[Date Prev][Date Next][Thread Prev][Thread Next][Date Index][Thread Index]
[bpfk] dag-cll git updates for Wed Dec 15 14:21:07 EST 2010
commit c20cbb7ef9dd8fd6d2f61cc34af070b43671bc2d
Author: Robin Lee Powell <rlpowell@digitalkingdom.org>
Date: Wed Dec 15 10:35:38 2010 -0800
Removal of inline section numbers. Minor CSS tweak.
diff --git a/todocbook/1.xml b/todocbook/1.xml
index d4ee435..4d49335 100644
--- a/todocbook/1.xml
+++ b/todocbook/1.xml
@@ -1,16 +1,16 @@
<chapter xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"; xml:id="cll_chapter1">
<title>Chapter 1 Lojban As We Mangle It In Lojbanistan: About This Book</title>
<!-- ^^ Lojbanistan, 4 -->
<indexterm><primary>Lojbanistan</primary></indexterm>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter1-section1">
- <title>1. What is Lojban?</title>
+ <title>What is Lojban?</title>
<para>Lojban (pronounced
<quote>LOZH-bahn</quote>) is a constructed language. Previous versions of the language were called
<quote>Loglan</quote>by Dr. James Cooke Brown, who founded the Loglan Project and started the development of the language in 1955. The goals for the language were first described in the open literature in the article
<!-- ^^ Brown: James Cooke, 6; James Cooke, and "letteral", 413 -->
<indexterm><primary>Brown</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ article, 498; number, 435 -->
<indexterm><primary>article</primary></indexterm>
<quote>Loglan</quote>, published in
<citation>Scientific American</citation>, June, 1960. Made well-known by that article and by occasional references in science fiction (most notably in Robert Heinlein's novel
<!-- ^^ article, 498; number, 435 -->
@@ -47,21 +47,21 @@
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Lojban has a variety of uses, ranging from the creative to the scientific, from the theoretical to the practical.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Lojban has been demonstrated in translation and in original works of prose and poetry.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter1-section2">
- <title>2. What is this book?</title>
+ <title>What is this book?</title>
<para>This book is what is called a
<quote>reference grammar</quote>. It attempts to expound the whole Lojban language, or at least as much of it as is understood at present. Lojban is a rich language with many features, and an attempt has been made to discover the functions of those features. The word
<!-- ^^ reference grammar, 3 -->
<indexterm><primary>reference grammar</primary></indexterm>
<quote>discover</quote>is used advisedly; Lojban was not
<quote>invented</quote>by any one person or committee. Often, grammatical features were introduced into the language long before their usage was fully understood. Sometimes they were introduced for one reason, only to prove more useful for other reasons not recognized at the time.</para>
<para>By intention, this book is complete in description but not in explanation. For every rule in the formal Lojban grammar (given in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter21" />), there is a bit of explanation and an example somewhere in the book, and often a great deal more than a bit. In essence,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter2" />gives a brief overview of the language,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter21" />gives the formal structure of the language, and the chapters in between put semantic flesh on those formal bones. I hope that eventually more grammatical material founded on (or even correcting) the explanations in this book will become available.</para>
@@ -74,21 +74,21 @@
<!-- ^^ reference grammar, 3 -->
<indexterm><primary>reference grammar</primary></indexterm>
<quote>Lojbanistan</quote>is both an imaginary country where Lojban is the native language, and a term for the actual community of Lojban-speakers, scattered over the world. Why
<!-- ^^ Lojbanistan, 4 -->
<indexterm><primary>Lojbanistan</primary></indexterm>
<quote>mangle</quote>? As yet, nobody in the real Lojbanistan speaks the language at all well, by the standards of the imaginary Lojbanistan; that is one of the circumstances this book is meant to help remedy.</para>
<!-- ^^ Lojbanistan, 4 -->
<indexterm><primary>Lojbanistan</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter1-section3">
- <title>3. What are the typographical conventions of this book?</title>
+ <title>What are the typographical conventions of this book?</title>
<!-- ^^ typographical conventions, 4 -->
<indexterm><primary>typographical conventions</primary></indexterm>
<para>Each chapter is broken into numbered sections; each section contains a mixture of expository text, numbered examples, and possibly tables.</para>
<para>The reader will notice a certain similarity in the examples used throughout the book. One chapter after another rings the changes on the self-same sentences:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-hrtj">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c1e3d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter1-section3-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -111,26 +111,26 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter3" />, square brackets surround phonetic representations in the International Phonetic Alphabet.</para>
<!-- ^^ square brackets: use of in notation, 5 -->
<indexterm><primary>square brackets</primary></indexterm>
<para>Many of the tables, especially those placed at the head of various sections, are in three columns. The first column contains Lojban words discussed in that section; the second column contains the grammatical category (represented by an UPPER CASE Lojban word) to which the word belongs, and the third column contains a brief English gloss, not necessarily or typically a full explanation. Other tables are explained in context.</para>
<para>A few Lojban words are used in this book as technical terms. All of these are explained in
<!-- ^^ technical terms, 5 -->
<indexterm><primary>technical terms</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter2" />, except for a few used only in single chapters, which are explained in the introductory sections of those chapters.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter1-section4">
- <title>4. Disclaimers</title>
+ <title>Disclaimers</title>
<para>It is necessary to add, alas, that the examples used in this book do not refer to any existing person, place, or institution, and that any such resemblance is entirely coincidental and unintentional, and not intended to give offense.</para>
<para>When definitions and place structures of gismu, and especially of lujvo, are given in this book, they may differ from those given in the English-Lojban dictionary (which, as of this writing, is not yet published). If so, the information given in the dictionary supersedes whatever is given here.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter1-section5">
- <title>5. Acknowledgements and Credits</title>
+ <title>Acknowledgements and Credits</title>
<para>Although the bulk of this book was written for the Logical Language Group (LLG) by John Cowan, who is represented by the occasional authorial
<!-- ^^ LLG, 5 -->
<indexterm><primary>LLG</primary></indexterm>
<quote>I</quote>, certain chapters were first written by others and then heavily edited by me to fit into this book.</para>
<para>In particular:
<xref linkend="cll_chapter2" />is a fusion of originally separate documents, one by Athelstan, and one by Nora Tansky LeChevalier and Bob LeChevalier;
<xref linkend="cll_chapter3" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4" />were originally written by Bob LeChevalier with contributions by Chuck Barton;
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12" />was originally written (in much longer form) by Nick Nicholas; the dialogue near the end of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13" />was contributed by Nora Tansky LeChevalier;
@@ -153,41 +153,41 @@
<quote>pc</quote>), and Nora Tansky LeChevalier.</para>
<para>Nick Nicholas (NSN) would like to thank the following Lojbanists: Mark Shoulson, Veijo Vilva, Colin Fine, And Rosta, and Iain Alexander for their suggestions and comments; John Cowan, for his extensive comments, his exemplary trailblazing of Lojban grammar, and for solving the
<quote>manskapi</quote>dilemma for NSN; Jorge Llambias, for his even more extensive comments, and for forcing NSN to think more than he was inclined to; Bob LeChevalier, for his skeptical overview of the issue, his encouragement, and for scouring all Lojban text his computer has been burdened with for lujvo; Nora Tansky LeChevalier, for writing the program converting old rafsi text to new rafsi text, and sparing NSN from embarrassing errors; and Jim Carter, for his dogged persistence in analyzing lujvo algorithmically, which inspired this research, and for first identifying the three lujvo classes.</para>
<!-- ^^ converting: operand to operator, 500; operator to selbri, 502; quantifier to selbri, 500; selbri to operand, 501; selbri to operator, 501; sumti to operand, 500; sumti to tanru unit, 500 -->
<indexterm><primary>converting</primary></indexterm>
<para>Of course, the entire Loglan Project owes a considerable debt to James Cooke Brown as the language inventor, and also to several earlier contributors to the development of the language. Especially noteworthy are Doug Landauer, Jeff Prothero, Scott Layson, Jeff Taylor, and Bob McIvor. Final responsibility for the remaining errors and infelicities is solely mine.</para>
<!-- ^^ Brown: James Cooke, 6; James Cooke, and "letteral", 413 -->
<indexterm><primary>Brown</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter1-section6">
- <title>6. Informal Bibliography</title>
+ <title>Informal Bibliography</title>
<para>The founding document for the Loglan Project, of which this book is one of the products, is
<citation>Loglan 1: A Logical Language</citation>by James Cooke Brown (4th ed. 1989, The Loglan Institute, Gainesville, Florida, U.S.A.) The language described therein is not Lojban, but is very close to it and may be considered an ancestral version. It is regrettably necessary to state that nothing in this book has been approved by Dr. Brown, and that the very existence of Lojban is disapproved of by him.</para>
<!-- ^^ Brown: James Cooke, 6; James Cooke, and "letteral", 413 -->
<indexterm><primary>Brown</primary></indexterm>
<para>The logic of Lojban, such as it is, owes a good deal to the American philosopher W. v.O. Quine, especially
<citation>Word and Object</citation>(1960, M.I.T. Press). Much of Quine's philosophical writings, especially on observation sentences, reads like a literal translation from Lojban.</para>
<!-- ^^ observation: example, 316 -->
<indexterm><primary>observation</primary></indexterm>
<para>The theory of negation expounded in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15" />is derived from a reading of Larry Horn's work
<citation>The Natural History of Negation</citation>.</para>
<para>Of course, neither Brown nor Quine nor Horn is in any way responsible for the uses or misuses I have made of their works.</para>
<!-- ^^ Brown: James Cooke, 6; James Cooke, and "letteral", 413 -->
<indexterm><primary>Brown</primary></indexterm>
<para>Depending on just when you are reading this book, there may be three other books about Lojban available: a textbook, a Lojban/English dictionary, and a book containing general information about Lojban. You can probably get these books, if they have been published, from the same place where you got this book. In addition, other books not yet foreseen may also exist.</para>
<!-- ^^ books about Lojban, 6 -->
<indexterm><primary>books about Lojban</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter1-section7">
- <title>7. Captions to Pictures</title>
+ <title>Captions to Pictures</title>
<para>The following examples list the Lojban caption, with a translation, for the picture at the head of each chapter. If a chapter's picture has no caption,
<quote>(none)</quote>is specified instead.</para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>
<anchor xml:id="c1" />
<mediaobject>
<alt>The picture for chapter 1</alt>
<imageobject>
<imagedata fileref="chapter1.gif" />
@@ -512,21 +512,21 @@ no no
<mediaobject>
<alt>The picture for chapter 21</alt>
<imageobject>
<imagedata fileref="chapter21.gif" />
</imageobject>
</mediaobject>has no text.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter1-section8">
- <title>8. Boring Legalities</title>
+ <title>Boring Legalities</title>
<para>Copyright © 1997 by The Logical Language Group, Inc. All Rights Reserved.</para>
<para>Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this book, either in electronic or in printed form, provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are preserved on all copies.</para>
<para>Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this book, provided that the modifications are clearly marked as such, and provided that the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission notice identical to this one.</para>
<para>Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this book into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions, except that this permission notice may be stated in a translation that has been approved by the Logical Language Group, rather than in English.</para>
<para>The contents of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter21" />are in the public domain.</para>
<para>For information, contact: The Logical Language Group, 2904 Beau Lane, Fairfax VA 22031-1303 USA Telephone 703-385-0273. Electronic address:
<link xlink:href="mailto:llg-board@lojban.org";>llg-board@lojban.org</link>World Wide Web:
<link xlink:href="http://www.lojban.org";>http://www.lojban.org</link></para>
</section>
diff --git a/todocbook/10.xml b/todocbook/10.xml
index ade4eb0..64c825f 100644
--- a/todocbook/10.xml
+++ b/todocbook/10.xml
@@ -1,14 +1,14 @@
<chapter xml:id="cll_chapter10">
<title>Chapter 10 Imaginary Journeys: The Lojban Space/Time Tense System</title>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section1">
- <title>1. Introductory</title>
+ <title>Introductory</title>
<para>This chapter attempts to document and explain the space/time tense system of Lojban. It does not attempt to answer all questions of the form
<!-- ^^ tense system: and space location, 215 -->
<indexterm><primary>tense system</primary></indexterm>
<quote>How do I say such-and-such (an English tense) in Lojban?</quote>Instead, it explores the Lojban tense system from the inside, attempting to educate the reader into a Lojbanic viewpoint. Once the overall system is understood and the resources that it makes available are familiar, the reader should have some hope of using appropriate tense constructs and being correctly understood.</para>
<!-- ^^ tense system: and space location, 215 -->
<indexterm><primary>tense system</primary></indexterm>
<para>The system of Lojban tenses presented here may seem really complex because of all the pieces and all the options; indeed, this chapter is the longest one in this book. But tense is in fact complex in every language. In your native language, the subtleties of tense are intuitive. In foreign languages, you are seldom taught the entire system until you have reached an advanced level. Lojban tenses are extremely systematic and productive, allowing you to express subtleties based on what they mean rather than on how they act similarly to English tenses. This chapter concentrates on presenting an intuitive approach to the meaning of Lojban tense words and how they may be creatively and productively combined.</para>
<para>What is
<quote>tense</quote>? Historically,
