential of swimming even if they are not exercising that potential at present. To get the full flavor of
<quote>All ducks are now swimming</quote>, we must append a marker from selma'o CAhA to the tense, and say:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-hXpB">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hXpB">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e19d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section19-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro datka ca ca'a flulimna</jbo>
<!-- ^^ ca'a, 243 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ca'a</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>All ducks [present] [actual] are-float-swimmers.</gloss>
<en>All ducks are now actually swimming by floating.</en>
@@ -2721,54 +2721,54 @@
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section19-example3" /> is false in both Lojban and English, since it claims that the swimming is an actual, present fact, true of every duck that exists, whereas in fact there is at least one duck that is not swimming now.</para>
<para>Furthermore, some ducks are dead (and therefore sink); some ducks have just hatched (and do not know how to swim yet), and some ducks have been eaten by predators (and have ceased to exist as separate objects at all). Nevertheless, all these ducks have the innate capability of swimming - it is part of the nature of duckhood. The cmavo
<!-- ^^ innate capability: expressing explicitly, 243; expressing implicitly, 243 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>innate capability</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ka'e</quote> expresses this notion of innate capability:</para>
<!-- ^^ ka'e, 243 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ka'e</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ innate capability: expressing explicitly, 243; expressing implicitly, 243 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>innate capability</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ApiH">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ApiH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e19d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section19-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro datka ka'e flulimna</jbo>
<!-- ^^ ka'e, 243 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ka'e</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>All ducks [capable] are-float-swimmers.</gloss>
<en>All ducks are innately capable of swimming.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Under some epistemologies, innate capability can be extended in order to apply the innate properties of a mass to which certain individuals belong to the individuals themselves, even if those individuals are themselves not capable of fulfilling the claim of the bridi. For example:</para>
<!-- ^^ innate capability: expressing explicitly, 243; expressing implicitly, 243 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>innate capability</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ebcg">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ebcg">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e19d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section19-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. ka'e viska</jbo>
<!-- ^^ ka'e, 243 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ka'e</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>John [capable] sees.</gloss>
<gloss>John is innately capable of seeing.</gloss>
<en>John can see.</en>
<!-- ^^ can see: example, 244 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>can see</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>might be true about a human being named John, even though he has been blind since birth, because the ability to see is innately built into his nature as a human being. It is theoretically possible that conditions might occur that would enable John to see (a great medical discovery, for example). On the other hand,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-NC6V">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-NC6V">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e19d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section19-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le cukta ka'e viska</jbo>
<!-- ^^ ka'e, 243 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ka'e</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>The book [capable] sees.</gloss>
<en>The book can see.</en>
@@ -2776,21 +2776,21 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>can see</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is not true in most epistemologies, since the ability to see is not part of the innate nature of a book.</para>
<para>Consider once again the newly hatched ducks mentioned earlier. They have the potential of swimming, but have not yet demonstrated that potential. This may be expressed using
<quote>nu'o</quote>, the cmavo of CAhA for undemonstrated potential:</para>
<!-- ^^ undemonstrated potential: expressing, 244 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>undemonstrated potential</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ nu'o, 244 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>nu'o</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-sHpR">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sHpR">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e19d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section19-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro cifydatka nu'o flulimna</jbo>
<!-- ^^ nu'o, 244 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>nu'o</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>All infant-ducks [can but has not] are-float-swimmers.</gloss>
<gloss>All infant ducks have an undemonstrated potential for swimming by floating.</gloss>
@@ -2798,21 +2798,21 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>undemonstrated potential</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ infant ducks: example, 244 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>infant ducks</primary></indexterm>
<en>Baby ducks can swim but haven't yet.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Contrariwise, if Frank is not blind from birth, then
<quote>pu'i</quote> is appropriate:</para>
<!-- ^^ pu'i, 244 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>pu'i</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-VPfM">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-VPfM">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e19d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section19-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la frank. pu'i viska</jbo>
<!-- ^^ pu'i, 244 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>pu'i</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>Frank [can and has] sees.</gloss>
<gloss>Frank has demonstrated a potential for seeing.</gloss>
@@ -2834,21 +2834,21 @@
<quote>ca</quote> into their meaning, and are really correct for
<quote>ca ca'a</quote>,
<!-- ^^ ca'a, 243 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ca'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ca nu'o</quote>, and
<!-- ^^ nu'o, 244 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>nu'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ca pu'i</quote>. However, the CAhA cmavo are perfectly meaningful with other tenses than the present:</para>
<!-- ^^ pu'i, 244 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>pu'i</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-jXQm">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-jXQm">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e19d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section19-example9" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e19d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section19-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu ca'a klama le zarci</jbo>
<!-- ^^ ca'a, 243 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ca'a</primary></indexterm>
@@ -2856,159 +2856,159 @@
<en>I actually went to the store.</en>
<jbo>la frank. ba nu'o klama le zdani</jbo>
<!-- ^^ nu'o, 244 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>nu'o</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>Frank [future] [can but has not] goes-to the store.</gloss>
<gloss>Frank could have, but will not have, gone to the store</gloss>
<en>(at some understood moment in the future).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>As always in Lojban tenses, a missing CAhA can have an indeterminate meaning, or the context can be enough to disambiguate it. Saying</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-IKGW">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-IKGW">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e19d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section19-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta jelca</jbo>
<en>That burns/is-burning/might-burn/will-burn.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>with no CAhA specified can translate the two very different English sentences
<quote>That is on fire</quote> and
<quote>That is inflammable.</quote> The first demands immediate action (usually), whereas the second merely demands caution. The two cases can be disambiguated with:</para>
<!-- ^^ inflammable: example, 245 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>inflammable</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-5tur">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-5tur">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e19d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section19-example12" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta ca ca'a jelca</jbo>
<!-- ^^ ca'a, 243 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ca'a</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>That [present] [actual] burns.</gloss>
<en>That is on fire.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-PRrR">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PRrR">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e19d13" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section19-example13" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta ka'e jelca</jbo>
<!-- ^^ ka'e, 243 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ka'e</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>That [capable] burns.</gloss>
<gloss>That is capable of burning.</gloss>
<en>That is inflammable.</en>
<!-- ^^ inflammable: example, 245 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>inflammable</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>When no indication is given, as in the simple observative</para>
<!-- ^^ observative: contrasted with observation evidential, 316; definition, 188 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>observative</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-FWoz">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-FWoz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e19d14" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section19-example14" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>jelca</jbo>
<en>It burns!</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>the prudent Lojbanist will assume the meaning
<quote>Fire!</quote></para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section20">
<title>Logical and non-logical connections between tenses</title>
<para>Like many things in Lojban, tenses may be logically connected; logical connection is explained in more detail in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14" />. Some of the terminology in this section will be clear only if you already understand logical connectives.</para>
<para>The appropriate logical connectives belong to selma'o JA. A logical connective between tenses can always be expanded to one between sentences:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-XAj7">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-XAj7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e20d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section20-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu je ba klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] and [future] go-to the market.</gloss>
<en>I went and will go to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means the same as:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-BWI5">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-BWI5">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e20d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section20-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu klama le zarci .ije mi ba klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] go-to the market. And I [future] go-to the market.</gloss>
<en>I went to the market, and I will go to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Tense connection and tense negation are combined in:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Tuz1">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Tuz1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e20d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section20-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi punai je canai je ba klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] [not] and [present] [not] and [future] go-to the market.</gloss>
<en>I haven't yet gone to the market, but I will in future.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section20-example3" /> is far more specific than</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-J5jJ">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-J5jJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e20d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section20-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ba klama le zarci</jbo>
<en>I [future] go-to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which only says that I will go, without claiming anything about my past or present.
<quote>ba</quote> does not imply
<quote>punai</quote> or
<quote>canai</quote>; to compel that interpretation, either a logical connection or a ZAhO is needed.</para>
<para>Tense negation can often be removed in favor of negation in the logical connective itself. The following examples are equivalent in meaning:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-IK90">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-IK90">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e20d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section20-example5" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e20d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section20-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi mo'izu'anai je mo'iri'u cadzu</jbo>
<gloss>I [motion] [left-not] and [motion] [right] walk.</gloss>
<en>I walk not leftward but rightward.</en>
<jbo>mi mo'izu'a naje mo'iri'u cadzu</jbo>
<gloss>I [motion] [left] not-and [motion] [right] walk.</gloss>
<en>I walk not leftward but rightward.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>There are no forethought logical connections between tenses allowed by the grammar, to keep tenses simpler. Nor is there any way to override simple left-grouping of the connectives, the Lojban default.</para>
<para>The non-logical connectives of selma'o JOI, BIhI, and GAhO are also permitted between tenses. One application is to specify intervals not by size, but by their end-points (
<quote>bi'o</quote> belongs to selma'o BIhI, and connects the end-points of an ordered interval, like English
<quote>from ... to</quote>):</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-KQUM">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KQUM">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e20d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section20-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi puza bi'o bazu vasxu</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] [medium] from ... to [future] [long] breathe.</gloss>
<!-- ^^ breathe: example, 363 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>breathe</primary></indexterm>
<en>I breathe from a medium time ago till a long time to come.</en>
@@ -3020,21 +3020,21 @@
<para>One additional use of non-logical connectives within tenses is discussed in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section21" />. Other uses will probably be identified in future.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section21">
<title>Sub-events</title>
<para>Another application of non-logical tense connection is to talk about sub-events of events. Consider a six-shooter: a gun which can fire six bullets in succession before reloading. If I fire off the entire magazine twice, I can express the fact in Lojban thus:</para>
<!-- ^^ tense connection: equivalent meanings, 240; expansions of, 240 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>tense connection</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ six-shooter: example, 246 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>six-shooter</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-9CqG">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9CqG">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e21d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section21-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi reroi pi'u xaroi cecla le seldanti</jbo>
<!-- ^^ pi'u, 246, 354, 356; contrasted with .e, 357; use in connecting tenses, 246 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>pi'u</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I [twice] [cross-product] [six times] shoot the projectile-launcher.</gloss>
<!-- ^^ cross-product: contrasted with and, 357; of sets, 356 -->
@@ -3053,21 +3053,21 @@
<!-- ^^ Cartesian product: with tenses, 246 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Cartesian product</primary></indexterm>
<quote>product</quote>: the product of 2 and 6 is 12). Its use specifies very precisely what occurs.</para>
<para>In fact, you can specify strings of interval properties and event contours within a single tense without the use of a logical or non-logical connective cmavo. This allows tenses of the type:</para>
<!-- ^^ interval properties: meaning as sumti tcita, 233; strings of, 246 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>interval properties</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ event contours: achievative, 230; as characteristic portions of events, 228; as sumti tcita, 232; as timeless in perspective, 228; cessative, 229; completitive, 229; continuitive, 228; contrasted with tense direction in implication of extent, 229; definition, 228; division of the event into, 229; implications on scope of event, 229; inchoative, 228; initiative, 229; interruption, 229; order with respect to TAhE and ROI, 228; pausative, 229; perfective, 229; points associated with, 229; resumption, 229; resumptive, 229; strings of, 246; superfective, 230; syntax of, 228; temporal contrasted with spatial, 231 -->
<!-- ^^ tense direction: as sumti tcita, 232; contrasted with event contours in implication of extent, 229; implications on scope of event, 223 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>tense direction</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>event contours</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-x8BA">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-x8BA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e21d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section21-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e21d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section21-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djordj. ca'o co'a ciska</jbo>
<gloss>George [continuitive] [initiative] writes.</gloss>
<en>George continues to start to write.</en>
@@ -3090,195 +3090,195 @@
<!-- ^^ tense conversion: accessing original first place with fai, 247; accessing tense of bridi with jai, 247; of temporal tenses, 248; use in sumti descriptions, 247 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>tense conversion</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>fai</cmavo>
<selmaho>FA</selmaho>
<description>indefinite place</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>Conversion is the regular Lojban process of moving around the places of a place structure. The cmavo of selma'o SE serve this purpose, exchanging the first place with one of the others:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-5L61">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-5L61">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e22d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section22-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e22d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section22-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cu klama le zarci</jbo>
<en>I go-to the market.</en>
<jbo>le zarci cu se klama mi</jbo>
<en>The market is-gone-to by-me.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>It is also possible to bring a place that is specified by a sumti tcita (for the purposes of this chapter, a tense sumti tcita) to the front, by using
<quote>jai</quote> plus the tense as the grammatical equivalent of SE:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-F9dG">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-F9dG">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e22d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section22-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e22d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section22-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ratcu cu citka le cirla vi le panka</jbo>
<gloss>The rat eats the cheese [short distance] the park.</gloss>
<en>The rat eats the cheese in the park.</en>
<jbo>le panka cu jai vi citka le cirla fai le ratcu</jbo>
<gloss>The park is-the-place-of eating the cheese by-the rat.</gloss>
<en>The park is where the rat eats the cheese.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section22-example4" />, the construction JAI+tense converts the location sumti into the first place. The previous first place has nowhere to go, since the location sumti is not a numbered place; however, it can be inserted back into the bridi with
<quote>fai</quote>, the indefinite member of selma'o FA.</para>
<para>(The other members of FA are used to mark the first, second, etc. places of a bridi explicitly:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-YS3i">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-YS3i">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e22d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section22-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>fa mi cu klama fe le zarci</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means the same as</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-4DGL">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4DGL">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e22d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section22-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>fe le zarci cu klama fa mi</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>as well as the simple</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Q6J9">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Q6J9">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e22d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section22-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cu klama le zarci</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>in which the place structure is determined by position.)</para>
<para>Like SE conversion, JAI+tense conversion is especially useful in descriptions with LE selma'o:</para>
<!-- ^^ tense conversion: accessing original first place with fai, 247; accessing tense of bridi with jai, 247; of temporal tenses, 248; use in sumti descriptions, 247 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>tense conversion</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ LE selma'o, 120, 193, 247, 354, 498; contrasted with LA in use of name-words, 138; terminator for, 497 -->
<!-- ^^ name-words: limitations on, 138; pause requirements before, 138; permissible consonant combinations, 138 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>name-words</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>LE selma'o</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-esDa">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-esDa">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e22d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section22-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska le jai vi citka be le cirla</jbo>
<en>I saw the place-of eating the cheese.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the eater of the cheese is elided, so no
<quote>fai</quote> appears.</para>
<para>Of course, temporal tenses are also usable with JAI:</para>
<!-- ^^ temporal tenses: compared with spatial tenses, 219 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>temporal tenses</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-nSnh">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nSnh">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e22d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section22-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi djuno fi le jai ca morsi be fai la djan.</jbo>
<gloss>I know about the [present] is-dead of-the-one-called
<quote>John</quote>.</gloss>
<gloss>I know the time of John's death.</gloss>
<en>I know when John died.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section23">
<title>Tenses versus modals</title>
<para>Grammatically, every use of tenses seen so far is exactly paralleled by some use of modals as explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9" />. Modals and tenses alike can be followed by sumti, can appear before the selbri, can be used in pure and mixed connections, can participate in JAI conversions. The parallelism is perfect. However, there is a deep difference in the semantics of tense constructs and modal constructs, grounded in historical differences between the two forms. Originally, modals and tenses were utterly different things in earlier versions of Loglan; only in Lojban have they become grammatically interchangeable. And even now, differences in semantics continue to be maintained.</para>
<para>The core distinction is that whereas the modal bridi</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-YLmV">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-YLmV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e23d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section23-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci do mu'i le nu do nelci mi</jbo>
<!-- ^^ mu'i, 197 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>mu'i</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I like you with-motivation the event-of you like me.</gloss>
<en>I like you because you like me.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>places the
<quote>le nu</quote> sumti in the x1 place of the gismu
<quote>mukti</quote>(which underlies the modal
<quote>mu'i</quote>), namely the motivating event, the tensed bridi</para>
<!-- ^^ mu'i, 197 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>mu'i</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-zXi8">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-zXi8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e23d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section23-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci do ba le nu do nelci mi</jbo>
<gloss>I like you after the event-of you like me.</gloss>
<en>I like you after you like me.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>places the
<quote>le nu</quote> sumti in the x2 place of the gismu
<quote>balvi</quote>(which underlies the tense
<quote>ba</quote>), namely the point of reference for the future tense. Paraphrases of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section23-example1" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section23-example2" />, employing the brivla
<quote>mukti</quote> and
<quote>balvi</quote> explicitly, would be:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-JbEU">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-JbEU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e23d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section23-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nu do nelci mi cu mukti le nu mi nelci do</jbo>
<gloss>The event-of you like me motivates the event-of I like you.</gloss>
<en>Your liking me is the motive for my liking you.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-8sjA">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-8sjA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e23d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section23-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nu mi nelci do cu balvi le nu do nelci mi</jbo>
<gloss>The event-of I like you is after the event of you like me.</gloss>
<en>My liking you follows (in time) your liking me.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(Note that the paraphrase is not perfect due to the difference in what is claimed;
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section23-example3" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section23-example4" /> claim only the causal and temporal relationships between the events, not the existence of the events themselves.)</para>
<para>As a result, the afterthought sentence-connective forms of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section23-example1" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section23-example2" /> are, respectively:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-FyEE">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-FyEE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e23d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section23-example5" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e23d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section23-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci do .imu'ibo do nelci mi</jbo>
<en>I like you. [That is] Because you like me.</en>
<jbo>do nelci mi .ibabo mi nelci do</jbo>
@@ -3293,32 +3293,32 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section23-example6" />, however, the order is reversed: the origin point
<quote>do nelci mi</quote> physically appears before the future-time event
<quote>mi nelci do</quote>. In both cases, the bridi characterizing the event in the x2 place appears before the bridi characterizing the event in the x1 place of
<quote>mukti</quote> or
<quote>balvi</quote>.</para>
<para>In forethought connections, however, the asymmetry between modals and tenses is not found. The forethought equivalents of
<!-- ^^ forethought connections: modal compared with tense in semantics, 249 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>forethought connections</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section23-example5" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section23-example6" /> are</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ENKj">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ENKj">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e23d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section23-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mu'igi do nelci mi gi mi nelci do</jbo>
<en>Because you like me, I like you.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-r7KK">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-r7KK">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e23d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section23-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>bagi do nelci mi gi mi nelci do</jbo>
<en>After you like me, I like you.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>respectively.</para>
@@ -3346,54 +3346,54 @@
<selmaho>CUhE</selmaho>
<description>tense question</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>There are two main ways to ask questions about tense. The main English tense question words are
<quote>When?</quote> and
<quote>Where?</quote>. These may be paraphrased respectively as
<quote>At what time?</quote> and
<quote>At what place?</quote> In these forms, their Lojban equivalents simply involve a tense plus
<quote>ma</quote>, the Lojban sumti question:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-FUdc">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-FUdc">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e24d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section24-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e24d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section24-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do klama le zdani ca ma</jbo>
<gloss>You go-to the house [present] [what sumti?].</gloss>
<gloss>You go to the house at what time?</gloss>
<en>When do you go to the house?</en>
<jbo>le verba vi ma pu cadzu le bisli</jbo>
<gloss>The child [short space] [what sumti?] [past] walks-on the ice.</gloss>
<gloss>The child at/near what place walked on the ice?</gloss>
<en>Where did the child walk on the ice?</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>There is also a non-specific tense and modal question,
<quote>cu'e</quote>, belonging to selma'o CUhE. This can be used wherever a tense or modal construct can be used.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-4dAJ">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4dAJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e24d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section24-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu cu'e batci le gerku</jbo>
<gloss>The man [what tense?] bites the dog.</gloss>
<en>When/Where/How does the man bite the dog?</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Possible answers to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section24-example3" /> might be:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-rNG8">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rNG8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e24d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section24-example4" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e24d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section24-example5" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e24d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section24-example6" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e24d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section24-example7" />
</title>
@@ -3407,47 +3407,47 @@
<jbo>vi le lunra</jbo>
<gloss>[short space] The moon.</gloss>
<en>On the moon.</en>
<jbo>pu'o</jbo>
<gloss>[inchoative]</gloss>
<en>He hasn't yet done so.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>or even the modal reply (from selma'o BAI; see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9" />):</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Vqgy">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Vqgy">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e24d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section24-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>seka'a le briju</jbo>
<en>With-destination the office.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The only way to combine
<quote>cu'e</quote> with other tense cmavo is through logical connection, which makes a question that pre-specifies some information:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-QTts">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-QTts">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e24d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section24-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do puzi je cu'e sombo le gurni</jbo>
<gloss>You [past] [short] and [when?] sow the grain?</gloss>
<en>You sowed the grain a little while ago; when else do you sow it?</en>
<!-- ^^ when else: example, 250 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>when else</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Additionally, the logical connective itself can be replaced by a question word:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-I6xI">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-I6xI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e24d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section24-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .artr. pu je'i ba nolraitru</jbo>
<!-- ^^ je'i, 352 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>je'i</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>Arthur [past] [which?] [future] is-a-king</gloss>
<en>Was Arthur a king or will he be?</en>
@@ -3461,21 +3461,21 @@
<quote>the latter</quote>, or
<quote>jenai</quote> meaning
<quote>the former</quote>.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section25">
<title>Explicit magnitudes</title>
<para>It is a limitation of the VA and ZI system of specifying magnitudes that they can only prescribe vague magnitudes: small, medium, or large. In order to express both an origin point and an exact distance, the Lojban construction called a
<quote>termset</quote> is employed. (Termsets are explained further in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16" />.) It is grammatical for a termset to be placed after a tense or modal tag rather than a sumti, which allows both the origin of the imaginary journey and its distance to be specified. Here is an example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-7Lys">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7Lys">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e25d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section25-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la frank. sanli zu'a nu'i la djordj.</jbo>
<gloss>la'u lo mitre be li mu [nu'u]</gloss>
<gloss>Frank stands [left] [start termset] George</gloss>
<gloss>[quantity] a thing-measuring-in-meters the-number 5 [end termset].</gloss>
<en>Frank is standing five meters to the left of George.</en>
@@ -3493,37 +3493,37 @@
<para>It is not necessary to have both an origin point and an explicit magnitude: a termset may have only a single term in it. A less precise version of
<!-- ^^ magnitude: tense, 250 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>magnitude</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ explicit magnitude, 250 -->
<!-- ^^ magnitude: tense, 250 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>magnitude</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>explicit magnitude</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ magnitude: tense, 250 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>magnitude</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section25-example1" /> is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-RWEE">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-RWEE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e25d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section25-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la frank. sanli zu'a nu'i la'u</jbo>
<gloss>lo mitre be li mu</gloss>
<gloss>Frank stands [left] [termset] [quantity]</gloss>
<gloss>a thing-measuring-in-meters the-number 5.</gloss>
<en>Frank stands five meters to the left.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section26">
<title>Finally (an exercise for the much-tried reader)</title>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-NxGB">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-NxGB">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e26d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section26-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.a'o do pu seju ba roroi ca'o fe'e su'oroi jimpe</jbo>
<!-- ^^ a'o, 297, 302 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>a'o</primary></indexterm>
<en>fi le lojbo temci selsku ciste</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
diff --git a/todocbook/11.xml b/todocbook/11.xml
index 356a190..0c99707 100644
--- a/todocbook/11.xml
+++ b/todocbook/11.xml
@@ -1,67 +1,67 @@
<chapter xml:id="cll_chapter11">
<title>Chapter 11 Events, Qualities, Quantities, And Other Vague Words: On Lojban Abstraction</title>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter11-section1">
<title>The syntax of abstraction</title>
<para>The purpose of the feature of Lojban known as
<quote>abstraction</quote> is to provide a means for taking whole bridi and packaging them up, as it were, into simple selbri. Syntactically, abstractions are very simple and uniform; semantically, they are rich and complex, with few features in common between one variety of abstraction and another. We will begin by discussing syntax without regard to semantics; as a result, the notion of abstraction may seem unmotivated at first. Bear with this difficulty until
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section2" />.</para>
<para>An abstraction selbri is formed by taking a full bridi and preceding it by any cmavo of selma'o NU. There are twelve such cmavo; they are known as
<quote>abstractors</quote>. The bridi is closed by the elidable terminator
<quote>kei</quote>, of selma'o KEI. Thus, to change the bridi</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-6EI1">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-6EI1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e1d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section1-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci</jbo>
<en>I go-to the store</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>into an abstraction using
<quote>nu</quote>, one of the members of selma'o NU, we change it into</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Via0">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Via0">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e1d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section1-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>nu mi klama le zarci [kei]</jbo>
<en>an-event-of my going-to the store</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The bridi may be a simple selbri, or it may have associated sumti, as here. It is important to beware of eliding
<quote>kei</quote> improperly, as many of the common uses of abstraction selbri involve following them with words that would appear to be part of the abstraction if
<quote>kei</quote> had been elided.</para>
<para>(Technically,
<quote>kei</quote> is never necessary, because the elidable terminator
<quote>vau</quote> that closes every bridi can substitute for it; however,
<quote>kei</quote> is specific to abstractions, and using it is almost always clearer.)</para>
<para>The grammatical uses of an abstraction selbri are exactly the same as those of a simple brivla. In particular, abstraction selbri may be used as observatives, as in
<!-- ^^ observatives: and abstractions, 255; quick-tour version, 15 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>observatives</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section1-example2" />, or used in tanru:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-0Ff4">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-0Ff4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e1d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section1-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. cu nu sonci kei djica</jbo>
<gloss>John is-an-(event-of being-a-soldier) type-of desirer.</gloss>
<en>John wants to be a soldier.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Abstraction selbri may also be used in descriptions, preceded by
<quote>le</quote>(or any other member of selma'o LE):</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-sQ33">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sQ33">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e1d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section1-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. cu djica le nu sonci [kei]</jbo>
<en>John desires the event-of being-a-soldier.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>We will most often use descriptions containing abstraction either at the end of a bridi, or just before the main selbri with its
@@ -88,21 +88,21 @@
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>The examples in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section1" /> made use of
<quote>nu</quote> as the abstractor, and it is certainly the most common abstractor in Lojban text. Its purpose is to capture the event or state of the bridi considered as a whole. Do not confuse the
<!-- ^^ common abstractor, 256 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>common abstractor</primary></indexterm>
<quote>le</quote> description built on a
<quote>nu</quote> abstraction with ordinary descriptions based on
<quote>le</quote> alone. The following sumti are quite distinct:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-TPFz">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-TPFz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e2d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section2-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c11e2d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section2-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c11e2d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section2-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c11e2d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section2-example4" />
<anchor xml:id="c11e2d5" />
@@ -129,34 +129,34 @@
<en>the event of someone coming to somewhere from somewhere by some route using some means</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section2-example1" /> through
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section2-example5" /> are descriptions that isolate the five individual sumti places of the selbri
<quote>klama</quote>.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section2-example6" /> describes something associated with the bridi as a whole: the event of it.</para>
<para>In Lojban, the term
<quote>event</quote> is divorced from its ordinary English sense of something that happens over a short period of time. The description:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-mxAt">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mxAt">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e2d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section2-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nu mi vasxu</jbo>
<en>the event-of my breathing</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is an event which lasts for the whole of my life (under normal circumstances). On the other hand,</para>
<!-- ^^ normal circumstances, 256 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>normal circumstances</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-BPcI">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-BPcI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e2d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section2-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nu la djan. cinba la djein.</jbo>
<en>the event-of John kissing Jane</en>
<!-- ^^ kissing Jane, example, 256 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>kissing Jane</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -167,69 +167,69 @@
<!-- ^^ comparison: claims related to based on form, 204 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>comparison</primary></indexterm>
<para>We can see from
<!-- ^^ can see: example, 244 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>can see</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section2-example6" /> through
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section2-example8" /> that ellipsis of sumti is valid in the bridi of abstraction selbri, just as in the main bridi of a sentence. Any sumti may be ellipsized if the listener will be able to figure out from context what the proper value of it is, or else to recognize that the proper value is unimportant. It is extremely common for
<!-- ^^ ellipsis: quick-tour version, 14 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ellipsis</primary></indexterm>
<quote>nu</quote> abstractions in descriptions to have the x1 place ellipsized:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-FRoP">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-FRoP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e2d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section2-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci le nu limna</jbo>
<gloss>I like the event-of swimming.</gloss>
<en>I like swimming.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is elliptical, and most probably means:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Ys8w">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Ys8w">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e2d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section2-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci le nu mi limna</jbo>
<en>I like the event-of I swim.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In the proper context, of course,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section2-example9" /> could refer to the event of somebody else swimming. Its English equivalent,
<quote>I like swimming</quote>, can't be interpreted as
<quote>I like Frank's swimming</quote>; this is a fundamental distinction between English and Lojban. In Lojban, an omitted sumti can mean whatever the context indicates that it should mean.</para>
<para>Note that the lack of an explicit NU cmavo in a sumti can sometimes hide an implicit abstraction. In the context of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section2-example10" />, the appearance of
<quote>le se nelci</quote>(
<quote>that which is liked</quote>) is in effect an abstraction:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-sMsx">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sMsx">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e2d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section2-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le se nelci cu cafne</jbo>
<gloss>The liked-thing is-frequent.</gloss>
<en>The thing which I like happens often.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which in this context means</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
My swimming happens often.
</programlisting>
<para>Event descriptions with
<quote>le nu</quote> are commonly used to fill the
<quote>under conditions...</quote> places, among others, of gismu and lujvo place structures:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Ia6f">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Ia6f">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e2d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section2-example12" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la lojban. cu frili mi</jbo>
<gloss>le nu mi tadni [kei]</gloss>
<gloss>Lojban is-easy for-me</gloss>
<gloss>under-conditions-the event-of I study</gloss>
<en>Lojban is easy for me when I study.</en>
@@ -290,42 +290,42 @@
<quote>nu</quote> suffice to express all kinds of events, whether long, short, unique, repetitive, or whatever. Lojban also has more finely discriminating machinery for talking about events, however. There are four other abstractors of selma'o NU for talking about four specific types of events, or four ways of looking at the same event.</para>
<para>An event considered as a point in time is called a
<quote>point-event</quote>, or sometimes an
<quote>achievement</quote>. (This latter word should be divorced, in this context, from all connotations of success or triumph.) A point-event can be extended in duration, but it is still a point-event if it is thought of as unitary, having no internal structure. The abstractor
<!-- ^^ triumph, 258 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>triumph</primary></indexterm>
<quote>mu'e</quote> means
<!-- ^^ mu'e, 257, 258; place structure, 259 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>mu'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>point-event-of</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-nFR1">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nFR1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e3d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section3-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le mu'e la djan. catra la djim. cu zekri</jbo>
<!-- ^^ mu'e, 257, 258; place structure, 259 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>mu'e</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>The point-event-of (John kills Jim) is-a-crime.</gloss>
<en>John's killing Jim (considered as a point in time) is a crime.</en>
<!-- ^^ killing Jim, 258; example, 258 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>killing Jim</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>An event considered as extended in time, and structured with a beginning, a middle containing one or more stages, and an end, is called a
<quote>process</quote>. The abstractor
<quote>pu'u</quote> means
<!-- ^^ pu'u, 257, 258, 268; place structure, 259 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>pu'u</primary></indexterm>
<quote>process-of</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-WaxD">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-WaxD">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e3d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section3-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ca'o le pu'u le latmo balje'a</jbo>
<!-- ^^ pu'u, 257, 258, 268; place structure, 259 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>pu'u</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>cu porpi kei</gloss>
<gloss>so'i je'atru cu selcatra</gloss>
@@ -338,40 +338,40 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Roman Empire</primary></indexterm>
<en>many Emperors were killed.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>An event considered as extended in time and cyclic or repetitive is called an
<quote>activity</quote>. The abstractor
<quote>zu'o</quote> means
<!-- ^^ zu'o, 257, 258, 268; place structure, 259 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>zu'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>activity-of</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-89nw">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-89nw">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e3d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section3-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi tatpi ri'a le zu'o mi plipe</jbo>
<!-- ^^ zu'o, 257, 258, 268; place structure, 259 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>zu'o</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I am-tired because-of the activity-of (I jump).</gloss>
<en>I am tired because I jump.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>An event considered as something that is either happening or not happening, with sharp boundaries, is called a
<quote>state</quote>. The abstractor
<quote>za'i</quote> means
<!-- ^^ za'i, 257, 258, 268; place structure, 259 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>za'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>state-of</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-WztQ">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-WztQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e3d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section3-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le za'i mi jmive cu ckape do</jbo>
<!-- ^^ za'i, 257, 258, 268; place structure, 259 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>za'i</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>The state-of (I am-alive) is-dangerous-to you.</gloss>
<en>My being alive is dangerous to you.</en>
@@ -459,54 +459,54 @@
<para>The things described by
<quote>le nu</quote> descriptions (or, to put it another way, the things of which
<quote>nu</quote> selbri may correctly be predicated) are only moderately
<quote>abstract</quote>. They are still closely tied to happenings in space and time. Properties, however, are much more ethereal. What is
<quote>the property of being blue</quote>, or
<quote>the property of being a go-er</quote>? They are what logicians call
<quote>intensions</quote>. If John has a heart, then
<!-- ^^ has a heart: example, 259 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>has a heart</primary></indexterm>
<quote>the property of having a heart</quote> is an abstract object which, when applied to John, is true. In fact,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-YSUx">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-YSUx">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e4d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section4-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. cu se risna zo'e</jbo>
<gloss>John has-as-heart something-unspecified.</gloss>
<en>John has a heart.</en>
<!-- ^^ has a heart: example, 259 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>has a heart</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>has the same truth conditions as</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-1PPS">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1PPS">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e4d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section4-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. cu ckaji</jbo>
<gloss>le ka se risna [zo'e] [kei]</gloss>
<gloss>John has-the-property</gloss>
<gloss>the property-of having-as-heart something.</gloss>
<en>John has the property of having a heart.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(The English word
<quote>have</quote> frequently appears in any discussion of Lojban properties: things are said to
<quote>have</quote> properties, but this is not the same sense of
<quote>have</quote> as in
<quote>I have money</quote>, which is possession.)</para>
<para>Property descriptions, like event descriptions, are often wanted to fill places in brivla place structures:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-v3Ba">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-v3Ba">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e4d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section4-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do cnino mi</jbo>
<gloss>le ka xunre [kei]</gloss>
<gloss>You are-new to-me</gloss>
<gloss>in-the-quality-of-the property-of being-red.</gloss>
<en>You are new to me in redness.</en>
@@ -516,65 +516,65 @@
<quote>-ness</quote> often signals a property abstraction, as does the suffix
<!-- ^^ property abstraction, 259; use of multiple ce'u for relationship abstraction, 260 -->
<!-- ^^ relationship abstraction, 260 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>relationship abstraction</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>property abstraction</primary></indexterm>
<quote>-ity</quote>.)</para>
<para>We can also move the property description to the x1 place of
<!-- ^^ property description, 259 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>property description</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section4-example3" />, producing:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-proQ">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-proQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e4d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section4-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ka do xunre [kei] cu cnino mi</jbo>
<gloss>The property-of your being-red is-new to me.</gloss>
<en>Your redness is new to me.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>It would be suitable to use
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section4-example3" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section4-example4" /> to someone who has returned from the beach with a sunburn.</para>
<!-- ^^ sunburn: example, 259 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>sunburn</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ beach: example, 259 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>beach</primary></indexterm>
<para>There are several different properties that can be extracted from a bridi, depending on which place of the bridi is
<quote>understood</quote> as being specified externally. Thus:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-H71J">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-H71J">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e4d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section4-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ka mi prami [zo'e] [kei]</jbo>
<en>a-property-of me loving something-unspecified</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is quite different from</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-wcxY">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-wcxY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e4d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section4-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ka [zo'e] prami mi [kei]</jbo>
<en>a-property-of something-unspecified loving me</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In particular, sentences like
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section4-example7" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section4-example8" /> are quite different in meaning:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-HWEj">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-HWEj">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e4d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section4-example7" />
<anchor xml:id="c11e4d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section4-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. cu zmadu la djordj. le ka mi prami</jbo>
<gloss>John exceeds George in-the property-of (I love X)</gloss>
<en>I love John more than I love George.</en>
@@ -589,72 +589,72 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section4-example8" /> as a place-holder cannot be represented only by ellipsis in Lojban, because ellipsis means that there must be a specific value that can fill the ellipsis, as mentioned in
<!-- ^^ ellipsis: quick-tour version, 14 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ellipsis</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section2" />. Instead, the cmavo
<quote>ce'u</quote> of selma'o KOhA is employed when an explicit sumti is wanted. (The form
<quote>X</quote> will be used in literal translations.)</para>
<para>Therefore, an explicit equivalent of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section4-example7" />, with no ellipsis, is:</para>
<!-- ^^ ellipsis: quick-tour version, 14 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ellipsis</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-8DD8">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-8DD8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e4d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section4-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. cu zmadu la djordj. le ka mi prami ce'u</jbo>
<en>John exceeds George in-the property-of (I love X).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section4-example8" /> is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-JKBQ">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-JKBQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e4d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section4-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. cu zmadu la djordj. le ka ce'u prami mi</jbo>
<en>John exceeds George in-the property-of (X loves me).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This convention allows disambiguation of cases like:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-GiJp">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-GiJp">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e4d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section4-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ka [zo'e] dunda le xirma [zo'e] [kei]</jbo>
<en>the property-of giving the horse</en>
<!-- ^^ giving the horse: example, 260 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>giving the horse</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>into</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-1vc4">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1vc4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e4d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section4-example12" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ka ce'u dunda le xirma</jbo>
<gloss>[zo'e] [kei]</gloss>
<gloss>the property-of (X is-a-giver of-the horse</gloss>
<gloss>to someone-unspecified)</gloss>
<en>the property of being a giver of the horse</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which is the most natural interpretation of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section4-example11" />, versus</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-rDtg">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rDtg">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e4d13" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section4-example13" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ka [zo'e] dunda</jbo>
<gloss>le xirma ce'u [kei]</gloss>
<gloss>the property-of (someone-unspecified</gloss>
<gloss>is-a-giver of-the horse to X)</gloss>
<en>the property of being one to whom the horse is given</en>
@@ -695,88 +695,88 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>amount abstraction</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ amount abstraction, 261 -->
<!-- ^^ amount abstraction(s): place structure, 262; scale, 262; specifying determining place with ce'u, 261 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>amount abstraction</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>amount abstraction</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ amount abstraction(s): place structure, 262; scale, 262; specifying determining place with ce'u, 261 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>amount abstraction</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>Amount abstractions are far more limited than event or property abstractions. They really make sense only if the selbri of the abstracted bridi is subject to measurement of some sort. Thus we can speak of:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-QW2C">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-QW2C">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e5d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section5-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ni le pixra cu blanu [kei]</jbo>
<gloss>the amount-of (the picture being-blue)</gloss>
<en>the amount of blueness in the picture</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>because
<quote>blueness</quote> could be measured with a colorimeter or a similar device. However,</para>
<!-- ^^ colorimeter, 261 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>colorimeter</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-FyL4">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-FyL4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e5d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section5-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ni la djein. cu mamta [kei]</jbo>
<gloss>the amount-of (Jane being-a-mother)</gloss>
<gloss>the amount of Jane's mother-ness (?)</gloss>
<en>the amount of mother-ness in Jane (?)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>makes very little sense in either Lojban or English. We simply do not have any sort of measurement scale for being a mother.</para>
<!-- ^^ measurement scale, 261 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>measurement scale</primary></indexterm>
<para>Semantically, a sumti with
<quote>le ni</quote> is a number; however, it cannot be treated grammatically as a quantifier in Lojban unless prefixed by the mathematical cmavo
<quote>mo'e</quote>:</para>
<!-- ^^ mo'e, 456; terminator for, 456 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>mo'e</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-SaTi">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-SaTi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e5d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section5-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li pa vu'u mo'e</jbo>
<!-- ^^ mo'e, 456; terminator for, 456 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>mo'e</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>le ni le pixra cu blanu [kei]</gloss>
<gloss>the-number 1 minus the-operand</gloss>
<gloss>the amount-of (the picture being-blue)</gloss>
<en>1 - B, where B = blueness of the picture</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Mathematical Lojban is beyond the scope of this chapter, and is explained more fully in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18" />.</para>
<para>There are contexts where either property or amount abstractions make sense, and in such constructions, amount abstractions can make use of
<quote>ce'u</quote> just like property abstractors. Thus,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-1LtX">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1LtX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e5d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section5-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le pixra cu cenba le ka ce'u blanu [kei]</jbo>
<gloss>The picture varies in-the property-of (X is blue).</gloss>
<gloss>The picture varies in being blue.</gloss>
<en>The picture varies in blueness.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is not the same as</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-QKpo">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-QKpo">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e5d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section5-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le pixra cu cenba le ni ce'u blanu [kei]</jbo>
<gloss>The picture varies in-the amount-of (X is blue).</gloss>
<gloss>The picture varies in how blue it is.</gloss>
<en>The picture varies in blueness.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -797,49 +797,49 @@
<title>Truth-value abstraction:
<!-- ^^ value abstraction, 262 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>value abstraction</primary></indexterm>
<quote>jei</quote></title>
<para>The
<quote>blueness of the picture</quote> discussed in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section5" /> refers to the measurable amount of blue pigment (or other source of blueness), not to the degree of truth of the claim that blueness is present. That abstraction is expressed in Lojban using
<quote>jei</quote>, which is closely related semantically to
<quote>ni</quote>. In the simplest cases,
<quote>le jei</quote> produces not a number but a truth value:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-KuTE">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KuTE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e6d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section6-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le jei li re su'i re du li vo [kei]</jbo>
<gloss>the truth-value-of the-number 2 + 2 = the-number 4</gloss>
<en>the truth of 2 + 2 being 4</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is equivalent to
<quote>truth</quote>, and</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-nYY2">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nYY2">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e6d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section6-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le jei li re su'i re du li mu [kei]</jbo>
<gloss>the truth-value-of the-number 2 + 2 = the-number 5</gloss>
<en>the truth of 2 + 2 being 5</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is equivalent to
<quote>falsehood</quote>.</para>
<para>However, not everything in life (or even in Lojban) is simply true or false. There are shades of gray even in truth value, and
<quote>jei</quote> is Lojban's mechanism for indicating the shade of grey intended:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-MRD8">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-MRD8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e6d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section6-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ba jdice le jei</jbo>
<gloss>la djordj. cu zekri gasnu [kei]</gloss>
<gloss>I [future] decide the truth-value of</gloss>
<gloss>(George being-a-(crime doer)).</gloss>
<en>I will decide whether George is a criminal.</en>
@@ -871,106 +871,106 @@
<selmaho>NU</selmaho>
<description>predication abstraction</description>
<!-- ^^ predication abstraction, 262 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>predication abstraction</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>There are some selbri which demand an entire predication as a sumti; they make claims about some predication considered as a whole. Logicians call these the
<quote>propositional attitudes</quote>, and they include (in English) things like knowing, believing, learning, seeing, hearing, and the like. Consider the English sentence:</para>
<!-- ^^ propositional attitudes, 262; compared with knowledge discursives, 319 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>propositional attitudes</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-7N2q">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7N2q">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e7d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section7-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>I know that Frank is a fool.</jbo>
<!-- ^^ Frank is a fool: example, 263 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Frank is a fool</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>How's that in Lojban? Let us try:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-brpf">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-brpf">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e7d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section7-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi djuno le nu la frank. cu bebna [kei]</jbo>
<en>I know the event of Frank being a fool.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Not quite right. Events are actually or potentially physical, and can't be contained inside one's mind, except for events of thinking, feeling, and the like;
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section7-example2" /> comes close to claiming that Frank's being-a-fool is purely a mental activity on the part of the speaker. (In fact,
<!-- ^^ mental activity, 263 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>mental activity</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section7-example2" /> is an instance of improperly marked
<quote>sumti raising</quote>, a concept discussed further in
<!-- ^^ sumti raising, 266 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>sumti raising</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section10" />).</para>
<para>Try again:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-oCgP">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-oCgP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e7d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section7-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi djuno le jei la frank. cu bebna [kei]</jbo>
<en>I know the truth-value of Frank being a fool.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Closer.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section7-example3" /> says that I know whether or not Frank is a fool, but doesn't say that he is one, as
<!-- ^^ Frank is a fool: example, 263 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Frank is a fool</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section7-example1" /> does. To catch that nuance, we must say:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-6p1K">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-6p1K">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e7d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section7-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi djuno le du'u la frank. cu bebna [kei]</jbo>
<en>I know the predication that Frank is a fool.</en>
<!-- ^^ Frank is a fool: example, 263 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Frank is a fool</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Now we have it. Note that the implied assertion
<quote>Frank is a fool</quote> is not a property of
<!-- ^^ Frank is a fool: example, 263 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Frank is a fool</primary></indexterm>
<quote>le du'u</quote> abstraction, but of
<quote>djuno</quote>; we can only know what is in fact true. (As a result,
<quote>djuno</quote> like
<quote>jei</quote> has a place for epistemology, which specifies how we know.)
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section7-example5" /> has no such implied assertion:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-eYiD">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-eYiD">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e7d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section7-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi kucli le du'u la frank. cu bebna [kei]</jbo>
<en>I am curious about whether Frank is a fool.</en>
<!-- ^^ Frank is a fool: example, 263 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Frank is a fool</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ curious, 263; example, 263; example, 263 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>curious</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and here
<quote>du'u</quote> could probably be replaced by
<quote>jei</quote> without much change in meaning:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-h4De">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-h4De">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e7d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section7-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi kucli le jei la frank. cu bebna [kei]</jbo>
<en>I am curious about how true it is that Frank is a fool.</en>
<!-- ^^ Frank is a fool: example, 263 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Frank is a fool</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ curious, 263; example, 263; example, 263 -->
@@ -979,34 +979,34 @@
</example>
<para>As a matter of convenience rather than logical necessity,
<quote>du'u</quote> has been given an x2 place, which is a sentence (piece of language) expressing the bridi:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
du'u: x1 is the predication (the bridi), expressed in sentence x2
</programlisting>
<para>and
<quote>le se du'u ...</quote> is very useful in filling places of selbri which refer to speaking, writing, or other linguistic behavior regarding bridi:</para>
<!-- ^^ linguistic behavior, 263 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>linguistic behavior</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-hzd8">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hzd8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e7d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section7-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. cusku le se du'u la djordj. klama le zarci [kei]</jbo>
<gloss>John expresses the sentence-expressing-that George goes-to the store</gloss>
<en>John says that George goes to the store.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section7-example7" /> differs from</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-AX2I">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-AX2I">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e7d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section7-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan cusku lu la djordj. klama le zarci li'u</jbo>
<gloss>John expresses, quote, George goes to the store, unquote.</gloss>
<en>John says
<quote>George goes to the store</quote>.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1031,31 +1031,31 @@
<!-- ^^ kau, 264, 323; ma kau, contrasted with la djan. kau, 264 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>kau</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>UI</selmaho>
<description>indirect question marker</description>
<!-- ^^ indirect question, 323 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>indirect question</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>There is an alternative type of sentence involving
<quote>du'u</quote> and a selbri expressing a propositional attitude. In addition to sentences like</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Fpid">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Fpid">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e8d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section8-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>I know that John went to the store.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>we can also say things like</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-N4Ja">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-N4Ja">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e8d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section8-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>I know who went to the store.</jbo>
<!-- ^^ know who: contrasted with know that, 264; example, 264 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>know who</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1074,21 +1074,21 @@
<!-- ^^ kau, 264, 323; ma kau, contrasted with la djan. kau, 264 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>kau</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>indirect questions</primary></indexterm>
<quote>le du'u</quote> abstraction, but rather than using a question word like
<quote>who</quote>(
<quote>ma</quote> in Lojban), we use any word that will fit grammatically and mark it with the suffix particle
<quote>kau</quote>. This cmavo belongs to selma'o UI, so grammatically it can appear anywhere. The simplest Lojban translation of
<!-- ^^ kau, 264, 323; ma kau, contrasted with la djan. kau, 264 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>kau</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section8-example2" /> is therefore:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-QUxG">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-QUxG">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e8d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section8-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi djuno le du'u</jbo>
<gloss>makau pu klama le zarci</gloss>
<gloss>I know the predication-of</gloss>
<en>X [indirect question] [past] going to the store.</en>
<!-- ^^ indirect question, 323 -->
@@ -1098,21 +1098,21 @@
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section8-example3" />, we have chosen to use
<quote>ma</quote> as the word marked by
<quote>kau</quote>. In fact, any other sumti would have done as well:
<!-- ^^ kau, 264, 323; ma kau, contrasted with la djan. kau, 264 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>kau</primary></indexterm>
<quote>zo'e</quote> or
<quote>da</quote> or even
<quote>la djan.</quote>. Using
<quote>la djan.</quote> would suggest that it was John who I knew had gone to the store, however:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-hmDo">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hmDo">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e8d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section8-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi djuno le du'u</jbo>
<gloss>la djan. kau pu</gloss>
<!-- ^^ kau, 264, 323; ma kau, contrasted with la djan. kau, 264 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>kau</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>klama le zarci</gloss>
@@ -1132,66 +1132,66 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>indefinite pro-sumti</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ma</quote>,
<quote>zo'e</quote>, or
<quote>da</quote> does not suggest any particular value.</para>
<para>Why does Lojban require the
<quote>kau</quote> marker, rather than using
<!-- ^^ kau, 264, 323; ma kau, contrasted with la djan. kau, 264 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>kau</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ma</quote> as English and Chinese and many other languages do? Because
<quote>ma</quote> always signals a direct question, and so</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-5WU4">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-5WU4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e8d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section8-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi djuno le du'u</jbo>
<gloss>ma pu klama le zarci</gloss>
<gloss>I know the predication-of</gloss>
<en>[what sumti?] [past] goes-to the store</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-LDrc">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-LDrc">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e8d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section8-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>Who is it that I know goes to the store?</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>It is actually not necessary to use
<quote>le du'u</quote> and
<quote>kau</quote> at all if the indirect question involves a sumti; there is generally a paraphrase of the type:</para>
<!-- ^^ kau, 264, 323; ma kau, contrasted with la djan. kau, 264 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>kau</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ indirect question, 323 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>indirect question</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-b6VT">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-b6VT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e8d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section8-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi djuno fi le pu klama be le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I know about the [past] goer to-the store.</gloss>
<en>I know something about the one who went to the store (namely, his identity).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>because the x3 place of
<quote>djuno</quote> is the subject of knowledge, as opposed to the fact that is known. But when the questioned point is not a sumti, but (say) a logical connection, then there is no good alternative to
<quote>kau</quote>:</para>
<!-- ^^ kau, 264, 323; ma kau, contrasted with la djan. kau, 264 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>kau</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-2nIX">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2nIX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e8d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section8-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ba zgana le du'u</jbo>
<gloss>la djan. jikau la djordj.</gloss>
<gloss>cu zvati le panka</gloss>
<gloss>I [future] observe the predication-of/fact-that</gloss>
<gloss>John [connective indirect question] George</gloss>
@@ -1229,49 +1229,49 @@
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>su'u</cmavo>
<selmaho>NU</selmaho>
<description>general abstractor</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>There are three more abstractors in Lojban, all of them little used so far. The abstractor
<quote>li'i</quote> expresses experience:</para>
<!-- ^^ li'i, 265 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>li'i</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-FS6r">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-FS6r">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e9d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section9-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi morji le li'i mi verba</jbo>
<!-- ^^ li'i, 265 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>li'i</primary></indexterm>
<en>I remember the experience-of (my being-a-child)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The abstractor
<quote>si'o</quote> expresses a mental image, a concept, an idea:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Yh42">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Yh42">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e9d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section9-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci le si'o la lojban. cu mulno</jbo>
<en>I enjoy the concept-of Lojban being-complete.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Finally, the abstractor
<quote>su'u</quote> is a vague abstractor, whose meaning must be grasped from context:</para>
<!-- ^^ vague abstractor, 265 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>vague abstractor</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ycKt">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ycKt">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e9d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section9-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ko zgana le su'u</jbo>
<gloss>le ci smacu cu bajra</gloss>
<gloss>you [imperative] observe the abstract-nature-of</gloss>
<gloss>the three mice running</gloss>
<!-- ^^ mice: example, 265 -->
@@ -1299,43 +1299,43 @@
</programlisting>
<para>Finally, there needs to be some way of specifying just what sort of abstraction
<quote>su'u</quote> is representing, so its place structure is:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
su'u: x1 is an abstract nature of (the bridi) of type x2
</programlisting>
<para>The x2 place of
<quote>su'u</quote> allows it to serve as a substitute for any of the other abstractors, or as a template for creating new ones. For example,</para>
<!-- ^^ template, 266 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>template</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-FnNR">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-FnNR">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e9d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section9-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nu mi klama</jbo>
<en>the event-of my going</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>can be paraphrased as</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-zvfX">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-zvfX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e9d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section9-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le su'u mi klama kei be lo fasnu</jbo>
<en>the abstract-nature-of (my going) of-type an event</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and there is a book whose title might be rendered in Lojban as:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-5Kw7">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-5Kw7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e9d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section9-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le su'u la .iecuas. kuctai</jbo>
<gloss>selcatra kei</gloss>
<gloss>be lo sa'ordzifa'a</gloss>
<gloss>ke nalmatma'e sutyterjvi</gloss>
<gloss>the abstract-nature-of (Jesus is-an-intersect-shape</gloss>
@@ -1378,172 +1378,172 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>abstraction conversion</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>It is sometimes inconvenient, in a situation where an abstract description is logically required, to express the abstraction. In English we can say:</para>
<!-- ^^ English we: contrasted with Lojban pro-sumti for we, 146 -->
<!-- ^^ pro-sumti for we: contrasted with English we, 146 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>pro-sumti for we</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>English we</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ abstract description, 266 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>abstract description</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-BYp8">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-BYp8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e10d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section10-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>I try to open the door.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which in Lojban is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-1WER">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1WER">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e10d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section10-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi troci le nu</jbo>
<gloss>[mi] gasnu le nu</gloss>
<gloss>le vorme cu karbi'o</gloss>
<gloss>I try the event-of</gloss>
<gloss>(I am-agent-in the event-of</gloss>
<en>(the door open-becomes)).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which has an abstract description within an abstract description, quite a complex structure. In English (but not in all other languages), we may also say:</para>
<!-- ^^ abstract description, 266 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>abstract description</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-K14X">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-K14X">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e10d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section10-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>I try the door.</jbo>
<!-- ^^ try the door: example, 266 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>try the door</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where it is understood that what I try is actually not the door itself, but the act of opening it. The same simplification can be done in Lojban, but it must be marked explicitly using a cmavo. The relevant cmavo is
<quote>tu'a</quote>, which belongs to selma'o LAhE. The Lojban equivalent of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section10-example3" /> is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-gabC">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gabC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e10d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section10-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi troci tu'a le vorme</jbo>
<en>I try some-action-to-do-with the door.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The term
<quote>sumti-raising</quote>, as in the title of this section, signifies that a sumti which logically belongs within an abstraction (or even within an abstraction which is itself inside an intermediate abstraction) is
<!-- ^^ intermediate abstraction, 267 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>intermediate abstraction</primary></indexterm>
<quote>raised</quote> to the main bridi level. This transformation from
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section10-example2" /> to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section10-example4" /> loses information: nothing except convention tells us what the abstraction was.</para>
<para>Using
<quote>tu'a</quote> is a kind of laziness: it makes speaking easier at the possible expense of clarity for the listener. The speaker must be prepared for the listener to respond something like:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-mKBy">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mKBy">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e10d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section10-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>tu'a le vorme lu'u ki'a</jbo>
<!-- ^^ lu'u, 133, 267; as elidable terminator for qualified sumti, 133 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>lu'u</primary></indexterm>
<en>something-to-do-with the door [terminator] [confusion!]</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which indicates that
<quote>tu'a le vorme</quote> cannot be understood. (The terminator for
<quote>tu'a</quote> is
<quote>lu'u</quote>, and is used in
<!-- ^^ lu'u, 133, 267; as elidable terminator for qualified sumti, 133 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>lu'u</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section10-example5" /> to make clear just what is being questioned: the sumti-raising, rather than the word
<quote>vorme</quote> as such.) An example of a confusing raised sumti might be:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-9S5B">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9S5B">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e10d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section10-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>tu'a la djan. cu cafne</jbo>
<en>something-to-do-with John frequently-occurs</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This must mean that something which John does, or which happens to John, occurs frequently: but without more context there is no way to figure out what. Note that without the
<quote>tu'a</quote>,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section10-example6" /> would mean that John considered as an event frequently occurs - in other words, that John has some sort of on-and-off existence! Normally we do not think of people as events in English, but the x1 place of
<quote>cafne</quote> is an event, and if something that does not seem to be an event is put there, the Lojbanic listener will attempt to construe it as one. (Of course, this analysis assumes that
<quote>djan.</quote> is the name of a person, and not the name of some event.)</para>
<para>Logically, a counterpart of some sort is needed to
<quote>tu'a</quote> which transposes an abstract sumti into a concrete one. This is achieved at the selbri level by the cmavo
<quote>jai</quote>(of selma'o JAI). This cmavo has more than one function, discussed in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10" />; for the purposes of this chapter, it operates as a conversion of selbri, similarly to the cmavo of selma'o SE. This conversion changes</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-jAdY">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-jAdY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e10d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section10-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>tu'a mi rinka</jbo>
<gloss>le nu do morsi</gloss>
<gloss>something-to-do-with me causes</gloss>
<gloss>the event-of you are-dead</gloss>
<en>My action causes your death.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>into</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-R8SN">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-R8SN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e10d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section10-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi jai rinka le nu do morsi</jbo>
<gloss>I am-associated-with causing the event-of your death.</gloss>
<en>I cause your death.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In English, the subject of
<quote>cause</quote> can either be the actual cause (an event), or else the agent of the cause (a person, typically); not so in Lojban, where the x1 of
<quote>rinka</quote> is always an event.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section10-example7" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section10-example8" /> look equally convenient (or inconvenient), but in making descriptions,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section10-example8" /> can be altered to:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Jt1n">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Jt1n">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e10d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section10-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le jai rinka</jbo>
<gloss>be le nu do morsi</gloss>
<gloss>that-which-is associated-with causing</gloss>
<gloss>(the event-of your death)</gloss>
<en>the one who caused your death</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>because
<quote>jai</quote> modifies the selbri and can be incorporated into the description - not so for
<quote>tu'a</quote>.</para>
<para>The weakness of
<quote>jai</quote> used in descriptions in this way is that it does not specify which argument of the implicit abstraction is being raised into the x1 place of the description selbri. One can be more specific by using the modal form of
<quote>jai</quote> explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9" />:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-LPbo">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-LPbo">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e10d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section10-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le jai gau rinka</jbo>
<gloss>be le nu do morsi</gloss>
<gloss>that-which-is agent-in causing</gloss>
<en>(the event-of your death)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1657,21 +1657,21 @@
<quote>mu'e</quote> point-events; the spans of time may constitute processes or activities. Therefore, Lojban allows us to refer to processes within processes, activities within states, and many other complicated abstract things.</para>
<!-- ^^ mu'e, 257, 258; place structure, 259 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>mu'e</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter11-section12">
<title>Abstractor connection</title>
<para>An abstractor may be replaced by two or more abstractors joined by logical or non-logical connectives. Connectives are explained in detail in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14" />. The connection can be expanded to one between two bridi which differ only in abstraction marker.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section12-example1" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section12-example2" /> are equivalent in meaning:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-hybU">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hybU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e12d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section12-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c11e12d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section12-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ka la frank. ciska cu xlali</jbo>
<gloss>.ije le ni la frank. ciska cu xlali</gloss>
<gloss>The quality-of Frank's writing is bad,</gloss>
diff --git a/todocbook/12.xml b/todocbook/12.xml
index f724651..6b1a899 100644
--- a/todocbook/12.xml
+++ b/todocbook/12.xml
@@ -13,32 +13,32 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>plants</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ minimal list, 273 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>minimal list</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ lists: use of tu'e/tu'u in, 358 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>lists</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ compound words, 273 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>compound words</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ basis: example, 317 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>basis</primary></indexterm>
<para>There is a close relationship between lujvo and tanru. In fact, lujvo are condensed forms of tanru:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-m9zv">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-m9zv">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e1d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section1-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti fagri festi</jbo>
<en>That is-fire waste.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>contains a tanru which can be reduced to the lujvo in:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-rYj5">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rYj5">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e1d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section1-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti fagyfesti</jbo>
<gloss>That is-fire-waste.</gloss>
<en>That is-ashes.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -92,33 +92,33 @@
<quote>dark</quote>, and the pair of words is a seltau relative to
<quote>sea</quote>. We're talking about the sea, not about wine or color. The other words are there to paint a scene in the listener's mind, in which the real action will occur, and to evoke relations to other sagas of the time similarly describing the sea. Logical inferences about wine or color will be rejected as irrelevant.</para>
<!-- ^^ irrelevant: specifying of sumti place, 157 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>irrelevant</primary></indexterm>
<para>As a simple example, consider the rather non-obvious tanru
<quote>klama zdani</quote>, or
<quote>goer-house</quote>. The gismu
<!-- ^^ goer-house: example, 274 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>goer-house</primary></indexterm>
<quote>zdani</quote> has two places:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-xcfi">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-xcfi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e2d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section2-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>x1 is a nest/house/lair/den for inhabitant x2</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(but in this chapter we will use simply
<quote>house</quote>, for brevity), and the gismu
<quote>klama</quote> has five:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-zUVg">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-zUVg">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e2d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section2-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>x1 goes to destination x2 from origin point x3 via route x4 using means x5</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The tanru
<quote>klama zdani</quote> will also have two places, namely those of
@@ -159,21 +159,21 @@
<quote>gerku zdani</quote> if there is any relationship (r) at all between the White House and Spot. (We'll choose the g1 and z1 places to relate by r; we could have chosen any other pair of places, and simply gotten a different relationship.)</para>
<para>The sky is the limit for r; it can be as complicated as
<quote>The other day, g1 (Spot) chased Socks, who is owned by Chelsea Clinton, who is the daughter of Bill Clinton, who lives in z1 (the White House)</quote> or even worse. If no such r can be found, well, you take another dog, and keep going until no more dogs can be found. Only then can we say that the White House cannot fit into the first place of
<!-- ^^ Chelsea Clinton, 275 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Chelsea Clinton</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ Bill Clinton: example, 275 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Bill Clinton</primary></indexterm>
<quote>gerku zdani</quote>.</para>
<para>As we have seen, no less than five elements are involved in the definition of
<quote>gerku zdani</quote>: the house, the house dweller, the dog, the dog breed (everywhere a dog goes in Lojban, a dog breed follows), and the relationship between the house and the dog. Since tanru are explicitly ambiguous in Lojban, the relationship r cannot be expressed within a tanru (if it could, it wouldn't be a tanru any more!) All the other places, however, can be expressed - thus:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-tUDa">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-tUDa">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e2d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section2-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la blabi zdani cu gerku be fa la spot. bei la sankt. berNARD. be'o</jbo>
<gloss>zdani la bil. klinton.</gloss>
<gloss>The White House is-a-dog (namely Spot of-breed Saint Bernard)</gloss>
<en>type-of-house-for Bill Clinton.</en>
<!-- ^^ Bill Clinton: example, 275 -->
@@ -218,63 +218,63 @@
<para>(The notation introduced casually in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12-section2" /> will be useful in the rest of this chapter. Rather than using the regular x1, x2, etc. to represent places, we'll use the first letter of the relevant gismu in place of the
<quote>x</quote>, or more than one letter where necessary to resolve ambiguities. Thus, z1 is the first place of
<quote>zdani</quote>, and g2 is the second place of
<quote>gerku</quote>.)</para>
<para>The place structure of
<quote>zdani</quote> is given as
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12-section2-example1" />, but is repeated here using the new notation:</para>
<!-- ^^ new notation, 276 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>new notation</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-95t5">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-95t5">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e3d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section3-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>z1 is a nest/house/lair/den of z2</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The place structure of
<quote>gerku</quote> is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-H4ed">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-H4ed">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e3d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section3-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>g1 is a dog of breed g2</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>But z2 is the same as g1; therefore, the tentative place structure for
<quote>gerzda</quote> now becomes:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-VHXr">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-VHXr">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e3d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section3-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>z1 is a house for dweller z2 of breed g2</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which can also be written</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-MnKf">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-MnKf">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e3d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section3-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>z1 is a house for dog g1 of breed g2</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>or more comprehensively</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Wx42">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Wx42">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e3d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section3-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>z1 is a house for dweller/dog z2=g1 of breed g2</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Despite the apparently conclusive nature of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12-section3-example5" />, our task is not yet done: we still need to decide whether any of the remaining places should also be eliminated, and what order the lujvo places should appear in. These concerns will be addressed in the remainder of the chapter; but we are now equipped with the terminology needed for those discussions.</para>
@@ -293,74 +293,74 @@
<section xml:id="cll_chapter12-section5">
<title>Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo</title>
<para>A common pattern, perhaps the most common pattern, of lujvo-making creates what is called a
<quote>symmetrical lujvo</quote>. A symmetrical lujvo is one based on a tanru interpretation such that the first place of the seltau is equivalent to the first place of the tertau: each component of the tanru characterizes the same object. As an illustration of this, consider the lujvo
<quote>balsoi</quote>: it is intended to mean
<quote>both great and a soldier</quote>- that is,
<quote>great soldier</quote>, which is the interpretation we would tend to give its veljvo,
<!-- ^^ great soldier: example, 278, 282 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>great soldier</primary></indexterm>
<quote>banli sonci</quote>. The underlying gismu place structures are:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-7AFc">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7AFc">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e5d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section5-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<quote>banli</quote>: b1 is great in property b2 by standard b3</jbo>
<en>
<quote>sonci</quote>: s1 is a soldier of army s2</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In this case the s1 place of
<quote>sonci</quote> is redundant, since it is equivalent to the b1 place of
<quote>banli</quote>. Therefore the place structure of
<quote>balsoi</quote> need not include places for both s1 and b1, as they refer to the same thing. So the place structure of
<quote>balsoi</quote> is at most</para>
<!-- ^^ at most: contrasted with more than, at least, less than, 443; example, 443 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>at most</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-UtwF">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-UtwF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e5d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section5-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>b1=s1 is a great soldier of army s2 in property b2 by standard b3</jbo>
<!-- ^^ great soldier: example, 278, 282 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>great soldier</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Some symmetrical veljvo have further equivalent places in addition to the respective first places. Consider the lujvo
<!-- ^^ symmetrical veljvo, 278 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>symmetrical veljvo</primary></indexterm>
<quote>tinju'i</quote>,
<quote>to listen</quote>(
<quote>to hear attentively, to hear and pay attention</quote>). The place structures of the gismu
<quote>tirna</quote> and
<quote>jundi</quote> are:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-rFiE">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rFiE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e5d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section5-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<quote>tirna</quote>: t1 hears sound t2 against background noise t3</jbo>
<!-- ^^ background noise, 278 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>background noise</primary></indexterm>
<en>
<quote>jundi</quote>: j1 pays attention to j2</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and the place structure of the lujvo is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-EUr1">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-EUr1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e5d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section5-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>j1=t1 listens to j2=t2 against background noise t3</jbo>
<!-- ^^ background noise, 278 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>background noise</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -375,32 +375,32 @@
<!-- ^^ symmetrical tanru, 111 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>symmetrical tanru</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="selbri" />.)</para>
<para>In principle any asymmetrical lujvo could be expressed as a symmetrical lujvo. Consider
<quote>gerzda</quote>, discussed in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12-section3" />, where we learned that the g1 place was equivalent to the z2 place. In order to get the places aligned, we could convert
<quote>zdani</quote> to
<quote>se zdani</quote>(or
<quote>selzda</quote> when expressed as a lujvo). The place structure of
<quote>selzda</quote> is</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-IXoj">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-IXoj">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e5d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section5-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>s1 is housed by nest s2</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and so the three-part lujvo
<quote>gerselzda</quote> would have the place structure</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-KqE4">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KqE4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e5d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section5-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>s1=g1 is a dog housed in nest s2 of dog breed g2</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>However, although
<quote>gerselzda</quote> is a valid lujvo, it doesn't translate
@@ -410,44 +410,44 @@
<para>From the reader's or listener's point of view, it may not always be obvious whether a newly met lujvo is symmetrical or asymmetrical, and if the latter, what kind of asymmetrical lujvo. If the place structure of the lujvo isn't given in a dictionary or elsewhere, then plausibility must be applied, just as in interpreting tanru.</para>
<!-- ^^ plausibility: in abbreviated lujvo, 284 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>plausibility</primary></indexterm>
<para>The lujvo
<quote>karcykla</quote>, for example, is based on
<quote>karce klama</quote>, or
<quote>car goer</quote>. The place structure of
<!-- ^^ car goer: example, 279 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>car goer</primary></indexterm>
<quote>karce</quote> is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-S7W3">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-S7W3">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e5d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section5-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>karce: ka1 is a car carrying ka2 propelled by ka3</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>A asymmetrical interpretation of
<quote>karcykla</quote> that is strictly analogous to the place structure of
<quote>gerzda</quote>, equating the kl2 (destination) and ka1 (car) places, would lead to the place structure</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-GgxL">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-GgxL">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e5d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section5-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>kl1 goes to car kl2=ka1 which carries ka2 propelled by ka3 from origin kl3</jbo>
<en>via route kl4 by means of kl5</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>But in general we go about in cars, rather than going to cars, so a far more likely place structure treats the ka1 place as equivalent to the kl5 place, leading to</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-QiHw">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-QiHw">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e5d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section5-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>kl1 goes to destination kl2 from origin kl3 via route kl4</jbo>
<en>by means of car kl5=ka1 carrying ka2 propelled by ka3.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>instead.</para>
@@ -459,86 +459,86 @@
<!-- ^^ notation conventions: for Quick Tour chapter, 12 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>notation conventions</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>lujvo place structure</primary></indexterm>
<quote>gerku</quote> is dependent on the g1 place. Why? Because when we know what fits in the g1 place (Spot, let us say, a well-known dog), then we know what fits in the g2 place (
<quote>St. Bernard</quote>, let us say). In other words, when the value of the g1 place has been specified, the value of the g2 place is determined by it. Conversely, since each dog has only one breed, but each breed contains many dogs, the g1 place is not dependent on the g2 place; if we know only that some dog is a St. Bernard, we cannot tell by that fact alone which dog is meant.</para>
<para>For
<quote>zdani</quote>, on the other hand, there is no dependency between the places. When we know the identity of a house-dweller, we have not determined the house, because a dweller may dwell in more than one house. By the same token, when we know the identity of a house, we do not know the identity of its dweller, for a house may contain more than one dweller.</para>
<para>The rule for eliminating places from a lujvo is that dependent places provided by the seltau are eliminated. Therefore, in
<quote>gerzda</quote> the dependent g2 place is removed from the tentative place structure given in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12-section3-example5" />, leaving the place structure:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-zMyY">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-zMyY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e6d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section6-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>z1 is the house dwelt in by dog z2=g1</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Informally put, the reason this has happened - and it happens a lot with seltau places - is that the third place was describing not the doghouse, but the dog who lives in it. The sentence</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-PI6B">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PI6B">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e6d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section6-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la mon. rePOS. gerzda la spat.</jbo>
<en>Mon Repos is a doghouse of Spot.</en>
<!-- ^^ Mon Repos: example, 280 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Mon Repos</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>really means</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-73x9">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-73x9">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e6d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section6-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la mon. rePOS. zdani la spat. noi gerku</jbo>
<en>Mon Repos is a house of Spot, who is a dog.</en>
<!-- ^^ Mon Repos: example, 280 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Mon Repos</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>since that is the interpretation we have given
<quote>gerzda</quote>. But that in turn means</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-wc69">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-wc69">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e6d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section6-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la mon. rePOS. zdani la spat noi ke'a gerku zo'e</jbo>
<en>Mon Repos is a house of Spot, who is a dog of unspecified breed.</en>
<!-- ^^ unspecified breed: example, 280 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>unspecified breed</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ Mon Repos: example, 280 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Mon Repos</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Specifically,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-KqrV">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KqrV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e6d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section6-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la mon. rePOS. zdani la spat. noi ke'a gerku la sankt. berNARD.</jbo>
<en>Mon Repos is a house of Spot, who is a dog of breed St. Bernard.</en>
<!-- ^^ Mon Repos: example, 280 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Mon Repos</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and in that case, it makes little sense to say</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-yXR0">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-yXR0">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e6d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section6-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la mon. rePOS. gerzda la spat. noi ke'a gerku la sankt. berNARD. ku'o</jbo>
<gloss>la sankt. berNARD.</gloss>
<gloss>Mon Repos is a doghouse of Spot, who is a dog of breed St. Bernard,</gloss>
<!-- ^^ Mon Repos: example, 280 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Mon Repos</primary></indexterm>
@@ -549,38 +549,38 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12-section3-example5" />. The dog breed is redundantly given both in the main selbri and in the relative clause, and (intuitively speaking) is repeated in the wrong place, since the dog breed is supplementary information about the dog, and not about the doghouse.</para>
<!-- ^^ supplementary information, 280 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>supplementary information</primary></indexterm>
<para>As a further example, take
<quote>cakcinki</quote>, the lujvo for
<quote>beetle</quote>, based on the tanru
<!-- ^^ beetle: example, 280 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>beetle</primary></indexterm>
<quote>calku cinki</quote>, or
<quote>shell-insect</quote>. The gismu place structures are:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-D0qb">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-D0qb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e6d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section6-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<quote>calku</quote>: ca1 is a shell/husk around ca2 made of ca3</jbo>
<en>
<quote>cinki</quote>: ci1 is an insect/arthropod of species ci2</en>
<!-- ^^ arthropod, 280 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>arthropod</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This example illustrates a cross-dependency between a place of one gismu and a place of the other. The ca3 place is dependent on ci1, because all insects (which fit into ci1) have shells made of chitin (which fits into ca3). Furthermore, ca1 is dependent on ci1 as well, because each insect has only a single shell. And since ca2 (the thing with the shell) is equivalent to ci1 (the insect), the place structure is</para>
<!-- ^^ cross-dependency, 280 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>cross-dependency</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-n7JB">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-n7JB">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e6d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section6-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ci1=ca2 is a beetle of species ci2</jbo>
<!-- ^^ beetle: example, 280 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>beetle</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -622,71 +622,71 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>playgrounds</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ elementary schools, 281 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>elementary schools</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ auditoriums, 281 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>auditoriums</primary></indexterm>
<quote>kuldi'u</quote>(from
<quote>ckule dinju</quote>, and meaning
<quote>school building</quote>) needs to be</para>
<!-- ^^ school building: example, 281 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>school building</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-u6Xz">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-u6Xz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e6d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section6-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>d1 is a building housing school c1 teaching subject c3 to audience c4</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>even though c3 and c4 are plainly dependent on c1. The other places of
<quote>ckule</quote>, the location (c2) and operators (c5), don't seem to be necessary to the concept
<quote>school building</quote>, and are dependent on c1 to boot, so they are omitted. Again, the need for case-by-case consideration of place structures is demonstrated.</para>
<!-- ^^ school building: example, 281 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>school building</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter12-section7">
<title>Ordering lujvo places.</title>
<para>So far, we have concentrated on selecting the places to go into the place structure of a lujvo. However, this is only half the story. In using selbri in Lojban, it is important to remember the right order of the sumti. With lujvo, the need to attend to the order of sumti becomes critical: the set of places selected should be ordered in such a way that a reader unfamiliar with the lujvo should be able to tell which place is which.</para>
<para>If we aim to make understandable lujvo, then, we should make the order of places in the place structure follow some conventions. If this does not occur, very real ambiguities can turn up. Take for example the lujvo
<quote>jdaselsku</quote>, meaning
<quote>prayer</quote>. In the sentence</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-FfWn">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-FfWn">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e7d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section7-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>di'e jdaselsku la dong.</jbo>
<!-- ^^ di'e, 149, 358; effect of tu'e/tu'u on, 358 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>di'e</primary></indexterm>
<en>This-utterance is-a-prayer somehow-related-to-Dong.</en>
<!-- ^^ Dong: example, 281 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Dong</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>we must be able to know if Dong is the person making the prayer, giving the meaning</para>
<!-- ^^ Dong: example, 281 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Dong</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-b38f">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-b38f">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e7d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section7-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>This is a prayer by Dong</jbo>
<!-- ^^ Dong: example, 281 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Dong</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>or is the entity being prayed to, resulting in</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-uL3V">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-uL3V">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e7d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section7-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>This is a prayer to Dong</jbo>
<!-- ^^ Dong: example, 281 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Dong</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -699,46 +699,46 @@
<!-- ^^ multiple SE: effect of ordering, 194 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>multiple SE</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>lujvo creation</primary></indexterm>
<para>We use two different ordering rules: one for symmetrical lujvo and one for asymmetrical ones. A symmetrical lujvo like
<quote>balsoi</quote>(from
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12-section5" />) has the places of its tertau followed by whatever places of the seltau survive the elimination process. For
<!-- ^^ elimination process, 282 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>elimination process</primary></indexterm>
<quote>balsoi</quote>, the surviving places of
<quote>banli</quote> are b2 and b3, leading to the place structure:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-rv1m">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rv1m">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e7d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section7-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>b1=s1 is a great soldier of army s2 in property b2 by standard b3</jbo>
<!-- ^^ great soldier: example, 278, 282 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>great soldier</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>just what appears in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12-section5-example1" />. In fact, all place structures shown until now have been in the correct order by the conventions of this section, though the fact has been left tacit until now.</para>
<para>The motivation for this rule is the parallelism between the lujvo bridi-schema</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-7juc">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7juc">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e7d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section7-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>b1 balsoi s2 b2 b3</jbo>
<en>b1 is-a-great-soldier of-army-s2 in-property-b2 by-standard-b3</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and the more or less equivalent bridi-schema</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-LzCP">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-LzCP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e7d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section7-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>b1 sonci s2 gi'e banli b2 b3</jbo>
<en>b1 is-a-soldier of-army-s2 and is-great in-property-b2 by-standard-b3</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where
@@ -748,40 +748,40 @@
<para>Asymmetrical lujvo like
<quote>gerzda</quote>, on the other hand, employ a different rule. The seltau places are inserted not at the end of the place structure, but rather immediately after the tertau place which is equivalent to the first place of the seltau. Consider
<quote>dalmikce</quote>, meaning
<quote>veterinarian</quote>: its veljvo is
<!-- ^^ veterinarian: example, 282 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>veterinarian</primary></indexterm>
<quote>danlu mikce</quote>, or
<quote>animal doctor</quote>. The place structures for those gismu are:</para>
<!-- ^^ animal doctor: example, 282 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>animal doctor</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-BqPj">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-BqPj">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e7d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section7-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<quote>danlu</quote>: d1 is an animal of species d2</jbo>
<en>
<quote>mikce</quote>: m1 is a doctor to patient m2 for ailment m3 using treatment m4</en>
<!-- ^^ ailment, 282 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ailment</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and the lujvo place structure is:</para>
<!-- ^^ lujvo place structure: "ni" lujvo, 287; "nu" lujvo, 286; basis of, 277; comparative lujvo, 292; cross-dependent places, 280; dependent places, 279; dropping cross-dependent places, 280; dropping dependent places, caveat, 281; dropping dependent seltau places, 279; dropping dependent tertau places, 280; dropping first place of NU, 288; dropping KE, 285; dropping KEhE, 285; dropping redundant places, 276; effect of SE, 278; effect of SE-dropping in tertau, 284; explicated walk-through, 276; guidelines, 273; multi-place abstraction lujvo, 287; notation conventions, 276; rationale for standardization, 277; selecting tertau, 281; superlatives, 294; when first place redundant with non-first, 278; when first places redundant, 278; when first places redundant plus others, 278; with "jai" lujvo, 287 -->
<!-- ^^ notation conventions: for Quick Tour chapter, 12 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>notation conventions</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>lujvo place structure</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-WeBW">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-WeBW">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e7d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section7-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>m1 is a doctor for animal m2=d1 of species d2 for ailment m3</jbo>
<!-- ^^ ailment, 282 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ailment</primary></indexterm>
<en>using treatment m4</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -804,81 +804,81 @@
<quote>bavlamdei</quote> as having two components:
<quote>bavla'i</quote>,
<quote>next</quote>, and
<quote>djedi</quote>. If we know or invent the lujvo place structure for the components, we can compose the new lujvo place structure in the usual way.</para>
<!-- ^^ lujvo place structure: "ni" lujvo, 287; "nu" lujvo, 286; basis of, 277; comparative lujvo, 292; cross-dependent places, 280; dependent places, 279; dropping cross-dependent places, 280; dropping dependent places, caveat, 281; dropping dependent seltau places, 279; dropping dependent tertau places, 280; dropping first place of NU, 288; dropping KE, 285; dropping KEhE, 285; dropping redundant places, 276; effect of SE, 278; effect of SE-dropping in tertau, 284; explicated walk-through, 276; guidelines, 273; multi-place abstraction lujvo, 287; notation conventions, 276; rationale for standardization, 277; selecting tertau, 281; superlatives, 294; when first place redundant with non-first, 278; when first places redundant, 278; when first places redundant plus others, 278; with "jai" lujvo, 287 -->
<!-- ^^ notation conventions: for Quick Tour chapter, 12 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>notation conventions</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>lujvo place structure</primary></indexterm>
<para>In this case,
<quote>bavla'i</quote> is given the place structure</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-aCg7">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-aCg7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e8d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section8-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>b1=l1 is next after b2=l2</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>making it a symmetrical lujvo. We combine this with
<quote>djedi</quote>, which has the place structure:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Lera">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Lera">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e8d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section8-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>duration d1 is d2 days long (default 1) by standard d3</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>While symmetrical lujvo normally put any trailing tertau places before any seltau places, the day standard is a much less important concept than the day the tomorrow follows, in the definition of
<!-- ^^ tomorrow: example, 282 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>tomorrow</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bavlamdei</quote>. This is an example of how the guidelines presented for selecting and ordering lujvo places are just that, not laws that must be rigidly adhered to. In this case, we choose to rank places in order of relative importance. The resulting place structure is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-KEwW">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KEwW">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e8d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section8-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>d1=b1=l1 is a day following b2=l2, d2 days later (default 1) by standard d3</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here is another example of a multi-part lujvo:
<quote>cladakyxa'i</quote>, meaning
<quote>long-sword</quote>, a specific type of medieval weapon. The gismu place structures are:</para>
<!-- ^^ medieval weapon, 283 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>medieval weapon</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ long-sword: example, 283 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>long-sword</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-XpNf">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-XpNf">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e8d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section8-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<quote>clani</quote>: c1 is long in direction c2 by standard c3</jbo>
<gloss>
<quote>dakfu</quote>: d1 is a knife for cutting d2 with blade made of d3</gloss>
<en>
<quote>xarci</quote>: xa1 is a weapon for use against xa2 by wielder xa3</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Since
<quote>cladakyxa'i</quote> is a symmetrical lujvo based on
<quote>cladakfu xarci</quote>, and
<quote>cladakfu</quote> is itself a symmetrical lujvo, we can do the necessary analyses all at once. Plainly c1 (the long thing), d1 (the knife), and xa1 (the weapon) are all the same. Likewise, the d2 place (the thing cut) is the same as the xa2 place (the target of the weapon), given that swords are used to cut victims. Finally, the c2 place (direction of length) is always along the sword blade in a longsword, by definition, and so is dependent on c1=d1=xa1. Adding on the places of the remaining gismu in right-to-left order we get:</para>
<!-- ^^ sword blade, 283 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>sword blade</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-eAbF">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-eAbF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e8d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section8-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xa1=d1=c1 is a long-sword for use against xa2=d2 by wielder xa3,</jbo>
<!-- ^^ long-sword: example, 283 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>long-sword</primary></indexterm>
<en>with a blade made of d3, length measured by standard c3.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -890,64 +890,64 @@
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter12-section9">
<title>Eliding SE rafsi from seltau</title>
<para>It is common to form lujvo that omit the rafsi based on cmavo of selma'o SE, as well as other cmavo rafsi. Doing so makes lujvo construction for common or useful constructions shorter. Since it puts more strain on the listener who has not heard the lujvo before, the shortness of the word should not necessarily outweigh ease in understanding, especially if the lujvo refers to a rare or unusual concept.</para>
<para>Consider as an example the lujvo
<quote>ti'ifla</quote>, from the veljvo
<quote>stidi flalu</quote>, and meaning
<quote>bill, proposed law</quote>. The gismu place structures are:</para>
<!-- ^^ proposed law, 283 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>proposed law</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-n1LH">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-n1LH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e9d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section9-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<quote>stidi</quote>: agent st1 suggests idea/action st2 to audience st3</jbo>
<gloss>
<quote>flalu</quote>: f1 is a law specifying f2 for community f3 under conditions f4</gloss>
<en>by lawgiver f5</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This lujvo does not fit any of our existing molds: it is the second seltau place, st2, that is equivalent to one of the tertau places, namely f1. However, if we understand
<quote>ti'ifla</quote> as an abbreviation for the lujvo
<quote>selti'ifla</quote>, then we get the first places of seltau and tertau lined up. The place structure of
<!-- ^^ lined up, 283 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>lined up</primary></indexterm>
<quote>selti'i</quote> is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-j98h">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-j98h">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e9d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section9-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<quote>selti'i</quote>: idea/action se1 is suggested by agent se2 to audience se3</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here we can see that se1 (what is suggested) is equivalent to f1 (the law), and we get a normal symmetrical lujvo. The final place structure is:</para>
<!-- ^^ can see: example, 244 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>can see</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-S0n4">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-S0n4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e9d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section9-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>f1=se1 is a bill specifying f2 for community f3 under conditions f4</jbo>
<en>by suggester se2 to audience/lawgivers f5=se3</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>or, relabeling the places,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-RM3D">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-RM3D">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e9d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section9-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>f1=st2 is a bill specifying f2 for community f3 under conditions f4</jbo>
<en>by suggester st1 to audience/lawgivers f5=st3</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where the last place (st3) is probably some sort of legislature.</para>
@@ -978,46 +978,46 @@
<quote>zdani</quote>, and so on. What is certain is that
<quote>gerzda</quote> does not describe a
<quote>se zdani</quote>- it is not a word that could be used to describe an inhabitant such as a dog.</para>
<para>Now consider how we would translate the word
<quote>blue-eyed</quote>. Let's tentatively translate this word as
<!-- ^^ blue-eyed: example, 284 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>blue-eyed</primary></indexterm>
<quote>blakanla</quote>(from
<quote>blanu kanla</quote>, meaning
<quote>blue eye</quote>). But immediately we are in trouble: we cannot say</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Kyq2">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Kyq2">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e10d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section10-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djak. cu blakanla</jbo>
<en>Jack is-a-blue-eye</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>because Jack is not an eye,
<quote>kanla</quote>, but someone with an eye,
<quote>se kanla</quote>. At best we can say</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-3IKp">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3IKp">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e10d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section10-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djak. cu se blakanla</jbo>
<en>Jack is-the-bearer-of-blue-eyes</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>But look now at the place structure of
<quote>blakanla</quote>: it is a symmetrical lujvo, so the place structure is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ncPN">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ncPN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e10d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section10-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>bl1=k1 is a blue eye of bl2=k2</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>We end up being most interested in talking about the second place, not the first (we talk much more of people than of their eyes), so
<quote>se</quote> would almost always be required.</para>
@@ -1034,99 +1034,99 @@
<para>People constructing lujvo usually want them to be as short as possible. To that end, they will discard any cmavo they regard as niceties. The first such cmavo to get thrown out are usually
<quote>ke</quote> and
<quote>ke'e</quote>, the cmavo used to structure and group tanru. We can usually get away with this, because the interpretation of the tertau with
<quote>ke</quote> and
<quote>ke'e</quote> missing is less plausible than that with the cmavo inserted, or because the distinction isn't really important.</para>
<para>For example, in
<quote>bakrecpa'o</quote>, meaning
<quote>beefsteak</quote>, the veljvo is</para>
<!-- ^^ beefsteak, 285; example, 285 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>beefsteak</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-TgVR">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-TgVR">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e11d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section11-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>[ke] bakni rectu [ke'e] panlo</jbo>
<en>( bovine meat ) slice</en>
<!-- ^^ bovine: example, 285 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>bovine</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>because of the usual Lojban left-grouping rule. But there doesn't seem to be much difference between that veljvo and</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-HDBe">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-HDBe">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e11d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section11-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>bakni ke rectu panlo [ke'e]</jbo>
<en>bovine ( meat slice )</en>
<!-- ^^ meat slice: example, 285 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>meat slice</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ bovine: example, 285 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>bovine</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>On the other hand, the lujvo
<quote>zernerkla</quote>, meaning
<quote>to sneak in</quote>, almost certainly was formed from the veljvo</para>
<!-- ^^ sneak in: example, 285 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>sneak in</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-aXrm">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-aXrm">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e11d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section11-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>zekri ke nenri klama [ke'e]</jbo>
<gloss>crime ( inside go )</gloss>
<en>to go within, criminally</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>because the alternative,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-xAYJ">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-xAYJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e11d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section11-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>[ke] zekri nenri [ke'e] klama</jbo>
<en>(crime inside) go</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>doesn't make much sense. (To go to the inside of a crime? To go into a place where it is criminal to be inside - an interpretation almost identical with
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12-section11-example3" /> anyway?)</para>
<para>There are cases, however, where omitting a KE or KEhE rafsi can produce another lujvo, equally useful. For example,
<quote>xaskemcakcurnu</quote> means
<quote>oceanic shellfish</quote>, and has the veljvo</para>
<!-- ^^ shellfish, 285; example, 285 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>shellfish</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-0W5t">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-0W5t">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e11d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section11-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xamsi ke calku curnu</jbo>
<en>ocean type-of (shell worm)</en>
<!-- ^^ shell worm: example, 285 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>shell worm</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(
<quote>worm</quote> in Lojban refers to any invertebrate), but
<!-- ^^ invertebrate, 285 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>invertebrate</primary></indexterm>
<quote>xasycakcurnu</quote> has the veljvo</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-HEjn">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-HEjn">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e11d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section11-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>[ke] xamsi calku [ke'e] curnu</jbo>
<en>(ocean shell) type-of worm</en>
<!-- ^^ ocean shell: example, 286 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ocean shell</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1151,21 +1151,21 @@
<quote>to'e</quote> before it, it's better to leave the result as two words, or else to insert
<quote>ke</quote>, than to just stick the SE or NAhE rafsi on.</para>
<para>It is all right to replace the phrase
<quote>se klama</quote> with
<quote>selkla</quote>, and the places of
<quote>selkla</quote> are exactly those of
<quote>se klama</quote>. But consider the related lujvo
<quote>dzukla</quote>, meaning
<quote>to walk to somewhere</quote>. It is a symmmetrical lujvo, derived from the veljvo
<quote>cadzu klama</quote> as follows:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-4yG0">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4yG0">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e11d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section11-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<quote>cadzu</quote>: c1 walks on surface c2 using limbs c3</jbo>
<gloss>
<quote>klama</quote>: k1 goes to k2 from k3 via route k4 using k5</gloss>
<gloss>
@@ -1215,94 +1215,94 @@
<quote>se ke te</quote>, since there is no need to re-order places in the way that
<quote>se te</quote> provides. (See
<!-- ^^ se te, 194 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>se te</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9" />.)</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter12-section12">
<title>Abstract lujvo</title>
<para>The cmavo of NU can participate in the construction of lujvo of a particularly simple and well-patterned kind. Consider that old standard example,
<quote>klama</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-KEao">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KEao">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e12d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section12-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>k1 comes/goes to k2 from k3 via route k4 by means k5.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The selbri
<quote>nu klama [kei]</quote> has only one place, the event-of-going, but the full five places exist implicitly between
<quote>nu</quote> and
<quote>kei</quote>, since a full bridi with all sumti may be placed there. In a lujvo, there is no room for such inside places, and consequently the lujvo
<quote>nunkla</quote>(
<quote>nun-</quote> is the rafsi for
<quote>nu</quote>), needs to have six places:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-m60H">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-m60H">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e12d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section12-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>nu1 is the event of k1's coming/going to k2 from k3 via route k4 by means k5.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the first place of
<quote>nunklama</quote> is the first and only place of
<quote>nu</quote>, and the other five places have been pushed down by one to occupy the second through the sixth places. Full information on
<quote>nu</quote>, as well as the other abstractors mentioned in this section, is given in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11" />.</para>
<para>For those abstractors which have a second place as well, the standard convention is to place this place after, rather than before, the places of the brivla being abstracted. The place structure of
<quote>nilkla</quote>, the lujvo derived from
<quote>ni klama</quote>, is the imposing:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-yURu">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-yURu">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e12d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section12-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ni1 is the amount of k1's coming/going to k2 from k3 via route k4</jbo>
<en>by means k5, measured on scale ni2.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>It is not uncommon for abstractors to participate in the making of more complex lujvo as well. For example,
<quote>nunsoidji</quote>, from the veljvo</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-RKcH">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-RKcH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e12d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section12-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>nu sonci kei djica</jbo>
<en>event-of being-a-soldier desirer</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>has the place structure</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-8Nos">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-8Nos">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e12d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section12-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>d1 desires the event of (s1 being a soldier of army s2) for purpose d3</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where the d2 place has disappeared altogether, being replaced by the places of the seltau. As shown in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12-section12-example5" />, the ordering follows this idea of replacement: the seltau places are inserted at the point where the omitted abstraction place exists in the tertau.</para>
<para>The lujvo
<quote>nunsoidji</quote> is quite different from the ordinary asymmetric lujvo
<!-- ^^ asymmetric lujvo, 287 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>asymmetric lujvo</primary></indexterm>
<quote>soidji</quote>, a
<quote>soldier desirer</quote>, whose place structure is just</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-2VMP">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2VMP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e12d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section12-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>d1 desires (a soldier of army s2) for purpose d3</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>A
<quote>nunsoidji</quote> might be someone who is about to enlist, whereas a
@@ -1320,34 +1320,34 @@
<quote>kam-</quote> lujvo (
<quote>kam-</quote> is the rafsi for
<quote>ka</quote>);
<quote>kambla</quote> is
<quote>blueness</quote>.</para>
<para>Even though the cmavo of NU are long-scope in nature, governing the whole following bridi, the NU rafsi should generally be used as short-scope modifiers, like the SE and NAhE rafsi discussed in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12-section9" />.</para>
<para>There is also a rafsi for the cmavo
<quote>jai</quote>, namely
<quote>jax</quote>, which allows sentences like</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-jWYr">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-jWYr">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e12d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section12-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi jai rinka le nu do morsi</jbo>
<gloss>I am-associated-with causing the event-of your death.</gloss>
<en>I cause your death.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11" />, to be rendered with lujvo:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Wrpr">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Wrpr">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e12d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section12-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi jaxri'a le nu do morsi</jbo>
<en>I am-part-of-the-cause-of the event-of your dying.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In making a lujvo that contains
@@ -1374,68 +1374,68 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>implicit-abstraction lujvo</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ abstraction lujvo: asymmetric, 288 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>abstraction lujvo</primary></indexterm>
<para>Let us make a detailed analysis of the lujvo
<quote>nunctikezgau</quote>, meaning
<quote>to feed</quote>. (If you think this lujvo is excessively longwinded, be patient.) The veljvo of
<!-- ^^ feed: example, 288 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>feed</primary></indexterm>
<quote>nunctikezgau</quote> is
<quote>nu citka kei gasnu</quote>. The relevant place structures are:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-bSDW">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-bSDW">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e13d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section13-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<quote>nu</quote>: n1 is an event</jbo>
<gloss>
<quote>citka</quote>: c1 eats c2</gloss>
<en>
<quote>gasnu</quote>: g1 does action/is the agent of event g2</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In accordance with the procedure for analyzing three-part lujvo given in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12-section8" />, we will first create an intermediate lujvo,
<quote>nuncti</quote>, whose veljvo is
<quote>nu citka [kei]</quote>. By the rules given in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12-section12" />,
<quote>nuncti</quote> has the place structure</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Xhrx">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Xhrx">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e13d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section13-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>n1 is the event of c1 eating c2</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Now we can transform the veljvo of
<quote>nunctikezgau</quote> into
<quote>nuncti gasnu</quote>. The g2 place (what is brought about by the actor g1) obviously denotes the same thing as n1 (the event of eating). So we can eliminate g2 as redundant, leaving us with a tentative place structure of</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-izvp">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-izvp">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e13d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section13-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>g1 is the actor in the event n1=g2 of c1 eating c2</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>But it is also possible to omit the n1 place itself! The n1 place describes the event brought about; an event in Lojban is described as a bridi, by a selbri and its sumti; the selbri is already known (it's the seltau), and the sumti are also already known (they're in the lujvo place structure). So n1 would not give us any information we didn't already know. In fact, the n1=g2 place is dependent on c1 and c2 jointly - it does not depend on either c1 or c2 by itself. Being dependent and derived from the seltau, it is omissible. So the final place structure of
<!-- ^^ lujvo place structure: "ni" lujvo, 287; "nu" lujvo, 286; basis of, 277; comparative lujvo, 292; cross-dependent places, 280; dependent places, 279; dropping cross-dependent places, 280; dropping dependent places, caveat, 281; dropping dependent seltau places, 279; dropping dependent tertau places, 280; dropping first place of NU, 288; dropping KE, 285; dropping KEhE, 285; dropping redundant places, 276; effect of SE, 278; effect of SE-dropping in tertau, 284; explicated walk-through, 276; guidelines, 273; multi-place abstraction lujvo, 287; notation conventions, 276; rationale for standardization, 277; selecting tertau, 281; superlatives, 294; when first place redundant with non-first, 278; when first places redundant, 278; when first places redundant plus others, 278; with "jai" lujvo, 287 -->
<!-- ^^ notation conventions: for Quick Tour chapter, 12 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>notation conventions</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>lujvo place structure</primary></indexterm>
<quote>nunctikezgau</quote> is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-9oTP">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9oTP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e13d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section13-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>g1 is the actor in the event of c1 eating c2</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>There is one further step that can be taken. As we have already seen with
<quote>balsoi</quote> in
@@ -1460,49 +1460,49 @@
<quote>do</quote> as
<quote>bring about an event</quote>; so the seltau must refer to an event,
<quote>nu citka</quote>. The English slang meanings of
<quote>do someone</quote>, namely
<quote>socialize with someone</quote> and
<quote>have sex with someone</quote>, are not relevant to
<quote>gasnu</quote>.)</para>
<para>So we can simply use
<quote>ctigau</quote> with the same place structure as
<quote>nunctikezgau</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ITvd">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ITvd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e13d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section13-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>agent g1 causes c1 to eat c2</jbo>
<en>g1 feeds c2 to c1.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This particular kind of asymmetrical lujvo, in which the seltau serves as the selbri of an abstraction which is a place of the tertau, is called an implicit-abstraction lujvo, because one deduces the presence of an abstraction which is unexpressed (implicit).</para>
<!-- ^^ implicit-abstraction lujvo: definition, 289 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>implicit-abstraction lujvo</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ abstraction lujvo: asymmetric, 288 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>abstraction lujvo</primary></indexterm>
<para>To give another example: the gismu
<quote>basti</quote>, whose place structure is</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-3LIm">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3LIm">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e13d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section13-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>b1 replaces b2 in circumstances b3</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>can form the lujvo
<quote>basygau</quote>, with the place structure:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-byp8">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-byp8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e13d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section13-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>g1 (agent) replaces b1 with b2 in circumstances b3</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where both
<quote>basti</quote> and
@@ -1512,35 +1512,35 @@
<para>In addition,
<quote>gasnu</quote>-based lujvo can be built from what we would consider nouns or adjectives in English. In Lojban, everything is a predicate, so adjectives, nouns and verbs are all treated in the same way. This is consistent with the use of similar causative affixes in other languages. For example, the gismu
<!-- ^^ verbs: brivla as Lojban equivalents, 52 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>verbs</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ nouns: brivla as Lojban equivalents, 52 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>nouns</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ adjectives: brivla as Lojban equivalents, 52 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>adjectives</primary></indexterm>
<quote>litki</quote>, meaning
<quote>liquid</quote>, with the place structure</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-tDsX">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-tDsX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e13d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section13-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>l1 is a quantity of liquid of composition l2 under conditions l3</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>can give
<quote>likygau</quote>, meaning
<quote>to liquefy</quote>:</para>
<!-- ^^ liquefy: example, 289 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>liquefy</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-p5Bt">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-p5Bt">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e13d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section13-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>g1 (agent) causes l1 to be a quantity of liquid of composition l2</jbo>
<en>under conditions l3.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>While
@@ -1557,37 +1557,37 @@
<!-- ^^ abstraction lujvo: asymmetric, 288 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>abstraction lujvo</primary></indexterm>
<para>Many other Lojban gismu have places for event abstractions, and therefore are good candidates for the tertau of an implicit-abstraction lujvo. For example, lujvo based on
<!-- ^^ implicit-abstraction lujvo: definition, 289 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>implicit-abstraction lujvo</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ event abstractions, 256 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>event abstractions</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ abstraction lujvo: asymmetric, 288 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>abstraction lujvo</primary></indexterm>
<quote>rinka</quote>, with its place structure</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Pmz8">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Pmz8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e13d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section13-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>event r1 causes event r2 to occur</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>are closely related to those based on
<quote>gasnu</quote>. However,
<quote>rinka</quote> is less generally useful than
<quote>gasnu</quote>, because its r1 place is another event rather than a person:
<quote>lo rinka</quote> is a cause, not a causer. Thus the place structure of
<quote>likyri'a</quote>, a lujvo analogous to
<quote>likygau</quote>, is</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-1HT3">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1HT3">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e13d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section13-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>event r1 causes l1 to be a quantity of liquid</jbo>
<en>of composition l2 under conditions l3</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and would be useful in translating sentences like
@@ -1599,62 +1599,62 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>abstraction lujvo</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter12-section14">
<title>Anomalous lujvo</title>
<para>Some lujvo that have been coined and actually employed in Lojban writing do not follow the guidelines expressed above, either because the places that are equivalent in the seltau and the tertau are in an unusual position, or because the seltau and tertau are related in a complex way, or both. An example of the first kind is
<!-- ^^ unusual position, 290 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>unusual position</primary></indexterm>
<quote>jdaselsku</quote>, meaning
<quote>prayer</quote>, which was mentioned in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12-section7" />. The gismu places are:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-qJEQ">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-qJEQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e14d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section14-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<quote>lijda</quote>: l1 is a religion with believers l2 and beliefs l3</jbo>
<en>
<quote>cusku</quote>: c1 expresses text c2 to audience c3 in medium c4</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and
<quote>selsku</quote>, the tertau of
<quote>jdaselsku</quote>, has the place structure</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-qW3w">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-qW3w">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e14d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section14-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>s1 is a text expressed by s2 to audience s3 in medium s4</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Now it is easy to see that the l2 and s2 places are equivalent: the believer in the religion (l2) is the one who expresses the prayer (s2). This is not one of the cases for which a place ordering rule has been given in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12-section7" /> or
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12-section13" />; therefore, for lack of a better rule, we put the tertau places first and the remaining seltau places after them, leading to the place structure:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-41dc">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-41dc">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e14d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section14-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>s1 is a prayer expressed by s2=l2 to audience s3 in medium s4</jbo>
<en>pertaining to religion l1</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The l3 place (the beliefs of the religion) is dependent on the l1 place (the religion) and so is omitted.</para>
<para>We could make this lujvo less messy by replacing it with
<quote>se seljdasku</quote>, where
<quote>seljdasku</quote> is a normal symmetrical lujvo with place structure:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-7Tdb">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7Tdb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e14d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section14-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>c1=l2 religiously expresses prayer c2 to audience c3 in medium s4</jbo>
<en>pertaining to religion l1</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which, according to the rule expressed in
@@ -1677,34 +1677,34 @@
<quote>lange'u</quote>, meaning
<quote>sheepdog</quote>. Clearly a sheepdog is not a dog which is a sheep (the symmetrical interpretation is wrong), nor a dog of the sheep breed (the asymmetrical interpretation is wrong). Indeed, there is simply no overlap in the places of
<!-- ^^ sheepdog, 290; example, 290 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>sheepdog</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ sheep breed, 290 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>sheep breed</primary></indexterm>
<quote>lanme</quote> and
<quote>gerku</quote> at all. Rather, the lujvo refers to a dog which controls sheep flocks, a
<quote>terlanme jitro gerku</quote>, the lujvo from which is
<quote>terlantroge'u</quote> with place structure:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-TW5Q">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-TW5Q">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e14d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section14-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>g1=j1 is a dog that controls sheep flock l3=j2 made up of sheep l1</jbo>
<!-- ^^ sheep flock: example, 291 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>sheep flock</primary></indexterm>
<en>in activity j3 of dog breed g2</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>based on the gismu place structures</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-CXeL">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-CXeL">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e14d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section14-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<quote>lanme</quote>: l1 is a sheep of breed l2 belonging to flock l3</jbo>
<gloss>
<quote>gerku</quote>: g1 is a dog of breed g2</gloss>
<en>
@@ -1716,21 +1716,21 @@
<quote>gerku</quote>, but
<quote>lantro</quote> is itself an asymmetrical lujvo. The l2 place, the breed of sheep, is removed as dependent on l1. However, the lujvo
<quote>lange'u</quote> is both shorter than
<quote>terlantroge'u</quote> and sufficiently clear to warrant its use: its place structure, however, should be the same as that of the longer lujvo, for which
<quote>lange'u</quote> can be understood as an abbreviation.</para>
<para>Another example is
<quote>xanmi'e</quote>,
<quote>to command by hand, to beckon</quote>. The component place structures are:</para>
<!-- ^^ beckon: example, 291 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>beckon</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-VjbP">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-VjbP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e14d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section14-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<quote>xance</quote>: xa1 is the hand of xa2</jbo>
<en>
<quote>minde</quote>: m1 gives commands to m2 to cause m3 to happen</en>
<!-- ^^ commands: quick-tour version, 22; with ko, 146 -->
@@ -1742,46 +1742,46 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>commands</primary></indexterm>
<quote>xanmi'e</quote> as a symmetrical lujvo with an elided
<quote>sel-</quote> in the seltau, as if from
<quote>se xance minde</quote>, misses the point: the real relation expressed by the lujvo is not just
<quote>one who commands and has a hand</quote>, but
<!-- ^^ commands: quick-tour version, 22; with ko, 146 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>commands</primary></indexterm>
<quote>to command using the hand</quote>. The concept of
<quote>using</quote> suggests the gismu
<quote>pilno</quote>, with place structure</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-sqQN">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sqQN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e14d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section14-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>p1 uses tool p2 for purpose p3</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Some possible three-part veljvo are (depending on how strictly you want to constrain the veljvo)</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-KXSY">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KXSY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e14d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section14-example9" />
<anchor xml:id="c12e14d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section14-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>[ke] xance pilno [ke'e] minde</jbo>
<en>(hand user) type-of commander</en>
<jbo>[ke] minde xance [ke'e] pilno</jbo>
<en>(commander hand) type-of user</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>or even</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-yCod">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-yCod">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e14d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section14-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>minde ke xance pilno [ke'e]</jbo>
<en>commander type-of (hand user)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which lead to the three different lujvo
@@ -1812,82 +1812,82 @@
<quote>more</quote> and
<quote>most</quote>, respectively. The Lojbanic equivalents, which can be made from any brivla, are lujvo with the tertau
<quote>zmadu</quote>,
<quote>mleca</quote>,
<quote>zenba</quote>,
<quote>jdika</quote>, and
<quote>traji</quote>. In order to make these lujvo regular and easy to make, certain special guidelines are imposed.</para>
<para>We will begin with lujvo based on
<quote>zmadu</quote> and
<quote>mleca</quote>, whose place structures are:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-mn8T">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mn8T">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e15d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section15-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<quote>zmadu</quote>: z1 is more than z2 in property z3 in quantity z4</jbo>
<en>
<quote>mleca</quote>: m1 is less than m2 in property m3 in quantity m4</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>For example, the concept
<quote>young</quote> is expressed by the gismu
<quote>citno</quote>, with place structure</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ciaK">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ciaK">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e15d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section15-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<quote>citno</quote>: c1 is young</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The comparative concept
<quote>younger</quote> can be expressed by the lujvo
<!-- ^^ younger: example, 292 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>younger</primary></indexterm>
<quote>citmau</quote>(based on the veljvo
<quote>citno zmadu</quote>, meaning
<quote>young more-than</quote>).</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-GDt1">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-GDt1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e15d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section15-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi citmau do lo nanca be li xa</jbo>
<gloss>I am-younger-than you by-years the-number six.</gloss>
<!-- ^^ younger: example, 292 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>younger</primary></indexterm>
<en>I am six years younger than you.</en>
<!-- ^^ younger: example, 292 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>younger</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The place structure for
<quote>citmau</quote> is</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-I3Uh">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-I3Uh">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e15d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section15-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>z1=c1 is younger than z2=c1 by amount z4</jbo>
<!-- ^^ younger: example, 292 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>younger</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Similarly, in Lojban you can say:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-tJDa">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-tJDa">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e15d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section15-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do citme'a mi lo nanca be li xa</jbo>
<gloss>You are-less-young-than me by-years the-number six.</gloss>
<en>You are six years less young than me.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1919,21 +1919,21 @@
<quote>X goes to Y more than to Z</quote>,
<quote>X goes to Y more than Z does</quote>,
<quote>X goes to Y from Z more than from W</quote>, or what?</para>
<para>We answer this concern by putting regularity above any considerations of concept usefulness: by convention, the two things being compared always fit into the first place of the seltau. In that way, each of the different possible interpretations can be expressed by SE-converting the seltau, and making the required place the new first place. As a result, we get the following comparative lujvo place structures:</para>
<!-- ^^ converting: operand to operator, 500; operator to selbri, 502; quantifier to selbri, 500; selbri to operand, 501; selbri to operator, 501; sumti to operand, 500; sumti to tanru unit, 500 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>converting</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ comparative lujvo: against former state, 293; and seltau presupposition, 293; potential ambiguity in, 292; standardized meanings, 292 -->
<!-- ^^ former state, 293 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>former state</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>comparative lujvo</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-eSTr">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-eSTr">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e15d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section15-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<quote>nelcymau</quote>: z1, more than z2, likes n2 by amount z4</jbo>
<gloss>
<quote>selnelcymau</quote>: z1, more than z2, is liked by n1 in amount z4</gloss>
<gloss>
@@ -1977,81 +1977,81 @@
<!-- ^^ comparison: claims related to based on form, 204 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>comparison</primary></indexterm>
<quote>zenba</quote>, meaning
<quote>increase</quote>(and
<quote>jdika</quote>, meaning
<quote>decrease</quote>, in place of
<quote>mleca</quote>). The gismu
<quote>zenba</quote> was included in the language precisely in order to capture those notions of increase which
<quote>zmadu</quote> can't quite cope with; in addition, we don't have to waste a place in lujvo or tanru on something that we'd never fill in with a value anyway. So we can translate
<quote>I'm stronger now</quote> not as</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Uo7S">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Uo7S">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e15d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section15-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ca tsamau</jbo>
<en>I now am-stronger.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which implies that I'm currently stronger than somebody else (the elided occupant of the second or z2 place), but as</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-vR4J">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-vR4J">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e15d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section15-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ca tsaze'a</jbo>
<en>I increase in strength.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Finally, lujvo with a tertau of
<quote>traji</quote> are used to build superlatives. The place structure of
<quote>traji</quote> is</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-N3cU">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-N3cU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e15d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section15-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>t1 is superlative in property t2, being the t3 extremum (largest by default) of set t4</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Consider the gismu
<quote>xamgu</quote>, whose place structure is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-MWdr">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-MWdr">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e15d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section15-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xa1 is good for xa2 by standard xa3</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The comparative form is
<quote>xagmau</quote>, corresponding to English
<quote>better</quote>, with a place structure (by the rules given above) of</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-pR5R">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pR5R">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e15d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section15-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>z1 is better than z2 for xa2 by standard xa3 in amount z4</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>We would expect the place structure of
<quote>xagrai</quote>, the superlative form, to somehow mirror that, given that comparatives and superlatives are comparable concepts, resulting in:</para>
<!-- ^^ comparatives: use of zmadu in forming, 58 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>comparatives</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Cc6J">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Cc6J">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e15d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section15-example12" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xa1=t1 is the best of the set t4 for xa2 by standard xa3.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The t2 place in
<quote>traji</quote>, normally filled by a property abstraction, is replaced by the seltau places, and the t3 place specifying the extremum of
@@ -2059,21 +2059,21 @@
<!-- ^^ relationship abstraction, 260 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>relationship abstraction</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>property abstraction</primary></indexterm>
<quote>traji</quote>(whether the most or the least, that is) is presumed by default to be
<quote>the most</quote>.</para>
<para>But the set against which the t1 place of
<quote>traji</quote> is compared is not the t2 place (which would make the place structure of
<quote>traji</quote> fully parallel to that of
<quote>zmadu</quote>), but rather the t4 place. Nevertheless, by a special exception to the rules of place ordering, the t4 place of
<quote>traji</quote>-based lujvo becomes the second place of the lujvo. Some examples:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-A2CE">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-A2CE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e15d13" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section15-example13" />
<anchor xml:id="c12e15d14" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section15-example14" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djudis. cu citrai lo'i lobypli</jbo>
<en>Judy is the youngest of all Lojbanists.</en>
<!-- ^^ Judy: example, 294 -->
@@ -2101,77 +2101,77 @@
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Metaphysical necessity can either increase or decrease places: it is a pressure tending to provide the
<quote>right number</quote> of places. If something is part of the essential nature of a concept, then a place must be made for it; on the other hand, if instances of the concept need not have some property, then this pressure will tend to remove the place.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Regularity is a pressure which can also either increase or decrease places. If a gismu has a given place, then gismu which are semantically related to it are likely to have the place also.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
<para>Here are some examples of gismu place structures, with a discussion of the pressures operating on them:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-iu0B">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-iu0B">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e16d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section16-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<quote>xekri</quote>: xe1 is black</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Brevity was the most important goal here, reinforced by one interpretation of metaphysical necessity. There is no mention of color standards here, as many people have pointed out; like all color gismu,
<!-- ^^ color standards, 295 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>color standards</primary></indexterm>
<quote>xekri</quote> is explicitly subjective. Objective color standards can be brought in by an appropriate BAI tag such as
<!-- ^^ color standards, 295 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>color standards</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ci'u</quote>(
<!-- ^^ ci'u, 204 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ci'u</primary></indexterm>
<quote>in system</quote>; see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9" />) or by making a lujvo.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-cuYP">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-cuYP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e16d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section16-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<quote>jbena</quote>: j1 is born to j2 at time j3 and location j4</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The gismu
<quote>jbena</quote> contains places for time and location, which few other gismu have: normally, the time and place at which something is done is supplied by a tense tag (see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10" />). However, providing these places makes
<quote>le te jbena</quote> a simple term for
<quote>birthday</quote> and
<quote>le ve jbena</quote> for
<quote>birthplace</quote>, so these places were provided despite their lack of metaphysical necessity.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-NTJn">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-NTJn">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e16d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section16-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<quote>rinka</quote>: event r1 is the cause of event r2</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The place structure of
<quote>rinka</quote> does not have a place for the agent, the one who causes, as a result of the pressure toward metaphysical necessity. A cause-effect relationship does not have to include an agent: an event (such as snow melting in the mountains) may cause another event (such as the flooding of the Nile) without any human intervention or even knowledge.</para>
<!-- ^^ melting, 295 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>melting</primary></indexterm>
<para>Indeed, there is a general tendency to omit agent places from most gismu except for a few such as
<quote>gasnu</quote> and
<quote>zukte</quote> which are then used as tertau in order to restore the agent place when needed: see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12-section13" />.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Atby">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Atby">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e16d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section16-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<quote>cinfo</quote>: c1 is a lion of species/breed c2</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The c2 place of
diff --git a/todocbook/13.xml b/todocbook/13.xml
index d726986..46bb671 100644
--- a/todocbook/13.xml
+++ b/todocbook/13.xml
@@ -1,20 +1,20 @@
<chapter xml:id="cll_chapter13">
<title>Chapter 13 Oooh! Arrgh! Ugh! Yecch! Attitudinal and Emotional Indicators</title>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter13-section1">
<title>What are attitudinal indicators?</title>
<!-- ^^ attitudinal indicators, 297; conventions of interpretation, 311; placement of "nai" in, 311; placement of scale in, 311; quick-tour version, 24 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>attitudinal indicators</primary></indexterm>
<para>This chapter explains the various words that Lojban provides for expressing attitude and related notions. In natural languages, attitudes are usually expressed by the tone of voice when speaking, and (very imperfectly) by punctuation when writing. For example, the bare words</para>
<!-- ^^ tone of voice, 297 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>tone of voice</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-EWHQ">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-EWHQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e1d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section1-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>John is coming.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>can be made, through tone of voice, to express the speaker's feeling of happiness, pity, hope, surprise, or disbelief. These fine points of tone cannot be expressed in writing. Attitudes are also expressed with various sounds which show up in print as oddly spelled words, such as the
<!-- ^^ tone of voice, 297 -->
@@ -27,21 +27,21 @@
<quote>Yecch!</quote> in the title. These are part of the English language; people born to other languages use a different set; yet you won't find any of these words in a dictionary.</para>
<para>In Lojban, everything that can be spoken can also be written. Therefore, these tones of voice must be represented by explicit words known as
<quote>attitudinal indicators</quote>, or just
<!-- ^^ attitudinal indicators, 297; conventions of interpretation, 311; placement of "nai" in, 311; placement of scale in, 311; quick-tour version, 24 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>attitudinal indicators</primary></indexterm>
<quote>attitudinals</quote>. This rule seems awkward and clunky to English-speakers at first, but is an essential part of the Lojbanic way of doing things.</para>
<para>The simplest way to use attitudinal indicators is to place them at the beginning of a text. In that case, they express the speaker's prevailing attitude. Here are some examples, correlated with the attitudes mentioned following
<!-- ^^ attitudinal indicators, 297; conventions of interpretation, 311; placement of "nai" in, 311; placement of scale in, 311; quick-tour version, 24 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>attitudinal indicators</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section1-example1" />:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Uhz5">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Uhz5">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e1d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section1-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e1d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section1-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e1d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section1-example4" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e1d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section1-example5" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e1d6" />
@@ -151,21 +151,21 @@
.u'i amusement weariness
.uo completion incompleteness
.u'o courage timidity cowardice
.uu pity cruelty
.u'u repentance lack of regret innocence
<!-- ^^ u'u, 299; contrasted with uu, 299 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>u'u</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>Here are some typical uses of the
<quote>u</quote> attitudinals:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-BdxH">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-BdxH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e2d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section2-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e2d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section2-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e2d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section2-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e2d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section2-example4" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e2d5" />
@@ -208,21 +208,21 @@
<quote>I'm sorry</quote>; the difference between these two attitudes frequently causes confusion among English-speakers who use this phrase, leading to responses like
<quote>Why are you sorry? It's not your fault!</quote></para>
<para>It is important to realize that
<quote>.uu</quote>, and indeed all attitudinals, are meant to be used sincerely, not ironically. In English, the exclamation
<quote>Pity!</quote> is just as likely to be ironically intended, but this usage does not extend to Lojban. Lying with attitudinals is (normally) as inappropriate to Lojban discourse as any other kind of lying: perhaps worse, because misunderstood emotions can cause even greater problems than misunderstood statements.</para>
<para>The following examples display the effects of
<quote>nai</quote> and
<quote>cu'i</quote> when suffixed to an attitudinal:</para>
<!-- ^^ cu'i, 299, 305 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>cu'i</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-CsGG">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-CsGG">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e2d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section2-example7" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e2d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section2-example8" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e2d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section2-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.ue la djan. klama</jbo>
@@ -254,60 +254,60 @@
.oi complaint/pain doing OK pleasure
.o'i caution boldness rashness
<!-- ^^ o'i: example, 300 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>o'i</primary></indexterm>
.o'o patience mere tolerance anger
.o'u relaxation composure stress
<!-- ^^ o'u: example, 300 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>o'u</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>Here are some examples:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ch2s">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ch2s">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e2d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section2-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.oi la djan. klama</jbo>
<en>[Complaint!] John is coming.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the speaker is distressed or discomfited over John's coming. The word
<quote>.oi</quote> is derived from the Yiddish word
<quote>oy</quote> of similar meaning. It is the only cmavo with a Yiddish origin.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-V8eD">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-V8eD">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e2d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section2-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.o'onai la djan. klama</jbo>
<!-- ^^ o'onai: example, 300 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>o'onai</primary></indexterm>
<en>[Anger!] John is coming!</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the speaker feels anger over John's coming.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-QCTs">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-QCTs">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e2d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section2-example12" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.o'i la djan. klama</jbo>
<!-- ^^ o'i: example, 300 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>o'i</primary></indexterm>
<en>[Beware!] John is coming.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here there is a sense of danger in John's arrival.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-D53H">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-D53H">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e2d13" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section2-example13" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e2d14" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section2-example14" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.o'ecu'i la djan. klama</jbo>
<!-- ^^ o'ecu'i: example, 300 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>o'ecu'i</primary></indexterm>
@@ -335,21 +335,21 @@
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
.ii fear nervousness security
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
.i'i togetherness privacy
.io respect disrespect
.i'o appreciation envy
.iu love no love lost hatred
.i'u familiarity mystery
</programlisting>
<para>Here are some examples:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-jv9q">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-jv9q">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e2d15" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section2-example15" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e2d16" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section2-example16" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e2d17" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section2-example17" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.ii smacu</jbo>
@@ -365,21 +365,21 @@
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section2-example15" /> shows an attitude-colored observative; the attitudinal modifies the situation described by the observative, namely the mouse that is causing the emotion. Lojban-speaking toddlers, if there ever are any, will probably use sentences like
<!-- ^^ observative: contrasted with observation evidential, 316; definition, 188 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>observative</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section2-example15" /> a lot.</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section2-example16" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section2-example17" /> use attitudinals that follow
<quote>la djan.</quote> rather than being at the beginning of the sentence. This form means that the attitude is attached to John rather than the event of his coming; the speaker loves or disrespects John specifically. Compare:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-09oC">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-09oC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e2d18" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section2-example18" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. klama .iu</jbo>
<en>John is-coming [love!]</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where it is specifically the coming of John that inspires the feeling.</para>
@@ -436,21 +436,21 @@
.a'i effort no real effort repose
<!-- ^^ a'i, 302 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>a'i</primary></indexterm>
.a'o hope despair
<!-- ^^ a'o, 297, 302 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>a'o</primary></indexterm>
.au desire indifference reluctance
.a'u interest no interest repulsion
</programlisting>
<para>Some examples (of a parental kind):</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ctin">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ctin">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e3d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section3-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e3d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section3-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e3d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section3-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e3d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section3-example4" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e3d5" />
@@ -518,21 +518,21 @@
<!-- ^^ e'e, 303 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>e'e</primary></indexterm>
.ei obligation freedom
.e'i constraint independence resistance to constraint
.e'o request negative request
<!-- ^^ e'o, 303; contrasted with pe'u, 324 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>e'o</primary></indexterm>
.e'u suggestion no suggestion warning
</programlisting>
<para>More examples (after a good night's sleep):</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-CzYV">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-CzYV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e3d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section3-example8" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e3d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section3-example9" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e3d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section3-example10" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e3d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section3-example11" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e3d12" />
@@ -569,21 +569,21 @@
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
.ia belief skepticism disbelief
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
.i'a acceptance blame
.ie agreement disagreement
.i'e approval non-approval disapproval
<!-- ^^ i'e, 304 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>i'e</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>Still more examples (much, much later):</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Furg">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Furg">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e3d13" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section3-example13" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e3d14" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section3-example14" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e3d15" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section3-example15" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e3d16" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section3-example16" />
</title>
@@ -613,21 +613,21 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section3-example16" /> illustrates the use of a propositional attitude indicator,
<quote>i'e</quote>, in both the usual sense (at the beginning of the bridi) and as a pure emotion (attached to
<!-- ^^ i'e, 304 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>i'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>do</quote>). The event expressed by the main bridi is disapproved of by the speaker, but the referent of the sumti in the x1 place (namely the listener) is approved of.</para>
<para>To indicate that an attitudinal discussed in this section is not meant to indicate a propositional attitude, the simplest expedient is to split the attitudinal off into a separate sentence. Thus, a version of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section3-example8" /> which actually claimed that the listener was or would be driving the car might be:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-96qq">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-96qq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e3d17" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section3-example17" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do sazri le karce .i .e'a</jbo>
<!-- ^^ e'a, 303 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>e'a</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>You drive the car. [Permission].</gloss>
<en>You're driving (or will drive) the car, and that's fine.</en>
@@ -687,21 +687,21 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>cai</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ru'e</quote> is used for a recognizably weak intensity, and
<!-- ^^ ru'e, 305 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ru'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>cu'i</quote> is used in response to the attitudinal question
<!-- ^^ cu'i, 299, 305 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>cu'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>pei</quote>(see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section10" />) to indicate that the emotion is not felt.</para>
<para>The following shows the variations resulting from intensity variation:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-NNBg">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-NNBg">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e4d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section4-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e4d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section4-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e4d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section4-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e4d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section4-example4" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e4d5" />
@@ -925,41 +925,41 @@
<quote>.io</quote>. Whatever it is attached to is marked as being below (for
<quote>ga'i</quote>) or above (for
<!-- ^^ ga'i, 308 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ga'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ga'inai</quote>) the speaker's rank or social position. Note that it is always the referent, not the speaker or listener, who is so marked: in order to mark the listener, the listener must appear in the sentence, as with
<!-- ^^ ga'inai, 308 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ga'inai</primary></indexterm>
<quote>doi ga'inai</quote>, which can be appended to a statement addressed to a social superior.</para>
<!-- ^^ ga'inai, 308 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ga'inai</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Ercd">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Ercd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e7d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section7-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ko ga'inai nenri klama le mi zdani</jbo>
<!-- ^^ ga'inai, 308 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ga'inai</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>You-imperative [low-rank!] enter-type-of come-to my house.</gloss>
<en>I would be honored if you would enter my residence.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that imperatives in Lojban need not be imperious! Corresponding examples with
<!-- ^^ imperatives: and truth, 353; attitude, 308; English contrasted with Lojban in presence of subject of command, 147; quick-tour version, 22; with ko, 146 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>imperatives</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ga'icu'i</quote> and
<quote>ga'inai</quote>:</para>
<!-- ^^ ga'inai, 308 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ga'inai</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-FDw0">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-FDw0">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e7d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section7-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e7d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section7-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ko ga'icu'i nenri klama le mi zdani</jbo>
<gloss>You-imperative [equal-rank!] enter-type-of come-to my house.</gloss>
<en>Come on in to my place.</en>
@@ -974,21 +974,21 @@
<quote>ga'i</quote> expresses the relative rank of the speaker and the referent, it does not make much sense to attach it to
<!-- ^^ ga'i, 308 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ga'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>mi</quote>, unless the speaker is using
<quote>mi</quote> to refer to a group (as in English
<quote>we</quote>), or a past or future version of himself with a different rank.</para>
<para>It is also possible to attach
<quote>ga'i</quote> to a whole bridi, in which case it expresses the speaker's superiority to the event the bridi refers to:</para>
<!-- ^^ ga'i, 308 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ga'i</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-wgDV">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-wgDV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e7d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section7-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ga'i le xarju pu citka</jbo>
<!-- ^^ ga'i, 308 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ga'i</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>[High-rank!] the pig [past] eats</gloss>
<en>The pig ate (which is an event beneath my notice).</en>
@@ -1027,21 +1027,21 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>righteous indignation</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ feelings: expression of contrasted with talking about, 298 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>feelings</primary></indexterm>
<quote>o'onaivu'e</quote>. Note that this is distinct from lack of guilt:
<quote>.u'unai</quote>.</para>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>se'i</quote> expresses the difference between selfishness and generosity, for example (in combination with
<!-- ^^ se'i, 309 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>se'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>.au</quote>):</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-QeLV">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-QeLV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e7d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section7-example5" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e7d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section7-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.ause'i</jbo>
<gloss>[desire] [self]</gloss>
<en>I want it!</en>
@@ -1056,21 +1056,21 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section7-example6" /> are pure expressions of attitude. Analogously,
<quote>.uuse'i</quote> is self-pity, whereas
<quote>.uuse'inai</quote> is pity for someone else.</para>
<!-- ^^ uuse'inai, 314 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>uuse'inai</primary></indexterm>
<para>The modifier
<quote>ri'e</quote> indicates emotional release versus emotional control.
<!-- ^^ ri'e, 309 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ri'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>I will not let him know how angry I am</quote>, you say to yourself before entering the room. The Lojban is much shorter:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Pwuv">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Pwuv">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e7d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section7-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.o'onai ri'enai</jbo>
<!-- ^^ o'onai: example, 300 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>o'onai</primary></indexterm>
<en>[anger] [control]</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1094,97 +1094,97 @@
<quote>mo'a</quote>,
<!-- ^^ mo'a, 442, 448 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>mo'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>rau</quote>, and
<!-- ^^ rau, 442, 448 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>rau</primary></indexterm>
<quote>du'e</quote>(these belong to selma'o PA, and are discussed in
<!-- ^^ du'e, 442, 448 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>du'e</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18" />). For example,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-K4aV">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-K4aV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e7d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section7-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.uiro'obe'unai</jbo>
<en>[Yay!] [physical] [Enough!]</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>might be something you say after a large meal which you enjoyed.</para>
<!-- ^^ large meal: example, 310 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>large meal</primary></indexterm>
<para>Like all modifiers,
<quote>be'u</quote> can be used alone:</para>
<!-- ^^ be'u, 310 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>be'u</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-U3zm">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-U3zm">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e7d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section7-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le cukta be'u cu zvati ma</jbo>
<!-- ^^ be'u, 310 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>be'u</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>The book [Needed!] is at-location [what sumti?]</gloss>
<en>Where's the book? - I need it!</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Lastly, the modifier
<quote>se'a</quote> shows whether the feeling is associated with self-sufficiency or with dependence on others.</para>
<!-- ^^ se'a, 310 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>se'a</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-4S14">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4S14">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e7d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section7-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.e'ese'a</jbo>
<gloss>[I can!] [self-sufficient!]</gloss>
<en>I can do it all by myself!</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is something a Lojban-speaking child might say. On the other hand,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Arv2">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Arv2">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e7d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section7-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.e'ese'anai</jbo>
<gloss>[I can!] [dependent]</gloss>
<en>I can do it if you help me.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>from the same child would indicate a (hopefully temporary) loss of self-confidence. It is also possible to negate the
<quote>.e'e</quote> in
<!-- ^^ e'e, 303 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>e'e</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section7-example7" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section7-example8" />, leading to:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-stdV">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-stdV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e7d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section7-example12" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.e'enaise'a</jbo>
<gloss>[I can't!] [self-sufficient]</gloss>
<en>I can't do it if you insist on
<quote>helping</quote> me!</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-TIjf">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-TIjf">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e7d13" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section7-example13" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.e'enaise'anai</jbo>
<gloss>[I can't!] [dependent]</gloss>
<en>I can't do it by myself!</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1213,33 +1213,33 @@
<quote>.oi</quote>) and pleasure (
<quote>.oinai</quote>) which is intensely sexual (
<quote>ro'u</quote>) in nature.</para>
<!-- ^^ ro'u, 307 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ro'u</primary></indexterm>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>nai</quote> is the most tightly bound modifier in the language: it always negates exactly one word - the preceding one. Of all the words used in indicator constructs,
<quote>nai</quote> is the only one with any meaning outside the indicator system. If you try to put an indicator between a non-indicator cmavo and its
<quote>nai</quote> negator, the
<quote>nai</quote> will end up negating the last word of the indicator. The result, though unambiguous, is not what you want. For example,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-9BBA">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9BBA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e8d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section8-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi .e .ui nai do</jbo>
<en>I and [Yay!] [Not!] you</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means
<quote>I and (unfortunately) you</quote>, whereas</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-NBhW">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-NBhW">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e8d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section8-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi .e nai .ui do</jbo>
<en>I and [Not!] [Yay!] you</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means
@@ -1279,21 +1279,21 @@
<quote>zo</quote> quotation, explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19" />) where compound cmavo may not be used.</para>
<para>At the beginning of a text, indicators modify everything following them indefinitely: such a usage is taken as a raw emotional expression, and we normally don't turn off our emotions when we start and stop sentences. In every other place in an utterance, the indicator (or group) attaches to the word immediately to its left, and indicates that the attitude is being expressed concerning the object or concept to which the word refers.</para>
<para>If the word that an indicator (or group) attaches to is itself a cmavo which governs a grammatical structure, then the indicator construct pertains to the referent of the entire structure. There is also a mechanism, discussed in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19" />, for explicitly marking the range of words to which an indicator applies.</para>
<para>More details about the uses of indicators, and the way they interact with other specialized cmavo, are given in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19" />. It is worth mentioning that real-world interpretation is not necessarily consistent with the formal scope rules. People generally express emotions when they feel them, with only a minimum of grammatical constraint on that expression; complexities of emotional expression are seldom logically analyzable. Lojban attempts to provide a systematic reference that could possibly be ingrained to an instinctive level. However, it should always be assumed that the referent of an indicator has some uncertainty.</para>
<para>For example, in cases of multiple indicators expressed together, the combined form has some ambiguity of interpretation. It is possible to interpret the second indicator as expressing an attitude about the first, or to interpret both as expressing attitudes about the common referent. For example, in</para>
<!-- ^^ multiple indicators, 312 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>multiple indicators</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Rs6P">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Rs6P">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e9d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section9-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu tavla do .o'onai .oi</jbo>
<!-- ^^ o'onai: example, 300 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>o'onai</primary></indexterm>
<en>I [past] talk-to you [Grrr!] [Oy!]</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1333,21 +1333,21 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>plausibility</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ irrelevant: specifying of sumti place, 157 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>irrelevant</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ge'e</quote>, however, is always in order - you are not required to answer emotionally. This is not the same as
<!-- ^^ ge'e, 311, 322 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ge'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>.i'inai</quote>, which is privacy as the reverse of conviviality.)</para>
<para>Most often, however, the asker will use
<quote>pei</quote> as a place holder for an intensity marker. (As a result,
<quote>pei</quote> is placed in selma'o CAI, although selma'o UI would have been almost as appropriate. Grammatically, there is no difference between UI and CAI.) Such usage corresponds to a whole range of idiomatic usages in natural languages:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Xi7Q">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Xi7Q">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e10d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section10-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e10d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section10-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e10d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section10-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.iepei</jbo>
@@ -1356,46 +1356,46 @@
<jbo>.iare'epei</jbo>
<gloss>[belief] [spiritual] [question]</gloss>
<en>Are you a Believer?</en>
<jbo>.aipei</jbo>
<gloss>[intention] [question]</gloss>
<en>Are you going to do it?</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section10-example3" /> might appear at the end of a command, to which the response</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-sKmg">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sKmg">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e10d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section10-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.aicai</jbo>
<en>[intention] [maximal]</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>corresponds to
<quote>Aye! Aye!</quote>(hence the choice of cmavo).</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ugFH">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ugFH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e10d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section10-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.e'apei</jbo>
<gloss>[permission] [question]</gloss>
<en>Please, Mommy! Can I??</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Additionally, when
<quote>pei</quote> is used at the beginning of an indicator construct, it asks specifically if that construct reflects the attitude of the respondent, as in (asked of someone who has been ill or in pain):</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-qCpH">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-qCpH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e10d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section10-example6" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e10d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section10-example7" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e10d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section10-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>pei.o'u</jbo>
@@ -1423,36 +1423,36 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>dai</primary></indexterm>
<quote>.uuse'inai</quote>.) Sometimes, as when telling a story, you want to attribute emotion to someone else. You can of course make a bridi claim that so-and-so felt such-and-such an emotion, but you can also make use of the attitudinal system by adding the indicator
<!-- ^^ uuse'inai, 314 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>uuse'inai</primary></indexterm>
<quote>dai</quote>, which attributes the preceding attitudinal to someone else - exactly whom, must be determined from context. You can also use
<!-- ^^ dai, 314 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>dai</primary></indexterm>
<quote>dai</quote> conversationally when you empathize, or feel someone else's emotion as if it were your own:</para>
<!-- ^^ dai, 314 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>dai</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Ny8w">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Ny8w">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e10d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section10-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.oiro'odai</jbo>
<gloss>[Pain!] [physical] [empathy]</gloss>
<!-- ^^ empathy: example, 314 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>empathy</primary></indexterm>
<en>Ouch, that must have hurt!</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>It is even possible to
<quote>empathize</quote> with a non-living object:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-M7Xf">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-M7Xf">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e10d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section10-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le bloti .iidai .uu pu klama le xasloi</jbo>
<gloss>The ship [fear!] [empathy] [pity!] [past] goes-to the ocean-floor.</gloss>
<!-- ^^ empathy: example, 314 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>empathy</primary></indexterm>
<en>Fearfully the ship, poor thing, sank.</en>
@@ -1473,21 +1473,21 @@
<!-- ^^ bu'o, 314 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>bu'o</primary></indexterm>
<para>When attached to an attitudinal,
<quote>bu'o</quote> means that you are starting to have that attitude,
<!-- ^^ bu'o, 314 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>bu'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bu'ocu'i</quote> that you are continuing to have it, and
<quote>bu'onai</quote> that you are ceasing to have it. Some examples:</para>
<!-- ^^ bu'onai, 314 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>bu'onai</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-oJef">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-oJef">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e10d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section10-example11" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e10d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section10-example12" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.o'onai bu'o</jbo>
<!-- ^^ o'onai: example, 300 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>o'onai</primary></indexterm>
@@ -1497,21 +1497,21 @@
<en>I'm getting angry!</en>
<jbo>.iu bu'onai .uinai</jbo>
<!-- ^^ bu'onai, 314 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>bu'onai</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>[Love!] [end emotion] [unhappiness!]</gloss>
<en>I don't love you any more; I'm sad.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note the difference in effect between
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section10-example12" /> and:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-6EiY">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-6EiY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e10d13" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section10-example13" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ca ba'o prami do ja'e le nu mi badri</jbo>
<gloss>I [present] [cessitive] love you with-result the event-of (I am-sad).</gloss>
<en>I no longer love you; therefore, I am sad.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1597,21 +1597,21 @@
<para>A bridi marked by
<quote>ca'e</quote> is true because the speaker says so. In addition to definitions of words,
<!-- ^^ ca'e, 316 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ca'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ca'e</quote> is also appropriate in what are called performatives, where the very act of speaking the words makes them true. An English example is
<!-- ^^ ca'e, 316 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ca'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>I now pronounce you husband and wife</quote>, where the very act of uttering the words makes the listeners into husband and wife. A Lojban translation might be:</para>
<!-- ^^ husband and wife: example, 316 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>husband and wife</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Po4T">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Po4T">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e11d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section11-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ca'e le re do cu simxu speni</jbo>
<!-- ^^ ca'e, 316 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ca'e</primary></indexterm>
<en>[I define!] The two of-you are-mutual spouses.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1634,21 +1634,21 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>experienced</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ ba'acu'i, 316 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ba'acu'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ba'anai</quote>, a past event as remembered by the speaker. It is accidental that this scale runs from future to past instead of past to future.</para>
<!-- ^^ remembered: example, 316 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>remembered</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ past event: possible extension into present, 223 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>past event</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ ba'anai, 316 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ba'anai</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-B87W">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-B87W">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e11d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section11-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ba'acu'i le tuple be mi cu se cortu</jbo>
<!-- ^^ ba'acu'i, 316 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ba'acu'i</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>[I experience!] The leg of me is-the-locus-of-pain.</gloss>
<en>My leg hurts.</en>
@@ -1680,21 +1680,21 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>su'anai</primary></indexterm>
<quote>concretely</quote> or
<quote>in particular</quote>.</para>
<para>A bridi marked by
<quote>ti'e</quote> is relayed information from some source other than the speaker. There is no necessary implication that the information was relayed via the speaker's ears; what we read in a newspaper is an equally good example of
<!-- ^^ ti'e, 316 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ti'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ti'e</quote>, unless we have personal knowledge of the content.</para>
<!-- ^^ ti'e, 316 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ti'e</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-jiXV">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-jiXV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e11d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section11-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti'e la .uengas cu zergau</jbo>
<!-- ^^ ti'e, 316 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ti'e</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>[I hear!] Wenga is-a-criminal-doer.</gloss>
<en>I hear that Wenga is a crook.</en>
@@ -1722,21 +1722,21 @@
<quote>observe</quote> is not connected with the Lojban
<quote>observative</quote>, or bridi with the first sumti omitted. The latter has no explicit aspect, and could be a direct observation, a conclusion, an opinion, or other aspectual point of view.</para>
<!-- ^^ opinion: example, 317 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>opinion</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ observative: contrasted with observation evidential, 316; definition, 188 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>observative</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ observation: example, 316 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>observation</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ aspect: expressing, 228; natural languages compared with respect to, 228 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>aspect</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-KEKa">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KEKa">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e11d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section11-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>za'a do tatpi</jbo>
<!-- ^^ za'a, 316 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>za'a</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>[I observe!] You are-tired.</gloss>
<en>I see you are tired.</en>
@@ -1751,41 +1751,41 @@
<quote>pe'ipei</quote> is common, meaning
<!-- ^^ pe'ipei, 317 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>pe'ipei</primary></indexterm>
<quote>Is this your opinion?</quote>. (Strictly, this should be
<!-- ^^ opinion: example, 317 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>opinion</primary></indexterm>
<quote>peipe'i</quote>, in accordance with the distinction explained in Examples 10.6-10.8, but since
<quote>pe'i</quote> is not really a scale, there is no real difference between the two orders.)</para>
<!-- ^^ pe'i, 317 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>pe'i</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-DcAG">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-DcAG">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e11d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section11-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>pe'i la kartagos. .ei se daspo</jbo>
<!-- ^^ pe'i, 317 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>pe'i</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>[I opine!] Carthage [obligation] is-destroyed.</gloss>
<en>In my opinion, Carthage should be destroyed.</en>
<!-- ^^ opinion: example, 317 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>opinion</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>A bridi marked by
<quote>ru'a</quote> is an assumption made by the speaker. This is similar to one possible use of
<!-- ^^ ru'a, 317; compared with e'u, 317 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ru'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>.e'u</quote>.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ydRN">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ydRN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e11d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section11-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ru'a doi livinston.</jbo>
<!-- ^^ ru'a, 317; compared with e'u, 317 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ru'a</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>Dr. Livingstone, I presume?</gloss>
<en>(A rhetorical question: Stanley knew who he was.)</en>
@@ -1862,21 +1862,21 @@
<quote>go'i</quote>(of selma'o GOhA, discussed in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7" />), which is a non-discursive version of
<quote>ditto</quote> that explicitly repeats the claim of the previous bridi.</para>
<!-- ^^ ditto: example, 318 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ditto</primary></indexterm>
<para>Lastly,
<quote>po'o</quote> is used when there is no other comparable case, and thus corresponds to some of the uses of
<!-- ^^ po'o, 317; placement in sentence, 318 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>po'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>only</quote>, a word difficult to express in pure bridi form:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-42U4">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-42U4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e12d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section12-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e12d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section12-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e12d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section12-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e12d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section12-example4" />
</title>
@@ -2137,59 +2137,59 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>da'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>Supposing that</quote>,
<quote>By hypothesis</quote>), whereas
<quote>da'inai</quote> insists on the real-world point of view (
<quote>In fact</quote>,
<quote>In truth</quote>,
<quote>According to the facts</quote>). A common use of
<quote>da'i</quote> is to distinguish between:</para>
<!-- ^^ da'i, 319 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>da'i</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-v6BU">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-v6BU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e12d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section12-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ganai da'i do viska le mi citno mensi gi ju'o do djuno</jbo>
<!-- ^^ ju'o, 319 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ju'o</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ da'i, 319 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>da'i</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>le du'u ri pazvau</gloss>
<gloss>If you [hypothetical] see my young sister, then [certain] you know that</gloss>
<gloss>she is-pregnant.</gloss>
<en>If you were to see my younger sister, you would certainly know she is pregnant.</en>
<!-- ^^ younger: example, 292 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>younger</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Sach">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Sach">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e12d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section12-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ganai da'inai do viska le mi citno mensi gi ju'o do djuno</jbo>
<!-- ^^ ju'o, 319 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ju'o</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>le du'u ri pazvau</gloss>
<gloss>If you [factual] see my young sister, then [certainty] you know that</gloss>
<gloss>she is-pregnant.</gloss>
<en>If you saw my younger sister, you would certainly know she is pregnant.</en>
<!-- ^^ younger: example, 292 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>younger</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>It is also perfectly correct to omit the discursive altogether, and leave the context to indicate which significance is meant. (Chinese always leaves this distinction to the context: the Chinese sentence</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-rxfh">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rxfh">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e12d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section12-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ru</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is the equivalent of either
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section12-example5" /> or
@@ -2225,21 +2225,21 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>bi'u</primary></indexterm>
ge'e non-specific indicator
<!-- ^^ ge'e, 311, 322 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ge'e</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>ki'a</quote> is one of the most common of the miscellaneous indicators. It expresses metalinguistic confusion; i.e. confusion about what has been said, as opposed to confusion not tied to the discourse (which is
<quote>.uanai</quote>). The confusion may be about the meaning of a word or of a grammatical construct, or about the referent of a sumti. One of the uses of English
<quote>which</quote> corresponds to
<quote>ki'a</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-gWFX">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gWFX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e13d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section13-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci le ctuca</jbo>
<gloss>.i le ki'a ctuca</gloss>
<gloss>I like the teacher</gloss>
<en>Which teacher?</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -2316,21 +2316,21 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>rhetorical question</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ paunai, 322 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>paunai</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section11" />.</para>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>pe'a</quote> is the indicator of figurative speech, indicating that the previous word should be taken figuratively rather than literally:</para>
<!-- ^^ pe'a, 322 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>pe'a</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ figurative speech, 322 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>figurative speech</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-rXiR">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rXiR">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e13d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section13-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska le blanu pe'a zdani</jbo>
<!-- ^^ pe'a, 322 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>pe'a</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I see the blue [figurative] house.</gloss>
<en>I see the
@@ -2417,21 +2417,21 @@
kau indirect question
<!-- ^^ kau, 264, 323; ma kau, contrasted with la djan. kau, 264 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>kau</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ indirect question, 323 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>indirect question</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>This cmavo is explained in detail in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11" />. It marks the word it is attached to as the focus of an indirect question:</para>
<!-- ^^ indirect question, 323 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>indirect question</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-umCQ">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-umCQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e13d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section13-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi djuno le du'u dakau klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I know the statement-that somebody [indirect ?] goes to-the store.</gloss>
<en>I know who goes to the store.</en>
<!-- ^^ know who: contrasted with know that, 264; example, 264 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>know who</primary></indexterm>
@@ -2721,21 +2721,21 @@
<!-- ^^ ta'apei, 326 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ta'apei</primary></indexterm>
<quote>Will the speaker yield?</quote></para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter13-section15">
<title>A sample dialogue</title>
<para>The following dialogue in Lojban illustrates the uses of attitudinals and protocol vocatives in conversation. The phrases enclosed in
<!-- ^^ protocol: computer communications using COI, 326; parliamentary using COI, 326; using vocatives, 326 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>protocol</primary></indexterm>
<quote>sei ... se'u</quote> indicate the speaker of each sentence.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-RFU7">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-RFU7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e15d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section15-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e15d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section15-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e15d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section15-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e15d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section15-example4" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e15d5" />
diff --git a/todocbook/14.xml b/todocbook/14.xml
index c6bcc0c..3fdb7b4 100644
--- a/todocbook/14.xml
+++ b/todocbook/14.xml
@@ -7,21 +7,21 @@
<para>Lojban is a logical language: the name of the language itself means
<!-- ^^ logical language: truth functions, 333 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>logical language</primary></indexterm>
<quote>logical language</quote>. The fundamentals of ordinary logic (there are variant logics, which aren't addressed in this book) include the notions of a
<!-- ^^ logical language: truth functions, 333 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>logical language</primary></indexterm>
<quote>sentence</quote>(sometimes called a
<quote>statement</quote> or
<quote>proposition</quote>), which asserts a truth or falsehood, and a small set of
<quote>truth functions</quote>, which combine two sentences to create a new sentence. The truth functions have the special characteristic that the truth value (that is, the truth or falsehood) of the results depends only on the truth value of the component sentences. For example,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-mJ6y">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mJ6y">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e1d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section1-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>John is a man or James is a woman.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is true if
<quote>John is a man</quote> is true, or if
@@ -208,21 +208,21 @@
</programlisting>
<para>Note that exchanging the sentences is only necessary with
<phrase role="logical-vowel">U</phrase>. The three other basic truth functions are commutative; that is, they mean the same thing regardless of the order of the component sentences. There are other ways of getting some of these truth tables; these just happen to be the methods usually employed.</para>
<!-- ^^ truth tables: abbreviated format, 334; for 4 fundamental Lojban truth functions, 335; list of 16 in abbreviated form, 334; notation convention, 334 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>truth tables</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section3">
<title>The six types of logical connectives</title>
<para>In order to remain unambiguous, Lojban cannot have only a single logical connective for each truth function. There are many places in the grammar of the language where logical connection is permitted, and each must have its appropriate set of connectives. If the connective suitable for sumti were used to connect selbri, ambiguity would result.</para>
<para>Consider the English sentence:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ptgf">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ptgf">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e3d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section3-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>Mary went to the window and ...</jbo>
<!-- ^^ window: example, 336 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>window</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -265,37 +265,37 @@
<para>There also exist giks, joiks, ijoiks, and joigiks, which are not logical connectives, but are other kinds of compound cmavo which will be introduced later.</para>
<!-- ^^ joigiks: connection types, 361; syntax of, 361 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>joigiks</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ giks: syntax of, 340 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>giks</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section4">
<title>Logical connection of bridi</title>
<para>Now we are ready to express
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section1-example1" /> in Lojban! The kind of logical connective which is placed between two Lojban bridi to connect them logically is an ijek:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-h2hN">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-h2hN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e4d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section4-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. nanmu .ija la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
<en>John is-a-man or James is-a-woman.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here we have two separate Lojban bridi,
<quote>la djan. nanmu</quote> and
<quote>la djeimyz. ninmu</quote>. These bridi are connected by
<quote>.ija</quote>, the ijek for the truth function
<phrase role="logical-vowel">A</phrase>. The
<quote>.i</quote> portion of the ijek tells us that we are dealing with separate sentences here. Similarly, we can now say:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-sKpm">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sKpm">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e4d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section4-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c14e4d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section4-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c14e4d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section4-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. nanmu .ije la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
@@ -312,48 +312,48 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section2" />, we need to know how to negate the two bridi which represent the component sentences. We could negate them directly by inserting
<quote>na</quote> before the selbri, but Lojban also allows us to place the negation within the connective itself.</para>
<para>To negate the first or left-hand bridi, prefix
<quote>na</quote> to the JA cmavo but after the
<quote>.i</quote>. To negate the second or right-hand bridi, suffix
<quote>-nai</quote> to the JA cmavo. In either case, the negating word is placed on the side of the connective that is closest to the bridi being negated.</para>
<para>So to express the truth table FTTF, which requires
<!-- ^^ truth table: explanation, 333 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>truth table</primary></indexterm>
<phrase role="logical-vowel">O</phrase> with either of the two bridi negated (not both), we can say either:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-A5FC">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-A5FC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e4d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section4-example5" />
<anchor xml:id="c14e4d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section4-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. nanmu .inajo la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
<en>John is-not-a-man if-and-only-if James is-a-woman.</en>
<jbo>la djan. nanmu .ijonai la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
<en>John is a man if-and-only-if James is-not-a-woman</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The meaning of both
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section4-example5" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section4-example6" /> is the same as that of:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-1Kp9">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1Kp9">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e4d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section4-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>John is a man or James is a woman, but not both.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here is another example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-FXSC">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-FXSC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e4d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section4-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. nanmu .ijanai la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
<gloss>John is-a-man or James is-not-a-woman.</gloss>
<en>John is a man if James is a woman.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -363,21 +363,21 @@
<quote>if</quote> does not quite have its English sense.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section4-example8" /> is true so long as John is a man, even if James is not a woman; likewise, it is true just because James is not a woman, regardless of John's gender. This kind of
<quote>if-then</quote> is technically known as a
<quote>material conditional</quote>.</para>
<para>Since James is not a woman (by our assertions in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section1" />), the English sentence
<quote>John is a man if James is a woman</quote> seems to be neither true nor false, since it assumes something which is not true. It turns out to be most convenient to treat this
<quote>if</quote> as TTFT, which on investigation means that
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section4-example8" /> is true.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section4-example9" />, however, is equally true:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-EdY5">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-EdY5">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e4d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section4-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. ninmu .ijanai la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
<en>John is a woman if James is a woman.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This can be thought of as a principle of consistency, and may be paraphrased as follows:
@@ -388,37 +388,37 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>false statement</primary></indexterm>
<quote>if</quote> must be considered very carefully when translating into Lojban to see if they really fit this Lojban mold.</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section4-example10" />, which uses the TFTT truth function, is subject to the same rules: the stated gloss of TFTT as
<quote>only if</quote> works naturally only when the right-hand bridi is false; if it is true, the left-hand bridi may be either true or false. The last gloss of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section4-example10" /> illustrates the use of
<quote>if ... then</quote> as a more natural substitute for
<!-- ^^ if ... then: compared with only if, 338; logical connectives contrasted with other translations, 339 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>if ... then</primary></indexterm>
<quote>only if</quote>.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-9CCS">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9CCS">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e4d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section4-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. nanmu .inaja la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
<gloss>John is-not-a-man or James is-a-woman.</gloss>
<gloss>John is a man only if James is a woman.</gloss>
<en>If John is a man, then James is a woman.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The following example illustrates the use of
<quote>se</quote> to, in effect, exchange the two sentences. The normal use of
<quote>se</quote> is to (in effect) transpose places of a bridi, as explained in
<xref linkend="selbri" />.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-z43X">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-z43X">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e4d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section4-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. nanmu .iseju la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
<en>Whether or not John is a man, James is a woman.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>If both
@@ -439,47 +439,47 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>imperatives</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>bridi connection</primary></indexterm>
<para>Many concepts in Lojban are expressible in two different ways, generally referred to as
<quote>afterthought</quote> and
<quote>forethought</quote>.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section4" /> discussed what is called
<quote>afterthought bridi logical connection</quote>. The word
<!-- ^^ bridi logical connection: compared with sumti logical connections, 340 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>bridi logical connection</primary></indexterm>
<quote>afterthought</quote> is used because the connective cmavo and the second bridi were added, as it were, afterwards and without changing the form of the first bridi. This form might be used by someone who makes a statement and then wishes to add or qualify that statement after it has been completed. Thus,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-dp8V">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-dp8V">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e5d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section5-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. nanmu</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is a complete bridi, and adding an afterthought connection to make</para>
<!-- ^^ afterthought connection: contrasted with forethought for grammatical utterances, 352; definition, 199; of operands, 453; of operators, 453 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>afterthought connection</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-7h3s">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7h3s">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e5d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section5-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. nanmu .ija la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
<en>John is a man or James is a woman (or both)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>provides additional information without requiring any change in the form of what has come before; changes which may not be possible or practical, especially in speaking. (The meaning, however, may be changed by the use of a negating connective.) Afterthought connectives make it possible to construct all the important truth-functional relationships in a variety of ways.</para>
<para>In forethought style the speaker decides in advance, before expressing the first bridi, that a logical connection will be expressed. Forethought and afterthought connectives are expressed with separate selma'o. The forethought logical connectives corresponding to afterthought ijeks are geks:</para>
<!-- ^^ forethought logical connectives: within tanru, 92 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>forethought logical connectives</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-mYeS">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mYeS">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e5d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section5-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ga la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
<en>Either John is a man or James is a woman (or both).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
@@ -494,21 +494,21 @@
<!-- ^^ giks: syntax of, 340 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>giks</primary></indexterm>
<quote>.i</quote> in them. The forethought construct binds up the two bridi into a single sentence as far as the grammar is concerned.</para>
<para>Some more examples of forethought bridi connection are:</para>
<!-- ^^ forethought bridi connection: as grammatically one sentence, 339 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>forethought bridi connection</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ bridi connection: use of imperatives in, 353; use of truth questions in, 353 -->
<!-- ^^ imperatives: and truth, 353; attitude, 308; English contrasted with Lojban in presence of subject of command, 147; quick-tour version, 22; with ko, 146 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>imperatives</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>bridi connection</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Saaq">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Saaq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e5d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section5-example4" />
<anchor xml:id="c14e5d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section5-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ge la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
<en>(It is true that) both John is a man and James is a woman.</en>
<jbo>gu la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
@@ -516,21 +516,21 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>It is worth emphasizing that
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section5-example5" /> does not assert that James is (or is not) a woman. The
<quote>gu</quote> which indicates that
<quote>la djeimyz. ninmu</quote> may be true or false is unfortunately rather remote from the bridi thus affected.</para>
<para>Perhaps the most important of the truth functions commonly expressed in forethought is TFTT, which can be paraphrased as
<quote>if ... then ...</quote>:</para>
<!-- ^^ if ... then: compared with only if, 338; logical connectives contrasted with other translations, 339 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>if ... then</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Xcg1">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Xcg1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e5d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section5-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ganai la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
<gloss>Either John is not a man, or James is a woman.</gloss>
<en>If John is a man, then James is a woman.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -547,68 +547,68 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>if ... then</primary></indexterm>
<quote>.inaja</quote> or
<quote>ganai ... gi</quote>; anything with implications of time needs a somewhat different Lojban translation, which will be discussed in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section18" />. Causal sentences like
<quote>If you feed the pig, then it will grow</quote> are not logical connectives of any type, but rather need a translation using
<!-- ^^ feed: example, 288 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>feed</primary></indexterm>
<quote>rinka</quote> as the selbri joining two event abstractions, thus:</para>
<!-- ^^ event abstractions, 256 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>event abstractions</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-TQP9">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-TQP9">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e5d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section5-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nu do cidja dunda fi le xarju cu rinka le nu ri ba banro</jbo>
<en>The event-of (you food-give to the pig) causes the event-of (it will grow).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Causality is discussed in far more detail in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9" />.</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section5-example8" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section5-example9" /> illustrates a truth function, FTTF, which needs to negate either the first or the second bridi. We already understand how to negate the first bridi:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-I2jU">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-I2jU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e5d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section5-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>gonai la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
<gloss>John is-not-a-man if-and-only-if James is-a-woman,</gloss>
<en>Either John is a man or James is a woman but not both.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>How can the second bridi be negated? By adding
<quote>-nai</quote> to the
<quote>gi</quote>.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Tiz6">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Tiz6">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e5d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section5-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>go la djan. nanmu ginai la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
<gloss>John is-a-man if-and-only-if James is-not-a-woman.</gloss>
<en>Either John is a man or James is a woman but not both.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>A compound cmavo based on
<quote>gi</quote> is called a gik; the only giks are
<!-- ^^ giks: syntax of, 340 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>giks</primary></indexterm>
<quote>gi</quote> itself and
<quote>ginai</quote>.</para>
<para>Further examples:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-GP6a">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-GP6a">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e5d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section5-example10" />
<anchor xml:id="c14e5d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section5-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ge la djan. nanmu ginai la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
<en>John is-a-man and James is-not-a-woman.</en>
<jbo>ganai la djan. nanmu ginai la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
@@ -628,93 +628,93 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>forethought connection</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
gi [nai]
</programlisting>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section6">
<title>sumti connection</title>
<!-- ^^ sumti connection: afterthought, 340; forethought, 341 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>sumti connection</primary></indexterm>
<para>Geks and ijeks are sufficient to state every possible logical connection between two bridi. However, it is often the case that two bridi to be logically connected have one or more portions in common:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Ecnq">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Ecnq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e6d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section6-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. klama le zarci .ije la .alis. klama le zarci</jbo>
<en>John goes to the market, and Alice goes to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here only a single sumti differs between the two bridi. Lojban does not require that both bridi be expressed in full. Instead, a single bridi can be given which contains both of the different sumti and uses a logical connective from a different selma'o to combine the two sumti:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-JTIm">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-JTIm">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e6d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section6-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan .e la .alis. klama le zarci</jbo>
<en>John and Alice go-to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section6-example2" /> means exactly the same thing as
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section6-example1" />: one may be rigorously transformed into the other without any change of logical meaning. This rule is true in general for every different kind of logical connection in Lojban; all of them, with one exception (see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section12" />), can always be transformed into a logical connection between sentences that expresses the same truth function.</para>
<para>The afterthought logical connectives between sumti are eks, which contain a connective cmavo of selma'o A. If ijeks were used in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section6-example2" />, the meaning would be changed:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-7KHA">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7KHA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e6d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section6-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. .ije la .alis. klama le zarci</jbo>
<en>John [is/does something]. And Alices goes-to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>leaving the reader uncertain why John is mentioned at all.</para>
<para>Any ek may be used between sumti, even if there is no direct English equivalent:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-BDLS">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-BDLS">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e6d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section6-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. .o la .alis. klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>John if-and-only-if Alice goes-to the market.</gloss>
<en>John goes to the market if, and only if, Alice does.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The second line of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section6-example3" /> is highly stilted English, but the first line (of which it is a literal translation) is excellent Lojban.</para>
<para>What about forethought sumti connection? As is the case for bridi connection, geks are appropriate. They are not the only selma'o of forethought logical-connectives, but are the most commonly used ones.</para>
<!-- ^^ sumti connection: afterthought, 340; forethought, 341 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>sumti connection</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ bridi connection: use of imperatives in, 353; use of truth questions in, 353 -->
<!-- ^^ imperatives: and truth, 353; attitude, 308; English contrasted with Lojban in presence of subject of command, 147; quick-tour version, 22; with ko, 146 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>imperatives</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>bridi connection</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-YEa4">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-YEa4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e6d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section6-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ga la djan. gi la .alis. klama le zarci</jbo>
<en>Either John or Alice (or both) goes-to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Of course, eks include all the same patterns of compound cmavo that ijeks do. When
<quote>na</quote> or
<quote>se</quote> is part of an ek, a special writing convention is invoked, as in the following example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-caoY">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-caoY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e6d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section6-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. na.a la .alis. klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>John only if Alice goes-to the market.</gloss>
<en>John goes to the market only if Alice does.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -725,47 +725,47 @@
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section7">
<title>More than two propositions</title>
<para>So far we have seen logical connectives used to connect exactly two sentences. How about connecting three or more? Is this possible in Lojban? The answer is yes, subject to some warnings and some restrictions.</para>
<para>Of the four primitive truth functions
<phrase role="logical-vowel">A</phrase>,
<phrase role="logical-vowel">E</phrase>,
<phrase role="logical-vowel">O</phrase>, and
<phrase role="logical-vowel">U</phrase>, all but
<phrase role="logical-vowel">O</phrase> have the same truth values no matter how their component sentences are associated in pairs. Therefore,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-9tHr">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9tHr">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e7d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section7-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi dotco .ije mi ricfu .ije mi nanmu</jbo>
<en>I am-German. And I am-rich. And I am-a-man.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means that all three component sentences are true. Likewise,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-MCsf">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-MCsf">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e7d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section7-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi dotco .ija mi ricfu .ija mi nanmu</jbo>
<en>I am-German. Or I am-rich. Or I am-a-man.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means that one or more of the component sentences is true.</para>
<para>
<phrase role="logical-vowel">O</phrase>, however, is different. Working out the truth table for</para>
<!-- ^^ truth table: explanation, 333 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>truth table</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-3zE1">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3zE1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e7d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section7-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi dotco .ijo mi ricfu</jbo>
<gloss>.ijo mi nanmu</gloss>
<gloss>I am-German. If-and-only-if I am-rich.</gloss>
<en>If-and-only-if I am-a-man.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -775,66 +775,66 @@
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
Of the three properties - German-ness, wealth, and manhood - I possess either exactly one or else all three.
</programlisting>
<para>Because of the counterintuitiveness of this outcome, it is safest to avoid
<phrase role="logical-vowel">O</phrase> with more than two sentences. Likewise, the connectives which involve negation also have unexpected truth values when used with more than two sentences.</para>
<para>In fact, no combination of logical connectives can produce the
<quote>all or none</quote> interpretation intended (but not achieved) by
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section7-example3" /> without repeating one of the bridi. See
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section8-example10" />.</para>
<para>There is an additional difficulty with the use of more than two sentences. What is the meaning of:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-mLo1">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mLo1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e7d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section7-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci la djan. .ije mi nelci la martas. .ija mi nelci la meris.</jbo>
<en>I like John. And I like Martha. Or I like Mary.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Does this mean:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-BSuT">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-BSuT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e7d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section7-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>I like John, and I like either Martha or Mary or both.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Or is the correct translation:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-dPcI">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-dPcI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e7d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section7-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>Either I like John and I like Martha, or I like Mary, or both.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section7-example6" /> is the correct translation of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section7-example4" />. The reason is that Lojban logical connectives pair off from the left, like many constructs in the language. This rule, called the left-grouping rule, is easy to forget, especially when intuition pulls the other way. Forethought connectives are not subject to this problem:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-487z">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-487z">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e7d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section7-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ga ge mi nelci la djan. gi mi nelci la martas. gi mi nelci la meris.</jbo>
<en>Either (Both I like John and I like Martha) or I like Mary.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is equivalent in meaning to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section7-example4" />, whereas</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-1Dd2">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1Dd2">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e7d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section7-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ge mi nelci la djan. gi ga mi nelci la martas. gi mi nelci la meris.</jbo>
<en>Both I like John and (Either I like Martha or I like Mary).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is not equivalent to
@@ -843,55 +843,55 @@
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section8">
<title>Grouping of afterthought connectives</title>
<para>There are several ways in Lojban to render
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section7-example5" /> using afterthought only. The simplest method is to make use of the cmavo
<quote>bo</quote>(of selma'o BO). This cmavo has several functions in Lojban, but is always associated with high precedence and short scope. In particular, if
<quote>bo</quote> is placed after an ijek, the result is a grammatically distinct kind of ijek which overrides the regular left-grouping rule. Connections marked with
<quote>bo</quote> are interpreted before connections not so marked.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section8-example1" /> is equivalent in meaning to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section7-example8" />:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Uu7D">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Uu7D">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e8d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section8-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci la djan. .ije mi nelci la martas. .ijabo mi nelci la meris.</jbo>
<en>I like John, and I like Martha or I like Mary.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The English translation feebly indicates with a comma what the Lojban marks far more clearly: the
<quote>I like Martha</quote> and
<quote>I like Mary</quote> sentences are joined by
<quote>.ija</quote> first, before the result is joined to
<quote>I like John</quote> by
<quote>.ije</quote>. Eks can have
<quote>bo</quote> attached in exactly the same way, so that
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section8-example2" /> is equivalent in meaning to Example 8.1:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-JVhK">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-JVhK">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e8d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section8-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci la djan. .e la martas. .abo la meris.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Forethought connectives, however, never can be suffixed with
<quote>bo</quote>, for every use of forethought connectives clearly indicates the intended pattern of grouping.</para>
<!-- ^^ forethought connectives: with tense, 364 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>forethought connectives</primary></indexterm>
<para>What happens if
<quote>bo</quote> is used on both connectives, giving them the same high precedence, as in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section8-example3" />?</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-YJeE">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-YJeE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e8d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section8-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci la djan. .ebo la martas. .abo la meris.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Does this wind up meaning the same as
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section7-example4" /> and
@@ -907,115 +907,115 @@
<para>The use of
<quote>bo</quote>, therefore, gets tricky in complex connections of more than three sentences. Looking back at the English translations of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section7-example7" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section7-example8" />, parentheses were used to clarify the grouping. These parentheses have their Lojban equivalents, two sets of them actually.
<quote>tu'e</quote> and
<quote>tu'u</quote> are used with ijeks, and
<quote>ke</quote> and
<quote>ke'e</quote> with eks and other connectives to be discussed later. (
<quote>ke</quote> and
<quote>ke'e</quote> are also used in other roles in the language, but always as grouping markers). Consider the English sentence:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-aqIg">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-aqIg">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e8d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section8-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>I kiss you and you kiss me, if I love you and you love me.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where the semantics tells us that the instances of
<quote>and</quote> are meant to have higher precedence than that of
<quote>if</quote>. If we wish to express
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section8-example4" /> in afterthought, we can say:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-1PSK">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1PSK">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e8d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section8-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cinba do .ije[bo] do cinba mi .ijanai mi prami do .ijebo do prami mi</jbo>
<en>I kiss you and you kiss me, if I love you and you love me.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>marking two of the ijeks with
<quote>bo</quote> for high precedence. (The first
<quote>bo</quote> is not strictly necessary, because of the left-grouping rule, and is shown here in brackets.)</para>
<para>But it may be clearer to use explicit parenthesis words and say:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-erTb">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-erTb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e8d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section8-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>tu'e mi cinba do .ije do cinba mi tu'u</jbo>
<gloss>.ijanai tu'e mi prami do .ije do prami mi [tu'u]</gloss>
<gloss>( I kiss you and you kiss me )</gloss>
<en>if ( I love you and you love me ).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where the
<quote>tu'e ... tu'u</quote> pairs set off the structure. The cmavo
<quote>tu'u</quote> is an elidable terminator, and its second occurrence in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section8-example6" /> is bracketed, because all terminators may be elided at the end of a text.</para>
<para>In addition, parentheses are a general solution: multiple parentheses may be nested inside one another, and additional afterthought material may be added without upsetting the existing structure. Neither of these two advantages apply to
<quote>bo</quote> grouping. In general, afterthought constructions trade generality for simplicity.</para>
<para>Because of the left-grouping rule, the first set of
<quote>tu'e ... tu'u</quote> parentheses may actually be left off altogether, producing:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-QGBz">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-QGBz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e8d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section8-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cinba do .ije do cinba mi</jbo>
<gloss>.ijanai tu'e mi prami do .ije do prami mi [tu'u]</gloss>
<gloss>I kiss you and you kiss me</gloss>
<en>if ( I love you and you love me ).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>What about parenthesized sumti connection? Consider</para>
<!-- ^^ sumti connection: afterthought, 340; forethought, 341 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>sumti connection</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-y9CC">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-y9CC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e8d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section8-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>I walk to either the market and the house, or the school and the office.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Two pairs of parentheses, analogous to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section8-example6" />, would seem to be the right approach. However, it is a rule of Lojban grammar that a sumti may not begin with
<quote>ke</quote>, so the first set of parentheses must be omitted, producing
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section8-example9" />, which is instead parallel to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section8-example7" />:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-0mJM">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-0mJM">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e8d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section8-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi dzukla le zarci .e le zdani .a ke le ckule .e le briju [ke'e]</jbo>
<en>I walk-to the market and the house or ( the school and the office ).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>If sumti were allowed to begin with
<quote>ke</quote>, unavoidable ambiguities would result, so
<quote>ke</quote> grouping of sumti is allowed only just after a logical connective. This rule does not apply to
<quote>tu'e</quote> grouping of bridi, as
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section8-example6" /> shows.</para>
<para>Now we have enough facilities to handle the problem of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section7-example3" />:
<quote>I am German, rich, and a man - or else none of these.</quote> The following paraphrase has the correct meaning:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-KyHw">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KyHw">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e8d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section8-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>[tu'e] mi dotco .ijo mi ricfu [tu'u]</jbo>
<gloss>.ije tu'e mi dotco .ijo mi nanmu [tu'u]</gloss>
<gloss>( I am-German if-and-only-if I am-rich )</gloss>
<en>and (I am-German if-and-only-if I am-a-man ).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1031,34 +1031,34 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>sumti connection</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ bridi connection: use of imperatives in, 353; use of truth questions in, 353 -->
<!-- ^^ imperatives: and truth, 353; attitude, 308; English contrasted with Lojban in presence of subject of command, 147; quick-tour version, 22; with ko, 146 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>imperatives</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>bridi connection</primary></indexterm>
<para>Surprise! Lojban provides no logical connective that is designed to handle selbri and nothing else. Instead, selbri connection is provided as part of a more general-purpose mechanism called
<quote>compound bridi</quote>. Compound bridi result from logically connecting sentences that differ in their selbri and possibly some of their sumti.</para>
<!-- ^^ compound bridi: definition, 344; logical connection of, 344; more than one sumti in common, 345; multiple with bo, 346; multiple with ke...ke'e, 346; one sumti in common, 344; separate tail-terms for bridi-tails, 346; separate tail-terms for forethought-connected bridi-tails, 347 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>compound bridi</primary></indexterm>
<para>The simplest cases result when the x1 sumti is the only common point:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-WebJ">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-WebJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e9d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section9-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci .ije mi nelci la djan.</jbo>
<en>I go to the market, and I like John.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is equivalent in meaning to the compound bridi:</para>
<!-- ^^ compound bridi: definition, 344; logical connection of, 344; more than one sumti in common, 345; multiple with bo, 346; multiple with ke...ke'e, 346; one sumti in common, 344; separate tail-terms for bridi-tails, 346; separate tail-terms for forethought-connected bridi-tails, 347 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>compound bridi</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-9H9e">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9H9e">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e9d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section9-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci gi'e nelci la djan.</jbo>
<en>I go-to the market and like John.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>As
@@ -1066,140 +1066,140 @@
<!-- ^^ giheks: syntax of, 346 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>giheks</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ compound bridi: definition, 344; logical connection of, 344; more than one sumti in common, 345; multiple with bo, 346; multiple with ke...ke'e, 346; one sumti in common, 344; separate tail-terms for bridi-tails, 346; separate tail-terms for forethought-connected bridi-tails, 347 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>compound bridi</primary></indexterm>
<quote>gi'e</quote> is the gihek corresponding to
<quote>and</quote>. The actual phrases
<quote>klama le zarci</quote> and
<quote>nelci la djan.</quote> that the gihek connects are known as
<quote>bridi-tails</quote>, because they represent (in this use) the
<quote>tail end</quote> of a bridi, including the selbri and any following sumti, but excluding any sumti that precede the selbri:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-F3RE">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-F3RE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e9d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section9-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ricfu gi'e klama le zarci</jbo>
<en>I am-rich and go-to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section9-example3" />, the first bridi-tail is
<quote>ricfu</quote>, a simple selbri, and the second bridi-tail is
<quote>klama le zarci</quote>, a selbri with one following sumti.</para>
<para>Suppose that more than a single sumti is identical between the two sentences:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-PRxj">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PRxj">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e9d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section9-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi dunda le cukta do .ije mi lebna lo rupnu do</jbo>
<en>I give the book to-you, and I take some currency-units from-you.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section9-example4" />, the first and last sumti of each bridi are identical; the selbri and the second sumti are different. By moving the final sumti to the beginning, a form analogous to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section9-example2" /> can be achieved:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Evo4">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Evo4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e9d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section9-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>fi do fa mi dunda le cukta gi'e lebna lo rupnu</jbo>
<en>to/from you I give the book and take some currency-units.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where the
<quote>fi</quote> does not have an exact English translation because it merely places
<quote>do</quote> in the third place of both
<quote>lebna</quote> and
<quote>dunda</quote>. However, a form that preserves natural sumti order also exists in Lojban. Giheks connect two bridi-tails, but also allow sumti to be added following the bridi-tail. These sumti are known as tail-terms, and apply to both bridi. The straightforward gihek version of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section9-example4" /> therefore is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-DYBN">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-DYBN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e9d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section9-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi dunda le cukta gi'e lebna lo rupnu vau do</jbo>
<en>I (give the book) and (take some currency-units) to/from you.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The
<quote>vau</quote>(of selma'o VAU) serves to separate the bridi-tail from the tail-terms. Every bridi-tail is terminated by an elidable
<quote>vau</quote>, but only in connection with compound bridi is it ever necessary to express this
<!-- ^^ compound bridi: definition, 344; logical connection of, 344; more than one sumti in common, 345; multiple with bo, 346; multiple with ke...ke'e, 346; one sumti in common, 344; separate tail-terms for bridi-tails, 346; separate tail-terms for forethought-connected bridi-tails, 347 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>compound bridi</primary></indexterm>
<quote>vau</quote>. Thus:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-L3eN">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-L3eN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e9d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section9-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci [vau]</jbo>
<en>I go-to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>has a single elided
<quote>vau</quote>, and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section9-example2" /> is equivalent to:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-RfIR">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-RfIR">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e9d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section9-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci [vau] gi'e nelci la djan. [vau] [vau]</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where the double
<quote>vau</quote> at the end of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section9-example8" /> terminates both the right-hand bridi-tail and the unexpressed tail-terms.</para>
<para>A final use of giheks is to combine bridi-tails used as complete sentences, the Lojban observative:</para>
<!-- ^^ observative: contrasted with observation evidential, 316; definition, 188 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>observative</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ giheks: syntax of, 346 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>giheks</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-rvUD">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rvUD">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e9d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section9-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>klama le zarci gi'e dzukla le briju</jbo>
<en>A goer to-the market and a walker to-the office.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Since x1 is omitted in both of the bridi underlying
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section9-example9" />, this compound bridi does not necessarily imply that the goer and the walker are the same. Only the presence of an explicit x1 (other than
<!-- ^^ compound bridi: definition, 344; logical connection of, 344; more than one sumti in common, 345; multiple with bo, 346; multiple with ke...ke'e, 346; one sumti in common, 344; separate tail-terms for bridi-tails, 346; separate tail-terms for forethought-connected bridi-tails, 347 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>compound bridi</primary></indexterm>
<quote>zo'e</quote>, which is equivalent to omission) can force the goer and the walker to be identical.</para>
<para>A strong argument for this convention is provided by analysis of the following example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-cBrg">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-cBrg">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e9d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section9-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>klama la nu,IORK. la finyks. gi'e klama la nu,IORK. la rom.</jbo>
<en>A goer to-New York from-Phoenix and a goer to-New York from-Rome.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>If the rule were that the x1 places of the two underlying bridi were considered identical, then (since there is nothing special about x1), the unspecified x4 (route) and x5 (means) places would also have to be the same, leading to the absurd result that the route from Phoenix to New York is the same as the route from Rome to New York. Inserting
<quote>da</quote>, meaning roughly
<quote>something</quote>, into the x1 place cures the problem:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ij9G">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ij9G">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e9d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section9-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>da klama la nu,IORK. la finyks.</jbo>
<gloss>gi'e klama la nu,IORK. la rom.</gloss>
<gloss>Something is-a-goer to-New York from-Phoenix</gloss>
<en>and is-a-goer to-New York from-Rome.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1211,69 +1211,69 @@
[na] [se] GIhA [nai]
</programlisting>
<para>which is exactly parallel to the syntax of eks.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section10">
<title>Multiple compound bridi</title>
<!-- ^^ compound bridi: definition, 344; logical connection of, 344; more than one sumti in common, 345; multiple with bo, 346; multiple with ke...ke'e, 346; one sumti in common, 344; separate tail-terms for bridi-tails, 346; separate tail-terms for forethought-connected bridi-tails, 347 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>compound bridi</primary></indexterm>
<para>Giheks can be combined with
<quote>bo</quote> in the same way as eks:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-DpCN">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-DpCN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e10d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section10-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci la djan. gi'e nelci la martas. gi'abo nelci la meris.</jbo>
<en>I like John and ( like Martha or like Mary ).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is equivalent in meaning to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section8-example1" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section8-example2" />. Likewise,
<quote>ke ... ke'e</quote> grouping can be used after giheks:</para>
<!-- ^^ giheks: syntax of, 346 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>giheks</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-rH4n">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rH4n">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e10d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section10-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi dzukla le zarci gi'e dzukla le zdani</jbo>
<gloss>gi'a ke dzukla le ckule gi'e dzukla le briju [ke'e]</gloss>
<gloss>I walk-to the market and walk-to the house,</gloss>
<en>or walk-to the school and walk-to the office.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is the gihek version of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section8-example9" />. The same rule about using
<quote>ke ... ke'e</quote> bracketing only just after a connective applies to bridi-tails as to sumti, so the first two bridi-tails in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section10-example2" /> cannot be explicitly grouped; implicit left-grouping suffices to associate them.</para>
<para>Each of the pairs of bridi-tails joined by multiple giheks can have its own set of tail-terms:</para>
<!-- ^^ giheks: syntax of, 346 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>giheks</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-1asY">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1asY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e10d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section10-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi dejni lo rupnu la djan. .inaja mi dunda le cukta la djan.</jbo>
<gloss>.ijabo mi lebna le cukta la djan.</gloss>
<gloss>[If] I owe some currency-units to John, then I give the book to John</gloss>
<en>or I take the book from John.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is equivalent in meaning to:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-901t">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-901t">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e10d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section10-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi dejni lo rupnu nagi'a dunda gi'abo lebna vau le cukta vau la djan.</jbo>
<en>[If] I owe some currency-units then (give or take) a book to/from John.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The literal English translation in
@@ -1282,117 +1282,117 @@
<quote>lo rupnu</quote> is the x2 of
<quote>dejni</quote>, whereas
<quote>le cukta</quote> is a tail-term shared between
<quote>dunda</quote> and
<quote>lebna</quote>;
<quote>la djan.</quote> is a tail-term shared by
<quote>dejni</quote> and by
<quote>dunda gi'abo lebna</quote>. In this case, greater clarity is probably achieved by moving
<quote>la djan.</quote> to the beginning of the sentence, as in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section9-example5" />:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-7NnV">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7NnV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e10d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section10-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>fi la djan. fa mi dejni lo rupnu nagi'a dunda gi'abo lebna vau le cukta</jbo>
<en>To/from John, [if] I owe some currency-units then [I] give or take the book.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Finally, what about forethought logical connection of bridi-tails? There is no direct mechanism for the purpose. Instead, Lojban grammar allows a pair of forethought-connected sentences to function as a single bridi-tail, and of course the sentences need not have terms before their selbri. For example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-4gJC">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4gJC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e10d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section10-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ge klama le zarci gi nelci la djan.</jbo>
<en>I both go to the market and like John.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is equivalent in meaning to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section9-example2" />.</para>
<para>Of course, either of the connected sentences may contain giheks:</para>
<!-- ^^ giheks: syntax of, 346 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>giheks</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-mInd">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mInd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e10d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section10-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ge klama le zarci gi'e dzukla le zdani gi nelci la djan.</jbo>
<en>I both ( go to the market and walk to the house ) and like John.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The entire gek-connected sentence pair may be negated as a whole by prefixing
<quote>na</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-DzgI">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-DzgI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e10d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section10-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na ge klama le zarci gi dzukla le zdani</jbo>
<en>[False!] I both go to the market and walk to the house.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Since a pair of sentences joined by geks is the equivalent of a bridi-tail, it may be followed by tail terms. The forethought equivalent of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section9-example6" /> is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-BUsi">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-BUsi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e10d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section10-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ge dunda le cukta gi lebna lo rupnu vau do</jbo>
<en>I both ( give the book ) and ( take some currency-units ) to/from you.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here is a pair of gek-connected observatives, a forethought equivalent of
<!-- ^^ observatives: and abstractions, 255; quick-tour version, 15 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>observatives</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section9-example9" />:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-C5Wc">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-C5Wc">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e10d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section10-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ge klama le zarci gi dzukla le briju</jbo>
<en>Both a goer to-the market and a walker to-the office.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Finally, here is an example of gek-connected sentences with both shared and unshared terms before their selbri:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-eJyK">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-eJyK">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e10d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section10-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi gonai le zarci cu klama gi le bisli cu dansu</jbo>
<gloss>I either-but-not-both to-the office go or on-the ice dance.</gloss>
<en>I either go to the office or dance on the ice (but not both).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section11">
<title>Termset logical connection</title>
<para>So far we have seen sentences that differ in all components, and require bridi connection; sentences that differ in one sumti only, and permit sumti connection; and sentences that differ in the selbri and possibly one or more sumti, and permit bridi-tail connection. Termset logical connectives are employed for sentences that differ in more than one sumti but not in the selbri, such as:</para>
<!-- ^^ sumti connection: afterthought, 340; forethought, 341 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>sumti connection</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ bridi connection: use of imperatives in, 353; use of truth questions in, 353 -->
<!-- ^^ imperatives: and truth, 353; attitude, 308; English contrasted with Lojban in presence of subject of command, 147; quick-tour version, 22; with ko, 146 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>imperatives</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>bridi connection</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-G02C">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-G02C">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e11d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section11-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>I go to the market from the office and to the house from the school.</jbo>
<!-- ^^ to the market from the office, 348 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>to the market from the office</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1402,106 +1402,106 @@
<quote>pu</quote> or
<quote>bai</quote>. Afterthought termsets are formed by linking terms together by inserting the cmavo
<quote>ce'e</quote>(of selma'o CEhE) between each of them. Furthermore, the logical connective (which is a jek) must be prefixed by the cmavo
<quote>pe'e</quote>(of selma'o PEhE). (We could refer to the combination of
<!-- ^^ pe'e, 347 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>pe'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>pe'e</quote> and a jek as a
<!-- ^^ pe'e, 347 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>pe'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>pehejek</quote>, I suppose.)</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-UVPj">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-UVPj">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e11d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section11-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci ce'e le briju pe'e je</jbo>
<!-- ^^ pe'e, 347 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>pe'e</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>le zdani ce'e le ckule</gloss>
<gloss>I go to-the market [plus] from-the office [joint] and</gloss>
<en>to-the house [plus] from-the school.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The literal translation uses
<quote>[plus]</quote> to indicate the termset connective, and
<quote>[joint]</quote> to indicate the position of the logical connective joint. As usual, there is an equivalent bridi-connection form:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Bp2v">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Bp2v">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e11d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section11-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci le briju .ije mi klama le zdani le ckule</jbo>
<en>I go to-the market from-the office, and I go to-the house from-the school.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which illustrates that the two bridi differ in the x2 and x3 places only.</para>
<para>What happens if the two joined sets of terms are of unequal length? Expanding to bridi connection will always make clear which term goes in which place of which bridi. It can happen that a sumti may fall in the x2 place of one bridi and the x3 place of another:</para>
<!-- ^^ bridi connection: use of imperatives in, 353; use of truth questions in, 353 -->
<!-- ^^ imperatives: and truth, 353; attitude, 308; English contrasted with Lojban in presence of subject of command, 147; quick-tour version, 22; with ko, 146 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>imperatives</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>bridi connection</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-yYsr">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-yYsr">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e11d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section11-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pe'e ja do ce'e le zarci cu klama le briju</jbo>
<!-- ^^ pe'e, 347 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>pe'e</primary></indexterm>
<en>I [joint] or you to-the market [plus] go to/from-the office.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>can be clearly understood by expansion to:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-NIuS">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-NIuS">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e11d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section11-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le briju .ija do le zarci cu klama le briju</jbo>
<en>I go to-the office, or you to-the market go from-the office.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>So
<quote>le briju</quote> is your origin but my destination, and thus falls in the x2 and x3 places of
<quote>klama</quote> simultaneously! This is legal because even though there is only one selbri,
<quote>klama</quote>, there are two distinct bridi expressed here. In addition,
<quote>mi</quote> in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section11-example4" /> is serving as a termset containing only one term. An analogous paradox applies to compound bridi with tail-terms and unequal numbers of sumti within the connected bridi-tails:</para>
<!-- ^^ compound bridi: definition, 344; logical connection of, 344; more than one sumti in common, 345; multiple with bo, 346; multiple with ke...ke'e, 346; one sumti in common, 344; separate tail-terms for bridi-tails, 346; separate tail-terms for forethought-connected bridi-tails, 347 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>compound bridi</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-zsiy">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-zsiy">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e11d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section11-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci gi'e dzukla vau le briju</jbo>
<en>I ( go to-the market and walk ) to/from-the office.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means that I go to the market from the office, and I walk to the office;
<!-- ^^ to the market from the office, 348 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>to the market from the office</primary></indexterm>
<quote>le briju</quote> is the x3 place of
<quote>klama</quote> and the x2 place of
<quote>dzukla</quote>.</para>
<para>Forethought termsets also exist, and use
<quote>nu'i</quote> of selma'o NUhI to signal the beginning and
<quote>nu'u</quote> of selma'o NUhU (an elidable terminator) to signal the end. Nothing is inserted between the individual terms: they simply sit side-by-side. To make a logical connection in a forethought termset, use a gek, with the gek just after the
<quote>nu'i</quote>, and an extra
<quote>nu'u</quote> just before the gik:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-KeLv">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KeLv">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e11d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section11-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama nu'i ge le zarci le briju</jbo>
<gloss>nu'u gi le zdani le ckule [nu'u]</gloss>
<gloss>I go [start termset] both to-the market from-the office</gloss>
<en>[joint] and to-the house from-the school [end termset].</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1516,122 +1516,122 @@
<title>Logical connection within tanru</title>
<para>As noted at the beginning of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section9" />, there is no logical connective in Lojban that joins selbri and nothing but selbri. However, it is possible to have logical connectives within a selbri, forming a kind of tanru that involves a logical connection. Consider the simple tanru
<quote>blanu zdani</quote>, blue house. Now anything that is a blue ball, in the most ordinary understanding of the phrase at least, is both blue and a ball. And indeed, instead of
<quote>blanu bolci</quote>, Lojbanists can say
<quote>blanu je bolci</quote>, using a jek connective within the tanru. (We saw jeks used in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section11" /> also, but there they were always prefixed by
<quote>pe'e</quote>; in this section they are used alone.) Here is a pair of examples:</para>
<!-- ^^ pe'e, 347 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>pe'e</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-IxBH">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-IxBH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e12d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section12-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c14e12d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section12-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti blanu zdani</jbo>
<en>This is-a-blue type-of house.</en>
<jbo>ti blanu je zdani</jbo>
<en>This is-blue and a-house.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>But of course
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section12-example1" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section12-example2" /> are not necessarily equivalent in meaning! It is the most elementary point about Lojban tanru that
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section12-example1" /> might just as well mean</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-DxVB">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-DxVB">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e12d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section12-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>This is a house for blue inhabitants.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section12-example2" /> certainly is not equivalent in meaning to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section12-example3" />.</para>
<para>A full explanation of logical connection within tanru belongs rather to a discussion of selbri structure than to logical connectives in general. Why? Because although
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section12-example2" /> happens to mean the same as</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-XXX6">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-XXX6">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e12d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section12-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti blanu gi'e zdani</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and therefore as</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-HqYS">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-HqYS">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e12d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section12-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti blanu .ije ti zdani</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>the rule of expansion into separate bridi simply does not always work for tanru connection. Supposing Alice to be a person who lives in blue houses, then</para>
<!-- ^^ tanru connection: connotation of non-logical, 354 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>tanru connection</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-DG5K">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-DG5K">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e12d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section12-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .alis. cu blanu je zdani prenu</jbo>
<en>Alice is-a ( blue and house ) type-of-person.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>tanru grouping</primary><secondary>effect of jeks</secondary></indexterm>
would be true, because tanru grouping with a jek has higher precedence than unmarked tanru grouping, but:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-eh2i">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-eh2i">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e12d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section12-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .alis. cu blanu prenu .ije la .alis. cu zdani prenu</jbo>
<en>Alice is-a blue person, and Alice is-a house person.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is probably false, because the blueness is associated with the house, not with Alice, even leaving aside the question of what it means to say
<quote>Alice is a blue person</quote>. (Perhaps she belongs to the Blue team, or is wearing blue clothes.) The semantic ambiguity of tanru make such logical manipulations impossible.</para>
<!-- ^^ ambiguity of tanru, 85 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ambiguity of tanru</primary></indexterm>
<para>It suffices to note here, then, a few purely grammatical points about tanru logical connection.
<!-- ^^ tanru logical connection: contrasted with sumti logical connection, 350 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>tanru logical connection</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bo</quote> may be appended to jeks as to eks, with the same rules:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-RNMY">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-RNMY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e12d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section12-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la teris. cu ricfu je nakni jabo fetsi</jbo>
<!-- ^^ jabo, 91 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>jabo</primary></indexterm>
<en>Terry is rich and ( male or female ).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>tanru grouping</primary><secondary>guheks compared with jeks</secondary></indexterm>
The components of tanru may be grouped with
<quote>ke</quote> both before and after a logical connective:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-JdID">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-JdID">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e12d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section12-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .teris. cu [ke] ricfu ja pindi [ke'e] je ke nakni ja fetsi [ke'e]</jbo>
<en>Terry is (rich or poor) and (male or female).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where the first
@@ -1650,73 +1650,73 @@
<!-- ^^ guheks: connecting operators, 361; syntax of, 350 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>guheks</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
[se] GUhA [nai]
</programlisting>
<para>Using guheks in tanru connection (rather than geks) resolves what would otherwise be an unacceptable ambiguity between bridi-tail and tanru connection:</para>
<!-- ^^ tanru connection: connotation of non-logical, 354 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>tanru connection</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ guheks: connecting operators, 361; syntax of, 350 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>guheks</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-mjog">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mjog">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e12d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section12-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .alis. gu'e ricfu gi fetsi</jbo>
<en>Alice is both rich and female.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>tanru grouping</primary><secondary>guheks compared with jeks</secondary></indexterm>
Note that giks are used with guheks in exactly the same way they are used with geks. Like jeks, guheks bind more closely than unmarked tanru grouping does:</para>
<!-- ^^ guheks: connecting operators, 361; syntax of, 350 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>guheks</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ giks: syntax of, 340 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>giks</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Gyrc">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Gyrc">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e12d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section12-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .alis. gu'e blanu gi zdani prenu</jbo>
<en>Alice is-a-(both blue and a-house) type-of-person.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is the forethought version of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section12-example6" />.</para>
<para>A word of caution about the use of logically connected tanru within descriptions. English-based intuition can lead the speaker astray. In correctly reducing</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-8wbd">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-8wbd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e12d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section12-example12" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska pa nanmu .ije mi viska pa ninmu</jbo>
<en>I see a man, and I see a woman.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>to</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-qf3n">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-qf3n">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e12d13" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section12-example13" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska pa nanmu .e pa ninmu</jbo>
<en>I see a man and a woman.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>there is a great temptation to reduce further to:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ag8r">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ag8r">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e12d14" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section12-example14" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska pa nanmu je ninmu</jbo>
<en>I see a man and woman.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>But
@@ -1727,36 +1727,36 @@
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section13">
<title>Truth questions and connective questions</title>
<!-- ^^ connective questions: answering, 352; compared with other languages, 353; non-logical, 359 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>connective questions</primary></indexterm>
<para>So far we have addressed only sentences which are statements. Lojban, like all human languages, needs also to deal with sentences which are questions. There are many ways of asking questions in Lojban, but some of these (like questions about quantity, tense, and emotion) are discussed in other chapters.</para>
<para>The simplest kind of question is of the type
<quote>Is it true that ...</quote> where some statement follows. This type is called a
<quote>truth question</quote>, and can be represented in English by
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section13-example1" />:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-bMjE">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-bMjE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section13-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>Is it true that Fido is a dog?</jbo>
<en>Is Fido a dog?</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note the two formulations. English truth questions can always be formed by prefixing
<quote>Is is true that</quote> to the beginning of a statement; there is also usually a more idiomatic way involving putting the verb before its subject.