<quote>tense</quote>is the attribute of verbs in English and related languages that expresses the time of the action. In English, three tenses are traditionally recognized, conventionally called the past, the present, and the future. There are also a variety of compound tenses used in English. However, there is no simple relationship between the form of an English tense and the time actually expressed:</para>
@@ -108,21 +108,21 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section1-example2" />through
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section1-example5" />are different only in emphasis. Abnormal order, such as
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section1-example3" />through
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section1-example5" />exhibit, adds emphasis to the words that have been moved; in this case, the tense cmavo
<quote>pu</quote>. Words at either end of the sentence tend to be more noticeable.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section2">
- <title>2. Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA</title>
+ <title>Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>vi</cmavo>
<selmaho>VA</selmaho>
<description>short distance</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>va</cmavo>
<selmaho>VA</selmaho>
@@ -255,21 +255,21 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section2-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>zu'aviku le nanmu cu batci le gerku</jbo>
<gloss>[Left] [short distance] the man bites the dog.</gloss>
<en>Slightly to my left, the man bites the dog.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section3">
- <title>3. Compound spatial tenses</title>
+ <title>Compound spatial tenses</title>
<para>Humph, says the reader: this talk of
<quote>imaginary journeys</quote>is all very well, but what's the point of it? -
<quote>zu'a</quote>means
<quote>on the left</quote>and
<quote>vi</quote>means
<quote>nearby</quote>, and there's no more to be said. The imaginary-journey model becomes more useful when so-called compound tenses are involved. A compound tense is exactly like a simple tense, but has several FAhAs run together:</para>
<!-- ^^ compound tense: compared with multiple tenses in sentence, 234; compared with tense in scope of sticky tense, 234; definition, 218; Lojban contrasted with English in order of specification, 218 -->
<!-- ^^ tense in scope of sticky tense: compared with compound tense, 234 -->
<indexterm><primary>tense in scope of sticky tense</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ multiple tenses: effect of order in sentence, 235 -->
@@ -354,21 +354,21 @@
<gloss>bites the dog.</gloss>
<gloss>Within a place a long distance to the right of a place which is a medium</gloss>
<gloss>distance downward from a place a short distance in front of me,</gloss>
<en>the man bites the dog.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Whew! It's a good thing tense constructs are optional: having to say all that could certainly be painful. Note, however, how much shorter the Lojban version of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section3-example5" />is than the English version.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section4">
- <title>4. Temporal tenses: PU and ZI</title>
+ <title>Temporal tenses: PU and ZI</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>pu</cmavo>
<selmaho>PU</selmaho>
<description>past</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ca</cmavo>
<selmaho>PU</selmaho>
@@ -522,21 +522,21 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu batci le gerku puzuvuku</jbo>
<gloss>The man bites the dog [past] [long time] [long space].</gloss>
<en>The man bit the dog long ago and far away.</en>
<!-- ^^ long ago and far away: example, 220 -->
<indexterm><primary>long ago and far away</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section5">
- <title>5. Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA</title>
+ <title>Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ve'i</cmavo>
<selmaho>VEhA</selmaho>
<description>short space interval</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ve'a</cmavo>
<selmaho>VEhA</selmaho>
@@ -693,21 +693,21 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta ri'u ve'ica'u finpe</jbo>
<gloss>That-there [right] [short space interval – front] is-a-fish.</gloss>
<en>That thing on my right extending forwards is a fish.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the space interval occupied by the fish extends from a point on my right to another point in front of the first point.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section6">
- <title>6. Vague intervals and non-specific tenses</title>
+ <title>Vague intervals and non-specific tenses</title>
<para>What is the significance of failing to specify an interval size of the type discussed in
<!-- ^^ interval size: as context-dependent, 222; meaning as sumti tcita, 233; spatial, 506; time, 507; unspecified, 223; vague, 223 -->
<indexterm><primary>interval size</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section5" />? The Lojban rule is that if no interval size is given, the size of the space or time interval is left vague by the speaker. For example:</para>
<!-- ^^ interval size: as context-dependent, 222; meaning as sumti tcita, 233; spatial, 506; time, 507; unspecified, 223; vague, 223 -->
<indexterm><primary>interval size</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-naft">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e6d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section6-example1" />
@@ -748,21 +748,21 @@
<para>does not imply (as the colloquial English translation does) that the tree is not green now. The vague interval throughout which the tree is, in fact, green may have already started.</para>
<para>This general principle does not mean that Lojban has no way of indicating that a tree will be green but is not yet green. Indeed, there are several ways of expressing that concept: see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section10" />(event contours) and
<!-- ^^ event contours: achievative, 230; as characteristic portions of events, 228; as sumti tcita, 232; as timeless in perspective, 228; cessative, 229; completitive, 229; continuitive, 228; contrasted with tense direction in implication of extent, 229; definition, 228; division of the event into, 229; implications on scope of event, 229; inchoative, 228; initiative, 229; interruption, 229; order with respect to TAhE and ROI, 228; pausative, 229; perfective, 229; points associated with, 229; resumption, 229; resumptive, 229; strings of, 246; superfective, 230; syntax of, 228; temporal contrasted with spatial, 231 -->
<!-- ^^ tense direction: as sumti tcita, 232; contrasted with event contours in implication of extent, 229; implications on scope of event, 223 -->
<indexterm><primary>tense direction</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm><primary>event contours</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section20" />(logical connection between tenses).</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section7">
- <title>7. Dimensionality: VIhA</title>
+ <title>Dimensionality: VIhA</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>vi'i</cmavo>
<selmaho>VIhA</selmaho>
<description>on a line</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>vi'a</cmavo>
<!-- ^^ vi'a, 224 -->
@@ -831,21 +831,21 @@
<quote>futureward</quote>considered as space rather than time directions - they could be added, though, if Lojbanists find space-time expression useful.) If a temporal tense cmavo is used in the same tense construct with a
<!-- ^^ temporal tense: as mandatory in English, 215; compared with spatial tense in elidability, 217; historical definition, 215; interaction with 4-dimensional spatial tense, 224; Lojban contrasted with English in necessity, 215; order relative to spatial, 219; quantified with direction, 227; real relationship to time in English, 215 -->
<indexterm><primary>temporal tense</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ futureward: as a spatial tense, 224 -->
<indexterm><primary>futureward</primary></indexterm>
<quote>vi'e</quote>interval, the resulting tense may be self-contradictory.</para>
<!-- ^^ vi'e, 224 -->
<indexterm><primary>vi'e</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section8">
- <title>8. Movement in space: MOhI</title>
+ <title>Movement in space: MOhI</title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>mo'i</cmavo>
<selmaho>MOhI</selmaho>
<description>movement flag</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>All the information carried by the tense constructs so far presented has been presumed to be static: the bridi is occurring somewhere or other in space and time, more or less remote from the speaker. Suppose the truth of the bridi itself depends on the result of a movement, or represents an action being done while the speaker is moving? This too can be represented by the tense system, using the cmavo
<!-- ^^ tense system: and space location, 215 -->
@@ -937,21 +937,21 @@
<gloss>I [movement] [front] [long] eat my meal.</gloss>
<en>While moving a long way forward, I eat my meal.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(Perhaps I am eating in an airplane.)</para>
<para>There is no parallel facility in Lojban at present for expressing movement in time - time travel - but one could be added easily if it ever becomes useful.</para>
<!-- ^^ time travel, 225 -->
<indexterm><primary>time travel</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section9">
- <title>9. Interval properties: TAhE and
+ <title>Interval properties: TAhE and
<quote>roi</quote></title>
<!-- ^^ roi, 226, 458 -->
<indexterm><primary>roi</primary></indexterm>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
di'i TAhE regularly
<!-- ^^ di'i, 226 -->
<indexterm><primary>di'i</primary></indexterm>
na'o TAhE typically
<!-- ^^ na'o, 226 -->
@@ -1210,21 +1210,21 @@
<!-- ^^ ze'e, 227; effect on following PU direction, 227 -->
<indexterm><primary>ze'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ve'e</quote>, and it can be used in the same way with a quantified space tense: see
<!-- ^^ ve'e, 228 -->
<indexterm><primary>ve'e</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ quantified space, 228 -->
<indexterm><primary>quantified space</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section11" />for an explanation of space interval modifiers.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section10">
- <title>10. Event contours: ZAhO and
+ <title>Event contours: ZAhO and
<quote>re'u</quote></title>
<!-- ^^ re'u, 230 -->
<indexterm><primary>re'u</primary></indexterm>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>pu'o</cmavo>
<selmaho>ZAhO</selmaho>
<description>inchoative</description>
</cmavo-entry>
@@ -1539,21 +1539,21 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section10-example14" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi paroi pare'u klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [one time] [first time] go-to the store.</gloss>
<en>There is one occasion on which I go to the store for the first time.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section11">
- <title>11. Space interval modifiers: FEhE</title>
+ <title>Space interval modifiers: FEhE</title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>fe'e</cmavo>
<selmaho>FEhE</selmaho>
<description>space interval modifier flag</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>Like time intervals, space intervals can also be continuous, discontinuous, or repetitive. Rather than having a whole separate set of selma'o for space interval properties, we instead prefix the flag
<!-- ^^ interval properties: meaning as sumti tcita, 233; strings of, 246 -->
@@ -1633,21 +1633,21 @@
<!-- ^^ south face: example, 231 -->
<indexterm><primary>south face</primary></indexterm>
<quote>beginning</quote>and the north face is the
<quote>end</quote>, since the rock extends from south (near me) to north (away from me).</para>
<para>Many natural languages represent time by a space-based metaphor: in English, what is past is said to be
<quote>behind us</quote>. In other languages, the metaphor is reversed. Here, Lojban is representing space (or space interval modifiers) by a time-based metaphor: the choice of a FAhA cmavo following a VEhA cmavo indicates which direction is mapped onto the future. (The choice of future rather than past is arbitrary, but convenient for English-speakers.)</para>
<para>If both a TAhE (or ROI) and a ZAhO are present as space interval modifiers, the
<quote>fe'e</quote>flag must be prefixed to each.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section12">
- <title>12. Tenses as sumti tcita</title>
+ <title>Tenses as sumti tcita</title>
<para>So far, we have seen tenses only just before the selbri, or (equivalently in meaning) floating about the bridi with
<quote>ku</quote>. There is another major use for tenses in Lojban: as sumti tcita, or argument tags. A tense may be used to add spatial or temporal information to a bridi as, in effect, an additional place:</para>
<!-- ^^ temporal information: adding to a sentence with tense sumti tcita, 231 -->
<indexterm><primary>temporal information</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ argument tags: based on tenses (see also sumti tcita), 231 -->
<indexterm><primary>argument tags</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-v761">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e12d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section12-example1" />
@@ -1837,21 +1837,21 @@
<jbo>loi snime cu carvi ca le ze'u dunra</jbo>
<gloss>Some-of-the-mass-of snow rains [present] the [long time] winter.</gloss>
<en>Snow falls in the long winter.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>claims that during some part of the winter, which is long as winters go, snow falls.</para>
<!-- ^^ snow falls: example, 233 -->
<indexterm><primary>snow falls</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section13">
- <title>13. Sticky and multiple tenses: KI</title>
+ <title>Sticky and multiple tenses: KI</title>
<!-- ^^ multiple tenses: effect of order in sentence, 235 -->
<indexterm><primary>multiple tenses</primary></indexterm>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ki</cmavo>
<selmaho>KI</selmaho>
<description>sticky tense set/reset</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
@@ -2031,21 +2031,21 @@
<quote>ki</quote>may also be used as a tense by itself. This cancels all stickiness and returns the bridi and all following bridi to the speaker's location in both space and time.</para>
<para>In complex descriptions, multiple tenses may be saved and then used by adding a subscript to
<!-- ^^ multiple tenses: effect of order in sentence, 235 -->
<indexterm><primary>multiple tenses</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ki</quote>. A time made sticky with
<quote>kixipa</quote>(ki-sub-1) can be returned to by specifying
<quote>kixipa</quote>as a tense by itself. In the case of written expression, the writer's here-and-now is often different from the reader's, and a pair of subscripted
<quote>ki</quote>tenses could be used to distinguish the two.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section14">
- <title>14. Story time</title>
+ <title>Story time</title>
<para>Making strict use of the conventions explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section13" />would be intolerably awkward when a story is being told. The time at which a story is told by the narrator is usually unimportant to the story. What matters is the flow of time within the story itself. The term
<quote>story</quote>in this section refers to any series of statements related in more-or-less time-sequential order, not just a fictional one.</para>
<para>Lojban speakers use a different set of conventions, commonly called