<quote>Is Fido a dog?</quote> is the truth question corresponding to
<quote>Fido is a dog</quote>. In Lojban, the equivalent mechanism is to prefix the cmavo
<quote>xu</quote>(of selma'o UI) to the statement:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-gKaM">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gKaM">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section13-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xu la faidon. gerku</jbo>
<en>Is-it-true-that Fido is-a-dog?</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
@@ -1766,68 +1766,68 @@
<quote>yes</quote> or
<quote>no</quote>, depending on the truth or falsity, respectively, of the underlying statement. The standard way of saying
<quote>yes</quote> in Lojban is
<quote>go'i</quote> and of saying
<quote>no</quote> is
<quote>nago'i</quote>. (The reasons for this rule are explained in
<!-- ^^ nago'i: quick-tour version, 24 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>nago'i</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7" />.) In answer to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section13-example2" />, the possible answers are:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-XSmq">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-XSmq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section13-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>go'i</jbo>
<en>Fido is a dog.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-WI3P">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-WI3P">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section13-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>nago'i</jbo>
<!-- ^^ nago'i: quick-tour version, 24 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>nago'i</primary></indexterm>
<en>Fido is not a dog.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Some English questions seemingly have the same form as the truth questions so far discussed. Consider</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-mftC">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mftC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section13-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>Is Fido a dog or a cat?</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Superficially,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section13-example5" /> seems like a truth question with the underlying statement:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-n6Ec">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-n6Ec">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section13-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>Fido is a dog or a cat.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>By translating
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section13-example6" /> into Lojban and prefixing
<quote>xu</quote> to signal a truth question, we get:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-hz4S">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hz4S">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section13-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xu la faidon. gerku gi'onai mlatu</jbo>
<en>Is-it-true-that Fido is-a-dog or is-a-cat (but not both)?</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Given that Fido really is either a dog or a cat, the appropriate answer would be
@@ -1877,34 +1877,34 @@
<selmaho>A</selmaho>
<description>sumti connective question</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>(This list unfortunately departs from the pretty regularity of the other cmavo for logical connection. The two-syllable selma'o, GIhA and GUhA, make use of the cmavo ending in
<quote>-i</quote> which is not used for a truth function, but
<quote>gi</quote> and
<quote>.i</quote> were not available, and different cmavo had to be chosen. This table must simply be memorized, like most other non-connective cmavo assignments.)</para>
<para>One correct translation of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section13-example5" /> employs a question gihek:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-G1Xs">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-G1Xs">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section13-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .alis gerku gi'i mlatu</jbo>
<!-- ^^ gi'i, 352 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>gi'i</primary></indexterm>
<en>Alice is-a-dog [truth function?] is-a-cat?</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here are some plausible answers:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ehWd">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ehWd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section13-example9" />
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section13-example10" />
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section13-example11" />
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section13-example12" />
</title>
@@ -1920,21 +1920,21 @@
<en>Alice is a dog or is a cat but not both (I'm not saying which).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section13-example12" /> is correct but uncooperative.</para>
<para>As usual, Lojban questions are answered by filling in the blank left by the question. Here the blank is a logical connective, and therefore it is grammatical in Lojban to utter a bare logical connective without anything for it to connect.</para>
<para>The answer
<quote>gi'e</quote>, meaning that Alice is a dog and is a cat, is impossible in the real world, but for:</para>
<!-- ^^ real world: contrasted with hypothetical world, example, 320 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>real world</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-xtIf">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-xtIf">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d13" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section13-example13" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do djica tu'a loi ckafi</jbo>
<gloss>ji loi tcati</gloss>
<gloss>You desire something-about a-mass-of coffee</gloss>
<gloss>[truth function?] a-mass-of tea?</gloss>
<en>Do you want coffee or tea?</en>
@@ -1948,50 +1948,50 @@
<quote>ge'i</quote> and
<!-- ^^ ge'i, 352 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ge'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>gu'i</quote> are used like the others, but ambiguity forbids the use of isolated forethought connectives as answers - they sound like the start of forethought-connected bridi. So although
<!-- ^^ gu'i, 352 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>gu'i</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ forethought connectives: with tense, 364 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>forethought connectives</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section13-example14" /> is the forethought version of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section13-example13" />:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-286J">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-286J">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d14" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section13-example14" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do djica tu'a</jbo>
<gloss>ge'i loi ckafi</gloss>
<!-- ^^ ge'i, 352 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ge'i</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>gi loi tcati</gloss>
<gloss>You desire something-about</gloss>
<gloss>[truth function?] a-mass-of coffee</gloss>
<en>[or] a-mass-of tea?</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>the answer must be in afterthought form.</para>
<para>There are natural languages, notably Chinese, which employ the Lojbanic form of connective question. The Chinese sentence</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-HyVv">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-HyVv">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d15" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section13-example15" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ni</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means
<quote>Do you walk or run?</quote>, and is exactly parallel to the Lojban:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-3jIq">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3jIq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d16" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section13-example16" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do cadzu gi'i bajra</jbo>
<!-- ^^ gi'i, 352 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>gi'i</primary></indexterm>
<en>You walk [or?] run?</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -2001,21 +2001,21 @@
<!-- ^^ bridi connection: use of imperatives in, 353; use of truth questions in, 353 -->
<!-- ^^ imperatives: and truth, 353; attitude, 308; English contrasted with Lojban in presence of subject of command, 147; quick-tour version, 22; with ko, 146 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>imperatives</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>bridi connection</primary></indexterm>
<quote>yes</quote> and false if the answer is
<quote>no</quote>. Analogously, an imperative sentence (involving the special pro-sumti
<quote>ko</quote>, which means
<quote>you</quote> but marks the sentence as a command) is true if the command is obeyed, and false otherwise. A request of Abraham Lincoln's may be translated thus:</para>
<!-- ^^ Abraham Lincoln: example, 353 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Abraham Lincoln</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-BPv0">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-BPv0">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d17" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section13-example17" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ganai ti ckafi gi ko bevri loi tcati mi</jbo>
<gloss>.ije ganai ti tcati gi ko bevri loi ckafi mi</gloss>
<gloss>If this is-coffee then [you!] bring a-mass-of tea to-me,</gloss>
<gloss>and if this is-tea then [you!] bring a-mass-of coffee to-me.</gloss>
<en>If this is coffee, bring me tea; but if this is tea, bring me coffee.</en>
@@ -2033,62 +2033,62 @@
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section14">
<title>Non-logical connectives</title>
<para>Way back in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section1" />, the point was made that not every use of English
<quote>and</quote>,
<quote>if ... then</quote>, and so on represents a Lojban logical connective. In particular, consider the
<!-- ^^ if ... then: compared with only if, 338; logical connectives contrasted with other translations, 339 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>if ... then</primary></indexterm>
<quote>and</quote> of:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-x6JW">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-x6JW">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section14-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>John and Alice carried the piano.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Given the nature of pianos, this probably means that John carried one end and Alice the other. So it is not true that:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-58yv">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-58yv">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section14-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>John carried the piano, and Alice carried the piano.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which would mean that each of them carried the piano by himself/herself. Lojban deals with this particular linguistic phenomenon as a
<quote>mass</quote>. John and Alice are joined together into a mass, John-and-Alice, and it is this mass which carried the piano, not either of them separately. The cmavo
<quote>joi</quote>(of selma'o JOI) is used to join two or more components into a mass:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-pC5x">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pC5x">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section14-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. joi la .alis. cu bevri le pipno</jbo>
<en>John massed-with Alice carry the piano.</en>
<!-- ^^ carry the piano: example, 361 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>carry the piano</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section14-example3" /> covers the case mentioned, where John and Alice divide the labor; it also could mean that John did all the hauling and Alice did the supervising. This possibility arises because the properties of a mass are the properties of its components, which can lead to apparent contradictions: if John is small and Alice is large, then John-and-Alice is both small and large. Masses are also discussed in
<!-- ^^ supervising: as a contribution to mass action, 354 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>supervising</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6" />.</para>
<para>Grammatically,
<quote>joi</quote> can appear between two sumti (like an ek) or between two tanru components (like a jek). This flexibility must be paid for in the form of occasional terminators that cannot be elided:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-NN93">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-NN93">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section14-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu ku joi le ninmu [ku] cu klama le zarci</jbo>
<en>The man massed-with the woman go-to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The cmavo
@@ -2096,21 +2096,21 @@
<quote>le</quote>, which can almost always be elided, but not in this case. If the first
<quote>ku</quote> were elided here, Lojban's parsing rules would see
<quote>le nanmu joi</quote> and assume that another tanru component is to follow; since the second
<quote>le</quote> cannot be part of a tanru, a parsing error results. No such problem can occur with logical connectives, because an ek signals a following sumti and a jek a following tanru component unambiguously.</para>
<para>Single or compound cmavo involving members of selma'o JOI are called joiks, by analogy with the names for logical connectives. It is not grammatical to use joiks to connect bridi-tails.</para>
<para>In tanru,
<quote>joi</quote> has the connotation
<quote>mixed with</quote>, as in the following example:</para>
<!-- ^^ mixed with: example, 354 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>mixed with</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Xxp2">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Xxp2">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section14-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti blanu joi xunre bolci</jbo>
<gloss>This is-a-(blue mixed-with red) ball.</gloss>
<en>This is a blue and red ball.</en>
<!-- ^^ blue and red: example, 354 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>blue and red</primary></indexterm>
@@ -2156,39 +2156,39 @@
<!-- ^^ cross product: with tenses, 246 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>cross product</primary></indexterm>
A sepi'u B the cross product of sets B and A
<!-- ^^ sepi'u, 354 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>sepi'u</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ cross product: with tenses, 246 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>cross product</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>se</quote> is grammatical before any JOI cmavo, but only useful with those that have inherent order. Here are some examples of joiks:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-cwG8">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-cwG8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section14-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cuxna la .alis. la frank. ce la .alis. ce la djeimyz.</jbo>
<gloss>I choose Alice from Frank and-member Alice and-member James.</gloss>
<en>I choose Alice from among Frank, Alice, and James.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The x3 place of
<quote>cuxna</quote> is a set from which the choice is being made. A set is an abstract object which is determined by specifying its members. Unlike those of a mass, the properties of a set are unrelated to its members' properties: the set of all rats is large (since many rats exist), but the rats themselves are small. This chapter does not attempt to explain set theory (the mathematical study of sets) in detail: explaining propositional logic is quite enough for one chapter!</para>
<!-- ^^ set of all rats: example, 447 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>set of all rats</primary></indexterm>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section14-example6" /> we specify that set by listing the members with
<quote>ce</quote> joining them.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Emw0">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Emw0">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section14-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti liste mi ce'o do ce'o la djan.</jbo>
<!-- ^^ ce'o, 354, 362 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ce'o</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>This is-a-list-of me and-sequence you and-sequence John.</gloss>
<en>This is a list of you, me, and John.</en>
@@ -2205,143 +2205,143 @@
<quote>joi</quote>,
<quote>ce</quote>, and
<quote>ce'o</quote> are parallel, in that the sumti connected are taken to be individuals, and the result is something else: a mass, a set, or a sequence respectively. The cmavo
<!-- ^^ ce'o, 354, 362 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ce'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>jo'u</quote> serves as a fourth element in this pattern: the sumti connected are individuals, and the result is still individuals - but inseparably so. The normal Lojban way of saying that James and George are brothers is:</para>
<!-- ^^ jo'u, 354, 355; contrasted with ce, 355; contrasted with ce'o, 355; contrasted with joi, 355; result of connection with, 355 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>jo'u</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ brothers: example, 355 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>brothers</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-sy2V">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sy2V">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section14-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djeimyz. bruna la djordj.</jbo>
<en>James is-the-brother-of George.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>possibly adding a discursive element meaning
<quote>and vice versa</quote>. However,
<quote>James and George are brothers</quote> cannot be correctly translated as:</para>
<!-- ^^ brothers: example, 355 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>brothers</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-1PHN">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1PHN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section14-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djeimyz. .e la djordj. bruna</jbo>
<en>James and George is-a-brother.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>since that expands to two bridi and means that James is a brother and so is George, but not necessarily of each other. If the
<quote>.e</quote> is changed to
<quote>jo'u</quote>, however, the meaning of
<!-- ^^ jo'u, 354, 355; contrasted with ce, 355; contrasted with ce'o, 355; contrasted with joi, 355; result of connection with, 355 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>jo'u</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section14-example8" /> is preserved:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-gnwy">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gnwy">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section14-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djeimyz. jo'u la djordj. cu remei bruna</jbo>
<!-- ^^ jo'u, 354, 355; contrasted with ce, 355; contrasted with ce'o, 355; contrasted with joi, 355; result of connection with, 355 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>jo'u</primary></indexterm>
<en>James in-common-with George are-a-twosome type-of-brothers.</en>
<!-- ^^ brothers: example, 355 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>brothers</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The tanru
<quote>remei bruna</quote> is not strictly necessary in this sentence, but is used to make clear that we are not saying that James and George are both brothers of some third person not specified. Alternatively, we could turn the tanru around: the x1 place of
<!-- ^^ brothers: example, 355 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>brothers</primary></indexterm>
<quote>remei</quote> is a mass with two components, leading to:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-t0FJ">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-t0FJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section14-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djeimyz. joi la djordj. cu bruna remei</jbo>
<en>James massed-with George are-a-brother type-of-twosome.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where
<quote>joi</quote> is used to create the necessary mass.</para>
<para>Likewise,
<quote>fa'u</quote> can be used to put two individuals together where order matters. Typically, there will be another
<quote>fa'u</quote> somewhere else in the same bridi:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-MBsp">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-MBsp">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section14-example12" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djeimyz. fa'u la djordj. prami la meris. fa'u la martas.</jbo>
<gloss>James jointly-in-order-with George loves Mary jointly-in-order-with Martha.</gloss>
<en>James and George love Mary and Martha, respectively.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the information carried by the English adverb
<quote>respectively</quote>, namely that James loves Mary and George loves Martha, is divided between the two occurrences of
<quote>fa'u</quote>. If both uses of
<quote>fa'u</quote> were to be changed to
<quote>.e</quote>, we would get:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-7bv3">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7bv3">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d13" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section14-example13" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djeimyz. .e la djordj. prami la meris. .e la martas.</jbo>
<en>James and George love Mary and Martha.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which can be transformed to four bridi:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-I3gH">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-I3gH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d14" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section14-example14" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djeimyz. prami la meris. .ije la djordj. prami la meris.</jbo>
<gloss>.ije la djeimyz. prami la martas. .ije la djordj. prami la martas.</gloss>
<gloss>James loves Mary, and George loves Mary,</gloss>
<en>and James loves Martha, and George loves Martha.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which represents quite a different state of affairs from
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section14-example12" />. The meaning of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section14-example12" /> can also be conveyed by a termset:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-nER7">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nER7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d15" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section14-example15" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djeimyz. ce'e la meris. pe'e .e la djordj. ce'e la martas. prami</jbo>
<!-- ^^ pe'e, 347 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>pe'e</primary></indexterm>
<en>James [plus] Mary [joint] and George [plus] Martha loves.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>at the expense of re-ordering the list of names so as to make the pairs explicit. This option is not available when one of the lists is only described rather than enumerated:</para>
<!-- ^^ lists: use of tu'e/tu'u in, 358 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>lists</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-1r61">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1r61">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d16" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section14-example16" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djeimyz. fa'u la djordj. prami re mensi</jbo>
<en>James and-respectively George love two sisters.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which conveys that James loves one sister and George the other, though we are not able to tell which of the sisters is which.</para>
@@ -2369,21 +2369,21 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>cross product</primary></indexterm>
<quote>Cartesian product</quote>). The union of two sets is a set containing all the members that are in either set; the intersection of two sets is a set containing all the members that are in both sets. The cross product of two sets is the set of all possible ordered pairs, where each ordered pair contains a single element from the first set followed by a single element from the second. This may seem very abstract; hopefully, the following examples will help:</para>
<!-- ^^ union: of sets, 356 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>union</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ intersection: of sets, 356 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>intersection</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ cross product: with tenses, 246 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>cross product</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ Cartesian product: with tenses, 246 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Cartesian product</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-jdb5">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-jdb5">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e15d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section15-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c14e15d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section15-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo'i ricfu ku jo'e lo'i dotco cu barda</jbo>
<!-- ^^ jo'e, 354, 356 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>jo'e</primary></indexterm>
@@ -2394,115 +2394,115 @@
<!-- ^^ ku'a, 354, 356 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ku'a</primary></indexterm>
<en>The set-of rich-things intersection the-set-of German-things is small.</en>
<!-- ^^ intersection: of sets, 356 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>intersection</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>There is a parallelism between logic and set theory that makes
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section15-example1" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section15-example2" /> equivalent respectively to:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-azCQ">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-azCQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e15d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section15-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo'i ricfu ja dotco cu barda</jbo>
<en>The-set-of rich-or-German-things is large.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-QjD7">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-QjD7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e15d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section15-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo'i ricfu je dotco cu cmalu</jbo>
<en>The-set-of rich-and-German-things is small.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The following example uses
<quote>se remei</quote>, which is a set (not a mass) of two elements:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-D9gz">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-D9gz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e15d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section15-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djeimyz. ce[bo] la djordj. pi'u la meris. cebo la martas.</jbo>
<!-- ^^ pi'u, 246, 354, 356; contrasted with .e, 357; use in connecting tenses, 246 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>pi'u</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>cu prami se remei</gloss>
<gloss>James and-set George cross-product Mary and-set Martha</gloss>
<!-- ^^ cross-product: contrasted with and, 357; of sets, 356 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>cross-product</primary></indexterm>
<en>are-lover type-of-pairs.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means that each of the pairs James/Mary, George/Mary, James/Martha, and George/Martha love each other. Therefore it is similar in meaning to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section14-example13" />; however, that example speaks only of the men loving the women, not vice versa.</para>
<para>Joiks may be combined with
<quote>bo</quote> or with
<quote>ke</quote> in the same way as eks and jeks; this allows grouping of non-logical connections between sumti and tanru units, in complete parallelism with logical connections:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-mwpo">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mwpo">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e15d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section15-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi joibo do ce la djan. joibo la djein.</jbo>
<gloss>cu gunma se remei</gloss>
<gloss>(I massed-with you) and (John massed-with Jane)</gloss>
<en>are-a-mass type-of-two-set</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>asserts that there is a set of two items each of which is a mass.</para>
<para>Non-logical connection is permitted at the joint of a termset; this is useful for associating more than one sumti or tagged sumti with each side of the non-logical connection. The place structure of
<!-- ^^ non-logical connection: and elidability of terminators, 354; in mathematical expressions, 361; in tanru, distinguishing from connection of sumti, 354; of individuals into mass, 355; of individuals into set, 355; of modals, 208; of operands, 455; of operators, 455; of sumti, distinguishing from connection in tanru, 354; of termsets, 357 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>non-logical connection</primary></indexterm>
<quote>casnu</quote> is:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
casnu: the mass x1 discusses/talks about x2
</programlisting>
<para>so the x1 place must be occupied by a mass (for reasons not explained here); however, different components of the mass may discuss in different languages. To associate each participant with his or her language, we can say:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-sdba">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sdba">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e15d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section15-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ce'e bau la lojban.</jbo>
<gloss>pe'e joi do ce'e bau la gliban. nu'u casnu</gloss>
<!-- ^^ pe'e, 347 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>pe'e</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>( I [plus] in-language Lojban</gloss>
<en>massed-with you [plus] in-language English ) discuss.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Like all non-logical connectives, the usage shown in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section15-example7" /> cannot be mechanically converted into a non-logical connective placed at another location in the bridi. The forethought equivalent of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section15-example7" /> is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-DgXI">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-DgXI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e15d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section15-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>nu'i joigi mi bau la lojban gi do bau la gliban. nu'u casnu</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Non-logical forethought termsets are also useful when the things to be non-logically connected are sumti preceded with tense or modal (BAI) tags:</para>
<!-- ^^ forethought termsets: logical connection of, 348 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>forethought termsets</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-wVSG">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-wVSG">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e15d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section15-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. fa'u la frank. cusku nu'i bau la lojban.</jbo>
<gloss>nu'u fa'u bai tu'a la djordj. [nu'u]</gloss>
<gloss>John respectively-with Frank express [start termset] in-language Lojban</gloss>
<gloss>[joint] respectively-with under-compulsion-by George.</gloss>
<en>John and Frank speak in Lojban and under George's compulsion, respectively.</en>
@@ -2512,21 +2512,21 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section15-example9" /> associates speaking in Lojban with John, and speaking under George's compulsion with Frank. We do not know what language Frank uses, or whether John speaks under anyone's compulsion.</para>
<!-- ^^ anyone: contrasted with everyone in assumption of existence, 399 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>anyone</primary></indexterm>
<para>Joiks may be prefixed with
<quote>.i</quote> to produce ijoiks, which serve to non-logically connect sentences. The ijoik
<!-- ^^ ijoik: as name for compound cmavo, 336; definition, 358 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ijoik</primary></indexterm>
<quote>.ice'o</quote> indicates that the event of the second bridi follows that of the first bridi in some way other than a time relationship (which is handled with a tense):</para>
<!-- ^^ ice'o: contrasted with .ibabo, 358 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ice'o</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-27xU">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-27xU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e15d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section15-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ba gasnu la'edi'e</jbo>
<gloss>.i tu'e kanji lo ni cteki</gloss>
<!-- ^^ kanji: contrasted with alphabets and syllabaries, 420; representing based on romaji spelling, 420; representing based on strokes, 420 -->
<!-- ^^ syllabaries: lerfu word representation, 420 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>syllabaries</primary></indexterm>
@@ -2560,40 +2560,40 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>di'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>the following utterance</quote>, refers to.</para>
<para>Similarly,
<quote>.ijoi</quote> is used to connect sentences that represent the components of a joint event such as a joint cause: the Lojban equivalent of
<quote>Fran hit her head and fell out of the boat, so that she drowned</quote> would join the events
<quote>Fran hit her head</quote> and
<quote>Fran fell out of the boat</quote> with
<quote>.ijoi</quote>.</para>
<para>The following
<quote>nai</quote>, if present, does not negate either of the things to be connected, but instead specifies that some other connection (logical or non-logical) is applicable: it is a scalar negation:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-mMdb">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mMdb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e15d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section15-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi jo'unai do cu remei</jbo>
<en>I in-common-with [not!] you are-a-twosome</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The result of
<quote>mi jo'u do</quote> would be two individuals, not a mass, therefore
<!-- ^^ jo'u, 354, 355; contrasted with ce, 355; contrasted with ce'o, 355; contrasted with joi, 355; result of connection with, 355 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>jo'u</primary></indexterm>
<quote>jo'u</quote> is not applicable;
<!-- ^^ jo'u, 354, 355; contrasted with ce, 355; contrasted with ce'o, 355; contrasted with joi, 355; result of connection with, 355 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>jo'u</primary></indexterm>
<quote>joi</quote> would be the correct connective.</para>
<para>There is no joik question cmavo as such; however, joiks and ijoiks may be uttered in isolation in response to a logical connective question, as in the following exchange:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-9wAR">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9wAR">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e15d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section15-example12" />
<anchor xml:id="c14e15d13" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section15-example13" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do djica tu'a</jbo>
<gloss>loi ckafi ji loi tcati</gloss>
<gloss>You desire something-about</gloss>
@@ -2622,99 +2622,99 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>mi'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bi'i</quote> is correct if the endpoints are independent of order, whereas
<quote>bi'o</quote> or
<quote>sebi'o</quote> are used when order matters.</para>
<!-- ^^ sebi'o, 359 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>sebi'o</primary></indexterm>
<para>An example of
<quote>bi'i</quote> in sumti connection:</para>
<!-- ^^ sumti connection: afterthought, 340; forethought, 341 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>sumti connection</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-sHhA">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sHhA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e16d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section16-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ca sanli la drezdn. bi'i la frankfurt.</jbo>
<gloss>I [present] stand-on-surface Dresden [interval] Frankfurt.</gloss>
<en>I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt.</en>
<!-- ^^ between Dresden and Frankfurt: example, 359, 360, 361 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>between Dresden and Frankfurt</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section16-example1" />, it is all the same whether I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt or between Frankfurt and Dresden, so
<!-- ^^ between Dresden and Frankfurt: example, 359, 360, 361 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>between Dresden and Frankfurt</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bi'i</quote> is the appropriate interval connective. The sumti
<quote>la drezdn. bi'i la frankfurt.</quote> falls into the x2 place of
<quote>sanli</quote>, which is the surface I stand on; the interval specifies that surface by its limits. (Obviously, I am not standing on the whole of the interval; the x2 place of
<quote>sanli</quote> specifies a surface which is typically larger in extent than just the size of the stander's feet.)</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-rYv4">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rYv4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e16d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section16-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cadzu ca la pacac. bi'o la recac.</jbo>
<gloss>I walk simultaneous-with First-hour [ordered-interval] Second-hour.</gloss>
<en>I walk from one o'clock to two o'clock.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section16-example2" />, on the other hand, it is essential that
<quote>la pacac.</quote> comes before
<quote>la recac.</quote>; otherwise we have an 11-hour (or 23-hour) interval rather than a one-hour interval. In this use of an interval, the whole interval is probably intended, or at least most of it.</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section16-example2" /> is equivalent to:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-qqIr">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-qqIr">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e16d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section16-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cadzu ca la recac. sebi'o la pacac.</jbo>
<!-- ^^ sebi'o, 359 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>sebi'o</primary></indexterm>
<en>I walk simultaneous-with Second-hour [reverse] [ordered] First-hour.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>English cannot readily express
<quote>sebi'o</quote>, but its meaning can be understood by reversing the two sumti.</para>
<!-- ^^ sebi'o, 359 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>sebi'o</primary></indexterm>
<para>The third cmavo of selma'o BIhI, namely
<quote>mi'i</quote>, expresses an interval seen from a different viewpoint: not a pair of endpoints, but a center point and a distance. For example:</para>
<!-- ^^ mi'i, 359, 455 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>mi'i</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-wm5E">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-wm5E">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e16d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section16-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le jbama pu daspo la .uacintyn. mi'i lo minli be li muno</jbo>
<!-- ^^ mi'i, 359, 455 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>mi'i</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>The bomb [past] destroys Washington [center] what-is measured-in-miles by 50.</gloss>
<en>The bomb destroyed Washington and fifty miles around.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here we have an interval whose center is Washington and whose distance, or radius, is fifty miles.</para>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section16-example1" />, is it possible that I am standing in Dresden (or Frankfurt) itself? Yes. The connectives of selma'o BIhI are ambiguous about whether the endpoints themselves are included in or excluded from the interval. Two auxiliary cmavo
<quote>ga'o</quote> and
<quote>ke'i</quote>(of cmavo GAhO) are used to indicate the status of the endpoints:
<quote>ga'o</quote> means that the endpoint is included,
<quote>ke'i</quote> that it is excluded:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-oQG0">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-oQG0">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e16d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section16-example5" />
<anchor xml:id="c14e16d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section16-example6" />
<anchor xml:id="c14e16d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section16-example7" />
<anchor xml:id="c14e16d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section16-example8" />
</title>
@@ -2743,21 +2743,21 @@
<quote>ganlo</quote>, which means
<quote>closed</quote>, and
<quote>ke'i</quote> from
<quote>kalri</quote>, which means
<quote>open</quote>. In mathematics, inclusive intervals are referred to as closed intervals, and exclusive intervals as open ones.)</para>
<para>BIhI joiks are grammatical anywhere that other joiks are, including in tanru connection and (as ijoiks) between sentences. No meanings have been found for these uses.</para>
<!-- ^^ tanru connection: connotation of non-logical, 354 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>tanru connection</primary></indexterm>
<para>Negated intervals, marked with a
<quote>-nai</quote> following the BIhI cmavo, indicate an interval that includes everything but what is between the endpoints (with respect to some understood scale):</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-39EI">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-39EI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e16d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section16-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do dicra .e'a mi ca la daucac. bi'onai la gaicac.</jbo>
<!-- ^^ e'a, 303 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>e'a</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>You disturb (allowed) me at 10 not-from ... to 12</gloss>
<en>You can contact me except from 10 to 12.</en>
@@ -2787,40 +2787,40 @@
<!-- ^^ joigik: as name for compound cmavo, 336; definition, 361 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>joigik</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
[se] JOI [nai] GI
[se] BIhI [nai] GI
GAhO [se] BIhI [nai] GAhO GI
</programlisting>
<para>Joigiks may be used to non-logically connect bridi, sumti, and bridi-tails; and also in termsets.</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section14-example3" /> in forethought becomes:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-iBpP">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-iBpP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e16d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section16-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>joigi la djan. gi la .alis. bevri le pipno</jbo>
<en>[Together] John and Alice carry the piano.</en>
<!-- ^^ carry the piano: example, 361 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>carry the piano</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The first
<quote>gi</quote> is part of the joigik; the second
<!-- ^^ joigik: as name for compound cmavo, 336; definition, 361 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>joigik</primary></indexterm>
<quote>gi</quote> is the regular gik that separates the two things being connected in all forethought forms.</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section16-example6" /> can be expressed in forethought as:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-u51K">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-u51K">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e16d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section16-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ca sanli ke'i bi'i ga'o gi la drezdn. gi la frankfurt.</jbo>
<gloss>I [present] stand [exclusive] between [inclusive] Dresden and Frankfurt.</gloss>
<en>I am standing between Dresden (exclusive) and Frankfurt (inclusive).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -2840,104 +2840,104 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>guheks</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bo</quote> are not allowed for operators.) This parallelism is no accident.</para>
<para>In addition, eks with
<quote>bo</quote> and with
<quote>ke ... ke'e</quote> are allowed for grouping logically connected operands, and
<quote>ke ... ke'e</quote> is allowed for grouping logically connected operators, although there is no analogue of tanru among the operators.</para>
<para>Only a few examples of each kind of mekso connection will be given. Despite the large number of rules required to support this feature, it is of relatively minor importance in either the mekso or the logical-connective scheme of things. These examples are drawn from
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18" />, and contain many mekso features not explained in this chapter.</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section17-example1" /> exhibits afterthought logical connection between operands:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-gMU4">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gMU4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e17d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section17-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>vei ci .a vo [ve'o] prenu cu klama le zarci</jbo>
<en>( Three or four ) people go-to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section17-example2" /> is equivalent in meaning, but uses forethought connection:</para>
<!-- ^^ forethought connection: contrasted with afterthought for grammatical utterances, 352; definition, 199; in abstractions, 365; in tenses, 363; observatives, 347; of operands, 453; of operators, 453 -->
<!-- ^^ observatives: and abstractions, 255; quick-tour version, 15 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>observatives</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>forethought connection</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ftNY">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ftNY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e17d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section17-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>vei ga ci gi vo [ve'o] prenu cu klama le zarci</jbo>
<en>( Either 3 or 4 ) people go-to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that the mekso in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section17-example1" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section17-example2" /> are being used as quantifiers. Lojban requires that any mekso other than a simple number be enclosed in
<quote>vei</quote> and
<quote>ve'o</quote> parentheses when used as a quantifier. The right parenthesis mark,
<quote>ve'o</quote>, is an elidable terminator.</para>
<para>Simple examples of logical connection between operators are hard to come by. A contrived example is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-dCxf">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-dCxf">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e17d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section17-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li re su'i je pi'i re du li vo</jbo>
<gloss>The-number 2 plus and times 2 equals the-number 4.</gloss>
<en>2 + 2 = 4 and 2 x 2 = 4.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The forethought form of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section17-example3" /> is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-YBD6">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-YBD6">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e17d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section17-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li re ge su'i gi pi'i re du li vo</jbo>
<gloss>The-number two both plus and times two equals the-number four.</gloss>
<en>Both 2 + 2 = 4 and 2 x 2 = 4.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Non-logical connection with joiks or joigiks is also permitted between operands and between operators. One use for this construct is to connect operands with
<!-- ^^ joigiks: connection types, 361; syntax of, 361 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>joigiks</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bi'i</quote> to create mathematical intervals:</para>
<!-- ^^ mathematical intervals, 362 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>mathematical intervals</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-z2oF">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-z2oF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e17d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section17-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li no ga'o bi'i ke'i pa</jbo>
<gloss>the-number zero (inclusive) from-to (exclusive) one</gloss>
<gloss>[0,1)</gloss>
<en>the numbers from zero to one, including zero but not including one</en>
<!-- ^^ zero to one: example, 362 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>zero to one</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>You can also combine two operands with
<quote>ce'o</quote>, the sequence connective of selma'o JOI, to make a compound subscript:</para>
<!-- ^^ compound subscript, 362, 455 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>compound subscript</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ ce'o, 354, 362 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ce'o</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-8rEL">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-8rEL">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e17d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section17-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xy. boi xi vei by. ce'o dy. [ve'o]</jbo>
<!-- ^^ ce'o, 354, 362 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ce'o</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>
<quote>x</quote> sub (
@@ -2957,50 +2957,50 @@
<quote>pu</quote>,
<quote>ca</quote>, and
<quote>ba</quote>(of selma'o PU) representing the past, the present, and the future respectively. Preceding a selbri, these cmavo state the time when the bridi was, is, or will be true (analogous to English verb tenses); preceding a sumti, they state that the event of the main bridi is before, simultaneous with, or after the event given by the sumti (which is generally a
<quote>le nu</quote> abstraction; see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11" />).</para>
<para>The two types of interaction between tenses and logical connectives are logically connected tenses and tensed logical connections. The former are fairly simple. Jeks may be used between tense cmavo to specify two connected bridi that differ only in tense:</para>
<!-- ^^ logically connected tenses: definition, 363; expansion to sentences, 245; with JA, 245 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>logically connected tenses</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ connected tenses: negation of compared with negation in connective, 245 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>connected tenses</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-g6iT">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-g6iT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e18d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section18-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .artr. pu nolraitru</jbo>
<gloss>.ije la .artr. ba nolraitru</gloss>
<gloss>Arthur [past] is-a-noblest-governor.</gloss>
<gloss>And Arthur [future] is-a-noblest-governor.</gloss>
<en>Arthur was a king, and Arthur will be a king.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>can be reduced to:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-PLgw">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PLgw">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e18d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section18-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .artr. pu je ba nolraitru</jbo>
<gloss>Arthur [past] and [future] is-a-noblest-governor.</gloss>
<en>Arthur was and will be king.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section18-example1" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section18-example2" /> are equivalent in meaning; neither says anything about whether Arthur is king now.</para>
<para>Non-logical connection with joiks is also possible between tenses:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Mcsi">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Mcsi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e18d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section18-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu bi'o ba vasxu</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] from ... to [future] breathe.</gloss>
<!-- ^^ breathe: example, 363 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>breathe</primary></indexterm>
<en>I breathe from a past time until a future time.</en>
@@ -3009,49 +3009,49 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The full tense system makes more interesting tense intervals expressible, such as
<!-- ^^ tense system: and space location, 215 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>tense system</primary></indexterm>
<quote>from a medium time ago until a long time from now</quote>.</para>
<para>No forethought connections between tenses are permitted by the grammar, nor is there any way to override the default left-grouping rule; these limitations are imposed to keep the tense grammar simpler. Whatever can be said with tenses or modals can be said with subordinate bridi stating the time, place, or mode explicitly, so it is reasonable to try to remove at least some complications.</para>
<!-- ^^ forethought connections: modal compared with tense in semantics, 249 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>forethought connections</primary></indexterm>
<para>Tensed logical connections are both more complex and more important than logical connections between tenses. Consider the English sentence:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-efav">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-efav">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e18d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section18-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>I went to the market, and I bought food.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The verbatim translation of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section18-example4" />, namely:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-PMTu">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PMTu">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e18d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section18-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu klama le zarci .ije mi pu tervecnu lo cidja</jbo>
<en>I [past] go-to the market. And I [past] buy items-of food.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>fails to fully represent a feature of the English, namely that the buying came after the going. (It also fails to represent that the buying was a consequence of the going, which can be expressed by a modal that is discussed in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9" />.) However, the tense information - that the event of my going to the market preceded the event of my buying food - can be added to the logical connective as follows. The
<quote>.ije</quote> is replaced by
<quote>.ijebo</quote>, and the tense cmavo
<quote>ba</quote> is inserted between
<quote>.ije</quote> and
<quote>bo</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-BPG1">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-BPG1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e18d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section18-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu klama le zarci .ijebabo mi pu tervecnu lo cidja</jbo>
<!-- ^^ ijebabo, 363 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ijebabo</primary></indexterm>
<en>I [past] go-to the market. And [later] I [past] buy items-of food.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -3065,105 +3065,105 @@
<!-- ^^ compound tense: compared with multiple tenses in sentence, 234; compared with tense in scope of sticky tense, 234; definition, 218; Lojban contrasted with English in order of specification, 218 -->
<!-- ^^ tense in scope of sticky tense: compared with compound tense, 234 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>tense in scope of sticky tense</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ multiple tenses: effect of order in sentence, 235 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>multiple tenses</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>compound tense</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bapu</quote> applying to the second bridi-tail only.</para>
<para>Adding tense or modal information to a logical connective is permitted only in the following situations:</para>
<para>Between an ek (or joik) and
<quote>bo</quote>, as in:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-129L">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-129L">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e18d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section18-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .djan .ecabo la .alis. klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>John and [simultaneous] Alice go-to the market.</gloss>
<en>John and Alice go to the market simultaneously.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Between an ek (or joik) and
<quote>ke</quote>, as in:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-nydK">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nydK">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e18d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section18-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi dzukla le zarci .epuke le zdani .a le ckule [ke'e]</jbo>
<gloss>I walk-to the market and [earlier] ( the house or the school ).</gloss>
<en>I walk to the market and, before that, to the house or the school.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Between a gihek and
<quote>bo</quote>, as in:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-APPE">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-APPE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e18d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section18-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi dunda le cukta gi'ebabo lebna lo rupnu vau do</jbo>
<gloss>I give the book and [later] take some currency-units from/to you.</gloss>
<en>I give you the book and then take some dollars (pounds, yen) from you.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Between a gihek and
<quote>ke</quote>, as in:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-A0yC">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-A0yC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e18d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section18-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi dzukla le zarci gi'ecake cusku zo'e la djan. [ke'e]</jbo>
<gloss>I walk-to the market and [simultaneous] express something to-John.</gloss>
<en>I walk to the market and at the same time talk to John.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Between an ijek (or ijoik) and
<!-- ^^ ijoik: as name for compound cmavo, 336; definition, 358 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ijoik</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bo</quote>, as in:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-AhnP">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-AhnP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e18d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section18-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska pa nanmu .ijebabo mi viska pa ninmu</jbo>
<!-- ^^ ijebabo, 363 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ijebabo</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I see a man. And [later] I see a woman.</gloss>
<en>I see a man, and then I see a woman.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Between an ijek (or ijoik) and
<!-- ^^ ijoik: as name for compound cmavo, 336; definition, 358 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ijoik</primary></indexterm>
<quote>tu'e</quote>, as in:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-GBgP">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-GBgP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e18d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section18-example12" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska pa nanmu .ijebatu'e mi viska pa ninmu [tu'u]</jbo>
<gloss>I see a man. And [later] I see a woman.</gloss>
<en>I see a man, and then I see a woman.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>And finally, between a jek (or joik) and
<quote>bo</quote>, as in:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Ce09">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Ce09">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e18d13" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section18-example13" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi mikce jebabo ricfu</jbo>
<gloss>I-am-a doctor and [later] rich</gloss>
<en>I am a doctor and future rich person.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -3175,35 +3175,35 @@
<quote>tu'e</quote>) is arbitrary when there are only two things to be connected. If there were no tense information to include, of course neither would be required; it is only the rule that tense information must always be sandwiched between the logical connective and a following
<quote>bo</quote>,
<quote>ke</quote>, or
<quote>tu'e</quote> that requires the use of one of these grouping cmavo in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section18-example7" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section18-example9" /> through
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section18-example13" />.</para>
<para>Non-logical connectives with
<quote>bo</quote> and
<quote>ke</quote> can include tense information in exactly the same way as logical connectives. Forethought connectives, however (except as noted below) are unable to do so, as are termsets or tense connectives. Mathematical operands and operators can also include tense information in their logical connectives as a result of their close parallelism with sumti and tanru components respectively:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-sgUo">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sgUo">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e18d14" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section18-example14" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>vei ci .ebabo vo [ve'o] tadni cu zvati le kumfa</jbo>
<gloss>( 3 and [future] 4 ) students are-at the room.</gloss>
<en>Three and, later, four students were in the room.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is a simple example. There is a special grammatical rule for use when a tense applies to both of the selbri in a forethought bridi-tail connection: the entire forethought construction can just be preceded by a tense. For example:</para>
<!-- ^^ forethought bridi-tail connection: special rule for tense, 365 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>forethought bridi-tail connection</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-DxuA">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-DxuA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e18d15" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section18-example15" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu ge klama le zarci gi tervecnu lo cidja</jbo>
<!-- ^^ pu ge, 365 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>pu ge</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I [past] both go-to the market and buy some food</gloss>
<en>I went to the market and bought some food.</en>
@@ -3215,51 +3215,51 @@
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section19">
<title>Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions</title>
<para>Last and (as a matter of fact) least: a logical connective is allowed between abstraction markers of selma'o NU. As usual, the connection can be expanded to a bridi connection between two bridi which differ only in abstraction marker. Jeks are the appropriate connective.
<!-- ^^ bridi connection: use of imperatives in, 353; use of truth questions in, 353 -->
<!-- ^^ imperatives: and truth, 353; attitude, 308; English contrasted with Lojban in presence of subject of command, 147; quick-tour version, 22; with ko, 146 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>imperatives</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>bridi connection</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section19-example1" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section19-example2" /> are equivalent in meaning:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-C7PL">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-C7PL">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e19d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section19-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c14e19d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section19-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ka la frank. ciska cu xlali .ije le ni la frank. ciska cu xlali</jbo>
<en>The quality-of Frank's writing is bad, and the quantity of Frank's writing is bad.</en>
<jbo>le ka je ni la frank. ciska cu xlali</jbo>
<en>The quality and quantity of Frank's writing is bad.</en>
<!-- ^^ quality and quantity: example, 365 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>quality and quantity</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>As with tenses and modals, there is no forethought and no way to override the left-grouping rule.</para>
<para>Logical connectives and abstraction are related in another way as well, though. Since an abstraction contains a bridi, the bridi may have a logical connection inside it. Is it legitimate to split the outer bridi into two, joined by the logical connection? Absolutely not. For example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-f1uT">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-f1uT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e19d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section19-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi jinvi le du'u loi jmive cu zvati gi'onai na zvati vau la .iupiter.</jbo>
<gloss>I opine the fact-that a-mass-of living-things (is-at or-else isn't-at) Jupiter.</gloss>
<en>I believe there either is or isn't life on Jupiter.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is true, since the embedded sentence is a tautology, but:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-X69J">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-X69J">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e19d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section19-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi jinvi le du'u loi jmive cu zvati la .iupiter.</jbo>
<gloss>.ijonai mi jinvi le du'u loi jmive cu zvati la .iupiter.</gloss>
<gloss>I opine the fact-that a-mass-of living-things is-at Jupiter</gloss>
<en>or-else I opine the fact-that a-mass-of living-things isn't-at Jupiter</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
diff --git a/todocbook/15.xml b/todocbook/15.xml
index d304d24..dad2551 100644
--- a/todocbook/15.xml
+++ b/todocbook/15.xml
@@ -5,77 +5,77 @@
<title>Introductory</title>
<para>The grammatical expression of negation is a critical part of Lojban's claim to being logical. The problem of negation, simply put, is to come up with a complete definition of the word
<quote>not</quote>. For Lojban's unambiguous grammar, this means further that meanings of
<quote>not</quote> with different grammatical effect must be different words, and even different grammatical structures.</para>
<para>Logical assertions are implicitly required in a logical language; thus, an apparatus for expressing them is built into Lojban's logical connectives and other structures.</para>
<!-- ^^ logical language: truth functions, 333 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>logical language</primary></indexterm>
<para>In natural languages, especially those of Indo-European grammar, we have sentences composed of two parts which are typically called
<quote>subject</quote> and
<quote>predicate</quote>. In the statement</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-vrXe">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-vrXe">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e1d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section1-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>John goes to the store</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<quote>John</quote> is the subject, and
<quote>goes to the store</quote> is the predicate. Negating
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section1-example1" /> to produce</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-gm3I">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gm3I">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e1d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section1-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>John doesn't go to the store.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>has the effect of declaring that the predicate does not hold for the subject.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section1-example2" /> says nothing about whether John goes somewhere else, or whether someone else besides John goes to the store.</para>
<para>We will call this kind of negation
<quote>natural language negation</quote>. This kind of negation is difficult to manipulate by the tools of logic, because it doesn't always follow the rules of logic. Logical negation is bi-polar: either a statement is true, or it is false. If a statement is false, then its negation must be true. Such negation is termed contradictory negation.</para>
<para>Let's look at some examples of how natural language negation can violate the rules of contradictory negation.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-15rv">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-15rv">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e1d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section1-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c15e1d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section1-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>Some animals are not white.</jbo>
<jbo>Some animals are white.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Both of these statements are true; yet one is apparently the negation of the other. Another example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-vxti">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-vxti">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e1d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section1-example5" />
<anchor xml:id="c15e1d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section1-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>I mustn't go to the dance.</jbo>
<jbo>I must go to the dance.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>At first thought,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section1-example5" /> negates
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section1-example6" />. Thinking further, we realize that there is an intermediate state wherein I am permitted to go to the dance, but not obligated to do so. Thus, it is possible that both statements are false.</para>
<para>Sometimes order is significant:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-gjsy">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gjsy">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e1d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section1-example7" />
<anchor xml:id="c15e1d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section1-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>The falling rock didn't kill Sam.</jbo>
<jbo>Sam wasn't killed by the falling rock.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -85,21 +85,21 @@
<quote>active voice</quote>, we immediately get confused about whether
<quote>the falling rock</quote> is a suitable subject for the predicate
<quote>did kill Sam</quote>.
<quote>Kill</quote> implies volition to us, and rocks do not have volition. This confusion is employed by opponents of gun control who use the argument
<quote>Guns don't kill people; people kill people.</quote></para>
<para>Somehow, we don't have the same problem with
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section1-example8" />. The subject is Sam, and we determine the truth or falsity of the statement by whether he was or wasn't killed by the falling rock.</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section1-example8" /> also helps us focus on the fact that there are at least two questionable facts implicit in this sentence: whether Sam was killed, and if so, whether the falling rock killed him. If Sam wasn't killed, the question of what killed him is moot.</para>
<para>This type of problem becomes more evident when the subject of the sentence turns out not to exist:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-t5Jg">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-t5Jg">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e1d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section1-example9" />
<anchor xml:id="c15e1d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section1-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>The King of Mexico didn't come to dinner.</jbo>
<jbo>The King of Mexico did come to dinner.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -109,76 +109,76 @@
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter15-section2">
<title>bridi negation</title>
<para>In discussing Lojban negation, we will call the form of logical negation that simply denies the truth of a statement
<quote>bridi negation</quote>. Using bridi negation, we can say the equivalent of
<quote>I haven't stopped beating my wife</quote> without implying that I ever started, nor even that I have a wife, meaning simply
<quote>It isn't true that I have stopped beating my wife.</quote> Since Lojban uses bridi as smaller components of complex sentences, bridi negation is permitted in these components as well at the sentence level.</para>
<para>For the bridi negation of a sentence to be true, the sentence being negated must be false. A major use of bridi negation is in making a negative response to a yes/no question; such responses are usually contradictory, denying the truth of the entire sentence. A negative answer to</para>
<!-- ^^ negative answer: quick-tour version, 24 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>negative answer</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-sCNE">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sCNE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section2-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>Did you go to the store?</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is taken as a negation of the entire sentence, equivalent to</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-vFYC">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-vFYC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section2-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>No, I didn't go to the store.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The most important rule about bridi negation is that if a bridi is true, its negation is false, and vice versa.</para>
<para>The simplest way to express a bridi negation is to use the cmavo
<quote>na</quote> of selma'o NA before the selbri of the affirmative form of the bridi (but after the
<quote>cu</quote>, if there is one):</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-7nrv">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7nrv">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section2-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci</jbo>
<en>I go-to the store.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>when negated becomes:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-bV3b">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-bV3b">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section2-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na klama le zarci</jbo>
<en>I [false] go-to the store.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that we have used a special convention to show in the English that a bridi negation is present. We would like to use the word
<quote>not</quote>, because this highlights the naturalness of putting the negation marker just before the selbri, and makes the form easier to learn. But there is a major difference between Lojban's bridi negation with
<quote>na</quote> and natural language negation with
<quote>not</quote>. In English, the word
<quote>not</quote> can apply to a single word, to a phrase, to an English predicate, or to the entire sentence. In addition,
<quote>not</quote> may indicate either contradictory negation or another form of negation, depending on the sentence. Lojban's internal bridi negation, on the other hand, always applies to an entire bridi, and is always a contradictory negation; that is, it contradicts the claim of the whole bridi.</para>
<!-- ^^ internal bridi negation: compared to external bridi negation, 401; definition, 401 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>internal bridi negation</primary></indexterm>
<para>Because of the ambiguity of English
<quote>not</quote>, we will use
<quote>[false]</quote> in the translation of Lojban examples to remind the reader that we are expressing a contradictory negation. Here are more examples of bridi negation:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-6ax5">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-6ax5">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section2-example5" />
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section2-example6" />
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section2-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi [cu] na ca klama le zarci</jbo>
@@ -203,51 +203,51 @@
<quote>de</quote>, and
<quote>di</quote> of selma'o KOhA, explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16" />) in the bridi, you can indeed translate Lojban
<quote>na</quote> as
<quote>not</quote>(or
<quote>isn't</quote> or
<quote>doesn't</quote>, as appropriate).</para>
<para>The most important rule about bridi negation is that if a bridi is true, its negation is false, and vice versa.</para>
<para>In Lojban, there are several structures that implicitly contain bridi, so that Lojban sentences may contain more than one occurrence of
<quote>na</quote>. For example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-WU9u">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-WU9u">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section2-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na gleki le nu</jbo>
<gloss>na klama le nu dansu</gloss>
<gloss>I [false] am-happy-about the event-of</gloss>
<gloss>([false] going-to the event-of dancing).</gloss>
<gloss>It is not the case that I am happy about it not being</gloss>
<gloss>the case that I am going to the dance.</gloss>
<en>I am not happy about not going to the dance.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In the previous example, we used internal negations in abstraction bridi; bridi negation may also be found in descriptions within sumti. For example:</para>
<!-- ^^ abstraction bridi: contrasted with component non-abstraction bridi in meaning, 98; effect on claim of bridi, 198 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>abstraction bridi</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-N65f">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-N65f">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section2-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci le na melbi</jbo>
<gloss>I am fond of the-one-described-as ([false] beautiful).</gloss>
<en>I am fond of the one who isn't beautiful.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>A more extreme (and more indefinite) example is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-eQaI">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-eQaI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section2-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci lo na ca nolraitru be le frasygu'e</jbo>
<gloss>I am-fond-of one-who-is ([false] the current king of the French-country).</gloss>
<en>I am fond of one who isn't the current king of France.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -255,293 +255,293 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section2-example10" /> could apply to anyone except a person who is fond of no one at all, since the relation within the description is false for everyone. You cannot readily express these situations in colloquial English.</para>
<!-- ^^ anyone: contrasted with everyone in assumption of existence, 399 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>anyone</primary></indexterm>
<para>Negation with
<quote>na</quote> applies to an entire bridi, and not to just part of a selbri. Therefore, you won't likely have reason to put
<quote>na</quote> inside a tanru. In fact, the grammar currently does not allow you to do so (except in a lujvo and in elaborate constructs involving GUhA, the forethought connector for selbri). Any situation where you might want to do so can be expressed in a less-compressed non-tanru form. This grammatical restriction helps ensure that bridi negation is kept separate from other forms of negation.</para>
<!-- ^^ connector: for relative clauses, 508 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>connector</primary></indexterm>
<para>The grammar of
<quote>na</quote> allows multiple adjacent negations, which cancel out, as in normal logic:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-RJKu">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-RJKu">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section2-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti na na barda prenu co melbi mi</jbo>
<en>This [false] [false] is-a-big person that is (beautiful to me).</en>
<!-- ^^ big person: example, 169 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>big person</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which is the same as:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-2UpW">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2UpW">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section2-example12" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti barda prenu co melbi mi</jbo>
<en>This is a big-person that is (beautiful to me).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>When a selbri is tagged with a tense or a modal, negation with
<quote>na</quote> is permitted in two positions: before or after the tag. No semantic difference between these forms has yet been defined, but this is not finally determined, since the interactions between tenses/modals and bridi negation have not been fully explored. In particular, it remains to be seen whether sentences using less familiar tenses, such as:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-fgmv">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-fgmv">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d13" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section2-example13" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi [cu] ta'e klama le zarci</jbo>
<!-- ^^ ta'e, 226, 324 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ta'e</primary></indexterm>
<en>I habitually go to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>mean the same thing with
<quote>na</quote> before the
<quote>ta'e</quote>, as when the negation occurs afterwards; we'll let future, Lojban-speaking, logicians decide on how they relate to each other.</para>
<!-- ^^ ta'e, 226, 324 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ta'e</primary></indexterm>
<para>A final caution on translating English negations into Lojban: if you translate the English literally, you'll get the wrong one. With English causal statements, and other statements with auxiliary clauses, this problem is more likely.</para>
<para>Thus, if you translate the English:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-hEa7">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hEa7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d14" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section2-example14" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>I do not go to the market because the car is broken.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>as:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-q8su">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-q8su">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d15" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section2-example15" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na klama le zarci ki'u lenu le karce cu spofu</jbo>
<!-- ^^ ki'u, 197 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ki'u</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I [false] go-to the market because the car is broken.</gloss>
<en>It is false that:
<quote>I go to the market because the car is broken.</quote></en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>you end up negating too much.</para>
<para>Such mistranslations result from the ambiguity of English compounded by the messiness of natural language negation. A correct translation of the normal interpretation of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section2-example14" /> is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-R3GU">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-R3GU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d16" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section2-example16" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lenu mi na klama le zarci cu se krinu</jbo>
<gloss>lenu le karce cu spofu</gloss>
<gloss>The event-of (my [false] going-to the market) is justified by</gloss>
<gloss>the event-of (the car being broken).</gloss>
<en>My not going to the market is because the car is broken.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section2-example16" />, the negation is clearly confined to the event abstraction in the x1 sumti, and does not extend to the whole sentence. The English could also have been expressed by two separate sentences joined by a causal connective (which we'll not go into here).</para>
<!-- ^^ event abstraction(s): types, 257 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>event abstraction</primary></indexterm>
<para>The problem is not confined to obvious causals. In the English:</para>
<!-- ^^ causals: claiming the relation contrasted with claiming cause and/or effect and/or relation, 198; gismu, 197; modal, 197 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>causals</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-MGvB">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-MGvB">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d17" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section2-example17" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>I was not conscripted into the Army with the help of my uncle the Senator.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>we do not intend the uncle's help to be part of the negation. We must thus move the negation into an event clause or use two separate sentences. The event-clause version would look like:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-NILi">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-NILi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d18" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section2-example18" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>The event-of (my [false] being-conscripted-into the Army) was aided by my uncle the Senator.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>It is possible that someone will want to incorporate bridi negations into lujvo. For this reason, the rafsi
<quote>-nar-</quote> has been reserved for
<quote>na</quote>. However, before using this rafsi, make sure that you intend the contradictory bridi negation, and not the scalar negation described in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section3" />, which will be much more common in tanru and lujvo.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter15-section3">
<title>Scalar Negation</title>
<para>Let us now consider some other types of negation. For example, when we say:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-GJga">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-GJga">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e3d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section3-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>The chair is not brown.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>we make a positive inference - that the chair is some other color. Thus, it is legitimate to respond:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-DDN8">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-DDN8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e3d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section3-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>It is green.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Whether we agree that the chair is brown or not, the fact that the statement refers to color has significant effect on how we interpret some responses. If we hear the following exchange:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-muQB">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-muQB">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e3d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section3-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>The chair is not brown.</jbo>
<en>Correct. The chair is wooden.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>we immediately start to wonder about the unusual wood that isn't brown. If we hear the exchange:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-MxWM">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-MxWM">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e3d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section3-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>Is the chair green?</jbo>
<en>No, it is in the kitchen.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>we are unsettled because the response seems to be a non-sequitur. But since it might be true and it is a statement about the chair, one can't say it is entirely irrelevant!</para>
<!-- ^^ irrelevant: specifying of sumti place, 157 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>irrelevant</primary></indexterm>
<para>What is going on in these statements is something called
<quote>scalar negation</quote>. As the name suggests, scalar negation presumes an implied scale. A negation of this type not only states that one scalar value is false, but implies that another value on the scale must be true. This can easily lead to complications. The following exchange seems reasonably natural (a little suspension of disbelief in such inane conversation will help):</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-s5DJ">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-s5DJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e3d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section3-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>That isn't a blue house.</jbo>
<en>Right! That is a green house.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>We have acknowledged a scalar negation by providing a correct value which is another color in the set of colors permissible for houses. While a little less likely, the following exchange is also natural:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-M472">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-M472">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e3d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section3-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>That isn't a blue house.</jbo>
<en>Right! That is a blue car.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Again, we have acknowledged a scalar negation, and substituted a different object in the universe of discourse of things that can be blue.</para>
<para>Now, if the following exchange occurs:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-sq36">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sq36">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e3d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section3-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>That isn't a blue house.</jbo>
<en>Right! That is a green car.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>we find the result unsettling. This is because it seems that two corrections have been applied when there is only one negation. Yet out of context,
<quote>blue house</quote> and
<quote>green car</quote> seem to be reasonably equivalent units that should be mutually replaceable in a sentence. It's just that we don't have a clear way in English to say:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-hd0I">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hd0I">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e3d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section3-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>That isn't a
<quote>blue-house</quote>.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>aloud so as to clearly imply that the scalar negation is affecting the pair of words as a single unit.</para>
<para>Another even more confusing example of scalar negation is to the sentence:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-JTrd">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-JTrd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e3d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section3-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>John didn't go to Paris from Rome.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Might
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section3-example9" /> imply that John went to Paris from somewhere else? Or did he go somewhere else from Rome? Or perhaps he didn't go anywhere at all: maybe someone else did, or maybe there was no event of going whatsoever. One can devise circumstances where any one, two or all three of these statements might be inferred by a listener.</para>
<para>In English, we have a clear way of distinguishing scalar negation from predicate negation that can be used in many situations. We can use the partial word
<quote>non-</quote> as a prefix. But this is not always considered good usage, even though it would render many statements much clearer. For example, we can clearly distinguish</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-gN3C">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gN3C">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e3d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section3-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>That is a non-blue house.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>from the related sentence</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-GtQC">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-GtQC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e3d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section3-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>That is a blue non-house.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section3-example10" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section3-example11" /> have the advantage that, while they contain a negative indication, they are in fact positive assertions. They say what is true by excluding the false; they do not say what is false.</para>
<para>We can't always use
<quote>non-</quote> though, because of the peculiarities of English's grammar. It would sound strange to say:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-A3yR">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-A3yR">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e3d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section3-example12" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>John went to non-Paris from Rome.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>or</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-sn2I">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sn2I">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e3d13" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section3-example13" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>John went to Paris from non-Rome.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>although these would clarify the vague negation. Another circumlocution for English scalar negation is
<quote>other than</quote>, which works where
<quote>non-</quote> does not, but is wordier.</para>
<para>Finally, we have natural language negations that are called polar negations, or opposites:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-XfhT">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-XfhT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e3d14" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section3-example14" />
<anchor xml:id="c15e3d15" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section3-example15" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>John is moral</jbo>
<jbo>John is immoral</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -587,21 +587,21 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section4" />, we will translate the general case of scalar negation using the general formula
<quote>other than</quote> when a phrase is scalar-negated, and
<quote>non-</quote> when a single word is scalar-negated.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter15-section4">
<title>selbri and tanru negation</title>
<para>All the scalar negations illustrated in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section3" /> are expressed in Lojban using the cmavo
<quote>na'e</quote>(of selma'o NAhE). The most common use of
<quote>na'e</quote> is as a prefix to the selbri:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-uMSb">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-uMSb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section4-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section4-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci</jbo>
<en>I go to the market.</en>
<jbo>mi na'e klama le zarci</jbo>
@@ -619,49 +619,49 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>negation operator</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section4-example2" /> is
<quote>na'e</quote>. But what exactly does
<quote>na'e</quote> negate? Does the negation include only the gismu
<quote>klama</quote>, which is the entire selbri in this case, or does it include the
<quote>le zarci</quote> as well? In Lojban, the answer is unambiguously
<quote>only the gismu</quote>. The cmavo
<quote>na'e</quote> always applies only to what follows it.</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section4-example2" /> looks as if it were parallel to:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-tqX1">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-tqX1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section4-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na klama le zarci</jbo>
<en>I [false] go-to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>but in fact there is no real parallelism at all. A negation using
<quote>na</quote> denies the truth of a relationship, but a selbri negation with
<quote>na'e</quote> asserts that a relationship exists other than that stated, one which specifically involves the sumti identified in the statement. The grammar allotted to
<quote>na'e</quote> allows us to unambiguously express scalar negations in terms of scope, scale, and range within the scale. Before we explain the scalar aspects, let us show how the scope of
<quote>na'e</quote> is determined.</para>
<para>In tanru, we may wish to negate an individual element before combining it with another to form the tanru. We in effect need a shorter-than-selbri-scope negation, for which we can use
<quote>na'e</quote> as well. The positive sentence</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ETuV">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ETuV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section4-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cadzu klama le zarci</jbo>
<en>I walking-ly go to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>can be subjected to selbri negation in several ways. Two are:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Vjin">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Vjin">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section4-example5" />
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section4-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na'e cadzu klama le zarci</jbo>
<en>I (other-than-walkingly)-go-to the market.</en>
<jbo>mi cadzu na'e klama le zarci</jbo>
@@ -680,71 +680,71 @@
<quote>na'e</quote> negate the entire selbri. While both sentences contain negations that deny a particular relationship between the sumti, they also have a component which makes a positive claim about such a relationship. This is clearer in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section4-example5" />, which says that I am going, but in a non-walking manner. In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section4-example6" />, we have claimed that the relationship between me and the market in some way involves walking, but is not one of
<quote>going to</quote>(perhaps we are walking around the market, or walking-in-place while at the market).</para>
<para>The
<quote>scale</quote>, or actually the
<quote>set</quote>, implied in Lojban tanru negations is anything which plausibly can be substituted into the tanru. (Plausibility here is interpreted in the same way that answers to a
<quote>mo</quote> question must be plausible - the result must not only have the right number of places and have sumti values appropriate to the place structure, it must also be appropriate or relevant to the context.) This minimal condition allows a speaker to be intentionally vague, while still communicating meaningful information. The speaker who uses selbri negation is denying one relationship, while minimally asserting a different relationship.</para>
<para>We also need a scalar negation form that has a scope longer than a single brivla. There exists such a longer-scope selbri negation form, as exemplified by (each Lojban sentence in the next several examples is given twice, with parentheses in the second copy showing the scope of the
<quote>na'e</quote>):</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-t20b">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-t20b">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section4-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na'eke cadzu klama [ke'e] le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>mi na'e (ke cadzu klama [ke'e]) le zarci</gloss>
<en>I other-than-(walkingly-go-to) the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This negation uses the same
<quote>ke</quote> and
<quote>ke'e</quote> delimiters (the
<quote>ke'e</quote> is always elidable at the end of a selbri) that are used in tanru. The sentence clearly negates the entire selbri. The
<quote>ke'e</quote>, whether elided or not, reminds us that the negation does not include the trailing sumti. While the trailing-sumti place-structure is defined as that of the final brivla, the trailing sumti themselves are not part of the selbri and are thus not negated by
<quote>na'e</quote>.</para>
<para>Negations of just part of the selbri are also permitted:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-PVct">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PVct">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section4-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na'eke sutra cadzu ke'e klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>mi na'e (ke sutra cadzu ke'e) klama le zarci</gloss>
<en>I other-than-(quickly-walkingly) go-to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section4-example8" />, only the
<quote>sutra cadzu</quote> tanru is negated, so the speaker is indeed going to the market, but not by walking quickly.</para>
<para>Negations made with
<quote>na'e</quote> or
<quote>na'eke</quote> also include within their scope any sumti attached to the brivla or tanru with
<quote>be</quote> or
<quote>bei</quote>. Such attached sumti are considered part of the brivla or tanru:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-MYYa">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-MYYa">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section4-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be le mi birka ke'e klama le zarci</jbo>
<en>I other-than-(quickly walking-on-my-arms-ly) go-to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section4-example10" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section4-example11" /> do not express the same thing:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Qoen">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Qoen">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section4-example10" />
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section4-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na'eke sutra cadzu [ke'e] lemi birka</jbo>
<gloss>mi na'e (ke sutra cadzu [ke'e]) lemi birka</gloss>
<en>I other-than-(quickly-walk-on) my-arms.</en>
@@ -767,21 +767,21 @@
<!-- ^^ tanru inversion, 95; definition, 95; effect on tanru grouping, 96; in complex tanru, 96; multiple, 96; rule for removing, 96; where allowed, 96 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>tanru inversion</primary></indexterm>
<para>In short,
<quote>na'e</quote> and
<quote>na'eke</quote> define a type of negation, which is shorter in scope than bridi negation, and which affects all or part of a selbri. The result of
<quote>na'e</quote> negation remains an assertion of some specific truth and not merely a denial of another claim.</para>
<para>The similarity becomes striking when it is noticed that the rafsi
<quote>-nal-</quote>, representing
<quote>na'e</quote> when a tanru is condensed into a lujvo, forms an exact parallel to the English usage of
<quote>non-</quote>. Turning a series of related negations into lujvo gives:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-2buq">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2buq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section4-example12" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>na'e klama becomes nalkla</jbo>
<gloss>na'e cadzu klama becomes naldzukla</gloss>
<gloss>na'e sutra cadzu klama becomes nalsu'adzukla</gloss>
<en>nake sutra cadzu ke'e klama becomes nalsu'adzuke'ekla</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -798,66 +798,66 @@
<quote>ke'e</quote> meaningful in the tanru expressed in this lujvo.</para>
<para>In a lujvo, it is probably clearest to translate
<quote>-nal-</quote> as
<quote>non-</quote>, to match the English combining forms, except when the
<quote>na'e</quote> has single word scope and English uses
<quote>un-</quote> or
<quote>im-</quote> to negate that single word. Translation style should determine the use of
<quote>other than</quote>,
<quote>non-</quote>, or another negator for
<quote>na'e</quote> in tanru; the translator must render the Lojban into English so it is clear in context. Let's go back to our simplest example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-cVMF">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-cVMF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d13" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section4-example13" />
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d14" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section4-example14" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na'e klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I am other-than-(going-to) the market.</gloss>
<en>?I am not going-to the market.</en>
<jbo>mi nalkla le zarci</jbo>
<en>I am-a-non-go-er-to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that to compare with the English translation form using
<quote>non-</quote>, we've translated the Lojban as if the selbri were a noun. Since Lojban
<quote>klama</quote> is indifferently a noun, verb, or adjective, the difference is purely a translation change, not a true change in meaning. The English difference seems significant, though, due to the strongly different English grammatical forms and the ambiguity of English negation.</para>
<para>Consider the following highly problematic sentence:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-GFFo">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-GFFo">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d15" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section4-example15" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu krecau</jbo>
<gloss>An-actual currently noblest-governor of the French country is-hair-without.</gloss>
<en>The current King of France is bald.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The selbri
<quote>krecau</quote> negates with
<quote>na'e</quote> as:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-2maY">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2maY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d16" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section4-example16" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu na'e krecau</jbo>
<gloss>An-actual currently noblest-governor of the French country is-other-than hair-without.</gloss>
<en>The current King of France is other-than-bald.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>or, as a lujvo:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-wGXL">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-wGXL">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d17" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section4-example17" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu nalkrecau</jbo>
<gloss>An-actual currently noblest-governor of the French country is-non-hair-without.</gloss>
<en>The current King of France is a non-bald-one.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -872,21 +872,21 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>y-hyphen</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ r-hyphen: contrasted with n-hyphen in requirements for use, 60; use of, 56, 60 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>r-hyphen</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ n-hyphen: contrasted with r-hyphen in requirements for use, 60; use of, 56, 60 -->
<!-- ^^ r-hyphen: contrasted with n-hyphen in requirements for use, 60; use of, 56, 60 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>r-hyphen</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>n-hyphen</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>lujvo form</primary></indexterm>
<para>Since there is no current King of France, it is false to say that he is bald, or non-bald, or to make any other affirmative claim about him. Any sentence about the current King of France containing only a selbri negation is as false as the sentence without the negation. No amount of selbri negations have any effect on the truth value of the sentence, which is invariably
<quote>false</quote>, since no affirmative statement about the current King of France can be true. On the other hand, bridi negation does produce a truth:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Bwdy">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Bwdy">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d18" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section4-example18" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu na krecau</jbo>
<gloss>An-actual current noblest-governor of the French Country [false] is-hair-without.</gloss>
<en>It is false that the current King of France is bald.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -894,43 +894,43 @@
<quote>lo</quote> is used in these sentences because negation relates to truth conditions. To meaningfully talk about truth conditions in sentences carrying a description, it must be clear that the description actually applies to the referent. A sentence using
<quote>le</quote> instead of
<quote>lo</quote> can be true even if there is no current king of France, as long as the speaker and the listener agree to describe something as the current king of France. (See the explanations of
<quote>le</quote> in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6" />.)</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter15-section5">
<title>Expressing scales in selbri negation</title>
<para>In expressing a scalar negation, we can provide some indication of the scale, range, frame-of-reference, or universe of discourse that is being dealt with in an assertion. As stated in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section4" />, the default is the set of plausible alternatives. Thus if we say:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-mw3B">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mw3B">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e5d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section5-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le stizu cu na'e xunre</jbo>
<en>The chair is a non-(red-thing).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>the pragmatic interpretation is that we mean a different color and not</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-7iMz">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7iMz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e5d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section5-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le stizu cu dzukla be le zarci</jbo>
<en>The chair walkingly-goes-to-the-market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>However, if we have reason to be more explicit (an obtuse or contrary listener, or simply an overt logical analysis), we can clarify that we are referring to a color by saying:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-yWSC">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-yWSC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e5d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section5-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le stizu cu na'e xunre skari</jbo>
<en>The chair is of a non-(red)-color (as perceived by something under some conditions).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>We might also have reduced the pragmatic ambiguity by making the two trailing sumti values explicit (the
@@ -939,96 +939,96 @@
<quote>xunre</quote>). But assume we have a really stubborn listener (an artificially semi-intelligent computer?) who will find a way to misinterpret
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section5-example3" /> even with three specific sumti provided.</para>
<para>In this case, we use a sumti tagged with the sumti tcita
<quote>ci'u</quote>, which translates roughly as
<!-- ^^ ci'u, 204 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ci'u</primary></indexterm>
<quote>on a scale of X</quote>, where
<quote>X</quote> is the sumti. For maximal clarity, the tagged sumti can be bound into the negated selbri with
<quote>be</quote>. To clarify
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section5-example3" />, we might say:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-a8S1">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-a8S1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e5d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section5-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le stizu cu na'e xunre be ci'u loka skari</jbo>
<!-- ^^ ci'u, 204 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ci'u</primary></indexterm>
<en>The chair is a non-(red on-a-scale-of-colorness)-thing.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>We can alternately use the sumti tcita
<quote>teci'e</quote>, based on
<quote>ciste</quote>, which translates roughly as
<quote>of a system of components X</quote>, for universes of discourse; in this case, we would express
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section5-example3" /> as:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-I0eV">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-I0eV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e5d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section5-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le stizu cu na'e xunre be teci'e le skari</jbo>
<en>The chair is a non-(red of-a-system-with-components-the-colors)-thing.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Other places of
<quote>ciste</quote> can be brought out using the grammar of selma'o BAI modals, allowing slightly different forms of expression, thus:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Rj71">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Rj71">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e5d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section5-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le stizu cu na'e xunre be ci'e lo'i skari</jbo>
<en>The chair is a non-(red of-a-system-which-is-the-set-of-colors)-thing.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>le'a</quote>, also in selma'o BAI, can be used to specify a category:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-5ibb">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-5ibb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e5d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section5-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le stizu cu na'e xunre be le'a lo'i skari</jbo>
<en>The chair is a non-(red of-a-category-which-is-the-set-of-colors)-thing.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which is minimally different in meaning from
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section5-example6" />.</para>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>na'e</quote> is not the only member of selma'o NAhE. If we want to express a scalar negation which is a polar opposite, we use the cmavo
<quote>to'e</quote>, which is grammatically equivalent to
<quote>na'e</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-RuvP">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-RuvP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e5d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section5-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le stizu cu to'e xunre be ci'u loka skari</jbo>
<!-- ^^ ci'u, 204 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ci'u</primary></indexterm>
<en>The chair is a (opposite-of red) on-scale a-property-of color-ness.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Likewise, the midpoint of a scale can be expressed with the cmavo
<quote>no'e</quote>, also grammatically equivalent to
<quote>na'e</quote>. Here are some parallel examples of
<quote>na'e</quote>,
<quote>no'e</quote>, and
<quote>to'e</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-iqTj">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-iqTj">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e5d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section5-example9" />
<anchor xml:id="c15e5d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section5-example10" />
<anchor xml:id="c15e5d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section5-example11" />
<anchor xml:id="c15e5d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section5-example12" />
</title>
@@ -1072,38 +1072,38 @@
<section xml:id="cll_chapter15-section6">
<title>sumti negation</title>
<para>There are two ways of negating sumti in Lojban. We have the choice of quantifying the sumti with zero, or of applying the sumti-negator
<quote>na'ebo</quote> before the sumti. It turns out that a zero quantification serves for contradictory negation. As the cmavo we use implies,
<!-- ^^ na'ebo, 135 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>na'ebo</primary></indexterm>
<quote>na'ebo</quote> forms a scalar negation.</para>
<!-- ^^ na'ebo, 135 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>na'ebo</primary></indexterm>
<para>Let us show examples of each.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-PL1E">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PL1E">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e6d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section6-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>no lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu krecau</jbo>
<gloss>Zero of those who are currently noblest-governors of the French country are-hair-without.</gloss>
<en>No current king of France is bald.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Is
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section6-example1" /> true? Yes, because it merely claims that of the current Kings of France, however many there may be, none are bald, which is plainly true, since there are no such current Kings of France.</para>
<para>Now let us look at the same sentence using
<quote>na'ebo</quote> negation:</para>
<!-- ^^ na'ebo, 135 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>na'ebo</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-LebJ">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-LebJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e6d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section6-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>na'ebo lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu krecau</jbo>
<!-- ^^ na'ebo, 135 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>na'ebo</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>[Something] other-than-(the-current-noblest-governor of the French country) is-hair-without.</gloss>
<en>Something other than the current King of France is bald.</en>
@@ -1111,21 +1111,21 @@
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section6-example2" /> is true provided that something reasonably describable as
<quote>other than a current King of France</quote>, such as the King of Saudi Arabia, or a former King of France, is in fact bald.</para>
<para>In place of
<quote>na'ebo</quote>, you may also use
<!-- ^^ na'ebo, 135 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>na'ebo</primary></indexterm>
<quote>no'ebo</quote> and
<quote>to'ebo</quote>, to be more specific about the sumti which would be appropriate in place of the stated sumti. Good examples are hard to come by, but here's a valiant try:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-S4AU">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-S4AU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e6d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section6-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama to'ebo la bastn.</jbo>
<gloss>I go to the-opposite-of Boston.</gloss>
<en>I go to Perth.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1142,51 +1142,51 @@
<quote>nai</quote>, by the way, is almost always written as a compound into the previous word that it is negating, although it is a regular separate-word cmavo and the sole member of selma'o NAI.</para>
<para>Most of these negation forms are straightforward, and should be discussed and interpreted in connection with an analysis of the particular construct being negated. Thus, we will not go into much detail here.</para>
<para>The following are places where
<quote>nai</quote> is used:</para>
<para>When attached to tenses and modals (see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10" />), the
<quote>nai</quote> suffix usually indicates a contradictory negation of the tagged bridi. Thus
<quote>punai</quote> as a tense inflection means
<quote>not-in-the-past</quote>, or
<quote>not-previously</quote>, without making any implication about any other time period unless explicitly stated. As a result,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-PprX">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PprX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e7d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section7-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na pu klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [false] [past] go-to the store.</gloss>
<en>I didn't go to the store.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-0hv2">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-0hv2">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e7d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section7-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi punai klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [past-not] go-to the store.</gloss>
<en>I didn't go to the store.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>mean exactly the same thing, although there may be a difference of emphasis.</para>
<para>Tenses and modals can be logically connected, with the logical connectives containing contradictory negations; this allows negated tenses and modals to be expressed positively using logical connectives. Thus
<quote>punai je ca</quote> means the same thing as
<quote>pu naje ca</quote>.</para>
<para>As a special case, a
<quote>-nai</quote> attached to the interval modifiers of selma'o TAhE, ROI, or ZAhO (explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10" />) signals a scalar negation:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-4YYQ">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4YYQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e7d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section7-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi paroinai dansu le bisli</jbo>
<en>I [once] [not] dance-on the ice</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means that I dance on the ice either zero or else two or more times within the relevant time interval described by the bridi.
@@ -1229,124 +1229,124 @@
<para>A
<quote>nai</quote> attached to a non-logical connective (of selma'o JOI or BIhI) is a scalar negation, and says that the bridi is false under the specified mixture, but that another connective is applicable. Non-logical connectives are discussed in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14" />.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter15-section8">
<title>Truth questions</title>
<para>One application of negation is in answer to truth questions (those which expect the answers
<quote>Yes</quote> or
<quote>No</quote>). The truth question cmavo
<quote>xu</quote> is in selma'o UI; placed at the beginning of a sentence, it asks whether the sentence as a whole is true or false.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-5y84">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-5y84">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e8d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section8-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xu la djan. pu klama la paris. .e la rom.</jbo>
<en>Is it true that: (John previously went-to [both] Paris and Rome.)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>You can now use each of the several kinds of negation we've discussed in answer to this (presuming the same question and context for each answer).</para>
<para>The straightforward negative answer is grammatically equivalent to the expanded sentence with the
<!-- ^^ negative answer: quick-tour version, 24 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>negative answer</primary></indexterm>
<quote>na</quote> immediately after the
<quote>cu</quote>(and before any tense/modal):</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-DMAd">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-DMAd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e8d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section8-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>na go'i</jbo>
<gloss>[false] [repeat previous]</gloss>
<en>No.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which means</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-mQSJ">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mQSJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e8d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section8-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. [cu] na pu klama la paris. .e la rom.</jbo>
<gloss>John [false] previously went-to [both] Paris and Rome.</gloss>
<en>It's not true that John went to Paris and Rome.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The respondent can change the tense, putting the
<quote>na</quote> in either before or after the new tense:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-rii2">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rii2">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e8d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section8-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>na ba go'i</jbo>
<en>[false] [future] [repeat previous]</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>meaning</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Fn2c">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Fn2c">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e8d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section8-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. [cu] na ba klama la paris. .e la rom.</jbo>
<gloss>John [false] later-will-go-to [both] Paris and Rome.</gloss>
<en>It is false that John will go to Paris and Rome.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>or alternatively</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-acM9">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-acM9">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e8d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section8-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ba na go'i</jbo>
<en>[false] [future] [repeat previous]</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>meaning</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-2SK0">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2SK0">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e8d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section8-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. [cu] ba na klama la paris. .e la rom.</jbo>
<en>John later-will [false] go-to [both] Paris and Rome.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>We stated in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section3" /> that sentences like
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section8-example5" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section8-example7" /> appear to be semantically identical, but that subtle semantic distinctions may eventually be found.</para>
<para>You can also use a scalar negation with
<quote>na'e</quote>, in which case, it is equivalent to putting a
<quote>na'eke</quote> immediately after any tense:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-q70h">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-q70h">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e8d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section8-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>na'e go'i</jbo>
<en>other-than [repeat previous]</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which means</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-nQRQ">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nQRQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e8d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section8-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. [cu] pu na'eke klama</jbo>
<gloss>[ke'e] la paris. .e la rom.</gloss>
<gloss>John previously other-than(went-to)</gloss>
<en>[both] Paris and Rome.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1354,140 +1354,140 @@
<para>He might have telephoned the two cities instead of going there. The unnecessary
<quote>ke</quote> and
<quote>ke'e</quote> would have been essential if the selbri had been a tanru.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter15-section9">
<title>Affirmations</title>
<para>There is an explicit positive form for both selma'o NA (
<quote>ja'a</quote>) and selma'o NAhE (
<quote>je'a</quote>), each of which would supplant the corresponding negator in the grammatical position used, allowing one to assert the positive in response to a negative question or statement without confusion. Assuming the same context as in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section8" />:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-KhoH">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KhoH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e9d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section9-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xu na go'i</jbo>
<en>Is-it-true-that [false] [repeat previous]?</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>or equivalently</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-8VCt">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-8VCt">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e9d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section9-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xu la djan. [cu] na pu klama</jbo>
<gloss>la paris. .e la rom.</gloss>
<gloss>Is it true that: John [false] previously-went-to</gloss>
<en>[both] Paris and Rome.]</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The obvious, but incorrect, positive response to this negative question is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-F3LE">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-F3LE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e9d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section9-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>go'i</jbo>
<en>[repeat previous]</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>A plain
<quote>go'i</quote> does not mean
<quote>Yes it is</quote>; it merely abbreviates repeating the previous statement unmodified, including any negators present; and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section9-example3" /> actually states that it is false that John went to both Paris and Rome.</para>
<para>When considering:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Pgrw">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Pgrw">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e9d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section9-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>na go'i</jbo>
<en>[false] [repeat previous]</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>as a response to a negative question like
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section9-example2" />, Lojban designers had to choose between two equally plausible interpretations with opposite effects. Does
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section9-example4" /> create a double negative in the sentence by adding a new
<quote>na</quote> to the one already there (forming a double negative and hence a positive statement), or does the
<quote>na</quote> replace the previous one, leaving the sentence unchanged?</para>
<para>It was decided that substitution, the latter alternative, is the preferable choice, since it is then clear whether we intend a positive or a negative sentence without performing any manipulations. This is the way English usually works, but not all languages work this way - Russian, Japanese, and Navajo all interpret a negative reply to a negative question as positive.</para>
<!-- ^^ Navajo: example, 64 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Navajo</primary></indexterm>
<para>The positive assertion cmavo of selma'o NA, which is "ja'a", can also replace the
<quote>na</quote> in the context, giving:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-iUfV">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-iUfV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e9d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section9-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ja'a go'i</jbo>
<en>(John truly-(previously went-to) [both] Paris and Rome.)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<quote>ja'a</quote> can replace
<quote>na</quote> in a similar manner wherever the latter is used:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-mrtu">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mrtu">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e9d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section9-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ja'a klama le zarci</jbo>
<en>I indeed go to the store.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<quote>je'a</quote> can replace
<quote>na'e</quote> in exactly the same way, stating that scalar negation does not apply, and that the relation indeed holds as stated. In the absence of a negation context, it emphasizes the positive:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-toQK">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-toQK">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e9d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section9-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta je'a melbi</jbo>
<en>that is-indeed beautiful.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter15-section10">
<title>Metalinguistic negation forms</title>
<para>The question of truth or falsity is not entirely synonymous with negation. Consider the English sentence</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-QsJ9">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-QsJ9">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section10-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>I have not stopped beating my wife.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>If I never started such a heinous activity, then this sentence is neither true nor false. Such a negation simply says that something is wrong with the non-negated statement. Generally, we then use either tone of voice or else a correction to express a preferred true claim:
<!-- ^^ tone of voice, 297 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>tone of voice</primary></indexterm>
<quote>I never have beaten my wife.</quote></para>
<para>Negations which follow such a pattern are called
<quote>metalinguistic negations</quote>. In natural languages, the mark of metalinguistic negation is that an indication of a correct statement always, or almost always, follows the negation. Tone of voice or emphasis may be further used to clarify the error.</para>
<para>Negations of every sort must be expressible in Lojban; errors are inherent to human thought, and are not excluded from the language. When such negations are metalinguistic, we must separate them from logical claims about the truth or falsity of the statement, as well as from scalar negations which may not easily express (or imply) the preferred claim. Because Lojban allows concepts to be so freely combined in tanru, limits on what is plausible or not plausible tend to be harder to determine.</para>
<para>Mimicking the muddled nature of natural language negation would destroy this separation. Since Lojban does not use tone of voice, we need other means to metalinguistically indicate what is wrong with a statement. When the statement is entirely inappropriate, we need to be able to express metalinguistic negation in a more non-specific fashion.</para>
<!-- ^^ tone of voice, 297 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>tone of voice</primary></indexterm>
<para>Here is a list of some different kinds of metalinguistic negation with English-language examples:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Ivxi">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Ivxi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section10-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section10-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section10-example4" />
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section10-example5" />
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d6" />
@@ -1616,67 +1616,67 @@
<para>In normal use, metalinguistic negation requires that a corrected statement follow the negated statement. In Lojban, however, it is possible to completely and unambiguously specify metalinguistic errors without correcting them. It will eventually be seen whether an uncorrected metalinguistic negation remains an acceptable form in Lojban. In such a statement, metalinguistic expression would involve an ellipsis not unlike that of tenseless expression.</para>
<!-- ^^ ellipsis: quick-tour version, 14 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ellipsis</primary></indexterm>
<para>Note that metalinguistic negation gives us another kind of legitimate negative answer to a
<!-- ^^ negative answer: quick-tour version, 24 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>negative answer</primary></indexterm>
<quote>xu</quote> question (see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section8" />).
<quote>na'i</quote> will be used when something about the questioned statement is inappropriate, such as in questions like
<quote>Have you stopped beating your wife?</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-SfSU">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-SfSU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d15" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section10-example15" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xu do sisti lezu'o do rapydarxi ledo fetspe</jbo>
<en>Have you ceased the activity of repeat-hitting your female-spouse?</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Responses could include:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-WNNK">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-WNNK">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d16" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section10-example16" />
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d17" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section10-example17" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>na'i go'i</jbo>
<en>The bridi as a whole is inappropriate in some way.</en>
<jbo>go'i na'i</jbo>
<en>The selbri (sisti) is inappropriate in some way.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>One can also specifically qualify the metalinguistic negation, by explicitly repeating the erroneous portion of the bridi to be metalinguistically negated, or adding on of the selma'o BAI qualifiers mentioned above:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ANpd">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ANpd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d18" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section10-example18" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>go'i ji'una'iku</jbo>
<en>Some presupposition is wrong with the previous bridi.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Finally, one may metalinguistically affirm a bridi with
<quote>jo'a</quote>, another cmavo of selma'o UI. A common use for
<!-- ^^ jo'a, 321 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>jo'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>jo'a</quote> might be to affirm that a particular construction, though unusual or counterintuitive, is in fact correct; another usage would be to disagree with - by overriding - a respondent's metalinguistic negation.</para>
<!-- ^^ jo'a, 321 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>jo'a</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter15-section11">
<title>Summary - Are All Possible Questions About Negation Now Answered?</title>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-MdRP">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-MdRP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e11d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section11-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>na go'i .ije na'e go'i .ije na'i go'i</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
</chapter>
diff --git a/todocbook/16.xml b/todocbook/16.xml
index 89bb209..d14f2b4 100644
--- a/todocbook/16.xml
+++ b/todocbook/16.xml
@@ -1,61 +1,61 @@
<chapter xml:id="cll_chapter16">
<title>Chapter 16
<quote>Who Did You Pass On The Road? Nobody</quote>: Lojban And Logic</title>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter16-section1">
<title>What's wrong with this picture?</title>
<para>The following brief dialogue is from
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7" /> of
<citation>Through The Looking Glass</citation> by Lewis Carroll.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-KB90">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KB90">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e1d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section1-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<quote>Who did you pass on the road?</quote> the King went on, holding out his hand to the Messenger for some more hay.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-1UVT">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1UVT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e1d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section1-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<quote>Nobody,</quote> said the Messenger.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-x9fC">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-x9fC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e1d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section1-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<quote>Quite right,</quote> said the King:
<quote>this young lady saw him too. So of course Nobody walks slower than you.</quote></jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-105i">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-105i">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e1d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section1-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<quote>I do my best,</quote> the Messenger said in a sulky tone.
<quote>I'm sure nobody walks much faster than I do!</quote></jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ANLu">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ANLu">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e1d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section1-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<quote>He can't do that,</quote> said the King,
<quote>or else he'd have been here first.</quote></jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -81,68 +81,68 @@
<!-- ^^ logical language: truth functions, 333 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>logical language</primary></indexterm>
<quote>Nobody walks slower than the Messenger</quote> and
<quote>Nobody walks faster than the Messenger</quote> and both be telling the truth. (Unless, of course, nobody but the Messenger walks at all, or everyone walks at exactly the same speed.)</para>
<para>This chapter will explore the Lojban mechanisms that allow the correct and consistent construction of sentences like those in the dialogue. There are no new grammatical constructs explained in this chapter; instead, it discusses the way in which existing facilities that allow Lojban-speakers to resolve problems like the above, using the concepts of modern logic. However, we will not approach the matter from the viewpoint of logicians, although readers who know something of logic will discover familiar notions in Lojban guise.</para>
<para>Although Lojban is called a logical language, not every feature of it is
<!-- ^^ logical language: truth functions, 333 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>logical language</primary></indexterm>
<quote>logical</quote>. In particular, the use of
<quote>le</quote> is incompatible with logical reasoning based on the description selbri, because that selbri may not truthfully apply: you cannot conclude from my statement that</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-4J5Y">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4J5Y">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e1d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section1-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska le nanmu</jbo>
<gloss>I see the-one-I-refer-to-as-the man.</gloss>
<en>I see the man/men.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>that there really is a man; the only thing you can conclude is that there is one thing (or more) that I choose to refer to as a man. You cannot even tell which man is meant for sure without asking me (although communication is served if you already know from the context).</para>
<para>In addition, the use of attitudinals (see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13" />) often reduces or removes the ability to make deductions about the bridi to which those attitudinals are applied. From the fact that I hope George will win the election, you can conclude nothing about George's actual victory or defeat.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter16-section2">
<title>Existential claims, prenexes, and variables</title>
<para>Let us consider, to begin with, a sentence that is not in the dialogue:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Mxj3">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Mxj3">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e2d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section2-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>Something sees me.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>There are two plausible Lojban translations of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section2-example1" />. The simpler one is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-b9pV">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-b9pV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e2d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section2-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>[zo'e] viska mi</jbo>
<en>Something-unspecified sees me.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>zo'e</quote> indicates that a sumti has been omitted (indeed, even
<quote>zo'e</quote> itself can be omitted in this case, as explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7" />) and the listener must fill in the correct value from context. In other words,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section2-example2" /> means
<quote>‘You-know-what' sees me.</quote></para>
<para>However,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section2-example1" /> is just as likely to assert simply that there is someone who sees me, in which case a correct translation is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-jjLd">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-jjLd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e2d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section2-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>da zo'u da viska mi</jbo>
<en>There-is-an-X such-that X sees me.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
@@ -159,21 +159,21 @@
<quote>da viska mi</quote>, the main bridi. Almost any Lojban bridi can be preceded by a prenex, which syntactically is any number of sumti followed by the cmavo
<quote>zo'u</quote>(of selma'o ZOhU). For the moment, the sumti will consist of one or more of the cmavo
<quote>da</quote>,
<quote>de</quote>, and
<quote>di</quote>(of selma'o KOhA), glossed in the literal translations as
<quote>X</quote>,
<quote>Y</quote>, and
<quote>Z</quote> respectively. By analogy to the terminology of symbolic logic, these cmavo are called
<quote>variables</quote>.</para>
<para>Here is an example of a prenex with two variables:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-t4qI">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-t4qI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e2d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section2-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>da de zo'u da prami de</jbo>
<gloss>There-is-an-X there-is-a-Y such that X loves Y.</gloss>
<en>Somebody loves somebody.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -181,122 +181,122 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section2-example4" />, the literal interpretation of the two variables
<quote>da</quote> and
<quote>de</quote> as
<quote>there-is-an-X</quote> and
<quote>there-is-a-Y</quote> tells us that there are two things which stand in the relationship that one loves the other. It might be the case that the supposed two things are really just a single thing that loves itself; nothing in the Lojban version of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section2-example4" /> rules out that interpretation, which is why the colloquial translation does not say
<quote>Somebody loves somebody else.</quote> The things referred to by different variables may be different or the same. (We use
<quote>somebody</quote> here rather than
<quote>something</quote> for naturalness; lovers and beloveds are usually persons, though the Lojban does not say so.)</para>
<para>It is perfectly all right for the variables to appear more than once in the main bridi:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-wBYE">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-wBYE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e2d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section2-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>da zo'u da prami da</jbo>
<!-- ^^ da prami da: contrasted with da prami de, 393 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>da prami da</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>There-is-an-X such that X loves X</gloss>
<en>Somebody loves himself/herself.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>What
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section2-example5" /> claims is fundamentally different from what
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section2-example4" /> claims, because
<quote>da prami da</quote> is not structurally the same as
<!-- ^^ da prami da: contrasted with da prami de, 393 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>da prami da</primary></indexterm>
<quote>da prami de</quote>. However,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-3QV5">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3QV5">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e2d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section2-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>de zo'u de prami de</jbo>
<en>There-is-a-Y such that Y loves Y</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means exactly the same thing as
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section2-example5" />; it does not matter which variable is used as long as they are used consistently.</para>
<para>It is not necessary for a variable to be a sumti of the main bridi directly:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ArXX">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ArXX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e2d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section2-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>da zo'u le da gerku cu viska mi</jbo>
<gloss>There-is-an-X such-that the of-X dog sees me</gloss>
<en>Somebody's dog sees me</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is perfectly correct even though the
<quote>da</quote> is used only in a possessive construction. (Possessives are explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8" />.)</para>
<para>It is very peculiar, however, even if technically grammatical, for the variable not to appear in the main bridi at all:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-mE4m">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mE4m">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e2d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section2-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>da zo'u la ralf. gerku</jbo>
<en>There is something such that Ralph is a dog.</en>
<!-- ^^ Ralph: example, 393 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Ralph</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>has a variable bound in a prenex whose relevance to the claim of the following bridi is completely unspecified.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter16-section3">
<title>Universal claims</title>
<para>What happens if we substitute
<quote>everything</quote> for
<quote>something</quote> in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section2-example1" />? We get:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-UwYG">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-UwYG">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e3d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section3-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>Everything sees me.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Of course, this example is false, because there are many things which do not see the speaker. It is not easy to find simple truthful examples of so-called universal claims (those which are about everything), so bear with us for a while. (Indeed, some Lojbanists tend to avoid universal claims even in other languages, since they are so rarely true in Lojban.)</para>
<!-- ^^ universal claims: dangers of using, 396; explanation, 393; restricting, 394, 395 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>universal claims</primary></indexterm>
<para>The Lojban translation of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section3-example1" /> is</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-nraD">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nraD">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e3d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section3-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro da zo'u da viska mi</jbo>
<en>For-every X : X sees me.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>When the variable cmavo
<quote>da</quote> is preceded by
<quote>ro</quote>, the combination means
<quote>For every X</quote> rather than
<quote>There is an X</quote>. Superficially, these English formulations look totally unrelated:
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section6" /> will bring them within a common viewpoint. For the moment, accept the use of
<quote>ro da</quote> for
<quote>everything</quote> on faith.</para>
<para>Here is a universal claim with two variables:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-jSrU">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-jSrU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e3d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section3-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro da ro de zo'u da prami de</jbo>
<gloss>For-every X, for-every Y : X loves Y.</gloss>
<en>Everything loves everything.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -306,21 +306,21 @@
<quote>everyone</quote> or
<quote>everybody</quote> in the translation.</para>
<para>Note that
<quote>ro</quote> appears before both
<quote>da</quote> and
<quote>de</quote>. If
<quote>ro</quote> is omitted before either variable, we get a mixed claim, partly existential like those of
<!-- ^^ existential: mixed claim with universal, 394 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>existential</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section2" />, partly universal.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-VLPI">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-VLPI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e3d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section3-example4" />
<anchor xml:id="c16e3d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section3-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro da de zo'u da viska de</jbo>
<gloss>For-every X, there-is-a-Y : X sees Y.</gloss>
<en>Everything sees something.</en>
@@ -356,33 +356,33 @@
<quote>-body</quote>. It is time to bring up the most useful feature of Lojban variables: the ability to restrict their ranges.</para>
<para>In Lojban, a variable
<quote>da</quote>,
<quote>de</quote>, or
<quote>di</quote> may be followed by a
<quote>poi</quote> relative clause in order to restrict the range of things that the variable describes. Relative clauses are described in detail in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8" />, but the kind we will need at present consist of
<quote>poi</quote> followed by a bridi (often just a selbri) terminated with
<quote>ku'o</quote> or
<quote>vau</quote>(which can usually be elided). Consider the difference between</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-NPX7">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-NPX7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e4d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section4-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>da zo'u da viska la djim.</jbo>
<gloss>There-is-an-X : X sees Jim.</gloss>
<en>Something sees Jim.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-I8AF">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-I8AF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e4d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section4-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>da poi prenu zo'u da viska la djim.</jbo>
<gloss>There-is-an-X which is-a-person : X sees Jim.</gloss>
<en>Someone sees Jim.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -392,33 +392,33 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section4-example2" />,
<quote>da</quote> is restricted by the
<quote>poi prenu</quote> relative clause to persons only, and so
<quote>da poi prenu</quote> translates as
<quote>someone.</quote>(The difference between
<quote>someone</quote> and
<quote>somebody</quote> is a matter of English style, with no real counterpart in Lojban.) If
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section4-example2" /> is true, then
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section4-example1" /> must be true, but not necessarily vice versa.</para>
<para>Universal claims benefit even more from the existence of relative clauses. Consider</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-DFen">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-DFen">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e4d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section4-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro da zo'u da vasxu</jbo>
<gloss>For-every X : X breathes</gloss>
<en>Everything breathes</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-njh0">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-njh0">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e4d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section4-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro da poi gerku zo'u da vasxu</jbo>
<gloss>For-every X which is-a-dog : X breathes.</gloss>
<gloss>Every dog breathes.</gloss>
<!-- ^^ dog breathes, 395 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>dog breathes</primary></indexterm>
@@ -436,94 +436,94 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10" />). Note the various colloquial translations
<quote>every dog</quote>,
<quote>each dog</quote>, and
<quote>all dogs</quote>. They all come to the same thing in Lojban, since what is true of every dog is true of all dogs.
<quote>All dogs</quote> is treated as an English plural and the others as singular, but Lojban makes no distinction.</para>
<!-- ^^ plural: Lojban contrasted with English in necessity of marking, 120; Lojban equivalent of, 443; meaning of le with, 123 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>plural</primary></indexterm>
<para>If we make an existential claim about dogs rather than a universal one, we get:</para>
<!-- ^^ existential: mixed claim with universal, 394 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>existential</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-4BTd">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4BTd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e4d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section4-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>da poi gerku zo'u da vasxu</jbo>
<gloss>There-is-an-X which is-a-dog : X breathes.</gloss>
<en>Some dog breathes.</en>
<!-- ^^ dog breathes, 395 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>dog breathes</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter16-section5">
<title>Dropping the prenex</title>
<para>It isn't really necessary for every Lojban bridi involving variables to have a prenex on the front. In fact, none of the examples we've seen so far required prenexes at all! The rule for dropping the prenex is simple: if the variables appear in the same order within the bridi as they did in the prenex, then the prenex is superfluous. However, any
<quote>ro</quote> or
<quote>poi</quote> appearing in the prenex must be transferred to the first occurrence of the variable in the main part of the bridi. Thus,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section2-example3" /> becomes just:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-9zAo">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9zAo">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e5d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section5-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>da viska mi</jbo>
<gloss>There-is-an-X-which sees me.</gloss>
<en>Something sees me.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section4-example4" /> becomes:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-na9C">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-na9C">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e5d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section5-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro da poi gerku cu vasxu</jbo>
<gloss>For-every X which is-a-dog, it-breathes.</gloss>
<en>Every dog breathes.</en>
<!-- ^^ dog breathes, 395 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>dog breathes</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>You might well suppose, then, that the purpose of the prenex is to allow the variables in it to appear in a different order than the bridi order, and that would be correct. Consider</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Cfnb">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Cfnb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e5d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section5-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro da poi prenu ku'o de poi gerku ku'o zo'u de batci da</jbo>
<en>For-every X which is-a-person, there-is-a-Y which is-a-dog: Y bites X.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The prenex of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section5-example3" /> is like that of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section3-example4" />(but with relative clauses): it notes that the following bridi is true of every person with respect to some dog, not necessarily the same dog for each. But in the main bridi part, the
<quote>de</quote> appears before the
<quote>da</quote>. Therefore, the true translation is</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-KLAr">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KLAr">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e5d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section5-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>Every person is bitten by some dog (or other).</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>If we tried to omit the prenex and move the
<quote>ro</quote> and the relative clauses into the main bridi, we would get:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-c9bq">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-c9bq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e5d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section5-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>de poi gerku cu batci ro da poi prenu</jbo>
<gloss>There-is-a-Y which is-a-dog which-bites every X which is-a-person</gloss>
<en>Some dog bites everyone.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -537,21 +537,21 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>universal claims</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ English we: contrasted with Lojban pro-sumti for we, 146 -->
<!-- ^^ pro-sumti for we: contrasted with English we, 146 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>pro-sumti for we</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>English we</primary></indexterm>
<quote>Everyone says</quote> or that
<quote>Everybody does</quote> or that
<quote>Everything is</quote> when in fact there are obvious counterexamples which we are ignoring for the sake of making a rhetorical point. Such statements are plain falsehoods in Lojban, unless saved by a context (such as tense) which implicitly restricts them.</para>
<para>How can we express
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section5-example3" /> in Lojban without a prenex? Since it is the order in which variables appear that matters, we can say:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-y90e">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-y90e">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e5d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section5-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro da poi prenu cu se batci de poi gerku</jbo>
<en>Every-X which is-a-person is-bitten-by some-Y which is-a-dog.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>using the conversion operator
@@ -564,35 +564,35 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section5-example4" /> uses the corresponding strategy in English, since English does not have prenexes (except in strained
<quote>logician's English</quote>). This implies that a sentence with both a universal and an existential variable can't be freely converted with
<!-- ^^ existential variable: in abstraction contrasted with in main bridi, 400; in main bridi contrasted with in abstraction, 400 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>existential variable</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ existential: mixed claim with universal, 394 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>existential</primary></indexterm>
<quote>se</quote>; one must be careful to preserve the order of the variables.</para>
<para>If a variable occurs more than once, then any
<quote>ro</quote> or
<quote>poi</quote> decorations are moved only to the first occurrence of the variable when the prenex is dropped. For example,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-4nqt">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4nqt">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e5d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section5-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>di poi prenu zo'u ti xarci di di</jbo>
<gloss>There-is-a-Z which is-a-person : this-thing is-a-weapon for-use-against-Z by-Z</gloss>
<en>This is a weapon for someone to use against himself/herself.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(in which
<quote>di</quote> is used rather than
<quote>da</quote> just for variety) loses its prenex as follows:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-CseH">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-CseH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e5d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section5-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti xarci di poi prenu ku'o di</jbo>
<en>This-thing is-a-weapon-for-use-against some-Z which is-a-person by-Z.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>As the examples in this section show, dropping the prenex makes for terseness of expression often even greater than that of English (Lojban is meant to be an unambiguous language, not necessarily a terse or verbose one), provided the rules are observed.</para>
@@ -609,85 +609,85 @@
<quote>all persons</quote>, just as
<!-- ^^ all persons: example, 398 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>all persons</primary></indexterm>
<quote>re prenu</quote> means
<quote>two persons</quote>. In fact, unadorned
<quote>da</quote> is also taken to have an implicit number in front of it, namely
<quote>su'o</quote>, which means
<quote>at least one</quote>. Why is this? Consider
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section2-example3" /> again, this time with an explicit
<quote>su'o</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-TI8K">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-TI8K">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e6d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section6-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>su'o da zo'u da viska mi</jbo>
<gloss>For-at-least-one X : X sees me.</gloss>
<en>Something sees me.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>From this version of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section2-example3" />, we understand the speaker's claim to be that of all the things that there are, at least one of them sees him or her. The corresponding universal claim,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section3-example2" />, says that of all the things that exist, every one of them can see the speaker.</para>
<!-- ^^ can see: example, 244 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>can see</primary></indexterm>
<para>Any other number can be used instead of
<quote>ro</quote> or
<quote>su'o</quote> to precede a variable. Then we get claims like:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-3C69">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3C69">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e6d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section6-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>re da zo'u da viska mi</jbo>
<gloss>For-two-Xes : X sees me.</gloss>
<en>Two things see me.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This means that exactly two things, no more or less, saw the speaker on the relevant occasion. In English, we might take
<quote>Two things see me</quote> to mean that at least two things see the speaker, but there might be more; in Lojban, though, that claim would have to be made as:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-mSzo">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mSzo">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e6d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section6-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>su'ore da zo'u da viska mi</jbo>
<en>For-at-least-two Xes : X sees me.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which would be false if nothing, or only one thing, saw the speaker, but not otherwise. We note the
<quote>su'o</quote> here meaning
<quote>at least</quote>;
<quote>su'o</quote> by itself is short for
<quote>su'opa</quote> where
<quote>pa</quote> means
<quote>one</quote>, as is explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18" />.</para>
<para>The prenex may be removed from
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section6-example2" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section6-example3" /> as from the others, leading to:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-2r5v">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2r5v">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e6d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section6-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>re da viska mi</jbo>
<en>Two Xes see me.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-GWoD">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-GWoD">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e6d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section6-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>su'ore da viska mi</jbo>
<en>At-least-two Xes see me.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>respectively, subject to the rules prescribed in
@@ -708,126 +708,126 @@
<!-- ^^ indefinite description: as needing explicit outer quantifier, 132; as prohibiting explicit inner quantifier, 132; compared with restricted variable, 398; definition, 132, 398 -->
<!-- ^^ restricted variable: compared with indefinite description, 398 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>restricted variable</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>indefinite description</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ro DA poi prenu</quote>, where
<quote>DA</quote> represents a fictitious variable that hasn't been used yet and will not be used in future. (Even if all three of
<quote>da</quote>,
<quote>de</quote>, and
<quote>di</quote> have been used up, it does not matter, for there are ways of getting more variables, discussed in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section14" />.) So in fact</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Kr4S">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Kr4S">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e6d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section6-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>re prenu cu viska mi</jbo>
<en>Two persons see me.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is short for</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-E6wI">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-E6wI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e6d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section6-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>re da poi prenu cu viska mi</jbo>
<en>Two Xes which are-persons see me.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which in turn is short for:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-u1sb">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-u1sb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e6d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section6-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>re da poi prenu zo'u da viska mi</jbo>
<en>For-two Xes which are-persons : X sees me.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that when we move more than one variable to the prenex (along with its attached relative clause), we must make sure that the variables are in the same order in the prenex as in the bridi proper.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter16-section7">
<title>Grouping of quantifiers</title>
<para>Let us consider a sentence containing two quantifier expressions neither of which is
<quote>ro</quote> or
<quote>su'o</quote>(remembering that
<quote>su'o</quote> is implicit where no explicit quantifier is given):</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Uovr">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Uovr">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e7d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section7-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ci gerku cu batci re nanmu</jbo>
<en>Three dogs bite two men.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The question raised by
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section7-example1" /> is, does each of the dogs bite the same two men, or is it possible that there are two different men per dog, for six men altogether? If the former interpretation is taken, the number of men involved is fixed at two; but if the latter, then the speaker has to be taken as saying that there might be any number of men between two and six inclusive. Let us transform
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section7-example1" /> step by step as we did with
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section6-example6" />:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-neNT">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-neNT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e7d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section7-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ci da poi gerku cu batci re de poi nanmu</jbo>
<en>Three Xes which are-dogs bite two Ys which are-men.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(Note that we need separate variables
<quote>da</quote> and
<quote>de</quote>, because of the rule that says each indefinite description gets a variable never used before or since.)</para>
<!-- ^^ indefinite description: as needing explicit outer quantifier, 132; as prohibiting explicit inner quantifier, 132; compared with restricted variable, 398; definition, 132, 398 -->
<!-- ^^ restricted variable: compared with indefinite description, 398 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>restricted variable</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>indefinite description</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Iuj2">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Iuj2">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e7d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section7-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ci da poi gerku ku'o re de poi nanmu zo'u da batci de</jbo>
<en>For-three Xes which are-dogs, for-two Ys which are-men : X bites Y.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here we see that indeed each of the dogs is said to bite two men, and it might be different men each time; a total of six biting events altogether.</para>
<para>How then are we to express the other interpretation, in which just two men are involved? We cannot just reverse the order of variables in the prenex to</para>
<!-- ^^ order of variables: in moving to prenex, 398 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>order of variables</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-4Qxe">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4Qxe">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e7d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section7-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>re de poi nanmu ku'o ci da poi gerku zo'u da batci de</jbo>
<en>For-two Ys which are-men, for-three Xes which are-dogs, X bites Y</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>for although we have now limited the number of men to exactly two, we end up with an indeterminate number of dogs, from three to six. The distinction is called a
<quote>scope distinction</quote>: in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section7-example2" />,
<quote>ci gerku</quote> is said to have wider scope than
<quote>re nanmu</quote>, and therefore precedes it in the prenex. In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section7-example4" /> the reverse is true.</para>
<para>The solution is to use a termset, which is a group of terms either joined by
<quote>ce'e</quote>(of selma'o CEhE) between each term, or else surrounded by
<quote>nu'i</quote>(of selma'o NUhI) on the front and
<quote>nu'u</quote>(of selma'o NUhU) on the rear. Terms (which are either sumti or sumti prefixed by tense or modal tags) that are grouped into a termset are understood to have equal scope:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-JbVH">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-JbVH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e7d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section7-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ci gerku ce'e re nanmu cu batci</jbo>
<gloss>nu'i ci gerku re nanmu [nu'u] cu batci</gloss>
<en>Three dogs [plus] two men, bite.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -835,49 +835,49 @@
<quote>nu'u</quote> is an elidable terminator, and in this case can be freely elided.</para>
<para>What about descriptors, like
<quote>ci lo gerku</quote>,
<quote>le nanmu</quote> or
<quote>re le ci mlatu</quote>? They too can be grouped in termsets, but usually need not be, except for the
<quote>lo</quote> case which functions like the case without a descriptor. Unless an actual quantifier precedes it,
<quote>le nanmu</quote> means
<quote>ro le nanmu</quote>, as is explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6" />. Two sumti with
<quote>ro</quote> quantifiers are independent of order, so:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-MADY">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-MADY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e7d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section7-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>[ro] le ci gerku cu batci [ro] le re nanmu</jbo>
<en>[All of] the three dogs bite [all of] the two men.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means that each of the dogs specified bites each of the men specified, for six acts of biting altogether. However, if there is an explicit quantifier before
<quote>le</quote> other than
<quote>ro</quote>, the problems of this section reappear.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter16-section8">
<title>The problem of
<quote>any</quote></title>
<para>Consider the English sentence</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-R4mX">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-R4mX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e8d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section8-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>Anyone who goes to the store, walks across the field.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Using the facilities already discussed, a plausible translation might be</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-7Kn8">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7Kn8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e8d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section8-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro da poi klama le zarci cu cadzu le foldi</jbo>
<gloss>All X such-that-it goes-to the store walks-on the field.</gloss>
<en>Everyone who goes to the store walks across the field.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -892,122 +892,122 @@
<!-- ^^ existential claims: definition, 392; restricting, 394 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>existential claims</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ existential: mixed claim with universal, 394 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>existential</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section8-example1" />, on the other hand, does not require that there are any people who go to the store: it simply states, conditionally, that if there is anyone who goes to the store, he or she walks across the field as well. This conditional form mirrors the true Lojban translation of
<!-- ^^ anyone who goes: walks, example, 399 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>anyone who goes</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ anyone: contrasted with everyone in assumption of existence, 399 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>anyone</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section8-example1" />:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-BwU7">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-BwU7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e8d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section8-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro da zo'u ganai da klama le zarci gi cadzu le foldi</jbo>
<en>For-every X: if X is-a-goer-to the store then X is-a-walker-on the field.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Although
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section8-example3" /> is a universal claim as well, its universality only implies that there are objects of some sort or another in the universe of discourse. Because the claim is conditional, nothing is implied about the existence of goers-to-the-store or of walkers-on-the-field, merely that any entity which is one is also the other.</para>
<para>There is another use of
<quote>any</quote> in English that is not universal but existential. Consider</para>
<!-- ^^ existential: mixed claim with universal, 394 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>existential</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-7Eu9">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7Eu9">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e8d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section8-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>I need any box that is bigger than this one.</jbo>
<!-- ^^ need any box, 400 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>need any box</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ any box, 400 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>any box</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section8-example4" /> does not at all mean that I need every box bigger than this one, for indeed I do not; I require only one box. But the naive translation</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-KHya">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KHya">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e8d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section8-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nitcu da poi tanxe gi'e bramau ti</jbo>
<en>I need some-X which is-a-box and is-bigger-than this-one</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>does not work either, because it asserts that there really is such a box, as the prenex paraphrase demonstrates:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-fAo5">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-fAo5">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e8d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section8-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>da poi tanxe gi'e bramau ti zo'u mi nitcu da</jbo>
<en>There-is-an-X which is-a-box and is-bigger-than this : I need X.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>What to do? Well, the x2 place of
<quote>nitcu</quote> can be filled with an event as well as an object, and in fact
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section8-example5" /> can also be paraphrased as:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-e7ta">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-e7ta">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e8d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section8-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nitcu lo nu mi ponse lo tanxe poi bramau ti</jbo>
<en>I need an event-of I possess some box(es) which-are bigger-than this-one.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Rewritten using variables,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section8-example7" /> becomes</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-4Pz8">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4Pz8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e8d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section8-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nitcu lo nu da zo'u</jbo>
<gloss>da se ponse mi gi'e tanxe gi'e bramau ti</gloss>
<gloss>I need an event-of there-being an-X such-that :</gloss>
<en>X is-possessed-by me and is-a-box and is-bigger-than this-thing.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>So we see that a prenex can be attached to a bridi that is within a sentence. By default, a variable always behaves as if it is bound in the prenex which (notionally) is attached to the smallest enclosing bridi, and its scope does not extend beyond that bridi. However, the variable may be placed in an outer prenex explicitly:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-7KKM">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7KKM">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e8d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section8-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>da poi tanxe gi'e bramau ti zo'u</jbo>
<gloss>mi nitcu le nu mi ponse da</gloss>
<gloss>There-is-an-X which is-a-box and is-bigger-than this-one such-that :</gloss>
<en>I need the event-of my possessing X.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>But what are the implications of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section8-example7" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section8-example9" />? The main difference is that in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section8-example9" />, the
<quote>da</quote> is said to exist in the real world of the outer bridi; but in
<!-- ^^ real world: contrasted with hypothetical world, example, 320 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>real world</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section8-example7" />, the existence is only within the inner bridi, which is a mere event that need not necessarily come to pass. So
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section8-example9" /> means</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-xC32">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-xC32">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e8d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section8-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>There's a box, bigger than this one, that I need</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which is what
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section8-example6" /> says, whereas
@@ -1021,21 +1021,21 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section10" /> through
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section12" />, are in effect a continuation of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15" />, introducing features of Lojban negation that require an understanding of prenexes and variables. In the examples below,
<quote>there is a Y</quote> and the like must be understood as
<!-- ^^ there is a Y: expression, notation convention, 401 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>there is a Y</primary></indexterm>
<quote>there is at least one Y, possibly more</quote>.</para>
<para>As explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15" />, the negation of a bridi is usually accomplished by inserting
<quote>na</quote> at the beginning of the selbri:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-hBRH">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hBRH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e9d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section9-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [false] go-to the store.</gloss>
<gloss>It is false that I go to the store.</gloss>
<en>I don't go to the store.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1053,102 +1053,102 @@
<quote>external bridi negation</quote>, as opposed to
<!-- ^^ external bridi negation: compared to internal bridi negation, 401; definition, 401 -->
<!-- ^^ internal bridi negation: compared to external bridi negation, 401; definition, 401 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>internal bridi negation</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>external bridi negation</primary></indexterm>
<quote>internal bridi negation</quote> using
<!-- ^^ internal bridi negation: compared to external bridi negation, 401; definition, 401 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>internal bridi negation</primary></indexterm>
<quote>na</quote>. The prenex version of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section9-example1" /> is</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-IH8J">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-IH8J">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e9d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section9-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>naku zo'u la djan. klama</jbo>
<gloss>It is not the case that: John comes.</gloss>
<en>It is false that: John comes.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>However,
<quote>naku</quote> can appear at other points in the prenex as well. Compare</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-cy6j">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-cy6j">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e9d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section9-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>naku de zo'u de zutse</jbo>
<gloss>It is not the case that: for some Y, Y sits.</gloss>
<gloss>It is false that: for at least one Y, Y sits.</gloss>
<gloss>It is false that something sits.</gloss>
<en>Nothing sits.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>with</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-2Fw3">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2Fw3">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e9d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section9-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>su'ode naku zo'u de zutse</jbo>
<gloss>For at least one Y, it is false that: Y sits.</gloss>
<en>There is something that doesn't sit.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The relative position of negation and quantification terms within a prenex has a drastic effect on meaning. Starting without a negation, we can have:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-21Y5">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-21Y5">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e9d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section9-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>roda su'ode zo'u da prami de</jbo>
<gloss>For every X, there is a Y, such that X loves Y.</gloss>
<!-- ^^ there is a Y: expression, notation convention, 401 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>there is a Y</primary></indexterm>
<en>Everybody loves at least one thing (each, not necessarily the same thing).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>or:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Tj99">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Tj99">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e9d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section9-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>su'ode roda zo'u da prami de</jbo>
<gloss>There is a Y, such that for each X, X loves Y.</gloss>
<en>There is at least one particular thing that is loved by everybody.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The simplest form of bridi negation to interpret is one where the negation term is at the beginning of the prenex:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-1LqV">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1LqV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e9d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section9-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>naku roda su'ode zo'u da prami de</jbo>
<gloss>It is false that: for every X, there is a Y, such that: X loves Y.</gloss>
<!-- ^^ there is a Y: expression, notation convention, 401 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>there is a Y</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>It is false that: everybody loves at least one thing.</gloss>
<en>(At least) someone doesn't love anything.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>the negation of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section9-example5" />, and</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-u1jY">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-u1jY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e9d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section9-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>naku su'ode roda zo'u da prami de</jbo>
<gloss>It is false that: there is a Y such that for each X, X loves Y.</gloss>
<!-- ^^ there is a Y: expression, notation convention, 401 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>there is a Y</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>It is false that: there is at least one thing that is loved by everybody.</gloss>
@@ -1156,91 +1156,91 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>the negation of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section9-example6" />.</para>
<para>The rules of formal logic require that, to move a negation boundary within a prenex, you must
<quote>invert any quantifier</quote> that the negation boundary passes across. Inverting a quantifier means that any
<quote>ro</quote>(all) is changed to
<quote>su'o</quote>(at least one) and vice versa. Thus,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section9-example7" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section9-example8" /> can be restated as, respectively:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-cJLQ">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-cJLQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e9d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section9-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>su'oda naku su'ode zo'u da prami de</jbo>
<gloss>For some X, it is false that: there is a Y such that: X loves Y.</gloss>
<!-- ^^ there is a Y: expression, notation convention, 401 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>there is a Y</primary></indexterm>
<en>There is somebody who doesn't love anything.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-hBXT">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hBXT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e9d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section9-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>rode naku roda zo'u da prami de</jbo>
<gloss>For every Y, it is false that: for every X, X loves Y.</gloss>
<en>For each thing, it is not true that everybody loves it.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Another movement of the negation boundary produces:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-w6XF">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-w6XF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e9d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section9-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>su'oda rode naku zo'u da prami de</jbo>
<gloss>There is an X such that, for every Y, it is false that X loves Y.</gloss>
<en>There is someone who, for each thing, doesn't love that thing.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-JY08">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-JY08">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e9d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section9-example12" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>rode su'oda naku zo'u da prami de</jbo>
<gloss>For every Y, there is an X, such that it is false that: X loves Y.</gloss>
<en>For each thing there is someone who doesn't love it.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Investigation will show that, indeed, each transformation preserves the meanings of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section9-example7" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section9-example8" />.</para>
<para>The quantifier
<quote>no</quote>(meaning
<quote>zero of</quote>) also involves a negation boundary. To transform a bridi containing a variable quantified with
<quote>no</quote>, we must first expand it. Consider</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-qCph">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-qCph">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e9d13" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section9-example13" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>noda rode zo'u da prami de</jbo>
<!-- ^^ noda: expanding to naku su'oda, 403 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>noda</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>There is no X, for every Y, such that X loves Y.</gloss>
<en>Nobody loves everything.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which is negated by:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-fpeW">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-fpeW">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e9d14" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section9-example14" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>naku noda rode zo'u da prami de</jbo>
<!-- ^^ noda: expanding to naku su'oda, 403 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>noda</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>It is false that: there is no X that, for every Y, X loves Y.</gloss>
<en>It is false that there is nobody who loves everything.</en>
@@ -1252,36 +1252,36 @@
<quote>for no x</quote> means the same thing as
<quote>it is false for some x</quote>, and the corresponding Lojban
<quote>noda</quote> can be replaced by
<!-- ^^ noda: expanding to naku su'oda, 403 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>noda</primary></indexterm>
<quote>naku su'oda</quote>. Making this substitution, we get:</para>
<!-- ^^ naku su'oda: as expansion of noda, 403 -->
<!-- ^^ noda: expanding to naku su'oda, 403 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>noda</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>naku su'oda</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-xTie">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-xTie">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e9d15" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section9-example15" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>naku naku su'oda rode zo'u da prami de</jbo>
<!-- ^^ naku su'oda: as expansion of noda, 403 -->
<!-- ^^ noda: expanding to naku su'oda, 403 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>noda</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>naku su'oda</primary></indexterm>
<en>It is false that it is false that: for an X, for every Y: X loves Y.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Adjacent pairs of negation boundaries in the prenex can be dropped, so this means the same as:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-y7NU">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-y7NU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e9d16" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section9-example16" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>su'oda rode zo'u da prami de</jbo>
<gloss>There is an X such that, for every Y, X loves Y.</gloss>
<en>At least one person loves everything.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1346,87 +1346,87 @@
<quote>.i</quote> and
<quote>je</quote> or
<quote>ja</quote>; likewise, one may place
<quote>nai</quote> at the end of a connective. Both
<quote>na</quote> and
<quote>nai</quote> have negative effects on the sumti or bridi being connected. Specifically,
<quote>na</quote> negates the first or left-hand sumti or bridi, and
<quote>nai</quote> negates the second or right-hand one.</para>
<para>Whenever a logical connective occurs in a sentence, that sentence can be expanded into two sentences by repeating the common terms and joining the sentences by a logical connective beginning with
<quote>.i</quote>. Thus the following sentence:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-jmDS">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-jmDS">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e10d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section10-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi .e do klama ti</jbo>
<en>I and you come here.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>can be expanded to:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-KTQH">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KTQH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e10d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section10-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama ti .ije do klama ti</jbo>
<en>I come here, and, you come here.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The same type of expansion can be performed for any logical connective, with any valid combination of
<quote>na</quote> or
<quote>nai</quote> attached. No change in meaning occurs under such a transformation.</para>
<para>Clearly, if we know what negation means in the expanded sentence forms, then we know what it means in all of the other forms. But what does negation mean between sentences?</para>
<para>The mystery is easily solved. A negation in a logical expression is identical to the corresponding bridi negation, with the negator placed at the beginning of the prenex. Thus:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-pLiB">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pLiB">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e10d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section10-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi .enai do prami roda</jbo>
<en>I, and not you, love everything.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>expands to:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-h6Wz">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-h6Wz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e10d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section10-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi prami roda .ijenai do prami roda</jbo>
<en>I love everything, and-not, you love everything.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and then into prenex form as:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-JxDJ">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-JxDJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e10d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section10-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>roda zo'u mi prami da .ije naku zo'u do prami da</jbo>
<en>For each thing: I love it, and it is false that you love (the same) it.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>By the rules of predicate logic, the
<quote>ro</quote> quantifier on
<quote>da</quote> has scope over both sentences. That is, once you've picked a value for
<quote>da</quote> for the first sentence, it stays the same for both sentences. (The
<quote>da</quote> continues with the same fixed value until a new paragraph or a new prenex resets the meaning.)</para>
<!-- ^^ continues: example, 228 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>continues</primary></indexterm>
<para>Thus the following example has the indicated translation:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-yCA1">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-yCA1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e10d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section10-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>su'oda zo'u mi prami da .ije naku zo'u do prami da</jbo>
<gloss>For at least one thing: I love that thing. And it is false that: you love that (same) thing.</gloss>
<en>There is something that I love that you don't.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1442,80 +1442,80 @@
<para>A
<quote>na</quote> before the selbri is always transformed into a
<quote>naku</quote> at the left-hand end of the prenex, and vice versa.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter16-section11">
<title>Using
<quote>naku</quote> outside a prenex</title>
<para>Let us consider the English sentence</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-hp0j">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hp0j">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e11d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section11-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>Some children do not go to school.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>We cannot express this directly with
<quote>na</quote>; the apparently obvious translation</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-6mHh">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-6mHh">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e11d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section11-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>su'oda poi verba na klama su'ode poi ckule</jbo>
<en>At-least-one X which-are child(ren) [false] go-to at-least-one Y which-are school(s).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>when converted to the external negation form produces:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-nGTc">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nGTc">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e11d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section11-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>naku zo'u su'oda poi verba cu klama su'ode poi ckule</jbo>
<gloss>It is false that some which are children go-to some which are schools.</gloss>
<en>All children don't go to some school (not just some children).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Lojban provides a negation form which more closely emulates natural language negation. This involves putting
<quote>naku</quote> before the selbri, instead of a
<quote>na</quote>.
<quote>naku</quote> is clearly a contradictory negation, given its parallel with prenex bridi negation. Using
<quote>naku</quote>,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section11-example1" /> can be expressed as:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-nvtf">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nvtf">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e11d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section11-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>su'oda poi verba naku klama su'ode poi ckule</jbo>
<gloss>Some which-are children don't go-to some which-are schools.</gloss>
<en>Some children don't go to a school.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Although it is not technically a sumti,
<quote>naku</quote> can be used in most of the places where a sumti may appear. We'll see what this means in a moment.</para>
<para>When you use
<quote>naku</quote> within a bridi, you are explicitly creating a negation boundary. As explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section9" />, when a prenex negation boundary expressed by
<quote>naku</quote> moves past a quantifier, the quantifier has to be inverted. The same is true for
<quote>naku</quote> in the bridi proper. We can move
<quote>naku</quote> to any place in the sentence where a sumti can go, inverting any quantifiers that the negation boundary crosses. Thus, the following are equivalent to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section11-example4" />(no good English translations exist):</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Dqwh">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Dqwh">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e11d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section11-example5" />
<anchor xml:id="c16e11d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section11-example6" />
<anchor xml:id="c16e11d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section11-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>su'oda poi verba cu klama rode poi ckule naku</jbo>
@@ -1527,39 +1527,39 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section11-example5" />, we moved the negation boundary rightward across the quantifier of
<quote>de</quote>, forcing us to invert it. In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section11-example7" /> we moved the negation boundary across the quantifier of
<quote>da</quote>, forcing us to invert it instead.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section11-example6" /> merely switched the selbri and the negation boundary, with no effect on the quantifiers.</para>
<para>The same rules apply if you rearrange the sentence so that the quantifier crosses an otherwise fixed negation. You can't just convert the selbri of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section11-example4" /> and rearrange the sumti to produce</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-rHwu">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rHwu">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e11d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section11-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>su'ode poi ckule ku'o naku se klama roda poi verba</jbo>
<en>Some schools aren't gone-to-by every child.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>or rather,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section11-example8" /> means something completely different from
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section11-example4" />. Conversion with
<quote>se</quote> under
<quote>naku</quote> negation is not symmetric; not all sumti are treated identically, and some sumti are not invariant under conversion. Thus, internal negation with
<quote>naku</quote> is considered an advanced technique, used to achieve stylistic compatibility with natural languages.</para>
<para>It isn't always easy to see which quantifiers have to be inverted in a sentence.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section11-example4" /> is identical in meaning to:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-S6y4">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-S6y4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e11d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section11-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>su'o verba naku klama su'o ckule</jbo>
<en>Some children don't go-to some school.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>but in
@@ -1570,78 +1570,78 @@
<!-- ^^ internal bridi negation: compared to external bridi negation, 401; definition, 401 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>internal bridi negation</primary></indexterm>
<quote>na</quote> to the prenex, as we saw in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section9" />; you just move it to the left end of the prenex. In comparison, it is non-trivial to export a
<!-- ^^ comparison: claims related to based on form, 204 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>comparison</primary></indexterm>
<quote>naku</quote> to the prenex because of the quantifiers. The rules for exporting
<quote>naku</quote> require that you export all of the quantified variables (implicit or explicit) along with
<quote>naku</quote>, and you must export them from left to right, in the same order that they appear in the sentence. Thus
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section11-example4" /> goes into prenex form as:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-3f22">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3f22">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e11d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section11-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>su'oda poi verba ku'o naku</jbo>
<gloss>su'ode poi ckule zo'u da klama de</gloss>
<gloss>For some X which is a child, it is not the case that</gloss>
<en>there is a Y which is a school such that: X goes to Y.</en>
<!-- ^^ there is a Y: expression, notation convention, 401 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>there is a Y</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>We can now move the
<quote>naku</quote> to the left end of the prenex, getting a contradictory negation that can be expressed with
<quote>na</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-gPvc">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gPvc">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e11d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section11-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>naku roda poi verba</jbo>
<gloss>su'ode poi ckule zo'u da klama de</gloss>
<gloss>It is not the case that for all X's which are children,</gloss>
<en>there is a Y which is a school such that: X goes to Y.</en>
<!-- ^^ there is a Y: expression, notation convention, 401 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>there is a Y</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>from which we can restore the quantified variables to the sentence, giving:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Awc0">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Awc0">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e11d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section11-example12" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>naku zo'u roda poi verba cu klama su'ode poi ckule</jbo>
<en>It is not the case that all children go to some school.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>or more briefly</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-msIC">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-msIC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e11d13" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section11-example13" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro verba cu na klama su'o ckule</jbo>
<en>All children [false] go-to some school(s).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>As noted in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section5" />, a sentence with two different quantified variables, such as
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section11-example13" />, cannot always be converted with
<quote>se</quote> without first exporting the quantified variables. When the variables have been exported, the sentence proper can be converted, but the quantifier order in the prenex must remain unchanged:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-d8h3">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-d8h3">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e11d14" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section11-example14" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>roda poi verba</jbo>
<gloss>su'ode poi ckule zo'u de na se klama da</gloss>
<gloss>It is not the case that for all X's which are children,</gloss>
<en>there is a Y which is a school such that: Y is gone to by X.</en>
<!-- ^^ there is a Y: expression, notation convention, 401 -->
@@ -1656,21 +1656,21 @@
<quote>naku</quote> negation instead of
<quote>na</quote> negation, logical manipulation in Lojban would be as difficult as in natural languages. In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section12" />, for example, we'll discuss DeMorgan's Law, which must be used whenever a sumti with a logical connection is moved across a negation boundary.</para>
<para>Since
<quote>naku</quote> has the grammar of a sumti, it can be placed almost anywhere a sumti can go, including
<quote>be</quote> and
<quote>bei</quote> clauses; it isn't clear what these mean, and we recommend avoiding such constructs.</para>
<para>You can put multiple
<quote>naku</quote> s in a sentence, each forming a separate negation boundary. Two adjacent
<quote>naku</quote> s in a bridi are a double negative and cancel out:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-u784">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-u784">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e11d15" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section11-example15" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi naku naku le zarci cu klama</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Other expressions using two
<quote>naku</quote> s may or may not cancel out. If there is no quantified variable between them, then the
@@ -1727,40 +1727,40 @@
<quote>na</quote> and
<quote>naku zo'u</quote> as, respectively, internal and external bridi negation. These forms being identical, the negation boundary always remains at the left end of the prenex. Thus, exporting or importing negation between external and internal bridi negation forms never requires DeMorgan's Law to be applied.
<!-- ^^ internal bridi negation: compared to external bridi negation, 401; definition, 401 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>internal bridi negation</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ external bridi negation: compared to internal bridi negation, 401; definition, 401 -->
<!-- ^^ internal bridi negation: compared to external bridi negation, 401; definition, 401 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>internal bridi negation</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>external bridi negation</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section12-example1" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section12-example2" /> are exactly equivalent:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Erjj">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Erjj">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e12d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section12-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c16e12d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section12-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. na klama ga la paris. gi la rom.</jbo>
<en>John [false] goes-to either Paris or Rome.</en>
<jbo>naku zo'u la djan. klama ga la paris. gi la rom.</jbo>
<en>It-is-false that: John goes-to either Paris or Rome.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>It is not an acceptable logical manipulation to move a negator from the bridi level to one or more sumti. However,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section12-example1" /> and related examples are not sumti negations, but rather expand to form two logically connected sentences. In such a situation, DeMorgan's Law must be applied. For instance,
<!-- ^^ logically connected sentences: and DeMorgan's Law, 408 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>logically connected sentences</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section12-example2" /> expands to:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-KMct">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KMct">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e12d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section12-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ge la djan. la paris. na klama</jbo>
<gloss>gi la djan. la rom. na klama</gloss>
<gloss>[It is true that] both John, to-Paris, [false] goes,</gloss>
<en>and John, to-Rome, [false] goes.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1769,21 +1769,21 @@
<quote>ga</quote> and
<quote>gi</quote>, meaning
<quote>either-or</quote>, have become
<quote>ge</quote> and
<quote>gi</quote>, meaning
<quote>both-and</quote>, as a consequence of moving the negators into the individual bridi.</para>
<para>Here is another example of DeMorgan's Law in action, involving bridi-tail logical connection (explained in
<!-- ^^ bridi-tail logical connection: and DeMorgan's Law, 408 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>bridi-tail logical connection</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14" />):</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-NgLH">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-NgLH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e12d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section12-example4" />
<anchor xml:id="c16e12d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section12-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djein. le zarci na ge dzukla gi bajrykla</jbo>
<en>Jane to-the market [false] both walks and runs.</en>
<jbo>la djein. le zarci ganai dzukla ginai bajrykla</jbo>
@@ -1792,76 +1792,76 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(Placing
<quote>le zarci</quote> before the selbri makes sure that it is properly associated with both parts of the logical connection. Otherwise, it is easy to erroneously leave it off one of the two sentences.)</para>
<para>It is wise, before freely doing transformations such as the one from
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section12-example4" /> to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section12-example5" />, that you become familiar with expanding logical connectives to separate sentences, transforming the sentences, and then recondensing. Thus, you would prove the transformation correct by the following steps. By moving its
<quote>na</quote> to the beginning of the prenex as a
<quote>naku</quote>,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section12-example4" /> becomes:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-g5PI">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-g5PI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e12d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section12-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>naku zo'u la djein. le zarci ge dzukla gi bajrykla</jbo>
<en>It is false that : Jane to-the market (both walks and runs).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>And by dividing the bridi with logically connected selbri into two bridi,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-axCE">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-axCE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e12d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section12-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>naku zo'u ge la djein. le zarci cu dzukla</jbo>
<gloss>gi la djein. le zarci cu bajrykla</gloss>
<gloss>It-is-false-that: both (Jane to-the market walks)</gloss>
<en>and (Jane to-the market runs).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is the result.</para>
<para>At this expanded level, we apply DeMorgan's Law to distribute the negation in the prenex across both sentences, to get</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-bsu7">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-bsu7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e12d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section12-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ga la djein. le zarci na dzukla</jbo>
<gloss>gi la djein. le zarci na bajrykla</gloss>
<gloss>Either Jane to-the market [false] walks,</gloss>
<en>or Jane to-the market [false] runs.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which is the same as</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-jYWu">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-jYWu">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e12d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section12-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ganai la djein. le zarci cu dzukla</jbo>
<gloss>ginai la djein. le zarci cu bajrykla</gloss>
<gloss>If Jane to-the market walks,</gloss>
<gloss>then Jane to-the market [false] runs.</gloss>
<en>If Jane walks to the market, then she doesn't run.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which then condenses down to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section12-example5" />.</para>
<para>DeMorgan's Law must also be applied to internal
<quote>naku</quote> negations:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-1Yhy">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1Yhy">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e12d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section12-example10" />
<anchor xml:id="c16e12d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section12-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ga la paris. gi la rom. naku se klama la djan.</jbo>
<en>(Either Paris or Rome) is-not gone-to-by John.</en>
<jbo>la djan. naku klama ge la paris. gi la rom.</jbo>
@@ -1891,21 +1891,21 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>existential</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ bu'i, 409 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>bu'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bu'a</quote>,
<quote>bu'e</quote> and
<!-- ^^ bu'e, 409 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>bu'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bu'i</quote> with F, G, and H respectively.</para>
<!-- ^^ bu'i, 409 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>bu'i</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-gEWB">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gEWB">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e13d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section13-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>su'o bu'a zo'u la djim. bu'a la djan.</jbo>
<gloss>For-at-least-one relationship-F : Jim stands-in-relationship-F to-John.</gloss>
<en>There's some relationship between Jim and John.</en>
<!-- ^^ some relationship: example, 409 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>some relationship</primary></indexterm>
@@ -1920,33 +1920,33 @@
<quote>bu'a zo'u</quote>. This rule is necessary because only sumti can appear in the prenex, and
<quote>su'o bu'a</quote> is technically a sumti - in fact, it is an indefinite description like
<!-- ^^ indefinite description: as needing explicit outer quantifier, 132; as prohibiting explicit inner quantifier, 132; compared with restricted variable, 398; definition, 132, 398 -->
<!-- ^^ restricted variable: compared with indefinite description, 398 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>restricted variable</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>indefinite description</primary></indexterm>
<quote>re nanmu</quote>, since
<quote>bu'a</quote> is grammatically equivalent to a brivla like
<quote>nanmu</quote>. However, indefinite descriptions involving the bu'a-series cannot be imported from the prenex.</para>
<para>When the prenex is omitted, the preceding number has to be omitted too:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-XxgT">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-XxgT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e13d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section13-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djim. bu'a la djan.</jbo>
<en>Jim stands-in-at-least-one-relationship to-John.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>As a result, if the number before the variable is anything but
<quote>su'o</quote>, the prenex is required:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-L068">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-L068">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e13d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section13-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro bu'a zo'u la djim. bu'a la djan.</jbo>
<gloss>For-every relationship-F : Jim stands-in-relationship-F to-John.</gloss>
<en>Every relationship exists between Jim and John.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1955,21 +1955,21 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section13-example2" /> are almost certainly true: Jim and John might be brothers, or might live in the same city, or at least have the property of being jointly human.
<!-- ^^ brothers: example, 355 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>brothers</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section13-example3" /> is palpably false, however; if Jim and John were related by every possible relationship, then they would have to be both brothers and father-and-son, which is impossible.</para>
<!-- ^^ brothers: example, 355 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>brothers</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter16-section14">
<title>A few notes on variables</title>
<para>A variable may have a quantifier placed in front of it even though it has already been quantified explicitly or implicitly by a previous appearance, as in:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-x0FP">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-x0FP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e14d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section14-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ci da poi mlatu cu blabi .ije re da cu barda</jbo>
<en>Three Xs which-are cats are white, and two Xs are big.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>What does
@@ -1998,21 +1998,21 @@
<quote>bu'a</quote>,
<quote>bu'e</quote>, and
<!-- ^^ bu'e, 409 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>bu'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bu'i</quote>) are insufficient in number for handling a particular problem, the Lojban approach is to add a subscript to any of them. Each possible different combination of a subscript and a variable cmavo counts as a distinct variable in Lojban. Subscripts are explained in full in
<!-- ^^ bu'i, 409 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>bu'i</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19" />, but in general consist of the cmavo
<quote>xi</quote>(of selma'o XI) followed by a number, one or more lerfu words forming a single string, or a general mathematical expression enclosed in parentheses.</para>
<para>A quantifier can be prefixed to a variable that has already been bound either in a prenex or earlier in the bridi, thus:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-6gyb">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-6gyb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e14d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section14-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ci da poi prenu cu se ralju pa da</jbo>
<gloss>Three Xs which are-persons are-led-by one-of X</gloss>
<en>Three people are led by one of them.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
diff --git a/todocbook/17.xml b/todocbook/17.xml
index f4d3b1d..7cdbd6f 100644
--- a/todocbook/17.xml
+++ b/todocbook/17.xml
@@ -2,21 +2,21 @@
<title>Chapter 17 As Easy As A-B-C? The Lojban Letteral System And Its Uses</title>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section1">
<title>What's a letteral, anyway?</title>
<para>James Cooke Brown, the founder of the Loglan Project, coined the word
<!-- ^^ Brown: James Cooke, 6; James Cooke, and "letteral", 413 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Brown</primary></indexterm>
<quote>letteral</quote>(by analogy with
<quote>numeral</quote>) to mean a letter of the alphabet, such as
<quote>f</quote> or
<quote>z</quote>. A typical example of its use might be</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-tvHm">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-tvHm">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e1d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section1-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>There are fourteen occurrences of the letteral
<quote>e</quote> in this sentence.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(Don't forget the one within quotation marks.) Using the word
@@ -116,21 +116,21 @@
<quote>.y'y</quote>. The vowel lerfu words, on the other hand, are compound cmavo, made from a single vowel cmavo plus the cmavo
<quote>bu</quote>(which belongs to its own selma'o, BU). All of the vowel cmavo have other meanings in Lojban (logical connectives, sentence separator, hesitation noise), but those meanings are irrelevant when
<!-- ^^ sentence separator, 495 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>sentence separator</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ irrelevant: specifying of sumti place, 157 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>irrelevant</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ hesitation, 484, 507 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>hesitation</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bu</quote> follows.</para>
<para>Here are some illustrations of common Lojban words spelled out using the alphabet above:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-DMIQ">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-DMIQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e2d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section2-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c17e2d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section2-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ty. .abu ny. ry. .ubu</jbo>
<en>
<quote>t</quote>
@@ -154,36 +154,36 @@
<quote>eff</quote> or
<quote>vee</quote>, is enough to discriminate easily between them - and even if the first lerfu word were somehow confused, neither
<quote>vail</quote> nor
<quote>fale</quote> is a word of ordinary English, so the rest of the spelling determines which word is meant. Still, the capability of spelling out words does exist in Lojban.</para>
<!-- ^^ spelling out words: Lojban contrasted with English, 414 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>spelling out words</primary></indexterm>
<para>Note that the lerfu words ending in
<quote>y</quote> were written (in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17-section2-example1" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17-section2-example2" />) with pauses after them. It is not strictly necessary to pause after such lerfu words, but failure to do so can in some cases lead to ambiguities:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-6dMS">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-6dMS">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e2d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section2-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cy. claxu</jbo>
<gloss>I lerfu-
<quote>c</quote> without</gloss>
<en>I am without (whatever is referred to by) the letter
<quote>c</quote>.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>without a pause after
<quote>cy</quote> would be interpreted as:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-qBLA">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-qBLA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e2d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section2-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>micyclaxu</jbo>
<gloss>(Observative:) doctor-without</gloss>
<en>Something unspecified is without a doctor.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -193,21 +193,21 @@
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section3">
<title>Upper and lower cases</title>
<para>Lojban doesn't use lower-case (small) letters and upper-case (capital) letters in the same way that English does; sentences do not begin with an upper-case letter, nor do names. However, upper-case letters are used in Lojban to mark irregular stress within names, thus:</para>
<!-- ^^ upper-case letters: English usage contrasted with Lojban, 415; Lojban usage contrasted with English, 415 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>upper-case letters</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ upper-case: lerfu word for, 415 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>upper-case</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ lower-case: lerfu word for, 415 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>lower-case</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Fam2">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Fam2">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e3d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section3-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.iVAN.</jbo>
<en>the name
<quote>Ivan</quote> in Russian/Slavic pronunciation.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -229,21 +229,21 @@
<!-- ^^ ga'e, 415 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ga'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>to'a</quote> causes the interpretation to revert to lower case. Thus,
<!-- ^^ to'a, 415 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>to'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ga'e .abu</quote> means not
<!-- ^^ ga'e, 415 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ga'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>a</quote> but
<quote>A</quote>, and Ivan's name may be spelled out thus:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-q6pw">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-q6pw">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e3d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section3-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.ibu ga'e vy. .abu ny. to'a</jbo>
<!-- ^^ to'a, 415 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>to'a</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ ga'e, 415 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ga'e</primary></indexterm>
@@ -261,21 +261,21 @@
<!-- ^^ upper-case: lerfu word for, 415 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>upper-case</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ lower-case: lerfu word for, 415 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>lower-case</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ chemical elements: use of single-letter shift for, 415 -->
<!-- ^^ single-letter shift: as toggle, 415 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>single-letter shift</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ letter shift, 498 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>letter shift</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>chemical elements</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Xyp6">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Xyp6">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e3d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section3-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c17e3d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section3-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>tau sy.</jbo>
<gloss>[single shift] S</gloss>
<en>S (chemical symbol for sulfur)</en>
@@ -308,21 +308,21 @@
<quote>la'o</quote>,
<quote>lo'u</quote>,
<quote>si</quote>,
<quote>sa</quote>,
<quote>su</quote>, and
<quote>fa'o</quote> may not have
<!-- ^^ fa'o, 416, 484; contrasted with fe'o, 325; interaction with bu, 416 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>fa'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bu</quote> attached, because they are interpreted before
<quote>bu</quote> detection is done; in particular,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-WvFu">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-WvFu">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e4d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section4-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>zo bu</jbo>
<en>the word
<quote>bu</quote></en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -401,21 +401,21 @@
<quote>bu</quote> attached. The following assignments have been made:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
.y'y.bu h
ky.bu q
vy.bu w
</programlisting>
<para>As an example, the English word
<quote>quack</quote> would be spelled in Lojban thus:</para>
<!-- ^^ quack: example, 417 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>quack</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-0oAR">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-0oAR">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e5d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section5-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ky.bu .ubu .abu cy. ky.</jbo>
<en>
<quote>q</quote>
<quote>u</quote>
<quote>a</quote>
@@ -473,21 +473,21 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Arabic alphabet</primary></indexterm>
ru'o Cyrillic alphabet
<!-- ^^ Cyrillic alphabet: language shift word for, 417; proposed lerfu words for, 427 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Cyrillic alphabet</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>zai</quote>(of selma'o LAU) is used to create shift words to still other alphabets. The BY word which must follow any LAU cmavo would typically be a name representing the alphabet with
<!-- ^^ zai, 418 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>zai</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bu</quote> suffixed:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-LmzW">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-LmzW">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e5d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section5-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c17e5d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section5-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c17e5d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section5-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>zai .devanagar. bu</jbo>
@@ -528,21 +528,21 @@
<quote>.</quote> characters marking leading and following pauses.)</para>
<para>In addition, there may be multiple visible representations within a single alphabet for a given letter: roman vs. italics, handwriting vs. print, Bodoni vs. Helvetica. These traditional
<!-- ^^ handwriting: example, 418 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>handwriting</primary></indexterm>
<quote>font and face</quote> distinctions are also represented by shift words, indicated with the cmavo
<!-- ^^ font: example, 418; specifying for letters, 418 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>font</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ce'a</quote>(of selma'o LAU) and a following BY word:</para>
<!-- ^^ ce'a, 418 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ce'a</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-LWH6">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-LWH6">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e5d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section5-example5" />
<anchor xml:id="c17e5d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section5-example6" />
<anchor xml:id="c17e5d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section5-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ce'a .xelveticas. bu</jbo>
@@ -608,21 +608,21 @@
<quote>umlaut a</quote>).</para>
<!-- ^^ umlaut: a diacritical mark, 418; proposed lerfu word for, 429 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>umlaut</primary></indexterm>
<para>Lojban cannot settle this question by fiat. Either it must be left up to default interpretation depending on the language in question, or the lerfu-word compounding cmavo
<quote>tei</quote>(of selma'o TEI) and
<quote>foi</quote>(of selma'o FOI) must be used. These cmavo are always used in pairs; any number of lerfu words may appear between them, and the whole is treated as a single compound lerfu word. The French word
<quote>été</quote>, with acute accent marks on both
<!-- ^^ accent marks: proposed lerfu words for, 429 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>accent marks</primary></indexterm>
<quote>e</quote> lerfu, could be spelled as:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-NQgb">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-NQgb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e6d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section6-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>tei .ebu .akut. bu foi ty. tei .akut. bu .ebu foi</jbo>
<en>(
<quote>e</quote> acute )
<quote>t</quote>( acute
<quote>e</quote>)</en>
@@ -739,21 +739,21 @@
<para>First, both Chinese and Japanese have standard Latin-alphabet representations, known as
<quote>pinyin</quote> for Chinese and
<!-- ^^ pinyin: as a basis for Chinese characters in Lojban lerfu words, 420 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>pinyin</primary></indexterm>
<quote>romaji</quote> for Japanese, and these can be used. Thus, the word
<!-- ^^ romaji: as a basis for kanji characters in Lojban lerfu words, 420 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>romaji</primary></indexterm>
<quote>han
<superscript>4</superscript> zi
<superscript>4</superscript></quote> is conventionally written with two characters, but it may be spelled out as:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-fBfe">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-fBfe">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e8d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section8-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.y'y.bu .abu ny. vo zy. .ibu vo</jbo>
<en>
<quote>h</quote>
<quote>a</quote>
<quote>n</quote> 4
@@ -766,21 +766,21 @@
<quote>4</quote>. It is grammatical to intersperse digits (of selma'o PA) into a string of lerfu words; as long as the first cmavo is a lerfu word, the whole will be interpreted as a string of lerfu words. In Chinese, the digits can be used to represent tones. Pinyin is more usually written using accent marks, the mechanism for which was explained in
<!-- ^^ accent marks: proposed lerfu words for, 429 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>accent marks</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17-section6" />.</para>
<para>The Japanese company named
<quote>Mitsubishi</quote> in English is spelled the same way in romaji, and could be spelled out in Lojban thus:</para>
<!-- ^^ romaji: as a basis for kanji characters in Lojban lerfu words, 420 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>romaji</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ Mitsubishi: example, 420 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Mitsubishi</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-pLUV">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pLUV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e8d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section8-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>my. .ibu ty. sy. .ubu by. .ibu sy. .y'y.bu .ibu</jbo>
<en>
<quote>m</quote>
<quote>i</quote>
<quote>t</quote>
@@ -807,118 +807,118 @@
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section9">
<title>lerfu words as pro-sumti</title>
<para>So far, lerfu words have only appeared in Lojban text when spelling out words. There are several other grammatical uses of lerfu words within Lojban. In each case, a single lerfu word or more than one may be used. Therefore, the term
<!-- ^^ spelling out words: Lojban contrasted with English, 414 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>spelling out words</primary></indexterm>
<quote>lerfu string</quote> is introduced: it is short for
<quote>sequence of one or more lerfu words</quote>.</para>
<para>A lerfu string may be used as a pro-sumti (a sumti which refers to some previous sumti), just like the pro-sumti
<quote>ko'a</quote>,
<quote>ko'e</quote>, and so on:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-2wo8">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2wo8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e9d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section9-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.abu prami by.</jbo>
<en>A loves B</en>
<!-- ^^ A loves B: example, 421 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>A loves B</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17-section9-example1" />,
<quote>.abu</quote> and
<quote>by.</quote> represent specific sumti, but which sumti they represent must be inferred from context.</para>
<para>Alternatively, lerfu strings may be assigned by
<quote>goi</quote>, the regular pro-sumti assignment cmavo:</para>
<!-- ^^ pro-sumti assignment: explicit cancellation of with da'o, 162; no'i effect on, 162; stability of, 162 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>pro-sumti assignment</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-i7Ny">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-i7Ny">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e9d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section9-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le gerku goi gy. cu xekri .i gy. klama le zdani</jbo>
<en>The dog, or G, is black. G goes to the house.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>There is a special rule that sometimes makes lerfu strings more advantageous than the regular pro-sumti cmavo. If no assignment can be found for a lerfu string (especially a single lerfu word), it can be assumed to refer to the most recent sumti whose name or description begins in Lojban with that lerfu. So
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17-section9-example2" /> can be rephrased:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-7hVs">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7hVs">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e9d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section9-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le gerku cu xekri. .i gy. klama le zdani</jbo>
<en>The dog is black. G goes to the house.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(A less literal English translation would use
<quote>D</quote> for
<quote>dog</quote> instead.)</para>
<para>Here is an example using two names and longer lerfu strings:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-uAAF">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-uAAF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e9d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section9-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la stivn. mark. djonz. merko .i la .aleksandr. paliitc. kuzNIETsyf. rusko</jbo>
<gloss>.i symyjy. tavla .abupyky. bau la lojban.</gloss>
<gloss>Steven Mark Jones is-American. Alexander Pavlovitch Kuznetsov is-Russian.</gloss>
<!-- ^^ Steven Mark Jones: example, 421 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Steven Mark Jones</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ Alexander Pavlovitch Kuznetsov: example, 421 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Alexander Pavlovitch Kuznetsov</primary></indexterm>
<en>SMJ talks-to APK in Lojban.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Perhaps Alexander's name should be given as
<quote>ru'o.abupyky</quote> instead.</para>
<para>What about</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-gJFz">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gJFz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e9d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section9-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.abu dunda by. cy.</jbo>
<en>A gives B C</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Does this mean that A gives B to C? No.
<!-- ^^ A gives B to C: example, 421 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>A gives B to C</primary></indexterm>
<quote>by. cy.</quote> is a single lerfu string, although written as two words, and represents a single pro-sumti. The true interpretation is that A gives BC to someone unspecified. To solve this problem, we need to introduce the elidable terminator
<!-- ^^ A gives BC: example, 421 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>A gives BC</primary></indexterm>
<quote>boi</quote>(of selma'o BOI). This cmavo is used to terminate lerfu strings and also strings of numerals; it is required when two of these appear in a row, as here. (The other reason to use
<quote>boi</quote> is to attach a free modifier - subscript, parenthesis, or what have you - to a lerfu string.) The correct version is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Hdwz">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Hdwz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e9d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section9-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.abu [boi] dunda by. boi cy. [boi]</jbo>
<en>A gives B to C</en>
<!-- ^^ A gives B to C: example, 421 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>A gives B to C</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where the two occurrences of
<quote>boi</quote> in brackets are elidable, but the remaining occurrence is not. Likewise:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-L9op">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-L9op">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e9d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section9-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xy. boi ro [boi] prenu cu prami</jbo>
<gloss>X all persons loves.</gloss>
<!-- ^^ all persons: example, 398 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>all persons</primary></indexterm>
<en>X loves everybody.</en>
@@ -928,48 +928,48 @@
<quote>boi</quote> to separate the lerfu string
<quote>xy.</quote> from the digit string
<!-- ^^ digit string: definition of, 458 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>digit string</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ro</quote>.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section10">
<title>References to lerfu</title>
<para>The rules of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17-section9" /> make it impossible to use unmarked lerfu words to refer to lerfu themselves. In the sentence:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-CYny">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-CYny">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e10d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section10-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.abu. cu lerfu</jbo>
<en>A is-a-letteral.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>the hearer would try to find what previous sumti
<quote>.abu</quote> refers to. The solution to this problem makes use of the cmavo
<quote>me'o</quote> of selma'o LI, which makes a lerfu string into a sumti representing that very string of lerfu. This use of
<quote>me'o</quote> is a special case of its mathematical use, which is to introduce a mathematical expression used literally rather than for its value.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Yy32">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Yy32">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e10d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section10-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>me'o .abu cu lerfu</jbo>
<en>The-expression
<quote>a</quote> is-a-letteral.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Now we can translate
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17-section1-example1" /> into Lojban:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-UT1J">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-UT1J">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e10d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section10-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>dei vasru vo lerfu</jbo>
<gloss>po'u me'o .ebu</gloss>
<gloss>this-sentence contains four letterals</gloss>
<gloss>which-are the-expression
<quote>e</quote>.</gloss>
@@ -978,47 +978,47 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Since the Lojban sentence has only four
<quote>e</quote> lerfu rather than fourteen, the translation is not a literal one - but
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17-section10-example4" /> is a Lojban truth just as
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17-section1-example1" /> is an English truth. Coincidentally, the colloquial English translation of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17-section10-example4" /> is also true!</para>
<para>The reader might be tempted to use quotation with
<quote>lu ... li'u</quote> instead of
<quote>me'o</quote>, producing:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-pbDf">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pbDf">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e10d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section10-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lu .abu li'u cu lerfu</jbo>
<en>[quote] .abu [unquote] is-a-letteral.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(The single-word quote
<quote>zo</quote> cannot be used, because
<quote>.abu</quote> is a compound cmavo.) But
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17-section10-example4" /> is false, because it says:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-P8Ag">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-P8Ag">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e10d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section10-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>The word
<quote>.abu</quote> is a letteral</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which is not the case; rather, the thing symbolized by the word
<quote>.abu</quote> is a letteral. In Lojban, that would be:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Da4r">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Da4r">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e10d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section10-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la'e lu .abu li'u cu lerfu</jbo>
<!-- ^^ la'e lu: compared with me'o, 422 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>la'e lu</primary></indexterm>
<en>The-referent-of [quote] .abu [unquote] is-a-letteral.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1027,40 +1027,40 @@
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section11">
<title>Mathematical uses of lerfu strings</title>
<para>This chapter is not about Lojban mathematics, which is explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18" />, so the mathematical uses of lerfu strings will be listed and exemplified but not explained.</para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>A lerfu string as mathematical variable:</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-1Nuz">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1Nuz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e11d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section11-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li .abu du li by. su'i cy.</jbo>
<gloss>the-number a equals the-number b plus c</gloss>
<en>a = b + c</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>A lerfu string as function name (preceded by
<!-- ^^ function name: lerfu string as, 423 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>function name</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ma'o</quote> of selma'o MAhO):</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-H0SM">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-H0SM">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e11d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section11-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li .y.bu du li ma'o fy. boi xy.</jbo>
<gloss>the-number y equals the number the-function f of x</gloss>
<!-- ^^ function f of x: example, 423 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>function f of x</primary></indexterm>
<en>y = f(x)</en>
@@ -1068,75 +1068,75 @@
</example>
<para>Note the
<quote>boi</quote> here to separate the lerfu strings
<quote>fy</quote> and
<quote>xy</quote>.</para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>A lerfu string as selbri (followed by a cmavo of selma'o MOI):</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-X4KM">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-X4KM">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e11d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section11-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le vi ratcu ny.moi le'i mi ratcu</jbo>
<gloss>the here rat is-nth-of the-set-of my rats</gloss>
<en>This rat is my Nth rat.</en>
<!-- ^^ Nth rat: example, 423, 448 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Nth rat</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>A lerfu string as utterance ordinal (followed by a cmavo of selma'o MAI):</para>
<!-- ^^ utterance ordinal: lerfu string as, 423 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>utterance ordinal</primary></indexterm>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Jw40">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Jw40">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e11d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section11-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ny.mai</jbo>
<en>Nthly</en>
<!-- ^^ Nthly: example, 423 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Nthly</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>A lerfu string as subscript (preceded by
<quote>xi</quote> of selma'o XI):</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-oTgS">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-oTgS">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e11d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section11-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xy. xi ky.</jbo>
<en>x sub k</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>A lerfu string as quantifier (enclosed in
<quote>vei ... ve'o</quote> parentheses):</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-bbnL">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-bbnL">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e11d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section11-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>vei ny. [ve'o] lo prenu</jbo>
<en>(
<quote>n</quote>) persons</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1188,21 +1188,21 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>acronyms</primary></indexterm>
<quote>SQL</quote> may be
<!-- ^^ SQL: example, 424 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>SQL</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ess cue ell</quote> or
<quote>sequel</quote>.</para>
<para>In Lojban, a name can be almost any sequence of sounds that ends in a consonant and is followed by a pause. The easiest way to Lojbanize acronym names is to glue the lerfu words together, using
<!-- ^^ acronym: definition, 423 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>acronym</primary></indexterm>
<quote>'</quote> wherever two vowels would come together (pauses are illegal in names) and adding a final consonant:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-736i">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-736i">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e12d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section12-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la dyny'abub. .i la ny'abuty'obub.</jbo>
<gloss>.i la cy'ibu'abub. .i la sykybulyl.</gloss>
<gloss>.i la .ibubymym. .i la ny'ybucyc.</gloss>
<gloss>DNA. NATO.</gloss>
<!-- ^^ NATO: example, 424 -->
@@ -1220,21 +1220,21 @@
<!-- ^^ IBM: example, 424 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>IBM</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>There is no fixed convention for assigning the final consonant. In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17-section12-example1" />, the last consonant of the lerfu string has been replicated into final position.</para>
<para>Some compression can be done by leaving out
<quote>bu</quote> after vowel lerfu words (except for
<quote>.y.bu</quote>, wherein the
<quote>bu</quote> cannot be omitted without ambiguity). Compression is moderately important because it's hard to say long names without introducing an involuntary (and illegal) pause:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-0sin">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-0sin">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e12d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section12-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la dyny'am. .i la ny'aty'om.</jbo>
<gloss>.i la cy'i'am. .i la sykybulym.</gloss>
<gloss>.i la .ibymym. .i la ny'ybucym.</gloss>
<gloss>DNA. NATO.</gloss>
<!-- ^^ NATO: example, 424 -->
@@ -1256,21 +1256,21 @@
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17-section12-example2" />, the final consonant
<quote>m</quote> stands for
<quote>merko</quote>, indicating the source culture of these acronyms.</para>
<!-- ^^ acronyms: as lerfu strings using "me", 424; using names based on lerfu words, 423 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>acronyms</primary></indexterm>
<para>Another approach, which some may find easier to say and which is compatible with older versions of the language that did not have a
<quote>'</quote> character, is to use the consonant
<quote>z</quote> instead of
<quote>'</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Js6m">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Js6m">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e12d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section12-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la dynyzaz. .i la nyzatyzoz.</jbo>
<gloss>.i la cyzizaz. .i la sykybulyz.</gloss>
<gloss>.i la .ibymyz. .i la nyzybucyz.</gloss>
<gloss>DNA. NATO.</gloss>
<!-- ^^ NATO: example, 424 -->
@@ -1286,36 +1286,36 @@
<!-- ^^ NYC: example, 424 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>NYC</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ IBM: example, 424 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>IBM</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>One more alternative to these lengthy names is to use the lerfu string itself prefixed with
<quote>me</quote>, the cmavo that makes sumti into selbri:</para>
<!-- ^^ sumti into selbri, 98 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>sumti into selbri</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-iMRB">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-iMRB">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e12d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section12-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la me dy ny. .abu</jbo>
<en>that-named what-pertains-to
<quote>d</quote>
<quote>n</quote>
<quote>a</quote></en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This works because
<quote>la</quote>, the cmavo that normally introduces names used as sumti, may also be used before a predicate to indicate that the predicate is a (meaningful) name:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-7KLi">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7KLi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e12d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section12-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la cribe cu ciska</jbo>
<gloss>That-named
<quote>Bear</quote> writes.</gloss>
<en>Bear is a writer.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1340,21 +1340,21 @@
<!-- ^^ character codes: definition, 425 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>character codes</primary></indexterm>
<quote>characters</quote>). Historically, these character sets have only covered the English alphabet and a few selected punctuation marks. International efforts have now created Unicode, a unified character set that can represent essentially all the characters in essentially all the world's writing systems. Lojban can take advantage of these encoding schemes by using the cmavo
<!-- ^^ Unicode, 425 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Unicode</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ punctuation marks: cmavo as Lojban equivalents, 50 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>punctuation marks</primary></indexterm>
<quote>se'e</quote>(of selma'o BY). This cmavo is conventionally followed by digit cmavo of selma'o PA representing the character code, and the whole string indicates a single character in some computerized character set:</para>
<!-- ^^ se'e, 425; and number base convention, 425 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>se'e</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-r2jv">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-r2jv">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e13d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section13-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>me'o se'ecixa cu lerfu la .asycy'i'is.</jbo>
<gloss>loi merko rupnu</gloss>
<gloss>The-expression [code] 36 is-a-letteral in-set ASCII</gloss>
<!-- ^^ ASCII: application to lerfu words, 425 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ASCII</primary></indexterm>
@@ -1374,21 +1374,21 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17-section13-example1" /> depends on knowing the value in the ASCII character set (one of the simplest and oldest) of the
<!-- ^^ ASCII: application to lerfu words, 425 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ASCII</primary></indexterm>
<quote>$</quote> character. Therefore, the
<quote>se'e</quote> convention is only intelligible to those who know the underlying character set. For precisely specifying a particular character, however, it has the advantages of unambiguity and (relative) cultural neutrality, and therefore Lojban provides a means for those with access to descriptions of such character sets to take advantage of them.</para>
<!-- ^^ se'e, 425; and number base convention, 425 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>se'e</primary></indexterm>
<para>As another example, the Unicode character set (also known as ISO 10646) represents the international symbol of peace, an inverted trident in a circle, using the base-16 value 262E. In a suitable context, a Lojbanist may say:</para>
<!-- ^^ Unicode, 425 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Unicode</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-MXET">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-MXET">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e13d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section13-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>me'o se'erexarerei sinxa le ka panpi</jbo>
<en>the-expression [code] 262E is-a-sign-of the quality-of being-at-peace</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>When a
diff --git a/todocbook/18.xml b/todocbook/18.xml
index e53ec8f..9c065fc 100644
--- a/todocbook/18.xml
+++ b/todocbook/18.xml
@@ -20,21 +20,21 @@
</orderedlist>
<para>Goal 1 requires that mekso not be constrained to a single notation such as Polish notation or reverse Polish notation, but make provision for all forms, with the most commonly used forms the most easily used.</para>
<!-- ^^ reverse Polish notation: and mekso goals, 431; definition, 452; indicator, 494; marker, 452; number of operands, 453; operands of, 453; parentheses in operands of, 453; terminator, 452; use of parentheses in, 452; with too few operands, 453; with too many operands, 453 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>reverse Polish notation</primary></indexterm>
<para>Goal 2 requires the provision of several conversion mechanisms, so that the boundary between mekso and full Lojban can be crossed from either side at many points.</para>
<para>Goal 3 is the most subtle. Written mathematical expression is culturally unambiguous, in the sense that mathematicians in all parts of the world understand the same written texts to have the same meanings. However, international mathematical notation does not prescribe unique forms. For example, the expression</para>
<!-- ^^ mathematical notation: and omitted operators, 431; and operator precedence, 436; forethought (see also Polish), 438; infix, 435; infix shortcomings, 438; international uniqueness of, 431 -->
<!-- ^^ operator precedence: and mathematical notation, 436; effect of pragmatic convention, 436; generalized explicit specification, 437; in Lojban default, 436; plans for future, 458; rationale for default left-grouping, 436; scope modification with bi'e, 437; specifying by parenthesis, 437 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>operator precedence</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>mathematical notation</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-dGcT">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-dGcT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e1d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section1-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>3x + 2y</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>contains omitted multiplication operators, but there are other possible interpretations for the strings
<!-- ^^ multiplication: explicit expression of, 437; implicit expression of, 437 -->
@@ -97,47 +97,47 @@
<selmaho>PA</selmaho>
<description>9</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>no</cmavo>
<selmaho>PA</selmaho>
<description>0</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>The simplest kind of mekso are numbers, which are cmavo or compound cmavo. There are cmavo for each of the 10 decimal digits, and numbers greater than 9 are made by stringing together the cmavo. Some examples:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-LmPr">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-LmPr">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e2d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section2-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>pa re ci</jbo>
<gloss>one two three</gloss>
<gloss>123 ignore</gloss>
<en>one hundred and twenty three</en>
<!-- ^^ hundred: expressing as number, 432 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>hundred</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-TNjj">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-TNjj">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e2d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section2-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>pa no</jbo>
<gloss>one zero</gloss>
<gloss>10</gloss>
<en>ten</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-gjzw">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gjzw">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e2d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section2-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>pa re ci vo mu xa ze bi so no</jbo>
<gloss>one two three four five six seven eight nine zero</gloss>
<gloss>1234567890</gloss>
<en>one billion, two hundred and thirty-four million, five hundred and sixty-seven thousand, eight hundred and ninety.</en>
<!-- ^^ hundred: expressing as number, 432 -->
@@ -189,73 +189,73 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>percent</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ ce'i, 433 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ce'i</primary></indexterm>
ki'o PA comma between digits
<!-- ^^ ki'o, 433 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ki'o</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>A number can be given an explicit sign by the use of
<quote>ma'u</quote> and
<quote>ni'u</quote>, which are the positive and negative signs as distinct from the addition, subtraction, and negation operators. For example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-6A5H">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-6A5H">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e3d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section3-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ni'u pa</jbo>
<gloss>negative-sign 1</gloss>
<en>-1</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Grammatically, the signs are part of the number to which they are attached. It is also possible to use
<quote>ma'u</quote> and
<quote>ni'u</quote> by themselves as numbers; the meaning of these numbers is explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section8" />.</para>
<para>Various numerical punctuation marks are likewise expressed by cmavo, as illustrated in the following examples:</para>
<!-- ^^ punctuation marks: cmavo as Lojban equivalents, 50 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>punctuation marks</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Ust4">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Ust4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e3d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section3-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ci pi pa vo pa mu</jbo>
<gloss>three point one four one five</gloss>
<en>3.1415</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(In some cultures, a comma is used instead of a period in the symbolic version of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section3-example2" />;
<quote>pi</quote> is still the Lojban representation for the decimal point.)</para>
<!-- ^^ decimal point: as numerical punctuation, 433; effect of different notations, 433; in bases other than 10, 444 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>decimal point</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-AeRL">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-AeRL">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e3d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section3-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>re fi'u ze</jbo>
<!-- ^^ fi'u, 433 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>fi'u</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>two fraction seven</gloss>
<en>2/7</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section3-example3" /> is the name of the number two-sevenths; it is not the same as
<quote>the result of 2 divided by 7</quote> in Lojban, although numerically these two are equal. If the denominator of the fraction is present but the numerator is not, the numerator is taken to be 1, thus expressing the reciprocal of the following number:</para>
<!-- ^^ reciprocal: expression of mathematical, 433 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>reciprocal</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-zR7K">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-zR7K">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e3d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section3-example4" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e3d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section3-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>fi'u ze</jbo>
<!-- ^^ fi'u, 433 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>fi'u</primary></indexterm>
@@ -266,21 +266,21 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ra'e</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>point three five repeating one four two eight five seven</gloss>
<en>.35142857142857...</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that the
<quote>ra'e</quote> marks unambiguously where the repeating portion
<!-- ^^ ra'e, 433 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ra'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>142857</quote> begins.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-H60c">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-H60c">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e3d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section3-example6" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e3d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section3-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ci mu ce'i</jbo>
<!-- ^^ ce'i, 433 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ce'i</primary></indexterm>
@@ -297,41 +297,41 @@
</example>
<para>(In some cultures, spaces are used in the symbolic representation of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section3-example7" />;
<quote>ki'o</quote> is still the Lojban representation.)</para>
<!-- ^^ ki'o, 433 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ki'o</primary></indexterm>
<para>It is also possible to have less than three digits between successive
<quote>ki'o</quote> s, in which case zeros are assumed to have been elided:</para>
<!-- ^^ ki'o, 433 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ki'o</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-TTBx">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-TTBx">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e3d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section3-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>pa ki'o re ci ki'o vo</jbo>
<!-- ^^ ki'o, 433 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ki'o</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>one comma two three comma four</gloss>
<en>1,023,004</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In the same way,
<quote>ki'o</quote> can be used after
<!-- ^^ ki'o, 433 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ki'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>pi</quote> to divide fractions into groups of three:</para>
<!-- ^^ fractions: expressing with numerical punctuation, 433; numerator default, 433 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>fractions</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-S28N">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-S28N">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e3d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section3-example9" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e3d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section3-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>pi ki'o re re</jbo>
<!-- ^^ ki'o, 433 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ki'o</primary></indexterm>
@@ -406,21 +406,21 @@
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c18e4d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section4-example4" /> 4.4) pai
pi,
<phrase role="IPA">π</phrase>
<anchor xml:id="c18e4d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section4-example5" /> 4.5) te'o
e
</programlisting>
<para>However, many combinations are as yet undefined:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-rv8p">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rv8p">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e4d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section4-example6" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e4d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section4-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>pa pi re pi ci</jbo>
<en>1.2.3</en>
<jbo>pa ni'u re</jbo>
@@ -448,21 +448,21 @@
pi'i VUhU times
te'a VUhU raised to the power
<!-- ^^ te'a, 437 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>te'a</primary></indexterm>
ny. BY letter
<quote>n</quote>
vei VEI left parenthesis
ve'o VEhO right parenthesis
</programlisting>
<para>Let us begin at the beginning: one plus one equals two. In Lojban, that sentence translates to:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-CUeK">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-CUeK">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e5d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section5-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li pa su'i pa du li re</jbo>
<gloss>The-number one plus one equals the-number two.</gloss>
<en>1 + 1 = 2</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -472,88 +472,88 @@
<quote>x1 is mathematically equal to x2</quote>. It is a cmavo for conciseness, but it has the same grammatical uses as any brivla. Outside mathematical contexts,
<quote>du</quote> means
<quote>x1 is identical with x2</quote> or
<quote>x1 is the same object as x2</quote>.</para>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>li</quote> is the number article. It is required whenever a sentence talks about numbers as numbers, as opposed to using numbers to quantify things. For example:</para>
<!-- ^^ number article: explanation of use, 435 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>number article</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ article, 498; number, 435 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>article</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-nSU9">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nSU9">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e5d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section5-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ci prenu</jbo>
<en>the three persons</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>requires no
<quote>li</quote> article, because the
<!-- ^^ article, 498; number, 435 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>article</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ci</quote> is being used to specify the number of
<quote>prenu</quote>. However, the sentence</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-BNFi">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-BNFi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e5d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section5-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>levi sfani cu grake li ci</jbo>
<gloss>This fly masses-in-grams the-number three.</gloss>
<en>This fly has a mass of 3 grams.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>requires
<quote>li</quote> because
<quote>ci</quote> is being used as a sumti. Note that this is the way in which measurements are stated in Lojban: all the predicates for units of length, mass, temperature, and so on have the measured object as the first place and a number as the second place. Using
<!-- ^^ measurements: expressing, 435 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>measurements</primary></indexterm>
<quote>li</quote> for
<quote>le</quote> in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section5-example2" /> would produce</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-gJe1">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gJe1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e5d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section5-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li ci prenu</jbo>
<en>The-number 3 is-a-person.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which is grammatical but nonsensical: numbers are not persons.</para>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>su'i</quote> belongs to selma'o VUhU, which is composed of mathematical operators, and means
<!-- ^^ mathematical operators, 436 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>mathematical operators</primary></indexterm>
<quote>addition</quote>. As mentioned before, it is distinct from
<quote>ma'u</quote> which means the positive sign as an indication of a positive number:</para>
<!-- ^^ positive sign: contrasted with addition operator, 436 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>positive sign</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-4gsp">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4gsp">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e5d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section5-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li ma'u pa su'i ni'u pa du li no</jbo>
<gloss>The-number positive-sign one plus negative-sign one equals the-number zero.</gloss>
<en>+1 + -1 = 0</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Of course, it is legal to have complex mekso on both sides of
<quote>du</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-d6bM">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-d6bM">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e5d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section5-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li mu su'i pa du li ci su'i ci</jbo>
<gloss>The-number five plus one equals the-number three plus three.</gloss>
<en>5 + 1 = 3 + 3</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -568,39 +568,39 @@
<para>By default, Lojban mathematics is like simple calculator mathematics: there is no notion of
<!-- ^^ calculator mathematics: as default in Lojban, 436 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>calculator mathematics</primary></indexterm>
<quote>operator precedence</quote>. Consider the following example, where
<!-- ^^ operator precedence: and mathematical notation, 436; effect of pragmatic convention, 436; generalized explicit specification, 437; in Lojban default, 436; plans for future, 458; rationale for default left-grouping, 436; scope modification with bi'e, 437; specifying by parenthesis, 437 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>operator precedence</primary></indexterm>
<quote>pi'i</quote> means
<quote>times</quote>, the multiplication operator:</para>
<!-- ^^ multiplication: explicit expression of, 437; implicit expression of, 437 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>multiplication</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-7a2Q">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7a2Q">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e5d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section5-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li ci su'i vo pi'i mu du li reci</jbo>
<gloss>The-number three plus four times five equals the-number two-three.</gloss>
<en>3 + 4 × 5 = 23</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Is the Lojban version of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section5-example7" /> true? No!
<quote>3 + 4 × 5</quote> is indeed 23, because the usual conventions of mathematics state that multiplication takes precedence over addition; that is, the multiplication
<!-- ^^ multiplication: explicit expression of, 437; implicit expression of, 437 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>multiplication</primary></indexterm>
<quote>4 × 5</quote> is done first, giving 20, and only then the addition
<quote>3 + 20</quote>. But VUhU operators by default are done left to right, like other Lojban grouping, and so a truthful bridi would be:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-XUQh">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-XUQh">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e5d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section5-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li ci su'i vo pi'i mu du li cimu</jbo>
<gloss>The-number three plus four times five equals the-number three-five.</gloss>
<en>3 + 4 × 5 = 35</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -609,21 +609,21 @@
<quote>li ci su'i vo pi'i mu</quote> and mean 23 by it, because the notion that multiplication takes precedence over addition is too deeply ingrained to be eradicated by Lojban parsing, which totally ignores semantics. This convention essentially allows semantics to dominate syntax in this one area.</para>
<!-- ^^ multiplication: explicit expression of, 437; implicit expression of, 437 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>multiplication</primary></indexterm>
<para>(Why not hard-wire the precedences into the grammar, as is done in computer programming languages? Essentially because there are too many operators, known and unknown, with levels of precedence that vary according to usage. The programming language 'C' has 13 levels of precedence, and its list of operators is not even extensible. For Lojban this approach is just not practical. In addition, hard-wired precedence could not be overridden in mathematical systems such as spreadsheets where the conventions are different.)</para>
<para>The second solution is to use explicit means to specify the precedence of operators. This approach is fully general, but clumsy, and will be explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section20" />.</para>
<para>The third solution is simple but not very general. When an operator is prefixed with the cmavo
<quote>bi'e</quote>(of selma'o BIhE), it becomes automatically of higher precedence than other operators not so prefixed. Thus,</para>
<!-- ^^ bi'e, 437; effect on following operator, 437 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>bi'e</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-LIUa">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-LIUa">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e5d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section5-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li ci su'i vo bi'e pi'i mu du li reci</jbo>
<!-- ^^ bi'e, 437; effect on following operator, 437 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>bi'e</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>The-number three plus four-times-five equals the-number two-three.</gloss>
<en>3 + 4 × 5 = 23</en>
@@ -634,21 +634,21 @@
<!-- ^^ bi'e, 437; effect on following operator, 437 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>bi'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bi'e</quote> prefixes on a single operator are not allowed.</para>
<!-- ^^ bi'e, 437; effect on following operator, 437 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>bi'e</primary></indexterm>
<para>In addition, of course, Lojban has the mathematical parentheses
<quote>vei</quote> and
<quote>ve'o</quote>, which can be used just like their written equivalents
<quote>(</quote> and
<quote>)</quote> to group expressions in any way desired:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-wfFV">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-wfFV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e5d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section5-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li vei ny. su'i pa ve'o pi'i vei ny. su'i pa [ve'o] du</jbo>
<gloss>li ny. [bi'e] te'a re su'i re bi'e pi'i ny. su'i pa</gloss>
<!-- ^^ te'a, 437 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>te'a</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ bi'e, 437; effect on following operator, 437 -->
@@ -706,21 +706,21 @@
<quote>x</quote>
zy. BY letter
<quote>z</quote>
ma'o MAhO convert operand to operator
fy. BY letter
<quote>f</quote>
</programlisting>
<para>The infix form explained so far is reasonable for many purposes, but it is limited and rigid. It works smoothly only where all operators have exactly two operands, and where precedences can either be assumed from context or are limited to just two levels, with some help from parentheses.</para>
<para>But there are many operators which do not have two operands, or which have a variable number of operands. The preferred form of expression in such cases is the use of
<quote>forethought operators</quote>, also known as Polish notation. In this style of writing mathematics, the operator comes first and the operands afterwards:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-I0Bm">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-I0Bm">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e6d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section6-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li su'i paboi reboi ci[boi] du li xa</jbo>
<gloss>The-number the-sum-of one two three equals the-number six.</gloss>
<en>sum(1,2,3) = 6</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -728,21 +728,21 @@
<quote>boi</quote> is required after
<quote>pa</quote> and
<quote>re</quote> because otherwise the reading would be
<quote>pareci</quote>= 123. It is not required after
<quote>ci</quote> but is inserted here in brackets for the sake of symmetry. The only time
<quote>boi</quote> is required is, as in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section6-example1" />, when there are two consecutive numbers or lerfu strings.</para>
<para>Forethought mekso can use any number of operands, in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section6-example1" />, three. How do we know how many operands there are in ambiguous circumstances? The usual Lojban solution is employed: an elidable terminator, namely
<quote>ku'e</quote>. Here is an example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-IxMG">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-IxMG">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e6d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section6-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li py. su'i va'a ny. ku'e su'i zy du li xy.</jbo>
<gloss>The-number
<quote>p</quote> plus negative-of(
<quote>n</quote>) plus
<quote>z</quote> equals the-number
@@ -776,21 +776,21 @@
<quote>su'i zy</quote> would be swallowed up by the
<quote>va'a</quote> forethought operator, which would then appear to have two operands,
<quote>ny</quote> and
<quote>su'i zy.</quote>, where the latter is also a forethought expression.</para>
<para>Forethought mekso is also useful for matching standard functional notation. How do we represent
<!-- ^^ functional notation: standard, 438 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>functional notation</primary></indexterm>
<quote>z = f(x)</quote>? The answer is:</para>
<!-- ^^ z = f(x): example, 438 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>z = f</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-VybU">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-VybU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e6d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section6-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li zy du li ma'o fy.boi xy.</jbo>
<gloss>The-number z equals the-number the-operator f x.</gloss>
<en>z = f(x)</en>
<!-- ^^ z = f(x): example, 438 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>z = f</primary></indexterm>
@@ -814,21 +814,21 @@
<quote>pe'o</quote> and
<!-- ^^ pe'o, 439 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>pe'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ku'e</quote> pairs to delimit the operand list.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section6-example1" /> to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section6-example3" />, respectively, with explicit
<quote>pe'o</quote> and
<!-- ^^ pe'o, 439 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>pe'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ku'e</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-CDR6">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-CDR6">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e6d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section6-example4" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e6d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section6-example5" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e6d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section6-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li pe'o su'i paboi reboi ciboi ku'e du li xa</jbo>
@@ -847,21 +847,21 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>infix expressions</primary></indexterm>
<quote>vei</quote> and
<quote>ve'o</quote>. An earlier version of the complex
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section17-example6" /> came to grief because I forgot this rule.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter18-section7">
<title>Other useful selbri for mekso bridi</title>
<para>So far our examples have been isolated mekso (it is legal to have a bare mekso as a sentence in Lojban) and equation bridi involving
<quote>du</quote>. What about inequalities such as
<quote>x < 5</quote>? The answer is to use a bridi with an appropriate selbri, thus:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-s4TW">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-s4TW">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e7d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section7-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li xy. mleca li mu</jbo>
<en>The-number x is-less-than the-number 5.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here is a partial list of selbri useful in mathematical bridi:</para>
@@ -890,21 +890,21 @@
</programlisting>
<para>Note the difference between
<quote>dunli</quote> and
<!-- ^^ dunli: contrasted with du, 163, 439 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>dunli</primary></indexterm>
<quote>du</quote>;
<quote>dunli</quote> has a third place that specifies the kind of equality that is meant.
<!-- ^^ dunli: contrasted with du, 163, 439 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>dunli</primary></indexterm>
<quote>du</quote> refers to actual identity, and can have any number of places:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-PTmF">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PTmF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e7d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section7-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>py. du xy.boi zy.</jbo>
<gloss>
<quote>p</quote> is-identical-to
<quote>x</quote>
<quote>z</quote></gloss>
@@ -912,21 +912,21 @@
<!-- ^^ p = x = z: example, 439 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>p = x = z</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Lojban bridi can have only one predicate, so the
<quote>du</quote> is not repeated.</para>
<para>Any of these selbri may usefully be prefixed with
<quote>na</quote>, the contradictory negation cmavo, to indicate that the relation is false:</para>
<!-- ^^ negation cmavo: position relative to selbri, 104 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>negation cmavo</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-WuRn">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-WuRn">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e7d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section7-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li re su'i re na du li mu</jbo>
<gloss>the-number 2 + 2 is-not equal-to the-number 5.</gloss>
<en>2 + 2 ≠ 5</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1010,21 +1010,21 @@
<description>too few</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>Not all the cmavo of PA represent numbers in the usual mathematical sense. For example, the cmavo
<quote>ro</quote> means
<quote>all</quote> or
<quote>each</quote>. This number does not have a definite value in the abstract:
<quote>li ro</quote> is undefined. But when used to count or quantify something, the parallel between
<quote>ro</quote> and
<quote>pa</quote> is clearer:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-fDMt">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-fDMt">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section8-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section8-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi catlu pa prenu</jbo>
<en>I look-at one person</en>
<jbo>mi catlu ro prenu</jbo>
@@ -1052,21 +1052,21 @@
<!-- ^^ so'o, 440 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>so'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>so'u</quote> represent a set of indefinite numbers less than
<!-- ^^ so'u, 440 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>so'u</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ indefinite numbers, 440; combined with definite, 442; effect of pi on, 441 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>indefinite numbers</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ro</quote>. As you go down an alphabetical list, the magnitude decreases:</para>
<!-- ^^ magnitude: tense, 250 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>magnitude</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-r4N1">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-r4N1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section8-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section8-example4" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section8-example5" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section8-example6" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d7" />
@@ -1110,21 +1110,21 @@
<quote>most</quote> in the sense of
<quote>a majority</quote> or
<quote>more than half</quote>.</para>
<para>Each of these numbers, plus
<quote>ro</quote>, may be prefixed with
<quote>pi</quote>(the decimal point) in order to make a fractional form which represents part of a whole rather than some elements of a totality.
<!-- ^^ decimal point: as numerical punctuation, 433; effect of different notations, 433; in bases other than 10, 444 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>decimal point</primary></indexterm>
<quote>piro</quote> therefore means
<quote>the whole of</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-dwJI">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-dwJI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section8-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi citka piro lei nanba</jbo>
<en>I eat the-whole-of the-mass-of bread</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Similarly,
@@ -1139,40 +1139,40 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>no'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>the typical value</quote>, and
<!-- ^^ typical value: contrasted with elliptical value for sumti, 157; contrasted with mathematical average, 441 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>typical value</primary></indexterm>
<quote>pino'o</quote>, meaning
<quote>the typical portion</quote>: Sometimes
<quote>no'o</quote> can be translated
<!-- ^^ no'o, 441 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>no'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>the average value</quote>, but the average in question is not, in general, a mathematical mean, median, or mode; these would be more appropriately represented by operators.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-UuBR">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-UuBR">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section8-example9" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section8-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi catlu no'o prenu</jbo>
<!-- ^^ no'o, 441 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>no'o</primary></indexterm>
<en>I look-at a-typical-number-of persons</en>
<jbo>mi citka pino'o lei nanba</jbo>
<en>I eat a-typical-amount-of the-mass-of bread.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<quote>da'a</quote> is a related cmavo meaning
<quote>all but</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-iat6">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-iat6">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section8-example11" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section8-example12" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi catlu da'a re prenu</jbo>
<en>I look-at all-but two persons</en>
<jbo>mi catlu da'a so'u prenu</jbo>
@@ -1183,21 +1183,21 @@
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section8-example12" /> is similar in meaning to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section8-example3" />.</para>
<para>If no number follows
<quote>da'a</quote>, then
<quote>pa</quote> is assumed;
<quote>da'a</quote> by itself means
<quote>all but one</quote>, or in ordinal contexts
<quote>all but the last</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-3z2U">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3z2U">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d13" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section8-example13" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro ratcu ka'e citka da'a ratcu</jbo>
<!-- ^^ ka'e, 243 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ka'e</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>All rats can eat all-but-one rats.</gloss>
<en>All rats can eat all other rats.</en>
@@ -1209,21 +1209,21 @@
<!-- ^^ eat themselves: example, 442 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>eat themselves</primary></indexterm>
<quote>itself</quote> is, indeed, the
<quote>other</quote> rat.)</para>
<para>As mentioned in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section3" />,
<quote>ma'u</quote> and
<quote>ni'u</quote> are also legal numbers, and they mean
<quote>some positive number</quote> and
<quote>some negative number</quote> respectively.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-UKjr">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-UKjr">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d14" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section8-example14" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d15" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section8-example15" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d16" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section8-example16" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li ci vu'u re du li ma'u</jbo>
@@ -1243,21 +1243,21 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>indefinite values</primary></indexterm>
<quote>rau</quote>(enough),
<!-- ^^ rau, 442, 448 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>rau</primary></indexterm>
<quote>du'e</quote>(too many), and
<!-- ^^ du'e, 442, 448 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>du'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>mo'a</quote>(too few) are then appropriate:</para>
<!-- ^^ mo'a, 442, 448 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>mo'a</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-TIiE">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-TIiE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d17" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section8-example17" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ponse rau rupnu</jbo>
<!-- ^^ rau, 442, 448 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>rau</primary></indexterm>
<en>I possess enough currency-units.</en>
<!-- ^^ enough currency: example, 442 -->
@@ -1276,21 +1276,21 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>du'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>mo'a</quote> can be preceded by
<!-- ^^ mo'a, 442, 448 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>mo'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>pi</quote>; for example,
<quote>pirau</quote> means
<quote>a sufficient part of.</quote></para>
<para>Another possibility is that of combining definite and indefinite numbers into a single number. This usage implies that the two kinds of numbers have the same value in the given context:</para>
<!-- ^^ indefinite numbers, 440; combined with definite, 442; effect of pi on, 441 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>indefinite numbers</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-u5Xo">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-u5Xo">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d18" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section8-example18" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d19" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section8-example19" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska le rore gerku</jbo>
<gloss>I saw the all-of/two dogs.</gloss>
<en>I saw both dogs.</en>
@@ -1321,55 +1321,55 @@
<!-- ^^ me'i, 443; with elided number, 443 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>me'i</primary></indexterm>
za'u PA more than
<!-- ^^ za'u, 443; with elided number, 443 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>za'u</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>ji'i</quote>(of selma'o PA) is used in several ways to indicate approximate or rounded numbers. If it appears at the beginning of a number, the whole number is approximate:</para>
<!-- ^^ rounded numbers: expressing, 443 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>rounded numbers</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-YLcy">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-YLcy">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e9d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section9-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ji'i vo no</jbo>
<gloss>approximation four zero</gloss>
<en>approximately 40</en>
<!-- ^^ approximately 40: example, 443 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>approximately 40</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>If
<quote>ji'i</quote> appears in the middle of a number, all the digits following it are approximate:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-BANC">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-BANC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e9d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section9-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>vo no ji'i mu no</jbo>
<gloss>four zero approximation five zero</gloss>
<en>roughly 4050 (where the
<quote>four thousand</quote> is exact, but the
<quote>fifty</quote> is approximate)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>If
<quote>ji'i</quote> appears at the end of a number, it indicates that the number has been rounded. In addition, it can then be followed by a sign cmavo (
<quote>ma'u</quote> or
<quote>ni'u</quote>), which indicate truncation towards positive or negative infinity respectively.</para>
<!-- ^^ infinity: example, 434 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>infinity</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-85C3">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-85C3">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e9d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section9-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e9d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section9-example4" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e9d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section9-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>re pi ze re ji'i</jbo>
@@ -1399,21 +1399,21 @@
<quote>su'e</quote>,
<!-- ^^ su'e, 443; with elided number, 443 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>su'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>su'o</quote>,
<quote>me'i</quote>, and
<!-- ^^ me'i, 443; with elided number, 443 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>me'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>za'u</quote>, also of selma'o PA, express inexact numbers with upper or lower bounds:</para>
<!-- ^^ za'u, 443; with elided number, 443 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>za'u</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-KzdI">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KzdI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e9d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section9-example6" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e9d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section9-example7" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e9d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section9-example8" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e9d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section9-example9" />
</title>
@@ -1440,21 +1440,21 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section9-example6" /> refers to zero, one, or two;
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section9-example8" /> to zero or one. (Of course, when the context allows numbers other than non-negative integers,
<quote>me'i re</quote> can be any number less than 2, and likewise with the other cases.) The exact quantifier,
<!-- ^^ me'i, 443; with elided number, 443 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>me'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>exactly 2, neither more nor less</quote> is just
<quote>re</quote>. Note that
<quote>su'ore</quote> is the exact Lojban equivalent of English plurals.</para>
<para>If no number follows one of these cmavo,
<quote>pa</quote> is understood: therefore,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-brir">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-brir">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e9d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section9-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi catlu su'o prenu</jbo>
<en>I look-at at-least [one] person</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is a meaningful claim.</para>
@@ -1518,34 +1518,34 @@
<description>compound base point</description>
<!-- ^^ compound base: definition, 445; expressing digits in, 445; separator for, 445 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>compound base</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ base point: in bases other than 10, 444 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>base point</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>In normal contexts, Lojban assumes that all numbers are expressed in the decimal (base 10) system. However, other bases are possible, and may be appropriate in particular circumstances.</para>
<para>To specify a number in a particular base, the VUhU operator
<quote>ju'u</quote> is suitable:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Iw8u">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Iw8u">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e10d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section10-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li pa no pa no ju'u re du li pa no</jbo>
<en>The-number 1010 base 2 equals the-number 10.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here, the final
<quote>pa no</quote> is assumed to be base 10, as usual; so is the base specification. (The base may also be changed permanently by a metalinguistic specification; no standard way of doing so has as yet been worked out.)</para>
<para>Lojban has digits for representing bases up to 16, because 16 is a base often used in computer applications. In English, it is customary to use the letters A-F as the base 16 digits equivalent to the numbers ten through fifteen. In Lojban, this ambiguity is avoided:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-iYLw">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-iYLw">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e10d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section10-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e10d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section10-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li daufeigai ju'u paxa du li rezevobi</jbo>
<en>The-number ABC base 16 equals the-number 2748.</en>
<!-- ^^ ABC base 16: example, 444 -->
@@ -1555,21 +1555,21 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note the pattern in the cmavo: the diphthongs
<quote>au</quote>,
<quote>ei</quote>,
<quote>ai</quote> are used twice in the same order. The digits for A to D use consonants different from those used in the decimal digit cmavo; E and F unfortunately overlap 2 and 4 - there was simply not enough available cmavo space to make a full differentiation possible. The cmavo are also in alphabetical order.</para>
<para>The base point
<!-- ^^ base point: in bases other than 10, 444 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>base point</primary></indexterm>
<quote>pi</quote> is used in non-decimal bases just as in base 10:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-gCo4">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gCo4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e10d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section10-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li vai pi bi ju'u paxa du li pamu pi mu</jbo>
<en>The-number F.8 base 16 equals the-number 15.5.</en>
<!-- ^^ F.8 base 16: example, 444 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>F.8 base 16</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1578,33 +1578,33 @@
<quote>ju'u</quote> is an operator of selma'o VUhU, it is grammatical to use any operand as the left argument. Semantically, however, it is undefined to use anything but a numeral string on the left. The reason for making
<quote>ju'u</quote> an operator is to allow reference to a base which is not a constant.</para>
<para>There are some numerical values that require a
<quote>base</quote> that varies from digit to digit. For example, times represented in hours, minutes, and seconds have, in effect, three
<!-- ^^ hours:minutes:seconds: example, 445 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>hours</primary></indexterm>
<quote>digits</quote>: the first is base 24, the second and third are base 60. To express such numbers, the compound base separator
<!-- ^^ compound base: definition, 445; expressing digits in, 445; separator for, 445 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>compound base</primary></indexterm>
<quote>pi'e</quote> is used:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-17HR">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-17HR">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e10d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section10-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ci pi'e rere pi'e vono</jbo>
<en>3:22:40</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Each digit sequence separated by instances of
<quote>pi'e</quote> is expressed in decimal notation, but the number as a whole is not decimal and can only be added and subtracted by special rules:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-iUYu">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-iUYu">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e10d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section10-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li ci pi'e rere pi'e vono su'i pi'e ci pi'e cici du li ci pi'e rexa pi'e paci</jbo>
<gloss>The-number 3:22:40 plus :3:33 equals the-number 3:26:13.</gloss>
<en>3:22:40 + 0:3:33 = 3:26:13</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1613,71 +1613,71 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section10-example6" /> is hours, the second minutes, and the third seconds.</para>
<!-- ^^ hours:minutes:seconds: example, 445 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>hours</primary></indexterm>
<para>The same mechanism using
<quote>pi'e</quote> can be used to express numbers which have a base larger than 16. For example, base-20 Mayan mathematics might use digits from
<!-- ^^ Mayan mathematics: as a system with base larger than 16, 445 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Mayan mathematics</primary></indexterm>
<quote>no</quote> to
<quote>paso</quote>, each separated by
<quote>pi'e</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Nx5T">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Nx5T">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e10d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section10-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li pa pi'e re pi'e ci ju'u reno du li vovoci</jbo>
<en>the-number 1;2;3 base 20 equals the-number 443</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Carefully note the difference between:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ydwP">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ydwP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e10d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section10-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>pano ju'u reno</jbo>
<en>the-digit-10 base 20</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which is equal to ten, and:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-QBQx">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-QBQx">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e10d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section10-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>pa pi'e no ju'u reno</jbo>
<en>1;0 base 20</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which is equal to twenty.</para>
<para>Both
<quote>pi</quote> and
<quote>pi'e</quote> can be used to express large-base fractions:</para>
<!-- ^^ fractions: expressing with numerical punctuation, 433; numerator default, 433 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>fractions</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-26Li">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-26Li">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e10d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section10-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li pa pi'e vo pi ze ju'u reno du li re vo pi ci mu</jbo>
<en>The-number 1;4.7 base 20 equals the-number 24.35.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<quote>pi'e</quote> is also used where the base of each digit is vague, as in the numbering of the examples in this chapter:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-U161">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-U161">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e10d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section10-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>dei jufra panopi'epapamoi</jbo>
<gloss>This-utterance is-a-sentence-type-of 10;11th-thing.</gloss>
<en>This is Sentence 10.11.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1745,39 +1745,39 @@
<quote>mei</quote> creates cardinal selbri. The basic place structure is:</para>
<!-- ^^ cardinal selbri: definition, 446; place structure, 446; place structure effect from subjective numbers, 448 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>cardinal selbri</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
x1 is a mass formed from the set x2 of n members, one or more of which is/are x3
</programlisting>
<para>A cardinal selbri interrelates a set with a given number of members, the mass formed from that set, and the individuals which make the set up. The mass argument is placed first as a matter of convenience, not logical necessity.</para>
<!-- ^^ cardinal selbri: definition, 446; place structure, 446; place structure effect from subjective numbers, 448 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>cardinal selbri</primary></indexterm>
<para>Some examples:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ujSA">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ujSA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e11d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section11-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lei mi ratcu cu cimei</jbo>
<gloss>Those-I-describe-as-the-mass-of my rats are-a-threesome.</gloss>
<gloss>My rats are three.</gloss>
<en>I have three rats.</en>
<!-- ^^ three rats: example, 446 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>three rats</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here, the mass of my rats is said to have three components; that is, I have three rats.</para>
<!-- ^^ three rats: example, 446 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>three rats</primary></indexterm>
<para>Another example, with one element this time:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-1Pen">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1Pen">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e11d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section11-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi poi pamei cu cusku dei</jbo>
<en>I who am-an-individual express this-sentence.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
@@ -1785,41 +1785,41 @@
<quote>mi</quote> refers to a mass,
<quote>the mass consisting of me</quote>. Personal pronouns are vague between masses, sets, and individuals.</para>
<para>However, when the number expressed before
<quote>-mei</quote> is an objective indefinite number of the kind explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section8" />, a slightly different place structure is required:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
x1 is a mass formed from a set x2 of n members, one or more of which is/are x3,
measured relative to the set x4.