<quote>story time</quote>, for inferring tense within a story. It is presumed that the event described by each sentence takes place some time more or less after the previous ones. Therefore, tenseless sentences are implicitly tensed as
<!-- ^^ story time: as a convention for inferring tense, 236; definition, 236; rationale for, 236; tenseless sentences in, 236; with no initial sticky time, 237 -->
<indexterm><primary>story time</primary></indexterm>
<quote>what happens next</quote>. In particular, any sticky time setting is advanced by each sentence.</para>
<para>The following mini-story illustrates the important features of story time. A sentence-by-sentence explication follows:</para>
<!-- ^^ story time: as a convention for inferring tense, 236; definition, 236; rationale for, 236; tenseless sentences in, 236; with no initial sticky time, 237 -->
@@ -2138,21 +2138,21 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section14-example7" />are again tenseless, and so happen after
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section14-example5" />. (Story time is changed.)</para>
<para>So the overall order is 14.1 - 14.3 - 14.2 - 14.4 - (medium interval) - 14.5 - 14.6 - 14.7. It is also possible that 14.3 happens before 14.1.</para>
<para>If no sticky time (or space) is set initially, the story is set at an unspecified time (or space): the effect is like that of choosing an arbitrary reference point and making it sticky. This style is common in stories that are jokes. The same convention may be used if the context specifies the sticky time sufficiently.</para>
<!-- ^^ stories: flow of time in, 236 -->
<indexterm><primary>stories</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ jokes, 4 -->
<indexterm><primary>jokes</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section15">
- <title>15. Tenses in subordinate bridi</title>
+ <title>Tenses in subordinate bridi</title>
<para>English has a set of rules, formally known as
<quote>sequence of tense rules</quote>, for determining what tense should be used in a subordinate clause, depending on the tense used in the main sentence. Here are some examples:</para>
<!-- ^^ sequence of tense rules: Lojban contrasted with English, 238 -->
<indexterm><primary>sequence of tense rules</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-AVLX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e15d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section15-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e15d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section15-example2" />
@@ -2245,21 +2245,21 @@
<!-- ^^ had earlier: example, 234 -->
<indexterm><primary>had earlier</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The use of
<quote>nau</quote>does not affect sticky tenses.</para>
<!-- ^^ nau, 238; effect on sticky tenses, 238; syntax, 238 -->
<indexterm><primary>nau</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section16">
- <title>16. Tense relations between sentences</title>
+ <title>Tense relations between sentences</title>
<para>The sumti tcita method, explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section12" />, of asserting a tense relationship between two events suffers from asymmetry. Specifically,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-vreo">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e16d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section16-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le verba cu cadzu le bisli zu'a le nu le nanmu cu batci le gerku</jbo>
<gloss>The child walks-on the ice [left] the event-of the man bites the dog.</gloss>
@@ -2414,21 +2414,21 @@
<quote>mi klama le zarci</quote>and
<quote>mi klama le zdani</quote>are not claimed; only the relationship in time between them is claimed.</para>
<para>Both the forethought and the afterthought forms are appropriate with PU, ZI, FAhA, VA, and ZAhO tenses. In all cases, the equivalent forms are (where X and Y stand for sentences, and TENSE for a tense cmavo):</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
subordinate: X TENSE le nu Y
afterthought coordinate: Y .i+TENSE+bo X
forethought coordinate: TENSE+gi X gi Y
</programlisting>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section17">
- <title>17. Tensed logical connectives</title>
+ <title>Tensed logical connectives</title>
<para>The Lojban tense system interacts with the Lojban logical connective system. That system is a separate topic, explained in
<!-- ^^ tense system: and space location, 215 -->
<indexterm><primary>tense system</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14" />and touched on only in summary here. By the rules of the logical connective system,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section17-example1" />through 17.3 are equivalent in meaning:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-QyUo">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e17d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section17-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e17d2" />
@@ -2541,21 +2541,21 @@
<en>I carry the sack, and then the cat or the dog or both at once.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section17-example10" />through
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section17-example12" />are equivalent in meaning to each other, and correspond to the tenseless
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section17-example7" />through
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section17-example9" />respectively.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section18">
- <title>18. Tense negation</title>
+ <title>Tense negation</title>
<para>Any bridi which involves tenses of selma'o PU, FAhA, or ZAhO can be contradicted by a
<quote>-nai</quote>suffixed to the tense cmavo. Some examples:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-qXWF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e18d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section18-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi punai klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] [not] go-to the market.</gloss>
@@ -2630,21 +2630,21 @@
<jbo>le verba na'e ri'u cadzu le bisli</jbo>
<gloss>The child [non-] [right] walks-on the ice</gloss>
<en>The child walks on the ice other than to my right.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The use of
<quote>-nai</quote>on cmavo of TAhE and ROI has already been discussed in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section9" />; this use is also a scalar negation.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section19">
- <title>19. Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA</title>
+ <title>Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ca'a</cmavo>
<!-- ^^ ca'a, 243 -->
<indexterm><primary>ca'a</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>CAhA</selmaho>
<description>actually is</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
@@ -2918,21 +2918,21 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>jelca</jbo>
<en>It burns!</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>the prudent Lojbanist will assume the meaning
<quote>Fire!</quote></para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section20">
- <title>20. Logical and non-logical connections between tenses</title>
+ <title>Logical and non-logical connections between tenses</title>
<para>Like many things in Lojban, tenses may be logically connected; logical connection is explained in more detail in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14" />. Some of the terminology in this section will be clear only if you already understand logical connectives.</para>
<para>The appropriate logical connectives belong to selma'o JA. A logical connective between tenses can always be expanded to one between sentences:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-XAj7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e20d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section20-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu je ba klama le zarci</jbo>
@@ -3014,21 +3014,21 @@
<en>I breathe from a medium time ago till a long time to come.</en>
<!-- ^^ breathe: example, 363 -->
<indexterm><primary>breathe</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(It is to be hoped that I have a long life ahead of me.)</para>
<para>One additional use of non-logical connectives within tenses is discussed in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section21" />. Other uses will probably be identified in future.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section21">
- <title>21. Sub-events</title>
+ <title>Sub-events</title>
<para>Another application of non-logical tense connection is to talk about sub-events of events. Consider a six-shooter: a gun which can fire six bullets in succession before reloading. If I fire off the entire magazine twice, I can express the fact in Lojban thus:</para>
<!-- ^^ tense connection: equivalent meanings, 240; expansions of, 240 -->
<indexterm><primary>tense connection</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ six-shooter: example, 246 -->
<indexterm><primary>six-shooter</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-9CqG">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e21d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section21-example1" />
</title>
@@ -3073,21 +3073,21 @@
<en>George continues to start to write.</en>
<!-- ^^ continues: example, 228 -->
<indexterm><primary>continues</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>mi reroi ca'o xaroi darxi le damri</jbo>
<gloss>I [twice] [continuitive] [six times] hit the drum.</gloss>
<en>On two occasions, I continue to beat the drum six times.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section22">
- <title>22. Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI</title>
+ <title>Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>jai</cmavo>
<selmaho>JAI</selmaho>
<description>tense conversion</description>
<!-- ^^ tense conversion: accessing original first place with fai, 247; accessing tense of bridi with jai, 247; of temporal tenses, 248; use in sumti descriptions, 247 -->
<indexterm><primary>tense conversion</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
@@ -3193,21 +3193,21 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi djuno fi le jai ca morsi be fai la djan.</jbo>
<gloss>I know about the [present] is-dead of-the-one-called
<quote>John</quote>.</gloss>
<gloss>I know the time of John's death.</gloss>
<en>I know when John died.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section23">
- <title>23. Tenses versus modals</title>
+ <title>Tenses versus modals</title>
<para>Grammatically, every use of tenses seen so far is exactly paralleled by some use of modals as explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9" />. Modals and tenses alike can be followed by sumti, can appear before the selbri, can be used in pure and mixed connections, can participate in JAI conversions. The parallelism is perfect. However, there is a deep difference in the semantics of tense constructs and modal constructs, grounded in historical differences between the two forms. Originally, modals and tenses were utterly different things in earlier versions of Loglan; only in Lojban have they become grammatically interchangeable. And even now, differences in semantics continue to be maintained.</para>
<para>The core distinction is that whereas the modal bridi</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-YLmV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e23d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section23-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci do mu'i le nu do nelci mi</jbo>
@@ -3330,21 +3330,21 @@
</programlisting>
<para>whereas the following tensed sentence schemata also have the same meaning:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
X .i TENSE bo Y
TENSE gi X gi Y
Y TENSE le nu X
</programlisting>
<para>neglecting the question of what is claimed. In the modal sentence schemata, the modal tag is always followed by Y, the sentence representing the event in the x1 place of the gismu that underlies the BAI. In the tensed sentences, no such simple rule exists.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section24">
- <title>24. Tense questions:
+ <title>Tense questions:
<quote>cu'e</quote></title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>cu'e</cmavo>
<selmaho>CUhE</selmaho>
<description>tense question</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>There are two main ways to ask questions about tense. The main English tense question words are
@@ -3456,21 +3456,21 @@
<para>Answers to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section24-example10" />would be logical connectives such as
<quote>je</quote>, meaning
<quote>both</quote>,
<quote>naje</quote>meaning
<quote>the latter</quote>, or
<quote>jenai</quote>meaning
<quote>the former</quote>.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section25">
- <title>25. Explicit magnitudes</title>
+ <title>Explicit magnitudes</title>
<para>It is a limitation of the VA and ZI system of specifying magnitudes that they can only prescribe vague magnitudes: small, medium, or large. In order to express both an origin point and an exact distance, the Lojban construction called a
<quote>termset</quote>is employed. (Termsets are explained further in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16" />.) It is grammatical for a termset to be placed after a tense or modal tag rather than a sumti, which allows both the origin of the imaginary journey and its distance to be specified. Here is an example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-7Lys">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e25d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section25-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -3508,36 +3508,36 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la frank. sanli zu'a nu'i la'u</jbo>
<gloss>lo mitre be li mu</gloss>
<gloss>Frank stands [left] [termset] [quantity]</gloss>
<gloss>a thing-measuring-in-meters the-number 5.</gloss>
<en>Frank stands five meters to the left.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section26">
- <title>26. Finally (an exercise for the much-tried reader)</title>
+ <title>Finally (an exercise for the much-tried reader)</title>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-NxGB">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e26d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section26-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.a'o do pu seju ba roroi ca'o fe'e su'oroi jimpe</jbo>
<!-- ^^ a'o, 297, 302 -->
<indexterm><primary>a'o</primary></indexterm>
<en>fi le lojbo temci selsku ciste</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section27">
- <title>27. Summary of tense selma'o</title>
+ <title>Summary of tense selma'o</title>
<!-- ^^ tense selma'o: summary of, 252 -->
<indexterm><primary>tense selma'o</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
PU temporal direction
<!-- ^^ temporal direction: exception in meaning when following ze'e, 227 -->
<!-- ^^ ze'e, 227; effect on following PU direction, 227 -->
<indexterm><primary>ze'e</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm><primary>temporal direction</primary></indexterm>
pu = past, ca = present, ba = future
@@ -3616,21 +3616,21 @@
<!-- ^^ aspect: expressing, 228; natural languages compared with respect to, 228 -->
<indexterm><primary>aspect</primary></indexterm>
JAI tense conversion
<!-- ^^ tense conversion: accessing original first place with fai, 247; accessing tense of bridi with jai, 247; of temporal tenses, 248; use in sumti descriptions, 247 -->
<indexterm><primary>tense conversion</primary></indexterm>
jaica = the time of, jaivi = the place of, etc.