</programlisting>
<para>An example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-GJsg">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-GJsg">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e11d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section11-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lei ratcu poi zvati le panka cu so'umei fo lo'i ratcu</jbo>
<gloss>The-mass-of rats which are-in the park are a-fewsome with-respect-to the-set-of rats.</gloss>
<!-- ^^ fewsome: example, 446 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>fewsome</primary></indexterm>
<en>The rats in the park are a small number of all the rats there are.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section11-example3" />, the x2 and x3 places are vacant, and the x4 place is filled by
<quote>lo'i ratcu</quote>, which (because no quantifiers are explicitly given) means
<quote>the whole of the set of all those things which are rats</quote>, or simply
<quote>the set of all rats.</quote></para>
<!-- ^^ set of all rats: example, 447 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>set of all rats</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-n52D">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-n52D">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e11d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section11-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le'i ratcu poi zvati le panka cu se so'imei</jbo>
<gloss>The-set-of rats which-are in the park is-a manysome.</gloss>
<!-- ^^ manysome: example, 447 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>manysome</primary></indexterm>
<en>There are many rats in the park.</en>
@@ -1834,21 +1834,21 @@
<para>More explanations about the interrelationship of sets, masses, and individuals can be found in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6" />.</para>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>moi</quote> creates ordinal selbri. The place structure is:</para>
<!-- ^^ ordinal selbri: definition, 447; place structure, 447; place structure effect from subjective numbers, 448 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ordinal selbri</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
x1 is the (n)th member of set x2 when ordered by rule x3
</programlisting>
<para>Some examples:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-G3J1">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-G3J1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e11d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section11-example5" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e11d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section11-example6" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e11d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section11-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti pamoi le'i mi ratcu</jbo>
@@ -1873,42 +1873,42 @@
<para>The cmavo
<quote>si'e</quote> creates portion selbri. The place structure is:</para>
<!-- ^^ si'e, 447 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>si'e</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ portion selbri: definition, 447; place structure, 447; place structure effect from subjective numbers, 448 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>portion selbri</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
x1 is an (n)th portion of mass x2
</programlisting>
<para>Some examples:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-i8r4">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-i8r4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e11d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section11-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>levi sanmi cu fi'ucisi'e lei mi djedi cidja</jbo>
<gloss>This-here meal is-a-slash-three-portion-of my day-food.</gloss>
<en>This meal is one-third of my daily food.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>cu'o</quote> creates probability selbri. The place structure is:</para>
<!-- ^^ probability selbri: definition, 447; place structure, 447; place structure effect from subjective numbers, 448; values, 447 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>probability selbri</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ cu'o, 447 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>cu'o</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
event x1 has probability (n) of occurring under conditions x2
</programlisting>
<para>The number must be between 0 and 1 inclusive. For example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-9sf6">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9sf6">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e11d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section11-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nu lo sicni cu sedja'o cu pimucu'o</jbo>
<en>The event of a coin being a head-displayer has probability .5.</en>
<!-- ^^ probability .5: example, 447 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>probability .5</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1919,21 +1919,21 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>va'e</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ scale selbri: definition, 447; place structure, 447; place structure effect from subjective numbers, 448 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>scale selbri</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
x1 is at scale position (n) on the scale x2
</programlisting>
<para>If the scale is granular rather than continuous, a form like
<!-- ^^ continuous: of tense intervals, 225 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>continuous</primary></indexterm>
<quote>cifi'uxa</quote>(3/6) may be used; in this case, 3/6 is not the same as 1/2, because the third position on a scale of six positions is not the same as the first position on a scale of two positions. Here is an example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-XiTd">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-XiTd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e11d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section11-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le vi rozgu cu sofi'upanova'e xunre</jbo>
<gloss>This rose is 9/10-scale red.</gloss>
<gloss>This rose is 9 out of 10 on the scale of redness.</gloss>
<!-- ^^ scale of redness: example, 448 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>scale of redness</primary></indexterm>
@@ -1944,21 +1944,21 @@
<quote>rau</quote>,
<!-- ^^ rau, 442, 448 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>rau</primary></indexterm>
<quote>du'e</quote>, or
<!-- ^^ du'e, 442, 448 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>du'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>mo'a</quote>(enough, too many, too few) then an additional place is added for
<!-- ^^ mo'a, 442, 448 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>mo'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>by standard</quote>. For example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-aGLh">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-aGLh">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e11d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section11-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lei ratcu poi zvati le panka cu du'emei fo mi</jbo>
<gloss>The-mass-of rats which-are in the park are too-many by-standard me.</gloss>
<en>There are too many rats in the park for me.</en>
<!-- ^^ too many rats: example, 448 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>too many rats</primary></indexterm>
@@ -1972,36 +1972,36 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ma'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>enough</quote>.</para>
<para>This place is not normally explicit when using one of the subjective numbers directly as a number. Therefore,
<quote>du'e ratcu</quote> means
<!-- ^^ du'e, 442, 448 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>du'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>too many rats</quote> without specifying any standard.</para>
<!-- ^^ too many rats: example, 448 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>too many rats</primary></indexterm>
<para>It is also grammatical to substitute a lerfu string for a number:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-cyLo">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-cyLo">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e11d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section11-example12" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta ny.moi le'i mi ratcu</jbo>
<gloss>That is-nth-of the-set-of my rats.</gloss>
<en>That is my nth rat.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>More complex mekso cannot be placed directly in front of MOI, due to the resulting grammatical ambiguities. Instead, a somewhat artificial form of expression is required.</para>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>me</quote>(of selma'o ME) has the function of making a sumti into a selbri. A whole
<quote>me</quote> construction can have a member of MOI added to the end to create a complex mekso selbri:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-xaYd">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-xaYd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e11d13" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section11-example13" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta me li ny. su'i pa me'u moi le'i mi ratcu</jbo>
<gloss>That is the-number n plus one-th-of the-set-of my rats.</gloss>
<en>That is my (n+1)-th rat.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -2009,21 +2009,21 @@
<quote>ny. su'i pa</quote> is made into a sumti (with
<quote>li</quote>) and then changed into a mekso selbri with
<quote>me</quote> and
<quote>me'u moi</quote>. The elidable terminator
<quote>me'u</quote> is required here in order to keep the
<quote>pa</quote> and the
<quote>moi</quote> separate; otherwise, the parser will combine them into the compound
<quote>pamoi</quote> and reject the sentence as ungrammatical.</para>
<para>It is perfectly possible to use non-numerical sumti after
<quote>me</quote> and before a member of MOI, producing strange results indeed:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-enCe">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-enCe">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e11d14" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section11-example14" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nu mi nolraitru</jbo>
<gloss>cu me le'e snime bolci be vi la xel. cu'o</gloss>
<!-- ^^ cu'o, 447 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>cu'o</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>The event-of me being-a-nobly-superlative-ruler</gloss>
@@ -2053,21 +2053,21 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>xo</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>PA</selmaho>
<description>number question</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>xo</quote>, a member of selma'o PA, is used to ask questions whose answers are numbers. Like most Lojban question words, it fills the blank where the answer should go. (See
<!-- ^^ xo, 449 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>xo</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19" /> for more on Lojban questions.)</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-BJGv">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-BJGv">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e12d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section12-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e12d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section12-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li re su'i re du li xo</jbo>
<!-- ^^ xo, 449 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>xo</primary></indexterm>
@@ -2077,21 +2077,21 @@
<gloss>The what-number-th person hit you?</gloss>
<en>Which person [as in a police lineup] hit you?</en>
<!-- ^^ police lineup, 449 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>police lineup</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<quote>xo</quote> can also be combined with other digits to ask questions whose answers are already partly specified. This ability could be very useful in writing tests of elementary arithmetical knowledge:</para>
<!-- ^^ xo, 449 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>xo</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-hSee">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hSee">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e12d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section12-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li remu pi'i xa du li paxono</jbo>
<en>The-number 25 times 6 equals the-number 1?0</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>to which the correct reply would be
@@ -2104,37 +2104,37 @@
<title>Subscripts</title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>xi</cmavo>
<selmaho>XI</selmaho>
<description>subscript</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>Subscripting is a general Lojban feature, not used only in mekso; there are many things that can logically be subscripted, and grammatically a subscript is a free modifier, usable almost anywhere. In particular, of course, mekso variables (lerfu strings) can be subscripted:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-MT0a">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-MT0a">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e13d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section13-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li xy.boixici du li xy.boixipa su'i xy.boixire</jbo>
<gloss>The-number x-sub-3 equals the-number x-sub-1 plus x-sub-2.</gloss>
<!-- ^^ x-sub-3, 449 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>x-sub-3</primary></indexterm>
<en>x</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Subscripts always begin with the flag
<quote>xi</quote>(of selma'o XI).
<quote>xi</quote> may be followed by a number, a lerfu string, or a general mekso expression in parentheses:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Dqzy">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Dqzy">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e13d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section13-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e13d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section13-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e13d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section13-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xy.boixino</jbo>
@@ -2145,21 +2145,21 @@
<en>x</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that subscripts attached directly to lerfu words (variables) generally need a
<quote>boi</quote> terminating the variable. Free modifiers, of which subscripts are one variety, generally require the explicit presence of an otherwise elidable terminator.</para>
<para>There is no standard way of handling superscripts (other than those used as exponents) or for subscripts or superscripts that come before the main expression. If necessary, further cmavo could be assigned to selma'o XI for these purposes.</para>
<!-- ^^ superscripts, 450 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>superscripts</primary></indexterm>
<para>The elidable terminator for a subscript is that for a general number or lerfu string, namely
<quote>boi</quote>. By convention, a subscript following another subscript is taken to be a sub-subscript:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-FddL">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-FddL">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e13d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section13-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xy.boi xi by.boi xi vo</jbo>
<en>x</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>See
@@ -2206,21 +2206,21 @@
<quote>ge'a</quote>. The first is suitable when there are too few operands, the second when there are too many. For example, suppose we wanted to express the numerical negation operator
<!-- ^^ negation operator: contrasted with negative sign, 438; contrasted with subtraction operator, 438 -->
<!-- ^^ subtraction operator: contrasted with negation operator, 438; contrasted with negative sign, 434 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>subtraction operator</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ negative sign: contrasted with negation operator, 438; contrasted with subtraction operator, 434 -->
<!-- ^^ subtraction operator: contrasted with negation operator, 438; contrasted with negative sign, 434 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>subtraction operator</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>negative sign</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>negation operator</primary></indexterm>
<quote>va'a</quote> in infix form. We would use:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-8Uh9">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-8Uh9">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e14d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section14-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li tu'o va'a ny. du li no vu'u ny.</jbo>
<!-- ^^ tu'o va'a, 453 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>tu'o va'a</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ tu'o, 450, 453; for infix operations with too few operands, 450 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>tu'o</primary></indexterm>
@@ -2231,53 +2231,53 @@
<para>The
<quote>tu'o</quote> fulfills the grammatical requirement for a left operand for the infix use of
<!-- ^^ tu'o, 450, 453; for infix operations with too few operands, 450 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>tu'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>va'a</quote>, even though semantically none is needed or wanted.</para>
<para>Finding a suitable example of
<quote>ge'a</quote> requires exhibiting a ternary operator, and ternary operators are not common. The operator
<quote>gei</quote>, however, has both a binary and a ternary use. As a binary operator, it provides a terse representation of scientific (also called
<quote>exponential</quote>) notation. The first operand of
<quote>gei</quote> is the exponent, and the second operand is the mantissa or fraction:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-VjtV">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-VjtV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e14d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section14-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li cinonoki'oki'o du</jbo>
<gloss>li bi gei ci</gloss>
<gloss>The-number three-zero-zero-comma-comma equals</gloss>
<gloss>the-number eight scientific three.</gloss>
<en>300,000,000 = 3 × 10</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Why are the arguments to
<quote>gei</quote> in reverse order from the conventional symbolic notation? So that
<quote>gei</quote> can be used in forethought to allow easy specification of a large (or small) imprecise number:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-zmqy">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-zmqy">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e14d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section14-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>gei reno</jbo>
<gloss>(scientific) two-zero</gloss>
<en>10</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note, however, that although 10 is far and away the most common exponent base, it is not the only possible one. The third operand of
<quote>gei</quote>, therefore, is the base, with 10 as the default value. Most computers internally store so-called
<quote>floating-point</quote> numbers using 2 as the exponent base. (This has nothing to do with the fact that computers also represent all integers in base 2; the IBM 360 series used an exponent base of 16 for floating point, although each component of the number was expressed in base 2.) Here is a computer floating-point number with a value of 40:</para>
<!-- ^^ IBM: example, 424 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>IBM</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-7nMz">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7nMz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e14d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section14-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>papano bi'eju'u re gei pipanopano bi'eju'u re ge'a re</jbo>
<gloss>(one-one-zero base 2) scientific (point-one-zero-one-zero base 2) with-base 2</gloss>
<en>.1010</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -2310,21 +2310,21 @@
<selmaho>VUhU</selmaho>
<description>matrix column combiner</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>A mathematical vector is a list of numbers, and a mathematical matrix is a table of numbers. Lojban considers matrices to be built up out of vectors, which are in turn built up out of operands.</para>
<para>
<quote>jo'i</quote>, the only cmavo of selma'o JOhI, is the vector indicator: it has a syntax reminiscent of a forethought operator, but has very high precedence. The components must be simple operands rather than full expressions (unless parenthesized). A vector can have any number of components;
<!-- ^^ vector indicator, 451; terminator for, 451 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>vector indicator</primary></indexterm>
<quote>te'u</quote> is the elidable terminator. An example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-IVDJ">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-IVDJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e15d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section15-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li jo'i paboi reboi te'u su'i jo'i ciboi voboi du</jbo>
<gloss>li jo'i voboi xaboi</gloss>
<gloss>The-number array (one, two) plus array (three, four) equals</gloss>
<gloss>the-number array (four, six).</gloss>
<en>(1,2) + (3,4) = (4,6)</en>
@@ -2347,34 +2347,34 @@
<para>Therefore, the
<quote>magic square</quote> matrix</para>
<!-- ^^ magic square: example, 452 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>magic square</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
8 1 6
3 5 7
4 9 2
</programlisting>
<para>can be represented either as:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-zbJP">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-zbJP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e15d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section15-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>jo'i biboi paboi xa pi'a jo'i ciboi muboi ze ge'a jo'i voboi soboi re</jbo>
<!-- ^^ pi'a, 452 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>pi'a</primary></indexterm>
<en>the-vector (8 1 6) matrix-row the-vector (3 5 7), the-vector (4 9 2)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>or as</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-06dx">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-06dx">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e15d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section15-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>jo'i biboi ciboi vo sa'i jo'i paboi muboi so ge'a jo'i xaboi zeboi re</jbo>
<!-- ^^ sa'i, 452 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>sa'i</primary></indexterm>
<en>the-vector (8 3 4) matrix-column the-vector (1 5 9), the-vector (6 7 2)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -2412,38 +2412,38 @@
<para>So far, the Lojban notational conventions have mapped fairly familiar kinds of mathematical discourse. The use of forethought operators may have seemed odd when applied to
<quote>+</quote>, but when applied to
<quote>f</quote> they appear as the usual functional notation. Now comes a sharp break. Reverse Polish (RP) notation represents something completely different; even mathematicians don't use it much. (The only common uses of RP, in fact, are in some kinds of calculators and in the implementation of some programming languages.)</para>
<!-- ^^ functional notation: standard, 438 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>functional notation</primary></indexterm>
<para>In RP notation, the operator follows the operands. (Polish notation, where the operator precedes its operands, is another name for forethought mekso of the kind explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section6" />.) The number of operands per operator is always fixed. No parentheses are required or permitted. In Lojban, RP notation is always explicitly marked by a
<quote>fu'a</quote> at the beginning of the expression; there is no terminator. Here is a simple example:</para>
<!-- ^^ fu'a, 452 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>fu'a</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-V4xe">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-V4xe">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e16d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section16-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li fu'a reboi ci su'i du li mu</jbo>
<!-- ^^ fu'a, 452 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>fu'a</primary></indexterm>
<en>the-number (RP!) two, three, plus equals the-number five.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The operands are
<quote>re</quote> and
<quote>ci</quote>; the operator is
<quote>su'i</quote>.</para>
<para>Here is a more complex example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-PSpq">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PSpq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e16d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section16-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li fu'a reboi ci pi'i voboi mu pi'i su'i du li rexa</jbo>
<!-- ^^ fu'a, 452 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>fu'a</primary></indexterm>
<en>the-number (RP!) (two, three, times), (four, five, times), plus equals the-number two-six</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -2480,21 +2480,21 @@
<!-- ^^ tu'o, 450, 453; for infix operations with too few operands, 450 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>tu'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>tu'o</quote> provides the second operand, which is semantically ignored but grammatically necessary. Likewise, the three-operand version of
<!-- ^^ tu'o, 450, 453; for infix operations with too few operands, 450 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>tu'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>gei</quote> appears in reverse Polish as
<quote>ge'a gei</quote>, where the
<!-- ^^ ge'a gei, 453 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ge'a gei</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ge'a</quote> effectively merges the 2nd and 3rd operands into a single operand. Here are some examples:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-LsTC">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-LsTC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e16d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section16-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e16d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section16-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li fu'a ciboi muboi vu'u du</jbo>
<!-- ^^ fu'a, 452 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>fu'a</primary></indexterm>
@@ -2536,89 +2536,89 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>lo'o</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>As befits a logical language, Lojban has extensive provision for logical connectives within both operators and operands. Full details on logical and non-logical connectives are provided in
<!-- ^^ logical language: truth functions, 333 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>logical language</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14" />. Operands are connected in afterthought with selma'o A and in forethought with selma'o GA, just like sumti. Operators are connected in afterthought with selma'o JA and in forethought with selma'o GUhA, just like tanru components. This parallelism is no accident.</para>
<para>In addition, A+BO and A+KE constructs are allowed for grouping logically connected operands, and
<quote>ke ... ke'e</quote> is allowed for grouping logically connected operators, although there are no analogues of tanru among the operators.</para>
<para>Despite the large number of rules required to support this feature, it is of relatively minor importance in the mekso scheme of things.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section17-example1" /> exhibits afterthought logical connection between operands:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-e9Xi">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-e9Xi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e17d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section17-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>vei ci .a vo ve'o prenu cu klama le zarci</jbo>
<en>( Three or four ) people go-to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section17-example2" /> is equivalent in meaning, but uses forethought connection:</para>
<!-- ^^ forethought connection: contrasted with afterthought for grammatical utterances, 352; definition, 199; in abstractions, 365; in tenses, 363; observatives, 347; of operands, 453; of operators, 453 -->
<!-- ^^ observatives: and abstractions, 255; quick-tour version, 15 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>observatives</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>forethought connection</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-eiTM">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-eiTM">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e17d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section17-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>vei ga ci gi vo ve'o prenu cu klama le zarci</jbo>
<en>( Either 3 or 4 ) people go-to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that the mekso here are being used as quantifiers. Lojban requires that any mekso other than a simple number be enclosed in parentheses when used as a quantifier. This rule prevents ambiguities that do not exist when using
<quote>li</quote>.</para>
<para>By the way,
<quote>li</quote> has an elidable terminator,
<quote>lo'o</quote>, which is needed when a
<!-- ^^ lo'o, 454; effect of logical connective on elidability of, 454 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>lo'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>li</quote> sumti is followed by a logical connective that could seem to be within the mekso. For example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-LXtp">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-LXtp">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e17d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section17-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li re su'i re du</jbo>
<gloss>li vo lo'o .onai lo nalseldjuno namcu</gloss>
<!-- ^^ lo'o, 454; effect of logical connective on elidability of, 454 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>lo'o</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>The-number two plus two equals</gloss>
<en>the-number four or else a non-known number.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Omitting the
<quote>lo'o</quote> would cause the parser to assume that another operand followed the
<!-- ^^ lo'o, 454; effect of logical connective on elidability of, 454 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>lo'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>.onai</quote> and reject
<quote>lo</quote> as an invalid operand.</para>
<para>Simple examples of logical connection between operators are hard to come by. A contrived example is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-YoFg">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-YoFg">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e17d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section17-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li re su'i je pi'i re du li vo</jbo>
<gloss>The-number two plus and times two equals the-number four.</gloss>
<en>2 + 2 = 4 and 2 × 2 = 4.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The forethought-connection form of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section17-example4" /> is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ccNn">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ccNn">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e17d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section17-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li re ge su'i gi pi'i re</jbo>
<gloss>du li vo</gloss>
<gloss>the-number two both plus and times two</gloss>
<gloss>equals the-number four.</gloss>
<en>Both 2 + 2 = 4 and 2 × 2 = 4.</en>
@@ -2666,75 +2666,75 @@
<!-- ^^ bi'e, 437; effect on following operator, 437 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>bi'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>fe'a</quote> and
<quote>ku'e</quote> bracketing, because infix operators are present in the operand. Getting
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section17-example6" /> to parse perfectly using the current parser took several tries: a more relaxed style would dispense with most of the
<quote>bi'e</quote> cmavo and just let the standard precedence rules be understood.</para>
<!-- ^^ bi'e, 437; effect on following operator, 437 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>bi'e</primary></indexterm>
<para>Non-logical connection with JOI and BIhI is also permitted between operands and between operators. One use for this construct is to connect operands with
<quote>bi'o</quote> to create intervals:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Bzf6">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Bzf6">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e17d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section17-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li no ga'o bi'o ke'i pa</jbo>
<gloss>the-number zero (inclusive) from-to (exclusive) one</gloss>
<gloss>[0,1)</gloss>
<en>the numbers from zero to one, including zero but not including one</en>
<!-- ^^ zero to one: example, 362 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>zero to one</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Intervals defined by a midpoint and range rather than beginning and end points can be expressed by
<quote>mi'i</quote>:</para>
<!-- ^^ mi'i, 359, 455 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>mi'i</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-LvBT">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-LvBT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e17d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section17-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li pimu ga'o mi'i ke'i pimu</jbo>
<!-- ^^ mi'i, 359, 455 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>mi'i</primary></indexterm>
<en>the-number 0.5 ± 0.5</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which expresses the same interval as
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section17-example7" />. Note that the
<quote>ga'o</quote> and
<quote>ke'i</quote> still refer to the endpoints, although these are now implied rather than expressed. Another way of expressing the same thing:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-CEvD">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-CEvD">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e17d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section17-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li pimu su'i ni'upimu bi'o ma'upimu</jbo>
<en>the-number 0.5 plus [-0.5 from-to +0.5]</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here we have the sum of a number and an interval, which produces another interval centered on the number. As
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section17-example9" /> shows, non-logical (or logical) connection of operands has higher precedence than any mekso operator.</para>
<!-- ^^ connection of operands: grouping, 454; precedence over operator, 455 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>connection of operands</primary></indexterm>
<para>You can also combine two operands with
<quote>ce'o</quote>, the sequence connective of selma'o JOI, to make a compound subscript:</para>
<!-- ^^ compound subscript, 362, 455 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>compound subscript</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ ce'o, 354, 362 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ce'o</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-eMsd">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-eMsd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e17d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section17-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xy. xi vei by. ce'o dy. [ve'o]</jbo>
<!-- ^^ ce'o, 354, 362 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ce'o</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>
<quote>x</quote> sub (
@@ -2797,21 +2797,21 @@
<quote>na'u</quote> here makes it into an operator which is then used in forethought</para>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>ni'e</quote> makes a selbri into an operand. The x1 place of the selbri generally represents a number, and therefore is often a
<!-- ^^ ni'e, 456; terminator for, 456 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ni'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ni</quote> abstraction, since
<quote>ni</quote> abstractions represent numbers. The
<quote>ni'e</quote> makes that number available as a mekso operand. A common application is to make equations relating pure dimensions:</para>
<!-- ^^ ni'e, 456; terminator for, 456 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ni'e</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-wCJQ">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-wCJQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e18d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section18-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li ni'e ni clani [te'u] pi'i ni'e ni ganra [te'u] pi'i</jbo>
<!-- ^^ ni'e, 456; terminator for, 456 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ni'e</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>ni'e ni condi te'u du li ni'e ni canlu</gloss>
<!-- ^^ ni'e, 456; terminator for, 456 -->
@@ -2823,41 +2823,41 @@
</example>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>mo'e</quote> operates similarly to
<!-- ^^ mo'e, 456; terminator for, 456 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>mo'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ni'e</quote>, but makes a sumti (rather than a selbri) into an operand. This construction is useful in stating equations involving dimensioned numbers:</para>
<!-- ^^ ni'e, 456; terminator for, 456 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ni'e</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ dimensioned numbers: expressing, 456 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>dimensioned numbers</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ETmX">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ETmX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e18d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section18-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li mo'e re ratcu su'i mo'e re ractu du li mo'e vo danlu</jbo>
<!-- ^^ mo'e, 456; terminator for, 456 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>mo'e</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>The-number two rats plus two rabbits equals the-number four animals.</gloss>
<en>2 rats + 2 rabbits = 4 animals.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Another use is in constructing Lojbanic versions of so-called
<quote>folk quantifiers</quote>, such as
<!-- ^^ folk quantifiers: expressing, 456 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>folk quantifiers</primary></indexterm>
<quote>a pride of lions</quote>:</para>
<!-- ^^ pride of lions: example, 456 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>pride of lions</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-D4y4">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-D4y4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e18d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section18-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska vei mo'e lo'e lanzu ve'o cinfo</jbo>
<!-- ^^ mo'e, 456; terminator for, 456 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>mo'e</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I see ( the-typical family )-number-of lions.</gloss>
<en>I see a pride of lions.</en>
@@ -2904,33 +2904,33 @@
</cmavo-list>
<para>So far we have seen mekso used as sumti (with
<quote>li</quote>), as quantifiers (often parenthesized), and in MOI and ME-MOI selbri. There are a few other minor uses of mekso within Lojban.</para>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>me'o</quote> has the same grammatical use as
<quote>li</quote> but slightly different semantics.
<quote>li</quote> means
<quote>the number which is the value of the mekso ...</quote>, whereas
<quote>me'o</quote> just means
<quote>the mekso ...</quote> So it is true that:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-93Qu">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-93Qu">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e19d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section19-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li re su'i re du li vo</jbo>
<gloss>The-number two plus two equals the-number four.</gloss>
<en>2 + 2 = 4</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>but false that:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Shbg">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Shbg">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e19d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section19-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>me'o re su'i re du me'o vo</jbo>
<gloss>The-mekso two plus two equals the-mekso four.</gloss>
<en>
<quote>2 + 2</quote>=
<quote>4</quote></en>
@@ -2944,39 +2944,39 @@
<quote>la djan.</quote>, the person named John, and
<quote>zo .djan.</quote>, the name
<quote>John</quote></para>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>nu'a</quote> is the inverse of
<quote>na'u</quote>, and allows a mekso operator to be used as a normal selbri, with the place structure:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
x1 is the result of applying (operator) to x2, x3, ...
</programlisting>
<para>for as many places as may be required. For example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-9idi">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9idi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e19d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section19-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li ni'umu cu nu'a va'a li ma'umu</jbo>
<en>The-number -5 is-the-negation-of the-number +5.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>uses
<quote>nu'a</quote> to make the operator
<quote>va'a</quote> into a two-place bridi</para>
<para>Used together,
<quote>nu'a</quote> and
<quote>na'u</quote> make it possible to ask questions about mekso operators, even though there is no specific cmavo for an operator question, nor is it grammatical to utter an operator in isolation. Consider
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section19-example4" />, to which
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section19-example5" /> is one correct answer:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-4zCy">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4zCy">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e19d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section19-example4" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e19d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section19-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li re na'u mo re du li vo</jbo>
<gloss>The-number two what-operator? two equals the-number four.</gloss>
<en>2 ? 2 = 4</en>
@@ -2987,42 +2987,42 @@
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section19-example4" />,
<quote>na'u mo</quote> is an operator question, because
<quote>mo</quote> is the selbri question cmavo and
<quote>na'u</quote> makes the selbri into an operator.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section19-example5" /> makes the true answer
<quote>su'i</quote> into a selbri (which is a legal utterance) with the inverse cmavo
<quote>nu'a</quote>. Mechanically speaking, inserting
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section19-example5" /> into
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section19-example4" /> produces:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-M5YX">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-M5YX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e19d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section19-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li re na'u nu'a su'i re du li vo</jbo>
<en>The-number two (the-operator the-selbri plus) two equals the-number four.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where the
<quote>na'u nu'a</quote> cancels out, leaving a truthful bridi</para>
<para>Numerical free modifiers, corresponding to English
<!-- ^^ free modifiers: effects on elidability of terminators, 450 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>free modifiers</primary></indexterm>
<quote>firstly</quote>,
<!-- ^^ firstly: example, 458 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>firstly</primary></indexterm>
<quote>secondly</quote>, and so on, can be created by suffixing a member of selma'o MAI to a digit string or a lerfu string. (Digit strings are compound cmavo beginning with a cmavo of selma'o PA, and containing only cmavo of PA or BY; lerfu strings begin with a cmavo of selma'o BY, and likewise contain only PA or BY cmavo.) Here are some examples:</para>
<!-- ^^ digit string: definition of, 458 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>digit string</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-WiIQ">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-WiIQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e19d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section19-example7" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e19d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section19-example8" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e19d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section19-example9" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e19d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section19-example10" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e19d11" />
@@ -3088,34 +3088,34 @@
<quote>commonly assumed precedences</quote> built into it (selectable by a special
<quote>ti'o</quote> declaration) that would match mathematical intuition: times higher than plus, and so on.</para>
<!-- ^^ ti'o, 458 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ti'o</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter18-section21">
<title>Miscellany</title>
<para>A few other points:</para>
<para>
<quote>se</quote> can be used to convert an operator as if it were a selbri, so that its arguments are exchanged. For example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-NwYJ">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-NwYJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e21d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section21-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li ci se vu'u vo du li pa</jbo>
<gloss>The-number three (inverse) minus four equals the-number one.</gloss>
<en>3 subtracted from 4 equals 1.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The other converters of selma'o SE can also be used on operators with more than two operands, and they can be compounded to create (probably unintelligible) operators as needed.</para>
<para>Members of selma'o NAhE are also legal on an operator to produce a scalar negation of it. The implication is that some other operator would apply to make the bridi true:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Jd0X">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Jd0X">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e21d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section21-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e21d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section21-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li ci na'e su'i vo du li pare</jbo>
<en>The-number 3 non-plus 4 equals the-number 12.</en>
<jbo>li ci to'e vu'u re du li mu</jbo>
@@ -3124,50 +3124,50 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>opposite-of-minus</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The sense in which
<quote>plus</quote> is the opposite of
<quote>minus</quote> is not a mathematical but rather a linguistic one; negated operators are defined only loosely.</para>
<para>
<quote>la'e</quote> and
<quote>lu'e</quote> can be used on operands with the usual semantics to get the referent of or a symbol for an operand. Likewise, a member of selma'o NAhE followed by
<quote>bo</quote> serves to scalar-negate an operand, implying that some other operand would make the bridi true:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-3het">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3het">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e21d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section21-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li re su'i re du li na'ebo mu</jbo>
<!-- ^^ na'ebo, 135 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>na'ebo</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>The-number 2 plus 2 equals the-number non-5.</gloss>
<en>2 + 2 = something other than 5.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The digits 0-9 have rafsi, and therefore can be used in making lujvo. Additionally, all the rafsi have CVC form and can stand alone or together as names:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-hvGK">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hvGK">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e21d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section21-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la zel. poi gunta la tebes. pu nanmu</jbo>
<gloss>Those-named
<quote>Seven</quote> who attack that-named
<quote>Thebes</quote> [past] are-men.</gloss>
<en>The Seven Against Thebes were men.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Of course, there is no guarantee that the name
<quote>zel.</quote> is connected with the number rafsi: an alternative which cannot be misconstrued is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-pf3n">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pf3n">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e21d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section21-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la zemei poi gunta la tebes. pu nanmu</jbo>
<en>Those-named-the Sevensome who attack Thebes [past] are-men.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Certain other members of PA also have assigned rafsi:
@@ -3243,50 +3243,50 @@
<!-- ^^ Gettysburg Address: example, 460 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Gettysburg Address</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ Abraham Lincoln: example, 353 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Abraham Lincoln</primary></indexterm>
<quote>Four score and seven years ago</quote>. This section exhibits several different ways of saying the number
<!-- ^^ Four score and seven: example, 460 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Four score and seven</primary></indexterm>
<quote>four score and seven</quote>. (A
<quote>score</quote>, for those not familiar with the term, is 20; it is analogous to a
<quote>dozen</quote> for 12.) The trivial way:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-DzMH">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-DzMH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e22d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section22-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li bize</jbo>
<gloss>eight seven</gloss>
<en>87</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section22-example1" /> is mathematically correct, but sacrifices the spirit of the English words, which are intended to be complex and formal.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-HNyL">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-HNyL">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e22d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section22-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li vo pi'i reno su'i ze</jbo>
<gloss>four times twenty plus seven</gloss>
<en>4 × 20 + 7</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section22-example2" /> is also mathematically correct, but still misses something.
<quote>Score</quote> is not a word for 20 in the same way that
<quote>ten</quote> is a word for 10: it contains the implication of 20 objects. The original may be taken as short for
<quote>Four score years and seven years ago</quote>. Thinking of a score as a twentysome rather than as 20 leads to:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-iwba">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-iwba">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e22d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section22-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li mo'e voboi renomei te'u su'i ze</jbo>
<!-- ^^ mo'e, 456; terminator for, 456 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>mo'e</primary></indexterm>
<en>the-number-of four twentysomes plus seven</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -3301,21 +3301,21 @@
<quote>su'i</quote>.</para>
<para>Another approach is to think of
<quote>score</quote> as setting a representation base. There are remnants of base-20 arithmetic in some languages, notably French, in which 87 is
<!-- ^^ base-20 arithmetic: remnants of, 461 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>base-20 arithmetic</primary></indexterm>
<quote>quatre-vingt-sept</quote>, literally
<quote>four-twenties-seven</quote>. (This fact makes the Gettysburg Address hard to translate into French!) If
<!-- ^^ Gettysburg Address: example, 460 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Gettysburg Address</primary></indexterm>
<quote>score</quote> is the representation base, then we have:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-2C3I">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2C3I">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e22d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section22-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li vo pi'e ze ju'u reno</jbo>
<gloss>four ; seven base 20</gloss>
<en>47</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
diff --git a/todocbook/19.xml b/todocbook/19.xml
index 3391b2d..00879ad 100644
--- a/todocbook/19.xml
+++ b/todocbook/19.xml
@@ -14,21 +14,21 @@
<selmaho>I</selmaho>
<description>sentence separator</description>
<!-- ^^ sentence separator, 495 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>sentence separator</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>Since Lojban is audio-visually isomorphic, there needs to be a spoken and written way of signaling the end of a sentence and the start of the following one. In written English, a period serves this purpose; in spoken English, a tone contour (rising or falling) usually does the job, or sometimes a long pause. Lojban uses a single separator: the cmavo
<!-- ^^ audio-visually isomorphic, 465 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>audio-visually isomorphic</primary></indexterm>
<quote>.i</quote>(of selma'o I):</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-XKAG">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-XKAG">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e2d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section2-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci .i do cadzu le bisli</jbo>
<en>I go to-the store. You walk on-the ice.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The word
@@ -156,172 +156,172 @@
<title>Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU</title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>zo'u</cmavo>
<selmaho>ZOhU</selmaho>
<description>topic/comment separator</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>The normal Lojban sentence is just a bridi, parallel to the normal English sentence which has a subject and a predicate:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-4WsN">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4WsN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e4d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section4-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci</jbo>
<en>I went to the market</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In Chinese, the normal sentence form is different: a topic is stated, and a comment about it is made. (Japanese also has the concept of a topic, but indicates it by attaching a suffix; other languages also distinguish topics in various ways.) The topic says what the sentence is about:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ovFJ">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ovFJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e4d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section4-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>zhe</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The wide space in the first two versions of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section4-example2" /> separate the topic (
<quote>this news</quote>) from the comment (
<!-- ^^ news: example, 467 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>news</primary></indexterm>
<quote>I know already</quote>).</para>
<para>Lojban uses the cmavo
<quote>zo'u</quote>(of selma'o ZOhU) to separate topic (a sumti) from comment (a bridi):</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-p4ww">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-p4ww">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e4d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section4-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nuzba zo'u mi ba'o djuno</jbo>
<en>The news : I [perfective] know.</en>
<!-- ^^ news: example, 467 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>news</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section4-example3" /> is the literal Lojban translation of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section4-example2" />. Of course, the topic-comment structure can be changed to a straightforward bridi structure:</para>
<!-- ^^ topic-comment: description, 467 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>topic-comment</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-V2B4">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-V2B4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e4d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section4-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ba'o djuno le nuzba</jbo>
<en>I [perfective] know the news.</en>
<!-- ^^ news: example, 467 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>news</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section4-example4" /> means the same as
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section4-example3" />, and it is simpler. However, often the position of the topic in the place structure of the selbri within the comment is vague:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-tpcK">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-tpcK">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e4d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section4-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le finpe zo'u citka</jbo>
<en>the fish : eat</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Is the fish eating or being eaten? The sentence doesn't say. The Chinese equivalent of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section4-example5" /> is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-N6H3">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-N6H3">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e4d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section4-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>yu</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which is vague in exactly the same way.</para>
<para>Grammatically, it is possible to have more than one sumti before
<quote>zo'u</quote>. This is not normally useful in topic-comment sentences, but is necessary in the other use of
<!-- ^^ topic-comment sentences, 467 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>topic-comment sentences</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ topic-comment: description, 467 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>topic-comment</primary></indexterm>
<quote>zo'u</quote>: to separate a quantifying section from a bridi containing quantified variables. This usage belongs to a discussion of quantifier logic in Lojban (see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16" />), but an example would be:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-6yRx">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-6yRx">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e4d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section4-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>roda poi prenu ku'o su'ode zo'u de patfu da</jbo>
<gloss>For-all X which-are-persons, there-exists-a-Y such-that Y is the father of X.</gloss>
<en>Every person has a father.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The string of sumti before
<quote>zo'u</quote>(called the
<quote>prenex</quote>: see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16" />) may contain both a topic and bound variables:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ggMy">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ggMy">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e4d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section4-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>loi patfu roda poi prenu ku'o</jbo>
<gloss>su'ode zo'u de patfu da</gloss>
<gloss>For-the-mass-of fathers for-all X which-are-persons,</gloss>
<gloss>there-exists-a-Y such-that Y is the father of X.</gloss>
<en>As for fathers, every person has one.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>To specify a topic which affects more than one sentence, wrap the sentences in
<quote>tu'e ... tu'u</quote> brackets and place the topic and the
<quote>zo'u</quote> directly in front. This is the exception to the rule that a topic attaches directly to a sentence:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-mK5Y">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mK5Y">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e4d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section4-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>loi jdini zo'u tu'e do ponse .inaja do djica [tu'u]</jbo>
<gloss>The-mass-of money : ( [if] you possess, then you want )</gloss>
<en>Money: if you have it, you want it.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note: In Lojban, you do not
<quote>want money</quote>; you
<quote>want to have money</quote> or something of the sort, as the x2 place of
<quote>djica</quote> demands an event. As a result, the straightforward rendering of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section4-example8" /> without a topic is not:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Mdjd">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Mdjd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e4d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section4-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do ponse loi jdini .inaja do djica ri</jbo>
<en>You possess money only-if you desire its-mere-existence.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where
<quote>ri</quote> means
<quote>loi jdini</quote> and is interpreted as
<quote>the mere existence of money</quote>, but rather:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-fx2b">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-fx2b">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e4d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section4-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do ponse loi jdini .inaja do djica tu'a ri</jbo>
<en>You possess money only-if you desire something-about it.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>namely, the possession of money. But topic-comment sentences like
@@ -420,113 +420,113 @@
<cmavo>pau</cmavo>
<!-- ^^ pau, 322; placement in sentence, 322 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>pau</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>UI</selmaho>
<description>question premarker</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>Lojban questions are not at all like English questions. There are two basic types: truth questions, of the form
<quote>Is it true that ...</quote>, and fill-in-the-blank questions. Truth questions are marked by preceding the bridi, or following any part of it specifically questioned, with the cmavo
<quote>xu</quote>(of selma'o UI):</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-2t28">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2t28">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e5d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section5-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xu do klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>[True or false?] You go to the store</gloss>
<en>Are you going to the store/Did you go to the store?</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(Since the Lojban is tenseless, either colloquial translation might be correct.) Truth questions are further discussed in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15" />.</para>
<para>Fill-in-the-blank questions have a cmavo representing some Lojban word or phrase which is not known to the questioner, and which the answerer is to supply. There are a variety of cmavo belonging to different selma'o which provide different kinds of blanks.</para>
<para>Where a sumti is not known, a question may be formed with
<quote>ma</quote>(of selma'o KOhA), which is a kind of pro-sumti:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Pqzy">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Pqzy">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e5d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section5-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ma klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>[What sumti?] goes-to the store</gloss>
<en>Who is going to the store?</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Of course, the
<quote>ma</quote> need not be in the x1 place:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-oAJT">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-oAJT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e5d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section5-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do klama ma</jbo>
<gloss>You go-to [what sumti?]</gloss>
<en>Where are you going?</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The answer is a simple sumti:</para>
<!-- ^^ simple sumti, 119 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>simple sumti</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-WUvX">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-WUvX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e5d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section5-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le zarci</jbo>
<en>The store.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>A sumti, then, is a legal utterance, although it does not by itself constitute a bridi – it does not claim anything, but merely completes the open-ended claim of the previous bridi.</para>
<para>There can be two
<quote>ma</quote> cmavo in a single question:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Cx50">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Cx50">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e5d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section5-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ma klama ma</jbo>
<en>Who goes where?</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and the answer would be two sumti, which are meant to fill in the two
<quote>ma</quote> cmavo in order:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-t39K">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-t39K">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e5d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section5-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi le zarci</jbo>
<en>I, to the store.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>An even more complex example, depending on the non-logical connective
<quote>fa'u</quote>(of selma'o JOI), which is like the English
<quote>and ... respectively</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-nDeV">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nDeV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e5d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section5-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ma fa'u ma klama ma fa'u ma</jbo>
<en>Who and who goes where and where, respectively?</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>An answer might be</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-yGYX">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-yGYX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e5d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section5-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. la marcas. le zarci le briju</jbo>
<gloss>John, Marsha, the store, the office.</gloss>
<!-- ^^ Marsha: example, 470 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Marsha</primary></indexterm>
<en>John and Marsha go to the store and the office, respectively.</en>
@@ -536,54 +536,54 @@
</example>
<para>(Note: A mechanical substitution of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section5-example8" /> into
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section5-example7" /> produces an ungrammatical result, because
<quote>* ... le zarci fa'u le briju</quote> is ungrammatical Lojban: the first
<quote>le zarci</quote> has to be closed with its proper terminator
<quote>ku</quote>, for reasons explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14" />. This effect is not important: Lojban behaves as if all elided terminators have been supplied in both question and answer before inserting the latter into the former. The exchange is grammatical if question and answer are each separately grammatical.)</para>
<para>Questions to be answered with a selbri are expressed with
<quote>mo</quote> of selma'o GOhA, which is a kind of pro-bridi:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-uVCW">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-uVCW">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e5d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section5-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la lojban. mo</jbo>
<gloss>Lojban [what selbri?]</gloss>
<en>What is Lojban?</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the answerer is to supply some predicate which is true of Lojban. Such questions are extremely open-ended, due to the enormous range of possible predicate answers. The answer might be just a selbri, or might be a full bridi, in which case the sumti in the answer override those provided by the questioner. To limit the range of a
<!-- ^^ predicate answers, 470 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>predicate answers</primary></indexterm>
<quote>mo</quote> question, make it part of a tanru.</para>
<para>Questions about numbers are expressed with
<quote>xo</quote> of selma'o PA:</para>
<!-- ^^ xo, 449 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>xo</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-pdeh">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pdeh">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e5d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section5-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do viska xo prenu</jbo>
<!-- ^^ xo, 449 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>xo</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>You saw [what number?] persons.</gloss>
<en>How many people did you see?</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The answer would be a simple number, another kind of non-bridi utterance:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-zjVx">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-zjVx">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e5d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section5-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>vomu</jbo>
<en>Forty-five.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Fill-in-the-blank questions may also be asked about: logical connectives (using cmavo
@@ -684,97 +684,97 @@
<cmavo>xi</cmavo>
<selmaho>XI</selmaho>
<description>subscript</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>xi</quote>(of selma'o XI) indicates that a subscript (a number, a lerfu string, or a parenthesized mekso) follows. Subscripts can be attached to almost any construction and are placed following the construction (or its terminator word, which is generally required). They are useful either to extend the finite cmavo list to infinite length, or to make more refined distinctions than the standard cmavo list permits. The remainder of this section mentions some places where subscripts might naturally be used.</para>
<para>Lojban gismu have at most five places:</para>
<!-- ^^ at most: contrasted with more than, at least, less than, 443; example, 443 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>at most</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-GuYz">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-GuYz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e6d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section6-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cu klama le zarci le zdani le dargu le karce</jbo>
<en>I go to-the market from-the house via-the road using-the car.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Consequently, selma'o SE (which operates on a selbri to change the order of its places) and selma'o FA (which provides place number tags for individual sumti) have only enough members to handle up to five places. Conversion of
<!-- ^^ place number: specifying, 493 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>place number</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section6-example1" />, using
<quote>xe</quote> to swap the x1 and x5 places, would produce:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-QPGC">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-QPGC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e6d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section6-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le karce cu xe klama le zarci le zdani le dargu mi</jbo>
<en>The car is-a-transportation-means to-the market from-the house via-the road for-me.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>And reordering of the place structures might produce:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-PaKo">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PaKo">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e6d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section6-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>fo le dargu fi le zdani fa mi fe le zarci fu le karce cu klama</jbo>
<en>Via the road, from the house, I, to the market, using-the car, go.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section6-example1" /> to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section6-example3" /> all mean the same thing. But consider the lujvo
<quote>nunkla</quote>, formed by applying the abstraction operator
<quote>nu</quote> to
<quote>klama</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-sMPn">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sMPn">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e6d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section6-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la'edi'u cu nunkla</jbo>
<!-- ^^ la'edi'u, 149; contrasted with di'u, 149; quick-tour version, 21 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>la'edi'u</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>mi le zarci le zdani le dargu le karce</gloss>
<gloss>The-referent-of-the-previous-sentence is-an-event-of-going</gloss>
<en>by-me to-the market from-the house via-the road using-the car.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section6-example4" /> shows that
<quote>nunkla</quote> has six places: the five places of
<quote>klama</quote> plus a new one (placed first) for the event itself. Performing transformations similar to that of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section6-example2" /> requires an additional conversion cmavo that exchanges the x1 and x6 places. The solution is to use any cmavo of SE with a subscript "6" (see Chapter 19):</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-zGhw">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-zGhw">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e6d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section6-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le karce cu sexixa nunkla mi</jbo>
<gloss>le zarci le zdani le dargu la'edi'u</gloss>
<!-- ^^ la'edi'u, 149; contrasted with di'u, 149; quick-tour version, 21 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>la'edi'u</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>The car is-a-transportation-means-in-the-event-of-going by-me</gloss>
<en>to-the market via-the road which-is-referred-to-by-the-last-sentence.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Likewise, a sixth place tag can be created by using any cmavo of FA with a subscript:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-EW1n">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-EW1n">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e6d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section6-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>fu le dargu fo le zdani fe mi fa la'edi'u</jbo>
<!-- ^^ la'edi'u, 149; contrasted with di'u, 149; quick-tour version, 21 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>la'edi'u</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>fi le zarci faxixa le karce cu nunkla</gloss>
<gloss>Via the road, from the house, by me, the-referent-of-the-last-sentence,</gloss>
@@ -785,104 +785,104 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section6-example4" /> to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section6-example6" /> also all mean the same thing, and each is derived straightforwardly from any of the others, despite the tortured nature of the English glosses. In addition, any other member of SE or FA could be substituted into
<quote>sexixa</quote> and
<quote>faxixa</quote> without change of meaning:
<quote>vexixa</quote> means the same thing as
<quote>sexixa</quote>.</para>
<para>Lojban provides two groups of pro-sumti, both belonging to selma'o KOhA. The ko'a-series cmavo are used to refer to explicitly specified sumti to which they have been bound using
<quote>goi</quote>. The da-series, on the other hand, are existentially or universally quantified variables. (These concepts are explained more fully in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16" />.) There are ten ko'a-series cmavo and 3 da-series cmavo available.</para>
<para>If more are required, any cmavo of the ko'a-series or the da-series can be subscripted:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Bday">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Bday">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e6d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section6-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>daxivo</jbo>
<en>X sub 4</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is the 4th bound variable of the 1st sequence of the da-series, and</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-gfXT">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gfXT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e6d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section6-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ko'ixipaso</jbo>
<en>something-3 sub 18</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is the 18th free variable of the 3rd sequence of the ko'a-series. This convention allows 10 sequences of ko'a-type pro-sumti and 3 sequences of da-type pro-sumti, each with as many members as needed. Note that
<quote>daxivo</quote> and
<quote>dexivo</quote> are considered to be distinct pro-sumti, unlike the situation with
<quote>sexixa</quote> and
<quote>vexixa</quote> above. Exactly similar treatment can be given to the bu'a-series of selma'o GOhA and to the gismu pro-bridi
<quote>broda</quote>,
<quote>brode</quote>,
<quote>brodi</quote>,
<quote>brodo</quote>, and
<quote>brodu</quote>.</para>
<para>Subscripts on lerfu words are used in the standard mathematical way to extend the number of variables:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-wez6">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-wez6">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e6d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section6-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li xy.boixipa du li xy.boixire su'i xy.boixici</jbo>
<gloss>The-number x-sub-1 equals the-number x-sub-2 plus x-sub-3</gloss>
<!-- ^^ x-sub-3, 449 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>x-sub-3</primary></indexterm>
<en>x</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and can be used to extend the number of pro-sumti as well, since lerfu strings outside mathematical contexts are grammatically and semantically equivalent to pro-sumti of the ko'a-series. (In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section6-example9" />, note the required terminator
<quote>boi</quote> after each
<quote>xy.</quote> cmavo; this terminator allows the subscript to be attached without ambiguity.)</para>
<para>Names, which are similar to pro-sumti, can also be subscripted to distinguish two individuals with the same name:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-tW4J">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-tW4J">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e6d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section6-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. xipa cusku lu mi'enai do li'u la djan. xire</jbo>
<!-- ^^ mi'enai, 326 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>mi'enai</primary></indexterm>
<en>John</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Subscripts on tenses allow talking about more than one time or place that is described by the same general cmavo. For example,
<quote>puxipa</quote> could refer to one point in the past, and
<quote>puxire</quote> a second point (earlier or later).</para>
<para>You can place a subscript on the word
<quote>ja'a</quote>, the bridi affirmative of selma'o NA, to express so-called fuzzy truths. The usual machinery for fuzzy logic (statements whose truth value is not merely
<quote>true</quote> or
<quote>false</quote>, but is expressed by a number in the range 0 to 1) in Lojban is the abstractor
<quote>jei</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-NGGv">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-NGGv">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e6d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section6-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li pimu jei mi ganra</jbo>
<en>The-number .5 is-the-truth-value-of my being-broad.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>However, by convention we can attach a subscript to
<quote>ja'a</quote> to indicate fuzzy truth (or to
<quote>na</quote> if we change the amount):</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-xpiI">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-xpiI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e6d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section6-example12" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ja'a xipimu ganra</jbo>
<en>I truly-sub-.5 am-broad</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Finally, as mentioned in
@@ -914,21 +914,21 @@
</cmavo-list>
<para>Numerical free modifiers, corresponding to English
<!-- ^^ free modifiers: effects on elidability of terminators, 450 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>free modifiers</primary></indexterm>
<quote>firstly</quote>,
<!-- ^^ firstly: example, 458 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>firstly</primary></indexterm>
<quote>secondly</quote>, and so on, can be created by suffixing
<quote>mai</quote> or
<quote>mo'o</quote> of selma'o MAI to a number or a lerfu string. Here are some examples:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ymMz">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ymMz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e7d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section7-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama pamai le zarci .e remai le zdani</jbo>
<en>I go-to (firstly) the store and (secondly) the house.</en>
<!-- ^^ firstly: example, 458 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>firstly</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -979,21 +979,21 @@
</cmavo-list>
<para>Lojban has a complex system of
<quote>attitudinals</quote>, words which indicate the speaker's attitude to what is being said. The attitudinals include indicators of emotion, intensity markers, discursives (which show the structure of discourse), and evidentials (which indicate
<!-- ^^ evidentials: ba'a scale, 316; definition, 315; grammar, 315; in English, 315; indisputable bridi, 315; inspiration for, 315; ja'o contrasted with su'a, 316; ka'u contrasted with se'o, 316; placement in bridi, 315; quick-tour version, 25; rhetorical flavor, 315; scales, 315; se'o contrasted with ka'u, 316; su'a contrasted with ja'o, 316 -->
<!-- ^^ indisputable bridi, 315 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>indisputable bridi</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>evidentials</primary></indexterm>
<quote>how the speaker knows</quote>). Most of these words belong to selma'o UI; the intensity markers belong to selma'o CAI for historical reasons, but the two selma'o are grammatically identical. The individual cmavo of UI and CAI are discussed in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13" />; only the rules for applying them in discourse are presented here.</para>
<para>Normally, an attitudinal applies to the preceding word only. However, if the preceding word is a structural cmavo which begins or ends a whole construction, then that whole construction is affected by the attitudinal:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-WCHe">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-WCHe">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e8d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section8-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c19e8d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section8-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c19e8d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section8-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c19e8d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section8-example4" />
</title>
@@ -1007,21 +1007,21 @@
<jbo>mi viska le .ia blanu zdani [ku]</jbo>
<gloss>I see the [belief] blue house</gloss>
<en>I see what I believe to be a blue house.</en>
<jbo>mi viska le blanu zdani ku .ia</jbo>
<gloss>I see (the blue house) [belief]</gloss>
<en>I see what I believe to be a blue house.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>An attitudinal meant to cover a whole sentence can be attached to the preceding
<quote>.i</quote>, expressed or understood:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-tqGf">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-tqGf">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e8d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section8-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>[.i] .ia mi viska le blanu zdani</jbo>
<gloss>[belief] I see the blue house.</gloss>
<en>I believe I see a blue house.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1036,21 +1036,21 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>fu'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>fu'o</quote>(of selma'o FUhO) provide explicit scope markers. Placing
<!-- ^^ fu'o, 475 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>fu'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>fu'e</quote> in front of an attitudinal disconnects it from what precedes it, and instead says that it applies to all following words until further notice. The notice is given by
<!-- ^^ fu'e, 475 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>fu'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>fu'o</quote>, which can appear anywhere and cancels all in-force attitudinals. For example:</para>
<!-- ^^ fu'o, 475 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>fu'o</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-0vML">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-0vML">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e8d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section8-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska le fu'e .ia blanu zdani fu'o ponse</jbo>
<!-- ^^ fu'o, 475 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>fu'o</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ fu'e, 475 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>fu'e</primary></indexterm>
@@ -1086,21 +1086,21 @@
<description>begin error quotation</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>le'u</cmavo>
<selmaho>LEhU</selmaho>
<description>end error quotation</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>Grammatically, quotations are very simple in Lojban: all of them are sumti, and they all mean something like
<quote>the piece of text here quoted</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-6SBj">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-6SBj">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e9d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section9-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu cusku lu mi'e djan [li'u]</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] express [quote] I-am John [unquote]</gloss>
<en>I said,
<quote>I'm John</quote>.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1114,36 +1114,36 @@
<quote>li'u</quote>(of selma'o LIhU) as the closing quotation mark. The text between
<quote>lu</quote> and
<quote>li'u</quote> must be a valid, parseable Lojban text. If the quotation is ungrammatical, so is the surrounding expression. The cmavo
<quote>li'u</quote> is technically an elidable terminator, but it's almost never possible to elide it except at the end of text.</para>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>lo'u</quote>(of selma'o LOhU) and
<quote>le'u</quote>(of selma'o LEhU) are used to surround a quotation that is not necessarily grammatical Lojban. However, the text must consist of morphologically correct Lojban words (as defined in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4" />), so that the
<quote>le'u</quote> can be picked out reliably. The words need not be meaningful, but they must be recognizable as cmavo, brivla, or cmene. Quotation with
<quote>lo'u</quote> is essential to quoting ungrammatical Lojban for teaching in the language, the equivalent of the * that is used in English to mark such errors:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-IUz8">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-IUz8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e9d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section9-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo'u mi du do du la djan. le'u na tergerna la lojban.</jbo>
<en>[quote] mi du do du la djan. [unquote] is-not a-grammatical-structure in Lojban.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section9-example2" /> is grammatical even though the embedded quotation is not. Similarly,
<!-- ^^ embedded quotation, 476 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>embedded quotation</primary></indexterm>
<quote>lo'u</quote> quotation can quote fragments of a text which themselves do not constitute grammatical utterances:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-EXeq">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-EXeq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e9d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section9-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lu le mlatu cu viska le finpe li'u zo'u lo'u viska le le'u</jbo>
<gloss>cu selbasti .ei lo'u viska lo le'u</gloss>
<gloss>[quote] le mlatu cu viska le finpe [unquote] : [quote] viska le [unquote]</gloss>
<gloss>is-replaced-by [obligation!] [quote] viska lo [unquote].</gloss>
<en>In the sentence
@@ -1156,39 +1156,39 @@
<!-- ^^ topic-comment: description, 467 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>topic-comment</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section4" />) and the indicator applying to the selbri only (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section8" />). Neither
<quote>viska le</quote> nor
<quote>viska lo</quote> is a valid Lojban utterance, and both require
<quote>lo'u</quote> quotation.</para>
<para>Additionally, pro-sumti or pro-bridi in the quoting sentence can refer to words appearing in the quoted sentence when
<quote>lu ... li'u</quote> is used, but not when
<quote>lo'u ... le'u</quote> is used:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-x8XL">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-x8XL">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e9d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section9-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la tcarlis. cusku lu le ninmu cu morsi li'u</jbo>
<gloss>.iku'i ri jmive</gloss>
<gloss>Charlie says [quote] the woman is-dead [unquote].</gloss>
<gloss>However, the-last-mentioned is-alive.</gloss>
<en>Charlie says
<quote>The woman is dead</quote>, but she is alive.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section9-example4" />,
<quote>ri</quote> is a pro-sumti which refers to the most recent previous sumti, namely
<quote>le ninmu</quote>. Compare:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-hvhb">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hvhb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e9d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section9-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la tcarlis. cusku lo'u le ninmu cu morsi le'u</jbo>
<gloss>.iku'i ri jmive</gloss>
<gloss>Charlie says [quote] le ninmu cu morsi [unquote].</gloss>
<gloss>However, the-last-mentioned is-alive.</gloss>
<en>Charlie says
@@ -1243,42 +1243,42 @@
<cmavo>la'o</cmavo>
<selmaho>ZOI</selmaho>
<description>non-Lojban name</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>zo</quote>(of selma'o ZO) is a strong quotation mark for the single following word, which can be any Lojban word whatsoever. Among other uses,
<!-- ^^ strong quotation, 477 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>strong quotation</primary></indexterm>
<quote>zo</quote> allows a metalinguistic word to be referenced without having it act on the surrounding text. The word must be a morphologically legal (but not necessarily meaningful) single Lojban word; compound cmavo are not permitted. For example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-qxjF">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-qxjF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e10d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section10-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>zo si cu lojbo valsi</jbo>
<en>
<quote>si</quote> is a Lojbanic word.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Since
<quote>zo</quote> acts on a single word only, there is no corresponding terminator. Brevity, then, is a great advantage of
<quote>zo</quote>, since the terminators for other kinds of quotation are rarely or never elidable.</para>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>zoi</quote>(of selma'o ZOI) is a quotation mark for quoting non-Lojban text. Its syntax is
<!-- ^^ non-Lojban text: rules for pause with, 69 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>non-Lojban text</primary></indexterm>
<quote>zoi X. text .X</quote>, where X is a Lojban word (called the delimiting word) which is separated from the quoted text by pauses, and which is not found in the written text or spoken phoneme stream. It is common, but not required, to use the lerfu word (of selma'o BY) which corresponds to the Lojban name of the language being quoted:</para>
<!-- ^^ phoneme stream, 477 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>phoneme stream</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-wYzm">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-wYzm">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e10d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section10-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>zoi gy. John is a man .gy. cu glico jufra</jbo>
<en>
<quote>John is a man</quote> is an English sentence.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1292,21 +1292,21 @@
<!-- ^^ isomorphism: audio-visual, 29 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>isomorphism</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ audio-visual isomorphism, 29 -->
<!-- ^^ isomorphism: audio-visual, 29 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>isomorphism</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>audio-visual isomorphism</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ isomorphism: audio-visual, 29 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>isomorphism</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section10-example3" /> is fine in speech but ungrammatical as written, whereas
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section10-example4" /> is correct when written but ungrammatical in speech.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-xfAM">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-xfAM">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e10d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section10-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c19e10d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section10-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>?mi djuno fi le valsi po'u zoi gy. gyrations .gy.</jbo>
<en>I know about the word which-is
<quote>gyrations</quote>.</en>
@@ -1316,21 +1316,21 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The text
<quote>gy</quote> appears in the written word
<quote>gyrations</quote>, whereas the sound represented in Lojban by
<quote>jai</quote> appears in the spoken word
<quote>gyrations</quote>. Such borderline cases should be avoided as a matter of good style.</para>
<para>It should be noted particularly that
<quote>zoi</quote> quotation is the only way to quote rafsi, specifically CCV rafsi, because they are not Lojban words, and
<quote>zoi</quote> quotation is the only way to quote things which are not Lojban words. (CVC and CVV rafsi look like names and cmavo respectively, and so can be quoted using other methods.) For example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Eeya">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Eeya">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e10d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section10-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>zoi ry. sku .ry. cu rafsi zo cusku</jbo>
<en>
<quote>sku</quote> is a rafsi of
<quote>cusku</quote>.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1340,58 +1340,58 @@
<quote>zoi</quote>: The text between
<quote>lo'u</quote> and
<quote>le'u</quote> should consist of Lojban words only. In fact, non-Lojban material in the form of a
<quote>zoi</quote> quotation may also appear. However, if the word
<quote>le'u</quote> is used either as the delimiting word for the
<quote>zoi</quote> quotation, or within the quotation itself, the outer
<quote>lo'u</quote> quotation will be prematurely terminated. Therefore,
<quote>le'u</quote> should be avoided as the delimiting word in any
<quote>zoi</quote> quotation.)</para>
<para>Lojban strictly avoids any confusion between things and the names of things:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-56m5">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-56m5">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e10d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section10-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>zo .bab. cmene la bab.</jbo>
<en>The-word
<quote>Bob</quote> is-the-name-of the-one-named Bob.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section10-example6" />,
<quote>zo .bab.</quote> is the word, whereas
<quote>la bab.</quote> is the thing named by the word. The cmavo
<quote>la'e</quote> and
<quote>lu'e</quote>(of selma'o LAhE) convert back and forth between references and their referents:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-fUYu">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-fUYu">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e10d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section10-example7" />
<anchor xml:id="c19e10d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section10-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>zo .bab. cmene la'e zo .bab.</jbo>
<en>The-word
<quote>Bob</quote> is-the-name-of the-referent-of the-word
<quote>Bob</quote>.</en>
<jbo>lu'e la bab. cmene la bab.</jbo>
<en>A-symbol-for Bob is-the-name-of Bob.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section10-example6" /> through
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section10-example8" /> all mean approximately the same thing, except for differences in emphasis.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section10-example9" /> is different:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-3yXJ">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3yXJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e10d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section10-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la bab. cmene la bab.</jbo>
<en>Bob is the name of Bob.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and says that Bob is both the name and the thing named, an unlikely situation. People are not names.</para>
@@ -1411,21 +1411,21 @@
<quote>la'o</quote> serves to mark non-Lojban names, especially the Linnaean binomial names (such as
<!-- ^^ Linnaean, 479 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Linnaean</primary></indexterm>
<quote>Homo sapiens</quote>) which are the internationally standardized names for species of animals and plants. Internationally known names which can more easily be recognized by spelling rather than pronunciation, such as
<!-- ^^ plants: use of fu'ivla for specific, 61 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>plants</primary></indexterm>
<quote>Goethe</quote>, can also appear in Lojban text with
<!-- ^^ Goethe, 479 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Goethe</primary></indexterm>
<quote>la'o</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Sn3u">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Sn3u">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e10d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section10-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la'o dy. Goethe .dy. cu me la'o ly. Homo sapiens .ly.</jbo>
<!-- ^^ Goethe, 479 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Goethe</primary></indexterm>
<en>Goethe is a Homo sapiens.</en>
<!-- ^^ Goethe, 479 -->
@@ -1450,108 +1450,108 @@
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>za'e</cmavo>
<!-- ^^ za'e, 69, 416, 480; interaction with bu, 416; use to avoid lujvo misunderstandings, 69 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>za'e</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>BAhE</selmaho>
<description>next word is nonce</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>English often uses strong stress on a word to single it out for contrastive emphasis, thus</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-iW4P">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-iW4P">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e11d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section11-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>I saw George.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is quite different from</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-GSTL">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-GSTL">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e11d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section11-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>I saw</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The heavy stress on
<quote>
<emphasis>George</emphasis>
</quote>(represented in writing by
<emphasis>italics</emphasis>) indicates that I saw George rather than someone else. Lojban does not use stress in this way: stress is used only to help separate words (because every brivla is stressed on the penultimate syllable) and in names to match other languages' stress patterns. Note that many other languages do not use stress in this way either; typically word order is rearranged, producing something like</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-E8mx">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-E8mx">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e11d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section11-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>It was George whom I saw.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In Lojban, the cmavo
<quote>ba'e</quote>(of selma'o BAhE) precedes a single word which is to be emphasized:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-8SVn">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-8SVn">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e11d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section11-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska la ba'e .djordj.</jbo>
<gloss>I saw the-one-named [emphasis]
<quote>George</quote>.</gloss>
<en>I saw</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note the pause before the name
<quote>djordj.</quote>, which serves to separate it unambiguously from the
<quote>ba'e</quote>. Alternatively, the
<quote>ba'e</quote> can be moved to a position before the
<quote>la</quote>, which in effect emphasizes the whole construct
<quote>la djordj.</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ud6w">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ud6w">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e11d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section11-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska ba'e la djordj.</jbo>
<gloss>I saw [emphasis] the-one-named
<quote>George</quote>.</gloss>
<en>I saw</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Marking a word with a cmavo of BAhE does not change the word's grammar in any way. Any word in a bridi can receive contrastive emphasis marking:</para>
<!-- ^^ emphasis marking, 479 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>emphasis marking</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-SVz2">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-SVz2">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e11d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section11-example6" />
<anchor xml:id="c19e11d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section11-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ba'e mi viska la djordj.</jbo>
<en>I, no one else, saw George.</en>
<jbo>mi ba'e viska la djordj.</jbo>
<en>I saw (not heard or smelled) George.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Emphasis on one of the structural components of a Lojban bridi can also be achieved by rearranging it into an order that is not the speaker's or writer's usual order. Any sumti moved out of place, or the selbri when moved out of place, is emphatic to some degree.</para>
<para>For completeness, the cmavo
<quote>za'e</quote> should be mentioned, also of selma'o BAhE. It marks a word as possibly irregular, non-standard, or nonce (created for the occasion):</para>
<!-- ^^ za'e, 69, 416, 480; interaction with bu, 416; use to avoid lujvo misunderstandings, 69 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>za'e</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-XtRW">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-XtRW">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e11d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section11-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama la za'e. .albeinias</jbo>
<!-- ^^ za'e, 69, 416, 480; interaction with bu, 416; use to avoid lujvo misunderstandings, 69 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>za'e</primary></indexterm>
<en>I go-to so-called Albania</en>
<!-- ^^ Albania: example, 480 -->
@@ -1592,21 +1592,21 @@
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>sei</cmavo>
<selmaho>SEI</selmaho>
<description>metalinguistic bridi marker</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>to</quote> and
<quote>toi</quote> are discursive (non-mathematical) parentheses, for inserting parenthetical remarks. Any text whatsoever can go within the parentheses, and it is completely invisible to its context. It can, however, refer to the context by the use of pro-sumti and pro-bridi: any that have been assigned in the context are still assigned in the parenthetical remarks, but the reverse is not true.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-FHJi">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-FHJi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e12d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section12-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>doi lisas. mi djica le nu to doi frank. ko sisti toi do viska le mlatu</jbo>
<gloss>O Lisa, I desire the event-of (O Frank, [imperative] stop!) you see the cat.</gloss>
<en>Lisa, I want you to (Frank! Stop!) see the cat.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1615,21 +1615,21 @@
<quote>do</quote> within the parentheses: the listener is changed by
<quote>doi frank.</quote> When the context sentence resumes, however, the old listener, Lisa, is automatically restored.</para>
<para>There is another cmavo of selma'o TO:
<quote>to'i</quote>. The difference between
<quote>to</quote> and
<quote>to'i</quote> is the difference between parentheses and square brackets in English prose. Remarks within
<!-- ^^ square brackets: use of in notation, 5 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>square brackets</primary></indexterm>
<quote>to ... toi</quote> cmavo are implicitly by the same speaker, whereas remarks within
<quote>to'i ... toi</quote> are implicitly by someone else, perhaps an editor:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-hXIi">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hXIi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e12d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section12-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la frank. cusku lu mi prami do to'isa'a do du la djein. toi li'u</jbo>
<en>Frank expresses
<quote>I love you [you = Jane]</quote></en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1652,51 +1652,51 @@
<para>The cmavo
<quote>sei</quote>(of selma'o SEI) begins an embedded discursive bridi. Comments added with
<!-- ^^ embedded discursive, 481 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>embedded discursive</primary></indexterm>
<quote>sei</quote> are called
<quote>metalinguistic</quote>, because they are comments about the discourse itself rather than about the subject matter of the discourse. This sense of the term
<quote>metalinguistic</quote> is used throughout this chapter, and is not to be confused with the sense
<quote>language for expressing other languages</quote>.</para>
<para>When marked with
<quote>sei</quote>, a metalinguistic utterance can be embedded in another utterance as a discursive. In this way, discursives which do not have cmavo assigned in selma'o UI can be expressed:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-jA1T">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-jA1T">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e12d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section12-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la frank. prami sei la frank. gleki la djein.</jbo>
<en>Frank loves (Frank is happy) Jane.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Using the happiness attitudinal,
<!-- ^^ happiness: example, 161 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>happiness</primary></indexterm>
<quote>.ui</quote>, would imply that the speaker was happy. Instead, the speaker attributes happiness to Frank. It would probably be safe to elide the one who is happy, and say:</para>
<!-- ^^ happiness: example, 161 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>happiness</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-vago">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-vago">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e12d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section12-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la frank. prami sei gleki la djein.</jbo>
<en>Frank loves (he is happy) Jane.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The grammar of the bridi following
<quote>sei</quote> has an unusual limitation: the sumti must either precede the selbri, or must be glued into the selbri with
<quote>be</quote> and
<quote>bei</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-sz7v">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sz7v">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e12d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section12-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la frank. prami sei gleki be fa la suzn. la djein.</jbo>
<en>Frank loves (Susan is happy) Jane.</en>
<!-- ^^ Susan: example, 481 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Susan</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1706,54 +1706,54 @@
<para>Since a discursive utterance is working at a
<quote>higher</quote> level of abstraction than a non-discursive utterance, a non-discursive utterance cannot refer to a discursive utterance. Specifically, the various back-counting, reciprocal, and reflexive constructs in selma'o KOhA ignore the utterances at
<!-- ^^ reciprocal: expression of mathematical, 433 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>reciprocal</primary></indexterm>
<quote>higher</quote> metalinguistic levels in determining their referent. It is possible, and sometimes necessary, to refer to lower metalinguistic levels. For example, the English
<!-- ^^ metalinguistic levels, 481 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>metalinguistic levels</primary></indexterm>
<quote>he said</quote> in a conversation is metalinguistic. For this purpose, quotations are considered to be at a lower metalinguistic level than the surrounding context (a quoted text cannot refer to the statements of the one who quotes it), whereas parenthetical remarks are considered to be at a higher level than the context.</para>
<para>Lojban works differently from English in that the
<quote>he said</quote> can be marked instead of the quotation. In Lojban, you can say:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-DY0u">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-DY0u">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e12d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section12-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. cusku lu mi klama le zarci li'u</jbo>
<en>John expresses
<quote>I go to-the store</quote>.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which literally claims that John uttered the quoted text. If the central claim is that John made the utterance, as is likely in conversation, this style is the most sensible. However, in written text which quotes a conversation, you don't want the
<quote>he said</quote> or
<quote>she said</quote> to be considered part of the conversation. If unmarked, it could mess up the anaphora counting. Instead, you can use:</para>
<!-- ^^ anaphora: definition, 152; pro-bridi go'i-series as, 152; pro-sumti ri-series as, 152; pro-sumti vo'a-series as, 158 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>anaphora</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-b7Fi">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-b7Fi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e12d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section12-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lu mi klama le zarci seisa'a la djan. cusku be dei li'u</jbo>
<gloss>
<quote>I go to-the store (John expresses this-sentence)</quote>
</gloss>
<en>
<quote>I go to the store</quote>, said John.</en>
<!-- ^^ said John: example, 481 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>said John</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>And of course other orders are possible:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-fHRb">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-fHRb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e12d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section12-example8" />
<anchor xml:id="c19e12d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section12-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lu seisa'a la djan. cusku be dei mi klama le zarci</jbo>
<en>John said,
<quote>I go to the store</quote>.</en>
@@ -1792,67 +1792,67 @@
<description>erase phrase</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>su</cmavo>
<selmaho>SU</selmaho>
<description>erase discourse</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>si</quote>(of selma'o SI) is a metalinguistic operator that erases the preceding word, as if it had never been spoken:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-JErC">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-JErC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e13d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section13-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti gerku si mlatu</jbo>
<en>This is-a-dog, er, is-a-cat.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means the same thing as
<quote>ti mlatu</quote>. Multiple
<quote>si</quote> cmavo in succession erase the appropriate number of words:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-rjyy">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rjyy">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e13d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section13-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta blanu zdani si si xekri zdani</jbo>
<en>That is-a-blue house, er, er, is-a-black house.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In order to erase the word
<quote>zo</quote>, it is necessary to use three
<quote>si</quote> cmavo in a row:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-zSQi">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-zSQi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e13d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section13-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>zo .bab. se cmene zo si si si la bab.</jbo>
<en>The-word
<quote>Bob</quote> is-the-name-of the word
<quote>si</quote>, er, er, Bob.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The first use of
<quote>si</quote> does not erase anything, but completes the
<quote>zo</quote> quotation. Two more
<quote>si</quote> cmavo are then necessary to erase the first
<quote>si</quote> and the
<quote>zo</quote>.</para>
<para>Incorrect names can likewise cause trouble with
<quote>si</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-s7V6">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-s7V6">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e13d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section13-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi tavla fo la .esperanto si si .esperanton.</jbo>
<en>I talk in-language that-named
<quote>and</quote>
<quote>speranto</quote>, er, er, Esperanto.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1861,21 +1861,21 @@
<quote>.esperanto</quote> breaks up, as a consequence of the Lojban morphology rules (see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4" />) into two Lojban words, the cmavo
<quote>.e</quote> and the undefined fu'ivla
<quote>speranto</quote>. Therefore, two
<quote>si</quote> cmavo are needed to erase them. Of course,
<quote>.e speranto</quote> is not grammatical after
<quote>la</quote>, but recognition of
<quote>si</quote> is done before grammatical analysis.</para>
<para>Even more messy is the result of an incorrect
<quote>zoi</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-zoWF">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-zoWF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e13d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section13-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cusku zoi fy. gy. .fy. si si si si zo .djan</jbo>
<en>I express [foreign] [quote]
<quote>gy</quote> [unquote], er, er, er, er,
<quote>John</quote>.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1892,21 +1892,21 @@
<quote>lo'u</quote> quotation mark must be erased with
<quote>fy. le'u si si si</quote>, by completing the quotation and then erasing it all with three
<quote>si</quote> cmavo.</para>
<para>What if less than the entire
<quote>zo</quote> or
<quote>zoi</quote> construct is erased? The result is something which has a loose
<quote>zo</quote> or
<quote>zoi</quote> in it, without its expected sequels, and which is incurably ungrammatical. Thus, to erase just the word quoted by
<quote>zo</quote>, it turns out to be necessary to erase the
<quote>zo</quote> as well:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-FzoX">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-FzoX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e13d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section13-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi se cmene zo .djan. si si zo .djordj.</jbo>
<en>I am-named-by the-word
<quote>John</quote>, er, er, the-word
<quote>George</quote>.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1922,48 +1922,48 @@
<!-- ^^ precise erasures, 483 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>precise erasures</primary></indexterm>
<quote>si</quote> can be extremely hard to get right. Therefore, the cmavo
<quote>sa</quote>(of selma'o SA) is provided for erasing more than one word. The cmavo following
<quote>sa</quote> should be the starting marker of some grammatical construct. The effect of the
<!-- ^^ starting marker, 483 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>starting marker</primary></indexterm>
<quote>sa</quote> is to erase back to and including the last starting marker of the same kind. For example:</para>
<!-- ^^ starting marker, 483 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>starting marker</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-YdX7">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-YdX7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e13d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section13-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska le sa .i mi cusku zo .djan.</jbo>
<en>I see the ... I say the-word
<quote>John</quote>.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Since the word following
<quote>sa</quote> is
<quote>.i</quote>, the sentence separator, its effect is to erase the preceding sentence. So
<!-- ^^ sentence separator, 495 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>sentence separator</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section13-example7" /> is equivalent to:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-JJmn">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-JJmn">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e13d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section13-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cusku zo .djan.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Another example, erasing a partial description rather than a partial sentence:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-SszI">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-SszI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e13d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section13-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska le blanu zdan. sa le xekri zdani</jbo>
<en>I see the blue hou ... the black house.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
diff --git a/todocbook/2.xml b/todocbook/2.xml
index 9f13b65..ec98681 100644
--- a/todocbook/2.xml
+++ b/todocbook/2.xml
@@ -1,20 +1,20 @@
<chapter xml:id="cll_chapter2">
<title>Chapter 2 A Quick Tour of Lojban Grammar, With Diagrams</title>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter2-section1">
<title>The concept of the bridi</title>
<para>This chapter gives diagrammed examples of basic Lojban sentence structures. The most general pattern is covered first, followed by successive variations on the basic components of the Lojban sentence. There are many more capabilities not covered in this chapter, but covered in detail in later chapters, so this chapter is a
<quote>quick tour</quote> of the material later covered more slowly throughout the book. It also introduces most of the Lojban words used to discuss Lojban grammar.</para>
<para>Let us consider John and Sam and three statements about them:</para>
<!-- ^^ John and Sam: example, 11 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>John and Sam</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-RT6i">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-RT6i">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e1d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section1-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c2e1d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section1-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c2e1d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section1-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>John is the father of Sam.</jbo>
@@ -57,43 +57,43 @@
</mediaobject>
<!--fallback for text-based browsers w/o css:-->
<cmavo-list>John is the father of Sam| | |
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>sumti</cmavo>
<selmaho>selbri</selmaho>
<description>sumti (argument)</description>
</cmavo-entry></cmavo-list>
<para>In a relationship, there are a definite number of things being related. In English, for example,
<quote>give</quote> has three places: the donor, the recipient and the gift. For example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-DE08">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-DE08">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e1d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section1-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>John gives Sam the book.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-IBBE">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-IBBE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e1d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section1-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>Sam gives John the book.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>mean two different things because the relative positions of
<quote>John</quote> and
<quote>Sam</quote> have been switched. Further,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-DxbA">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-DxbA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e1d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section1-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>The book gives John Sam.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>seems strange to us merely because the places are being filled by unorthodox arguments. The relationship expressed by
<quote>give</quote> has not changed.</para>
@@ -249,50 +249,50 @@
<para>Like the table in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter2-section3" />, this table is far from complete: in fact, no complete table can exist, because Lojban allows new words to be created (in specified ways) whenever a speaker or writer finds the existing supply of words inadequate. This notion is a basic difference between Lojban (and some other languages such as German and Chinese) and English; in English, most people are very leery of using words that
<quote>aren't in the dictionary</quote>. Lojbanists are encouraged to invent new words; doing so is a major way of participating in the development of the language.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4" /> explains how to make new words, and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12" /> explains how to give them appropriate meanings.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter2-section5">
<title>Some simple Lojban bridi</title>
<para>Let's look at a simple Lojban bridi. The place structure of the gismu
<quote>tavla</quote> is</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-5Lis">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-5Lis">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e5d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section5-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>x1 talks to x2 about x3 in language x4</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where the
<quote>x</quote> es with following numbers represent the various arguments that could be inserted at the given positions in the English sentence. For example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-3bc3">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3bc3">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e5d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section5-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>John talks to Sam about engineering in Lojban.</jbo>
<!-- ^^ engineering: example, 14 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>engineering</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>has
<quote>John</quote> in the x1 place,
<quote>Sam</quote> in the x2 place,
<quote>engineering</quote> in the x3 place, and
<!-- ^^ engineering: example, 14 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>engineering</primary></indexterm>
<quote>Lojban</quote> in the x4 place, and could be paraphrased:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-pVMH">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pVMH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e5d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section5-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>Talking is going on,</jbo>
<gloss>with speaker John</gloss>
<gloss>and listener Sam</gloss>
<gloss>and subject matter engineering</gloss>
<!-- ^^ engineering: example, 14 -->
@@ -542,91 +542,91 @@
<para>It is still O.K. for a new speaker to say the
<quote>.i</quote> before continuing; indeed, it is encouraged for maximum clarity (since it is possible that the second speaker might merely be adding words onto the end of the first speaker's sentence). A good translation for
<quote>.i</quote> is the
<quote>and</quote> used in run-on sentences when people are talking informally:
<quote>I did this, and then I did that, and ..., and ...</quote>.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter2-section9">
<title>tanru</title>
<para>When two gismu are adjacent, the first one modifies the second, and the selbri takes its place structure from the rightmost word. Such combinations of gismu are called
<quote>tanru</quote>. For example,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-GPcS">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-GPcS">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e9d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section9-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>sutra tavla</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>has the place structure</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ANfh">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ANfh">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e9d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section9-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>x1 is a fast type-of talker to x2 about x3 in language x4</jbo>
<en>x1 talks fast to x2 about x3 in language x4</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>When three or more gismu are in a row, the first modifies the second, and that combined meaning modifies the third, and that combined meaning modifies the fourth, and so on. For example</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-pzS9">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pzS9">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e9d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section9-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>sutra tavla cutci</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>has the place structure</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-7KPn">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7KPn">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e9d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section9-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>s1 is a fast-talker type of shoe worn by s2 of material s3</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>That is, it is a shoe that is worn by a fast talker rather than a shoe that is fast and is also worn by a talker.</para>
<!-- ^^ fast talker: example, 17 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>fast talker</primary></indexterm>
<para>Note especially the use of
<quote>type-of</quote> as a mechanism for connecting the English translations of the two or more gismu; this convention helps the learner understand each tanru in its context. Creative interpretations are also possible, however:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-jE94">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-jE94">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e9d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section9-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>bajra cutci</jbo>
<en>runner shoe</en>
<!-- ^^ runner shoe: example, 17 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>runner shoe</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>most probably refers to shoes suitable for runners, but might be interpreted in some imaginative instances as
<quote>shoes that run (by themselves?)</quote>. In general, however, the meaning of a tanru is determined by the literal meaning of its components, and not by any connotations or figurative meanings. Thus</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-HcV5">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-HcV5">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e9d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section9-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>sutra tavla</jbo>
<en>fast-talker</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>would not necessarily imply any trickery or deception, unlike the English idiom, and a</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-8umU">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-8umU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e9d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section9-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>jikca toldi</jbo>
<en>social butterfly</en>
<!-- ^^ social butterfly: example, 18 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>social butterfly</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ butterfly: social, example, 18 -->
@@ -714,21 +714,21 @@
<para>For example,</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c2e10d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section10-example1" /> 10.1)
<jbophrase role="sumti">mi</jbophrase>
<jbophrase role="selbri">tavla</jbophrase>
<jbophrase role="sumti">do</jbophrase>
<jbophrase role="sumti">le tavla ku</jbophrase>
</programlisting>
<para>means the same as</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-oH9T">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-oH9T">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e10d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section10-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>I talk to you about the talker</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where
<quote>the talker</quote> is presumably someone other than me, though not necessarily.</para>
@@ -939,21 +939,21 @@
<quote>my arm</quote> doesn't mean
<quote>some arm I own</quote> but rather
<quote>the arm that is part of my body</quote>. Lojban has methods of specifying all these different kinds of possession precisely and easily.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter2-section14">
<title>Vocatives and commands</title>
<!-- ^^ commands: quick-tour version, 22; with ko, 146 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>commands</primary></indexterm>
<para>You may call someone's attention to the fact that you are addressing them by using
<quote>doi</quote> followed by their name. The sentence</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ahVb">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ahVb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e14d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section14-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>doi djan.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means
<quote>Oh, John, I'm talking to you</quote>. It also has the effect of setting the value of
@@ -966,21 +966,21 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>vocative phrase</primary></indexterm>
<para>Other cmavo can be used instead of
<quote>doi</quote> in a vocative phrase, with a different significance. For example, the cmavo
<!-- ^^ vocative phrase: as a free modifier, 135; effect of position on meaning, 137; elidable terminator for, 137; explicit quantifiers prohibited on, 136; forms of, 136; implicit descriptor on, 136; implicit quantifiers on, 136; purpose of, 136; relative clauses on, 184; with complete sumti, 136; with sumti without descriptor, 136 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>vocative phrase</primary></indexterm>
<quote>coi</quote> means
<quote>hello</quote> and
<quote>co'o</quote> means
<quote>good-bye</quote>. Either word may stand alone, they may follow one another, or either may be followed by a pause and a name. (Vocative phrases with
<quote>doi</quote> do not need a pause before the name.)</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-5PHw">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-5PHw">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e14d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section14-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c2e14d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section14-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>coi. djan.</jbo>
<en>Hello, John.</en>
<jbo>co'o. djan.</jbo>
@@ -1139,32 +1139,32 @@
</programlisting>
<para>Clearly,
<quote>mo</quote> requires some cooperation between the speaker and the respondent to ensure that the right question is being answered. If context doesn't make the question specific enough, the speaker must ask the question more specifically using a more complex construction such as a tanru (see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter2-section9" />).</para>
<para>It is perfectly permissible for the respondent to fill in other unspecified places in responding to a
<quote>mo</quote> question. Thus, the respondent in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter2-section15-example7" /> could have also specified an audience, a topic, and/or a language in the response.</para>
<para>Finally, we must consider questions that can be answered
<quote>Yes</quote> or
<quote>No</quote>, such as</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-fVMN">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-fVMN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e15d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section15-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>Are you talking to me?</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Like all yes-or-no questions in English,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter2-section15-example8" /> may be reformulated as</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-648w">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-648w">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e15d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section15-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>Is it true that you are talking to me?</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In Lojban we have a word that asks precisely that question in precisely the same way. The cmavo
<quote>xu</quote>, when placed in front of a bridi, asks whether that bridi is true as stated. So</para>
@@ -1348,31 +1348,31 @@
<!-- ^^ za'a, 316 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>za'a</primary></indexterm>
<jbophrase role="sumti">do</jbophrase> [cu]
<jbophrase role="selbri">melbi</jbophrase>
I directly observe! You are beautiful.
</programlisting>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter2-section17">
<title>Tenses</title>
<para>In English, every verb is tagged for the grammatical category called tense: past, present, or future. The sentence</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-xIVa">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-xIVa">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e17d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section17-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>John went to the store</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>necessarily happens at some time in the past, whereas</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-1Acu">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1Acu">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e17d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section17-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>John is going to the store</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is necessarily happening right now.</para>
<para>The Lojban sentence</para>
diff --git a/todocbook/3.xml b/todocbook/3.xml
index ce6bb88..8c77cbd 100644
--- a/todocbook/3.xml
+++ b/todocbook/3.xml
@@ -365,21 +365,21 @@
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c3e3d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter3-section3-example2" /> 3.2) .i,ai,i,ai,on.
<phrase role="IPA">[ʔi jaj ji jaj jonʔ]</phrase>
</programlisting>
<para>The commas represent new syllable breaks, but prohibit the use of pauses or glottal stop. The pronunciation shown is just one possibility, but closely parallels the intended English pronunciation.</para>
<!-- ^^ glottal stop: as pause in Lojban, 31 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>glottal stop</primary></indexterm>
<para>However, the use of commas in this way is risky to unambiguous interpretation, since the glides might be heard by some listeners as diphthongs, producing something like</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-dQfn">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-dQfn">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c3e3d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter3-section3-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.i,iai,ii,iai,ion.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which is technically a different Lojban name. Since the intent with Lojbanized names is to allow them to be pronounced more like their native counterparts, the comma is allowed to represent vowel glides or some non-Lojbanic sound. Such an exception affects only spelling accuracy and the ability of a reader to replicate the desired pronunciation exactly; it will not affect the recognition of word boundaries.</para>
<para>Still, it is better if Lojbanized names are always distinct. Therefore, the apostrophe is preferred in regular Lojbanized names that are not attempting to simulate a non-Lojban pronunciation perfectly. (Perfection, in any event, is not really achievable, because some sounds simply lack reasonable Lojbanic counterparts.)</para>
@@ -552,35 +552,35 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>u'u</primary></indexterm>
y'a y'e y'i y'o y'u y'y
</programlisting>
<para>Vowel pairs involving
<quote>y</quote> appear only in Lojbanized names. They could appear in cmavo (structure words), but only
<!-- ^^ structure words, 50 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>structure words</primary></indexterm>
<quote>.y'y.</quote> is so used - it is the Lojban name of the apostrophe letter (see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17" />).</para>
<para>When more than two vowels occur together in Lojban, the normal pronunciation pairs vowels from the left into syllables, as in the Lojbanized name:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-RxtI">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-RxtI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c3e5d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter3-section5-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>meiin.</jbo>
<en>mei,in.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter3-section5-example1" /> contains the diphthong
<quote>ei</quote> followed by the vowel
<quote>i</quote>. In order to indicate a different grouping, the comma must always be used, leading to:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-H0wB">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-H0wB">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c3e5d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter3-section5-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>me,iin.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which contains the vowel
<quote>e</quote> followed by the diphthong
@@ -871,72 +871,72 @@
<para>It is permissible to vary from these rules in Lojbanized names. For example, there are no definitive rules for the syllabication of names with consonant clusters longer than three consonants. The comma is used to indicate variant syllabication or to explicitly mark normal syllabication.</para>
<!-- ^^ syllabication: and names, 39; definition of, 39; examples of, 39; rules for, 39; variants of, 41 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>syllabication</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ consonant clusters: buffering of, 38; contrasted with doubled consonants, 35; contrasted with single consonants, 35; definition of, 35; more than three consonants in, 37 -->
<!-- ^^ doubled consonants: contrasted with consonant clusters, 35; contrasted with single consonants, 35 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>doubled consonants</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>consonant clusters</primary></indexterm>
<para>Here are some examples of Lojban syllabication:</para>
<!-- ^^ syllabication: and names, 39; definition of, 39; examples of, 39; rules for, 39; variants of, 41 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>syllabication</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-C9tX">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-C9tX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c3e9d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter3-section9-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>pujenaicajeba</jbo>
<en>pu,je,nai,ca,je,ba</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This word has no consonant pairs and is therefore syllabified before each medial consonant.</para>
<!-- ^^ consonant pairs: in brivla, 53; initial, 36; letter y within, 53; restrictions on, 36 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>consonant pairs</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-WfXq">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-WfXq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c3e9d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter3-section9-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ninmu</jbo>
<en>nin,mu</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This word is split at a consonant pair.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-cwtY">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-cwtY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c3e9d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter3-section9-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>fitpri</jbo>
<en>fit,pri</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This word is split at a consonant triple, between the first two consonants of the triple.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-WHAV">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-WHAV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c3e9d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter3-section9-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>sairgoi</jbo>
<gloss>sair,goi</gloss>
<en>sai,r,goi</en>
<!-- ^^ sai, 305 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>sai</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This word contains the consonant pair
<quote>rg</quote>; the
<quote>r</quote> may be pronounced syllabically or not.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-nK5r">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nK5r">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c3e9d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter3-section9-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>klezba</jbo>
<gloss>klez,ba</gloss>
<en>kle,zba</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -972,35 +972,35 @@
<quote>y</quote>, a syllabic consonant, or a buffer vowel.</para>
<!-- ^^ syllabic consonant: effect on stress, 65 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>syllabic consonant</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ buffer vowel, 38; and stress, 38; shortening of, 39 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>buffer vowel</primary></indexterm>
<para>Primary stress is required on the penultimate syllable of Lojban content words (called
<quote>brivla</quote>). Lojbanized names may be stressed on any syllable, but if a syllable other than the penultimate is stressed, the syllable (or at least its vowel) must be capitalized in writing. Lojban structural words (called
<quote>cmavo</quote>) may be stressed on any syllable or none at all. However, primary stress may not be used in a syllable just preceding a brivla, unless a pause divides them; otherwise, the two words may run together.</para>
<para>Secondary stress is the optional and non-distinctive emphasis used for other syllables besides those required to have either weak or primary stress. There are few rules governing secondary stress, which typically will follow a speaker's native language habits or preferences. Secondary stress can be used for contrast, or for emphasis of a point. Secondary stress can be emphasized at any level up to primary stress, although the speaker must not allow a false primary stress in brivla, since errors in word resolution could result.</para>
<para>The following are Lojban words with stress explicitly shown:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-cxzt">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-cxzt">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c3e9d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter3-section9-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>dikyjvo</jbo>
<en>DI,ky,jvo</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(In a fully-buffered dialect, the pronunciation would be:
<phrase role="IPA">['di kə ʒɪ vo]</phrase>.) Note that the syllable
<quote>ky</quote> is not counted in determining stress. The vowel
<quote>y</quote> is never stressed in a normal Lojban context.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Sz52">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Sz52">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c3e9d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter3-section9-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.armstrong.</jbo>
<en>.ARM,strong.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This is a Lojbanized version of the name
@@ -1030,82 +1030,82 @@
<phrase role="IPA">[ˈʔarm stron gɪʔ]</phrase>
or
<phrase role="IPA">[ˈʔarm stroŋ gɪʔ]</phrase>
or even
<phrase role="IPA">[ˈʔarm stro nɪgʔ]</phrase>
</programlisting>
<para>The normal English pronunciation of the name
<quote>Armstrong</quote> could be Lojbanized as:</para>
<!-- ^^ Armstrong: example, 40 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Armstrong</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-vY2y">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-vY2y">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c3e9d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter3-section9-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.ARMstron.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>since Lojban
<quote>n</quote> is allowed to be pronounced as the velar nasal
<phrase role="IPA">[ŋ]</phrase>.</para>
<para>Here is another example showing the use of
<quote>y</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-hNb7">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hNb7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c3e9d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter3-section9-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>bisydja</jbo>
<gloss>BI,sy,dja</gloss>
<en>BI,syd,ja</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This word is a compound word, or lujvo, built from the two affixes
<quote>bis</quote> and
<quote>dja</quote>. When they are joined, an impermissible consonant pair results:
<quote>sd</quote>. In accordance with the algorithm for making lujvo, explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4" />, a
<quote>y</quote> is inserted to separate the impermissible consonant pair; the
<quote>y</quote> is not counted as a syllable for purposes of stress determination.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-5g4j">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-5g4j">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c3e9d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter3-section9-example12" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>da'udja</jbo>
<gloss>da'UD,ja</gloss>
<en>da'U,dja</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>These two syllabications sound the same to a Lojban listener - the association of unbuffered consonants in syllables is of no import in recognizing the word.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Ki4a">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Ki4a">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c3e9d13" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter3-section9-example13" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>e'u bridi</jbo>
<gloss>e'u BRI,di</gloss>
<gloss>E'u BRI,di</gloss>
<en>e'U.BRI,di</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter3-section9-example13" />,
<quote>e'u</quote> is a cmavo and
<quote>bridi</quote> is a brivla. Either of the first two pronunciations is permitted: no primary stress on either syllable of
<quote>e'u</quote>, or primary stress on the first syllable. The third pronunciation, which places primary stress on the second syllable of the cmavo, requires that - since the following word is a brivla - the two words must be separated by a pause. Consider the following two cases:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-jFdz">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-jFdz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c3e9d14" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter3-section9-example14" />
<anchor xml:id="c3e9d15" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter3-section9-example15" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le re nobli prenu</jbo>
<en>le re NObli PREnu</en>
<jbo>le re no bliprenu</jbo>
diff --git a/todocbook/4.xml b/todocbook/4.xml
index e07696f..af80a45 100644
--- a/todocbook/4.xml
+++ b/todocbook/4.xml
@@ -275,21 +275,21 @@
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>2)</term>
<listitem>
<para>They end in a vowel.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
<para>For example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-AT2F">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-AT2F">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e2d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section2-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e2d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section2-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e2d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section2-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.iseci'i</jbo>
@@ -302,108 +302,108 @@
<!-- ^^ ki'e, 324 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ki'e</primary></indexterm>
<en>ki'e .u'e</en>
<!-- ^^ ki'e, 324 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ki'e</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>.u'e</quote> begins with a vowel, and like all words beginning with a vowel, requires a pause (represented by
<quote>.</quote>) before it. This pause cannot be omitted simply because the cmavo is incorporated into a compound cmavo. On the other hand,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-FDhH">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-FDhH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e2d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section2-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ki'e'u'e</jbo>
<!-- ^^ ki'e, 324 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ki'e</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is a single cmavo reserved for experimental purposes: it has four vowels.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-CtnR">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-CtnR">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e2d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section2-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>cy.ibu.abu</jbo>
<en>cy. .ibu .abu</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Again the pauses are required (see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4-section9" />); the pause after
<quote>cy.</quote> merges with the pause before
<quote>.ibu</quote>.</para>
<para>There is no particular stress required in cmavo or their compounds. Some conventions do exist that are not mandatory. For two-syllable cmavo, for example, stress is typically placed on the first vowel; an example is</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-pdGY">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pdGY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e2d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section2-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.e'o ko ko kurji</jbo>
<!-- ^^ e'o, 303; contrasted with pe'u, 324 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>e'o</primary></indexterm>
<en>.E'o ko ko KURji</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This convention results in a consistent rhythm to the language, since brivla are required to have penultimate stress; some find this esthetically pleasing.</para>
<para>If the final syllable of one word is stressed, and the first syllable of the next word is stressed, you must insert a pause or glottal stop between the two stressed syllables. Thus</para>
<!-- ^^ glottal stop: as pause in Lojban, 31 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>glottal stop</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-uqDz">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-uqDz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e2d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section2-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le re nanmu</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>can be optionally pronounced</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-dfzc">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-dfzc">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e2d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section2-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le RE. NANmu</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>since there are no rules forcing stress on either of the first two words; the stress on
<quote>re</quote>, though, demands that a pause separate
<quote>re</quote> from the following syllable
<quote>nan</quote> to ensure that the stress on
<quote>nan</quote> is properly heard as a stressed syllable. The alternative pronunciation</para>
<!-- ^^ stressed syllable: compared with stressed vowel, 40 -->
<!-- ^^ stressed vowel: compared with stressed syllable, 40 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>stressed vowel</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>stressed syllable</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-bLbf">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-bLbf">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e2d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section2-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>LE re NANmu</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is also valid; this would apply secondary stress (used for purposes of emphasis, contrast or sentence rhythm) to
<quote>le</quote>, comparable in rhythmical effect to the English phrase
<quote>THE two men</quote>. In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4-section2-example8" />, the secondary stress on
<quote>re</quote> would be similar to that in the English phrase
<quote>the TWO men</quote>.</para>
<para>Both cmavo may also be left unstressed, thus:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-sg0p">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sg0p">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e2d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section2-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le re NANmu</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This would probably be the most common usage.</para>
</section>
@@ -508,21 +508,21 @@
<quote>kismu</quote>,
<quote>xismu</quote>,
<quote>gicmu</quote>,
<quote>gizmu</quote>, and
<quote>gisnu</quote> cannot be.</para>
<para>Almost all Lojban gismu are constructed from pieces of words drawn from other languages, specifically Chinese, English, Hindi, Spanish, Russian, and Arabic, the six most widely spoken natural languages. For a given concept, words in the six languages that represent that concept were written in Lojban phonetics. Then a gismu was selected to maximize the recognizability of the Lojban word for speakers of the six languages by weighting the inclusion of the sounds drawn from each language by the number of speakers of that language. See
<!-- ^^ inclusion: property of sets, 125 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>inclusion</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4-section14" /> for a full explanation of the algorithm.</para>
<para>Here are a few examples of gismu, with rough English equivalents (not definitions):</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Bt49">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Bt49">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e4d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section4-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e4d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section4-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e4d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section4-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e4d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section4-example4" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e4d5" />
@@ -557,41 +557,41 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4-section15" /> for a list.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter4-section5">
<title>lujvo</title>
<para>When specifying a concept that is not found among the gismu (or, more specifically, when the relevant gismu seems too general in meaning), a Lojbanist generally attempts to express the concept as a tanru. Lojban tanru are an elaboration of the concept of
<quote>metaphor</quote> used in English. In Lojban, any brivla can be used to modify another brivla. The first of the pair modifies the second. This modification is usually restrictive - the modifying brivla reduces the broader sense of the modified brivla to form a more narrow, concrete, or specific concept. Modifying brivla may thus be seen as acting like English adverbs or adjectives. For example,</para>
<!-- ^^ adverbs: brivla as Lojban equivalents, 52 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>adverbs</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ adjectives: brivla as Lojban equivalents, 52 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>adjectives</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-xhQP">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-xhQP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e5d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section5-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>skami pilno</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is the tanru which expresses the concept of
<quote>computer user</quote>.</para>
<para>The simplest Lojban tanru are pairings of two concepts or ideas. Such tanru take two simpler ideas that can be represented by gismu and combine them into a single more complex idea. Two-part tanru may then be recombined in pairs with other tanru, or with individual gismu, to form more complex or more specific ideas, and so on.</para>
<para>The meaning of a tanru is usually at least partly ambiguous:
<quote>skami pilno</quote> could refer to a computer that is a user, or to a user of computers. There are a variety of ways that the modifier component can be related to the modified component. It is also possible to use cmavo within tanru to provide variations (or to prevent ambiguities) of meaning.</para>
<para>Making tanru is essentially a poetic or creative act, not a science. While the syntax expressing the grouping relationships within tanru is unambiguous, tanru are still semantically ambiguous, since the rules defining the relationships between the gismu are flexible. The process of devising a new tanru is dealt with in detail in
<xref linkend="chapter-selbri" />.</para>
<para>To express a simple tanru, simply say the component gismu together. Thus the binary metaphor
<quote>big boat</quote> becomes the tanru</para>
<!-- ^^ big boat: example, 55 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>big boat</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-oLE3">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-oLE3">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e5d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section5-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>barda bloti</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>representing roughly the same concept as the English word
<quote>ship</quote>.</para>
@@ -599,80 +599,80 @@
<quote>father mother</quote> can refer to a paternal grandmother (
<!-- ^^ paternal grandmother: example, 55 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>paternal grandmother</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ father mother: example, 55 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>father mother</primary></indexterm>
<quote>a father-ly type of mother</quote>), while
<quote>mother father</quote> can refer to a maternal grandfather (
<!-- ^^ mother father: example, 55 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>mother father</primary></indexterm>
<quote>a mother-ly type of father</quote>). In Lojban, these become the tanru</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-4wK9">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4wK9">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e5d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section5-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>patfu mamta</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-KQ4s">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KQ4s">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e5d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section5-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mamta patfu</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>respectively.</para>
<para>The possibility of semantic ambiguity can easily be seen in the last case. To interpret
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4-section5-example4" />, the listener must determine what type of motherliness pertains to the father being referred to. In an appropriate context,
<quote>mamta patfu</quote> could mean not
<quote>grandfather</quote> but simply
<quote>father with some motherly attributes</quote>, depending on the culture. If absolute clarity is required, there are ways to expand upon and explain the exact interrelationship between the components; but such detail is usually not needed.</para>
<para>When a concept expressed in a tanru proves useful, or is frequently expressed, it is desirable to choose one of the possible meanings of the tanru and assign it to a new brivla. For
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4-section5-example1" />, we would probably choose
<quote>user of computers</quote>, and form the new word</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-v5YD">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-v5YD">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e5d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section5-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>sampli</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Such a brivla, built from the rafsi which represent its component words, is called a
<quote>lujvo</quote>. Another example, corresponding to the tanru of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4-section5-example2" />, would be:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-aiAR">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-aiAR">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e5d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section5-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>bralo'i</jbo>
<gloss>big-boat</gloss>
<en>ship</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The lujvo representing a given tanru is built from units representing the component gismu. These units are called
<quote>rafsi</quote> in Lojban. Each rafsi represents only one gismu. The rafsi are attached together in the order of the words in the tanru, occasionally inserting so-called
<quote>hyphen</quote> letters to ensure that the pieces stick together as a single word and cannot accidentally be broken apart into cmavo, gismu, or other word forms. As a result, each lujvo can be readily and accurately recognized, allowing a listener to pick out the word from a string of spoken Lojban, and if necessary, unambiguously decompose the word to a unique source tanru, thus providing a strong clue to its meaning.</para>
<!-- ^^ word forms: as related to grammatical uses, 49; in Lojban (see also morphology), 49 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>word forms</primary></indexterm>
<para>The lujvo that can be built from the tanru
<quote>mamta patfu</quote> in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4-section5-example4" /> is</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-TCUH">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-TCUH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e5d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section5-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mampa'u</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which refers specifically to the concept
<quote>maternal grandfather</quote>. The two gismu that constitute the tanru are represented in
@@ -697,21 +697,21 @@
<para>A
<quote>y</quote>(which is ignored in determining stress or consonant clusters) is inserted in the middle of the consonant cluster to glue the word together when the resulting cluster is either not permissible or the word is likely to break up. There are specific rules describing these conditions, detailed in
<!-- ^^ consonant clusters: buffering of, 38; contrasted with doubled consonants, 35; contrasted with single consonants, 35; definition of, 35; more than three consonants in, 37 -->
<!-- ^^ doubled consonants: contrasted with consonant clusters, 35; contrasted with single consonants, 35 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>doubled consonants</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>consonant clusters</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4-section6" />.</para>
<para>An
<quote>r</quote>(in some cases, an
<quote>n</quote>) is inserted when a CVV-form rafsi attaches to the beginning of a lujvo in such a way that there is no consonant cluster. For example, in the lujvo</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-3Qtv">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3Qtv">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e5d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section5-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>soirsai</jbo>
<gloss>sonci sanmi</gloss>
<gloss>soldier meal</gloss>
<en>field rations</en>
<!-- ^^ field rations: example, 56 -->
@@ -743,21 +743,21 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>rafsi form</primary></indexterm>
<quote>long rafsi</quote>, they are called
<!-- ^^ long rafsi: definition, 57 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>long rafsi</primary></indexterm>
<quote>unreduced lujvo</quote>.</para>
<!-- ^^ unreduced lujvo: definition, 57 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>unreduced lujvo</primary></indexterm>
<para>Some examples of unreduced lujvo forms are:</para>
<!-- ^^ unreduced lujvo: definition, 57 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>unreduced lujvo</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Qbex">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Qbex">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e6d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section6-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e6d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section6-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e6d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section6-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e6d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section6-example4" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e6d5" />
@@ -925,21 +925,21 @@
<quote>ma'a</quote> as possible rafsi: in fact, only
<!-- ^^ ma'a, 146 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ma'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>mam</quote> is assigned to it.</para>
<para>Some cmavo also have associated rafsi, usually CVC-form. For example, the ten common numerical digits, which are all CV form cmavo, each have a CVC-form rafsi formed by adding a consonant to the cmavo. Most cmavo that have rafsi are ones used in composing tanru (for a complete list, see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12" />).</para>
<para>The term for a lujvo made up solely of short rafsi is
<quote>fully reduced lujvo</quote>. Here are some examples of fully reduced lujvo:</para>
<!-- ^^ fully reduced lujvo: definition, 59 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>fully reduced lujvo</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-QIgb">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-QIgb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e6d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section6-example6" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e6d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section6-example7" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e6d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section6-example8" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e6d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section6-example9" />
</title>
@@ -964,21 +964,21 @@
</en>
<jbo>sniju'o</jbo>
<gloss>from
<quote>sinxa djuno</quote></gloss>
<en>
<quote>sign know</quote>
</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In addition, some of the unreduced forms in the previous example may be fully reduced to:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-iEYe">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-iEYe">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e6d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section6-example10" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e6d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section6-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mampa'u</jbo>
<gloss>from
<quote>mamta patfu</quote></gloss>
@@ -1041,34 +1041,34 @@
<quote>r</quote>. For example, the tanru
<quote>rokci renro</quote>(
<quote>rock throw</quote>) cannot be expressed as
<quote>ro'ire'o</quote>(which breaks up into two cmavo), nor can it be
<quote>ro'irre'o</quote>(which has an impermissible double consonant); the
<quote>n</quote>-hyphen is required, and the correct form of the hyphenated lujvo is
<quote>ro'inre'o</quote>. The same lujvo could also be expressed without hyphenation as
<quote>rokre'o</quote>.</para>
<para>There is also a different way of building lujvo, or rather phrases which are grammatically and semantically equivalent to lujvo. You can make a phrase containing any desired words, joining each pair of them with the special cmavo
<quote>zei</quote>. Thus,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-VeGL">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-VeGL">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e6d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section6-example12" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>bridi zei valsi</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is the exact equivalent of
<quote>brivla</quote>(but not necessarily the same as the underlying tanru
<quote>bridi valsi</quote>, which could have other meanings.) Using
<quote>zei</quote> is the only way to get a cmavo lacking a rafsi, a cmene, or a fu'ivla into a lujvo:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-18Ls">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-18Ls">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e6d13" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section6-example13" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e6d14" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section6-example14" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e6d15" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section6-example15" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e6d16" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section6-example16" />
</title>
@@ -1103,21 +1103,21 @@
<!-- ^^ tank: Sherman, example, 60 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>tank</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4-section6-example15" /> is particularly noteworthy because the phrase that would be produced by removing the
<quote>zei</quote> s from it doesn't end with a brivla, and in fact is not even grammatical. As written, the example is a tanru with two components, but by adding a
<quote>zei</quote> between
<quote>by.</quote> and
<quote>livgyterbilma</quote> to produce</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Wnaz">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Wnaz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e6d17" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section6-example17" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>na'e zei .a zei na'e zei by. zei livgyterbilma</jbo>
<en>non-A-non-B-hepatitis</en>
<!-- ^^ hepatitis: example, 60 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>hepatitis</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1149,38 +1149,38 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>integral</primary></indexterm>
<quote>iambic pentameter</quote>). These words are in effect names for concepts, and the names were invented by speakers of another language. The vast majority of words referring to plants, animals, foods, and scientific terminology cannot be easily expressed as tanru. They thus must be borrowed (actually
<!-- ^^ plants: use of fu'ivla for specific, 61 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>plants</primary></indexterm>
<quote>copied</quote>) into Lojban from the original language.</para>
<para>There are four stages of borrowing in Lojban, as words become more and more modified (but shorter and easier to use). Stage 1 is the use of a foreign name quoted with the cmavo
<!-- ^^ borrowing: four stages of, 61 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>borrowing</primary></indexterm>
<quote>la'o</quote>(explained in full in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19" />):</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-QpNm">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-QpNm">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e7d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section7-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>me la'o ly. spaghetti .ly.</jbo>
<!-- ^^ spaghetti, 61; example, 63 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>spaghetti</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is a predicate with the place structure
<quote>x1 is a quantity of spaghetti</quote>.</para>
<!-- ^^ spaghetti, 61; example, 63 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>spaghetti</primary></indexterm>
<para>Stage 2 involves changing the foreign name to a Lojbanized name, as explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4-section8" />:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-zijY">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-zijY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e7d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section7-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>me la spagetis.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>One of these expedients is often quite sufficient when you need a word quickly in conversation. (This can make it easier to get by when you do not yet have full command of the Lojban vocabulary, provided you are talking to someone who will recognize the borrowing.)</para>
<!-- ^^ borrowing: four stages of, 61 -->
@@ -1256,42 +1256,42 @@
<para>Alternatively, if a CVC-form short rafsi is available it can be used instead of the long rafsi.</para>
<!-- ^^ long rafsi: definition, 57 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>long rafsi</primary></indexterm>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Remember that the stress necessarily appears on the penultimate (next-to-the-last) syllable.</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
<para>In this section, the hyphen is set off with commas in the examples, but these commas are not required in writing, and the hyphen need not be pronounced as a separate syllable.</para>
<para>Here are a few examples:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ufin">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ufin">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e7d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section7-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>spaghetti (from English or Italian)</jbo>
<!-- ^^ spaghetti, 61; example, 63 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>spaghetti</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>spageti (Lojbanize)</gloss>
<gloss>cidj,r,spageti (prefix long rafsi)</gloss>
<!-- ^^ long rafsi: definition, 57 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>long rafsi</primary></indexterm>
<en>dja,r,spageti (prefix short rafsi)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where
<quote>cidj-</quote> is the 4-letter rafsi for
<quote>cidja</quote>, the Lojban gismu for
<quote>food</quote>, thus categorizing
<quote>cidjrspageti</quote> as a kind of food. The form with the short rafsi happens to work, but such good fortune cannot be relied on: in any event, it means the same thing.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-pzXe">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pzXe">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e7d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section7-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>Acer (the scientific name of maple trees)</jbo>
<!-- ^^ maple trees: example, 63 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>maple trees</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ Acer: example, 63 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Acer</primary></indexterm>
@@ -1306,75 +1306,75 @@
<quote>ric-</quote> are rafsi for
<quote>tricu</quote>, the gismu for
<quote>tree</quote>. Note that by the same principles,
<quote>maple sugar</quote> could get the fu'ivla
<!-- ^^ maple sugar: example, 63 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>maple sugar</primary></indexterm>
<quote>saktrxaceru</quote>, or could be represented by the tanru
<quote>tricrxaceru sakta</quote>. Technically,
<quote>ricrxaceru</quote> and
<quote>tricrxaceru</quote> are distinct fu'ivla, but they would surely be given the same meanings if both happened to be in use.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-C0YS">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-C0YS">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e7d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section7-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>brie (from French)</jbo>
<!-- ^^ brie: example, 63 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>brie</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>bri (Lojbanize)</gloss>
<en>cirl,r,bri (prefix rafsi)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where
<quote>cirl-</quote> represents
<quote>cirla</quote>(
<quote>cheese</quote>).</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-DQju">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-DQju">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e7d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section7-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>cobra</jbo>
<!-- ^^ cobra: example, 63 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>cobra</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>kobra (Lojbanize)</gloss>
<en>sinc,r,kobra (prefix rafsi)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where
<quote>sinc-</quote> represents
<quote>since</quote>(
<quote>snake</quote>).</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-TFzH">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-TFzH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e7d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section7-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>quark</jbo>
<!-- ^^ quark: example, 63 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>quark</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>kuark (Lojbanize)</gloss>
<gloss>kuarka (add final vowel)</gloss>
<en>sask,r,kuarka (prefix rafsi)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where
<quote>sask-</quote> represents
<quote>saske</quote>(
<quote>science</quote>). Note the extra vowel
<quote>a</quote> added to the end of the word, and the diphthong
<quote>ua</quote>, which never appears in gismu or lujvo, but may appear in fu'ivla.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-FTfQ">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-FTfQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e7d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section7-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>자모 (from Korean)</jbo>
<!-- ^^ Korean: example, 64 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Korean</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>djamo (Lojbanize)</gloss>
<gloss>lerf,r,djamo (prefix rafsi)</gloss>
@@ -1416,21 +1416,21 @@
<quote>integral</quote> might be conveyed with
<!-- ^^ integral: architectural concept, example, 64; mathematical concept, example, 64 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>integral</primary></indexterm>
<quote>djinrnintegrale</quote> or
<quote>tarmrnintegrale</quote>, where
<quote>dinju</quote> and
<quote>tarmi</quote> mean
<quote>building</quote> and
<quote>form</quote> respectively.</para>
<para>Here are some fu'ivla representing cultures and related things, shown with more than one rafsi prefix:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-oWGs">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-oWGs">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e7d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section7-example9" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e7d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section7-example10" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e7d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section7-example11" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e7d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section7-example12" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e7d13" />
@@ -1470,21 +1470,21 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Navajo</primary></indexterm>
<quote>Dine'e</quote>.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter4-section8">
<title>cmene</title>
<para>Lojbanized names, called
<quote>cmene</quote>, are very much like their counterparts in other languages. They are labels applied to things (or people) to stand for them in descriptions or in direct address. They may convey meaning in themselves, but do not necessarily do so.</para>
<!-- ^^ direct address, 323 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>direct address</primary></indexterm>
<para>Because names are often highly personal and individual, Lojban attempts to allow native language names to be used with a minimum of modification. The requirement that the Lojban speech stream be unambiguously analyzable, however, means that most names must be modified somewhat when they are Lojbanized. Here are a few examples of English names and possible Lojban equivalents:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-1LIJ">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1LIJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e8d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section8-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e8d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section8-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e8d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section8-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e8d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section8-example4" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e8d5" />
@@ -1516,52 +1516,52 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(Note that syllabic
<quote>r</quote> is skipped in determining the stressed syllable, so
<!-- ^^ stressed syllable: compared with stressed vowel, 40 -->
<!-- ^^ stressed vowel: compared with stressed syllable, 40 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>stressed vowel</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>stressed syllable</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4-section8-example6" /> is stressed on the
<quote>ka</quote>.)</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-TX1F">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-TX1F">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e8d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section8-example7" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e8d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section8-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>katis.</jbo>
<en>Cathy</en>
<!-- ^^ Cathy: example, 65 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Cathy</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>keit.</jbo>
<en>Kate</en>
<!-- ^^ Kate: example, 65 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Kate</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Names may have almost any form, but always end in a consonant, and are followed by a pause. They are penultimately stressed, unless unusual stress is marked with capitalization. A name may have multiple parts, each ending with a consonant and pause, or the parts may be combined into a single word with no pause. For example,</para>
<!-- ^^ capitalization: for unusual stress in names, 66; use in names, 66; use of, 66 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>capitalization</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-43uP">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-43uP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e8d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section8-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>djan. djonz.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-QnyL">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-QnyL">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e8d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section8-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>djandjonz.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>are both valid Lojbanizations of
<quote>John Jones</quote>.</para>
@@ -1611,21 +1611,21 @@
<para>They are always followed in speech by a pause after the final consonant, written as
<quote>.</quote>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>They may be stressed on any syllable; if this syllable is not the penultimate one, it must be capitalized when writing. Neither names nor words that begin sentences are capitalized in Lojban, so this is the only use of capital letters.</para>
<!-- ^^ capital letters: use in Lojban, 415; use of, 29 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>capital letters</primary></indexterm>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
<para>Names meeting these criteria may be invented, Lojbanized from names in other languages, or formed by appending a consonant onto a cmavo, a gismu, a fu'ivla or a lujvo. Some cmene built from Lojban words are:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ziuQ">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ziuQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e8d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section8-example11" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e8d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section8-example12" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e8d13" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section8-example13" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e8d14" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section8-example14" />
</title>
@@ -2136,21 +2136,21 @@
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
<para>The score is then:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
(1000 * L) - (500 * A) + (100 * H) - (10 * R) - V
</programlisting>
<para>In case of ties, there is no preference. This should be rare. Note that the algorithm essentially encodes a hierarchy of priorities: short words are preferred (counting apostrophes as half a letter), then words with fewer hyphens, words with more pleasing rafsi (this judgment is subjective), and finally words with more vowels are chosen. Each decision principle is applied in turn if the ones before it have failed to choose; it is possible that a lower-ranked principle might dominate a higher-ranked one if it is ten times better than the alternative.</para>
<!-- ^^ hyphens: use of, 59 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>hyphens</primary></indexterm>
<para>Here are some lujvo with their scores (not necessarily the lowest scoring forms for these lujvo, nor even necessarily sensible lujvo):</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-sdBq">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sdBq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e12d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section12-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e12d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section12-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e12d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section12-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e12d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section12-example4" />
</title>
@@ -2613,47 +2613,47 @@
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter4-section16">
<title>rafsi fu'ivla: a proposal</title>
<para>The list of cultures represented by gismu, given in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4-section15" />, is unavoidably controversial. Much time has been spent debating whether this or that culture
<quote>deserves a gismu</quote> or
<quote>must languish in fu'ivla space</quote>. To help defuse this argument, a last-minute proposal was made when this book was already substantially complete. I have added it here with experimental status: it is not yet a standard part of Lojban, since all its implications have not been tested in open debate, and it affects a part of the language (lujvo-making) that has long been stable, but is known to be fragile in the face of small changes. (Many attempts were made to add general mechanisms for making lujvo that contained fu'ivla, but all failed on obvious or obscure counterexamples; finally the general
<quote>zei</quote> mechanism was devised instead.)</para>
<para>The first part of the proposal is uncontroversial and involves no change to the language mechanisms. All valid Type 4 fu'ivla of the form CCVVCV would be reserved for cultural brivla analogous to those described in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4-section15" />. For example,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-PMb2">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PMb2">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e16d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section16-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>tci'ile</jbo>
<en>Chilean</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is of the appropriate form, and passes all tests required of a Stage 4 fu'ivla. No two fu'ivla of this form would be allowed to coexist if they differed only in the final vowel; this rule was applied to gismu, but does not apply to other fu'ivla or to lujvo.</para>
<para>The second, and fully experimental, part of the proposal is to allow rafsi to be formed from these cultural fu'ivla by removing the final vowel and treating the result as a 4-letter rafsi (although it would contain five letters, not four). These rafsi could then be used on a par with all other rafsi in forming lujvo. The tanru</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-hcR6">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hcR6">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e16d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section16-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>tci'ile ke canre tutra</jbo>
<gloss>Chilean type-of (sand territory)</gloss>
<en>Chilean desert</en>
<!-- ^^ Chilean desert: example, 80 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Chilean desert</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>could be represented by the lujvo</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-0rzn">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-0rzn">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e16d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section16-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>tci'ilykemcantutra</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which is an illegal word in standard Lojban, but a valid lujvo under this proposal. There would be no short rafsi or 5-letter rafsi assigned to any fu'ivla, so no fu'ivla could appear as the last element of a lujvo.</para>
<para>The cultural fu'ivla introduced under this proposal are called
diff --git a/todocbook/5.xml b/todocbook/5.xml
index c7dc375..515f441 100644
--- a/todocbook/5.xml
+++ b/todocbook/5.xml
@@ -8,118 +8,118 @@
<anchor xml:id="c5e1d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section1-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do mamta mi</jbo>
<gloss>You are-a-mother-of me</gloss>
<en>You are my mother</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-B0aR">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-B0aR">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e1d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section1-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do patfu mi</jbo>
<gloss>You are-a-father-of me.</gloss>
<en>You are my father.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>lies in the different selbri.</para>
<para>The simplest kind of selbri is a single Lojban content word: a brivla. There are three different varieties of brivla: those which are built into the language (the gismu), those which are derived from combinations of the gismu (the lujvo), and those which are taken (usually in a modified form) from other languages (the fu'ivla). In addition, there are a few cmavo that can act like brivla; these are mentioned in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section9" />, and discussed in full in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7" />.</para>
<para>For the purposes of this chapter, however, all brivla are alike. For example,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-483c">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-483c">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e1d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section1-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta bloti</jbo>
<gloss>That is-a-boat.</gloss>
<en>That is a boat.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-mdxB">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mdxB">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e1d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section1-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta brablo</jbo>
<gloss>That is-a-large-boat.</gloss>
<en>That is a ship.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-UMjE">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-UMjE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e1d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section1-example5" />
</title>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>schooner</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta blotrskunri</jbo>
<gloss>That is-a-(boat)-schooner.</gloss>
<en>That is a schooner.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>illustrate the three types of brivla (gismu, lujvo, and fu'ivla respectively), but in each case the selbri is composed of a single word whose meaning can be learned independent of its origins.</para>
<para>The remainder of this chapter will mostly use gismu as example brivla, because they are short. However, it is important to keep in mind that wherever a gismu appears, it could be replaced by any other kind of brivla.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="simple-tanru">
+ <section xml:id="section-simple-tanru">
<title>Simple tanru</title>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>nouns</primary><secondary>brivla as Lojban equivalents</secondary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>verbs</primary><secondary>brivla as Lojban equivalents</secondary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>adjectives</primary><secondary>brivla as Lojban equivalents</secondary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>adverbs</primary><secondary>brivla as Lojban equivalents</secondary></indexterm>
<para>Beyond the single brivla, a selbri may consist of two brivla placed together. When a selbri is built in this way from more than one brivla, it is called a tanru, a word with no single English equivalent. The nearest analogue to tanru in English are combinations of two nouns such as
<quote>lemon tree</quote>. There is no way to tell just by looking at the phrase
<quote>lemon tree</quote> exactly what it refers to, even if you know the meanings of
<quote>lemon</quote> and
<quote>tree</quote> by themselves. As English-speakers, we must simply know that it refers to
<quote>a tree which bears lemons as fruits</quote>. A person who didn't know English very well might think of it as analogous to
<quote>brown tree</quote> and wonder,
<quote>What kind of tree is lemon-colored?</quote></para>
<para>In Lojban, tanru are also used for the same purposes as English adjective-noun combinations like
<quote>big boy</quote> and adverb-verb combinations like
<quote>quickly run</quote>. This is a consequence of Lojban not having any such categories as
<quote>noun</quote>,
<quote>verb</quote>,
<quote>adjective</quote>, or
<quote>adverb</quote>. English words belonging to any of these categories are translated by simple brivla in Lojban. Here are some examples of tanru:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-z0wS">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-z0wS">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e2d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section2-example1" />
</title>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>lemon tree</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>tu pelnimre tricu</jbo>
<gloss>That-yonder is-a-(lemon tree).</gloss>
<en>That is a lemon tree.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-qHNA">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-qHNA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e2d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section2-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. barda nanla</jbo>
<gloss>That-named John is-a-big boy.</gloss>
<en>John is a big boy.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-eD63">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-eD63">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e2d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section2-example3" />
</title>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>quick runner</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi sutra bajra</jbo>
<gloss>I quick run</gloss>
<en>I quickly run./I run quickly.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -128,21 +128,21 @@
<jbophrase>pelnimre</jbophrase>
is a lujvo for
<quote>lemon</quote>; it is derived from the gismu
<jbophrase>pelxu</jbophrase>,
yellow, and
<jbophrase>nimre</jbophrase>,
citrus. Note also that
<jbophrase>sutra</jbophrase> can mean
<quote>fast/quick</quote> or
<quote>quickly</quote> depending on its use:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-cjhN">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-cjhN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e2d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section2-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi sutra</jbo>
<gloss>I am-fast/quick</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>shows
@@ -150,169 +150,169 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section2-example3" /> it is translating an adverb. (Another correct translation of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section2-example3" />, however, would be
<quote>I am a quick runner</quote>.)</para>
<para>There are special Lojban terms for the two components of a tanru, derived from the place structure of the word
<jbophrase>tanru</jbophrase>. The first component is called the
<jbophrase>seltau</jbophrase>, and the second component is called the
<jbophrase>tertau</jbophrase>.</para>
<para>The most important rule for use in interpreting tanru is that the tertau carries the primary meaning. A
<jbophrase>pelnimre tricu</jbophrase> is primarily a tree, and only secondarily is it connected with lemons in some way. For this reason, an alternative translation of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section2-example1" /> would be:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-hP9j">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hP9j">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e2d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section2-example5" />
</title>
<para>That is a lemon type of tree.</para>
</example>
<para>This
<quote>type of</quote> relationship between the components of a tanru is fundamental to the tanru concept.</para>
<para>We may also say that the seltau modifies the meaning of the tertau:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-4fvn">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4fvn">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e2d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section2-example6" />
</title>
<para>That is a tree which is lemon-ish (in the way appropriate to trees)</para>
</example>
<para>would be another possible translation of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section2-example1" />. In the same way, a more explicit translation of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section2-example2" /> might be:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-asRA">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-asRA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e2d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section2-example7" />
</title>
<para>John is a boy who is big in the way that boys are big.</para>
</example>
<para>This
<quote>way that boys are big</quote> would be quite different from the way in which elephants are big; big-for-a-boy is small-for-an-elephant.</para>
<para>All tanru are ambiguous semantically. Possible translations of:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-aIfM">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-aIfM">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e2d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section2-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta klama jubme</jbo>
<gloss>That is-a-goer type-of-table.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>include:</para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem><para>That is a table which goes (a wheeled table, perhaps).</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>That is a table owned by one who goes.</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>That is a table used by those who go (a sports doctor's table?).</para></listitem>
<listitem><para>That is a table when it goes (otherwise it is a chair?).</para></listitem>
</itemizedlist>
<para>In each case the object referred to is a
<quote>goer type of table</quote>, but the ambiguous
<quote>type of</quote> relationship can mean one of many things. A speaker who uses tanru (and pragmatically all speakers must) takes the risk of being misunderstood. Using tanru is convenient because they are short and expressive; the circumlocution required to squeeze out all ambiguity can require too much effort.</para>
<para>No general theory covering the meaning of all possible tanru exists; probably no such theory can exist. However, some regularities obviously do exist:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Lczh">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Lczh">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e2d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section2-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do barda prenu</jbo>
<gloss>You are-a-large person.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Ldb1">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Ldb1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e2d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section2-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do cmalu prenu</jbo>
<gloss>You are-a-small person.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>are parallel tanru, in the sense that the relationship between
<jbophrase>barda</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>prenu</jbophrase> is the same as that between
<jbophrase>cmalu</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>prenu</jbophrase>.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section14" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section15" /> contain a partial listing of some types of tanru, with examples.</para>
</section>
- <section xml:id="three-part-tanru">
+ <section xml:id="section-three-part-tanru">
<title>Three-part tanru grouping with
<jbophrase>bo</jbophrase></title>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>tanru grouping</primary><secondary>three-part</secondary></indexterm>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>bo</cmavo>
<selmaho>BO</selmaho>
<description>closest scope grouping</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>Consider the English sentence:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-gCLr">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gCLr">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e3d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section3-example1" />
</title>
<para>That's a little girls' school.</para>
</example>
<para>What does it mean? Two possible readings are:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-5UBW">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-5UBW">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e3d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section3-example2" />
</title>
<para>That's a little school for girls.</para>
</example>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-5UBJ">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-5UBJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e3d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section3-example3" />
</title>
<para>That's a school for little girls.</para>
</example>
<para>This ambiguity is quite different from the simple tanru ambiguity described in
- <xref linkend="simple-tanru" />. We understand that
+ <xref linkend="section-simple-tanru" />. We understand that
<quote>girls' school</quote> means
<quote>a school where girls are the students</quote>, and not
<quote>a school where girls are the teachers</quote> or
<quote>a school which is a girl</quote>(!). Likewise, we understand that
<quote>little girl</quote> means
<quote>girl who is small</quote>. This is an ambiguity of grouping. Is
<quote>girls' school</quote> to be taken as a unit, with
<quote>little</quote> specifying the type of girls' school? Or is
<quote>little girl</quote> to be taken as a unit, specifying the type of
school? In English speech, different tones of voice, or
<indexterm type="general"><primary>speech rhythm</primary><secondary>for grouping in English</secondary></indexterm>
exaggerated speech rhythm showing the grouping, are used to make the
distinction; English writing usually leaves it unrepresented.</para>
<para>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>tanru grouping</primary><secondary>with bo</secondary></indexterm>
Lojban makes no use of tones of voice for any purpose; explicit words are used to do the work. The cmavo
<jbophrase>bo</jbophrase>(which belongs to selma'o BO) may be placed between the
two brivla which are most closely associated. Therefore, a Lojban translation
of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section3-example2" /> would be:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-nwuU">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nwuU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e3d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section3-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta cmalu nixli bo ckule</jbo>
<gloss>That is-a-small girl [] school.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section3-example3" /> might be translated:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-jquh">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-jquh">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e3d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section3-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta cmalu bo nixli ckule</jbo>
<gloss>That is-a-small [] girl school.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The
@@ -329,21 +329,21 @@
<jbophrase>nixli</jbophrase> as the seltau and
<jbophrase>ckule</jbophrase> as the tertau. In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section3-example5" />, on the other hand, the seltau is
<jbophrase>cmalu bo nixli</jbophrase> (itself a tanru), whereas the tertau is
<jbophrase>ckule</jbophrase>.
<indexterm type="general"><primary>tanru nested within tanru</primary></indexterm>
This structure of tanru nested within tanru forms the basis for all the more
complex types of selbri that will be explained below.</para>
<para>What about
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section3-example6" />? What does it mean?</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-9FPm">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9FPm">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e3d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section3-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta cmalu nixli ckule</jbo>
<gloss>That is-a-small girl school.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The rules of Lojban do not leave this sentence ambiguous, as the rules of English do with
@@ -351,93 +351,93 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section3-example6" /> means the same as
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section3-example5" />. This is true no matter
what three brivla are used: the leftmost two are always grouped together. This
rule is called the
<quote>left-grouping rule</quote>. Left-grouping in seemingly ambiguous
structures is quite common - though not universal - in other contexts in
Lojban.</para>
<para>Another way to express the English meaning of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section3-example4" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section3-example5" />, using parentheses to mark grouping, is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ERBx">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ERBx">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e3d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section3-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta cmalu [] nixli bo ckule</jbo>
<gloss>That is-a-small type-of (girl type-of school).</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ERBQ">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ERBQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e3d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section3-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta cmalu bo nixli [] ckule</jbo>
<gloss>That is-a-(small type-of girl) type-of school.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Because
<quote>type-of</quote> is implicit in the Lojban tanru form, it has no Lojban equivalent.</para>
<para>Note: It is perfectly legal, though pointless, to insert
<jbophrase>bo</jbophrase> into a simple tanru:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-q6br">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-q6br">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e3d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section3-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta klama bo jubme</jbo>
<gloss>That is-a-goer [] table.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is a legal Lojban bridi that means exactly the same thing as
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section2-example8" />, and is ambiguous in exactly the same ways. The cmavo
<jbophrase>bo</jbophrase> serves only to resolve grouping ambiguity: it
says nothing about the more basic ambiguity present in all tanru.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter5-section4">
<title>Complex tanru grouping</title>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>tanru grouping</primary><secondary>complex</secondary></indexterm>
<para>If one element of a tanru can be another tanru, why not both elements?</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-m5SD">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-m5SD">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e4d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section4-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do mutce bo barda gerku bo kavbu</jbo>
<gloss>You are-a-(very type-of large) (dog type-of capturer).</gloss>
<en>You are a very large dog-catcher.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section4-example1" />, the selbri is a tanru with seltau
<quote>mutce bo barda</quote> and tertau
<quote>gerku bo kavbu</quote>. It is worth emphasizing once again that this tanru has the same fundamental ambiguity as all other Lojban tanru: the sense in which the
<quote>dog type-of capturer</quote> is said to be
<quote>very type-of large</quote> is not precisely specified. Presumably it is his body which is large, but theoretically it could be one of his other properties.</para>
<para>We will now justify the title of this chapter by exploring the ramifications of the phrase
<quote>pretty little girls' school</quote>, an expansion of the tanru used in
<!-- ^^ pretty little girls' school: forty ways, examples, 112 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>pretty little girls' school</primary></indexterm>
- <xref linkend="three-part-tanru" /> to four brivla. (Although this example has been used in the Loglan Project almost since the beginning - it first appeared in Quine's book
+ <xref linkend="section-three-part-tanru" /> to four brivla. (Although this example has been used in the Loglan Project almost since the beginning - it first appeared in Quine's book
<citation>Word and Object</citation>(1960) - it is actually a mediocre example because of the ambiguity of English
<quote>pretty</quote>; it can mean
<quote>beautiful</quote>, the sense intended here, or it can mean
<quote>very</quote>. Lojban
<quote>melbi</quote> is not subject to this ambiguity: it means only
<quote>beautiful</quote>.)</para>
<para>Here are four ways to group this phrase:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-KSuA">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KSuA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e4d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section4-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c5e4d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section4-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c5e4d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section4-example4" />
<anchor xml:id="c5e4d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section4-example5" />
</title>
@@ -459,21 +459,21 @@
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section4-example5" /> uses a construction which has not been seen before:
<quote>cmalu bo nixli bo ckule</quote>, with two consecutive uses of
<quote>bo</quote> between brivla. The rule for multiple
<quote>bo</quote> constructions is the opposite of the rule when no
<quote>bo</quote> is present at all: the last two are grouped together. Not surprisingly, this is called the
<quote>right-grouping rule</quote>, and it is associated with every use of
<!-- ^^ right-grouping rule: definition of, 87 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>right-grouping rule</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bo</quote> in the language. Therefore,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-snKn">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-snKn">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e4d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section4-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta cmalu bo nixli bo ckule</jbo>
<en>That is-a-little type-of (girl type-of school).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means the same as
@@ -506,21 +506,21 @@
</cmavo-list>
<para>There is, in fact, a fifth grouping of
<quote>pretty little girls' school</quote> that cannot be expressed with the resources explained so far. To handle it, we must introduce the grouping parentheses cmavo,
<!-- ^^ pretty little girls' school: forty ways, examples, 112 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>pretty little girls' school</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ grouping parentheses, 88 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>grouping parentheses</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ke</quote> and
<quote>ke'e</quote>(belonging to selma'o KE and KEhE respectively). Any portion of a selbri sandwiched between these two cmavo is taken to be a single tanru component, independently of what is adjacent to it. Thus,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section4-example2" /> can be rewritten in any of the following ways:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-cnjH">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-cnjH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e5d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section5-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c5e5d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section5-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c5e5d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section5-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ckule</jbo>
@@ -528,53 +528,53 @@
<jbo>ta ke ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ke'e ckule</jbo>
<en>That is-a-( ( pretty little ) girl ) school.</en>
<jbo>ta ke ke ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ke'e ckule ke'e</jbo>
<en>That is-a-( ( ( pretty little ) girl ) school ).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Even more versions could be created simply by placing any number of
<quote>ke</quote> cmavo at the beginning of the selbri, and a like number of
<quote>ke'e</quote> cmavo at its end. Obviously, all of these are a waste of breath once the left-grouping rule has been grasped. However, the following is equivalent to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section4-example4" /> and may be easier to understand:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-zV26">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-zV26">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e5d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section5-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta melbi ke cmalu nixli ke'e ckule</jbo>
<en>That is-a-( pretty type-of ( little type-of girl ) ) type-of school.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Likewise, a
<quote>ke</quote> and
<quote>ke'e</quote> version of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section4-example3" /> would be:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-AUdM">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-AUdM">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e5d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section5-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta melbi cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e]</jbo>
<en>That is-a-(pretty type-of little) ( girl type-of school ).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The final
<quote>ke'e</quote> is given in square brackets here to indicate that it can be elided. It is always possible to elide
<!-- ^^ square brackets: use of in notation, 5 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>square brackets</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ke'e</quote> at the end of the selbri, making
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section5-example5" /> as terse as
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section4-example3" />.</para>
<para>Now how about that fifth grouping? It is</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-tz0L">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-tz0L">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e5d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section5-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta melbi ke cmalu nixli ckule [ke'e]</jbo>
<gloss>That is-a-pretty type-of ( ( little type-of girl ) type-of school ).</gloss>
<en>That is a beautiful school for small girls.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -582,32 +582,32 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section5-example6" /> is distinctly different in meaning from any of Examples 4.2 through 4.5. Note that within the
<quote>ke ... ke'e</quote> parentheses, the left-grouping rule is applied to
<quote>cmalu nixli ckule</quote>.</para>
<para>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>tanru grouping</primary><secondary>with ke and bo</secondary></indexterm>
It is perfectly all right to mix
<quote>bo</quote> and
<quote>ke ... ke'e</quote> in a single selbri. For instance,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section4-example5" />, which in pure
<quote>ke ... ke'e</quote> form is</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-uBS4">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-uBS4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e5d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section5-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta melbi ke cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e] [ke'e]</jbo>
<en>That is-a-pretty type-of ( little type-of ( girl type-of school ) ).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>can equivalently be expressed as:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Ei5U">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Ei5U">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e5d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section5-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta melbi ke cmalu nixli bo ckule [ke'e]</jbo>
<en>That is-a-pretty type-of ( little type-of ( girl type-of school ) ).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and in many other different forms as well.</para>
@@ -627,109 +627,109 @@
gi GI forethought connection separator
<!-- ^^ forethought connection: contrasted with afterthought for grammatical utterances, 352; definition, 199; in abstractions, 365; in tenses, 363; observatives, 347; of operands, 453; of operators, 453 -->
<!-- ^^ observatives: and abstractions, 255; quick-tour version, 15 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>observatives</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>forethought connection</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>Consider the English phrase
<quote>big red dog</quote>. How shall this be rendered as a Lojban tanru? The naive attempt:</para>
<!-- ^^ big red dog: example, 89 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>big red dog</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-riAq">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-riAq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e6d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section6-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>barda xunre gerku</jbo>
<en>(big type-of red) type-of dog</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>will not do, as it means a dog whose redness is big, in whatever way redness might be described as
<quote>big</quote>. Nor is</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-6MqF">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-6MqF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e6d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section6-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>barda xunre bo gerku</jbo>
<en>big type-of (red type-of dog)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>much better. After all, the straightforward understanding of the English phrase is that the dog is big as compared with other dogs, not merely as compared with other red dogs. In fact, the bigness and redness are independent properties of the dog, and only obscure rules of English adjective ordering prevent us from saying
<!-- ^^ adjective ordering, 89 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>adjective ordering</primary></indexterm>
<quote>red big dog</quote>.</para>
<para>The Lojban approach to this problem is to introduce the cmavo
<quote>je</quote>, which is one of the many equivalents of English
<quote>and</quote>. A big red dog is one that is both big and red, and we can say:</para>
<!-- ^^ big red dog: example, 89 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>big red dog</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-0UrF">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-0UrF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e6d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section6-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>barda je xunre gerku</jbo>
<en>(big and red) type-of dog</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Of course,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-DzeP">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-DzeP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e6d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section6-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xunre je barda gerku</jbo>
<en>(red and big) type-of dog</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is equally satisfactory and means the same thing. As these examples indicate, joining two brivla with
<quote>je</quote> makes them a unit for tanru purposes. However, explicit grouping with
<quote>bo</quote> or
<quote>ke ... ke'e</quote> associates brivla more closely than
<quote>je</quote> does:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-LES9">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-LES9">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e6d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section6-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>barda je pelxu bo xunre gerku</jbo>
<gloss>barda je ke pelxu xunre ke'e gerku</gloss>
<gloss>(big and (yellow type-of red)) dog</gloss>
<en>big yellowish-red dog</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>With no grouping indicators, we get:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-fuhg">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-fuhg">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e6d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section6-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>barda je pelxu xunre gerku</jbo>
<gloss>((big and yellow) type-of red) type-of dog</gloss>
<en>biggish- and yellowish-red dog</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which again raises the question of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section6-example1" />: what does
<quote>biggish-red</quote> mean?</para>
<para>Unlike
<quote>bo</quote> and
<quote>ke ... ke'e</quote>,
<quote>je</quote> is useful as well as merely legal within simple tanru. It may be used to partly resolve the ambiguity of simple tanru:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-W56H">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-W56H">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e6d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section6-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta blanu je zdani</jbo>
<en>that is-blue and is-a-house</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>definitely refers to something which is both blue and is a house, and not to any of the other possible interpretations of simple
@@ -738,80 +738,80 @@
<quote>blanu je zdani</quote> has no such implication - the blueness of a
<quote>blanu je zdani</quote> is independent of its houseness.</para>
<para>With the addition of
<quote>je</quote>, many more versions of
<quote>pretty little girls' school</quote> are made possible: see
<!-- ^^ pretty little girls' school: forty ways, examples, 112 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>pretty little girls' school</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section16" /> for a complete list.</para>
<para>A subtle point in the semantics of tanru like
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section6-example3" /> needs special elucidation. There are at least two possible interpretations of:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-N5Bt">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-N5Bt">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e6d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section6-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta melbi je nixli ckule</jbo>
<en>That is-a-(beautiful and girl) type-of school.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>It can be understood as:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-FCDa">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-FCDa">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e6d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section6-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>That is a girls' school and a beautiful school.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>or as:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-aFxm">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-aFxm">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e6d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section6-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>That is a school for things which are both girls and beautiful.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The interpretation specified by
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section6-example9" /> treats the tanru as a sort of abbreviation for:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-pHHw">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pHHw">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e6d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section6-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta ke melbi ckule ke'e je ke nixli ckule [ke'e]</jbo>
<en>That is-a-( beautiful type-of school ) and ( girl type-of school )</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>whereas the interpretation specified by
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section6-example10" /> does not. This is a kind of semantic ambiguity for which Lojban does not compel a firm resolution. The way in which the school is said to be of type
<quote>beautiful and girl</quote> may entail that it is separately a beautiful school and a girls' school; but the alternative interpretation, that the members of the school are beautiful and girls, is also possible. Still another interpretation is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-2cjH">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2cjH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e6d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section6-example12" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>That is a school for beautiful things and also for girls.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>so while the logical connectives help to resolve the meaning of tanru, they by no means compel a single meaning in and of themselves.</para>
<para>In general, logical connectives within tanru cannot undergo the formal manipulations that are possible with the related logical connectives that exist outside tanru; see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14" /> for further details.</para>
<para>The logical connective
<quote>je</quote> is only one of the fourteen logical connectives that Lojban provides. Here are a few examples of some of the others:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-dNJF">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-dNJF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e6d13" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section6-example13" />
<anchor xml:id="c5e6d14" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section6-example14" />
<anchor xml:id="c5e6d15" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section6-example15" />
<anchor xml:id="c5e6d16" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section6-example16" />
</title>
@@ -838,21 +838,21 @@
<quote>naja</quote> means
<quote>only if</quote> in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section6-example14" />,
<quote>jo</quote> means
<quote>if and only if</quote> in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section6-example15" />, and
<quote>ju</quote> means
<quote>whether or not</quote> in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section6-example16" />.</para>
<para>Now consider the following example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-NuWM">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-NuWM">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e6d17" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section6-example17" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ricfu je blanu jabo crino</jbo>
<!-- ^^ jabo, 91 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>jabo</primary></indexterm>
<en>rich and (blue or green)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -864,75 +864,75 @@
<quote>jabo</quote> is to
<!-- ^^ jabo, 91 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>jabo</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ja</quote> as plain
<quote>bo</quote> is to no cmavo at all. However, both
<quote>ja</quote> and
<quote>jabo</quote> group less closely than
<!-- ^^ jabo, 91 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>jabo</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bo</quote> does:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-KxqX">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KxqX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e6d18" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section6-example18" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ricfu je blanu jabo crino bo blanu</jbo>
<!-- ^^ jabo, 91 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>jabo</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>rich and (blue or green – blue)</gloss>
<en>rich and (blue or greenish-blue)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>An alternative form of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section6-example17" /> is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-2WtT">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2WtT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e6d19" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section6-example19" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ricfu je ke blanu ja crino [ke'e]</jbo>
<en>rich and (blue or green)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In addition to the logical connectives, there are also a variety of non-logical connectives, grammatically equivalent to the logical ones. The only one with a well-understood meaning in tanru contexts is
<quote>joi</quote>, which is the kind of
<quote>and</quote> that denotes a mixture:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Hr1L">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Hr1L">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e6d20" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section6-example20" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti blanu joi xunre bolci</jbo>
<en>This is-a-(blue and red) ball.</en>
<!-- ^^ blue and red: example, 354 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>blue and red</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The ball described is neither solely red nor solely blue, but probably striped or in some other way exhibiting a combination of the two colors.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section6-example20" /> is distinct from:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-NAhT">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-NAhT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e6d21" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section6-example21" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti blanu xunre bolci</jbo>
<en>This is a bluish-red ball</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which would be a ball whose color is some sort of purple tending toward red, since
<quote>xunre</quote> is the more important of the two components. On the other hand,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-78C3">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-78C3">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e6d22" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section6-example22" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti blanu je xunre bolci</jbo>
<en>This is a (blue and red) ball</en>
<!-- ^^ blue and red: example, 354 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>blue and red</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -940,42 +940,42 @@
<para>is probably self-contradictory, seeming to claim that the ball is independently both blue and red at the same time, although some sensible interpretation may exist.</para>
<!-- ^^ blue and red: example, 354 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>blue and red</primary></indexterm>
<para>Finally, just as English
<quote>and</quote> has the variant form
<quote>both ... and</quote>, so
<quote>je</quote> between tanru components has the variant form
<quote>gu'e ... gi</quote>, where
<quote>gu'e</quote> is placed before the components and
<quote>gi</quote> between them:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-gLbh">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gLbh">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e6d23" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section6-example23" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>gu'e barda gi xunre gerku</jbo>
<en>(both big and red) type-of dog</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is equivalent in meaning to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section6-example3" />. For each logical connective related to
<quote>je</quote>, there is a corresponding connective related to
<quote>gu'e ... gi</quote> in a systematic way.</para>
<para>The portion of a
<quote>gu'e ... gi</quote> construction before the
<quote>gi</quote> is a full selbri, and may use any of the selbri resources including
<quote>je</quote> logical connections. After the
<quote>gi</quote>, logical connections are taken to be wider in scope than the
<quote>gu'e ... gi</quote>, which has in effect the same scope as
<quote>bo</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ETVe">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ETVe">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e6d24" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section6-example24" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>gu'e barda je xunre gi gerku ja mlatu</jbo>
<gloss>(both (big and red) and dog) or cat</gloss>
<en>something which is either big, red, and a dog, or else a cat</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1019,55 +1019,55 @@
<quote>mamta</quote>. What about more complex selbri?</para>
<para>For tanru, the place structure rule is simple: the place structure of a tanru is always the place structure of its tertau. Thus, the place structure of
<quote>blanu zdani</quote> is that of
<quote>zdani</quote>: the x1 place is a house or nest, and the x2 place is its occupants.</para>
<para>What about the places of
<quote>blanu</quote>? Is there any way to get them into the act? In fact,
<quote>blanu</quote> has only one place, and this is merged, as it were, with the x1 place of
<quote>zdani</quote>. It is whatever is in the x1 place that is being characterized as blue-for-a-house. But if we replace
<quote>blanu</quote> with
<quote>xamgu</quote>, we get:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-tffW">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-tffW">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e7d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section7-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti xamgu zdani</jbo>
<gloss>This is-a-good house.</gloss>
<!-- ^^ good house: example, 92 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>good house</primary></indexterm>
<en>This is a good (for someone, by some standard) house.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Since
<quote>xamgu</quote> has three places (x1, the good thing; x2, the person for whom it is good; and x3, the standard of goodness),
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section7-example1" /> necessarily omits information about the last two: there is no room for them. Room can be made, however!</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Uuio">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Uuio">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e7d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section7-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti xamgu be do bei mi [be'o] zdani</jbo>
<gloss>This is-a-good (for you by-standard me) house.</gloss>
<en>This is a house that is good for you by my standards.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here, the gismu
<quote>xamgu</quote> has been followed by the cmavo
<quote>be</quote>(of selma'o BE), which signals that one or more sumti follows. These sumti are not part of the overall bridi place structure, but fill the places of the brivla they are attached to, starting with x2. If there is more than one sumti, they are separated by the cmavo
<quote>bei</quote>(of selma'o BEI), and the list of sumti is terminated by the elidable terminator
<quote>be'o</quote>(of selma'o BEhO).</para>
<para>Grammatically, a brivla with sumti linked to it in this fashion plays the same role in tanru as a simple brivla. To illustrate, here is a fully fleshed-out version of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section3-example4" />, with all places filled in:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-7vxB">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7vxB">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e7d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section7-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti cmalu be le ka canlu</jbo>
<gloss>bei lo'e ckule be'o</gloss>
<gloss>nixli be li mu bei lo merko be'o bo</gloss>
<gloss>ckule la bryklyn. loi pemci</gloss>
<gloss>le mela nu,IORK. prenu</gloss>
@@ -1088,43 +1088,43 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Brooklyn</primary></indexterm>
<en>to the New York community and operated by the state.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the three places of
<quote>cmalu</quote>, the three of
<quote>nixli</quote>, and the four of
<quote>ckule</quote> are fully specified. Since the places of
<quote>ckule</quote> are the places of the bridi as a whole, it was not necessary to link the sumti which follow
<quote>ckule</quote>. It would have been legal to do so, however:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-YIty">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-YIty">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e7d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section7-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama be le zarci bei le zdani [be'o]</jbo>
<en>I go (to-the market from-the house).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means the same as</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-UtBR">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-UtBR">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e7d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section7-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci le zdani</jbo>
<en>I go to-the market from-the house.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>No matter how complex a tanru gets, the last brivla always dictates the place structure: the place structure of</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Twmx">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Twmx">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e7d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section7-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>melbi je cmalu nixli bo ckule</jbo>
<gloss>a (pretty and little) (girl school)</gloss>
<en>a school for girls which is both beautiful and small</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1133,108 +1133,108 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section8" />.)</para>
<para>It is possible to precede linked sumti by the place structure ordering tags
<!-- ^^ linked sumti: definition, 93; in tanru, 93 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>linked sumti</primary></indexterm>
<quote>fe</quote>,
<quote>fi</quote>,
<quote>fo</quote>, and
<quote>fu</quote>(of selma'o FA, discussed further in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9" />), which serve to explicitly specify the x2, x3, x4, and x5 places respectively. Normally, the place following the
<quote>be</quote> is the x2 place and the other places follow in order. If it seems convenient to change the order, however, it can be accomplished as follows:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-mhS7">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mhS7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e7d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section7-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti xamgu be fi mi bei fe do [be'o] zdani</jbo>
<en>This is-a-good ( by-standard me for you ) house.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which is equivalent in meaning to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section7-example2" />. Note that the order of
<quote>be</quote>,
<quote>bei</quote>, and
<quote>be'o</quote> does not change; only the inserted
<quote>fi</quote> tells us that
<quote>mi</quote> is the x3 place (and correspondingly, the inserted
<quote>fe</quote> tells us that
<quote>do</quote> is the x2 place). Changing the order of sumti is often done to match the order of another language, or for emphasis or rhythm.</para>
<para>Of course, using FA cmavo makes it easy to specify one place while omitting a previous place:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-9b37">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9b37">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e7d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section7-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti xamgu be fi mi [be'o] zdani</jbo>
<gloss>This is-a-good (by-standard me) house.</gloss>
<en>This is a good house by my standards.</en>
<!-- ^^ good house: example, 92 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>good house</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Similarly, sumti labeled by modal or tense tags can be inserted into strings of linked sumti just as they can into bridi:</para>
<!-- ^^ linked sumti: definition, 93; in tanru, 93 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>linked sumti</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-GstI">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-GstI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e7d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section7-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta blanu be ga'a mi [be'o] zdani</jbo>
<gloss>That is-a-blue (to-observer me) house.</gloss>
<en>That is a blue, as I see it, house.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The meaning of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section7-example9" /> is slightly different from:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-63c5">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-63c5">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e7d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section7-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta blanu zdani ga'a mi</jbo>
<gloss>That is-a-blue house to-observer me.</gloss>
<en>That is a blue house, as I see it.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>See discussions in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9" /> of modals and in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10" /> of tenses for more explanations.</para>
<para>The terminator
<quote>be'o</quote> is almost always elidable: however, if the selbri belongs to a description, then a relative clause following it will attach to the last linked sumti unless
<!-- ^^ linked sumti: definition, 93; in tanru, 93 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>linked sumti</primary></indexterm>
<quote>be'o</quote> is used, in which case it will attach to the outer description:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-CNY7">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-CNY7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e7d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section7-example11" />
<anchor xml:id="c5e7d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section7-example12" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le xamgu be do noi barda cu zdani</jbo>
<en>The good-thing for you (who are-large) is-a-house.</en>
<jbo>le xamgu be do be'o noi barda cu zdani</jbo>
<en>The (good-thing for you) (which is-large) is-a-house</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(Relative clauses are explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8" />.)</para>
<para>In other cases, however,
<quote>be'o</quote> cannot be elided if
<quote>ku</quote> has also been elided:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-zb4A">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-zb4A">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e7d13" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section7-example13" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le xamgu be le ctuca [ku] be'o zdani</jbo>
<en>the good (for the teacher) house</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>requires either
@@ -1257,21 +1257,21 @@
<!-- ^^ tanru inversion, 95; definition, 95; effect on tanru grouping, 96; in complex tanru, 96; multiple, 96; rule for removing, 96; where allowed, 96 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>tanru inversion</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>The standard order of Lojban tanru, whereby the modifier precedes what it modifies, is very natural to English-speakers: we talk of
<quote>blue houses</quote>, not of
<quote>houses blue</quote>. In other languages, however, such matters are differently arranged, and Lojban supports this reverse order (tertau before seltau) by inserting the particle
<quote>co</quote>.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section8-example1" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section8-example2" /> mean exactly the same thing:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-YrRz">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-YrRz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e8d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section8-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c5e8d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section8-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta blanu zdani</jbo>
<gloss>That is-a-blue type-of-house.</gloss>
<en>That is a blue house.</en>
@@ -1290,21 +1290,21 @@
<quote>co</quote>(
<quote>blanu</quote>) in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section8-example2" />) is the seltau.</para>
<para>The meaning, and more specifically, the place structure, of a tanru is not affected by inversion: the place structure of
<quote>zdani co blanu</quote> is still that of
<quote>zdani</quote>. However, the existence of inversion in a selbri has a very special effect on any sumti which follow that selbri. Instead of being interpreted as filling places of the selbri, they actually fill the places (starting with x2) of the seltau. In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section7" />, we saw how to fill interior places with
<quote>be ... bei ... be'o</quote>, and in fact
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section8-example3" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section8-example4" /> have the same meaning:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-8GVP">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-8GVP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e8d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section8-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c5e8d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section8-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama be le zarci bei le zdani be'o troci</jbo>
<gloss>I am-a-(goer to the market from the house) type-of trier.</gloss>
<en>I try to go to the market from the house.</en>
@@ -1333,136 +1333,136 @@
<quote>troci co klama</quote>, which is the x1 place of
<quote>troci</quote>. The other places of the selbri remain unfilled. The trailing sumti
<quote>le zarci</quote> and
<quote>le zdani</quote> do not occupy selbri places, despite appearances.</para>
<para>As a result, the regular mechanisms (involving selma'o VOhA and GOhI, explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7" />) for referring to individual sumti of a bridi cannot refer to any of the trailing places of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section8-example4" />, because they are not really
<quote>sumti of the bridi</quote> at all.</para>
<para>When inverting a more complex tanru, it is possible to invert it only at the most general modifier-modified pair. The only possible inversion of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section3-example4" />, for instance, is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-7uS2">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7uS2">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e8d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section8-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta nixli [bo] ckule co cmalu</jbo>
<gloss>That (is-a-girl type-of school) of-type little.</gloss>
<en>That's a girls' school which is small.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>tanru grouping</primary><secondary>effect of tanru inversion on</secondary></indexterm>
Note that the
<quote>bo</quote> of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section3-example4" /> is optional in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section8-example5" />, because
<quote>co</quote> groups more loosely than any other cmavo used in tanru, including none at all. Not even
<quote>ke ... ke'e</quote> parentheses can encompass a
<quote>co</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-y501">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-y501">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e8d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section8-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e] co melbi</jbo>
<gloss>That is-a-(little type-of (girl type-of school)) of-type pretty.</gloss>
<en>That's a small school for girls which is beautiful.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section8-example6" />, the
<quote>ke'e</quote> is automatically inserted before the
<quote>co</quote> rather than at its usual place at the end of the selbri. As a result, there is a simple and mechanical rule for removing
<quote>co</quote> from any selbri: change
<quote>A co B</quote> to
<quote>ke B ke'e A</quote>. (At the same time, any sumti following the selbri must be transformed into
<quote>be ... bei ... be'o</quote> form and attached following B.) Therefore,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-4c0A">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4c0A">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e8d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section8-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ckule co melbi nixli</jbo>
<gloss>school of-type pretty girl</gloss>
<en>school for beautiful girls</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means the same as:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-w5cI">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-w5cI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e8d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section8-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ke melbi nixli ke'e ckule</jbo>
<en>(pretty girl) school</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Multiple
<quote>co</quote> cmavo can appear within a selbri, indicating multiple inversions: a right-grouping rule is employed, as for
<!-- ^^ right-grouping rule: definition of, 87 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>right-grouping rule</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bo</quote>. The above rule can be applied to interpret such selbri, but all
<quote>co</quote> cmavo must be removed simultaneously:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-yLn5">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-yLn5">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e8d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section8-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ckule co nixli co cmalu</jbo>
<en>school of-type (girl of-type little)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>becomes formally</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-mM3Q">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mM3Q">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e8d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section8-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ke ke cmalu ke'e nixli ke'e ckule</jbo>
<en>( (little) girl ) school</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which by the left-grouping rule is simply</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-LGRz">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-LGRz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e8d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section8-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>cmalu nixli ckule</jbo>
<gloss>little girl school</gloss>
<en>school for little girls</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>As stated above, the selbri places, other than the first, of</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Qcwd">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Qcwd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e8d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section8-example12" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama co sutra</jbo>
<gloss>I am-a-goer of-type quick</gloss>
<en>I go quickly</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>cannot be filled by placing sumti after the selbri, because any sumti in that position fill the places of
<quote>sutra</quote>, the seltau. However, the tertau places (which means in effect the selbri places) can be filled with
<quote>be</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-PDAh">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PDAh">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e8d13" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section8-example13" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama be le zarci be'o co sutra</jbo>
<gloss>I am-a-goer (to the store) of-type quick.</gloss>
<en>I go to the store quickly.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1512,45 +1512,45 @@
<selmaho>KEI</selmaho>
<description>terminator for NU</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>So far we have only discussed brivla and tanru built up from brivla as possible selbri. In fact, there are a few other constructions in Lojban which are grammatically equivalent to brivla: they can be used either directly as selbri, or as components in tanru. Some of these types of simple selbri are discussed at length in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7" />,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11" />, and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18" />; but for completeness these types are mentioned here with a brief explanation and an example of their use in selbri.</para>
<para>The cmavo of selma'o GOhA (with one exception) serve as pro-bridi, providing a reference to the content of other bridi; none of them has a fixed meaning. The most commonly used member of GOhA is probably
<quote>go'i</quote>, which amounts to a repetition of the previous bridi, or part of it. If I say:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-2UvG">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2UvG">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e9d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section9-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. klama le zarci</jbo>
<en>John goes-to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>you may retort:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-EvoD">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-EvoD">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e9d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section9-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. go'i troci</jbo>
<gloss>John [repeat last] are-a-tryer</gloss>
<en>John tries to.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section9-example2" /> is short for:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-nKQ3">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nKQ3">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e9d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section9-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. klama be le zarci be'o troci</jbo>
<en>John is-a-goer (to the market) type-of trier.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>because the whole bridi of
@@ -1567,49 +1567,49 @@
<para>Lojban mathematical expressions (mekso) can be incorporated into selbri in two different ways. Mathematical operators such as
<!-- ^^ mathematical expressions: connectives in, 361; implicit quantifier for, 142; tensed connection in, 364 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>mathematical expressions</primary></indexterm>
<quote>su'i</quote>, meaning
<quote>plus</quote>, can be transformed into selbri by prefixing them with
<quote>nu'a</quote>(of selma'o NUhA). The resulting place structure is:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
x1 is the result of applying (the operator) to arguments x2, x3, etc.
</programlisting>
<para>for as many arguments as are required. (The result goes in the x1 place because the number of following places may be indefinite.) For example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-pp6j">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pp6j">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e9d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section9-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li vo nu'a su'i li re li re</jbo>
<en>The-number 4 is-the-sum-of the-number 2 and-the-number 2.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>A possible tanru example might be:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-K7yz">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-K7yz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e9d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section9-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi jimpe tu'a loi nu'a su'i nabmi</jbo>
<gloss>I understand something-about the-mass-of is-the-sum-of problems.</gloss>
<en>I understand addition problems.</en>
<!-- ^^ addition problems: example, 98 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>addition problems</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>More usefully, it is possible to combine a mathematical expression with a cmavo of selma'o MOI to create one of various numerical selbri. Details are available in
<!-- ^^ numerical selbri: alternative to compensate for restriction on numbers, 448; based on non-numerical sumti, 448; complex, 448; grammar, 448; restriction on numbers used for, 448; special, 446; special, with lerfu strings, 448; use of "me" with, 448 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>numerical selbri</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18" />. Here are a few tanru:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-VcmF">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-VcmF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e9d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section9-example6" />
<anchor xml:id="c5e9d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section9-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la prim. palvr. pamoi cusku</jbo>
<gloss>Preem Palver is-the-1-th speaker.</gloss>
<!-- ^^ Preem Palver: example, 98 -->
@@ -1622,34 +1622,34 @@
<en>Anyi and Asun are two brothers.</en>
<!-- ^^ two brothers: example, 98 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>two brothers</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ brothers: example, 355 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>brothers</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Finally, an important type of simple selbri which is not a brivla is the abstraction. Grammatically, abstractions are simple: a cmavo of selma'o NU, followed by a bridi, followed by the elidable terminator
<quote>kei</quote> of selma'o KEI. Semantically, abstractions are an extremely subtle and powerful feature of Lojban whose full ramifications are documented in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11" />. A few examples:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-5szz">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-5szz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e9d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section9-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti nu zdile kei kumfa</jbo>
<gloss>This is-an-event-of amusement room.</gloss>
<en>This is an amusement room.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section9-example8" /> is quite distinct in meaning from:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-yNSI">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-yNSI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e9d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section9-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti zdile kumfa</jbo>
<en>This is-an-amuser room.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which suggests the meaning
@@ -1665,100 +1665,100 @@
<quote>me</quote>
</programlisting>
<para>A sumti can be made into a simple selbri by preceding it with
<quote>me</quote>(of selma'o ME) and following it with the elidable terminator
<quote>me'u</quote>(of selma'o MEhU). This makes a selbri with the place structure</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
x1 is one of the referents of
<quote>[the sumti]</quote>
</programlisting>
<para>which is true of the thing, or things, that are the referents of the sumti, and not of anything else. For example, consider the sumti</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-v6QW">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-v6QW">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e10d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section10-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ci nolraitru</jbo>
<gloss>the three noblest-governors</gloss>
<en>the three kings</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>If these are understood to be the Three Kings of Christian tradition, who arrive every year on January 6, then we may say:</para>
<!-- ^^ Three Kings: example, 99 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Three Kings</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-99r3">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-99r3">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e10d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section10-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la BALtazar. cu me le ci nolraitru</jbo>
<gloss>Balthazar is one-of-the-referents-of
<quote>the three kings</quote>.</gloss>
<en>Balthazar is one of the three kings.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and likewise</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-gPnL">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gPnL">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e10d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section10-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la kaspar. cu me le ci nolraitru</jbo>
<en>Caspar is one of the three kings.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-4827">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4827">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e10d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section10-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la melxi,or. cu me le ci nolraitru</jbo>
<en>Melchior is one of the three kings.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>If the sumti refers to a single object, then the effect of
<quote>me</quote> is much like that of
<quote>du</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-HMHc">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-HMHc">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e10d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section10-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do du la djan.</jbo>
<gloss>You are-identical-with the-one-called
<quote>John</quote>.</gloss>
<en>You are John.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means the same as</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-GMCc">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-GMCc">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e10d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section10-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do me la djan.</jbo>
<gloss>You are-the-referent-of
<quote>the-one-called ‘John'</quote>.</gloss>
<en>You are John.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>It is common to use
<quote>me</quote> selbri, especially those based on name sumti using
<quote>la</quote>, as seltau. For example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-raQG">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-raQG">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e10d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section10-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta me lai kraislr. [me'u] karce</jbo>
<gloss>That (is-a-referent of
<quote>the-mass-called ‘Chrysler'</quote>) car.</gloss>
<!-- ^^ Chrysler: example, 99 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Chrysler</primary></indexterm>
@@ -1776,21 +1776,21 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>indefinite description</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6" />), and if the indefinite description is followed by a relative clause (explained in
<!-- ^^ indefinite description: as needing explicit outer quantifier, 132; as prohibiting explicit inner quantifier, 132; compared with restricted variable, 398; definition, 132, 398 -->
<!-- ^^ restricted variable: compared with indefinite description, 398 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>restricted variable</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>indefinite description</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8" />) or a sumti logical connective (explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14" />). Without a
<quote>me'u</quote>, the relative clause or logical connective would appear to belong to the sumti embedded in the
<quote>me</quote> expression. Here is a contrasting pair of sentences:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Tw0c">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Tw0c">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e10d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section10-example8" />
<anchor xml:id="c5e10d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section10-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>re me le ci nolraitru .e la djan. [me'u] cu blabi</jbo>
<en>Two of the group
<quote>the three kings and John</quote> are white.</en>
@@ -1802,34 +1802,34 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section10-example8" /> the
<quote>me</quote> selbri covers the three kings plus John, and the indefinite description picks out two of them that are said to be white: we cannot say which two. In
<!-- ^^ indefinite description: as needing explicit outer quantifier, 132; as prohibiting explicit inner quantifier, 132; compared with restricted variable, 398; definition, 132, 398 -->
<!-- ^^ restricted variable: compared with indefinite description, 398 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>restricted variable</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>indefinite description</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section10-example9" />, though, the
<quote>me</quote> selbri covers only the three kings: two of them are said to be white, and so is John.</para>
<para>Finally, here is another example requiring
<quote>me'u</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ygzq">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ygzq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e10d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section10-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta me la'e le se cusku be do me'u cukta</jbo>
<gloss>That is-a-(what-you-said) type of book.</gloss>
<en>That is the kind of book you were talking about.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>There are other sentences where either
<quote>me'u</quote> or some other elidable terminator must be expressed:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-8yDj">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-8yDj">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e10d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section10-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le me le ci nolraitru [ku] me'u nunsalci</jbo>
<gloss>the (the three kings) type-of-event-of-celebrating</gloss>
<en>the Three Kings celebration</en>
<!-- ^^ Three Kings: example, 99 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Three Kings</primary></indexterm>
@@ -1840,226 +1840,226 @@
<quote>me'u</quote> to be explicit, and (as with
<quote>be'o</quote> in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section7" />) the
<quote>me'u</quote> leaves no doubt which cmavo it is paired with.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter5-section11">
<title>Conversion of simple selbri</title>
<para>Conversion is the process of changing a selbri so that its places appear in a different order. This is not the same as labeling the sumti with the cmavo of FA, as mentioned in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section7" />, and then rearranging the order in which the sumti are spoken or written. Conversion transforms the selbri into a distinct, though closely related, selbri with renumbered places.</para>
<para>In Lojban, conversion is accomplished by placing a cmavo of selma'o SE before the selbri:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-29Gu">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-29Gu">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e11d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section11-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi prami do</jbo>
<en>I love you.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is equivalent in meaning to:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-DWcN">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-DWcN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e11d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section11-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do se prami mi</jbo>
<gloss>You [swap x1 and x2] love me.</gloss>
<en>You are loved by me.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Conversion is fully explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9" />. For the purposes of this chapter, the important point about conversion is that it applies only to the following simple selbri. When trying to convert a tanru, therefore, it is necessary to be careful! Consider
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section11-example3" />:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-mPX8">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mPX8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e11d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section11-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .alis. cu cadzu klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>Alice is-a-walker type-of goer to-the market.</gloss>
<gloss>Alice walkingly goes to the market.</gloss>
<en>Alice walks to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>To convert this sentence so that
<quote>le zarci</quote> is in the x1 place, one correct way is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-4mbn">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4mbn">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e11d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section11-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le zarci cu se ke cadzu klama [ke'e] la .alis.</jbo>
<gloss>The market is-a-[swap x1/x2] (walker type-of goer) Alice.</gloss>
<en>The market is-walkingly gone-to by-Alice.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The
<quote>ke ... ke'e</quote> brackets cause the entire tanru to be converted by the
<quote>se</quote>, which would otherwise convert only
<quote>cadzu</quote>, leading to:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-UNt0">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-UNt0">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e11d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section11-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le zarci cu se cadzu klama la .alis.</jbo>
<gloss>The market (is-a-[swap x1/x2] walker) type-of goer to Alice.</gloss>
<en>The market is-a-walking-surface type-of goer to Alice.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>whatever that might mean. An alternative approach, since the place structure of
<quote>cadzu klama</quote> is that of
<quote>klama</quote> alone, is to convert only the latter:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-U0fo">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-U0fo">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e11d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section11-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le zarci cu cadzu se klama la .alis.</jbo>
<en>The market walkingly is-gone-to by-Alice.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>But the tanru in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section11-example6" /> may or may not have the same meaning as that in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section11-example3" />; in particular, because
<quote>cadzu</quote> is not converted, there is a suggestion that although Alice is the goer, the market is the walker. With a different sumti as x1, this seemingly odd interpretation might make considerable sense:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-XEnd">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-XEnd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e11d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section11-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. cu cadzu se klama la .alis</jbo>
<en>John walkingly is-gone-to by Alice</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>suggests that Alice is going to John, who is a moving target.</para>
<para>There is an alternative type of conversion, using the cmavo
<quote>jai</quote> of selma'o JAI optionally followed by a modal or tense construction. Grammatically, such a combination behaves exactly like conversion using SE. More details can be found in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9" />.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter5-section12">
<title>Scalar negation of selbri</title>
<para>Negation is too large and complex a topic to explain fully in this chapter; see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15" />. In brief, there are two main types of negation in Lojban. This section is concerned with so-called
<quote>scalar negation</quote>, which is used to state that a true relation between the sumti is something other than what the selbri specifies. Scalar negation is expressed by cmavo of selma'o NAhE:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-4oxH">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4oxH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e12d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section12-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .alis. cu na'e ke cadzu klama [ke'e] le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>Alice non- (walkingly goes) to-the market.</gloss>
<gloss>Alice other-than (walkingly goes) to-the market.</gloss>
<en>Alice doesn't walk to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>meaning that Alice's relationship to the market is something other than that of walking there. But if the
<quote>ke</quote> were omitted, the result would be:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-NL2Y">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-NL2Y">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e12d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section12-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .alis. cu na'e cadzu klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>Alice non- walkingly goes to-the market.</gloss>
<en>Alice doesn't walk to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>meaning that Alice does go there in some way (
<quote>klama</quote> is not negated), but by a means other than that of walking.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section12-example1" /> negates both
<quote>cadzu</quote> and
<quote>klama</quote>, suggesting that Alice's relation to the market is something different from walkingly-going; it might be walking without going, or going without walking, or neither.</para>
<para>Of course, any of the simple selbri types explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section9" /> may be used in place of brivla in any of these examples:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-YB00">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-YB00">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e12d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section12-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djonz. cu na'e pamoi cusku</jbo>
<gloss>Jones is non-1st speaker</gloss>
<en>Jones is not the first speaker.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Since only
<quote>pamoi</quote> is negated, an appropriate inference is that he is some other kind of speaker.</para>
<para>Here is an assortment of more complex examples showing the interaction of scalar negation with
<quote>bo</quote> grouping,
<quote>ke</quote> and
<quote>ke'e</quote> grouping, logical connection, and sumti linked with
<quote>be</quote> and
<quote>bei</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-I1Rd">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-I1Rd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e12d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section12-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na'e sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I ( (non-quickly) ( walking using the arms) ) go-to the market.</gloss>
<en>I go to the market, walking using my arms other than quickly.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section12-example4" />,
<quote>na'e</quote> negates only
<quote>sutra</quote>. Contrast
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section12-example5" />:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-KcK8">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KcK8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e12d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section12-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka [be'o] ke'e klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I non- ( quickly (walking using the arms) ) go-to the market.</gloss>
<en>I go to the market, other than by walking quickly on my arms.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Now consider
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section12-example6" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section12-example7" />, which are equivalent in meaning, but use
<quote>ke</quote> grouping and
<quote>bo</quote> grouping respectively:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-eHEQ">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-eHEQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e12d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section12-example6" />
<anchor xml:id="c5e12d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section12-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o je masno klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I (quickly – (walking using the arms) and slowly) go-to the market.</gloss>
<en>I go to the market, both quickly walking using my arms and slowly.</en>
<jbo>mi ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka [be'o] ke'e je masno klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I ( (quickly (walking using the arms) ) and slowly) go-to the market.</gloss>
<en>I go to the market, both quickly walking using my arms and slowly.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>However, if we place a
<quote>na'e</quote> at the beginning of the selbri in both
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section12-example6" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section12-example7" />, we get different results:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-h7Ng">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-h7Ng">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e12d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section12-example8" />
<anchor xml:id="c5e12d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section12-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na'e sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o je masno klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I ( (non- quickly) – (walking using the arms) and slowly) go-to the market.</gloss>
<en>I go to the market, both walking using my arms other than quickly, and also slowly.</en>
@@ -2073,36 +2073,36 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section12-example9" /> negates the whole construction from
<quote>ke</quote> to
<quote>ke'e</quote>, whereas in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section12-example8" /> it negates
<quote>sutra</quote> alone.</para>
<para>Beware of omitting terminators in these complex examples! If the explicit
<!-- ^^ omitting terminators: perils of, 102 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>omitting terminators</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ke'e</quote> is left out in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section12-example9" />, it is transformed into:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Y53U">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Y53U">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e12d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section12-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o je masno klama [ke'e] le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I non-(quickly ( (walking using the arms) ) and slowly) go-to) the market.</gloss>
<gloss>I do something other than quickly both going to the market walking</gloss>
<en>using my arms and slowly going to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>And if both
<quote>ke'e</quote> and
<quote>be'o</quote> are omitted, the results are even sillier:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-0WLq">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-0WLq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e12d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section12-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka je masno klama [be'o] [ke'e] le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I non-(quickly walk on my (arm-type and slow) goers) on the market.</gloss>
<gloss>I do something other than quickly walking using the goers, both arm-type</gloss>
<en>and slow, relative-to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -2118,93 +2118,93 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>linked sumti</primary></indexterm>
<quote>le zarci</quote> following the selbri falls into the nonexistent x4 place of
<quote>cadzu</quote>. As a result, the whole example, though grammatical, is complete nonsense. (The bracketed Lojban words appear where a fluent Lojbanist would understand them to be implied.)</para>
<para>Finally, it is also possible to place
<quote>na'e</quote> before a
<quote>gu'e ... gi</quote> logically connected tanru construction. The meaning of this usage has not yet been firmly established.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter5-section13">
<title>Tenses and bridi negation</title>
<para>A bridi can have cmavo associated with it which specify the time, place, or mode of action. For example, in</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-uz13">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-uz13">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e13d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section13-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] go to-the market.</gloss>
<en>I went to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>the cmavo
<quote>pu</quote> specifies that the action of the speaker going to the market takes place in the past. Tenses are explained in full detail in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10" />. Tense is semantically a property of the entire bridi; however, the usual syntax for tenses attaches them at the front of the selbri, as in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section13-example1" />. There are alternative ways of expressing tense information as well. Modals, which are explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9" />, behave in the same way as tenses.</para>
<para>Similarly, a bridi may have the particle
<quote>na</quote>(of selma'o NA) attached to the beginning of the selbri to negate the bridi. A negated bridi expresses what is false without saying anything about what is true. Do not confuse this usage with the scalar negation of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section12" />. For example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-PYSP">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PYSP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e13d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section13-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djonz. na pamoi cusku</jbo>
<gloss>Jones (Not!) is-the-first speaker</gloss>
<gloss>It is not true that Jones is the first speaker.</gloss>
<en>Jones isn't the first speaker.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Jones may be the second speaker, or not a speaker at all;
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section13-example2" /> doesn't say. There are other ways of expressing bridi negation as well; the topic is explained fully in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15" />.</para>
<para>Various combinations of tense and bridi negation cmavo are permitted. If both are expressed, either order is permissible with no change in meaning:</para>
<!-- ^^ negation cmavo: position relative to selbri, 104 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>negation cmavo</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-RV4C">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-RV4C">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e13d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section13-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na pu klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>mi pu na klama le zarci</gloss>
<gloss>It is false that I went to the market.</gloss>
<en>I didn't go to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>It is also possible to have more than one
<quote>na</quote>, in which case pairs of
<quote>na</quote> cmavo cancel out:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-TuP7">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-TuP7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e13d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section13-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na na klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>It is false that it is false that I go to the market.</gloss>
<en>I go to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>It is even possible, though somewhat pointless, to have multiple
<quote>na</quote> cmavo and tense cmavo mixed together, subject to the limitation that two adjacent tense cmavo will be understood as a compound tense, and must fit the grammar of tenses as explained in
<!-- ^^ compound tense: compared with multiple tenses in sentence, 234; compared with tense in scope of sticky tense, 234; definition, 218; Lojban contrasted with English in order of specification, 218 -->
<!-- ^^ tense in scope of sticky tense: compared with compound tense, 234 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>tense in scope of sticky tense</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ multiple tenses: effect of order in sentence, 235 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>multiple tenses</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>compound tense</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10" />.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-hw6g">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hw6g">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e13d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section13-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na pu na ca klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [not] [past] [not] [present] go to-the market</gloss>
<gloss>It is not the case that in the past it was not the case that in the present I</gloss>
<gloss>went to the market.</gloss>
<gloss>I didn't not go to the market.</gloss>
@@ -2654,21 +2654,21 @@
<para>The logical connective
<quote>je</quote> is associative: that is,
<quote>A and (B and C)</quote> is the same as
<quote>(A and B) and C</quote>. Therefore, some of the examples have the same meaning as others. In particular, 16.8, 16.16, 16.24, 16.32, and 16.40 all have the same meaning because all four brivla are logically connected and the grouping is simply irrelevant. Other equivalent forms are noted in the examples themselves. However, if
<!-- ^^ irrelevant: specifying of sumti place, 157 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>irrelevant</primary></indexterm>
<quote>je</quote> were replaced by
<quote>naja</quote> or
<quote>jo</quote> or most of the other logical connectives, the meanings would become distinct.</para>
<para>It must be emphasized that, because of the ambiguity of all tanru, the English translations are by no means definitive - they represent only one possible interpretation of the corresponding Lojban sentence.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-1Pzb">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1Pzb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e16d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section16-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c5e16d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section16-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c5e16d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section16-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c5e16d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section16-example4" />
<anchor xml:id="c5e16d5" />
diff --git a/todocbook/6.xml b/todocbook/6.xml
index 8fd6614..02762bb 100644
--- a/todocbook/6.xml
+++ b/todocbook/6.xml
@@ -1,18 +1,18 @@
<chapter xml:id="cll_chapter6">
<title>Chapter 6 To Speak Of Many Things: The Lojban sumti</title>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter6-section1">
<title>The five kinds of simple sumti</title>
<!-- ^^ simple sumti, 119 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>simple sumti</primary></indexterm>
<para>If you understand anything about Lojban, you know what a sumti is by now, right? An argument, one of those things that fills the places of simple Lojban sentences like:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-VKU6">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-VKU6">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e1d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section1-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci</jbo>
<en>I go-to the market</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
@@ -63,51 +63,51 @@
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>5)</term>
<listitem>
<para>pure numbers, which usually begin with
<quote>li</quote>.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
<para>Here are a few examples of each kind of sumti:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Dx1s">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Dx1s">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e1d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section1-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>e'osai ko sarji la lojban.</jbo>
<en>Please support Lojban!</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section1-example2" /> exhibits
<quote>ko</quote>, a pro-sumti; and
<quote>la lojban.</quote>, a name.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-v1mS">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-v1mS">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e1d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section1-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cusku lu e'osai li'u le tcidu</jbo>
<en>I express
<quote>Please!</quote> to-the reader.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section1-example3" /> exhibits
<quote>mi</quote>, a pro-sumti;
<quote>lu e'osai li'u</quote>, a quotation; and
<quote>le tcidu</quote>, a description.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-0YaH">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-0YaH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e1d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section1-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti mitre li ci</jbo>
<gloss>This measures-in-meters the-number three.</gloss>
<en>This is three meters long.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -143,21 +143,21 @@
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ku</cmavo>
<selmaho>KU</selmaho>
<description>elidable terminator for LE, LA</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>The syntax of descriptions is fairly complex, and not all of it can be explained within the confines of this chapter: relative clauses, in particular, are discussed in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8" />. However, most descriptions have just two components: a descriptor belonging to selma'o LE or LA, and a selbri. (The difference between selma'o LE and selma'o LA is not important until
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section12" />.) Furthermore, the selbri is often just a single brivla. Here is an elementary example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-rBuQ">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rBuQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e2d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section2-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>one-or-more-specific-things-each-of-which-I-describe-as being-a-market</gloss>
<en>the market</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -166,40 +166,40 @@
<!-- ^^ too long: example, 233; Example, 230 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>too long</primary></indexterm>
<quote>le</quote> is quite close in meaning to English
<quote>the</quote>. It has particular implications, however, which
<quote>the</quote> does not have.</para>
<para>The general purpose of all descriptors is to create a sumti which might occur in the x1 place of the selbri belonging to the description. Thus
<quote>le zarci</quote> conveys something which might be found in the x1 place of
<quote>zarci</quote>, namely a market.</para>
<para>The specific purpose of
<quote>le</quote> is twofold. First, it indicates that the speaker has one or more specific markets in mind (whether or not the listener knows which ones they are). Second, it also indicates that the speaker is merely describing the things he or she has in mind as markets, without being committed to the truth of that description.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ULGC">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ULGC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e2d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section2-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le zarci cu barda</jbo>
<gloss>One-or-more-specific-things-which-I-describe as
<quote>markets</quote> is/are-big.</gloss>
<gloss>The market is big.</gloss>
<en>The markets are big.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that English-speakers must state whether a reference to markets is to just one (
<quote>the market</quote>) or to more than one (
<quote>the markets</quote>). Lojban requires no such forced choice, so both colloquial translations of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section2-example2" /> are valid. Only the context can specify which is meant. (This rule does not mean that Lojban has no way of specifying the number of markets in such a case: that mechanism is explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section7" />.)</para>
<para>Now consider the following strange-looking example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-PutX">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PutX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e2d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section2-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu cu ninmu</jbo>
<gloss>One-or-more-specific-things-which-I-describe as
<quote>men</quote> are women.</gloss>
<gloss>The man is a woman.</gloss>
<en>The men are women.</en>
@@ -216,39 +216,39 @@
<!-- ^^ observation: example, 316 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>observation</primary></indexterm>
<para>In all descriptions with
<quote>le</quote>, the listener is presumed to either know what I have in mind or else not to be concerned at present (perhaps I will give more identifying details later). In particular, I might be pointing at the supposed man or men:
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section2-example3" /> would then be perfectly intelligible, since
<quote>le nanmu</quote> merely clarifies that I am pointing at the supposed man, not at a landscape, or a nose, which happens to lie in the same direction.</para>
<para>The second descriptor dealt with in this section is
<quote>lo</quote>. Unlike
<quote>le</quote>,
<quote>lo</quote> is nonspecific:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-t11z">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-t11z">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e2d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section2-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo zarci</jbo>
<gloss>one-or-more-of-all-the-things-which-really are-markets</gloss>
<gloss>a market</gloss>
<en>some markets</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Again, there are two colloquial English translations. The effect of using
<quote>lo</quote> in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section2-example4" /> is to refer generally to one or more markets, without being specific about which. Unlike
<quote>le zarci</quote>,
<quote>lo zarci</quote> must refer to something which actually is a market (that is, which can appear in the x1 place of a truthful bridi whose selbri is
<quote>zarci</quote>). Thus</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-fSxN">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-fSxN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e2d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section2-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo nanmu cu ninmu</jbo>
<gloss>Some man is a woman.</gloss>
<en>Some men are women.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -256,21 +256,21 @@
<!-- ^^ real world: contrasted with hypothetical world, example, 320 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>real world</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section2-example5" /> true, because those specific individuals are no more both-men-and-women than any others. In general,
<quote>lo</quote> refers to whatever individuals meet its description.</para>
<para>The last descriptor of this section is
<quote>la</quote>, which indicates that the selbri which follows it has been dissociated from its normal meaning and is being used as a name. Like
<quote>le</quote> descriptions,
<quote>la</quote> descriptions are implicitly restricted to those I have in mind. (Do not confuse this use of
<quote>la</quote> with its use before regular Lojbanized names, which is discussed in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section12" />.) For example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-PrGp">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PrGp">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e2d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section2-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la cribe pu finti le lisri</jbo>
<gloss>The-one-named
<quote>bear</quote> [past] creates the story.</gloss>
<en>Bear wrote the story.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -279,49 +279,49 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section2-example6" />,
<quote>la cribe</quote> refers to someone whose naming predicate is
<!-- ^^ naming predicate, 121 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>naming predicate</primary></indexterm>
<quote>cribe</quote>, i.e.