</programlisting>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section28">
- <title>28. List of spatial directions and direction-like relations</title>
+ <title>List of spatial directions and direction-like relations</title>
<!-- ^^ spatial directions: list of, 253 -->
<indexterm><primary>spatial directions</primary></indexterm>
<para>The following list of FAhA cmavo gives rough English glosses for the cmavo, first when used without
<quote>mo'i</quote>to express a direction, and then when used with
<quote>mo'i</quote>to express movement in the direction. When possible, the gismu from which the cmavo is derived is also listed.</para>
<cmavo-list>ca'u crane in front (of) forwardti'a trixe behind backwardzu'a zunle on the left (of) leftwardga'u gapru above upward(ly)ni'a cnita below downward(ly)ne'i nenri within intoru'u sruri surrounding orbitingpa'o pagre transfixing passing throughne'a next to moving while next to
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>te'e</cmavo>
<selmaho>bordering</selmaho>
<description>moving along the border (of)</description>
diff --git a/todocbook/11.xml b/todocbook/11.xml
index c82461e..7512a3b 100644
--- a/todocbook/11.xml
+++ b/todocbook/11.xml
@@ -1,14 +1,14 @@
<chapter xml:id="cll_chapter11">
<title>Chapter 11 Events, Qualities, Quantities, And Other Vague Words: On Lojban Abstraction</title>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter11-section1">
- <title>1. The syntax of abstraction</title>
+ <title>The syntax of abstraction</title>
<para>The purpose of the feature of Lojban known as
<quote>abstraction</quote>is to provide a means for taking whole bridi and packaging them up, as it were, into simple selbri. Syntactically, abstractions are very simple and uniform; semantically, they are rich and complex, with few features in common between one variety of abstraction and another. We will begin by discussing syntax without regard to semantics; as a result, the notion of abstraction may seem unmotivated at first. Bear with this difficulty until
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section2" />.</para>
<para>An abstraction selbri is formed by taking a full bridi and preceding it by any cmavo of selma'o NU. There are twelve such cmavo; they are known as
<quote>abstractors</quote>. The bridi is closed by the elidable terminator
<quote>kei</quote>, of selma'o KEI. Thus, to change the bridi</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-6EI1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e1d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section1-example1" />
@@ -71,21 +71,21 @@
<para>Note: In glosses of bridi within abstractions, the grammatical form used in the English changes. Thus, in the gloss of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section1-example2" />we see
<quote>my going-to the store</quote>rather than
<quote>I go-to the store</quote>; likewise, in the glosses of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section1-example3" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section1-example4" />we see
<quote>being-a-soldier</quote>rather than
<quote>is-a-soldier</quote>. This procedure reflects the desire for more understandable glosses, and does not indicate any change in the Lojban form. A bridi is a bridi, and undergoes no change when it is used as part of an abstraction selbri.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter11-section2">
- <title>2. Event abstraction</title>
+ <title>Event abstraction</title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>nu</cmavo>
<selmaho>NU</selmaho>
<description>event abstractor</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>The examples in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section1" />made use of
@@ -237,21 +237,21 @@
</example>
<para>(The
<quote>when</quote>of the English would also be appropriate for a construction involving a Lojban tense, but the Lojban sentence says more than that the studying is concurrent with the ease.)</para>
<para>The place structure of a
<quote>nu</quote>abstraction selbri is simply:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
x1 is an event of (the bridi)
</programlisting>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter11-section3">
- <title>3. Types of event abstractions</title>
+ <title>Types of event abstractions</title>
<!-- ^^ event abstractions, 256 -->
<indexterm><primary>event abstractions</primary></indexterm>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>mu'e</cmavo>
<!-- ^^ mu'e, 257, 258; place structure, 259 -->
<indexterm><primary>mu'e</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>NU</selmaho>
<description>point-event abstractor</description>
@@ -433,21 +433,21 @@
<indexterm><primary>za'i</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ continuous: of tense intervals, 225 -->
<indexterm><primary>continuous</primary></indexterm>
<quote>zu'o</quote>: x1 is an activity of (the bridi) consisting of repeated actions x2
<!-- ^^ zu'o, 257, 258, 268; place structure, 259 -->
<indexterm><primary>zu'o</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter11-section4">
- <title>4. Property abstractions</title>
+ <title>Property abstractions</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ka</cmavo>
<selmaho>NU</selmaho>
<description>property abstractor</description>
<!-- ^^ property abstractor, 259 -->
<indexterm><primary>property abstractor</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
@@ -677,21 +677,21 @@
<quote>bridi</quote>: x1 is a predicate relationship with relation
x2 (abstraction) among arguments (sequence/set) x3
</programlisting>
<para>The place structure of
<quote>ka</quote>abstraction selbri is simply:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ka: x1 is a property of (the bridi)
</programlisting>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter11-section5">
- <title>5. Amount abstractions</title>
+ <title>Amount abstractions</title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ni</cmavo>
<selmaho>NU</selmaho>
<description>amount abstraction</description>
<!-- ^^ amount abstraction(s): place structure, 262; scale, 262; specifying determining place with ce'u, 261 -->
<indexterm><primary>amount abstraction</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ amount abstraction, 261 -->
<!-- ^^ amount abstraction(s): place structure, 262; scale, 262; specifying determining place with ce'u, 261 -->
@@ -787,21 +787,21 @@
<para>Whenever we talk of measurement of an amount, there is some sort of scale, and so the place structure of
<quote>ni</quote>abstraction selbri is:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ni: x1 is the amount of (the bridi) on scale x2
</programlisting>
<para>Note: the best way to express the x2 places of abstract sumti is to use something like
<quote>le ni ... kei be</quote>. See
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section9-example5" />for the use of this construction.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter11-section6">
- <title>6. Truth-value abstraction:
+ <title>Truth-value abstraction:
<!-- ^^ value abstraction, 262 -->
<indexterm><primary>value abstraction</primary></indexterm>
<quote>jei</quote></title>
<para>The
<quote>blueness of the picture</quote>discussed in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section5" />refers to the measurable amount of blue pigment (or other source of blueness), not to the degree of truth of the claim that blueness is present. That abstraction is expressed in Lojban using
<quote>jei</quote>, which is closely related semantically to
<quote>ni</quote>. In the simplest cases,
<quote>le jei</quote>produces not a number but a truth value:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-KuTE">
@@ -854,21 +854,21 @@
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
jei: x1 is the truth value of (the bridi) under epistemology x2
</programlisting>
<para>Abstractions using
<quote>jei</quote>are the mechanism for fuzzy logic in Lojban; the
<quote>jei</quote>abstraction refers to a number between 0 and 1 inclusive (as distinct from
<quote>ni</quote>abstractions, which are often on open-ended scales). The detailed conventions for using
<quote>jei</quote>in fuzzy-logic contexts have not yet been established.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter11-section7">
- <title>7. Predication/sentence abstraction</title>
+ <title>Predication/sentence abstraction</title>
<!-- ^^ sentence abstraction, 262 -->
<indexterm><primary>sentence abstraction</primary></indexterm>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>du'u</cmavo>
<selmaho>NU</selmaho>
<description>predication abstraction</description>
<!-- ^^ predication abstraction, 262 -->
<indexterm><primary>predication abstraction</primary></indexterm>
@@ -1016,21 +1016,21 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section7-example7" />claims only that he said some words or other which were to the same purpose.</para>
<para>
<quote>le se du'u</quote>is much the same as
<quote>lu'e le du'u</quote>, a symbol for the predication, but
<quote>se du'u</quote>can be used as a selbri, whereas
<quote>lu'e</quote>is ungrammatical in a selbri. (See
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6" />for a discussion of
<quote>lu'e</quote>.)</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter11-section8">
- <title>8. Indirect questions</title>
+ <title>Indirect questions</title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>kau</cmavo>
<!-- ^^ kau, 264, 323; ma kau, contrasted with la djan. kau, 264 -->
<indexterm><primary>kau</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>UI</selmaho>
<description>indirect question marker</description>
<!-- ^^ indirect question, 323 -->
<indexterm><primary>indirect question</primary></indexterm>
@@ -1200,21 +1200,21 @@
<gloss>is-at the park.</gloss>
<gloss>I will see whether John or George (or both)</gloss>
<en>is at the park.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In addition,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section8-example7" />is only a loose paraphrase of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section8-example3" />, because it is left to the listener's insight to realize that what is known about the goer-to-the-store is his identity rather than some other of his attributes.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter11-section9">
- <title>9. Minor abstraction types</title>
+ <title>Minor abstraction types</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>li'i</cmavo>
<!-- ^^ li'i, 265 -->
<indexterm><primary>li'i</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>NU</selmaho>
<description>experience abstractor</description>
<!-- ^^ experience abstractor, 265 -->
<indexterm><primary>experience abstractor</primary></indexterm>
@@ -1353,21 +1353,21 @@
</example>
<para>Note the importance of using
<quote>kei</quote>after
<quote>su'u</quote>when the x2 of
<quote>su'u</quote>(or any other abstractor) is being specified; otherwise, the
<quote>be lo</quote>ends up inside the abstraction bridi.</para>
<!-- ^^ abstraction bridi: contrasted with component non-abstraction bridi in meaning, 98; effect on claim of bridi, 198 -->
<indexterm><primary>abstraction bridi</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter11-section10">
- <title>10. Lojban sumti raising</title>
+ <title>Lojban sumti raising</title>
<!-- ^^ sumti raising, 266 -->
<indexterm><primary>sumti raising</primary></indexterm>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>tu'a</cmavo>
<selmaho>LAhE</selmaho>
<description>an abstraction involving</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
@@ -1543,21 +1543,21 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le jai gau rinka</jbo>
<gloss>be le nu do morsi</gloss>
<gloss>that-which-is agent-in causing</gloss>
<en>(the event-of your death)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter11-section11">
- <title>11. Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses</title>
+ <title>Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses</title>
<para>This section is a logical continuation of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section3" />.</para>
<para>There exists a relationship between the four types of events explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section3" />and the event contour tense cmavo of selma'o ZAhO. The specific cmavo of NU and of ZAhO are mutually interdefining; the ZAhO contours were chosen to fit the needs of the NU event types and vice versa. Event contours are explained in full in
<!-- ^^ event types: described, 258 -->
<indexterm><primary>event types</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10" />, and only summarized here.</para>
<para>The purpose of ZAhO cmavo is to represent the natural portions of an event, such as the beginning, the middle, and the end. They fall into several groups:</para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
@@ -1652,21 +1652,21 @@
<quote>ca'o</quote>(a point-event has no duration), and the achievement contour
<quote>co'i</quote>.</para>
<!-- ^^ co'i, 230 -->
<indexterm><primary>co'i</primary></indexterm>
<para>Note that the parts of events are themselves events, and may be treated as such. The points in time may be seen as