<quote>Bear</quote>. In English, most names don't mean anything, or at least not anything obvious. The name
<quote>Frank</quote> coincides with the English word
<quote>frank</quote>, meaning
<quote>honest</quote>, and so one way of translating
<quote>Frank ate some cheese</quote> into Lojban would be:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-yyBX">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-yyBX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e2d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section2-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la stace pu citka lo cirla</jbo>
<en>The-one-called
<quote>Honest/Frank</quote> [past] eats some cheese.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>English-speakers typically would not do this, as we tend to be more attached to the sound of our names than their meaning, even if the meaning (etymological or current) is known. Speakers of other languages may feel differently. (In point of fact,
<quote>Frank</quote> originally meant
<quote>the free one</quote> rather than
<quote>the honest one</quote>.)</para>
<para>It is important to note the differences between
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section2-example6" /> and the following:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-nXyo">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nXyo">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e2d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section2-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le cribe pu finti le lisri</jbo>
<gloss>One-or-more-specific-things-which-I-describe-as a-bear [past] creates the story.</gloss>
<en>The bear(s) wrote the story.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-93Yv">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-93Yv">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e2d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section2-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo cribe pu finti le lisri</jbo>
<gloss>One-or-more-of-the-things-which-really are-bears [past] creates the story.</gloss>
<gloss>A bear wrote the story.</gloss>
<en>Some bears wrote the story.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -339,21 +339,21 @@
<quote>le</quote> may communicate better than
<quote>lo</quote>.)</para>
<para>So while
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section2-example6" /> could easily be true (there is a real writer named
<quote>Greg Bear</quote>), and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section2-example8" /> could be true if the speaker is sufficiently peculiar in what he or she describes as a bear,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section2-example9" /> is certainly false.</para>
<para>Similarly, compare the following two examples, which are analogous to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section2-example8" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section2-example9" /> respectively:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Y0ru">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Y0ru">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e2d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section2-example10" />
<anchor xml:id="c6e2d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section2-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le remna pu finti le lisri</jbo>
<en>The human being(s) wrote the story.</en>
<jbo>lo remna pu finti le lisri</jbo>
@@ -397,21 +397,21 @@
<description>the mass of those named</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>All Lojban sumti are classified by whether they refer to one of three types of objects, known as
<quote>individuals</quote>,
<quote>masses</quote>, and
<quote>sets</quote>. The term
<quote>individual</quote> is misleading when used to refer to more than one object, but no less-confusing term has as yet been found. All the descriptions in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section1" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section2" /> refer to individuals, whether one or more than one. Consider the following example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-mwhq">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mwhq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e3d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section3-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le prenu cu bevri le pipno</jbo>
<gloss>One-or-more-of-those-I-describe-as persons carry the piano.</gloss>
<!-- ^^ carry the piano: example, 361 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>carry the piano</primary></indexterm>
<en>The person(s) carry the piano.</en>
@@ -420,21 +420,21 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(Of course the second
<quote>le</quote> should really get the same translation as the first, but I am putting the focus of this discussion on the first
<quote>le</quote>, the one preceding
<quote>prenu</quote>. I will assume that there is only one piano under discussion.)</para>
<para>Suppose the context of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section3-example1" /> is such that you can determine that I am talking about three persons. What am I claiming? I am claiming that each of the three persons carried the piano. This claim can be true if the persons carried the piano one at a time, or in turns, or in a variety of other ways. But in order for
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section3-example1" /> to be true, I must be willing to assert that person 1 carried the piano, and that person 2 carried the piano, and that person 3 carried the piano.</para>
<para>But suppose I am not willing to claim that. For in fact pianos are heavy, and very few persons can carry a piano all by themselves. The most likely factual situation is that person 1 carried one end of the piano, and person 2 the other end, while person 3 either held up the middle or else supervised the whole operation without actually lifting anything. The correct way of expressing such a situation in Lojban is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-eCsh">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-eCsh">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e3d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section3-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lei prenu cu bevri le pipno</jbo>
<en>The-mass-of-one-or-more-of-those-I-describe-as persons carry the piano.</en>
<!-- ^^ carry the piano: example, 361 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>carry the piano</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -446,62 +446,62 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>piano-moving</primary></indexterm>
<quote>lei</quote> signals that ordinary logical reasoning is not applicable: contradictions can be maintained, and all sorts of other peculiarities may exist. However, we can safely say that a mass inherits only the component properties that are relevant to it; it would be ludicrous to say that a mass of two persons is of molecular dimensions, simply because some of the parts (namely, the molecules) of the persons are that small.</para>
<para>The descriptors
<quote>loi</quote> and
<quote>lai</quote> are analogous to
<quote>lo</quote> and
<quote>la</quote> respectively, but refer to masses either by property (
<quote>loi</quote>) or by name (
<quote>lai</quote>). A classic example of
<quote>loi</quote> use is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-T1pF">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-T1pF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e3d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section3-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>loi cinfo cu xabju le fi'ortu'a</jbo>
<gloss>Part-of-the-mass-of-those-which-really are-lions dwell in-the African-land.</gloss>
<gloss>The lion dwells in Africa.</gloss>
<en>Lions dwell in Africa.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The difference between
<quote>lei</quote> and
<quote>loi</quote> is that
<quote>lei cinfo</quote> refers to a mass of specific individuals which the speaker calls lions, whereas
<quote>loi cinfo</quote> refers to some part of the mass of all those individuals which actually are lions. The restriction to
<quote>some part of the mass</quote> allows statements like
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section3-example3" /> to be true even though some lions do not dwell in Africa - they live in various zoos around the world. On the other hand,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section3-example3" /> doesn't actually say that most lions live in Africa: equally true is</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-JzXc">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-JzXc">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e3d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section3-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>loi glipre</jbo>
<gloss>cu xabju le fi'ortu'a</gloss>
<gloss>Part-of-the-mass-of-those-which-really are-English-persons</gloss>
<gloss>dwell in-the African-land.</gloss>
<en>The English dwell in Africa.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>since there is at least one English person living there.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section4" /> explains another method of saying what is usually meant by
<quote>The lion lives in Africa</quote> which does imply that living in Africa is normal, not exceptional, for lions.</para>
<para>Note that the Lojban mass articles are sometimes translated by English plurals (the most usual case), sometimes by English singulars (when the singular is used to express typicalness or abstraction), and sometimes by singulars with no article:</para>
<!-- ^^ articles: cmavo as Lojban equivalents, 50 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>articles</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ article, 498; number, 435 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>article</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-yDCF">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-yDCF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e3d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section3-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>loi matne cu ranti</jbo>
<!-- ^^ matne, 124 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>matne</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>Part-of-the-mass-of-that-which-really is-a-quantity-of-butter is-soft.</gloss>
<en>Butter is soft.</en>
@@ -517,21 +517,21 @@
<quote>x1 is a quantity of butter from source x2</quote>, so the single English word
<quote>butter</quote> is translated as something like
<quote>a part of the mass formed from all the quantities of butter that exist</quote>. (Note that the operation of forming a mass entity does not imply, in Lojban, that the components of the mass are necessarily close to one another or even related in any way other than conceptually. Masses are formed by the speaker's intention to form a mass, and can in principle contain anything.)</para>
<para>The mass name descriptor
<!-- ^^ name descriptor, 498 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>name descriptor</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ mass name: use of, 124 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>mass name</primary></indexterm>
<quote>lai</quote> is used in circumstances where we wish to talk about a mass of things identified by a name which is common to all of them. It is not used to identify a mass by a single name peculiar to it. Thus the mass version of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section2-example5" />,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-H8z5">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-H8z5">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e3d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section3-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lai cribe pu finti le vi cukta</jbo>
<gloss>The-mass-of-those-named
<quote>bear</quote> [past] creates the nearby book.</gloss>
<en>The Bears wrote this book.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -574,21 +574,21 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>cardinality</primary></indexterm>
<quote>le'i</quote>,
<quote>lo'i</quote> and
<quote>la'i</quote> correspond exactly to the mass descriptors
<quote>lei</quote>,
<quote>loi</quote>, and
<quote>lai</quote> except that normally we talk of the whole of a set, not just part of it. Here are some examples contrasting
<quote>lo</quote>,
<quote>loi</quote>, and
<quote>lo'i</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-TfS7">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-TfS7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e4d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section4-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c6e4d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section4-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c6e4d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section4-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo ratcu cu bunre</jbo>
@@ -608,21 +608,21 @@
<!-- ^^ set of rats: example, 135 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>set of rats</primary></indexterm>
<para>Lojban speakers should generally think twice before employing the set descriptors. However, certain predicates have places that require set sumti to fill them. For example, the place structure of
<quote>fadni</quote> is:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
x1 is ordinary/common/typical/usual in property x2 among the members of set x3
</programlisting>
<para>Why is it necessary for the x3 place of
<quote>fadni</quote> to be a set? Because it makes no sense for an individual to be typical of another individual: an individual is typical of a group. In order to make sure that the bridi containing
<quote>fadni</quote> is about an entire group, its x3 place must be filled with a set:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-xIXo">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-xIXo">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e4d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section4-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi fadni zo'e lo'i lobypli</jbo>
<gloss>I am-ordinary among the-set-of Lojban-users.</gloss>
<en>I am a typical Lojban user.</en>
<!-- ^^ typical Lojban user: example, 125 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>typical Lojban user</primary></indexterm>
@@ -652,53 +652,53 @@
<!-- ^^ stereotypical: as not derogatory in Lojban, 126; compared with typical, 126 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>stereotypical</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>As promised in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section3" />, Lojban has a method for discriminating between
<quote>the lion</quote> who lives in Africa and
<quote>the Englishman</quote> who, generally speaking, doesn't live in Africa even though some Englishmen do. The descriptor
<quote>lo'e</quote> means
<quote>the typical</quote>, as in</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-AJKt">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-AJKt">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e5d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section5-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo'e cinfo cu xabju le fi'ortu'a</jbo>
<gloss>The-typical lion dwells-in the African-land.</gloss>
<en>The lion dwells in Africa.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>What is this
<quote>typical lion</quote>? Surely it is not any particular lion, because no lion has all of the
<quote>typical</quote> characteristics, and (worse yet) some characteristics that all real lions have can't be viewed as typical. For example, all real lions are either male or female, but it would be bizarre to suppose that the typical lion is either one. So the typical lion has no particular sex, but does have a color (golden brown), a residence (Africa), a diet (game), and so on. Likewise we can say that</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-8PoG">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-8PoG">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e5d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section5-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo'e glipre cu xabju le fi'ortu'a na.e</jbo>
<gloss>le gligugde</gloss>
<gloss>The-typical English-person dwells-in the African-land (Not!) and</gloss>
<gloss>the English-country.</gloss>
<en>The typical English person dwells not in Africa but in England.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The relationship between
<quote>lo'e cinfo</quote> and
<quote>lo'i cinfo</quote> may be explained thus: the typical lion is an imaginary lion-abstraction which best exemplifies the set of lions. There is a similar relationship between
<quote>le'e</quote> and
<quote>le'i</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-D88V">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-D88V">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e5d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section5-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le'e xelso merko cu gusta ponse</jbo>
<gloss>The-stereotypical Greek-type-of American is-a-restaurant-type-of owner.</gloss>
<!-- ^^ stereotypical: as not derogatory in Lojban, 126; compared with typical, 126 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>stereotypical</primary></indexterm>
<en>Lots of Greek-Americans own restaurants.</en>
@@ -708,21 +708,21 @@
</example>
<para>Here we are concerned not with the actual set of Greek-Americans, but with the set of those the speaker has in mind, which is typified by one (real or imaginary) who owns a restaurant. The word
<quote>stereotypical</quote> is often derogatory in English, but
<!-- ^^ stereotypical: as not derogatory in Lojban, 126; compared with typical, 126 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>stereotypical</primary></indexterm>
<quote>le'e</quote> need not be derogatory in Lojban: it simply suggests that the example is typical in the speaker's imagination rather than in some objectively agreed-upon way. Of course, different speakers may disagree about what the features of
<quote>the typical lion</quote> are (some would include having a short intestine, whereas others would know nothing of lions' intestines), so the distinction between
<quote>lo'e cinfo</quote> and
<quote>le'e cinfo</quote> may be very fine.</para>
<para>Furthermore,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-NVFy">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-NVFy">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e5d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section5-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le'e skina cu se finti ne'i la xali,uyd.</jbo>
<en>The-stereotypical movie is-invented in Hollywood.</en>
<!-- ^^ stereotypical: as not derogatory in Lojban, 126; compared with typical, 126 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>stereotypical</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ Hollywood: example, 127 -->
@@ -766,21 +766,21 @@
<quote>two</quote>,
<quote>three</quote>,
<quote>four</quote>,
<quote>five</quote> respectively, or else one of four special quantifiers, two of which are discussed in this section and listed above. These four quantifiers are important because every Lojban sumti has either one or two of them implicitly present in it - which one or two depends on the particular kind of sumti. There is more explanation of implicit quantifiers later in this section. (The other two quantifiers,
<quote>piro</quote> and
<quote>pisu'o</quote>, are explained in
<!-- ^^ pisu'o: explanation of meaning, 130 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>pisu'o</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section7" />.)</para>
<para>Every Lojban sumti may optionally be preceded by an explicit quantifier. The purpose of this quantifier is to specify how many of the things referred to by the sumti are being talked about. Here are some simple examples contrasting sumti with and without explicit quantifiers:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-AEoN">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-AEoN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e6d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section6-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c6e6d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section6-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do cadzu le bisli</jbo>
<en>You walk-on the ice.</en>
<jbo>re do cadzu le bisli</jbo>
@@ -790,41 +790,41 @@
<para>The difference between
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section6-example1" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section6-example2" /> is the presence of the explicit quantifier
<quote>re</quote> in the latter example. Although
<quote>re</quote> by itself means
<quote>two</quote>, when used as a quantifier it means
<quote>two-of</quote>. Out of the group of listeners (the number of which isn't stated), two (we are not told which ones) are asserted to be
<quote>walkers on the ice</quote>. Implicitly, the others (if any) are not walkers on the ice. In Lojban, you cannot say
<quote>I own three shoes</quote> if in fact you own four shoes. Numbers need never be specified, but if they are specified they must be correct.</para>
<para>(This rule does not mean that there is no way to specify a number which is vague. The sentence</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-gLpy">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gLpy">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e6d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section6-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ponse su'o ci cutci</jbo>
<en>I possess at-least three shoes.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is true if you own three shoes, or four, or indeed any larger number. More details on vague numbers appear in the discussion of mathematical expressions in
<!-- ^^ vague numbers, 128 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>vague numbers</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ mathematical expressions: connectives in, 361; implicit quantifier for, 142; tensed connection in, 364 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>mathematical expressions</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18" />.)</para>
<para>Now consider
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section6-example1" /> again. How many of the listeners are claimed to walk on the ice? The answer turns out to be: all of them, however many that is. So
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section6-example1" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section6-example4" />:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-0qr0">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-0qr0">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e6d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section6-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro do cadzu le bisli</jbo>
<en>All-of you walk-on the ice.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>turn out to mean exactly the same thing. This is a safe strategy, because if one of my listeners doesn't turn out to be walking on the ice, I can safely claim that I didn't intend that person to be a listener! And in fact, all of the personal pro-sumti such as
@@ -834,74 +834,74 @@
<quote>mi'o</quote> and
<quote>ko</quote> obey the same rule. We say that personal pro-sumti have a so-called
<!-- ^^ personal pro-sumti, 139; implicit cancellation of by change of speaker/listener, 162; implicit quantifier for, 128, 139; stability of, 162 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>personal pro-sumti</primary></indexterm>
<quote>implicit quantifier</quote> of
<quote>ro</quote>(all). This just means that if no quantifier is given explicitly, the meaning is the same as if the implicit quantifier had been used.</para>
<!-- ^^ no quantifier: expanding, 403 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>no quantifier</primary></indexterm>
<para>Not all sumti have
<quote>ro</quote> as the implicit quantifier, however. Consider the quotation in:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-3eMo">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3eMo">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e6d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section6-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cusku lu do cadzu le bisli li'u</jbo>
<gloss>I express [quote] you walk-on the ice [unquote].</gloss>
<en>I say,
<quote>You walk on the ice.</quote></en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>What is the implicit quantifier of the quotation
<quote>lu do cadzu le bisli li'u</quote>? Surely not
<quote>ro</quote>. If
<quote>ro</quote> were supplied explicitly, thus:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-h4SJ">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-h4SJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e6d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section6-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cusku ro lu do cadzu le bisli li'u</jbo>
<en>I express all-of [quote] you walk-on the ice [unquote].</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>the meaning would be something like
<quote>I say every occurrence of the sentence 'You walk on the ice'</quote>. Of course I don't say every occurrence of it, only some occurrences. One might suppose that
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section6-example5" /> means that I express exactly one occurrence, but it is more Lojbanic to leave the number unspecified, as with other sumti. We can say definitely, however, that I say it at least once.</para>
<para>The Lojban cmavo meaning
<quote>at least</quote> is
<quote>su'o</quote>, and if no ordinary number follows,
<quote>su'o</quote> means
<quote>at least once</quote>. (See
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section6-example3" /> for the use of
<quote>su'o</quote> with an ordinary number). Therefore, the explicitly quantified version of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section6-example5" /> is</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-P558">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-P558">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e6d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section6-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cusku su'o lu do cadzu le bisli li'u</jbo>
<gloss>I express at-least-one-of [quote] you walk-on the ice [unquote].</gloss>
<gloss>I say one or more instances of
<quote>You walk on the ice</quote>.</gloss>
<en>I say
<quote>You walk on the ice</quote>.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>If an explicit ordinary number such as
<quote>re</quote> were to appear, it would have to convey an exact expression, so</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-59dF">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-59dF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e6d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section6-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cusku re lu do cadzu le bisli li'u</jbo>
<en>I express two-of [quote] you walk-on the ice [unquote].</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means that I say the sentence exactly twice, neither more nor less.</para>
@@ -911,53 +911,53 @@
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>piro</cmavo>
<selmaho>PA</selmaho>
<description>the whole of</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>Like other sumti, descriptions can be quantified. When a quantifier appears before a description, it has the same meaning as one appearing before a non-description sumti: it specifies how many things, of all those referred to by the description, are being talked about in this particular bridi. Suppose that context tells us that
<quote>le gerku</quote> refers to three dogs. Then we can say that exactly two of them are white as follows:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-WtUh">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-WtUh">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e7d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section7-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>re le gerku cu blabi</jbo>
<gloss>Two-of the dogs are-white.</gloss>
<en>Two of the dogs are white.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>When discussing descriptions, this ordinary quantifier is called an
<quote>outer quantifier</quote>, since it appears outside the description. But there is another possible location for a quantifier: between the descriptor and the selbri. This quantifier is called an
<quote>inner quantifier</quote>, and its meaning is quite different: it tells the listener how many objects the description selbri characterizes.</para>
<para>For example, the context of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section7-example1" /> supposedly told us that
<quote>le gerku</quote> referred to some three specific dogs. This assumption can be made certain with the use of an explicit inner quantifier:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-X3iY">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-X3iY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e7d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section7-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>re le ci gerku cu blabi</jbo>
<gloss>Two-of the three dogs are-white.</gloss>
<en>Two of the three dogs are white.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(As explained in the discussion of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section6-example3" />, simple numbers like those in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section7-example2" /> must be exact: it therefore follows that the third dog cannot be white.)</para>
<para>You may also specify an explicit inner quantifier and leave the outer quantifier implicit:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-JxzV">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-JxzV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e7d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section7-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ci gerku cu blabi</jbo>
<gloss>The three dogs are-white.</gloss>
<en>The three dogs are white.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1092,34 +1092,34 @@
<quote>la</quote>, and the typical descriptors
<quote>le'e</quote> and
<quote>lo'e</quote>) is special. When we refer to specific individuals with
<quote>le</quote>, we mean to refer to all of those we have in mind, so
<quote>ro</quote> is appropriate as the implicit quantifier, just as it is appropriate for
<quote>do</quote>. Reference to non-specific individuals with
<quote>lo</quote>, however, is typically to only some of the objects which can be correctly described, and so
<quote>su'o</quote> is the appropriate implicit quantifier, just as for quotations.</para>
<para>From the English-speaking point of view, the difference in structure between the following example using
<quote>le</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-f643">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-f643">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e7d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section7-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>[ro] le ci gerku cu blabi</jbo>
<gloss>[All-of] those-described-as three dogs are-white.</gloss>
<en>The three dogs are white.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and the corresponding form with
<quote>lo</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-gr7Y">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gr7Y">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e7d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section7-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ci lo [ro] gerku cu blabi</jbo>
<gloss>Three-of those-which-are [all] dogs are-white.</gloss>
<en>Three dogs are white.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1128,21 +1128,21 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section7-example4" /> and as an outer quantifier in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section7-example5" />? The number of dogs is the same in either case. The answer is that the
<quote>ci</quote> in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section7-example4" /> is part of the specification: it tells us the actual number of dogs in the group that the speaker has in mind. In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section7-example5" />, however, the dogs referred to by
<quote>... lo gerku</quote> are all the dogs that exist: the outer quantifier then restricts the number to three; which three, we cannot tell. The implicit quantifiers are chosen to avoid claiming too much or too little: in the case of
<quote>le</quote>, the implicit outer quantifier
<quote>ro</quote> says that each of the dogs in the restricted group is white; in the case of
<quote>lo</quote>, the implicit inner quantifier simply says that three dogs, chosen from the group of all the dogs there are, are white.</para>
<para>Using exact numbers as inner quantifiers in lo-series descriptions is dangerous, because you are stating that exactly that many things exist which really fit the description. So examples like</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-uYH4">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-uYH4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e7d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section7-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>[so'o] lo ci gerku cu blabi</jbo>
<!-- ^^ so'o, 440 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>so'o</primary></indexterm>
<en>[some-of] those-which-really-are three dogs are-white</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1156,21 +1156,21 @@
<quote>le ci nanmu</quote> means
<quote>what I describe as three men</quote>, not
<quote>three of what I describe as men</quote>. This follows from the rule that what is described by a
<quote>le</quote> description represents the speaker's viewpoint rather than the objective way things are.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter6-section8">
<title>Indefinite descriptions</title>
<para>By a quirk of Lojban syntax, it is possible to omit the descriptor
<quote>lo</quote>, but never any other descriptor, from a description like that of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section7-example5" />; namely, one which has an explicit outer quantifier but no explicit inner quantifier. The following example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-EsVd">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-EsVd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e8d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section8-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ci gerku [ku] cu blabi</jbo>
<en>Three dogs are white.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is equivalent in meaning to
@@ -1188,21 +1188,21 @@
<quote>re ci gerku cu blabi</quote> is fine, but means
<quote>23 dogs are white</quote>).</para>
<para>Note:
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section6-example3" /> also contains an indefinite description, namely
<!-- ^^ indefinite description: as needing explicit outer quantifier, 132; as prohibiting explicit inner quantifier, 132; compared with restricted variable, 398; definition, 132, 398 -->
<!-- ^^ restricted variable: compared with indefinite description, 398 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>restricted variable</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>indefinite description</primary></indexterm>
<quote>su'o ci cutci</quote>; another version of that example using an explicit
<quote>lo</quote> would be:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-SMvA">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-SMvA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e8d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section8-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ponse su'o ci lo cutci</jbo>
<gloss>I possess at-least three things-which-really-are shoes</gloss>
<en>I own three (or more) shoes.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1211,21 +1211,21 @@
<title>sumti-based descriptions</title>
<para>As stated in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section2" />, most descriptions consist of just a descriptor and a selbri. (In this chapter, the selbri have always been single gismu, but of course any selbri, however complex, can be employed in a description. The syntax and semantics of selbri are explained in
<xref linkend="chapter-selbri" />.) In the intervening sections, inner and outer quantifiers have been added to the syntax. Now it is time to discuss a description of a radically different kind: the sumti-based description.</para>
<!-- ^^ sumti-based description: definition, 132; inner quantifier on, 132; outer quantifier on, 132 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>sumti-based description</primary></indexterm>
<para>A sumti-based description has a sumti where the selbri would normally be, and the inner quantifier is required - it cannot be implicit. An outer quantifier is permitted but not required.</para>
<!-- ^^ sumti-based description: definition, 132; inner quantifier on, 132; outer quantifier on, 132 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>sumti-based description</primary></indexterm>
<para>A full theory of sumti-based descriptions has yet to be worked out. One common case, however, is well understood. Compare the following:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-aJEh">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-aJEh">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e9d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section9-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c6e9d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section9-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>re do cu nanmu</jbo>
<en>Two-of you are-men.</en>
<jbo>le re do cu nanmu</jbo>
@@ -1237,21 +1237,21 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section9-example2" />, which has the sumti-based description
<!-- ^^ sumti-based description: definition, 132; inner quantifier on, 132; outer quantifier on, 132 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>sumti-based description</primary></indexterm>
<quote>le re do</quote>, says that of the two listeners, all (the implicit outer quantifier
<quote>ro</quote>) are men. So in effect the inner quantifier
<quote>re</quote> gives the number of individuals which the inner sumti
<!-- ^^ inner sumti: referring to from within relative clause within relative clause, 184 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>inner sumti</primary></indexterm>
<quote>do</quote> refers to.</para>
<para>Here is another group of examples:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Nwtz">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Nwtz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e9d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section9-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c6e9d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section9-example4" />
<anchor xml:id="c6e9d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section9-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>re le ci cribe cu bunre</jbo>
@@ -1342,58 +1342,58 @@
<quote>lu'u</quote> to show where the qualified sumti ends.)</para>
<!-- ^^ lu'u, 133, 267; as elidable terminator for qualified sumti, 133 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>lu'u</primary></indexterm>
<para>Semantically, sumti qualifiers represent short forms of certain common special cases. Suppose you want to say
<quote>I see 'The Red Pony'</quote>, where
<!-- ^^ Red Pony: example, 133, 182 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Red Pony</primary></indexterm>
<quote>The Red Pony</quote> is the title of a book. How about:</para>
<!-- ^^ Red Pony: example, 133, 182 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Red Pony</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-6W3v">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-6W3v">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e10d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section10-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u</jbo>
<en>I see [quote] the red small-horse [unquote].</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>But
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section10-example1" /> doesn't work: it says that you see a piece of text
<quote>The Red Pony</quote>. That might be all right if you were looking at the cover of the book, where the words
<!-- ^^ Red Pony: example, 133, 182 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Red Pony</primary></indexterm>
<quote>The Red Pony</quote> are presumably written. (More precisely, where the words
<!-- ^^ Red Pony: example, 133, 182 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Red Pony</primary></indexterm>
<quote>le xunre cmaxirma</quote> are written – but we may suppose the book has been translated into Lojban.)</para>
<para>What you really want to say is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-MSVK">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-MSVK">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e10d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section10-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska le selsinxa be lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u</jbo>
<en>I see the thing-represented-by [quote] the red small-horse [unquote].</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The x2 place of
<quote>selsinxa</quote>(the x1 place of
<quote>sinxa</quote>) is a sign or symbol, and the x1 place of
<quote>selsinxa</quote>(the x2 place of
<quote>sinxa</quote>) is the thing represented by the sign.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section10-example2" /> allows us to use a symbol (namely the title of a book) to represent the thing it is a symbol of (namely the book itself).</para>
<para>This operation turns out to be needed often enough that it's useful to be able to say:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Ajty">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Ajty">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e10d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section10-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska la'e lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u [lu'u]</jbo>
<!-- ^^ lu'u, 133, 267; as elidable terminator for qualified sumti, 133 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>lu'u</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ la'e lu: compared with me'o, 422 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>la'e lu</primary></indexterm>
@@ -1403,33 +1403,33 @@
<para>So when
<quote>la'e</quote> is prefixed to a sumti referring to a symbol, it produces a sumti referring to the referent of that symbol. (In computer jargon,
<!-- ^^ jargon: use of fu'ivla for, 61 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>jargon</primary></indexterm>
<quote>la'e</quote> dereferences a pointer.)</para>
<para>By introducing a sumti qualifier, we correct a false sentence (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section10-example1" />), which too closely resembles its literal English equivalent, into a true sentence (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section10-example3" />), without having to change it overmuch; in particular, the structure remains the same. Most of the uses of sumti qualifiers are of this general kind.</para>
<para>The sumti qualifier
<quote>lu'e</quote> provides the converse operation: it can be prefixed to a sumti referring to some thing to produce a sumti referring to a sign or symbol for the thing. For example,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-7ytm">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7ytm">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e10d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section10-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu cusku lu'e le vi cukta</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] express a-symbol-for the nearby book.</gloss>
<en>I said the title of this book.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The equivalent form not using a sumti qualifier would be:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-aC9Q">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-aC9Q">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e10d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section10-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu cusku le sinxa be le vi cukta</jbo>
<en>I [past] express the symbol-for the nearby book.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which is equivalent to
@@ -1442,38 +1442,38 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>lu'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>lu'i</quote>, and
<!-- ^^ lu'i, 134; effect of on meaning, 134 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>lu'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>lu'o</quote> convert between individuals, sets, and masses;
<!-- ^^ lu'o, 134; effect of on meaning, 134 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>lu'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>vu'i</quote> belongs to this group as well, but creates a sequence, which is similar to a set but has a definite order. (The set of John and Charles is the same as the set of Charles and John, but the sequences are different.) Here are some examples:</para>
<!-- ^^ vu'i, 134; effect of on meaning, 134; use for creating sequence, 134 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>vu'i</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ioCu">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ioCu">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e10d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section10-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi troci tu'a le vorme</jbo>
<gloss>I try some-abstraction-about the door.</gloss>
<en>I try (to open) the door.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section10-example6" /> might mean that I try to do something else involving the door; the form is deliberately vague.</para>
<para>Most of the following examples make use of the cmavo
<quote>ri</quote>, belonging to selma'o KOhA. This cmavo means
<quote>the thing last mentioned</quote>; it is equivalent to repeating the immediately previous sumti (but in its original context). It is explained in more detail in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7" />.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-mchU">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mchU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e10d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section10-example7" />
<anchor xml:id="c6e10d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section10-example8" />
<anchor xml:id="c6e10d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section10-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo'i ratcu cu barda .iku'i lu'a ri cmalu</jbo>
@@ -1504,39 +1504,39 @@
<gloss>The mass of you and me is a mass.</gloss>
<en>The sequence of you and me is a sequence.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(Yes, I know these examples are a bit silly. This set was introduced for completeness, and practical examples are as yet hard to come by.)</para>
<para>Finally, the four sumti qualifiers formed from a cmavo of NAhE and
<quote>bo</quote> are all concerned with negation, which is discussed in detail in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15" />. Here are a few examples of negation sumti qualifiers:</para>
<!-- ^^ negation sumti qualifiers: meanings of, 135 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>negation sumti qualifiers</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-4Mte">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4Mte">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e10d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section10-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska na'ebo le gerku</jbo>
<!-- ^^ na'ebo, 135 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>na'ebo</primary></indexterm>
<en>I see something-other-than the dog.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This compound,
<quote>na'ebo</quote>, is the most common of the four negation sumti qualifiers. The others usually only make sense in the context of repeating, with modifications, something already referred to:</para>
<!-- ^^ negation sumti qualifiers: meanings of, 135 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>negation sumti qualifiers</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ na'ebo, 135 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>na'ebo</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-JwCb">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-JwCb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e10d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section10-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci loi glare cidja</jbo>
<gloss>.ije do nelci to'ebo ri</gloss>
<gloss>.ije la djein. nelci no'ebo ra</gloss>
<gloss>I like part-of-the-mass-of hot-type-of food.</gloss>
<gloss>And you like the-opposite-of the-last-mentioned.</gloss>
@@ -1561,21 +1561,21 @@
<!-- ^^ vocative phrase: as a free modifier, 135; effect of position on meaning, 137; elidable terminator for, 137; explicit quantifiers prohibited on, 136; forms of, 136; implicit descriptor on, 136; implicit quantifiers on, 136; purpose of, 136; relative clauses on, 184; with complete sumti, 136; with sumti without descriptor, 136 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>vocative phrase</primary></indexterm>
<quote>free modifiers</quote> of Lojban, along with subscripts, parentheses, and various other constructs explained in
<!-- ^^ free modifiers: effects on elidability of terminators, 450 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>free modifiers</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19" />. They can be placed after many, but not all, constructions of the grammar: in general, after any elidable terminator (which, however, must not then be elided!), at the beginnings and ends of sentences, and in many other places.</para>
<para>The purpose of a vocative phrase is to indicate who is being addressed, or to indicate to that person that he or she ought to be listening. A vocative phrase begins with a cmavo of selma'o COI or DOI, all of which are explained in more detail in
<!-- ^^ vocative phrase: as a free modifier, 135; effect of position on meaning, 137; elidable terminator for, 137; explicit quantifiers prohibited on, 136; forms of, 136; implicit descriptor on, 136; implicit quantifiers on, 136; purpose of, 136; relative clauses on, 184; with complete sumti, 136; with sumti without descriptor, 136 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>vocative phrase</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13" />. Sometimes that is all there is to the phrase:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-nweb">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nweb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e11d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section11-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c6e11d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section11-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>coi</jbo>
<gloss>[greetings]</gloss>
<en>Hello.</en>
@@ -1583,96 +1583,96 @@
<!-- ^^ je'e, 324, 325; contrasted with vi'o, 325 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>je'e</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>[acknowledgement]</gloss>
<gloss>Uh-huh.</gloss>
<en>Roger!</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In these cases, the person being addressed is obvious from the context. However, a vocative word (more precisely, one or more cmavo of COI, possibly followed by
<quote>doi</quote>, or else just
<quote>doi</quote> by itself) can be followed by one of several kinds of phrases, all of which are intended to indicate the addressee. The most common case is a name:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Bega">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Bega">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e11d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section11-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>coi. djan.</jbo>
<en>Hello, John.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>A pause is required (for morphological reasons) between a member of COI and a name. You can use
<quote>doi</quote> instead of a pause:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-QmzB">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-QmzB">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e11d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section11-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>coi doi djan.</jbo>
<en>Hello, John.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means exactly the same thing and does not require a pause. Using
<quote>doi</quote> by itself is like just saying someone's name to attract his or her attention:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ULHn">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ULHn">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e11d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section11-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>doi djan.</jbo>
<en>John!</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In place of a name, a description may appear, lacking its descriptor, which is understood to be
<quote>le</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-V530">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-V530">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e11d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section11-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>coi xunre pastu nixli</jbo>
<gloss>Hello, (red-type-of dress)-type-of girl.</gloss>
<en>Hello, girl with the red dress!</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The listener need not really be a
<quote>xunre pastu nixli</quote>, as long as she understands herself correctly from the description. (Actually, only a bare selbri can appear; explicit quantifiers are forbidden in this form of vocative, so the implicit quantifiers
<quote>su'o le ro</quote> are in effect.)</para>
<para>Finally, a complete sumti may be used, the most general case.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-tBTa">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-tBTa">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e11d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section11-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>co'o la bab. .e la noras.</jbo>
<en>Goodbye, Bob and Nora.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section11-example6" /> is thus the same as:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-3Qac">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3Qac">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e11d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section11-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>coi le xunre pastu nixli</jbo>
<en>Hello, the-one-described-as red-dress girl!</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section11-example5" /> is the same as:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-bx2C">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-bx2C">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e11d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section11-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>doi la djan.</jbo>
<en>The-one-named John!</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Finally, the elidable terminator for vocative phrases is
@@ -1685,21 +1685,21 @@
<!-- ^^ free modifiers: effects on elidability of terminators, 450 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>free modifiers</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18" />- metalinguistic comments - see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19" />- or reciprocals - see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19" />) which must be properly separated.</para>
<para>The meaning of a vocative phrase that is within a sentence is not affected by its position in the sentence: thus
<!-- ^^ vocative phrase: as a free modifier, 135; effect of position on meaning, 137; elidable terminator for, 137; explicit quantifiers prohibited on, 136; forms of, 136; implicit descriptor on, 136; implicit quantifiers on, 136; purpose of, 136; relative clauses on, 184; with complete sumti, 136; with sumti without descriptor, 136 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>vocative phrase</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section11-example9" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section11-example10" /> mean the same thing:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-tBeK">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-tBeK">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e11d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section11-example10" />
<anchor xml:id="c6e11d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section11-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>doi djan. ko klama mi</jbo>
<en>John, come to me!</en>
<jbo>ko klama mi doi djan.</jbo>
@@ -1708,41 +1708,41 @@
</example>
<para>As usual for this chapter, the full syntax of vocative phrases has not been explained: relative clauses, discussed in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8" />, make for more possibilities.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter6-section12">
<title>Lojban names</title>
<para>Names have been used freely as sumti throughout this chapter without too much explanation. The time for the explanation has now come.</para>
<para>First of all, there are two different kinds of things usually called
<quote>names</quote> when talking about Lojban. The naming predicates of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section2" /> are just ordinary predicates which are being used in a special sense. In addition, though, there is a class of Lojban words which are used only to name things: these can be recognized by the fact that they end in a consonant followed by a pause. Some examples:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-u0zY">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-u0zY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e12d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section12-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>djan. meris. djein. .alis.</jbo>
<en>John. Mary. Jane. Alice.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(Note that
<quote>.alis.</quote> begins as well as ends with a pause, because all Lojban words beginning with a vowel must be preceded by a pause. See
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4" /> for more information.)</para>
<para>Names of this kind have two basic uses in Lojban: when used in a vocative phrase (see
<!-- ^^ vocative phrase: as a free modifier, 135; effect of position on meaning, 137; elidable terminator for, 137; explicit quantifiers prohibited on, 136; forms of, 136; implicit descriptor on, 136; implicit quantifiers on, 136; purpose of, 136; relative clauses on, 184; with complete sumti, 136; with sumti without descriptor, 136 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>vocative phrase</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section11" />) they indicate who the listener is or should be. When used with a descriptor of selma'o LA, namely
<quote>la</quote>,
<quote>lai</quote>, or
<quote>la'i</quote>, they form sumti which refer to the persons or things known by the name.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-cX6R">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-cX6R">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e12d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section12-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c6e12d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section12-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djonz. klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>Jones goes to-the store.</gloss>
<en>The Joneses go to-the store.</en>
@@ -1769,21 +1769,21 @@
<para>There are certain limitations on the form of name-words in Lojban. In particular, they cannot contain the letter-sequences (or sound-sequences)
<!-- ^^ name-words: limitations on, 138; pause requirements before, 138; permissible consonant combinations, 138 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>name-words</primary></indexterm>
<quote>la</quote>,
<quote>lai</quote>, or
<quote>doi</quote> unless a consonant immediately precedes within the name. Reciprocally, every name not preceded by
<quote>la</quote>,
<quote>lai</quote>,
<quote>la'i</quote>, or
<quote>doi</quote> must be preceded by a pause instead:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-VIsx">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-VIsx">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e12d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section12-example4" />
<anchor xml:id="c6e12d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section12-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>coi .djan.</jbo>
<en>Hello, John.</en>
<jbo>zo .djan. cmene mi</jbo>
@@ -1791,21 +1791,21 @@
<quote>John</quote> is-the-name-of me.</gloss>
<en>My name is John.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section12-example4" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section12-example5" />,
<quote>.djan.</quote> appears with a pause before it as well as after it, because the preceding word is not one of the four special cases. These rules force names to always be separable from the general word-stream.</para>
<para>Unless some other rule prevents it (such as the rule that
<quote>zo</quote> is always followed by a single word, which is quoted), multiple names may appear wherever one name is permitted, each with its terminating pause:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-cw3p">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-cw3p">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e12d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section12-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>doi djan. pol. djonz. le bloti cu klama fi la niuport. niuz.</jbo>
<en>John Paul Jones, the boat comes (to somewhere) from Newport News.</en>
<!-- ^^ Newport News: example, 138 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Newport News</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ John Paul Jones: example, 138 -->
@@ -1855,21 +1855,21 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Lottie</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>*latis</selmaho>
<description>LYtis. or lotis.</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>Names may be borrowed from other languages or created arbitrarily. Another common practice is to use one or more rafsi, arranged to end with a consonant, to form a name: thus the rafsi
<quote>loj-</quote> for
<quote>logji</quote>(logical) and
<quote>ban-</quote> for
<quote>bangu</quote>(language) unite to form the name of this language:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-uXAY">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-uXAY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e12d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section12-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lojban.</jbo>
<en>Lojban</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>When borrowing names from another language which end in a vowel, or when turning a Lojban brivla (all of which end in vowels) into a name, the vowel may be removed or an arbitrary consonant added. It is common (but not required) to use the consonants
@@ -1899,21 +1899,21 @@
<quote>mi'a</quote>,
<!-- ^^ mi'a, 146 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>mi'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ma'a</quote>,
<!-- ^^ ma'a, 146 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ma'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>do'o</quote>,
<!-- ^^ do'o, 146 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>do'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ko</quote>) refer to the speaker or the listener or both, with or without third parties:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-PHPi">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PHPi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e13d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section13-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi prami do</jbo>
<en>I love you.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The personal pro-sumti may be interpreted in context as either representing individuals or masses, so the implicit quantifier may be
@@ -1941,35 +1941,35 @@
<quote>ko'u</quote>,
<quote>fo'a</quote>,
<!-- ^^ fo'a, 163 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>fo'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>fo'e</quote>,
<quote>fo'i</quote>,
<quote>fo'o</quote>,
<quote>fo'u</quote>) refer to whatever the speaker has explicitly made them refer to. This reference is accomplished with
<quote>goi</quote>(of selma'o GOI), which means
<quote>defined-as</quote>.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-8whK">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-8whK">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e13d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section13-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le cribe goi ko'a cu xekri .i ko'a citka le smacu</jbo>
<en>The bear defined-as it-1 is-black. It-1 eats the mouse.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Quantificational pro-sumti (
<quote>da</quote>,
<quote>de</quote>,
<quote>di</quote>) are used as variables in bridi involving predicate logic:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-FVj8">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-FVj8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e13d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section13-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro da poi prenu cu prami pa de poi finpe</jbo>
<gloss>All somethings-1 which-are persons love one something-2 which-is a-fish.</gloss>
<en>All persons love a fish (each his/her own).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1979,74 +1979,74 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>quantificational pro-sumti</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16" />. Roughly speaking, the quantifier is
<quote>su'o</quote>(at least one) when the pro-sumti is first used, and
<quote>ro</quote>(all) thereafter.</para>
<para>Reflexive pro-sumti (
<quote>vo'a</quote>,
<quote>vo'e</quote>,
<quote>vo'i</quote>,
<quote>vo'o</quote>,
<quote>vo'u</quote>) refer to the same referents as sumti filling other places in the same bridi, with the effect that the same thing is referred to twice:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-nMse">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nMse">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e13d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section13-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le cribe cu batci vo'a</jbo>
<gloss>The bear bites what-is-in-the-x1-place.</gloss>
<en>The bear bites itself.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Back-counting pro-sumti (
<quote>ri</quote>,
<quote>ra</quote>,
<quote>ru</quote>) refer to the referents of previous sumti counted backwards from the pro-sumti:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-cjTj">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-cjTj">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e13d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section13-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama la frankfurt. ri</jbo>
<gloss>I go to-Frankfurt from-the-referent-of-the-last-sumti</gloss>
<en>I go from Frankfurt to Frankfurt (by some unstated route).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Indefinite pro-sumti (
<quote>zo'e</quote>,
<quote>zu'i</quote>,
<!-- ^^ zu'i, 157 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>zu'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>zi'o</quote>) refer to something which is unspecified:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-d5Ee">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-d5Ee">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e13d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section13-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama la frankfurt. zo'e zo'e zo'e</jbo>
<en>I go to-Frankfurt from-unspecified via-unspecified by-means-unspecified.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The implicit quantifier for indefinite pro-sumti is, well, indefinite. It might be
<!-- ^^ indefinite pro-sumti, 140, 157; implicit quantifier for, 140; stability of, 162 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>indefinite pro-sumti</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ro</quote>(all) or
<quote>su'o</quote>(at least one) or conceivably even
<quote>no</quote>(none), though
<quote>no</quote> would require a very odd context indeed.</para>
<para>Demonstrative pro-sumti (
<quote>ti</quote>,
<quote>ta</quote>,
<quote>tu</quote>) refer to things pointed at by the speaker, or when pointing is not possible, to things near or far from the speaker:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-aqfJ">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-aqfJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e13d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section13-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ko muvgau</jbo>
<gloss>ti ta tu</gloss>
<gloss>You [imperative] move</gloss>
<gloss>this-thing from-that-nearby-place to-that-further-away-place.</gloss>
<en>Move this from there to over there!</en>
@@ -2064,21 +2064,21 @@
<!-- ^^ di'e, 149, 358; effect of tu'e/tu'u on, 358 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>di'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>de'e</quote>,
<!-- ^^ de'e, 149 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>de'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>da'e</quote>,
<!-- ^^ da'e, 149 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>da'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>dei</quote>,
<quote>do'i</quote>) refer to spoken or written utterances, either preceding, following, or the same as the current utterance.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-8VYF">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-8VYF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e13d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section13-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li re su'i re du li vo</jbo>
<gloss>.i la'e di'u jetnu</gloss>
<gloss>The-number two plus two equals the-number four.</gloss>
<en>The-referent-of the-previous-utterance is-true.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -2086,38 +2086,38 @@
<para>The implicit quantifier for metalinguistic pro-sumti is
<!-- ^^ metalinguistic pro-sumti, 140; implicit quantifier for, 140 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>metalinguistic pro-sumti</primary></indexterm>
<quote>su'o</quote>(at least one), because they are considered analogous to
<quote>lo</quote> descriptions: they refer to things which really are previous, current, or following utterances.</para>
<para>The relative pro-sumti (
<!-- ^^ relative pro-sumti, 140 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>relative pro-sumti</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ke'a</quote>) is used within relative clauses (see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8" /> for a discussion of relative clauses) to refer to whatever sumti the relative clause is attached to.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-sf2T">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sf2T">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e13d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section13-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska le mlatu ku poi zo'e zbasu ke'a</jbo>
<gloss>loi slasi</gloss>
<gloss>I see the cat(s) such-that something-unspecified makes it/them (the cats)</gloss>
<gloss>from-a-mass-of plastic.</gloss>
<en>I see the cat(s) made of plastic.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The question pro-sumti (
<!-- ^^ question pro-sumti, 140; implicit quantifier for, 140 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>question pro-sumti</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ma</quote>) is used to ask questions which request the listener to supply a sumti which will make the question into a truth:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-9tSb">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9tSb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e13d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section13-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do klama ma</jbo>
<gloss>You go to-what-sumti?</gloss>
<en>Where are you going?</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -2141,84 +2141,84 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>word quotation</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>single-word quotation</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ word quotation: as morphologically valid, 141; internal grammar of, 141 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>word quotation</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ non-Lojban quotation, 141 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>non-Lojban quotation</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19" />.</para>
<para>Text quotations are preceded by
<quote>lu</quote> and followed by
<quote>li'u</quote>, and are an essential part of the surrounding text: they must be grammatical Lojban texts.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-v1DE">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-v1DE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e14d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section14-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cusku lu mi'e djan. li'u</jbo>
<gloss>I say the-text [quote] I-am John [unquote].</gloss>
<en>I say
<quote>I'm John</quote>.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Words quotations are quotations of one or more Lojban words. The words need not mean anything, but they must be morphologically valid so that the end of the quotation can be discerned.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-UMDQ">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-UMDQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e14d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section14-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cusku lo'u li mi le'u</jbo>
<gloss>I say the-words [quote]
<quote>li mi</quote> [unquote].</gloss>
<en>I say
<quote>li mi</quote>.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that the translation of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section14-example2" /> does not translate the Lojban words, because they are not presumed to have any meaning (in fact, they are ungrammatical).</para>
<para>Single-word quotation quotes a single Lojban word. Compound cmavo are not allowed.</para>
<!-- ^^ word quotation: as morphologically valid, 141; internal grammar of, 141 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>word quotation</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-XqKv">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-XqKv">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e14d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section14-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cusku zo .ai</jbo>
<en>I say the-word
<quote>.ai</quote>.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Non-Lojban quotation can quote anything, Lojban or not, even non-speech such as drum talk, whistle words, music, or belching. A Lojban word which does not appear within the quotation is used before and after it to set it off from the surrounding Lojban text.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-1Uey">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1Uey">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e14d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section14-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cusku zoi kuot. I'm John .kuot</jbo>
<en>I say
<quote>I'm John</quote>.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The implicit quantifier for all types of quotation is
<quote>su'o</quote>(at least one), because quotations are analogous to
<quote>lo</quote> descriptions: they refer to things which actually are words or sequences of words.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter6-section15">
<title>Number summary</title>
<para>The sumti which refer to numbers consist of the cmavo
<quote>li</quote>(of selma'o LI) followed by an arbitrary Lojban mekso, or mathematical expression. This can be anything from a simple number up to the most complicated combination of numbers, variables, operators, and so on. Much more information on numbers is given in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18" />. Here are a few examples of increasing complexity:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-w8u8">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-w8u8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e15d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section15-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c6e15d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section15-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c6e15d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section15-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li vo</jbo>
@@ -2231,35 +2231,35 @@
<gloss>the-number a times x to-power 2 plus b times x plus c</gloss>
<en>ax</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>An alternative to
<quote>li</quote> is
<quote>me'o</quote>, also of selma'o LI. Number expressions beginning with
<quote>me'o</quote> refer to the actual expression, rather than its value. Thus
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section15-example1" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section15-example2" /> above have the same meaning, the number four, whereas</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-sW7u">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sW7u">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e15d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section15-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>me'o vo</jbo>
<gloss>the-expression four</gloss>
<en>
<quote>4</quote>
</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-3s82">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3s82">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e15d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section15-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>me'o re su'i re</jbo>
<gloss>the-expression two plus two</gloss>
<en>
<quote>2+2</quote>
</en>
diff --git a/todocbook/7.xml b/todocbook/7.xml
index 8a35add..dd237c4 100644
--- a/todocbook/7.xml
+++ b/todocbook/7.xml
@@ -1,47 +1,47 @@
<chapter xml:id="cll_chapter7">
<title>Chapter 7 Brevity Is The Soul Of Language: Pro-sumti And Pro-bridi</title>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter7-section1">
<title>What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?</title>
<para>Speakers of Lojban, like speakers of other languages, require mechanisms of abbreviation. If every time we referred to something, we had to express a complete description of it, life would be too short to say what we have to say. In English, we have words called
<quote>pronouns</quote> which allow us to replace nouns or noun phrases with shorter terms. An English with no pronouns might look something like this:</para>
<!-- ^^ nouns: brivla as Lojban equivalents, 52 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>nouns</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-KeL4">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KeL4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e1d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section1-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>Speakers of Lojban, like speakers of other languages,</jbo>
<gloss>require mechanisms of abbreviation. If every time</gloss>
<gloss>speakers of Lojban referred to a thing to which</gloss>
<gloss>speakers of Lojban refer, speakers of Lojban had to</gloss>
<gloss>express a complete description of what speakers</gloss>
<gloss>of Lojban referred to, life would be too short to say</gloss>
<en>what speakers of Lojban have to say.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Speakers of this kind of English would get mightily sick of talking. Furthermore, there are uses of pronouns in English which are independent of abbreviation. There is all the difference in the world between:</para>
<!-- ^^ pronouns in English: as independent of abbreviations, 145; as noun abbreviations, 145 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>pronouns in English</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-VISf">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-VISf">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e1d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section1-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>John picked up a stick and shook it.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-GoqJ">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-GoqJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e1d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section1-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>John picked up a stick and shook a stick.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section1-example3" /> does not imply that the two sticks are necessarily the same, whereas
@@ -52,21 +52,21 @@
<quote>pro-sumti</quote>. A purely Lojban term would be
<quote>sumti cmavo</quote>: all of the pro-sumti are cmavo belonging to selma'o KOhA. In exactly the same way, Lojban has a group of cmavo (belonging to selma'o GOhA) which serve as selbri or full bridi. These may be called
<quote>pro-bridi</quote> or
<quote>bridi cmavo</quote>. This chapter explains the uses of all the members of selma'o KOhA and GOhA. They fall into a number of groups, known as series: thus, in selma'o KOhA, we have among others the mi-series, the ko'a-series, the da-series, and so on. In each section, a series of pro-sumti is explained, and if there is a corresponding series of pro-bridi, it is explained and contrasted. Many pro-sumti series don't have pro-bridi analogues, however.</para>
<para>A few technical terms: The term
<!-- ^^ technical terms, 5 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>technical terms</primary></indexterm>
<quote>referent</quote> means the thing to which a pro-sumti (by extension, a pro-bridi) refers. If the speaker of a sentence is James, then the referent of the word
<quote>I</quote> is James. On the other hand, the term
<quote>antecedent</quote> refers to a piece of language which a pro-sumti (or pro-bridi) implicitly repeats. In</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-AnBS">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-AnBS">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e1d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section1-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>John loves himself</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>the antecedent of
<quote>himself</quote> is
@@ -100,21 +100,21 @@
<!-- ^^ foreman of a jury: example, 146 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>foreman of a jury</primary></indexterm>
<quote>mi</quote>, since in speaking officially he represents all of them.</para>
<para>The referents of
<quote>mi</quote> and
<quote>do</quote> are usually obvious from the context, but may be assigned by the vocative words of selma'o COI, explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13" />. The vocative
<quote>mi'e</quote> assigns
<quote>mi</quote>, whereas all of the other vocatives assign
<quote>do</quote>.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-4dna">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4dna">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e2d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section2-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi'e djan. doi frank. mi cusku lu mi bajra li'u do</jbo>
<gloss>I-am John, O Frank, I express [quote] I run [unquote] to-you</gloss>
<en>I am John, Frank; I tell you
<quote>I run</quote>.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -164,78 +164,78 @@
<quote>mi'a</quote> or even
<!-- ^^ mi'a, 146 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>mi'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ma'a</quote>, and English-speakers often suffer because they cannot easily distinguish
<!-- ^^ ma'a, 146 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ma'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>mi'o</quote> from
<quote>mi'a</quote>:</para>
<!-- ^^ mi'a, 146 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>mi'a</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-22dg">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-22dg">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e2d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section2-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>We're going to the store.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Does this include the listener or not? There's no way to be sure.</para>
<para>Finally, the cmavo
<quote>ko</quote> is logically equivalent to
<quote>do</quote>; its referent is the listener. However, its use alters an assertion about the listener into a command to the listener to make the assertion true:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-n1Rv">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-n1Rv">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e2d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section2-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do klama le zarci</jbo>
<en>You go to-the store.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>becomes:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-uwDI">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-uwDI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e2d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section2-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ko klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>You [imperative] go to-the store.</gloss>
<gloss>Make
<quote>you go to the store</quote> true!</gloss>
<en>Go to the store!</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In English, the subject of a command is omitted, but in Lojban, the word
<quote>ko</quote> must be used. However,
<quote>ko</quote> does not have to appear in the x1 place:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-5Jbi">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-5Jbi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e2d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section2-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska ko</jbo>
<gloss>I see you [imperative]</gloss>
<gloss>Make
<quote>I see you</quote> true!</gloss>
<en>Be seen by me!</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section2-example5" />, it is necessary to make the verb passive in English in order to convey the effect of
<quote>ko</quote> in the x2 place. Indeed,
<quote>ko</quote> does not even have to be a sumti of the main bridi:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-VTRG">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-VTRG">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e2d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section2-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska le prenu poi prami ko</jbo>
<gloss>I see the person that loves you [imperative]</gloss>
<gloss>Make
<quote>I see the person that loves you</quote> true!</gloss>
<gloss>Be such that the person who loves you is seen by me!</gloss>
@@ -280,55 +280,55 @@
<quote>do</quote>, that is convenient when pointing is not possible; for example, when talking by telephone. In written text, on the other hand, the meaning of the ti-series is inherently vague; is the writer to be taken as pointing to something, and if so, to what? In all cases, what counts as
<quote>near</quote> and
<quote>far away</quote> is relative to the current situation.</para>
<para>It is important to distinguish between the English pronoun
<quote>this</quote> and the English adjective
<quote>this</quote> as in
<quote>this boat</quote>. The latter is not represented in Lojban by
<!-- ^^ this boat: example, 148 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>this boat</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ti</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-IWi7">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-IWi7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e3d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section3-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ti bloti</jbo>
<en>the this boat</en>
<!-- ^^ this boat: example, 148 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>this boat</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>does not mean
<quote>this boat</quote> but rather
<!-- ^^ this boat: example, 148 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>this boat</primary></indexterm>
<quote>this one's boat</quote>,
<quote>the boat associated with this thing</quote>, as explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8" />. A correct Lojban translation of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section3-example1" /> is</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-rfUc">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rfUc">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e3d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section3-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le vi bloti</jbo>
<gloss>the here boat</gloss>
<en>the nearby boat</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>using a spatial tense before the selbri
<quote>bloti</quote> to express that the boat is near the speaker. (Tenses are explained in full in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11" />.) Another correct translation would be:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-pRLq">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pRLq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e3d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section3-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti noi bloti</jbo>
<!-- ^^ ti noi: as adjective expression for this, 148 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ti noi</primary></indexterm>
<en>this-thing which-incidentally is-a-boat</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -356,35 +356,35 @@
da'e KOhA di'u-series a much later utterance
<!-- ^^ da'e, 149 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>da'e</primary></indexterm>
dei KOhA di'u-series this very utterance
do'i KOhA di'u-series some utterance
</programlisting>
<para>The cmavo of the di'u-series enable us to talk about things that have been, are being, or will be said. In English, it is normal to use
<quote>this</quote> and
<quote>that</quote> for this (indeed, the immediately preceding
<quote>this</quote> is an example of such a usage):</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-KNih">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KNih">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e4d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section4-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>You don't like cats.</jbo>
<en>That is untrue.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here
<quote>that</quote> does not refer to something that can be pointed to, but to the preceding sentence
<quote>You don't like cats</quote>. In Lojban, therefore,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section4-example1" /> is rendered:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-nTou">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nTou">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e4d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section4-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do na nelci loi mlatu .i di'u jitfa jufra</jbo>
<en>You (Not!) like the-mass-of cats. The-previous-utterance is-a-false-sentence.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Using
@@ -404,21 +404,21 @@
<para>Most references in speech are to the past (what has already been said), so
<quote>di'e</quote>,
<!-- ^^ di'e, 149, 358; effect of tu'e/tu'u on, 358 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>di'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>de'e</quote>, and
<!-- ^^ de'e, 149 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>de'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>da'e</quote> are not very useful when speaking. In writing, they are frequently handy:</para>
<!-- ^^ da'e, 149 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>da'e</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-erEL">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-erEL">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e4d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section4-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la saimn. cusku di'e</jbo>
<!-- ^^ di'e, 149, 358; effect of tu'e/tu'u on, 358 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>di'e</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>Simon expresses the-following-utterance.</gloss>
<en>Simon says:</en>
@@ -428,21 +428,21 @@
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section4-example3" /> would typically be followed by a quotation. Note that although presumably the quotation is of something Simon has said in the past, the quotation utterance itself would appear after
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section4-example3" />, and so
<quote>di'e</quote> is appropriate.</para>
<!-- ^^ di'e, 149, 358; effect of tu'e/tu'u on, 358 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>di'e</primary></indexterm>
<para>The remaining two cmavo,
<quote>dei</quote> and
<quote>do'i</quote>, refer respectively to the very utterance that the speaker is uttering, and to some vague or unspecified utterance uttered by someone at some time:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-4RYt">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4RYt">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e4d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section4-example4" />
<anchor xml:id="c7e4d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section4-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>dei jetnu jufra</jbo>
<gloss>This-utterance is-a-true-sentence.</gloss>
<en>What I am saying (at this moment) is true.</en>
@@ -455,42 +455,42 @@
<para>The cmavo of the di'u-series have a meaning that is relative to the context. The referent of
<quote>dei</quote> in the current utterance is the same as the referent of
<quote>di'u</quote> in the next utterance. The term
<quote>utterance</quote> is used rather than
<quote>sentence</quote> because the amount of speech or written text referred to by any of these words is vague. Often, a single bridi is intended, but longer utterances may be thus referred to.</para>
<para>Note one very common construction with
<quote>di'u</quote> and the cmavo
<quote>la'e</quote>(of selma'o LAhE; see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6" />) which precedes a sumti and means
<quote>the thing referred to by (the sumti)</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-MsUd">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-MsUd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e4d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section4-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi prami la djein. .i mi nelci la'e di'u</jbo>
<gloss>I love Jane. And I like the-referent-of the-last-utterance.</gloss>
<en>I love Jane, and I like that.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The effect of
<quote>la'e di'u</quote> in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section4-example6" /> is that the speaker likes, not the previous sentence, but rather the state of affairs referred to by the previous sentence, namely his loving Jane. This cmavo compound is often written as a single word:
<quote>la'edi'u</quote>. It is important not to mix up
<!-- ^^ la'edi'u, 149; contrasted with di'u, 149; quick-tour version, 21 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>la'edi'u</primary></indexterm>
<quote>di'u</quote> and
<quote>la'edi'u</quote>, or the wrong meaning will generally result:</para>
<!-- ^^ la'edi'u, 149; contrasted with di'u, 149; quick-tour version, 21 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>la'edi'u</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-68ru">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-68ru">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e4d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section4-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi prami la djein. .i mi nelci di'u</jbo>
<en>I love Jane. And I like the-last-utterance.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>says that the speaker likes one of his own sentences.</para>
@@ -537,99 +537,99 @@
<quote>you</quote> but also
<quote>he</quote>,
<quote>she</quote>,
<quote>it</quote>, and
<quote>they</quote>. Lojban does have equivalents of this latter group: in fact, it has more of them than English does. However, they are organized and used very differently.</para>
<para>There are ten cmavo in the ko'a-series, and they may be assigned freely to any sumti whatsoever. The English word
<quote>he</quote> can refer only to males,
<quote>she</quote> only to females (and ships and a few other things),
<quote>it</quote> only to inanimate things, and
<quote>they</quote> only to plurals; the cmavo of the ko'a-series have no restrictions at all. Therefore, it is almost impossible to guess from the context what ko'a-series cmavo might refer to if they are just used freely:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-qdCR">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-qdCR">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e5d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section5-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .alis. klama le zarci .i ko'a blanu</jbo>
<en>Alice goes-to the store. It-1 is-blue.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The English gloss
<quote>it-1</quote>, plus knowledge about the real world, would tend to make English-speakers believe that
<!-- ^^ real world: contrasted with hypothetical world, example, 320 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>real world</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ko'a</quote> refers to the store; in other words, that its antecedent is
<quote>le zarci</quote>. To a Lojbanist, however,
<quote>la .alis.</quote> is just as likely an antecedent, in which case
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section5-example1" /> means that Alice, not the store, is blue.</para>
<para>To avoid this pitfall, Lojban employs special syntax, using the cmavo
<quote>goi</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-duGR">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-duGR">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e5d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section5-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .alis. klama le zarci .i ko'a goi la .alis. cu blanu</jbo>
<en>Alice goes-to the store. It-1, also-known-as Alice, is-blue.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Syntactically,
<quote>goi la .alis.</quote> is a relative phrase (relative phrases are explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8" />). Semantically, it says that
<quote>ko'a</quote> and
<quote>la .alis.</quote> refer to the same thing, and furthermore that this is true because
<quote>ko'a</quote> is being defined as meaning
<quote>la .alis.</quote>. It is equally correct to say:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-oKaM">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-oKaM">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e5d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section5-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .alis. klama le zarci .i la .alis. goi ko'a cu blanu</jbo>
<en>Alice goes-to the store. Alice, also-known-as it-1, is-blue.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>in other words,
<quote>goi</quote> is symmetrical. There is a terminator,
<quote>ge'u</quote>(of selma'o GEhU), which is almost always elidable. The details are in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8" />.</para>
<para>The afterthought form of
<quote>goi</quote> shown in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section5-example2" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section5-example3" /> is probably most common in speech, where we do not know until part way through our utterance that we will want to refer to Alice again. In writing, though,
<quote>ko'a</quote> may be assigned at the point where Alice is first mentioned. An example of this forethought form of
<quote>goi</quote> is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-1FJV">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1FJV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e5d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section5-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .alis. goi ko'a klama le zarci .i ko'a cu blanu</jbo>
<en>Alice, also-known-as it-1, goes-to the store. It-1 is-blue.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Again,
<quote>ko'a goi la .alis.</quote> would have been entirely acceptable in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section5-example4" />. This last form is reminiscent of legal jargon:
<!-- ^^ legal jargon: example, 151 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>legal jargon</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ jargon: use of fu'ivla for, 61 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>jargon</primary></indexterm>
<quote>The party of the first part, hereafter known as Buyer, ...</quote>.</para>
<!-- ^^ hereafter known as: example, 151 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>hereafter known as</primary></indexterm>
<para>Just as the ko'a-series of pro-sumti allows a substitute for a sumti which is long or complex, or which for some other reason we do not want to repeat, so the broda-series of pro-bridi allows a substitute for a selbri or even a whole bridi:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-yXYT">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-yXYT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e5d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section5-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti slasi je mlatu bo cidja lante gacri cei broda</jbo>
<!-- ^^ cei, 151, 154, 162; for broda-series pro-bridi assignment, 151 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>cei</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>.i le crino broda cu barda .i le xunre broda cu cmalu</gloss>
<gloss>These are plastic cat-food can covers or thingies.</gloss>
@@ -645,21 +645,21 @@
<!-- ^^ cei, 151, 154, 162; for broda-series pro-bridi assignment, 151 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>cei</primary></indexterm>
<quote>goi</quote> in assigning
<quote>broda</quote> to this long phrase, and
<quote>broda</quote> can then be used just like any other brivla. (In fact,
<quote>broda</quote> and its relatives actually
<emphasis>are</emphasis> brivla: they are gismu in morphology, although they behave exactly like the members of selma'o GOhA. The reasons for using gismu rather than cmavo are buried in the Loglan Project's history.)</para>
<para>Note that pro-bridi are so called because, even though they have the grammar of selbri, their antecedents are whole bridi. In the following rather contrived example, the antecedent of
<quote>brode</quote> is the whole bridi
<quote>mi klama le zarci</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-UFJf">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-UFJf">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e5d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section5-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama cei brode le zarci .i do brode</jbo>
<!-- ^^ cei, 151, 154, 162; for broda-series pro-bridi assignment, 151 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>cei</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I go-to (which-is claim-1) the store. You claim-1.</gloss>
<en>I go to the store. You, too.</en>
@@ -670,21 +670,21 @@
<quote>do klama le zarci</quote>, because
<quote>brode</quote> carries the x2 sumti of
<quote>mi klama le zarci</quote> along with it. It also potentially carries the x1 sumti as well, but the explicit x1 sumti
<quote>do</quote> overrides the
<quote>mi</quote> of the antecedent bridi. Similarly, any tense or negation that is present in the antecedent is also carried, and can be overridden by explicit tense or negation cmavo on the pro-bridi. These rules hold for all pro-bridi that have antecedents.</para>
<!-- ^^ negation cmavo: position relative to selbri, 104 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>negation cmavo</primary></indexterm>
<para>Another use of
<quote>broda</quote> and its relatives, without assignment, is as
<quote>sample gismu</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-AYYA">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-AYYA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e5d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section5-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>broda ke brode brodi</jbo>
<en>a thing-1 type of (thing-2 type-of thing-3)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>represents an abstract pattern, a certain kind of tanru. (Historically, this use was the original one.)</para>
@@ -693,42 +693,42 @@
<!-- ^^ Lojban letters: IPA for pronouncing, 30; list with IPA pronunciation, 30 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Lojban letters</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ ko'a-series pro-sumti, 150; as assignable, 150; assigning with goi, 150; assignment with goi as symmetrical, 150; contrasted with lerfu as pro-sumti in explicit assignment of, 152; effect on ri-series pro-sumti, 153 -->
<!-- ^^ ri-series pro-sumti, 152; and order of possible referents, 153; assigning for permanent reference, 154; compared with ti-series in word formation, 152; effect of ko'a-series pro-sumti on, 153; effect of lerfu pro-sumti on, 153; effect of other ri-series pro-sumti on, 153; effect of ti-series pro-sumti on, 153; effect of use on meaning, 153; effect on other ri-series pro-sumti, 153; in narrative about quotation, 156; in quotation series, 156; in quotations, 156; non-allowable referents of, 153; possible referents of, 153 -->
<!-- ^^ ti-series pro-sumti: 3 degrees of distance with, 147; as pointing referents only, 147; compared with English this/that, 147; contrasted with di'u-series pro-sumti, 148; conversational convention for, 147; effect on ri-series pro-sumti, 153; lack of pro-bridi equivalent, 148; problems in written text, 147 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ti-series pro-sumti</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ri-series pro-sumti</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ lerfu as pro-sumti: contrasted with ko'a-series in explicit assignment of, 152; explicit assignment of antecedent, 152; implicit assignment of antecedent, 152 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>lerfu as pro-sumti</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ko'a-series pro-sumti</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-x1gh">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-x1gh">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e5d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section5-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska le gerku .i gy. cusku zo arf.</jbo>
<en>I see the dog. D expresses the-word
<quote>Arf!</quote>.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The Lojban word
<quote>gerku</quote> begins with
<quote>g</quote>, so the antecedent of
<quote>gy.</quote>, the cmavo for the letter
<quote>g</quote>, must be
<quote>le gerku</quote>. In the English translation, we use the same principle to refer to the dog as
<quote>D</quote>. Of course, in case of ambiguity,
<quote>goi</quote> can be used to make an explicit assignment.</para>
<para>Furthermore,
<quote>goi</quote> can even be used to assign a name:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-rbPr">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rbPr">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e5d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section5-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ninmu goi la sam. cu klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>The woman also-known-as Sam goes to-the store.</gloss>
<en>The woman, whom I'll call Sam, goes to the store.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -783,92 +783,92 @@
<quote>go'a</quote>, and
<!-- ^^ go'a, 154 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>go'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>go'u</quote>. These cmavo reveal the same vowel pattern as the ti-series, but the
<!-- ^^ go'u, 154 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>go'u</primary></indexterm>
<quote>distances</quote> referred to are not physical distances, but distances from the anaphoric cmavo to its antecedent.</para>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>ri</quote> is the simplest of these; it has the same referent as the last complete sumti appearing before the
<quote>ri</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-3som">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3som">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e6d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section6-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .alis. sipna le ri kumfa</jbo>
<gloss>Alice sleeps-in the of-[repeat last sumti] room.</gloss>
<en>Alice sleeps in her room.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The
<quote>ri</quote> in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section6-example1" /> is equivalent to repeating the last sumti, which is
<quote>la .alis.</quote>, so
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section6-example1" /> is equivalent to:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-bs5R">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-bs5R">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e6d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section6-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .alis. sipna le la .alis. kumfa</jbo>
<gloss>Alice sleeps-in the of-Alice room.</gloss>
<en>Alice sleeps in Alice's room.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that
<quote>ri</quote> does not repeat
<quote>le ri kumfa</quote>, because that sumti is not yet complete when
<quote>ri</quote> appears. This prevents
<quote>ri</quote> from getting entangled in paradoxes of self-reference. (There are plenty of other ways to do that!) Note also that sumti within other sumti, as in quotations, abstractions, and the like, are counted in the order of their beginnings; thus a lower level sumti like
<quote>la alis.</quote> in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section6-example2" /> is considered to be more recent than a higher level sumti that contains it.</para>
<para>Certain sumti are ignored by
<quote>ri</quote>; specifically, most of the other cmavo of KOhA, and the almost-grammatically-equivalent lerfu words of selma'o BY. It is simpler just to repeat these directly:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-CVmN">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-CVmN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e6d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section6-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi prami mi</jbo>
<gloss>I love me.</gloss>
<en>I love myself.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>However, the cmavo of the ti-series can be picked up by
<quote>ri</quote>, because you might have changed what you are pointing at, so repeating
<quote>ti</quote> may not be effective. Likewise,
<quote>ri</quote> itself (or rather its antecedent) can be repeated by a later
<quote>ri</quote>; in fact, a string of
<quote>ri</quote> cmavo with no other intervening sumti always all repeat the same sumti:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-eXsN">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-eXsN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e6d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section6-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. viska le tricu .i ri se jadni le ri jimca</jbo>
<gloss>John sees the tree. [repeat last] is-adorned-by the of-[repeat last] branch.</gloss>
<en>John sees the tree. It is adorned by its branches.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the second
<quote>ri</quote> has as antecedent the first
<quote>ri</quote>, which has as antecedent
<quote>le tricu</quote>. All three refer to the same thing: a tree.</para>
<para>To refer to the next-to-last sumti, the third-from-last sumti, and so on,
<quote>ri</quote> may be subscripted (subscripts are explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19" />):</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Lc2y">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Lc2y">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e6d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section6-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo smuci .i lo forca .i la rik. pilno rixire</jbo>
<gloss>.i la .alis. pilno riximu</gloss>
<gloss>A spoon. A fork. Rick uses [repeat next-to-last].</gloss>
<en>Alice uses [repeat fifth-from-last].</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -893,21 +893,21 @@
<quote>ra</quote> and
<quote>ru</quote> forces the listener to guess at the referent, but makes life easier for the speaker. Can
<quote>ra</quote> refer to the last sumti, like
<quote>ri</quote>? The answer is no if
<quote>ri</quote> has also been used. If
<quote>ri</quote> has not been used, then
<quote>ra</quote> might be the last sumti. Likewise, if
<quote>ra</quote> has been used, then any use of
<quote>ru</quote> would repeat a sumti earlier than the one
<quote>ra</quote> is repeating. A more reasonable version of Example 6.5, but one that depends more on context, is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-N89g">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-N89g">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e6d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section6-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo smuci .i lo forca .i la rik. pilno ra</jbo>
<gloss>.i la .alis. pilno ru</gloss>
<gloss>A spoon. A fork. Rick uses [some previous thing].</gloss>
<en>Alice uses [some more remote thing].</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -921,21 +921,21 @@
<quote>lo forca</quote>, and
<quote>lo smuci</quote> is the obvious candidate.</para>
<para>The meaning of
<quote>ri</quote> must be determined every time it is used. Since
<quote>ra</quote> and
<quote>ru</quote> are more vaguely defined, they may well retain the same meaning for a while, but the listener cannot count on this behavior. To make a permanent reference to something repeated by
<quote>ri</quote>,
<quote>ra</quote>, or
<quote>ru</quote>, use
<quote>goi</quote> and a ko'a-series cmavo:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-xIRG">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-xIRG">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e6d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section6-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .alis. klama le zarci .i ri goi ko'a blanu</jbo>
<en>Alice goes-to the store. It-last-mentioned also-known-as it-1 is-blue.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>allows the store to be referred to henceforth as
@@ -948,21 +948,21 @@
<quote>go'a</quote>, and
<!-- ^^ go'a, 154 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>go'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>go'u</quote> follow exactly the same rules as
<!-- ^^ go'u, 154 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>go'u</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ri</quote>,
<quote>ra</quote>, and
<quote>ru</quote>, except that they are pro-bridi, and therefore repeat bridi, not sumti - specifically, main sentence bridi. Any bridi that are embedded within other bridi, such as relative clauses or abstractions, are not counted. Like the cmavo of the broda-series, the cmavo of the go'i-series copy all sumti with them. This makes
<quote>go'i</quote> by itself convenient for answering a question affirmatively, or for repeating the last bridi, possibly with new sumti:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-54sP">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-54sP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e6d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section6-example8" />
<anchor xml:id="c7e6d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section6-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xu zo djan. cmene do .i go'i</jbo>
<gloss>[True-false?] The-word
<quote>John</quote> is-the-name of you? [repeat last bridi].</gloss>
@@ -980,21 +980,21 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>cei</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ri goi ko'a</quote> in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section6-example7" />.</para>
<para>The remaining four cmavo of the go'i-series are provided for convenience or for achieving special effects. The cmavo
<quote>go'e</quote> means the same as
<!-- ^^ go'e, 154 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>go'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>go'ixire</quote>: it repeats the last bridi but one. This is useful in conversation:</para>
<!-- ^^ go'ixire, 154 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>go'ixire</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-9hf5">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9hf5">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e6d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section6-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>A: mi ba klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>B: mi nelci le si'o mi go'i</gloss>
<gloss>A: do go'e</gloss>
<!-- ^^ go'e, 154 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>go'e</primary></indexterm>
@@ -1008,21 +1008,21 @@
</example>
<para>Here B's sentence repeats A's within an abstraction (explained in Chapter 11):
<quote>le si'o mi go'i</quote> means
<quote>le si'o mi klama le zarci</quote>. Why must B use the word
<quote>mi</quote> explicitly to replace the x1 of
<quote>mi klama le zarci</quote>, even though it looks like
<quote>mi</quote> is replacing
<quote>mi</quote>? Because B's
<quote>mi</quote> refers to B, whereas A's
<quote>mi</quote> refers to A. If B said:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-2uS7">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2uS7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e6d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section6-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci le si'o go'i</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>that would mean:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
@@ -1031,21 +1031,21 @@
<para>The repetition signalled by
<quote>go'i</quote> is not literally of words, but of concepts. Finally, A repeats her own sentence, but with the x1 changed to
<quote>do</quote>, meaning B. Note that in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section6-example10" />, the tense
<quote>ba</quote>(future time) is carried along by both
<quote>go'i</quote> and
<quote>go'e</quote>.</para>
<!-- ^^ go'e, 154 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>go'e</primary></indexterm>
<para>Descriptions based on go'i-series cmavo can be very useful for repeating specific sumti of previous bridi:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-hwau">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hwau">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e6d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section6-example12" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le xekri mlatu cu klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>.i le go'i cu cadzu le bisli</gloss>
<gloss>The black cat goes-to the store.</gloss>
<!-- ^^ black cat: example, 155 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>black cat</primary></indexterm>
@@ -1068,21 +1068,21 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>go'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>nei</quote>, and
<!-- ^^ nei, 155 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>nei</primary></indexterm>
<quote>no'a</quote> have been little used so far. They repeat respectively some future bridi, the current bridi, and the bridi that encloses the current bridi (
<!-- ^^ no'a, 155; contrasted with other members of go'i-series in possible referents, 155 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>no'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>no'a</quote>, unlike the other members of the go'i- series, can repeat non-sentence bridi). Here are a few examples:</para>
<!-- ^^ no'a, 155; contrasted with other members of go'i-series in possible referents, 155 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>no'a</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-EUmV">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-EUmV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e6d13" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section6-example13" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nupre le nu mi go'o</jbo>
<!-- ^^ go'o, 155 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>go'o</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>.i ba dunda le djini le bersa</gloss>
<gloss>.i ba dunda le zdani le tixnu</gloss>
@@ -1097,21 +1097,21 @@
<para>(Note: The Lojban does not contain an equivalent of the
<quote>my</quote> in the colloquial English; it leaves the fact that it is the speaker's son and daughter that are referred to implicit. To make the fact explicit, use
<quote>le bersa/tixnu be mi</quote>.)</para>
<para>For good examples of
<quote>nei</quote> and
<!-- ^^ nei, 155 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>nei</primary></indexterm>
<quote>no'a</quote>, we need nested bridi contexts:</para>
<!-- ^^ no'a, 155; contrasted with other members of go'i-series in possible referents, 155 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>no'a</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-SSVz">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-SSVz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e6d14" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section6-example14" />
<anchor xml:id="c7e6d15" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section6-example15" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi se pluka le nu do pensi</jbo>
<gloss>le nu nei kei pu le nu do zukte</gloss>
<!-- ^^ nei, 155 -->
@@ -1123,43 +1123,43 @@
<jbo>mi ba klama ca le nu do no'a</jbo>
<!-- ^^ no'a, 155; contrasted with other members of go'i-series in possible referents, 155 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>no'a</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I [future] go [present] the event-of you [repeats outer bridi]</gloss>
<en>I will go when you do.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Finally,
<quote>ra'o</quote> is a cmavo that can be appended to any go'i-series cmavo, or indeed any cmavo of selma'o GOhA, to signal that pro-sumti or pro-bridi cmavo in the antecedent are to be repeated literally and reinterpreted in their new context. Normally, any pro-sumti used within the antecedent of the pro-bridi keep their meanings intact. In the presence of
<quote>ra'o</quote>, however, their meanings must be reinterpreted with reference to the new environment. If someone says to you:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-9Uq6">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9Uq6">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e6d16" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section6-example16" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ba lumci lemi karce</jbo>
<en>I will wash my car.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>you might reply either:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-1fK3">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1fK3">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e6d17" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section6-example17" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi go'i</jbo>
<en>I will wash your car.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>or:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-qW1B">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-qW1B">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e6d18" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section6-example18" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi go'i ra'o</jbo>
<!-- ^^ go'i ra'o: contrasted with go'i, 156 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>go'i ra'o</primary></indexterm>
<en>I will wash my car.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1175,21 +1175,21 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>go'e</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section6-example10" />.</para>
<para>The anaphoric pro-sumti of this section can be used in quotations, but never refer to any of the supporting text outside the quotation, since speakers presumably do not know that they may be quoted by someone else.</para>
<!-- ^^ anaphoric pro-sumti: stability of, 162 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>anaphoric pro-sumti</primary></indexterm>
<para>However, a
<quote>ri</quote>-series or
<quote>go'a</quote>-series reference within a quotation can refer to something mentioned in an earlier quotation if the two quotations are closely related in time and context. This allows a quotation to be broken up by narrative material without interfering with the pro-sumti within it. Here's an example:</para>
<!-- ^^ go'a, 154 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>go'a</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-LWyE">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-LWyE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e6d19" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section6-example19" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. cusku lu mi klama le zarci li'u</jbo>
<gloss>.i la .alis. cusku lu mi go'i li'u</gloss>
<gloss>John says [quote] I go-to the store [unquote].</gloss>
<gloss>Alice says [quote] I [repeat] [unquote].</gloss>
<gloss>John says,
@@ -1242,21 +1242,21 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>elliptical sumti</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ ellipsis: quick-tour version, 14 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ellipsis</primary></indexterm>
<quote>whatever I want it to mean but haven't bothered to figure out, or figure out how to express</quote>.</para>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>zu'i</quote>, on the other hand, represents the typical value for this place of this bridi:</para>
<!-- ^^ zu'i, 157 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>zu'i</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ typical value: contrasted with elliptical value for sumti, 157; contrasted with mathematical average, 441 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>typical value</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-VScg">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-VScg">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e7d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section7-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le bartu be le zdani le nenri be le zdani</jbo>
<gloss>zu'i zu'i</gloss>
<!-- ^^ zu'i, 157 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>zu'i</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I go to-the outside of the house from-the inside of the house</gloss>
@@ -1287,52 +1287,52 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>irrelevant</primary></indexterm>
<quote>zbasu</quote> is</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
zbasu: actor x1 makes x2 from materials x3
</programlisting>
<para>Consider the sentence</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
Living things are made from cells.
</programlisting>
<para>This cannot be correctly expressed as:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ipCV">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ipCV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e7d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section7-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>loi jmive cu se zbasu [zo'e] fi loi selci</jbo>
<en>The-mass-of living-things is-made [by-something] from the-mass-of cells</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>because the
<quote>zo'e</quote>, expressed or understood, in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section7-example2" /> indicates that there is still a
<quote>maker</quote> in this relationship. We do not generally suppose, however, that someone
<quote>makes</quote> living things from cells. The best answer is probably to find a different selbri, one which does not imply a
<!-- ^^ living things: example, 157 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>living things</primary></indexterm>
<quote>maker</quote>: however, an alternative strategy is to use
<quote>zi'o</quote> to eliminate the maker place:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-xxm1">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-xxm1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e7d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section7-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>loi jmive cu se zbasu zi'o loi selci</jbo>
<en>The-mass-of living-things is-made [without-maker] from the-mass-of cells.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note: The use of
<quote>zi'o</quote> to block up, as it were, one place of a selbri actually creates a new selbri with a different place structure. Consider the following examples:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-FMq1">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-FMq1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e7d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section7-example4" />
<anchor xml:id="c7e7d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section7-example5" />
<anchor xml:id="c7e7d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section7-example6" />
<anchor xml:id="c7e7d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section7-example7" />
</title>
@@ -1357,21 +1357,21 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section7-example7" /> must be true also. However,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section7-example3" /> does not correspond to any sentence with three regular (non-
<quote>zi'o</quote>) sumti.</para>
<para>The pro-bridi
<quote>co'e</quote>(which by itself constitutes the co'e-series of selma'o GOhA) represents the elliptical selbri. Lojban grammar does not allow the speaker to merely omit a selbri from a bridi, although any or all sumti may be freely omitted. Being vague about a relationship requires the use of
<!-- ^^ co'e, 158, 164; as selbri place-holder, 158; rationale for word form, 158 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>co'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>co'e</quote> as a selbri place-holder:</para>
<!-- ^^ co'e, 158, 164; as selbri place-holder, 158; rationale for word form, 158 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>co'e</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-uy9R">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-uy9R">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e7d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section7-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi troci le nu mi co'e le vorme</jbo>
<!-- ^^ co'e, 158, 164; as selbri place-holder, 158; rationale for word form, 158 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>co'e</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I try the event-of my [doing-the-obvious-action] to-the door.</gloss>
<en>I try the door.</en>
@@ -1413,21 +1413,21 @@
<!-- ^^ reciprocity: expressing with soi, 159; expressing with vo'a-series pro-sumti and soi, 159; marking, 504 -->
<!-- ^^ vo'a-series pro-sumti: use in expressing reciprocity with soi, 159 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>vo'a-series pro-sumti</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>reciprocity</primary></indexterm>
se'u SEhU soi terminator
</programlisting>
<para>The cmavo of the vo'a-series are pro-sumti anaphora, like those of the ri-series, but have a specific function. These cmavo refer to the other places of the same bridi; the five of them represent up to five places. The same vo'a-series cmavo mean different things in different bridi. Some examples:</para>
<!-- ^^ anaphora: definition, 152; pro-bridi go'i-series as, 152; pro-sumti ri-series as, 152; pro-sumti vo'a-series as, 158 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>anaphora</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-0hwM">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-0hwM">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e8d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section8-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c7e8d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section8-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi lumci vo'a</jbo>
<en>I wash myself</en>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci vo'e</jbo>
@@ -1437,21 +1437,21 @@
<para>To refer to places of neighboring bridi, constructions like
<quote>le se go'i ku</quote> do the job: this refers to the 2nd place of the previous main bridi, as explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section6" />.</para>
<para>The cmavo of the vo'a-series are also used with
<quote>soi</quote>(of selma'o SOI) to precisely express reciprocity, which in English is imprecisely expressed with a discursive phrase like
<!-- ^^ reciprocity: expressing with soi, 159; expressing with vo'a-series pro-sumti and soi, 159; marking, 504 -->
<!-- ^^ vo'a-series pro-sumti: use in expressing reciprocity with soi, 159 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>vo'a-series pro-sumti</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>reciprocity</primary></indexterm>
<quote>vice versa</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-vpb3">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-vpb3">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e8d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section8-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi prami do soi vo'a vo'e</jbo>
<gloss>I love you [reciprocity] [x1 of this bridi] [x2 of this bridi].</gloss>
<!-- ^^ reciprocity: expressing with soi, 159; expressing with vo'a-series pro-sumti and soi, 159; marking, 504 -->
<!-- ^^ vo'a-series pro-sumti: use in expressing reciprocity with soi, 159 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>vo'a-series pro-sumti</primary></indexterm>
@@ -1460,58 +1460,58 @@
<quote>I</quote> and
<quote>you</quote>).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The significance of
<quote>soi vo'a vo'e</quote> is that the bridi is still true even if the x1 (specified by
<quote>vo'a</quote>) and the x2 (specified by
<quote>vo'e</quote>) places are interchanged. If only a single sumti follows
<quote>soi</quote>, then the sumti immediately preceding
<quote>soi</quote> is understood to be one of those involved:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-CMQ1">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-CMQ1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e8d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section8-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi prami do soi vo'a</jbo>
<en>I love you [reciprocity] [x1 of this bridi].</en>
<!-- ^^ reciprocity: expressing with soi, 159; expressing with vo'a-series pro-sumti and soi, 159; marking, 504 -->
<!-- ^^ vo'a-series pro-sumti: use in expressing reciprocity with soi, 159 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>vo'a-series pro-sumti</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>reciprocity</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>again involves the x1 and x2 places.</para>
<para>Of course, other places can be involved, and other sumti may be used in place of vo'a-series cmavo, provided those other sumti can be reasonably understood as referring to the same things mentioned in the bridi proper. Here are several examples that mean the same thing:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-rqNJ">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rqNJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e8d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section8-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi bajykla ti ta soi vo'e</jbo>
<gloss>mi bajykla ti ta soi vo'e vo'i</gloss>
<gloss>soi vo'e vo'i mi bajykla ti ta</gloss>
<en>I runningly-go to this from that and vice versa (to that from this).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The elidable terminator for
<quote>soi</quote> is
<quote>se'u</quote>(selma'o SEhU), which is normally needed only if there is just one sumti after the
<quote>soi</quote>, and the
<quote>soi</quote> construction is not at the end of the bridi. Constructions using
<quote>soi</quote> are free modifiers, and as such can go almost anywhere. Here is an example where
<!-- ^^ free modifiers: effects on elidability of terminators, 450 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>free modifiers</primary></indexterm>
<quote>se'u</quote> is required:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-RFBV">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-RFBV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e8d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section8-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi bajykla ti soi vo'i se'u ta</jbo>
<gloss>I runningly-go to-this [reciprocity] [x3 of this bridi] from-that</gloss>
<!-- ^^ reciprocity: expressing with soi, 159; expressing with vo'a-series pro-sumti and soi, 159; marking, 504 -->
<!-- ^^ vo'a-series pro-sumti: use in expressing reciprocity with soi, 159 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>vo'a-series pro-sumti</primary></indexterm>
@@ -1537,94 +1537,94 @@
<cmavo>mo</cmavo>
<selmaho>GOhA</selmaho>
<description>bridi question</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>Lojban questions are more fully explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19" />, but
<quote>ma</quote> and
<quote>mo</quote> are listed in this chapter for completeness. The cmavo
<quote>ma</quote> asks for a sumti to make the bridi true:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Csod">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Csod">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e9d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section9-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do klama ma</jbo>
<gloss>You go to-what-destination?</gloss>
<en>Where are you going?</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>mo</quote>, on the other hand, asks for a selbri which makes the question bridi true. If the answer is a full bridi, then the arguments of the answer override the arguments in the question, in the same manner as the go'i-series cmavo. A simple example is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Ih10">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Ih10">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e9d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section9-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do mo</jbo>
<gloss>What predicate is true as applied to you?</gloss>
<gloss>How are you?</gloss>
<gloss>What are you doing?</gloss>
<en>What are you?</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section9-example3" /> is a truly pregnant question that will have several meanings depending on context.</para>
<para>(One thing it probably does not mean is
<quote>Who are you?</quote> in the sense
<quote>What is your name/identity?</quote>, which is better expressed by:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-8HKo">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-8HKo">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e9d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section9-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ma cmene do</jbo>
<gloss>What sumti is-the-name-of you?</gloss>
<en>What is your name?</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>or even</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-y4Yi">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-y4Yi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e9d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section9-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>doi ma</jbo>
<en>O [what sumti?]</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which uses the vocative
<quote>doi</quote> to address someone, and simultaneously asks who the someone is.)</para>
<!-- ^^ and simultaneously: example, 364 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>and simultaneously</primary></indexterm>
<para>A further example of
<quote>mo</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-PP7r">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PP7r">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e9d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section9-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo mo prenu cu darxi do .i barda</jbo>
<gloss>A [what selbri?] type-of person hit you? (Observative:) A big thing.</gloss>
<en>Which person hit you? The big one.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>When
<quote>ma</quote> or
<quote>mo</quote> is repeated, multiple questions are being asked simultaneously:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-2KPQ">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2KPQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e9d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section9-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ma djuno ma</jbo>
<gloss>[What sumti] knows [what sumti]?</gloss>
<en>Who knows what?</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1637,37 +1637,37 @@
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ke'a</cmavo>
<selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
<description>relativized sumti</description>
<!-- ^^ relativized sumti: definition, 169; in relative clauses within relative clauses, 184 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>relativized sumti</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>This pro-sumti is used in relative clauses (explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8" />) to indicate how the sumti being relativized fits within the clause. For example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-UNBb">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-UNBb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e10d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section10-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi catlu lo mlatu poi [zo'e] zbasu</jbo>
<gloss>ke'a lei slasi</gloss>
<gloss>I see a cat such-that something-unspecified makes</gloss>
<gloss>the-thing-being-relativized [the cat] from-some-mass-of plastic.</gloss>
<en>I see a cat made of plastic.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>If
<quote>ke'a</quote> were omitted from
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section10-example1" />, it might be confused with:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-0EWp">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-0EWp">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e10d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section10-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi catlu lo mlatu poi [ke'a]</jbo>
<gloss>zbasu lei slasi</gloss>
<gloss>I see a cat such-that the-thing-being-relativized</gloss>
<gloss>[the cat] makes a-mass-of plastic</gloss>
<en>I see a cat that makes plastic.</en>
@@ -1705,36 +1705,36 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>abstraction bridi</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ka</quote>. Abstractions, including the uses of
<quote>ce'u</quote>, are discussed in full in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11" />.</para>
<para>In brief: Every property abstraction specifies a property of one of the sumti in it; that sumti place is filled by using
<!-- ^^ property abstraction, 259; use of multiple ce'u for relationship abstraction, 260 -->
<!-- ^^ relationship abstraction, 260 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>relationship abstraction</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>property abstraction</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ce'u</quote>. This convention enables us to distinguish clearly between:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ELxF">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ELxF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e11d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section11-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ka ce'u gleki</jbo>
<gloss>the property-of (X being-happy)</gloss>
<gloss>the property of being happy</gloss>
<en>happiness</en>
<!-- ^^ happiness: example, 161 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>happiness</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-VSw3">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-VSw3">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e11d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section11-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ka gleki ce'u</jbo>
<gloss>the property-of (being-happy about-X)</gloss>
<en>the property of being that which someone is happy about</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1752,21 +1752,21 @@
bu'e GOhA bu'a-series some-predicate-2
<!-- ^^ bu'e, 409 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>bu'e</primary></indexterm>
bu'i GOhA bu'a-series some-predicate-3
<!-- ^^ bu'i, 409 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>bu'i</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>Bound variables belong to the predicate-logic part of Lojban, and are listed here for completeness only. Their semantics is explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16" />. It is worth mentioning that the Lojban translation of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section1-example2" /> is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-6vxz">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-6vxz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e12d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section12-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. cu lafti da poi grana ku'o gi'e desygau da</jbo>
<gloss>John raised something-1 which is-a-stick and shake-did something-1.</gloss>
<en>John picked up a stick and shook it.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1827,32 +1827,32 @@
<para>The cmavo
<quote>du</quote> has the place structure:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
du: x1 is identical with x2, x3, ...
</programlisting>
<para>and appears in selma'o GOhA for reasons of convenience: it is not a pro-bridi.
<quote>du</quote> serves as mathematical
<quote>=</quote>, and outside mathematical contexts is used for defining or identifying. Mathematical examples may be found in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18" />.</para>
<para>The main difference between</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-GGoH">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-GGoH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e14d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section14-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ko'a du le nanmu</jbo>
<en>It-1 is-identical-to the man</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-prfu">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-prfu">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e14d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section14-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ko'a mintu le nanmu</jbo>
<!-- ^^ mintu: contrasted with du, 163 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>mintu</primary></indexterm>
<en>It-1 is-the-same-as the man</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1879,60 +1879,60 @@
<section xml:id="cll_chapter7-section15">
<title>lujvo based on pro-sumti</title>
<para>There exist rafsi allocated to a few cmavo of selma'o KOhA, but they are rarely used. (See
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section16" /> for a complete list.) The obvious way to use them is as internal sumti, filling in an appropriate place of the gismu or lujvo to which they are attached; as such, they usually stand as the first rafsi in their lujvo.</para>
<para>Thus
<quote>donta'a</quote>, meaning
<quote>you-talk</quote>, would be interpreted as
<!-- ^^ you-talk: example, 163 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>you-talk</primary></indexterm>
<quote>tavla be do</quote>, and would have the place structure</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-unmV">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-unmV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e15d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section15-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>t1 talks to you about subject t3 in language t4</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>since t2 (the addressee) is already known to be
<quote>do</quote>.</para>
<para>On the other hand, the lujvo
<quote>donma'o</quote>, literally
<quote>you-cmavo</quote>, which means
<!-- ^^ you-cmavo: example, 163 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>you-cmavo</primary></indexterm>
<quote>a second person personal pronoun</quote>, would be interpreted as
<quote>cmavo be zo do</quote>, and have the place structure:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-H5NB">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-H5NB">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e15d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section15-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>c1 is a second person pronoun in language c4</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>since both the c2 place (the grammatical class) and the c3 place (the meaning) are obvious from the context
<quote>do</quote>.</para>
<para>An anticipated use of rafsi for cmavo in the
<!-- ^^ anticipated: example, 316 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>anticipated</primary></indexterm>
<quote>fo'a</quote> series is to express lujvo which can't be expressed in a convenient rafsi form, because they are too long to express, or are formally inconvenient (fu'ivla, cmene, and so forth.) An example would be:</para>
<!-- ^^ too long: example, 233; Example, 230 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>too long</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ rafsi form: effect of choice on meaning of lujvo, 56 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>rafsi form</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ fo'a, 163 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>fo'a</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-tH6w">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-tH6w">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e15d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section15-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>fo'a goi le kulnrsu,omi .i lo fo'arselsanga</jbo>
<!-- ^^ fo'a, 163 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>fo'a</primary></indexterm>
<en>x6 stands for Finnish-culture. An x6-song.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
diff --git a/todocbook/8.xml b/todocbook/8.xml
index 4255072..1cdc443 100644
--- a/todocbook/8.xml
+++ b/todocbook/8.xml
@@ -23,21 +23,21 @@
<selmaho>KUhO</selmaho>
<description>relative clause terminator</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>Let us think about the problem of communicating what it is that we are pointing at when we are pointing at something. In Lojban, we can refer to what we are pointing at by using the pro-sumti
<quote>ti</quote> if it is nearby, or
<quote>ta</quote> if it is somewhat further away, or
<quote>tu</quote> if it is distant. (Pro-sumti are explained in full in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7" />.)</para>
<para>However, even with the assistance of a pointing finger, or pointing lips, or whatever may be appropriate in the local culture, it is often hard for a listener to tell just what is being pointed at. Suppose one is pointing at a person (in particular, in the direction of his or her face), and says:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-QzhK">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-QzhK">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e1d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section1-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti cu barda</jbo>
<en>This-one is-big.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>What is the referent of
@@ -52,21 +52,21 @@
<quote>ku'o</quote>(of selma'o KUhO). As you might suppose,
<quote>noi</quote> is a cmavo of selma'o NOI; however, first we will discuss the cmavo
<quote>poi</quote>, which also belongs to selma'o NOI.</para>
<para>In between the
<quote>poi</quote> and the
<quote>ku'o</quote> appears a full bridi, with the same syntax as any other bridi. Anywhere within the bridi of a relative clause, the pro-sumti
<quote>ke'a</quote>(of selma'o KOhA) may be used, and it stands for the sumti to which the relative clause is attached (called the
<quote>relativized sumti</quote>). Here are some examples before we go any further:</para>
<!-- ^^ relativized sumti: definition, 169; in relative clauses within relative clauses, 184 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>relativized sumti</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-K7cm">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-K7cm">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e1d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section1-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c8e1d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section1-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c8e1d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section1-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti poi ke'a prenu ku'o cu barda</jbo>
@@ -84,21 +84,21 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In the literal translations throughout this chapter, the word
<quote>IT</quote>, capitalized, is used to represent the cmavo
<quote>ke'a</quote>. In each case, it serves to represent the sumti (in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section1-example2" /> through
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section1-example4" />, the cmavo
<quote>ti</quote>) to which the relative clause is attached.</para>
<para>Of course, there is no reason why
<quote>ke'a</quote> needs to appear in the x1 place of a relative clause bridi; it can appear in any place, or indeed even in a sub-bridi within the relative clause bridi. Here are two more examples:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-2HcI">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2HcI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e1d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section1-example5" />
<anchor xml:id="c8e1d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section1-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>tu poi le mlatu pu lacpu ke'a ku'o cu ratcu</jbo>
<gloss>That-distant-thing such-that (the cat [past] drags IT) is-a-rat.</gloss>
<gloss>That thing which the cat dragged is a rat.</gloss>
@@ -107,79 +107,79 @@
<gloss>That-thing such-that( I desire the event-of( I own IT ) ) is-a-boat.</gloss>
<en>That thing that I want to own is a boat.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section1-example6" />,
<quote>ke'a</quote> appears in an abstraction clause (abstractions are explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11" />) within a relative clause.</para>
<para>Like any sumti,
<quote>ke'a</quote> can be omitted. The usual presumption in that case is that it then falls into the x1 place:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-sMHH">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sMHH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e1d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section1-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti poi nazbi cu barda</jbo>
<en>This-thing which is-a-nose is-big.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>almost certainly means the same thing as
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section1-example3" />. However,
<quote>ke'a</quote> can be omitted if it is clear to the listener that it belongs in some place other than x1:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-cUsJ">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-cUsJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e1d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section1-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>tu poi le mlatu pu lacpu cu ratcu</jbo>
<en>That-distant-thing which the cat [past] drags is-a-rat</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is equivalent to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section1-example4" />.</para>
<para>As stated before,
<quote>ku'o</quote> is an elidable terminator, and in fact it is almost always elidable. Throughout the rest of this chapter,
<quote>ku'o</quote> will not be written in any of the examples unless it is absolutely required: thus,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section1-example2" /> can be written:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-MtNs">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-MtNs">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e1d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section1-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti poi prenu cu barda</jbo>
<gloss>That which is-a-person is-big.</gloss>
<en>That person is big.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>without any change in meaning. Note that
<quote>poi</quote> is translated
<quote>which</quote> rather than
<quote>such-that</quote> when
<quote>ke'a</quote> has been omitted from the x1 place of the relative clause bridi. The word
<quote>which</quote> is used in English to introduce English relative clauses: other words that can be used are
<quote>who</quote> and
<quote>that</quote>, as in:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-j5ym">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-j5ym">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e1d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section1-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>I saw a man who was going to the store.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-J9yC">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-J9yC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e1d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section1-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>The building that the school was located in is large.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section1-example10" /> the relative clause is
@@ -207,21 +207,21 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>restrictive relative clauses</primary></indexterm>
<quote>poi</quote>, and incidental (sometimes called simply
<quote>non-restrictive</quote>) relative clauses introduced by
<quote>noi</quote>. The difference between restrictive and incidental relative clauses is that restrictive clauses provide information that is essential to identifying the referent of the sumti to which they are attached, whereas incidental relative clauses provide additional information which is helpful to the listener but is not essential for identifying the referent of the sumti. All of the examples in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section1" /> are restrictive relative clauses: the information in the relative clause is essential to identification. (The title of this chapter, though, uses an incidental relative clause.)</para>
<!-- ^^ restrictive relative clauses: non-veridical using voi, 177; veridical using poi, 177 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>restrictive relative clauses</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ incidental relative clause: as a parenthetical device, 171; definition, 171 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>incidental relative clause</primary></indexterm>
<para>Consider the following examples:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-IU0R">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-IU0R">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e2d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section2-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c8e2d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section2-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le gerku poi blanu cu barda</jbo>
<gloss>The dog which is-blue is-large.</gloss>
<en>The dog which is blue is large.</en>
@@ -241,69 +241,69 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>tone of voice</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ restrictive relative clauses: non-veridical using voi, 177; veridical using poi, 177 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>restrictive relative clauses</primary></indexterm>
<quote>that</quote> as well as
<quote>which</quote> and
<quote>who</quote>, whereas incidental relative clauses cannot begin with
<quote>that</quote>. Lojban, however, always uses the cmavo
<quote>poi</quote> and
<quote>noi</quote> rather than punctuation or intonation to make the distinction.</para>
<para>Here are more examples of incidental relative clauses:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-WxJo">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-WxJo">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e2d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section2-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi noi jdice cu zvati</jbo>
<gloss>I who-incidentally am-a-judge am-at [some-place].</gloss>
<en>I, a judge, am present.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In this example,
<quote>mi</quote> is already sufficiently restricted, and the additional information that I am a judge is being provided solely for the listener's edification.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-pR53">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pR53">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e2d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section2-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xu do viska le mi karce noi blabi</jbo>
<gloss>[True?] You see my car incidentally-which is-white.</gloss>
<en>Do you see my car, which is white?</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section2-example4" />, the speaker is presumed to have only one car, and is providing incidental information that it is white. (Alternatively, he or she might have more than one car, since
<quote>le karce</quote> can be plural, in which case the incidental information is that each of them is white.) Contrast
<!-- ^^ plural: Lojban contrasted with English in necessity of marking, 120; Lojban equivalent of, 443; meaning of le with, 123 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>plural</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section2-example5" /> with a restrictive relative clause:</para>
<!-- ^^ restrictive relative clause: definition, 171 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>restrictive relative clause</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-0qU1">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-0qU1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e2d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section2-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xu do viska le mi karce poi blabi</jbo>
<gloss>[True?] You see my car which is-white.</gloss>
<gloss>Do you see my car that is white?</gloss>
<en>Do you see my white car?</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the speaker probably has several cars, and is restricting the referent of the sumti
<quote>le mi karce</quote>(and thereby the listener's attention) to the white one only.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section2-example5" /> means much the same as
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section2-example6" />, which does not use a relative clause:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-zsQ6">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-zsQ6">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e2d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section2-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xu do viska le mi blabi karce</jbo>
<gloss>[True?] You see my white car.</gloss>
<en>Do you see my car, the white one?</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -365,41 +365,41 @@
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ge'u</cmavo>
<selmaho>GEhU</selmaho>
<description>relative phrase terminator</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>There are types of relative clauses (those which have a certain selbri) which are frequently wanted in Lojban, and can be expressed using a shortcut called a relative phrase. Relative phrases are introduced by cmavo of selma'o GOI, and consist of a GOI cmavo followed by a single sumti.</para>
<para>Here is an example of
<quote>pe</quote>, plus an equivalent sentence using a relative clause:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-SviE">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-SviE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e3d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section3-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c8e3d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section3-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le stizu pe mi cu blanu</jbo>
<gloss>The chair associated-with me is-blue.</gloss>
<en>My chair is blue.</en>
<jbo>le stizu poi ke'a srana mi cu blanu</jbo>
<en>The chair such-that( IT is-associated-with me) is-blue.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section3-example1" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section3-example2" />, the link between the chair and the speaker is of the loosest kind.</para>
<para>Here is an example of
<quote>po</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-C88S">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-C88S">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e3d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section3-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c8e3d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section3-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le stizu po mi cu xunre</jbo>
<en>The chair specific-to me is red.</en>
<jbo>le stizu poi ke'a se steci srana mi cu xunre</jbo>
@@ -419,21 +419,21 @@
<quote>po</quote> is usually called
<quote>possession</quote>, although it does not necessarily imply ownership, legal or otherwise. The central concept is that of specificity (
<!-- ^^ specificity: expressing with po, 173 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>specificity</primary></indexterm>
<quote>steci</quote> in Lojban).</para>
<para>Here is an example of
<quote>po'e</quote>, as well as another example of
<!-- ^^ po'e, 173; as intrinsic possession, 173; compared with poi ke'a jinzi ke se steci srana, 173; contrasted with po, 173 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>po'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>po</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-EARj">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-EARj">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e3d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section3-example5" />
<anchor xml:id="c8e3d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section3-example6" />
<anchor xml:id="c8e3d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section3-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le birka po'e mi cu spofu</jbo>
@@ -463,42 +463,42 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>intrinsic possession</primary></indexterm>
<para>By contrast, the bottle of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section3-example7" /> can be given away, or thrown away, or lost, or stolen, so it is possessed extrinsically (alienably). The exact line between intrinsic and extrinsic possession is culturally dependent. The U.S. Declaration of Independence speaks of the
<!-- ^^ extrinsic possession: definition, 173 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>extrinsic possession</primary></indexterm>
<quote>inalienable rights</quote> of men, but just what those rights are, and even whether the concept makes sense at all, varies from culture to culture.</para>
<!-- ^^ inalienable: distinguishing from alienable, 173 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>inalienable</primary></indexterm>
<para>Note that
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section3-example5" /> can also be expressed without a relative clause:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-bF0U">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-bF0U">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e3d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section3-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le birka be mi cu spofu</jbo>
<en>The arm of-body me is broken</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>reflecting the fact that the gismu
<quote>birka</quote> has an x2 place representing the body to which the arm belongs. Many, but not all, cases of intrinsic possession can be thus covered without using
<!-- ^^ intrinsic possession: definition, 173; expressing by using place in some selbri, 173; expressing with po'e, 173 -->
<!-- ^^ po'e, 173; as intrinsic possession, 173; compared with poi ke'a jinzi ke se steci srana, 173; contrasted with po, 173 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>po'e</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>intrinsic possession</primary></indexterm>
<quote>po'e</quote> by placing the possessor into the appropriate place of the description selbri.</para>
<!-- ^^ po'e, 173; as intrinsic possession, 173; compared with poi ke'a jinzi ke se steci srana, 173; contrasted with po, 173 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>po'e</primary></indexterm>
<para>Here is an example of
<quote>po'u</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-IK2W">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-IK2W">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e3d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section3-example9" />
<anchor xml:id="c8e3d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section3-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le gerku po'u le mi pendo cu cinba mi</jbo>
<en>The dog which-is my friend kisses me.</en>
<jbo>le gerku poi du le mi pendo cu cinba mi</jbo>
@@ -507,51 +507,51 @@
</example>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>po'u</quote> does not represent possession at all, but rather identity. (Note that it means
<quote>poi du</quote> and its form was chosen to suggest the relationship.)</para>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section3-example9" />, the use of
<quote>po'u</quote> tells us that
<quote>le gerku</quote> and
<quote>le mi pendo</quote> represent the same thing. Consider the contrast between
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section3-example9" /> and:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-wARJ">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-wARJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e3d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section3-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le mi pendo po'u le gerku cu cinba mi</jbo>
<en>My friend which-is the dog kisses me.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The facts of the case are the same, but the listener's knowledge about the situation may not be. In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section3-example9" />, the listener is presumed not to understand which dog is meant by
<quote>le gerku</quote>, so the speaker adds a relative phrase clarifying that it is the particular dog which is the speaker's friend.</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section3-example11" />, however, assumes that the listener does not know which of the speaker's friends is referred to, and specifies that it is the friend that is the dog (which dog is taken to be obvious). Here is another example of the same contrast:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-FvvG">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-FvvG">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e3d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section3-example12" />
<anchor xml:id="c8e3d13" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section3-example13" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le tcadu po'u la nu,iork</jbo>
<en>The city of New York [not another city]</en>
<jbo>la nu,iork po'u le tcadu</jbo>
<en>New York the city (not the state or some other New York)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The principle that the possessor and the possessed may change places applies to all the GOI cmavo, and allows for the possibility of odd effects:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Kf97">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Kf97">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e3d14" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section3-example14" />
<anchor xml:id="c8e3d15" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section3-example15" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le kabri pe le mi pendo cu cmalu</jbo>
<gloss>The cup associated-with my friend is small.</gloss>
<en>My friend's cup is small</en>
@@ -572,76 +572,76 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>cup's friend</primary></indexterm>
<para>Finally, the cmavo
<quote>ne</quote> and
<quote>no'u</quote> stand to
<!-- ^^ no'u, 174; compared with po'u, 174; contrasted with po'u, 175 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>no'u</primary></indexterm>
<quote>pe</quote> and
<quote>po'u</quote>, respectively, as
<quote>noi</quote> does to
<quote>poi</quote>- they provide incidental information:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Arj8">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Arj8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e3d16" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section3-example16" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le blabi gerku ne mi cu batci do</jbo>
<gloss>The white dog, incidentally-associated-with me, bites you.</gloss>
<en>The white dog, which is mine, bites you.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section3-example16" />, the white dog is already fully identified (after all, presumably the listener knows which dog bit him or her!). The fact that it is yours is merely incidental to the main bridi claim.</para>
<para>Distinguishing between
<quote>po'u</quote> and
<quote>no'u</quote> can be a little tricky. Consider a room with several men in it, one of whom is named Jim. If you don't know their names, I might say:</para>
<!-- ^^ no'u, 174; compared with po'u, 174; contrasted with po'u, 175 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>no'u</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-DSf4">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-DSf4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e3d17" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section3-example17" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu no'u la djim. cu terpemci</jbo>
<!-- ^^ no'u, 174; compared with po'u, 174; contrasted with po'u, 175 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>no'u</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>The man, incidentally-who-is Jim, is-a-poet.</gloss>
<en>The man, Jim, is a poet.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here I am saying that one of the men is a poet, and incidentally telling you that he is Jim. But if you do know the names, then</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-y8nH">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-y8nH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e3d18" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section3-example18" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu po'u la djim. cu terpemci</jbo>
<gloss>The man who-is Jim is-a-poet.</gloss>
<en>The man Jim is a poet.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is appropriate. Now I am using the fact that the man I am speaking of is Jim in order to pick out which man I mean.</para>
<para>It is worth mentioning that English sometimes over-specifies possession from the Lojban point of view (and the point of view of many other languages, including ones closely related to English). The idiomatic English sentence</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-GXyS">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-GXyS">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e3d19" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section3-example19" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>The man put his hands in his pockets.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>seems strange to a French- or German-speaking person: whose pockets would he put his hands into? and even odder, whose hands would he put into his pockets? In Lojban, the sentence</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-V4R1">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-V4R1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e3d20" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section3-example20" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu cu punji le xance le daski</jbo>
<en>The man puts the hand at-locus-the pocket.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is very natural. Of course, if the man is in fact putting his hands into another's pockets, or another's hands into his pockets, the fact can be specified.</para>
@@ -657,94 +657,94 @@
<quote>zi'e</quote></title>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>zi'e</cmavo>
<selmaho>ZIhE</selmaho>
<description>relative clause joiner</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>Sometimes it is necessary or useful to attach more than one relative clause to a sumti. This is made possible in Lojban by the cmavo
<quote>zi'e</quote>(of selma'o ZIhE), which is used to join one or more relative clauses together into a single unit, thus making them apply to the same sumti. For example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-HBMR">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-HBMR">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e4d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section4-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le gerku poi blabi zi'e poi batci le nanmu cu klama</jbo>
<en>The dog which is white and which bites the man goes.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The most usual translation of
<quote>zi'e</quote> in English is
<quote>and</quote>, but
<quote>zi'e</quote> is not really a logical connective: unlike most of the true logical connectives (which are explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14" />), it cannot be converted into a logical connection between sentences.</para>
<para>It is perfectly correct to use
<quote>zi'e</quote> to connect relative clauses of different kinds:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Vbm7">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Vbm7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e4d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section4-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le gerku poi blabi zi'e noi le mi pendo cu ponse ke'a cu klama</jbo>
<gloss>The dog that-is (white) and incidentally-such-that (my friend owns IT) goes.</gloss>
<en>The dog that is white, which my friend owns, is going.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section4-example2" />, the restrictive clause
<quote>poi blabi</quote> specifies which dog is referred to, but the incidental clause
<quote>noi le mi pendo cu ponse</quote> is mere incidental information: the listener is supposed to already have identified the dog from the
<quote>poi blabi</quote>. Of course, the meaning (though not necessarily the emphasis) is the same if the incidental clause appears first.</para>
<para>It is also possible to connect relative phrases with
<quote>zi'e</quote>, or a relative phrase with a relative clause:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-36tm">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-36tm">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e4d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section4-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le botpi po mi zi'e poi blanu cu spofu</jbo>
<gloss>The bottle specific-to me and which-is blue is-broken.</gloss>
<en>My blue bottle is broken.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that if the colloquial translation of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section4-example3" /> were
<quote>My bottle, which is blue, is broken</quote>, then
<quote>noi</quote> rather than
<quote>poi</quote> would have been correct in the Lojban version, since that version of the English implies that you do not need to know the bottle is blue. As written,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section4-example3" /> suggests that I probably have more than one bottle, and the one in question needs to be picked out as the blue one.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-FapT">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-FapT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e4d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section4-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ba zutse le stizu pe mi zi'e po do</jbo>
<gloss>zi'e poi xunre</gloss>
<gloss>I [future] sit-in the chair associated-with me and specific-to you</gloss>
<gloss>and which-is red.</gloss>
<en>I will sit in my chair (really yours), the red one.</en>
<!-- ^^ my chair: example, 176 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>my chair</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section4-example4" /> illustrates that more than two relative phrases or clauses can be connected with
<quote>zi'e</quote>. It almost defies colloquial translation because of the very un-English contrast between
<quote>pe mi</quote>, implying that the chair is temporarily connected with me, and
<quote>po do</quote>, implying that the chair has a more permanent association with you. (Perhaps I am a guest in your house, in which case the chair would naturally be your property.)</para>
<para>Here is another example, mixing a relative phrase and two relative clauses, a restrictive one and a non-restrictive one:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-erma">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-erma">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e4d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section4-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ba citka le dembi pe mi</jbo>
<gloss>zi'e poi cpana le mi palta</gloss>
<gloss>zi'e noi do dunda ke'a mi</gloss>
<gloss>I [future] eat the beans associated-with me</gloss>
<!-- ^^ beans: example, 176 -->
@@ -769,47 +769,47 @@
</cmavo-list>
<para>There is another member of selma'o NOI which serves to introduce a third kind of relative clause:
<quote>voi</quote>. Relative clauses introduced by
<quote>voi</quote> are restrictive, like those introduced by
<quote>poi</quote>. However, there is a fundamental difference between
<quote>poi</quote> and
<quote>voi</quote> relative clauses. A
<quote>poi</quote> relative clause is said to be veridical, in the same sense that a description using
<quote>lo</quote> or
<quote>loi</quote> is: it is essential to the interpretation that the bridi actually be true. For example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-pcvP">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pcvP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e5d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section5-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le gerku poi blabi cu klama</jbo>
<en>The dog which is-white goes.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>it must actually be true that the dog is white, or the sentence constitutes a miscommunication. If there is a white dog and a brown dog, and the speaker uses
<quote>le gerku poi blabi</quote> to refer to the brown dog, then the listener will not understand correctly. However,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-BDgn">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-BDgn">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e5d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section5-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le gerku voi blabi cu klama</jbo>
<en>The dog which-I-describe-as white goes.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>puts the listener on notice that the dog in question may not actually meet objective standards (whatever they are) for being white: only the speaker can say exactly what is meant by the term. In this way,
<quote>voi</quote> is like
<quote>le</quote>; the speaker's intention determines the meaning.</para>
<para>As a result, the following two sentences</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-BIxE">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-BIxE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e5d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section5-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c8e5d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section5-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu cu ninmu</jbo>
<gloss>That-which-I-describe-as a-man is-a-woman.</gloss>
<en>The
@@ -827,42 +827,42 @@
<title>Relative clauses and descriptors</title>
<para>So far, this chapter has described the various kinds of relative clauses (including relative phrases). The list is now complete, and the rest of the chapter will be concerned with the syntax of sumti that include relative clauses. So far, all relative clauses have appeared directly after the sumti to which they are attached. This is the most common position (and originally the only one), but a variety of other placements are also possible which produce a variety of semantic effects.</para>
<para>There are actually three places where a relative clause can be attached to a description sumti: after the descriptor (
<quote>le</quote>,
<quote>lo</quote>, or whatever), after the embedded selbri but before the elidable terminator (which is
<quote>ku</quote>), and after the
<quote>ku</quote>. The relative clauses attached to descriptors that we have seen have occupied the second position. Thus
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section5-example1" />, if written out with all elidable terminators, would appear as:</para>
<!-- ^^ elidable terminators: list, 486 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>elidable terminators</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-UmLX">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-UmLX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e6d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section6-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le gerku poi blabi ku'o ku cu klama vau</jbo>
<gloss>The (dog which (is-white) ) goes.</gloss>
<en>The dog which is white is going.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here
<quote>ku'o</quote> is the terminator paired with
<quote>poi</quote> and
<quote>ku</quote> with
<quote>le</quote>, and
<quote>vau</quote> is the terminator of the whole bridi.</para>
<para>When a simple descriptor using
<quote>le</quote>, like
<quote>le gerku</quote>, has a relative clause attached, it is purely a matter of style and emphasis where the relative clause should go. Therefore, the following examples are all equivalent in meaning to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section6-example1" />:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-GJ0x">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-GJ0x">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e6d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section6-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c8e6d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section6-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le poi blabi ku'o gerku cu klama</jbo>
<en>The such-that (it-is-white) dog goes.</en>
<jbo>le gerku ku poi blabi cu klama</jbo>
@@ -874,40 +874,40 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section6-example2" />, on the other hand, may seem more natural to Finnish or Chinese speakers, who put the relative clause first. Note that in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section6-example2" />, the elidable terminator
<quote>ku'o</quote> must appear, or the selbri of the relative clause (
<quote>blabi</quote>) will merge with the selbri of the description (
<quote>gerku</quote>), resulting in an ungrammatical sentence. The purpose of the form appearing in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section6-example3" /> will be apparent shortly.</para>
<para>As is explained in detail in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6" />, two different numbers (known as the
<quote>inner quantifier</quote> and the
<quote>outer quantifier</quote>) can be attached to a description. The inner quantifier specifies how many things the descriptor refers to: it appears between the descriptor and the description selbri. The outer quantifier appears before the descriptor, and specifies how many of the things referred to by the descriptor are involved in this particular bridi. In the following example,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-3nJN">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3nJN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e6d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section6-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>re le mu prenu cu klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>Two-of the five persons go to-the market.</gloss>
<en>Two of the five people [that I have in mind] are going to the market.</en>
<!-- ^^ five people: example, 178 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>five people</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<quote>mu</quote> is the inner quantifier and
<quote>re</quote> is the outer quantifier. Now what is meant by attaching a relative clause to the sumti
<quote>re le mu prenu</quote>? Suppose the relative clause is
<quote>poi ninmu</quote>(meaning
<quote>who are women</quote>). Now the three possible attachment points discussed previously take on significance.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-c58E">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-c58E">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e6d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section6-example5" />
<anchor xml:id="c8e6d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section6-example6" />
<anchor xml:id="c8e6d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section6-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>re le poi ninmu ku'o mu prenu cu klama le zarci</jbo>
@@ -937,21 +937,21 @@
<quote>ku'o</quote> instead. Note that the relative clause comes before the inner quantifier.</para>
<para>When
<quote>le</quote> is the descriptor being used, and the sumti has no explicit outer quantifier, then the outer quantifier is understood to be
<quote>ro</quote>(meaning
<quote>all</quote>), as is explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6" />. Thus
<quote>le gerku</quote> is taken to mean
<quote>all of the things I refer to as dogs</quote>, possibly all one of them. In that case, there is no difference between a relative clause after the
<quote>ku</quote> or before it. However, if the descriptor is
<quote>lo</quote>, the difference is quite important:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-zCxK">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-zCxK">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e6d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section6-example8" />
<anchor xml:id="c8e6d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section6-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo prenu ku noi blabi cu klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>(Some persons) incidentally-which are-white go to-the market.</gloss>
<en>Some people, who are white, go to the market.</en>
@@ -977,34 +977,34 @@
<!-- ^^ all persons: example, 398 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>all persons</primary></indexterm>
<para>The safe strategy, therefore, is to always use
<quote>ku</quote> when attaching a
<quote>noi</quote> relative clause to a
<quote>lo</quote> descriptor. Otherwise we may end up claiming far too much.</para>
<para>When the descriptor is
<quote>la</quote>, indicating that what follows is a selbri used for naming, then the positioning of relative clauses has a different significance. A relative clause inside the
<quote>ku</quote>, whether before or after the selbri, is reckoned part of the name; a relative clause outside the
<quote>ku</quote> is not. Therefore,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-JYj4">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-JYj4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e6d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section6-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska la nanmu poi terpa le ke'a xirma [ku]</jbo>
<gloss>I see that-named (
<quote>man which fears the of-IT horse</quote>).</gloss>
<en>I see Man Afraid Of His Horse.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>says that the speaker sees a person with a particular name, who does not necessarily fear any horses, whereas</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-9GWR">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9GWR">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e6d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section6-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska la nanmu ku poi terpa le ke'a xirma.</jbo>
<gloss>I see that-named(
<quote>Man</quote>) which fears the of-IT horse.</gloss>
<en>I see the person named
<quote>Man</quote> who is afraid of his horse.</en>
@@ -1014,21 +1014,21 @@
<quote>Man</quote>, namely the one(s) who are afraid of their horses.</para>
<para>Finally, so-called indefinite sumti like
<!-- ^^ indefinite sumti: as implicit quantification, 406; compared to sumti with lo, 399; meaning when multiple in sentence, 398; multiple in sentence, 398 -->
<!-- ^^ sumti with lo: compared to indefinite sumti, 399 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>sumti with lo</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>indefinite sumti</primary></indexterm>
<quote>re karce</quote>, which means almost the same as
<quote>re lo karce</quote>(which in turn means the same as
<quote>re lo ro karce</quote>), can have relative clauses attached; these are taken to be of the outside-the-
<quote>ku</quote> variety. Here is an example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-J11I">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-J11I">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e6d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section6-example12" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ponse re karce [ku] poi xekri</jbo>
<en>I possess two cars which-are black.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The restrictive relative clause only affects the two cars being affected by the main bridi, not all cars that exist. It is ungrammatical to try to place a relative clause within an indefinite sumti (that is, before an explicitly expressed terminating
@@ -1042,43 +1042,43 @@
<quote>lo</quote> instead.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter8-section7">
<title>Possessive sumti</title>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section2-example4" /> through
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section2-example6" />, the sumti
<quote>le mi karce</quote> appears, glossed as
<quote>my car</quote>. Although it might not seem so, this sumti actually contains a relative phrase. When a sumti appears between a descriptor and its description selbri, it is actually a
<quote>pe</quote> relative phrase. So</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-pALv">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pALv">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e7d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section7-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le mi karce cu xunre</jbo>
<en>My car is-red.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-1ng6">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1ng6">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e7d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section7-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le pe mi karce cu xunre</jbo>
<en>The (associated-with me) car is-red.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>mean exactly the same thing. Furthermore, since there are no special considerations of quantifiers here,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-BCqF">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-BCqF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e7d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section7-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le karce pe mi cu xunre</jbo>
<en>The car associated-with me is-red.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means the same thing as well. A sumti like the one in
@@ -1104,66 +1104,66 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>possessive sumti</primary></indexterm>
<para>Although any sumti, however complex, can appear in a full-fledged relative phrase, only simple sumti can appear as possessor sumti, without a
<!-- ^^ simple sumti, 119 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>simple sumti</primary></indexterm>
<quote>pe</quote>. Roughly speaking, the legal possessor sumti are: pro-sumti, quotations, names and descriptions, and numbers. In addition, the possessor sumti may not be preceded by a quantifier, as such a form would be interpreted as the unusual
<quote>descriptor + quantifier + sumti</quote> type of description. All these sumti forms are explained in full in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6" />.</para>
<para>Here is an example of a description used in a possessive sumti:</para>
<!-- ^^ possessive sumti: compared with relative phrase, 180; contrasted with relative phrases in complexity allowed, 180; definition, 180; effect on elidability of ku, 181; relative clauses on, 181; syntax allowed, 180; with relative clauses on possessive sumti, 181 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>possessive sumti</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-rBmw">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rBmw">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e7d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section7-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le le nanmu ku karce cu blanu</jbo>
<gloss>The (associated-with-the man) car is blue.</gloss>
<en>The man's car is blue.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note the explicit
<quote>ku</quote> at the end of the possessor sumti, which prevents the selbri of the possessor sumti from merging with the selbri of the main description sumti. Because of the need for this
<quote>ku</quote>, the most common kind of possessor sumti are pro-sumti, especially personal pro-sumti, which require no elidable terminator. Descriptions are more likely to be attached with relative phrases.</para>
<!-- ^^ personal pro-sumti, 139; implicit cancellation of by change of speaker/listener, 162; implicit quantifier for, 128, 139; stability of, 162 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>personal pro-sumti</primary></indexterm>
<para>And here is a number used as a possessor sumti:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-pYfN">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pYfN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e7d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section7-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le li mu jdice se bende</jbo>
<gloss>The of-the-number-five judging team-member</gloss>
<en>Juror number 5</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which is not quite the same as
<quote>the fifth juror</quote>; it simply indicates a weak association between the particular juror and the number 5.</para>
<para>A possessive sumti may also have regular relative clauses attached to it. This would need no comment if it were not for the following special rule: a relative clause immediately following the possessor sumti is understood to affect the possessor sumti, not the possessive. For example:</para>
<!-- ^^ possessive sumti: compared with relative phrase, 180; contrasted with relative phrases in complexity allowed, 180; definition, 180; effect on elidability of ku, 181; relative clauses on, 181; syntax allowed, 180; with relative clauses on possessive sumti, 181 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>possessive sumti</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-cVjs">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-cVjs">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e7d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section7-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le mi noi sipna vau karce cu na klama</jbo>
<en>The of-me incidentally-which-(is-sleeping) car isn't going.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means that my car isn't going; the incidental claim of
<quote>noi sipna</quote> applies to me, not my car, however. If I wanted to say that the car is sleeping (whatever that might mean) I would need:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-iP4q">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-iP4q">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e7d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section7-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le mi karce poi sipna cu na klama</jbo>
<en>The of-me car which sleeps isn't going.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that
@@ -1181,58 +1181,58 @@
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>vu'o</cmavo>
<selmaho>VUhO</selmaho>
<description>relative clause attacher</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>Normally, relative clauses attach only to simple sumti or parts of sumti: pro-sumti, names and descriptions, pure numbers, and quotations. An example of a relative clause attached to a pure number is:</para>
<!-- ^^ simple sumti, 119 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>simple sumti</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-sfHA">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sfHA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e8d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section8-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li pai noi na'e frinu namcu</jbo>
<gloss>The-number pi, incidentally-which is-a-non- fraction number</gloss>
<en>The irrational number pi</en>
<!-- ^^ irrational number: example, 181 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>irrational number</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>And here is an incidental relative clause attached to a quotation:</para>
<!-- ^^ incidental relative clause: as a parenthetical device, 171; definition, 171 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>incidental relative clause</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-WuBh">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-WuBh">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e8d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section8-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lu mi klama le zarci li'u</jbo>
<gloss>noi mi cusku ke'a cu jufra</gloss>
<gloss>[quote] I go to-the market [unquote]</gloss>
<gloss>incidentally-which-(I express IT) is-a-sentence.</gloss>
<en>
<quote>I'm going to the market</quote>, which I'd said, is a sentence.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which may serve to identify the author of the quotation or some other relevant, but subsidiary, fact about it. All such relative clauses appear only after the simple sumti, never before it.</para>
<!-- ^^ simple sumti, 119 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>simple sumti</primary></indexterm>
<para>In addition, sumti with attached sumti qualifiers of selma'o LAhE or NAhE+BO (which are explained in detail in
<!-- ^^ NAhE+BO: terminator for, 499 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>NAhE+BO</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6" />) can have a relative clause appearing after the qualifier and before the qualified sumti, as in:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-4sqi">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4sqi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e8d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section8-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la'e poi tolcitno vau lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u</jbo>
<gloss>cu zvati le vu kumfa</gloss>
<gloss>A-referent-of (which is-old) [quote] The Red Small-horse [unquote]</gloss>
<gloss>is-at the [far distance] room.</gloss>
<en>An old
@@ -1249,21 +1249,21 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Red Pony</primary></indexterm>
<quote>la'e</quote> at the beginning of the sentence were omitted,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section8-example3" /> would claim that a certain string of words is in a room distant from the speaker. But obviously a string of words can't be in a room! The effect of the
<quote>la'e</quote> is to modify the sumti so that it refers not to the words themselves, but to the referent of those words, a novel by John Steinbeck (presumably in Lojban translation). The particular copy of
<quote>The Red Pony</quote> is identified by the restrictive relative clause.