<quote>mu'e</quote>point-events; the spans of time may constitute processes or activities. Therefore, Lojban allows us to refer to processes within processes, activities within states, and many other complicated abstract things.</para>
<!-- ^^ mu'e, 257, 258; place structure, 259 -->
<indexterm><primary>mu'e</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter11-section12">
- <title>12. Abstractor connection</title>
+ <title>Abstractor connection</title>
<para>An abstractor may be replaced by two or more abstractors joined by logical or non-logical connectives. Connectives are explained in detail in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14" />. The connection can be expanded to one between two bridi which differ only in abstraction marker.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section12-example1" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section12-example2" />are equivalent in meaning:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-hybU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e12d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section12-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c11e12d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section12-example2" />
@@ -1678,21 +1678,21 @@
<en>and the quantity of Frank's writing is bad.</en>
<jbo>le ka je ni la frank. ciska cu xlali</jbo>
<en>The quality and quantity of Frank's writing is bad.</en>
<!-- ^^ quality and quantity: example, 365 -->
<indexterm><primary>quality and quantity</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This feature of Lojban has hardly ever been used, and nobody knows what uses it may eventually have.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter11-section13">
- <title>13. Table of abstractors</title>
+ <title>Table of abstractors</title>
<para>The following table gives each abstractor, an English gloss for it, a Lojban gismu which is connected with it (more or less remotely: the associations between abstractors and gismu are meant more as memory hooks than for any kind of inference), the rafsi associated with it, and (on the following line) its place structure.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
nu event of fasnu nun
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
x1 is an event of (the bridi)
ka property of ckaji kam
x1 is a property of (the bridi)
ni amount of klani nil
x1 is an amount of (the bridi) measured on scale x2
jei truth-value of jetnu jez
diff --git a/todocbook/12.xml b/todocbook/12.xml
index 4c137cd..9935cf3 100644
--- a/todocbook/12.xml
+++ b/todocbook/12.xml
@@ -1,14 +1,14 @@
<chapter xml:id="cll_chapter12">
<title>Chapter 12 Dog House And White House: Determining lujvo Place Structures</title>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter12-section1">
- <title>1. Why have lujvo?</title>
+ <title>Why have lujvo?</title>
<para>The Lojban vocabulary is founded on its list of 1350-plus gismu, made up by combining word lists from various sources. These gismu are not intended to be either a complete vocabulary for the language nor a minimal list of semantic primitives. Instead, the gismu list serves as a basis for the creation of compound words, or lujvo. The intention is that (except in certain semantically broad but shallow fields such as cultures, nations, foods, plants, and animals) suitable lujvo can be devised to cover the ten million or so concepts expressible in all the world's languages taken together. Grammatically, lujvo behave just like gismu: they have place structures and function as selbri.</para>
<!-- ^^ world's languages, 273 -->
<indexterm><primary>world's languages</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ word lists, 273 -->
<indexterm><primary>word lists</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ semantic primitives, 273 -->
<indexterm><primary>semantic primitives</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ plants: use of fu'ivla for specific, 61 -->
<indexterm><primary>plants</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ minimal list, 273 -->
@@ -63,21 +63,21 @@
<quote>bo</quote>,
<quote>ke</quote>,
<quote>ke'e</quote>, or
<quote>je</quote>, or conversion or abstraction cmavo such as
<quote>se</quote>or
<quote>nu</quote>, there are ways of incorporating them into the lujvo as well. Sometimes this makes the lujvo excessively long; if so, the cmavo may be dropped. This leads to the possibility that more than one tanru could produce the same lujvo. Typically, however, only one of the possible tanru is useful enough to justify making a lujvo for it.</para>
<para>The exact workings of the lujvo-making algorithm, which takes a tanru built from gismu (and possibly cmavo) and produces a lujvo from it, are described in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4" />.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter12-section2">
- <title>2. The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour</title>
+ <title>The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour</title>
<!-- ^^ necessary detour, 274 -->
<indexterm><primary>necessary detour</primary></indexterm>
<para>The meaning of a lujvo is controlled by - but is not the same as - the meaning of the tanru from which the lujvo was constructed. The tanru corresponding to a lujvo is called its
<quote>veljvo</quote>in Lojban, and since there is no concise English equivalent, that term will be used in this chapter. Furthermore, the left (modifier) part of a tanru will be called the
<quote>seltau</quote>, and the right (modified) part the
<quote>tertau</quote>, following the usage of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5" />. For brevity, we will speak of the seltau or tertau of a lujvo, meaning of course the seltau or tertau of the veljvo of that lujvo. (If this terminology is confusing, substituting
<quote>modifier</quote>for
<quote>seltau</quote>and
<quote>modified</quote>for
@@ -184,21 +184,21 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12-section2-example3" />is arguably true. If we concentrate on just one type of relation in interpreting the tanru
<quote>gerku zdani</quote>, then the meaning of
<quote>gerku zdani</quote>changes. So if we understand
<quote>gerku zdani</quote>as having the same meaning as the English word
<quote>doghouse</quote>, the White House would no longer be a
<quote>gerku zdani</quote>with respect to Spot, because as far as we know Spot does not actually live in the White House, and the White House is not a doghouse (derogatory terms for incumbents notwithstanding).</para>
<!-- ^^ derogatory terms, 275 -->
<indexterm><primary>derogatory terms</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter12-section3">
- <title>3. The meaning of lujvo</title>
+ <title>The meaning of lujvo</title>
<para>This is a fairly long way to go to try and work out how to say
<quote>doghouse</quote>! The reader can take heart; we're nearly there. Recall that one of the components involved in fixing the meaning of a tanru - the one left deliberately vague - is the precise relation between the tertau and the seltau. Indeed, fixing this relation is tantamount to giving an interpretation to the ambiguous tanru.</para>
<para>A lujvo is defined by a single disambiguated instance of a tanru. That is to say, when we try to design the place structure of a lujvo, we don't need to try to discover the relation between the tertau and the seltau. We already know what kind of relation we're looking for; it's given by the specific need we wish to express, and it determines the place structure of the lujvo itself.</para>
<!-- ^^ disambiguated instance, 276 -->
<indexterm><primary>disambiguated instance</primary></indexterm>
<para>Therefore, it is generally not appropriate to simply devise lujvo and decide on place structures for them without considering one or more specific usages for the coinage. If one does not consider specifics, one will be likely to make erroneous generalizations on the relationship r.</para>
<para>The insight driving the rest of this chapter is this: while the relation expressed by a tanru can be very distant (e.g. Spot chasing Socks, above), the relationship singled out for disambiguation in a lujvo should be quite close. This is because lujvo-making, paralleling natural language compounding, picks out the most salient relationship r between a tertau place and a seltau place to be expressed in a single word. The relationship
<quote>dog chases cat owned by daughter of person living in house</quote>is too distant, and too incidental, to be likely to need expression as a single short word; the relationship
<quote>dog lives in house</quote>is not. From all the various interpretations of
<quote>gerku zdani</quote>, the person creating
@@ -273,32 +273,32 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section3-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>z1 is a house for dweller/dog z2=g1 of breed g2</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Despite the apparently conclusive nature of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12-section3-example5" />, our task is not yet done: we still need to decide whether any of the remaining places should also be eliminated, and what order the lujvo places should appear in. These concerns will be addressed in the remainder of the chapter; but we are now equipped with the terminology needed for those discussions.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter12-section4">
- <title>4. Selecting places</title>
+ <title>Selecting places</title>
<para>The set of places of an ordinary lujvo are selected from the places of its component gismu. More precisely, the places of such a lujvo are derived from the set of places of the component gismu by eliminating unnecessary places, until just enough places remain to give an appropriate meaning to the lujvo. In general, including a place makes the concept expressed by a lujvo more general; excluding a place makes the concept more specific, because omitting the place requires assuming a standard value or range of values for it.</para>
<para>It would be possible to design the place structure of a lujvo from scratch, treating it as if it were a gismu, and working out what arguments contribute to the notion to be expressed by the lujvo. There are two reasons arguing against doing so and in favor of the procedure detailed in this chapter.</para>
<para>The first is that it might be very difficult for a hearer or reader, who has no preconceived idea of what concept the lujvo is intended to convey, to work out what the place structure actually is. Instead, he or she would have to make use of a lujvo dictionary every time a lujvo is encountered in order to work out what a
<quote>se jbopli</quote>or a
<quote>te klagau</quote>is. But this would mean that, rather than having to learn just the 1300-odd gismu place structures, a Lojbanist would also have to learn myriads of lujvo place structures with little or no apparent pattern or regularity to them. The purpose of the guidelines documented in this chapter is to apply regularity and to make it conventional wherever possible.</para>
<para>The second reason is related to the first: if the veljvo of the lujvo has not been properly selected, and the places for the lujvo are formulated from scratch, then there is a risk that some of the places formulated may not correspond to any of the places of the gismu used in the veljvo of the lujvo. If that is the case - that is to say, if the lujvo places are not a subset of the veljvo gismu places - then it will be very difficult for the hearer or reader to understand what a particular place means, and what it is doing in that particular lujvo. This is a topic that will be further discussed in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12-section14" />.</para>
<para>However, second-guessing the place structure of the lujvo is useful in guiding the process of subsequently eliminating places from the veljvo. If the Lojbanist has an idea of what the final place structure should look like, he or she should be able to pick an appropriate veljvo to begin with, in order to express the idea, and then to decide which places are relevant or not relevant to expressing that idea.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter12-section5">
- <title>5. Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo</title>
+ <title>Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo</title>
<para>A common pattern, perhaps the most common pattern, of lujvo-making creates what is called a
<quote>symmetrical lujvo</quote>. A symmetrical lujvo is one based on a tanru interpretation such that the first place of the seltau is equivalent to the first place of the tertau: each component of the tanru characterizes the same object. As an illustration of this, consider the lujvo
<quote>balsoi</quote>: it is intended to mean
<quote>both great and a soldier</quote>- that is,
<quote>great soldier</quote>, which is the interpretation we would tend to give its veljvo,
<!-- ^^ great soldier: example, 278, 282 -->
<indexterm><primary>great soldier</primary></indexterm>
<quote>banli sonci</quote>. The underlying gismu place structures are:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-7AFc">
<title>
@@ -446,21 +446,21 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section5-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>kl1 goes to destination kl2 from origin kl3 via route kl4</jbo>