<!-- ^^ restrictive relative clause: definition, 171 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>restrictive relative clause</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ Red Pony: example, 133, 182 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Red Pony</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section8-example3" /> means exactly the same as:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-yX24">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-yX24">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e8d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section8-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la'e lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u lu'u</jbo>
<!-- ^^ lu'u, 133, 267; as elidable terminator for qualified sumti, 133 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>lu'u</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ la'e lu: compared with me'o, 422 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>la'e lu</primary></indexterm>
@@ -1273,42 +1273,42 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and the two sentences can be considered stylistic variants. Note the required
<quote>lu'u</quote> terminator, which prevents the relative clause from attaching to the quotation itself: we do not wish to refer to an old quotation!</para>
<!-- ^^ lu'u, 133, 267; as elidable terminator for qualified sumti, 133 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>lu'u</primary></indexterm>
<para>Sometimes, however, it is important to make a relative clause apply to the whole of a more complex sumti, one which involves logical or non-logical connection (explained in
<!-- ^^ non-logical connection: and elidability of terminators, 354; in mathematical expressions, 361; in tanru, distinguishing from connection of sumti, 354; of individuals into mass, 355; of individuals into set, 355; of modals, 208; of operands, 455; of operators, 455; of sumti, distinguishing from connection in tanru, 354; of termsets, 357 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>non-logical connection</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14" />). For example,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-EYgE">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-EYgE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e8d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section8-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la frank. .e la djordj. noi nanmu cu klama le zdani</jbo>
<gloss>Frank and George incidentally-who is-a-man go to-the house.</gloss>
<en>Frank and George, who is a man, go to the house.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The incidental claim in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section8-example5" /> is not that Frank and George are men, but only that George is a man, because the incidental relative clause attaches only to
<!-- ^^ incidental relative clause: as a parenthetical device, 171; definition, 171 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>incidental relative clause</primary></indexterm>
<quote>la djordj</quote>, the immediately preceding simple sumti.</para>
<!-- ^^ simple sumti, 119 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>simple sumti</primary></indexterm>
<para>To make a relative clause attach to both parts of the logically connected sumti in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section8-example5" />, a new cmavo is needed,
<quote>vu'o</quote>(of selma'o VUhO). It is placed between the sumti and the relative clause, and extends the sphere of influence of that relative clause to the entire preceding sumti, including however many logical or non-logical connectives there may be.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-9XPz">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9XPz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e8d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section8-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la frank. .e la djordj. vu'o noi nanmu cu klama le zdani</jbo>
<gloss>Frank and George incidentally-who are-men go to-the house.</gloss>
<en>Frank and George, who are men, go to the house.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1325,21 +1325,21 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>verbs</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ plural: Lojban contrasted with English in necessity of marking, 120; Lojban equivalent of, 443; meaning of le with, 123 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>plural</primary></indexterm>
<quote>nanmu</quote> can mean
<quote>is a man</quote> or
<quote>are men</quote>, so another means is required. Furthermore, Lojban's mechanism works correctly in general: if
<quote>nanmu</quote>(meaning
<quote>is-a-man</quote>) were replaced with
<quote>pu bajra</quote>(
<quote>ran</quote>), English would have to make the distinction some other way:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-BSqz">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-BSqz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e8d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section8-example7" />
<anchor xml:id="c8e8d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section8-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la frank. .e la djordj. noi pu bajra cu klama le zdani</jbo>
<gloss>Frank and (George who [past] runs) go to-the house.</gloss>
<en>Frank and George, who ran, go to the house.</en>
@@ -1350,21 +1350,21 @@
</example>
<para>In spoken English, tone of voice would serve; in written English, one or both sentences would need rewriting.</para>
<!-- ^^ tone of voice, 297 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>tone of voice</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter8-section9">
<title>Relative clauses in vocative phrases</title>
<para>Vocative phrases are explained in more detail in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6" />. Briefly, they are a method of indicating who a sentence or discourse is addressed to: of identifying the intended listener. They take three general forms, all beginning with cmavo from selma'o COI or DOI (called
<quote>vocative words</quote>; there can be one or many), followed by either a name, a selbri, or a sumti. Here are three examples:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-4KpX">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4KpX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e9d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section9-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c8e9d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section9-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c8e9d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section9-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>coi. frank.</jbo>
@@ -1379,54 +1379,54 @@
</example>
<para>Note that
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section9-example2" /> says farewell to something which doesn't really have to be a horse, something that the speaker simply thinks of as being a horse, or even might be something (a person, for example) who is named
<quote>Horse</quote>. In a sense,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section9-example2" /> is ambiguous between
<quote>co'o le xirma</quote> and
<quote>co'o la xirma</quote>, a relatively safe semantic ambiguity, since names are ambiguous in general: saying
<quote>George</quote> doesn't distinguish between the possible Georges.</para>
<para>Similarly,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section9-example1" /> can be thought of as an abbreviation of:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-oWPU">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-oWPU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e9d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section9-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>coi la frank.</jbo>
<en>Hello, the-one-named
<quote>Frank</quote>.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Syntactically, vocative phrases are a kind of free modifier, and can appear in many places in Lojban text, generally at the beginning or end of some complete construct; or, as in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section9-example1" /> to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section9-example3" />, as sentences by themselves.</para>
<para>As can be seen, the form of vocative phrases is similar to that of sumti, and as you might expect, vocative phrases allow relative clauses in various places. In vocative phrases which are simple names (after the vocative words), any relative clauses must come just after the names:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-xECX">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-xECX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e9d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section9-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>coi. frank. poi xunre se bende</jbo>
<gloss>Hello, Frank who is-a-red team-member</gloss>
<en>Hello, Frank from the Red Team!</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The restrictive relative clause in
<!-- ^^ restrictive relative clause: definition, 171 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>restrictive relative clause</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section9-example5" /> suggests that there is some other Frank (perhaps on the Green Team) from whom this Frank, the one the speaker is greeting, must be distinguished.</para>
<para>A vocative phrase containing a selbri can have relative clauses either before or after the selbri; both forms have the same meaning. Here are some examples:</para>
<!-- ^^ vocative phrase: as a free modifier, 135; effect of position on meaning, 137; elidable terminator for, 137; explicit quantifiers prohibited on, 136; forms of, 136; implicit descriptor on, 136; implicit quantifiers on, 136; purpose of, 136; relative clauses on, 184; with complete sumti, 136; with sumti without descriptor, 136 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>vocative phrase</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Aa7B">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Aa7B">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e9d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section9-example6" />
<anchor xml:id="c8e9d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section9-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>co'o poi mi zvati ke'a ku'o xirma</jbo>
<gloss>Goodbye, such-that-(I am-at IT) horse</gloss>
<en>Goodbye, horse where I am!</en>
@@ -1434,34 +1434,34 @@
<en>Goodbye, horse such-that-(I am-at-it).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section9-example6" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section9-example7" /> mean the same thing. In fact, relative clauses can appear in both places.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter8-section10">
<title>Relative clauses within relative clauses</title>
<para>For the most part, these are straightforward and uncomplicated: a sumti that is part of a relative clause bridi may itself be modified by a relative clause:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-TGiu">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-TGiu">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e10d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section10-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le prenu poi zvati le kumfa poi blanu cu masno</jbo>
<en>The person who is-in the room which is-blue is-slow.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>However, an ambiguity can exist if
<quote>ke'a</quote> is used in a relative clause within a relative clause: does it refer to the outermost sumti, or to the sumti within the outer relative clause to which the inner relative clause is attached? The latter. To refer to the former, use a subscript on
<quote>ke'a</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-8RdM">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-8RdM">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e10d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section10-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le prenu poi zvati le kumfa poi ke'axire zbasu ke'a cu masno</jbo>
<gloss>The person who is-in the room which IT-sub-2 built IT is-slow.</gloss>
<en>The person who is in the room which he built is slow.</en>
<!-- ^^ room which he built: example, 184 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>room which he built</primary></indexterm>
@@ -1469,21 +1469,21 @@
</example>
<para>Here, the meaning of
<quote>IT-sub-2</quote> is that sumti attached to the second relative clause, counting from the innermost, is used. Therefore,
<quote>ke'axipa</quote>(IT-sub-1) means the same as plain
<!-- ^^ ke'axipa, 184 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ke'axipa</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ke'a</quote>.</para>
<para>Alternatively, you can use a prenex (explained in full in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16" />), which is syntactically a series of sumti followed by the special cmavo
<quote>zo'u</quote>, prefixed to the relative clause bridi:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-5TuF">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-5TuF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e10d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section10-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le prenu poi ke'a goi ko'a zo'u ko'a zvati le kumfa</jbo>
<gloss>poi ke'a goi ko'e zo'u ko'a zbasu ke'a cu masno</gloss>
<gloss>The man who (IT = it1 : it1 is-in the room</gloss>
<en>which (IT = it2 : it1 built it2) is-slow.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
diff --git a/todocbook/9.xml b/todocbook/9.xml
index 4bed1a4..89f618e 100644
--- a/todocbook/9.xml
+++ b/todocbook/9.xml
@@ -28,21 +28,21 @@
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>cu</cmavo>
<selmaho>CU</selmaho>
<description>prefixed selbri separator</description>
<!-- ^^ selbri separator, 492 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>selbri separator</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>The most usual way of constructing a bridi from a selbri such as
<quote>klama</quote> and an appropriate number of sumti is to place the sumti intended for the x1 place before the selbri, and all the other sumti in order after the selbri, thus:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Ji94">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Ji94">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e2d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section2-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cu klama la bastn. la .atlantas. le dargu le karce</jbo>
<en>I go to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the road using-the car.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the sumti are assigned to the places as follows:</para>
@@ -54,53 +54,53 @@
x5 means le karce
</programlisting>
<para>(Note: Many of the examples in the rest of this chapter will turn out to have the same meaning as
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section2-example1" />; this fact will not be reiterated.)</para>
<para>This ordering, with the x1 place before the selbri and all other places in natural order after the selbri, is called
<quote>standard bridi form</quote>, and is found in the bulk of Lojban bridi, whether used in main sentences or in subordinate clauses. However, many other forms are possible, such as:</para>
<!-- ^^ subordinate clauses: tense usage rules in English, 237 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>subordinate clauses</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ standard bridi form: definition, 188 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>standard bridi form</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-yLqT">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-yLqT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e2d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section2-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi la bastn. la .atlantas. le dargu le karce cu klama</jbo>
<en>I, to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the road using-the car, go.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the selbri is at the end; all the sumti are placed before it. However, the same order is maintained.</para>
<para>Similarly, we may split up the sumti, putting some before the selbri and others after it:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-vzNY">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-vzNY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e2d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section2-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi la bastn. cu klama la .atlantas. le dargu le karce</jbo>
<en>I to-Boston go from-Atlanta via-the road using-the car.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>All of the variant forms in this section and following sections can be used to place emphasis on the part or parts which have been moved out of their standard places. Thus,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section2-example2" /> places emphasis on the selbri (because it is at the end);
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section2-example3" /> emphasizes
<quote>la bastn.</quote>, because it has been moved before the selbri. Moving more than one component may dilute this emphasis. It is permitted, but no stylistic significance has yet been established for drastic reordering.</para>
<para>In all these examples, the cmavo
<quote>cu</quote>(belonging to selma'o CU) is used to separate the selbri from any preceding sumti. It is never absolutely necessary to use
<quote>cu</quote>. However, providing it helps the reader or listener to locate the selbri quickly, and may make it possible to place a complex sumti just before the selbri, allowing the speaker to omit elidable terminators, possibly a whole stream of them, that would otherwise be necessary.</para>
<!-- ^^ elidable terminators: list, 486 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>elidable terminators</primary></indexterm>
<para>The general rule, then, is that the selbri may occur anywhere in the bridi as long as the sumti maintain their order. The only exception (and it is an important one) is that if the selbri appears first, the x1 sumti is taken to have been omitted:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-aQtM">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-aQtM">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e2d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section2-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>klama la bastn. la .atlantas. le dargu le karce</jbo>
<gloss>A-goer to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the road using-the car.</gloss>
<gloss>Goes to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the road using-the car.</gloss>
<en>Look: a goer to Boston from Atlanta via the road using the car!</en>
<!-- ^^ Boston from Atlanta: example, 187 -->
@@ -115,56 +115,56 @@
<quote>Go</quote> at the beginning of an English sentence would suggest a command:
<quote>Go to Boston!</quote>.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section2-example4" /> is not a command, simply a normal statement with the x1 place unspecified, causing the emphasis to fall on the selbri
<quote>klama</quote>. Such a bridi, with empty x1, is called an
<quote>observative</quote>, because it usually calls on the listener to observe something in the environment which would belong in the x1 place. The third translation above shows this observative nature. Sometimes it is the relationship itself which the listener is asked to observe.</para>
<!-- ^^ observative: contrasted with observation evidential, 316; definition, 188 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>observative</primary></indexterm>
<para>(There is a way to both provide a sumti for the x1 place and put the selbri first in the bridi: see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section3-example7" />.)</para>
<para>Suppose the speaker desires to omit a place other than the x1 place? (Presumably it is obvious or, for one reason or another, not worth saying.) Places at the end may simply be dropped:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-5Eqa">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-5Eqa">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e2d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section2-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama la bastn. la .atlantas.</jbo>
<en>I go to-Boston from-Atlanta (via an unspecified route, using an unspecified means).</en>
<!-- ^^ unspecified route: example, 189 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>unspecified route</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section2-example5" /> has empty x4 and x5 places: the speaker does not specify the route or the means of transport. However, simple omission will not work for a place when the places around it are to be specified: in</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-jh7T">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-jh7T">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e2d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section2-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama la bastn. la .atlantas. le karce</jbo>
<en>I go to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the car.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<quote>le karce</quote> occupies the x4 place, and therefore
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section2-example6" /> means:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
I go to Boston from Atlanta, using the car as a route.
<!-- ^^ go to Boston from Atlanta: example, 187 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>go to Boston from Atlanta</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ Boston from Atlanta: example, 187 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Boston from Atlanta</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>This is nonsense, since a car cannot be a route. What the speaker presumably meant is expressed by:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-tqoQ">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-tqoQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e2d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section2-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama la bastn. la .atlantas. zo'e le karce</jbo>
<en>I go to-Boston from-Atlanta via-something-unspecified using-the car.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the sumti cmavo
@@ -209,21 +209,21 @@
<description>place structure question</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>In sentences like
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section2-example1" />, it is easy to get lost and forget which sumti falls in which place, especially if the sumti are more complicated than simple names or descriptions. The place structure tags of selma'o FA may be used to help clarify place structures. The five cmavo
<quote>fa</quote>,
<quote>fe</quote>,
<quote>fi</quote>,
<quote>fo</quote>, and
<quote>fu</quote> may be inserted just before the sumti in the x1 to x5 places respectively:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-yLop">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-yLop">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e3d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section3-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>fa mi cu klama fe la bastn. fi la .atlantas. fo le dargu fu le karce</jbo>
<gloss>x1= I go x2= Boston x3= Atlanta x4= the road x5= the car.</gloss>
<en>I go to Boston from Atlanta via the road using the car.</en>
<!-- ^^ go to Boston from Atlanta: example, 187 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>go to Boston from Atlanta</primary></indexterm>
@@ -235,21 +235,21 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section3-example1" />, the tag
<quote>fu</quote> before
<quote>le karce</quote> clarifies that
<quote>le karce</quote> occupies the x5 place of
<quote>klama</quote>. The use of
<quote>fu</quote> tells us nothing about the purpose or meaning of the x5 place; it simply says that
<quote>le karce</quote> occupies it.</para>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section3-example1" />, the tags are overkill; they serve only to make
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section2-example1" /> even longer than it is. Here is a better illustration of the use of FA tags for clarification:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-3CPJ">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3CPJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e3d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section3-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>fa mi klama fe le zdani be mi be'o poi nurma vau fi la nu,IORK.</jbo>
<en>x1= I go x2= (the house of me) which is-rural x3= New York.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
@@ -259,101 +259,101 @@
x1 agent mi
x2 destination le zdani be mi be'o poi nurma vau
x3 origin la nu,IORK.
x4 route (empty)
x5 means (empty)
</programlisting>
<para>The
<quote>fi</quote> tag serves to remind the hearer that what follows is in the x3 place of
<quote>klama</quote>; after listening to the complex sumti occupying the x2 place, it's easy to get lost.</para>
<para>Of course, once the sumti have been tagged, the order in which they are specified no longer carries the burden of distinguishing the places. Therefore, it is perfectly all right to scramble them into any order desired, and to move the selbri to anywhere in the bridi, even the beginning:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-YmN2">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-YmN2">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e3d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section3-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>klama fa mi fi la .atlantas. fu le karce fe la bastn. fo le dargu</jbo>
<gloss>go x1= I x3= Atlanta x5= the car x2= Boston x4= the road.</gloss>
<en>Go I from Atlanta using the car to Boston via the road.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that no
<quote>cu</quote> is permitted before the selbri in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section3-example3" />, because
<quote>cu</quote> separates the selbri from any preceding sumti, and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section3-example3" /> has no such sumti.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-fG8R">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-fG8R">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e3d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section3-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>fu le karce fo le dargu fi la .atlantas. fe la bastn. cu klama fa mi</jbo>
<gloss>x5= the car x4= the road x3= Atlanta x2= Boston go x1=I</gloss>
<en>Using the car, via the road, from Atlanta to Boston go I.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section3-example4" /> exhibits the reverse of the standard bridi form seen in
<!-- ^^ standard bridi form: definition, 188 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>standard bridi form</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section2-example1" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section3-example1" />, but still means exactly the same thing. If the FA tags were left out, however, producing:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-j7Nu">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-j7Nu">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e3d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section3-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le karce le dargu la .atlantas. la bastn. cu klama mi</jbo>
<gloss>The car to-the road from-Atlanta via-Boston goes using-me.</gloss>
<en>The car goes to the road from Atlanta, with Boston as the route, using me as a means of transport.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>the meaning would be wholly changed, and in fact nonsensical.</para>
<para>Tagging places with FA cmavo makes it easy not only to reorder the places but also to omit undesirable ones, without any need for
<quote>zo'e</quote> or special rules about the x1 place:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-brGX">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-brGX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e3d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section3-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>klama fi la .atlantas. fe la bastn. fu le karce</jbo>
<gloss>A-goer x3= Atlanta x2= Boston x5 = the car.</gloss>
<en>A goer from Atlanta to Boston using the car.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the x1 and x4 places are empty, and so no sumti are tagged with
<quote>fa</quote> or
<quote>fo</quote>; in addition, the x2 and x3 places appear in reverse order.</para>
<para>What if some sumti have FA tags and others do not? The rule is that after a FA-tagged sumti, any sumti following it occupy the places numerically succeeding it, subject to the proviso that an already-filled place is skipped:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-oDES">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-oDES">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e3d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section3-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>klama fa mi la bastn. la .atlantas. le dargu le karce</jbo>
<gloss>Go x1= I x2= Boston x3= Atlanta x4= the road x5= the car.</gloss>
<en>Go I to Boston from Atlanta via the road using the car.</en>
<!-- ^^ Boston from Atlanta: example, 187 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Boston from Atlanta</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section3-example7" />, the
<quote>fa</quote> causes
<quote>mi</quote> to occupy the x1 place, and then the following untagged sumti occupy in order the x2 through x5 places. This is the mechanism by which Lojban allows placing the selbri first while specifying a sumti for the x1 place.</para>
<para>Here is a more complex (and more confusing) example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-q8is">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-q8is">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e3d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section3-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama fi la .atlantas. le dargu fe la bastn. le karce</jbo>
<gloss>I go x3= Atlanta, the road x2= Boston, the car.</gloss>
<en>I go from Atlanta via the road to Boston using the car.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -364,40 +364,40 @@
<!-- ^^ virtue: example, 309 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>virtue</primary></indexterm>
<quote>fi</quote>, and
<quote>le dargu</quote> occupies the x4 place as a result of following
<quote>la .atlantas.</quote>. Finally,
<quote>la bastn.</quote> occupies the x2 place because of its tag
<quote>fe</quote>, and
<quote>le karce</quote> skips over the already-occupied x3 and x4 places to land in the x5 place.</para>
<para>Such a convoluted use of tags should probably be avoided except when trying for a literal translation of some English (or other natural-language) sentence; the rules stated here are merely given so that some standard interpretation is possible.</para>
<para>It is grammatically permitted to tag more than one sumti with the same FA cmavo. The effect is that of making more than one claim:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-N1aE">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-N1aE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e3d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section3-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>[fa] la rik. fa la djein. klama [fe] le skina fe le zdani fe le zarci</jbo>
<en>[x1=] Rick x1= Jane goes-to x2= the movie x2= the house x2= the office</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>may be taken to say that both Rick and Jane go to the movie, the house, and the office, merging six claims into one. More likely, however, it will simply confuse the listener. There are better ways, involving logical connectives (explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14" />), to say such things in Lojban. In fact, putting more than one sumti into a place is odd enough that it can only be done by explicit FA usage: this is the motivation for the proviso above, that already-occupied places are skipped. In this way, no sumti can be forced into a place already occupied unless it has an explicit FA cmavo tagging it.</para>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>fi'a</quote> also belongs to selma'o FA, and allows Lojban users to ask questions about place structures. A bridi containing
<!-- ^^ fi'a, 191; effect on subsequent untagged sumti, 192 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>fi'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>fi'a</quote> is a question, asking the listener to supply the appropriate other member of FA which will make the bridi a true statement:</para>
<!-- ^^ fi'a, 191; effect on subsequent untagged sumti, 192 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>fi'a</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-GnTu">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-GnTu">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e3d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section3-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>fi'a do dunda [fe] le vi rozgu</jbo>
<!-- ^^ fi'a, 191; effect on subsequent untagged sumti, 192 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>fi'a</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>[what place]? you give x2= the nearby rose</gloss>
<gloss>In what way are you involved in the giving of this rose?</gloss>
@@ -481,21 +481,21 @@
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
x1 is the route to x2 from x3 used by x4 going via x5
</programlisting>
<para>and
<quote>xe klama</quote>:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
x1 is the means in going to x2 from x3 via x4 employed by x5
</programlisting>
<para>Note that the place structure numbers in each case continue to be listed in the usual order, x1 to x5.</para>
<para>Consider the following pair of examples:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-1ce8">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1ce8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e4d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section4-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c9e4d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section4-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la bastn. cu se klama mi</jbo>
<gloss>Boston is-the-destination of-me.</gloss>
<gloss>Boston is my destination.</gloss>
@@ -514,49 +514,49 @@
<quote>la bastn.</quote> in the x1 place and
<quote>mi</quote> in the x2 place of the selbri
<quote>se klama</quote>, and uses standard bridi order;
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section4-example2" /> has
<quote>mi</quote> in the x1 place and
<quote>la bastn.</quote> in the x2 place of the selbri
<quote>klama</quote>, and uses a non-standard order.</para>
<para>The most important use of conversion is in the construction of descriptions. A description is a sumti which begins with a cmavo of selma'o LA or LE, called the descriptor, and contains (in the simplest case) a selbri. We have already seen the descriptions
<quote>le dargu</quote> and
<quote>le karce</quote>. To this we could add:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-3YoA">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3YoA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e4d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section4-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le klama</jbo>
<en>the go-er, the one who goes</en>
<!-- ^^ the go-er: example, 193 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>the go-er</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In every case, the description is about something which fits into the x1 place of the selbri. In order to get a description of a destination (that is, something fitting the x2 place of
<quote>klama</quote>), we must convert the selbri to
<quote>se klama</quote>, whose x1 place is a destination. The result is</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-brDN">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-brDN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e4d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section4-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le se klama</jbo>
<en>the destination gone to by someone</en>
<!-- ^^ the destination: example, 193 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>the destination</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Likewise, we can create three more converted descriptions:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-dKFA">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-dKFA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e4d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section4-example5" />
<anchor xml:id="c9e4d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section4-example6" />
<anchor xml:id="c9e4d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section4-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le te klama</jbo>
@@ -587,21 +587,21 @@
<quote>le ve klama</quote>, since there exists no one for whom it is
<!-- ^^ ve klama, 193; contrasted with pluta, 193 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ve klama</primary></indexterm>
<quote>le ve klama be fo da</quote>(the route taken in an actual journey by someone [da]).</para>
<!-- ^^ ve klama, 193; contrasted with pluta, 193 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ve klama</primary></indexterm>
<para>When converting selbri that are more complex than a single brivla, it is important to realize that the scope of a SE cmavo is only the following brivla (or equivalent unit). In order to convert an entire tanru, it is necessary to enclose the tanru in
<!-- ^^ converting: operand to operator, 500; operator to selbri, 502; quantifier to selbri, 500; selbri to operand, 501; selbri to operator, 501; sumti to operand, 500; sumti to tanru unit, 500 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>converting</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ke ... ke'e</quote> brackets:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-wQbB">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-wQbB">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e4d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section4-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi se ke blanu zdani [ke'e] ti</jbo>
<en>I [2nd conversion] blue house this-thing</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The place structure of
@@ -670,21 +670,21 @@
<para>Sometimes the place structures engineered into Lojban are inadequate to meet the needs of actual speech. Consider the gismu
<quote>viska</quote>, whose place structure is:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
viska: x1 sees x2 under conditions x3
</programlisting>
<para>Seeing is a threefold relationship, involving an agent (le viska), an object of sight (le se viska), and an environment that makes seeing possible (le te viska). Seeing is done with one or more eyes, of course; in general, the eyes belong to the entity in the x1 place.</para>
<para>Suppose, however, that you are blind in one eye and are talking to someone who doesn't know that. You might want to say,
<quote>I see you with the left eye.</quote> There is no place in the place structure of
<quote>viska</quote> such as
<quote>with eye x4</quote> or the like. Lojban allows you to solve the problem by adding a new place, changing the relationship:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-BSAc">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-BSAc">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e5d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section5-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska do fi'o kanla [fe'u] le zunle</jbo>
<gloss>I see you [modal] eye: the left-thing</gloss>
<en>I see you with the left eye.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -722,21 +722,21 @@
<!-- ^^ seltcita sumti: definition (see also modal sumti), 195 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>seltcita sumti</primary></indexterm>
<para>Consider
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section5-example1" /> again. Another way to view the situation is to consider the speaker's left eye as a tool, a tool for seeing. The relevant selbri then becomes
<quote>pilno</quote>, whose place structure is</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
pilno: x1 uses x2 as a tool for purpose x3
</programlisting>
<para>and we can rewrite
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section5-example1" /> as</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Lu15">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Lu15">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e5d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section5-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska do fi'o se pilno le zunle kanla</jbo>
<gloss>I see you [modal] [conversion] use: the left eye.</gloss>
<en>I see you using my left eye.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -769,21 +769,21 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>sepi'o</primary></indexterm>
<para>Here
<quote>se</quote> is used before a cmavo, namely
<quote>pi'o</quote>, rather than before a brivla. The meaning of this cmavo, which belongs to selma'o BAI, is exactly the same as that of
<!-- ^^ pi'o, 195 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>pi'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>fi'o pilno fe'u</quote>. Since what we want is a tag based on
<quote>se pilno</quote> rather than
<quote>pilno</quote>- the tool, not the tool user - the grammar allows a BAI cmavo to be converted using a SE cmavo.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section5-example2" /> may therefore be rewritten as:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-N32m">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-N32m">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e6d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section6-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska do sepi'o le zunle kanla</jbo>
<!-- ^^ sepi'o, 195 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>sepi'o</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I see you with-tool: the left eye</gloss>
<en>I see you using my left eye.</en>
@@ -810,41 +810,41 @@
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ka'a with-goer
<!-- ^^ ka'a, 196 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ka'a</primary></indexterm>
seka'a with-destination
teka'a with-origin
veka'a with-route
xeka'a with-means-of-transport
</programlisting>
<para>Any of these tags may be used to provide modal places for bridi, as in the following examples:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-r0QA">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-r0QA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e6d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section6-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .eivn. cu vecnu loi flira cinta ka'a mi</jbo>
<!-- ^^ ka'a, 196 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ka'a</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>Avon sells a-mass-of face paint with-goer me.</gloss>
<!-- ^^ Avon: example, 196 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Avon</primary></indexterm>
<en>I am a traveling cosmetics salesperson for Avon.</en>
<!-- ^^ Avon: example, 196 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Avon</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section6-example2" /> may seem a bit strained, but it illustrates the way in which an existing selbri,
<quote>vecnu</quote> in this case, may have a place added to it which might otherwise seem utterly unrelated.)</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-sE2t">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sE2t">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e6d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section6-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c9e6d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section6-example4" />
<anchor xml:id="c9e6d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section6-example5" />
<anchor xml:id="c9e6d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section6-example6" />
</title>
@@ -884,21 +884,21 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>prepositions</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>English prepositions</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ prepositions: cmavo as Lojban equivalents, 50 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>prepositions</primary></indexterm>
<para>All BAI cmavo have the form CV'V or CVV. Most of them are CV'V, where the C is the first consonant of the corresponding gismu and the two Vs are the two vowels of the gismu. The table in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section16" /> shows the exceptions.</para>
<para>There is one additional BAI cmavo that is not derived from a gismu:
<quote>do'e</quote>. This cmavo is used when an extra place is needed, but it seems useful to be vague about the semantic implications of the extra place:</para>
<!-- ^^ do'e, 197; compared with English of, 197 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>do'e</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-2vMd">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2vMd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e6d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section6-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo nanmu be do'e le berti cu klama le tcadu</jbo>
<!-- ^^ do'e, 197; compared with English of, 197 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>do'e</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>Some man [related to] the north came to-the city.</gloss>
<en>A man of the north came to the city.</en>
@@ -976,21 +976,21 @@
<quote>ri'a</quote>,
<quote>ki'u</quote>,
<!-- ^^ ki'u, 197 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ki'u</primary></indexterm>
<quote>mu'i</quote>, and
<!-- ^^ mu'i, 197 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>mu'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ni'i</quote> respectively. Using these gismu and these modals, we can create various causal sentences with different implications:</para>
<!-- ^^ ni'i, 197 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ni'i</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-RGdy">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-RGdy">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e7d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section7-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c9e7d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section7-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c9e7d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section7-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c9e7d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section7-example4" />
</title>
@@ -1025,55 +1025,55 @@
<quote>because</quote> is used to translate all four modals, but the types of cause being expressed are quite different. Let us now focus on
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section7-example1" />, and explore some variations on it.</para>
<para>As written,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section7-example1" /> claims that the plant grows, but only refers to the event of watering it in an abstraction bridi (abstractions are explained in
<!-- ^^ abstraction bridi: contrasted with component non-abstraction bridi in meaning, 98; effect on claim of bridi, 198 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>abstraction bridi</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11" />) without actually making a claim. If I express
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section7-example1" />, I have said that the plant in fact grows, but I have not said that you actually water it, merely that there is a causal relationship between watering and growing. This is semantically asymmetrical. Suppose I wanted to claim that the plant was being watered, and only mention its growth as ancillary information? Then we could reverse the main bridi and the abstraction bridi, saying:</para>
<!-- ^^ abstraction bridi: contrasted with component non-abstraction bridi in meaning, 98; effect on claim of bridi, 198 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>abstraction bridi</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ibro">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ibro">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e7d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section7-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do djacu dunda fi le spati seri'a le nu ri banro</jbo>
<gloss>You water-give to the plant with-physical-effect it grows.</gloss>
<en>You water the plant; therefore, it grows.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>with the
<quote>ri'a</quote> changed to
<quote>seri'a</quote>. In addition, there are also symmetrical forms:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-1YHv">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1YHv">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e7d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section7-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nu do djacu dunda fi le spati cu rinka</jbo>
<gloss>le nu le spati cu banro</gloss>
<gloss>The event-of (you water-give to the plant) causes</gloss>
<gloss>the event-of (the plant grows).</gloss>
<gloss>Your watering the plant causes its growth.</gloss>
<en>If you water the plant, then it grows.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>does not claim either event, but asserts only the causal relationship between them. So in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section7-example6" />, I am not saying that the plant grows nor that you have in fact watered it. The second colloquial translation shows a form of
<quote>if-then</quote> in English quite distinct from the logical connective
<quote>if-then</quote> explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14" />.</para>
<para>Suppose we wish to claim both events as well as their causal relationship? We can use one of two methods:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-9VRd">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9VRd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e7d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section7-example7" />
<anchor xml:id="c9e7d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section7-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le spati cu banro .iri'abo do djacu dunda fi le spati</jbo>
<!-- ^^ iri'abo, 198 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>iri'abo</primary></indexterm>
@@ -1087,21 +1087,21 @@
<para>The compound cmavo
<quote>.iri'abo</quote> and
<!-- ^^ iri'abo, 198 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>iri'abo</primary></indexterm>
<quote>.iseri'abo</quote> serve to connect two bridi, as the initial
<quote>.i</quote> indicates. The final
<quote>bo</quote> is necessary to prevent the modal from
<quote>taking over</quote> the following sumti. If the
<quote>bo</quote> were omitted from
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section7-example7" /> we would have:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Wo6K">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Wo6K">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e7d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section7-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le spati cu banro .i ri'a do djacu dunda fi le spati</jbo>
<gloss>The plant grows. Because of you, [something] water-gives to the plant.</gloss>
<en>The plant grows. Because of you, water is given to the plant.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1122,21 +1122,21 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section7-example7" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section7-example8" />. However, it makes little sense to use any modals which do not expect events or other abstractions to fill the places of the corresponding gismu. The sentence connective
<quote>.ibaubo</quote> is perfectly grammatical, but it is hard to imagine any two sentences which could be connected by an
<quote>in-language</quote> modal. This is because a sentence describes an event, and an event can be a cause or an effect, but not a language.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter9-section8">
<title>Other modal connections</title>
<para>Like many Lojban grammatical constructions, sentence modal connection has both forethought and afterthought forms. (See
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14" /> for a more detailed discussion of Lojban connectives.)
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section7" /> exemplifies only afterthought modal connection, illustrated here by:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-2D4c">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2D4c">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e8d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section8-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi jgari lei djacu .iri'abo mi jgari le kabri</jbo>
<!-- ^^ iri'abo, 198 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>iri'abo</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I grasp the-mass-of water with-physical-cause I grasp the cup.</gloss>
<gloss>Causing the mass of water to be grasped by me, I grasped the cup.</gloss>
@@ -1150,35 +1150,35 @@
<quote>and</quote> in the first half of this sentence represents a forethought connection (though not a modal one).</para>
<!-- ^^ forethought connection: contrasted with afterthought for grammatical utterances, 352; definition, 199; in abstractions, 365; in tenses, 363; observatives, 347; of operands, 453; of operators, 453 -->
<!-- ^^ observatives: and abstractions, 255; quick-tour version, 15 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>observatives</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>forethought connection</primary></indexterm>
<para>To make forethought modal sentence connections in Lojban, place the modal plus
<quote>gi</quote> before the first bridi, and
<quote>gi</quote> between the two. No
<quote>.i</quote> is used within the construct. The forethought equivalent of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section8-example1" /> is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-d2b9">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-d2b9">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e8d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section8-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ri'agi mi jgari le kabri gi mi jgari lei djacu</jbo>
<gloss>With-physical-cause I grasp the cup, I grasp the-mass-of water.</gloss>
<en>Because I grasp the cup, I grasp the water.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that the cause, the x1 of
<quote>rinka</quote> is now placed first. To keep the two bridi in the original order of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section8-example1" />, we could say:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-rQ77">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rQ77">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e8d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section8-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>seri'agi mi jgari lei djacu gi mi jgari le kabri</jbo>
<en>With-physical-effect I grasp the-mass-of water, I grasp the cup.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In English, the sentence
@@ -1186,118 +1186,118 @@
<quote>therefore</quote> is not grammatically equivalent to
<quote>because</quote>. In Lojban,
<quote>seri'agi</quote> can be used just like
<quote>ri'agi</quote>.</para>
<para>When the two bridi joined by a modal connection have one or more elements (selbri or sumti or both) in common, there are various condensed forms that can be used in place of full modal sentence connection with both bridi completely stated.</para>
<!-- ^^ modal sentence connection, 198; condensing, 200; effect on modal, 199; forethought, 199; relation to modal of first sentence in, 199; relation to modal of second sentence in, 199; table of equivalent schemata, 249; with other than causals, 199 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>modal sentence connection</primary></indexterm>
<para>When the bridi are the same except for a single sumti, as in Examples 8.1 through 8.3, then a sumti modal connection may be employed:</para>
<!-- ^^ sumti modal connection, 200 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>sumti modal connection</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-o7FG">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-o7FG">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e8d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section8-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi jgari ri'agi le kabri gi lei djacu</jbo>
<en>I grasp because the cup, the-mass-of water.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section8-example4" /> means exactly the same as
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section8-example1" /> through
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section8-example3" />, but there is no idiomatic English translation that will distinguish it from them.</para>
<para>If the two connected bridi are different in more than one sumti, then a termset may be employed. Termsets are explained more fully in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14" />, but are essentially a mechanism for creating connections between multiple sumti simultaneously.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-LetE">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-LetE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e8d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section8-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi dunda le cukta la djan. .imu'ibo la djan. dunda lei jdini mi</jbo>
<gloss>I gave the book to John. Motivated-by John gave the-mass-of money to-me.</gloss>
<en>I gave the book to John, because John gave money to me.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means the same as:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-tFSC">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-tFSC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e8d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section8-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>nu'i mu'igi mi le cukta la djan. gi la djan. lei jdini mi nu'u dunda</jbo>
<en>[start] because I, the book, John; John, the-mass-of money, me [end] gives.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here there are three sumti in each half of the termset, because the two bridi share only their selbri.</para>
<para>There is no modal connection between selbri as such: bridi which differ only in the selbri can be modally connected using bridi-tail modal connection. The bridi-tail construct is more fully explained in
<!-- ^^ bridi-tail modal connection, 200 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>bridi-tail modal connection</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14" />, but essentially it consists of a selbri with optional sumti following it.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section7-example3" /> is suitable for bridi-tail connection, and could be shortened to:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Do9b">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Do9b">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e8d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section8-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi mu'igi viska le cukta gi lebna le cukta</jbo>
<en>I, because saw the book, took the book.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Again, no straightforward English translation exists. It is even possible to shorten
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section8-example7" /> further to:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-YXps">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-YXps">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e8d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section8-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi mu'igi viska gi lebna vau le cukta</jbo>
<en>I because saw, therefore took, the book.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where
<quote>le cukta</quote> is set off by the non-elidable
<quote>vau</quote> and is made to belong to both bridi-tails - see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14" /> for more explanations.</para>
<para>Since this is a chapter on rearranging sumti, it is worth pointing out that
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section8-example8" /> can be further rearranged to:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Pxca">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Pxca">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e8d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section8-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi le cukta mu'igi viska gi lebna</jbo>
<en>I, the book, because saw, therefore took.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which doesn't require the extra
<quote>vau</quote>; all sumti before a conjunction of bridi-tails are shared.</para>
<para>Finally, mathematical operands can be modally connected.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-J2T5">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-J2T5">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e8d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section8-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li ny. du li vo</jbo>
<gloss>.ini'ibo li ny. du li re su'i re</gloss>
<en>the number</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>can be reduced to:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Mfe4">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Mfe4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e8d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section8-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li ny. du li ni'igi vei re su'i re [ve'o] gi vo</jbo>
<en>the-number</en>
<jbo>= the-number because ( 2 + 2 ) therefore 4.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1311,21 +1311,21 @@
<para>Note: Due to restrictions on the Lojban parsing algorithm, it is not possible to form modal connectives using the
<!-- ^^ modal connectives: fi'o prohibited in, 201 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>modal connectives</primary></indexterm>
<quote>fi'o</quote>-plus-selbri form of modal. Only the predefined modals of selma'o BAI can be compounded as shown in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section7" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section8" />.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter9-section9">
<title>Modal selbri</title>
<para>Consider the example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-bT4c">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-bT4c">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e9d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section9-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi tavla bau la lojban. bai tu'a la frank.</jbo>
<gloss>I speak in-language Lojban with-compeller some-act-by Frank.</gloss>
<en>I speak in Lojban, under compulsion by Frank.</en>
<!-- ^^ under compulsion: example, 201 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>under compulsion</primary></indexterm>
@@ -1333,107 +1333,107 @@
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section9-example1" /> has two modal sumti, using the modals
<!-- ^^ modal sumti: and FA marking, 195; as first place of modal tag selbri, 195; definition (see also seltcita sumti), 195; effect on place structure, 195; leaving vague, 201; position in bridi, 195; unspecified, 201 -->
<!-- ^^ seltcita sumti: definition (see also modal sumti), 195 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>seltcita sumti</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>modal sumti</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bau</quote> and
<quote>bai</quote>. Suppose we wanted to specify the language explicitly but be vague about who's doing the compelling. We can simplify
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section9-example1" /> to:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-dbSy">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-dbSy">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e9d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section9-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi tavla bau la lojban. bai [ku].</jbo>
<en>I speak in-language Lojban under-compulsion.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section9-example2" />, the elidable terminator
<quote>ku</quote> has taken the place of the sumti which would normally follow
<quote>bai</quote>. Alternatively, we could specify the one who compels but keep the language vague:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Qc8w">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Qc8w">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e9d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section9-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi tavla bau [ku] bai tu'a la frank.</jbo>
<en>I speak in-some-language under-compulsion-by some-act-by Frank.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>We are also free to move the modal-plus-
<quote>ku</quote> around the bridi:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-2utY">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2utY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e9d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section9-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>bau [ku] bai ku mi tavla</jbo>
<en>In-some-language under-compulsion I speak.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>An alternative to using
<quote>ku</quote> is to place the modal cmavo right before the selbri, following the
<!-- ^^ modal cmavo: basis in gismu place structure, 210; list of irregular derivation, 209; position relative to selbri, 104; regular form for derivation, 208; table with English equivalents, 210 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>modal cmavo</primary></indexterm>
<quote>cu</quote> which often appears there. When a modal is present, the
<quote>cu</quote> is almost never necessary.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-613h">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-613h">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e9d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section9-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi bai tavla bau la lojban.</jbo>
<en>I compelledly speak in-language Lojban.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In this use, the modal is like a tanru modifier semantically, although grammatically it is quite distinct.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section9-example5" /> is very similar in meaning to:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-pVUT">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pVUT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e9d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section9-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi se bapli tavla bau la lojban.</jbo>
<en>I compelledly-speak in-language Lojban.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The
<quote>se</quote> conversion is needed because
<quote>bapli tavla</quote> would be a
<quote>compeller type of speaker</quote> rather than a
<quote>compelled (by someone) type of speaker</quote>, which is what a
<quote>bai tavla</quote> is.</para>
<para>If the modal preceding a selbri is constructed using
<quote>fi'o</quote>, then
<quote>fe'u</quote> is required to prevent the main selbri and the modal selbri from colliding:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-SfwV">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-SfwV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e9d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section9-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi fi'o kanla fe'u viska do</jbo>
<gloss>I with-eye see you.</gloss>
<en>I see you with my eye(s).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>There are two other uses of modals. A modal can be attached to a pair of bridi-tails that have already been connected by a logical, non-logical, or modal connection (see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14" /> for more on logical and non-logical connections):</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-vCzL">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-vCzL">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e9d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section9-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi bai ke ge klama le zarci gi cadzu le bisli [ke'e]</jbo>
<!-- ^^ bai ke, 202 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>bai ke</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I under-compulsion (both go to-the market and walk on-the ice).</gloss>
<en>Under compulsion, I both go to the market and walk on the ice.</en>
@@ -1442,21 +1442,21 @@
<para>Here the
<quote>bai</quote> is spread over both
<quote>klama le zarci</quote> and
<quote>cadzu le bisli</quote>, and the
<quote>ge ... gi</quote> represents the logical connection
<quote>both-and</quote> between the two.</para>
<para>Similarly, a modal can be attached to multiple sentences that have been combined with
<quote>tu'e</quote> and
<quote>tu'u</quote>, which are explained in more detail in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19" />:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-boYr">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-boYr">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e9d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section9-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>bai tu'e mi klama le zarci .i mi cadzu le bisli [tu'u]</jbo>
<en>Under-compulsion [start] I go to-the market. I walk on-the ice [end].</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means the same thing as
@@ -1488,21 +1488,21 @@
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>me'a</cmavo>
<!-- ^^ me'a, 203; avoiding in favor of semau, 203 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>me'a</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>BAI</selmaho>
<description>mleca modal</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>Relative phrases and clauses are explained in much more detail in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8" />. However, there is a construction which combines a modal with a relative phrase which is relevant to this chapter. Consider the following examples of relative clauses:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-vuYy">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-vuYy">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e10d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section10-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c9e10d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section10-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .apasionatas. poi se cusku la .artr. rubnstain. cu se nelci mi</jbo>
<en>The Appassionata which is-expressed-by Arthur Rubinstein is-liked-by me.</en>
<!-- ^^ Appassionata: example, 202 -->
@@ -1527,21 +1527,21 @@
<!-- ^^ Beethoven: example, 202 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Beethoven</primary></indexterm>
<quote>noi</quote>(also of selma'o NOI) expresses the incidental nature of this relationship.</para>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>pe</quote> and
<quote>ne</quote>(of selma'o GOI) are roughly equivalent to
<quote>poi</quote> and
<quote>noi</quote> respectively, but are followed by sumti rather than full bridi. We can abbreviate
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section10-example1" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section10-example2" /> to:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-JtC7">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-JtC7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e10d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section10-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c9e10d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section10-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .apasionatas pe la .artr. rubnstain. se nelci mi</jbo>
<en>The Appassionata of Arthur Rubinstein is-liked-by me.</en>
<!-- ^^ Appassionata: example, 202 -->
@@ -1565,21 +1565,21 @@
<quote>cusku</quote> and
<quote>finti</quote> have BAI cmavo, namely
<quote>cu'u</quote> and
<!-- ^^ cu'u, 203 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>cu'u</primary></indexterm>
<quote>fi'e</quote>. We can recast
<!-- ^^ fi'e, 203 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>fi'e</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section10-example3" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section10-example4" /> as:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-oIoY">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-oIoY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e10d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section10-example5" />
<anchor xml:id="c9e10d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section10-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .apasionatas pe cu'u la .artr. rubnstain. cu se nelci mi</jbo>
<!-- ^^ cu'u, 203 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>cu'u</primary></indexterm>
@@ -1608,40 +1608,40 @@
<quote>me'a</quote>, which are based on the comparative gismu
<!-- ^^ me'a, 203; avoiding in favor of semau, 203 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>me'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>zmadu</quote>(more than) and
<quote>mleca</quote>(less than) respectively. The place structures are:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
zmadu: x1 is more than x2 in property/quantity x3 by amount x4
mleca: x1 is less than x2 in property/quantity x3 by amount x4
</programlisting>
<para>Here are some examples:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Jr4V">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Jr4V">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e10d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section10-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la frank. nelci la betis. ne semau la meiris.</jbo>
<gloss>Frank likes Betty, which-is more-than Mary.</gloss>
<en>Frank likes Betty more than (he likes) Mary.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section10-example7" /> requires that Frank likes Betty, but adds the information that his liking for Betty exceeds his liking for Mary. The modal appears in the form
<quote>semau</quote> because the x2 place of
<quote>zmadu</quote> is the basis for comparison: in this case, Frank's liking for Mary.</para>
<!-- ^^ comparison: claims related to based on form, 204 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>comparison</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ basis: example, 317 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>basis</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ecf1">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ecf1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e10d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section10-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la frank. nelci la meiris. ne seme'a la betis.</jbo>
<gloss>Frank likes Mary, which-is less-than Betty.</gloss>
<en>Frank likes Mary less than (he likes) Betty.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1669,36 +1669,36 @@
<quote>ne</quote> were omitted in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section10-example7" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section10-example8" />, the modal sumti (
<!-- ^^ modal sumti: and FA marking, 195; as first place of modal tag selbri, 195; definition (see also seltcita sumti), 195; effect on place structure, 195; leaving vague, 201; position in bridi, 195; unspecified, 201 -->
<!-- ^^ seltcita sumti: definition (see also modal sumti), 195 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>seltcita sumti</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="general"><primary>modal sumti</primary></indexterm>
<quote>la meiris.</quote> and
<quote>la betis.</quote> respectively) would become attached to the bridi as a whole, producing a very different translation.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section10-example8" /> would become:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-5QHA">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-5QHA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e10d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section10-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la frank. nelci la meiris. seme'a la betis.</jbo>
<gloss>Frank likes Mary is-less-than Betty.</gloss>
<en>Frank's liking Mary is less than Betty.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which compares a liking with a person, and is therefore nonsense.</para>
<para>Pure comparison, which states only the comparative information but says nothing about whether Frank actually likes either Mary or Betty (he may like neither, but dislike Betty less), would be expressed differently, as:</para>
<!-- ^^ comparison: claims related to based on form, 204 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>comparison</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-AAQp">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-AAQp">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e10d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section10-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ni la frank. nelci la betis. cu zmadu</jbo>
<gloss>le ni la frank. nelci la meiris.</gloss>
<gloss>The quantity-of Frank's liking Betty is-more-than</gloss>
<en>the quantity-of Frank's liking Mary.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1722,45 +1722,45 @@
<!-- ^^ du'i, 204 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>du'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>as much as</quote>). Some BAI tags can be used equally well in relative phrases or attached to bridi; others seem useful only attached to bridi. But it is also possible that the usefulness of particular BAI modals is an English-speaker bias, and that speakers of other languages may find other BAIs useful in divergent ways.</para>
<para>Note: The uses of modals discussed in this section are applicable both to BAI modals and to
<quote>fi'o</quote>-plus-selbri modals.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter9-section11">
<title>Mixed modal connection</title>
<para>It is possible to mix logical connection (explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14" />) with modal connection, in a way that simultaneously asserts the logical connection and the modal relationship. Consider the sentences:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-4qz4">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4qz4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e11d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section11-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci do .ije mi nelci la djein.</jbo>
<en>I like you. And I like Jane.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which is a logical connection, and</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-6EE5">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-6EE5">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e11d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section11-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci do .iki'ubo mi nelci la djein.</jbo>
<en>I like you. Justified-by I like Jane.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The meanings of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section11-example1" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section11-example2" /> can be simultaneously expressed by combining the two compound cmavo, thus:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-W3Le">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-W3Le">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e11d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section11-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci do .ijeki'ubo mi nelci la djein.</jbo>
<en>I like you. And justified-by I like Jane.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the two sentences
@@ -1769,47 +1769,47 @@
<quote>je</quote> comes before the modal
<quote>ki'u</quote> in all such mixed connections.</para>
<!-- ^^ ki'u, 197 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>ki'u</primary></indexterm>
<para>Since
<quote>mi nelci do</quote> and
<quote>mi nelci la djein.</quote> differ only in the final sumti, we can transform
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section11-example3" /> into a mixed sumti connection:</para>
<!-- ^^ sumti connection: afterthought, 340; forethought, 341 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>sumti connection</primary></indexterm>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-gE1z">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gE1z">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e11d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section11-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci do .eki'ubo la djein.</jbo>
<en>I like you and/because Jane.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that this connection is an afterthought one. Mixed connectives are always afterthought; forethought connectives must be either logical or modal.</para>
<!-- ^^ forethought connectives: with tense, 364 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>forethought connectives</primary></indexterm>
<para>There are numerous other afterthought logical and non-logical connectives that can have modal information planted within them. For example, a bridi-tail connected version of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section11-example4" /> would be:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-7LmA">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7LmA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e11d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section11-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci do gi'eki'ubo nelci la djein.</jbo>
<en>I like you and/because like Jane.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The following three complex examples all mean the same thing.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-D6iy">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-D6iy">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e11d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section11-example6" />
<anchor xml:id="c9e11d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section11-example7" />
<anchor xml:id="c9e11d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section11-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi bevri le dakli</jbo>
@@ -1857,21 +1857,21 @@
<!-- ^^ modal conversion: access to original first place with fai, 206; grammar of, 206; place structure of, 206; with no modal specified, 206 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>modal conversion</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>fai</cmavo>
<selmaho>FA</selmaho>
<description>modal place structure tag</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>So far, conversion of numbered bridi places with SE and the addition of modal places with BAI have been two entirely separate operations. However, it is possible to convert a selbri in such a way that, rather than exchanging two numbered places, a modal place is made into a numbered place. For example,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-KMMX">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KMMX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e12d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section12-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cusku bau la lojban.</jbo>
<en>I express [something] in-language Lojban.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>has an explicit x1 place occupied by
@@ -1879,21 +1879,21 @@
<quote>bau</quote> place occupied by
<quote>la lojban.</quote> To exchange these two, we use a modal conversion operator consisting of
<!-- ^^ modal conversion: access to original first place with fai, 206; grammar of, 206; place structure of, 206; with no modal specified, 206 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>modal conversion</primary></indexterm>
<quote>jai</quote>(of selma'o JAI) followed by the modal cmavo. Thus, the modal conversion of
<!-- ^^ modal conversion: access to original first place with fai, 206; grammar of, 206; place structure of, 206; with no modal specified, 206 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>modal conversion</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ modal cmavo: basis in gismu place structure, 210; list of irregular derivation, 209; position relative to selbri, 104; regular form for derivation, 208; table with English equivalents, 210 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>modal cmavo</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section12-example1" /> is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-KjyW">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KjyW">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e12d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section12-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la lojban. jai bau cusku fai mi</jbo>
<en>Lojban is-the-language-of-expression used-by me.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
@@ -1908,21 +1908,21 @@
<!-- ^^ fi'a, 191; effect on subsequent untagged sumti, 192 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>fi'a</primary></indexterm>
<para>Like SE conversions, JAI conversions are especially convenient in descriptions. We may refer to
<quote>the language of an expression</quote> as
<quote>le jai bau cusku</quote>, for example.</para>
<para>In addition, it is grammatical to use
<quote>jai</quote> without a following modal. This usage is not related to modals, but is explained here for completeness. The effect of
<quote>jai</quote> by itself is to send the x1 place, which should be an abstraction, into the
<quote>fai</quote> position, and to raise one of the sumti from the abstract sub-bridi into the x1 place of the main bridi. This feature is discussed in more detail in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11" />. The following two examples mean the same thing:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-DSQS">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-DSQS">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e12d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section12-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c9e12d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section12-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nu mi lebna le cukta cu se krinu le nu mi viska le cukta</jbo>
<gloss>The event-of (I take the book) is-justified-by the event-of (I see the book).</gloss>
<en>My taking the book is justified by my seeing it.</en>
@@ -1941,35 +1941,35 @@
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter9-section13">
<title>Modal negation</title>
<para>Negation is explained in detail in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15" />. There are two forms of negation in Lojban: contradictory and scalar negation. Contradictory negation expresses what is false, whereas scalar negation says that some alternative to what has been stated is true. A simple example is the difference between
<quote>John didn't go to Paris</quote>(contradictory negation) and
<quote>John went to (somewhere) other than Paris</quote>(scalar negation).</para>
<para>Contradictory negation involving BAI cmavo is performed by appending
<quote>-nai</quote>(of selma'o NAI) to the BAI. A common use of modals with
<quote>-nai</quote> is to deny a causal relationship:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ej84">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ej84">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e13d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section13-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci do mu'inai le nu do nelci mi</jbo>
<en>I like you, but not because you like me.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section13-example1" /> denies that the relationship between my liking you (which is asserted) and your liking me (which is not asserted) is one of motivation. Nothing is said about whether you like me or not, merely that that hypothetical liking is not the motivation for my liking you.</para>
<para>Scalar negation is achieved by prefixing
<quote>na'e</quote>(of selma'o NAhE), or any of the other cmavo of NAhE, to the BAI cmavo.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-9WC5">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9WC5">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e13d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section13-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le spati cu banro na'emu'i le nu</jbo>
<gloss>do djacu dunda fi le spati</gloss>
<gloss>The plant grows other-than-motivated-by the event-of</gloss>
<en>you water-give to the plant.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1989,34 +1989,34 @@
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ki</cmavo>
<selmaho>KI</selmaho>
<description>stickiness flag</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>Like tenses, modals can be made persistent from the bridi in which they appear to all following bridi. The effect of this
<quote>stickiness</quote> is to make the modal, along with its following sumti, act as if it appeared in every successive bridi. Stickiness is put into effect by following the modal (but not any following sumti) with the cmavo
<quote>ki</quote> of selma'o KI. For example,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-1UGf">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1UGf">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e14d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section14-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi tavla bau la lojban. bai ki tu'a la frank.</jbo>
<gloss>.ibabo mi tavla bau la gliban.</gloss>
<gloss>I speak in-language Lojban compelled-by some-property-of Frank.</gloss>
<en>Afterward, I speak in-language English.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means the same as:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-txFr">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-txFr">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e14d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section14-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi tavla bau la lojban. bai tu'a la frank.</jbo>
<gloss>.ibabo mi tavla bau la gliban.</gloss>
<gloss>bai tu'a la frank.</gloss>
<gloss>I speak in-language Lojban compelled-by some-property-of Frank.</gloss>
<gloss>Afterward, I speak in-language English</gloss>
@@ -2025,59 +2025,59 @@
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section14-example1" />,
<quote>bai</quote> is made sticky, and so Frank's compelling is made applicable to every following bridi.
<quote>bau</quote> is not sticky, and so the language may vary from bridi to bridi, and if not specified in a particular bridi, no assumption can safely be made about its value.</para>
<para>To cancel stickiness, use the form
<quote>BAI ki ku</quote>, which stops any modal value for the specified BAI from being passed to the next bridi. To cancel stickiness for all modals simultaneously, and also for any sticky tenses that exist (
<quote>ki</quote> is used for both modals and tenses), use
<quote>ki</quote> by itself, either before the selbri or (in the form
<quote>ki ku</quote>) anywhere in the bridi:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-sYdo">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sYdo">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e14d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section14-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ki tavla</jbo>
<en>I speak (no implication about language or compulsion).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note: Modals made with
<quote>fi'o</quote>-plus-selbri cannot be made sticky. This is an unfortunate, but unavoidable, restriction.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter9-section15">
<title>Logical and non-logical connection of modals</title>
<!-- ^^ non-logical connection: and elidability of terminators, 354; in mathematical expressions, 361; in tanru, distinguishing from connection of sumti, 354; of individuals into mass, 355; of individuals into set, 355; of modals, 208; of operands, 455; of operators, 455; of sumti, distinguishing from connection in tanru, 354; of termsets, 357 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>non-logical connection</primary></indexterm>
<para>Logical and non-logical connectives are explained in detail in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14" />. For the purposes of this chapter, it suffices to point out that a logical (or non-logical) connection between two bridi which differ only in a modal can be reduced to a single bridi with a connective between the modals. As a result,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section15-example1" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section15-example2" /> mean the same thing:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-2NAa">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2NAa">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e15d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section15-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c9e15d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section15-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la frank. bajra seka'a le zdani .ije la frank. bajra teka'a le zdani</jbo>
<gloss>Frank runs with-destination the house. And Frank runs with-origin the house.</gloss>
<en>Frank runs to the house, and Frank runs from the house.</en>
<jbo>la frank. bajra seka'a je teka'a le zdani</jbo>
<gloss>Frank runs with-destination and with-origin the house.</gloss>
<en>Frank runs to and from the house.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Neither example implies whether a single act, or two acts, of running is referred to. To compel the sentence to refer to a single act of running, you can use the form:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-b0LW">
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-b0LW">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e15d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section15-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la frank. bajra seka'a le zdani ce'e teka'a le zdani</jbo>
<en>Frank runs with-destination the house [joined-to] with-origin the-house.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The cmavo
diff --git a/todocbook/TODO b/todocbook/TODO
index 90e8647..1682811 100644
--- a/todocbook/TODO
+++ b/todocbook/TODO
@@ -210,20 +210,23 @@ if you need it.
==================
- Need some sort of structure for the per-section cmavo lists.
- also need to wrap the lojban words there in a way that does
indexing, and ideally auto-generation of the cmavo-per-selmaho
lists we want for chapter 20
- lojban words, lojban phrases, terms of art ("abstraction"),
others?... should each have their own index
- cll_chapter5-section1 should be content-words-brivla or so ; those
IDs should not change when things are moved around
- list the members of each selma'o in chapter 20
+- change aaaaaaaallllll the example xrefs to point at the actual
+ example ids
+- finish the testing mods to merge.sh
==================
Display
==================
- links to examples should *say* "example N"; easy to test from the
index
- links to sections should say the number of section and chapter
- examples should be 5.2.1 rather than 5.6 for the first example in
section 2 of chatpre 5
- print: Add a header or footer to the left or the right page that
commit 241e74cefe3c57ef488925fa4765b715e0eae3e7
Author: Robin Lee Powell <rlpowell@digitalkingdom.org>
Date: Tue Dec 21 07:21:49 2010 -0800
Various script tweaks, 1 space addition, and some id changes. Work
in progress, but I need to check in so I can process the diffs on
the next step.
diff --git a/todocbook/1.xml b/todocbook/1.xml
index ef96ff2..a3d3dea 100644
--- a/todocbook/1.xml
+++ b/todocbook/1.xml
@@ -134,21 +134,21 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4" /> were originally written by Bob LeChevalier with contributions by Chuck Barton;
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12" /> was originally written (in much longer form) by Nick Nicholas; the dialogue near the end of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13" /> was contributed by Nora Tansky LeChevalier;
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15" /> and parts of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16" /> were originally by Bob LeChevalier; and the YACC grammar in
<!-- ^^ YACC grammar, 511 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>YACC grammar</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter21" /> is the work of several hands, but is primarily by Bob LeChevalier and Jeff Taylor. The BNF grammar, which is also in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter21" />, was originally written by me, then rewritten by Clark Nelson, and finally touched up by me again.</para>
<para>The research into natural languages from which parts of
- <xref linkend="selbri" /> draw their material was performed by Ivan Derzhanski. LLG acknowledges his kind permission to use the fruits of his research.</para>
+ <xref linkend="chapter-selbri" /> draw their material was performed by Ivan Derzhanski. LLG acknowledges his kind permission to use the fruits of his research.</para>
<!-- ^^ LLG, 5 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>LLG</primary></indexterm>
<para>The pictures in this book were drawn by Nora Tansky LeChevalier, except for the picture appearing in
<!-- ^^ pictures: captions to, 7; credits for, 6 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>pictures</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4" />, which is by Sylvia Rutiser Rissell.</para>
<para>The index was made by Nora Tansky LeChevalier.</para>
<para>I would like to thank the following people for their detailed reviews, suggestions, comments, and early detection of my embarrassing errors in Lojban, logic, English, and cross-references: Nick Nicholas, Mark Shoulson, Veijo Vilva, Colin Fine, And Rosta, Jorge Llambias, Iain Alexander, Paulo S. L. M. Barreto, Robert J. Chassell, Gale Cowan, Karen Stein, Ivan Derzhanski, Jim Carter, Irene Gates, Bob LeChevalier, John Parks-Clifford (also known as
<quote>pc</quote>), and Nora Tansky LeChevalier.</para>
<para>Nick Nicholas (NSN) would like to thank the following Lojbanists: Mark Shoulson, Veijo Vilva, Colin Fine, And Rosta, and Iain Alexander for their suggestions and comments; John Cowan, for his extensive comments, his exemplary trailblazing of Lojban grammar, and for solving the
diff --git a/todocbook/2.xml b/todocbook/2.xml
index c0c312d..9f13b65 100644
--- a/todocbook/2.xml
+++ b/todocbook/2.xml
@@ -504,21 +504,21 @@
<para>Note that only the first and third sumti have switched places; the second sumti has remained in the second place.</para>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>ve</quote> and
<quote>xe</quote> switch the first and fourth sumti places, and the first and fifth sumti places, respectively. These changes in the order of places are known as
<quote>conversions</quote>, and the
<quote>se</quote>,
<quote>te</quote>,
<quote>ve</quote>, and
<quote>xe</quote> cmavo are said to convert the selbri.</para>
<para>More than one of these operators may be used on a given selbri at one time, and in such a case they are evaluated from left to right. However, in practice they are used one at a time, as there are better tools for complex manipulation of the sumti places. See
- <xref linkend="selbri" /> for details.</para>
+ <xref linkend="chapter-selbri" /> for details.</para>
<para>The effect is similar to what in English is called the
<quote>passive voice</quote>. In Lojban, the converted selbri has a new place structure that is renumbered to reflect the place reversal, thus having effects when such a conversion is used in combination with other constructs such as
<!-- ^^ passive voice, 16 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>passive voice</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ converted selbri: as different selbri from unconverted, 192; as resetting standard order, 193; compared with selbri with FA in meaning, 193; contrasted with other similar selbri, 193; contrasted with selbri with FA in structure, 193; definition, 192; forming with SE, 192; in descriptions, 193; place structure of, 192; retention of basic meaning in, 193; to access non-first place in description, 193 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>converted selbri</primary></indexterm>
<quote>le selbri [ku]</quote>(see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter2-section10" />).</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter2-section8">
@@ -1487,21 +1487,21 @@
<term>sumti:</term>
<listitem>
<para>argument; words identifying something which stands in a specified relationship to something else, or which has a specified property. See
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6" />.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>selbri:</term>
<listitem>
<para>logical predicate; the core of a bridi; the word or words specifying the relationship between the objects referred to by the sumti. See
- <xref linkend="selbri" />.</para>
+ <xref linkend="chapter-selbri" />.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>cmavo:</term>
<listitem>
<para>one of the Lojban parts of speech; a short word; a structural word; a word used for its grammatical function.</para>
<!-- ^^ parts of speech, 50 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>parts of speech</primary></indexterm>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
@@ -1542,21 +1542,21 @@
<term>rafsi:</term>
<listitem>
<para>a word fragment; one or more is associated with each gismu; can be assembled according to rules in order to make lujvo; not a valid word by itself. See
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4" />.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>tanru:</term>
<listitem>
<para>a group of two or more brivla, possibly with associated cmavo, that form a selbri; always divisible into two parts, with the first part modifying the meaning of the second part (which is taken to be basic). See
- <xref linkend="selbri" />.</para>
+ <xref linkend="chapter-selbri" />.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>selma'o:</term>
<listitem>
<para>a group of cmavo that have the same grammatical use (can appear interchangeably in sentences, as far as the grammar is concerned) but differ in meaning or other usage. See
<xref linkend="cll_chapter20" />.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
diff --git a/todocbook/4.xml b/todocbook/4.xml
index 1b22c13..e07696f 100644
--- a/todocbook/4.xml
+++ b/todocbook/4.xml
@@ -188,21 +188,21 @@
<indexterm type="general"><primary>punctuation marks</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ prepositions: cmavo as Lojban equivalents, 50 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>prepositions</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ hundred: expressing as number, 432 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>hundred</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ conjunctions: cmavo as Lojban equivalents, 50 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>conjunctions</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ articles: cmavo as Lojban equivalents, 50 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>articles</primary></indexterm>
<quote>selma'o</quote>, each having a specifically defined grammatical usage. The various selma'o are discussed throughout
- <xref linkend="selbri" /> to
+ <xref linkend="chapter-selbri" /> to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19" /> and summarized in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter20" />.</para>
<para>Standard cmavo occur in four forms defined by their word structure. Here are some examples of the various forms:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>V-form .a .e .i</cmavo>
<selmaho>.o</selmaho>
<description>.u</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
@@ -572,21 +572,21 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>skami pilno</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is the tanru which expresses the concept of
<quote>computer user</quote>.</para>
<para>The simplest Lojban tanru are pairings of two concepts or ideas. Such tanru take two simpler ideas that can be represented by gismu and combine them into a single more complex idea. Two-part tanru may then be recombined in pairs with other tanru, or with individual gismu, to form more complex or more specific ideas, and so on.</para>
<para>The meaning of a tanru is usually at least partly ambiguous:
<quote>skami pilno</quote> could refer to a computer that is a user, or to a user of computers. There are a variety of ways that the modifier component can be related to the modified component. It is also possible to use cmavo within tanru to provide variations (or to prevent ambiguities) of meaning.</para>
<para>Making tanru is essentially a poetic or creative act, not a science. While the syntax expressing the grouping relationships within tanru is unambiguous, tanru are still semantically ambiguous, since the rules defining the relationships between the gismu are flexible. The process of devising a new tanru is dealt with in detail in
- <xref linkend="selbri" />.</para>
+ <xref linkend="chapter-selbri" />.</para>
<para>To express a simple tanru, simply say the component gismu together. Thus the binary metaphor
<quote>big boat</quote> becomes the tanru</para>
<!-- ^^ big boat: example, 55 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>big boat</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-oLE3">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e5d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section5-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1943,21 +1943,21 @@
<!-- ^^ Zipf's Law, 69 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Zipf's Law</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ basis: example, 317 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>basis</primary></indexterm>
<para>This doesn't lead to ambiguity, as it might seem to. A given lujvo still has exactly one meaning and place structure. It is just that more than one tanru is competing for the same lujvo. But more than one meaning for the tanru was already competing for the
<quote>right</quote> to define the meaning of the lujvo. Someone has to use judgment in deciding which one meaning is to be chosen over the others.</para>
<para>If the lujvo made by a shorter form of tanru is in use, or is likely to be useful for another meaning, the decider then retains one or more of the cmavo, preferably ones that set this meaning apart from the shorter form meaning that is used or anticipated. As a rule, therefore, the shorter lujvo will be used for a more general concept, possibly even instead of a more frequent word. If both words are needed, the simpler one should be shorter. It is easier to add a cmavo to clarify the meaning of the more complex term than it is to find a good alternate tanru for the simpler term.</para>
<!-- ^^ anticipated: example, 316 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>anticipated</primary></indexterm>
<para>And of course, we have to consider the listener. On hearing an unknown word, the listener will decompose it and get a tanru that makes no sense or the wrong sense for the context. If the listener realizes that the grouping operators may have been dropped out, he or she may try alternate groupings, or try inserting an abstraction operator if that seems plausible. (The grouping of tanru is explained in
- <xref linkend="selbri" />; abstraction is explained in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-selbri" />; abstraction is explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11" />.) Plausibility is the key to learning new ideas and to evaluating unfamiliar lujvo.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter4-section11">
<title>The lujvo-making algorithm</title>
<para>The following is the current algorithm for generating Lojban lujvo given a known tanru and a complete list of gismu and their assigned rafsi. The algorithm was designed by Bob LeChevalier and Dr. James Cooke Brown for computer program implementation. It was modified in 1989 with the assistance of Nora LeChevalier, who detected a flaw in the original
<!-- ^^ Brown: James Cooke, 6; James Cooke, and "letteral", 413 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>Brown</primary></indexterm>
<quote>tosmabru test</quote>.</para>
<!-- ^^ tosmabru test, 71 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>tosmabru test</primary></indexterm>
diff --git a/todocbook/5.xml b/todocbook/5.xml
index 658f1ed..c7dc375 100644
--- a/todocbook/5.xml
+++ b/todocbook/5.xml
@@ -1,13 +1,13 @@
<chapter xml:id="selbri">
<title><quote>Pretty Little Girls' School</quote>: The Structure Of Lojban selbri</title>
- <section xml:id="brivla">
+ <section xml:id="section-brivla">
<title>Lojban content words: brivla</title>
<para>At the center, logically and often physically, of every Lojban bridi is one or more words which constitute the selbri. A bridi expresses a relationship between things: the selbri specifies which relationship is referred to. The difference between:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-do-mamta-mi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e1d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section1-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do mamta mi</jbo>
<gloss>You are-a-mother-of me</gloss>
@@ -322,21 +322,21 @@
<quote>big-dog catcher</quote>(presumably someone who catches only big dogs).</para>
<para>Analysis of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section3-example4" /> and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section3-example5" /> reveals a tanru nested within a tanru. In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section3-example4" />, the main tanru has a seltau of
<jbophrase>cmalu</jbophrase> and a tertau of
<jbophrase>nixli bo ckule</jbophrase>; the tertau is itself a tanru with
<jbophrase>nixli</jbophrase> as the seltau and
<jbophrase>ckule</jbophrase> as the tertau. In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section3-example5" />, on the other hand, the seltau is
- <jbophrase>cmalu bo nixli</jbophrase>(itself a tanru), whereas the tertau is
+ <jbophrase>cmalu bo nixli</jbophrase> (itself a tanru), whereas the tertau is
<jbophrase>ckule</jbophrase>.
<indexterm type="general"><primary>tanru nested within tanru</primary></indexterm>
This structure of tanru nested within tanru forms the basis for all the more
complex types of selbri that will be explained below.</para>
<para>What about
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section3-example6" />? What does it mean?</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-9FPm">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e3d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section3-example6" />
diff --git a/todocbook/6.xml b/todocbook/6.xml
index 7922a37..8fd6614 100644
--- a/todocbook/6.xml
+++ b/todocbook/6.xml
@@ -1204,21 +1204,21 @@
<jbo>mi ponse su'o ci lo cutci</jbo>
<gloss>I possess at-least three things-which-really-are shoes</gloss>
<en>I own three (or more) shoes.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter6-section9">
<title>sumti-based descriptions</title>
<para>As stated in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section2" />, most descriptions consist of just a descriptor and a selbri. (In this chapter, the selbri have always been single gismu, but of course any selbri, however complex, can be employed in a description. The syntax and semantics of selbri are explained in
- <xref linkend="selbri" />.) In the intervening sections, inner and outer quantifiers have been added to the syntax. Now it is time to discuss a description of a radically different kind: the sumti-based description.</para>
+ <xref linkend="chapter-selbri" />.) In the intervening sections, inner and outer quantifiers have been added to the syntax. Now it is time to discuss a description of a radically different kind: the sumti-based description.</para>
<!-- ^^ sumti-based description: definition, 132; inner quantifier on, 132; outer quantifier on, 132 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>sumti-based description</primary></indexterm>
<para>A sumti-based description has a sumti where the selbri would normally be, and the inner quantifier is required - it cannot be implicit. An outer quantifier is permitted but not required.</para>
<!-- ^^ sumti-based description: definition, 132; inner quantifier on, 132; outer quantifier on, 132 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>sumti-based description</primary></indexterm>
<para>A full theory of sumti-based descriptions has yet to be worked out. One common case, however, is well understood. Compare the following:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-aJEh">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e9d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section9-example1" />
diff --git a/todocbook/9.xml b/todocbook/9.xml
index 60cbe53..4bed1a4 100644
--- a/todocbook/9.xml
+++ b/todocbook/9.xml
@@ -616,21 +616,21 @@
<quote>se ke blanu zdani [ke'e]</quote> is therefore:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
x1 is the inhabitant of the blue house (etc.) x2
</programlisting>
<para>Consequently,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section4-example8" /> means:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
I am the inhabitant of the blue house which is this thing.
</programlisting>
<para>Conversion applied to only part of a tanru has subtler effects which are explained in
- <xref linkend="selbri" />.</para>
+ <xref linkend="chapter-selbri" />.</para>
<para>It is grammatical to convert a selbri more than once with SE; later (inner) conversions are applied before earlier (outer) ones. For example, the place structure of
<quote>se te klama</quote> is achieved by exchanging the x1 and x2 place of
<!-- ^^ se te, 194 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>se te</primary></indexterm>
<quote>te klama</quote>, producing:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
x1 is the destination and x2 is the origin of x3 going via x4 using x5
<!-- ^^ the destination: example, 193 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>the destination</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
@@ -904,21 +904,21 @@
<en>A man of the north came to the city.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here
<quote>le berti</quote> is provided as a modal place of the selbri
<quote>nanmu</quote>, but its exact significance is vague, and is paralleled in the colloquial translation by the vague English preposition
<quote>of</quote>.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section6-example7" /> also illustrates a modal place bound into a selbri with
<quote>be</quote>. This construction is useful when the selbri of a description requires a modal place; this and other uses of
<quote>be</quote> are more fully explained in
- <xref linkend="selbri" />.</para>
+ <xref linkend="chapter-selbri" />.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter9-section7">
<title>Modal sentence connection: the causals</title>
<!-- ^^ causals: claiming the relation contrasted with claiming cause and/or effect and/or relation, 198; gismu, 197; modal, 197 -->
<indexterm type="general"><primary>causals</primary></indexterm>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ri'a</cmavo>
<selmaho>BAI</selmaho>
diff --git a/todocbook/Makefile b/todocbook/Makefile
index 6bfadf5..b9f6d09 100644
--- a/todocbook/Makefile
+++ b/todocbook/Makefile
@@ -1,30 +1,12 @@
web: html/index.html
cp docbook2html.css html/
rm -rf ~/www/public_media/docbook-cll-test
cp -pr html ~/www/public_media/docbook-cll-test
html/index.html: cll.xml
- xsltproc --path . --novalid docbook2html_preprocess.xsl cll.xml > cll_processed.xml
- xmlto -m docbook2html_config.xsl -o html/ html cll_processed.xml 2>&1 | grep -v 'No localization exists for "jbo" or "". Using default "en".'
+ xsltproc --nonet --path . --novalid docbook2html_preprocess.xsl cll.xml > cll_processed.xml
+ xmlto -m docbook2html_config.xsl -o html/ xhtml cll_processed.xml 2>&1 | grep -v 'No localization exists for "jbo" or "". Using default "en".'
cll.xml: 1.xml 2.xml 3.xml 4.xml 5.xml 6.xml 7.xml 8.xml 9.xml 10.xml 11.xml 12.xml 13.xml 14.xml 15.xml 16.xml 17.xml 18.xml 19.xml 20.xml 21.xml
- merge.sh
-
-webt: webt.touch
- cp docbook2html.css html/
- rm -rf ~/www/public_media/docbook-cll-test
- cp -pr html ~/www/public_media/docbook-cll-test
- touch webt.touch
-
-webt.touch: testing.xml
- xsltproc --path . --novalid docbook2html_preprocess.xsl testing.xml > testing2.xml
- xmlto -m docbook2html_config.xsl -o html/ html testing2.xml
-
-me: testing.xml
- xsltproc --path . --novalid make_examples.xsl testing.xml | \
- sed -e 's/\(<jbo>\)[0-9.]*)*\s*/\n\1/g' | \
- sed -e 's/\(<en>\)[0-9.]*)*\s*/\n\1/g' | \
- sed -e 's/\(<gloss>\)[0-9.]*)*\s*/\n\1/g' | \
- perl -ple 'my $$rand=qx{makepasswd --chars=4}; chomp($$rand); s/RANDOM/$$rand/g;' | \
- cat > testing2.xml
+ merge.sh [0-9]*.xml
diff --git a/todocbook/TODO b/todocbook/TODO
index b4a46ce..90e8647 100644
--- a/todocbook/TODO
+++ b/todocbook/TODO
@@ -27,38 +27,42 @@ becomes:
<title><quote>Pretty Little Girls' School</quote>: The Structure Of Lojban selbri</title>
Make sure the <interlinear-gloss> bits look right (which is why the
columns are so spaced out).
------
Fix IDs/tags. A command like the following should do the trick:
- sed -i 's/"cll_chapter5"/"selbri"/g' [0-9]*.xml
+ sed -i 's/"cll_chapter5"/"chapter-selbri"/g' [0-9]*.xml
BUT FIRST: check that it doesn't already exist:
- grep '"selbri"' [0-9]*.xml
+ grep '"chapter-selbri"' [0-9]*.xml
because duplicates would really suck.
Please run "git diff" afterwards to make sure it did what you
expected. Check in as often as you like (to make the diffs
manageable).
We want short and meaningful; these are used to make file names and
so on. If multi-word, please make a slug (see
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slug_%28web_publishing%29 ); we are
using - based slugs rather than _ based, so drop all special
characters, lowercase, replace space with -.
+Make sure that the ids for chapters have "chapter-" at the start,
+"section-" for the sections, and "example-" for the examples; we
+might need them for auto-processing.
+
Do this for all sections. Feel free to do it for examples too if an
example has an obvious title, but it's much less important there, so
not worth spending time on for the first pass.
The important thing here is that *NOTHING* mentions a fixed number!
*NOWHERE* in the docbook should *ANYTHING* be aware that it is in
chapter 20 or section 7 or anything like that. This is to give us
the freedom to move things around later.
Numeric-based stuff will all be autogenerated during processing,
diff --git a/todocbook/generate_glossary.sh b/todocbook/generate_glossary.sh
index 876d8cc..e085966 100755
--- a/todocbook/generate_glossary.sh
+++ b/todocbook/generate_glossary.sh
@@ -9,21 +9,21 @@ definitions. These definitions are here simply as a quick reference.
</para>
<!-- THIS FILE IS AUTOGENERATED. DO NOT EDIT OR CHECK IN! -->
EOF
IFS='
'
initial=''
indiv=''
-for line in $(xsltproc --path . --novalid generate_glossary.xsl cll_preglossary.xml | grep -P '\t' | sort | uniq)
+for line in $(xsltproc --nonet --path . --novalid generate_glossary.xsl cll_preglossary.xml | grep -P '\t' | sort | uniq)
do
slug=$(echo $line | awk -F'\t' '{ print $1 }')
word=$(echo $line | awk -F'\t' '{ print $2 }')
# echo "$slug--$word"
newinitial=$(echo $word | cut -c 1)
if [ "$initial" != "$newinitial" ]
then
if [ "$indiv" ]
then
diff --git a/todocbook/merge.sh b/todocbook/merge.sh
index 2d03de2..4588085 100755
--- a/todocbook/merge.sh
+++ b/todocbook/merge.sh
@@ -3,23 +3,29 @@
echo '<?xml version="1.0"?>
<!DOCTYPE book PUBLIC "-//OASIS//DTD DocBook XML V5.0//EN"
"dtd/docbook-5.0.dtd">
<book xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink";>
<!-- THIS FILE IS AUTOGENERATED. DO NOT EDIT OR CHECK IN! -->
' >cll.xml
-for dir in $(ls .. | grep -P '^[0-9]+/?$' | sort -n | sed -e 's;/*$;;' -e 's;.*/;;')
+if [ "$1" == "-t" ]
+then
+ echo "Entering testing mode: will replace all external xrefs in each chapter."
+fi
+<chapter xml:id="selbri">
+
+for file in $@
do
- cat $dir.xml >>cll.xml
+ cat $file >>cll.xml
done
cp cll.xml cll_preglossary.xml
echo '</book>' >>cll_preglossary.xml
generate_glossary.sh >>cll.xml
rm cll_preglossary.xml
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