<en>by means of car kl5=ka1 carrying ka2 propelled by ka3.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>instead.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter12-section6">
- <title>6. Dependent places</title>
+ <title>Dependent places</title>
<para>In order to understand which places, if any, should be completely removed from a lujvo place structure, we need to understand the concept of dependent places. One place of a brivla is said to be dependent on another if its value can be predicted from the values of one or more of the other places. For example, the g2 place of
<!-- ^^ lujvo place structure: "ni" lujvo, 287; "nu" lujvo, 286; basis of, 277; comparative lujvo, 292; cross-dependent places, 280; dependent places, 279; dropping cross-dependent places, 280; dropping dependent places, caveat, 281; dropping dependent seltau places, 279; dropping dependent tertau places, 280; dropping first place of NU, 288; dropping KE, 285; dropping KEhE, 285; dropping redundant places, 276; effect of SE, 278; effect of SE-dropping in tertau, 284; explicated walk-through, 276; guidelines, 273; multi-place abstraction lujvo, 287; notation conventions, 276; rationale for standardization, 277; selecting tertau, 281; superlatives, 294; when first place redundant with non-first, 278; when first places redundant, 278; when first places redundant plus others, 278; with "jai" lujvo, 287 -->
<!-- ^^ notation conventions: for Quick Tour chapter, 12 -->
<indexterm><primary>notation conventions</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm><primary>lujvo place structure</primary></indexterm>
<quote>gerku</quote>is dependent on the g1 place. Why? Because when we know what fits in the g1 place (Spot, let us say, a well-known dog), then we know what fits in the g2 place (
<quote>St. Bernard</quote>, let us say). In other words, when the value of the g1 place has been specified, the value of the g2 place is determined by it. Conversely, since each dog has only one breed, but each breed contains many dogs, the g1 place is not dependent on the g2 place; if we know only that some dog is a St. Bernard, we cannot tell by that fact alone which dog is meant.</para>
<para>For
<quote>zdani</quote>, on the other hand, there is no dependency between the places. When we know the identity of a house-dweller, we have not determined the house, because a dweller may dwell in more than one house. By the same token, when we know the identity of a house, we do not know the identity of its dweller, for a house may contain more than one dweller.</para>
<para>The rule for eliminating places from a lujvo is that dependent places provided by the seltau are eliminated. Therefore, in
@@ -638,21 +638,21 @@
<jbo>d1 is a building housing school c1 teaching subject c3 to audience c4</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>even though c3 and c4 are plainly dependent on c1. The other places of
<quote>ckule</quote>, the location (c2) and operators (c5), don't seem to be necessary to the concept
<quote>school building</quote>, and are dependent on c1 to boot, so they are omitted. Again, the need for case-by-case consideration of place structures is demonstrated.</para>
<!-- ^^ school building: example, 281 -->
<indexterm><primary>school building</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter12-section7">
- <title>7. Ordering lujvo places.</title>
+ <title>Ordering lujvo places.</title>
<para>So far, we have concentrated on selecting the places to go into the place structure of a lujvo. However, this is only half the story. In using selbri in Lojban, it is important to remember the right order of the sumti. With lujvo, the need to attend to the order of sumti becomes critical: the set of places selected should be ordered in such a way that a reader unfamiliar with the lujvo should be able to tell which place is which.</para>
<para>If we aim to make understandable lujvo, then, we should make the order of places in the place structure follow some conventions. If this does not occur, very real ambiguities can turn up. Take for example the lujvo
<quote>jdaselsku</quote>, meaning
<quote>prayer</quote>. In the sentence</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-FfWn">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e7d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section7-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -784,21 +784,21 @@
<!-- ^^ ailment, 282 -->
<indexterm><primary>ailment</primary></indexterm>
<en>using treatment m4</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Since the shared place is m2=d1, the animal patient, the remaining seltau place d2 is inserted immediately after the shared place; then the remaining tertau places form the last two places of the lujvo.</para>
<!-- ^^ animal patient, 282 -->
<indexterm><primary>animal patient</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter12-section8">
- <title>8. lujvo with more than two parts.</title>
+ <title>lujvo with more than two parts.</title>
<para>The theory we have outlined so far is an account of lujvo with two parts. But often lujvo are made containing more than two parts. An example is
<quote>bavlamdei</quote>,
<quote>tomorrow</quote>: it is composed of the rafsi for
<!-- ^^ tomorrow: example, 282 -->
<indexterm><primary>tomorrow</primary></indexterm>
<quote>future</quote>,
<quote>adjacent</quote>, and
<quote>day</quote>. How does the account we have given apply to lujvo like this?</para>
<para>The best way to approach such lujvo is to continue to classify them as based on binary tanru, the only difference being that the seltau or the tertau or both is itself a lujvo. So it is easiest to make sense of
<quote>bavlamdei</quote>as having two components:
@@ -882,21 +882,21 @@
<indexterm><primary>long-sword</primary></indexterm>
<en>with a blade made of d3, length measured by standard c3.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>If the last place sounds unimportant to you, notice that what counts legally as a
<quote>sword</quote>, rather than just a
<quote>knife</quote>, depends on the length of the blade (the legal limit varies in different jurisdictions). This fifth place of
<quote>cladakyxa'i</quote>may not often be explicitly filled, but it is still useful on occasion. Because it is so seldom important, it is best that it be last.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter12-section9">
- <title>9. Eliding SE rafsi from seltau</title>
+ <title>Eliding SE rafsi from seltau</title>
<para>It is common to form lujvo that omit the rafsi based on cmavo of selma'o SE, as well as other cmavo rafsi. Doing so makes lujvo construction for common or useful constructions shorter. Since it puts more strain on the listener who has not heard the lujvo before, the shortness of the word should not necessarily outweigh ease in understanding, especially if the lujvo refers to a rare or unusual concept.</para>
<para>Consider as an example the lujvo
<quote>ti'ifla</quote>, from the veljvo
<quote>stidi flalu</quote>, and meaning
<quote>bill, proposed law</quote>. The gismu place structures are:</para>
<!-- ^^ proposed law, 283 -->
<indexterm><primary>proposed law</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-n1LH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e9d1" />
@@ -963,21 +963,21 @@
<!-- ^^ r-hyphen: contrasted with n-hyphen in requirements for use, 60; use of, 56, 60 -->
<indexterm><primary>r-hyphen</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm><primary>n-hyphen</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm><primary>lujvo form</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ti'ifla</quote>are given the place structure they would have with the appropriate SE added to the seltau.</para>
<para>Note that, with these lujvo, an interpretation requiring SE insertion is safe only if the alternatives are either implausible or unlikely to be needed as a lujvo. This may not always be the case, and Lojbanists should be aware of the risk of ambiguity.</para>
<!-- ^^ implausible, 284 -->
<indexterm><primary>implausible</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter12-section10">
- <title>10. Eliding SE rafsi from tertau</title>
+ <title>Eliding SE rafsi from tertau</title>
<para>Eliding SE rafsi from tertau gets us into much more trouble. To understand why, recall that lujvo, following their veljvo, describe some type of whatever their tertau describe. Thus,
<quote>posydji</quote>describes a type of
<quote>djica</quote>,
<quote>gerzda</quote>describes a type of
<quote>zdani</quote>, and so on. What is certain is that
<quote>gerzda</quote>does not describe a
<quote>se zdani</quote>- it is not a word that could be used to describe an inhabitant such as a dog.</para>
<para>Now consider how we would translate the word
<quote>blue-eyed</quote>. Let's tentatively translate this word as
<!-- ^^ blue-eyed: example, 284 -->
@@ -1023,21 +1023,21 @@
<quote>se</quote>would almost always be required.</para>
<para>What is happening here is that we are translating the tertau wrongly, under the influence of English. The English suffix
<quote>-eyed</quote>does not mean
<quote>eye</quote>, but someone with an eye, which is
<quote>selkanla</quote>.</para>
<para>Because we've got the wrong tertau (eliding a
<quote>se</quote>that really should be there), any attempt to accommodate the resulting lujvo into our guidelines for place structure is fitting a square peg in a round hole. Since they can be so misleading, lujvo with SE rafsi elided from the tertau should be avoided in favor of their more explicit counterparts: in this case,
<quote>blaselkanla</quote>.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter12-section11">
- <title>11. Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo</title>
+ <title>Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo</title>
<para>People constructing lujvo usually want them to be as short as possible. To that end, they will discard any cmavo they regard as niceties. The first such cmavo to get thrown out are usually
<quote>ke</quote>and
<quote>ke'e</quote>, the cmavo used to structure and group tanru. We can usually get away with this, because the interpretation of the tertau with
<quote>ke</quote>and
<quote>ke'e</quote>missing is less plausible than that with the cmavo inserted, or because the distinction isn't really important.</para>
<para>For example, in
<quote>bakrecpa'o</quote>, meaning
<quote>beefsteak</quote>, the veljvo is</para>
<!-- ^^ beefsteak, 285; example, 285 -->
<indexterm><primary>beefsteak</primary></indexterm>
@@ -1212,21 +1212,21 @@
<quote>se te</quote>, more than likely should be interpreted in the same way, namely as
<!-- ^^ se te, 194 -->
<indexterm><primary>se te</primary></indexterm>
<quote>se ke te</quote>, since there is no need to re-order places in the way that
<quote>se te</quote>provides. (See
<!-- ^^ se te, 194 -->
<indexterm><primary>se te</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9" />.)</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter12-section12">
- <title>12. Abstract lujvo</title>
+ <title>Abstract lujvo</title>
<para>The cmavo of NU can participate in the construction of lujvo of a particularly simple and well-patterned kind. Consider that old standard example,
<quote>klama</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-KEao">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e12d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section12-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>k1 comes/goes to k2 from k3 via route k4 by means k5.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1356,21 +1356,21 @@
<quote>fai</quote>place as a
<quote>fai</quote>place of the lujvo; it does not participate in the regular lujvo place structure. (The use of
<!-- ^^ lujvo place structure: "ni" lujvo, 287; "nu" lujvo, 286; basis of, 277; comparative lujvo, 292; cross-dependent places, 280; dependent places, 279; dropping cross-dependent places, 280; dropping dependent places, caveat, 281; dropping dependent seltau places, 279; dropping dependent tertau places, 280; dropping first place of NU, 288; dropping KE, 285; dropping KEhE, 285; dropping redundant places, 276; effect of SE, 278; effect of SE-dropping in tertau, 284; explicated walk-through, 276; guidelines, 273; multi-place abstraction lujvo, 287; notation conventions, 276; rationale for standardization, 277; selecting tertau, 281; superlatives, 294; when first place redundant with non-first, 278; when first places redundant, 278; when first places redundant plus others, 278; with "jai" lujvo, 287 -->
<!-- ^^ notation conventions: for Quick Tour chapter, 12 -->
<indexterm><primary>notation conventions</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm><primary>lujvo place structure</primary></indexterm>
<quote>fai</quote>is also explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11" />.)</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter12-section13">
- <title>13. Implicit-abstraction lujvo</title>
+ <title>Implicit-abstraction lujvo</title>
<!-- ^^ abstraction lujvo: asymmetric, 288 -->
<indexterm><primary>abstraction lujvo</primary></indexterm>
<para>Eliding NU rafsi involves the same restrictions as eliding SE rafsi, plus additional ones. In general, NU rafsi should not be elided from the tertau, since that changes the kind of thing the lujvo is talking about from an abstraction to a concrete sumti. However, they may be elided from the seltau if no reasonable ambiguity would result.</para>
<para>A major difference, however, between SE elision and NU elision is that the former is a rather sparse process, providing a few convenient shortenings. Eliding
<quote>nu</quote>, however, is extremely important in producing a class of lujvo called
<quote>implicit-abstraction lujvo</quote>.</para>
<!-- ^^ implicit-abstraction lujvo: definition, 289 -->
<indexterm><primary>implicit-abstraction lujvo</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ abstraction lujvo: asymmetric, 288 -->
<indexterm><primary>abstraction lujvo</primary></indexterm>
@@ -1592,21 +1592,21 @@
</example>
<para>and would be useful in translating sentences like
<quote>The heat of the sun liquefied the block of ice.</quote></para>
<para>Implicit-abstraction lujvo are a powerful means in the language of rendering quite verbose bridi into succinct and manageable concepts, and increasing the expressive power of the language.</para>
<!-- ^^ expressive power, 290 -->
<indexterm><primary>expressive power</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ abstraction lujvo: asymmetric, 288 -->
<indexterm><primary>abstraction lujvo</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter12-section14">
- <title>14. Anomalous lujvo</title>
+ <title>Anomalous lujvo</title>
<para>Some lujvo that have been coined and actually employed in Lojban writing do not follow the guidelines expressed above, either because the places that are equivalent in the seltau and the tertau are in an unusual position, or because the seltau and tertau are related in a complex way, or both. An example of the first kind is
<!-- ^^ unusual position, 290 -->
<indexterm><primary>unusual position</primary></indexterm>
<quote>jdaselsku</quote>, meaning
<quote>prayer</quote>, which was mentioned in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12-section7" />. The gismu places are:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-qJEQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e14d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section14-example1" />
@@ -1792,21 +1792,21 @@
<quote>xanmi'e</quote>wrong? By no means. But it does mean that there is a latent component to the meaning of
<!-- ^^ latent component, 291 -->
<indexterm><primary>latent component</primary></indexterm>
<quote>xanmi'e</quote>, the gismu
<quote>pilno</quote>, which is not explicit in the veljvo. And it also means that, for a place structure derivation that actually makes sense, rather than being ad-hoc, the Lojbanist should probably go through a derivation for
<quote>xancypliminde</quote>or one of the other possibilities that is analogous to the analysis of
<quote>terlantroge'u</quote>above, even if he or she decides to stick with a shorter, more convenient form like
<quote>xanmi'e</quote>. In addition, of course, the possibilities of elliptical lujvo increase their potential ambiguity enormously - an unavoidable fact which should be borne in mind.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter12-section15">
- <title>15. Comparatives and superlatives</title>
+ <title>Comparatives and superlatives</title>
<para>English has the concepts of
<quote>comparative adjectives</quote>and
<!-- ^^ adjectives: brivla as Lojban equivalents, 52 -->
<indexterm><primary>adjectives</primary></indexterm>
<quote>superlative adjectives</quote>which can be formed from other adjectives, either by adding the suffixes
<!-- ^^ adjectives: brivla as Lojban equivalents, 52 -->
<indexterm><primary>adjectives</primary></indexterm>
<quote>-er</quote>and
<quote>-est</quote>or by using the words
<quote>more</quote>and
@@ -2079,21 +2079,21 @@
<!-- ^^ Judy: example, 294 -->
<indexterm><primary>Judy</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>la .ainctain. cu balrai lo'i skegunka</jbo>
<en>Einstein was the greatest of all scientists.</en>
<!-- ^^ Einstein: example, 294 -->
<indexterm><primary>Einstein</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter12-section16">
- <title>16. Notes on gismu place structures</title>
+ <title>Notes on gismu place structures</title>
<para>Unlike the place structures of lujvo, the place structures of gismu were assigned in a far less systematic way through a detailed case-by-case analysis and repeated reviews with associated changes. (The gismu list is now baselined, so no further changes are contemplated.) Nevertheless, certain regularities were imposed both in the choice of places and in the ordering of places which may be helpful to the learner and the lujvo-maker, and which are therefore discussed here.</para>
<para>The choice of gismu places results from the varying outcome of four different pressures: brevity, convenience, metaphysical necessity, and regularity. (These are also to some extent the underlying factors in the lujvo place structures generated by the methods of this chapter.) The implications of each are roughly as follows:</para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Brevity tends to remove places: the fewer places a gismu has, the easier it is to learn, and the less specific it is. As mentioned in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12-section4" />, a brivla with fewer place structures is less specific, and generality is a virtue in gismu, because they must thoroughly blanket all of semantic space.</para>
<!-- ^^ virtue: example, 309 -->
<indexterm><primary>virtue</primary></indexterm>
</listitem>
<listitem>
diff --git a/todocbook/13.xml b/todocbook/13.xml
index 74ebba2..d9bb0dc 100644
--- a/todocbook/13.xml
+++ b/todocbook/13.xml
@@ -1,14 +1,14 @@
<chapter xml:id="cll_chapter13">
<title>Chapter 13 Oooh! Arrgh! Ugh! Yecch! Attitudinal and Emotional Indicators</title>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter13-section1">
- <title>1. What are attitudinal indicators?</title>
+ <title>What are attitudinal indicators?</title>
<!-- ^^ attitudinal indicators, 297; conventions of interpretation, 311; placement of "nai" in, 311; placement of scale in, 311; quick-tour version, 24 -->
<indexterm><primary>attitudinal indicators</primary></indexterm>
<para>This chapter explains the various words that Lojban provides for expressing attitude and related notions. In natural languages, attitudes are usually expressed by the tone of voice when speaking, and (very imperfectly) by punctuation when writing. For example, the bare words</para>
<!-- ^^ tone of voice, 297 -->
<indexterm><primary>tone of voice</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-EWHQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e1d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section1-example1" />
</title>
@@ -119,21 +119,21 @@
<indexterm><primary>feelings</primary></indexterm>
<quote>.ui</quote>should not really be
<quote>happiness</quote>but some sound or tone that expresses happiness. However, there aren't nearly enough of those that have unambiguous or obvious meanings in English to go around for all the many, many different emotions Lojban speakers can readily express.</para>
<!-- ^^ happiness: example, 161 -->
<indexterm><primary>happiness</primary></indexterm>
<para>Many indicators of CV'V form are loosely derived from specific gismu. The gismu should be thought of as a memory hook, not an equivalent of the cmavo. Such gismu are shown in this chapter between square brackets, thus: [gismu].</para>
<!-- ^^ square brackets: use of in notation, 5 -->
<indexterm><primary>square brackets</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter13-section2">
- <title>2. Pure emotion indicators</title>
+ <title>Pure emotion indicators</title>
<para>Attitudinals make no claim: they are expressions of attitude, not of facts or alleged facts. As a result, attitudinals themselves have no truth value, nor do they directly affect the truth value of a bridi that they modify. However, since emotional attitudes are carried in your mind, they reflect reactions to that version of the world that the mind is thinking about; this is seldom identical with the real world. At times, we are thinking about our idealized version of the real world; at other times we are thinking about a potential world that might or might not ever exist.</para>
<!-- ^^ real world: contrasted with hypothetical world, example, 320 -->
<indexterm><primary>real world</primary></indexterm>
<para>Therefore, there are two groups of attitudinals in Lojban. The
<quote>pure emotion indicators</quote>express the way the speaker is feeling, without direct reference to what else is said. These indicators comprise the attitudinals which begin with
<quote>u</quote>or
<quote>o</quote>and many of those beginning with
<quote>i</quote>.</para>
<para>The cmavo beginning with
<quote>u</quote>are simple emotions, which represent the speaker's reaction to the world as it is, or as it is perceived to be.</para>
@@ -381,21 +381,21 @@
<jbo>la djan. klama .iu</jbo>
<en>John is-coming [love!]</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where it is specifically the coming of John that inspires the feeling.</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section2-example17" />is a compact way of swearing at John: you could translate it as
<quote>That good-for-nothing John is coming.</quote></para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter13-section3">
- <title>3. Propositional attitude indicators</title>
+ <title>Propositional attitude indicators</title>
<para>As mentioned at the beginning of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section2" />, attitudinals may be divided into two groups, the pure emotion indicators explained in that section, and a contrasting group which may be called the
<quote>propositional attitude indicators</quote>. These indicators establish an internal, hypothetical world which the speaker is reacting to, distinct from the world as it really is. Thus we may be expressing our attitude towards
<!-- ^^ hypothetical world, 301; contrasted with real world, example, 320 -->
<!-- ^^ real world: contrasted with hypothetical world, example, 320 -->
<indexterm><primary>real world</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm><primary>hypothetical world</primary></indexterm>
<quote>what the world would be like if ...</quote>, or more directly stating our attitude towards making the potential world a reality.</para>
<para>In general, the bridi paraphrases of pure emotions look (in English) something like
<quote>I'm going to the market, and I'm happy about it</quote>. The emotion is present with the subject of the primary claim, but is logically independent of it. Propositional attitudes, though, look more like
@@ -628,21 +628,21 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do sazri le karce .i .e'a</jbo>
<!-- ^^ e'a, 303 -->
<indexterm><primary>e'a</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>You drive the car. [Permission].</gloss>
<en>You're driving (or will drive) the car, and that's fine.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter13-section4">
- <title>4. Attitudes as scales</title>
+ <title>Attitudes as scales</title>
<para>In Lojban, all emotions and attitudes are scales. These scales run from some extreme value (which we'll call
<quote>positive</quote>) to an opposite extreme (which we'll call
<quote>negative</quote>). In the tables above, we have seen three points on the scale:
<quote>positive</quote>, neutral, and
<quote>negative</quote>. The terms
<quote>positive</quote>and
<quote>negative</quote>are put into quotation marks because they are loaded words when applied to emotions, and the attitudinal system reflects this loading, which is a known cultural bias. Only two of the
<quote>positive</quote>words, namely
<quote>.ii</quote>(fear) and
<quote>.oi</quote>(pain/complaint), represent emotions commonly thought of as less
@@ -746,21 +746,21 @@
</example>
<para>You can also utter a scale indicator without a specific emotion. This is often used in the language: in order to emphasize a point about which you feel strongly, you mark what you are saying with the scale indicator
<quote>cai</quote>. You could also indicate that you don't care using
<!-- ^^ cai, 305 -->
<indexterm><primary>cai</primary></indexterm>
<quote>cu'i</quote>by itself.</para>
<!-- ^^ cu'i, 299, 305 -->
<indexterm><primary>cu'i</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter13-section5">
- <title>5. The space of emotions</title>
+ <title>The space of emotions</title>
<para>Each of the attitude scales constitutes an axis in a multi-dimensional space. In effect, given our total so far of 39 scales, we have a 39-dimensional space. At any given time, our emotions and attitudes are represented by a point in this 39-dimensional space, with the intensity indicators serving as coordinates along each dimension. A complete attitudinal inventory, should one decide to express it, would consist of reading off each of the scale values for each of the emotions, with the vector sum serving as a distinct single point, which is our attitude.</para>
<!-- ^^ dimension: meaning as sumti tcita, 233 -->
<indexterm><primary>dimension</primary></indexterm>
<para>Now no one is going to ever utter a string of 100-odd attitudinals to express their emotions. If asked, we normally do not recognize more than one or two emotions at a time - usually the ones that are strongest or which most recently changed in some significant way. But the scale system provides some useful insights into a possible theory of emotion (which might be testable using Lojban), and incidentally explains how Lojbanists express compound emotions when they do recognize them.</para>
<!-- ^^ compound emotions, 306 -->
<indexterm><primary>compound emotions</primary></indexterm>
<para>The existence of 39 scales highlights the complexity of emotion. We also aren't bound to the 39. There are modifiers described in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section6" />that multiply the set of scales by an order of magnitude. You can also have mixed feelings on a scale, which might be expressed by
<!-- ^^ magnitude: tense, 250 -->
<indexterm><primary>magnitude</primary></indexterm>
@@ -774,21 +774,21 @@
<quote>fortitude</quote>might be
<quote>.ii.iinai</quote>- fear coupled with security.</para>
<para>Uttering one or more attitudinals to express an emotion reflects several things. We will tend to utter emotions in their immediate order of importance to us. We feel several emotions at once, and our expression reflects these emotions simultaneously, although their order of importance to us is also revealing - of our attitude towards our attitude, so to speak. There is little analysis necessary; for those emotions you feel, you express them; the
<quote>vector sum</quote>naturally expresses the result. This is vital to their nature as attitudinals - if you had to stop and think about them, or to worry about grammar, they wouldn't be emotions but rationalizations.</para>
<para>People have proposed that attitudinals be expressed as bridi just like everything else; but emotions aren't logical or analytical - saying
<quote>I'm awed</quote>is not the same as saying
<quote>Wow!!!</quote>. The Lojban system is intended to give the effects of an analytical system without the thought involved. Thus, you can simply feel in Lojban.</para>
<para>A nice feature of this design is that you can be simple or complex, and the system works the same way. The most immediate benefit is in learning. You only need to learn a couple of the scale words and a couple of attitude words, and you're ready to express your emotions Lojbanically. As you learn more, you can express your emotions more thoroughly and more precisely, but even a limited vocabulary offers a broad range of expression.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter13-section6">
- <title>6. Emotional categories</title>
+ <title>Emotional categories</title>
<para>The Lojban attitudinal system was designed by starting with a long list of English emotion words, far too many to fit into the 39 available VV-form cmavo. To keep the number of cmavo limited, the emotion words in the list were grouped together by common features: each group was then assigned a separate cmavo. This was like making tanru in reverse, and the result is a collection of indicators that can be combined, like tanru, to express very complex emotions. Some examples in a moment.</para>
<para>The most significant
<quote>common feature</quote>we identified was that the emotional words on the list could easily be broken down into six major groups, each of which was assigned its own cmavo:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ro'a social asocial antisocial
<!-- ^^ ro'a, 307 -->
<indexterm><primary>ro'a</primary></indexterm>
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
ro'e mental mindless
<!-- ^^ ro'e, 307 -->
@@ -859,21 +859,21 @@
<indexterm><primary>ro'u</primary></indexterm>
re'e hands moving around spiritual
<!-- ^^ re'e, 307 -->
<indexterm><primary>re'e</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>The implicit metaphors
<quote>heart</quote>for emotional and
<quote>belly</quote>for physical are not really Lojbanic, but they work fine for English-speakers.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter13-section7">
- <title>7. Attitudinal modifiers</title>
+ <title>Attitudinal modifiers</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ga'i [galtu] hauteur equal rank meekness
<!-- ^^ ga'i, 308 -->
<indexterm><primary>ga'i</primary></indexterm>
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
rank lack of rank
le'o aggressive passive defensive
<!-- ^^ le'o, 309 -->
@@ -1184,21 +1184,21 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.e'enaise'anai</jbo>
<gloss>[I can't!] [dependent]</gloss>
<en>I can't do it by myself!</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Some of the emotional expressions may seem too complicated to use. They might be for most circumstances. It is likely that most combinations will never get used. But if one person uses one of these expressions, another person can understand (as unambiguously as the expresser intends) what emotion is being expressed. Most probably as the system becomes well-known and internalized by Lojban-speakers, particular attitudinal combinations will come to be standard expressions (if not cliches) of emotion.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter13-section8">
- <title>8. Compound indicators</title>
+ <title>Compound indicators</title>
<para>The grammar of indicators is quite simple; almost all facets are optional. You can combine indicators in any order, and they are still grammatical. The presumed denotation is additive; thus the whole is the sum of the parts regardless of the order expressed, although the first expressed is presumed most important to the speaker. Every possible string of UI cmavo has some meaning.</para>
<para>Within a string of indicators, there will be conventions of interpretation which amount to a kind of second-order grammar. Each of the modifier words is presumed to modify an indicator to the left, if there is one. (There is an
<quote>unspecified emotion</quote>word,
<!-- ^^ unspecified emotion, 311 -->
<indexterm><primary>unspecified emotion</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ge'e</quote>, reserved to ensure that if you want to express a modifier without a root emotion, it doesn't attach to and modify a previous but distinct emotional expression.)</para>
<!-- ^^ ge'e, 311, 322 -->
<indexterm><primary>ge'e</primary></indexterm>
<para>For example,
<quote>.ieru'e</quote>expresses a weak positive value on the scale of agreement: the speaker agrees (presumably with the listener or with something else just stated), but with the least possible degree of intensity. But
@@ -1259,21 +1259,21 @@
</programlisting>
<para>
<quote>ge'e</quote>, the non-specific emotion word, functions as an attitudinal. If multiple attitudes are being expressed at once, then in the 2nd or greater position, either
<!-- ^^ ge'e, 311, 322 -->
<indexterm><primary>ge'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ge'e</quote>or a VV word must be used to prevent any modifiers from modifying the previous attitudinal.</para>
<!-- ^^ ge'e, 311, 322 -->
<indexterm><primary>ge'e</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter13-section9">
- <title>9. The uses of indicators</title>
+ <title>The uses of indicators</title>
<para>The behavior of indicators in the
<quote>outside grammar</quote>is nearly as simple as their internal structure. Indicator groupings are identified immediately after the metalinguistic erasers
<!-- ^^ metalinguistic erasers: within ungrammatical-Lojban quotation, 477 -->
<indexterm><primary>metalinguistic erasers</primary></indexterm>
<quote>si</quote>,
<quote>sa</quote>, and
<quote>su</quote>and some, though not all, kinds of quotations. The details of such interactions are discussed in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19" />.</para>
<para>A group of indicators may appear anywhere that a single indicator may, except in those few situations (as in
<quote>zo</quote>quotation, explained in
@@ -1298,21 +1298,21 @@
<en>I [past] talk-to you [Grrr!] [Oy!]</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>can be interpreted as expressing complaint about the anger, in which case it means
<quote>Damn, I snapped at you</quote>; or as expressing both anger and complaint about the listener, in which case it means
<quote>I told you, you pest!</quote></para>
<para>Similarly, an indicator after the final brivla of a tanru may be taken to express an attitude about the particular brivla placed there - as the rules have it - or about the entire bridi which hinges on that brivla. Remembering that indicators are supposedly direct expressions of emotion, this ambiguity is acceptable.</para>
<para>Even if the scope rules given for indicators turn out to be impractical or unintuitive for use in conversation, they are still useful in written expression. There, where you can go back and put in markers or move words around, the scope rules can be used in lieu of elaborate nuances of body language and intonation to convey the writer's intent.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter13-section10">
- <title>10. Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours</title>
+ <title>Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours</title>
<!-- ^^ empathy: example, 314 -->
<indexterm><primary>empathy</primary></indexterm>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
pei attitude question
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
dai empathy
<!-- ^^ empathy: example, 314 -->
<indexterm><primary>empathy</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ dai, 314 -->
@@ -1513,21 +1513,21 @@
<jbo>mi ca ba'o prami do ja'e le nu mi badri</jbo>
<gloss>I [present] [cessitive] love you with-result the event-of (I am-sad).</gloss>
<en>I no longer love you; therefore, I am sad.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which is a straightforward bridi claim.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section10-example13" />states that you have (or have had) certain emotions;
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section10-example12" />expresses those emotions directly.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter13-section11">
- <title>11. Evidentials</title>
+ <title>Evidentials</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ja'o [jalge] I conclude
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
ca'e I define
<!-- ^^ ca'e, 316 -->
<indexterm><primary>ca'e</primary></indexterm>
ba'a [balvi] I expect I experience I remember
<!-- ^^ ba'a, 316 -->
<indexterm><primary>ba'a</primary></indexterm>
@@ -1803,21 +1803,21 @@
<!-- ^^ ju'a, 317 -->
<indexterm><primary>ju'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ju'apei</quote>means
<!-- ^^ ju'apei, 317 -->
<indexterm><primary>ju'apei</primary></indexterm>
<quote>What is the basis for your statement?</quote>and serves as an evidential, as distinct from emotional, question.</para>
<!-- ^^ basis: example, 317 -->
<indexterm><primary>basis</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter13-section12">
- <title>12. Discursives</title>
+ <title>Discursives</title>
<para>The term
<quote>discursive</quote>is used for those members of selma'o UI that provide structure to the discourse, and which show how a given word or utterance relates to the whole discourse. To express these concepts in regular bridi would involve extra layers of nesting: rather than asserting that
<quote>I also came</quote>, we would have to say
<quote>I came; furthermore, the event of my coming is an additional instance of the relationship expressed by the previous sentence</quote>, which is intolerably clumsy. Typical English equivalents of discursives are words or phrases like
<quote>however</quote>,
<quote>summarizing</quote>,
<quote>in conclusion</quote>, and
<quote>for example</quote>.</para>
<para>Discursives are not attitudinals: they express no particular emotion. Rather, they are abbreviations for metalinguistic claims that reference the sentence or text they are found in.</para>
<para>Discursives are most often used at the beginning of sentences, often attached to the
@@ -2189,21 +2189,21 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ru</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is the equivalent of either
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section12-example5" />or
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section12-example6" />.)</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter13-section13">
- <title>13. Miscellaneous indicators</title>
+ <title>Miscellaneous indicators</title>
<para>Some indicators do not fall neatly into the categories of attitudinal, evidential, or discursive. This section discusses the following miscellaneous indicators:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ki'a metalinguistic confusion
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
na'i metalinguistic negator
jo'a metalinguistic affirmer
<!-- ^^ jo'a, 321 -->
<indexterm><primary>jo'a</primary></indexterm>
li'o omitted text (quoted material)
<!-- ^^ li'o, 321 -->
@@ -2432,21 +2432,21 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi djuno le du'u dakau klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I know the statement-that somebody [indirect ?] goes to-the store.</gloss>
<en>I know who goes to the store.</en>
<!-- ^^ know who: contrasted with know that, 264; example, 264 -->
<indexterm><primary>know who</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter13-section14">
- <title>14. Vocative scales</title>
+ <title>Vocative scales</title>
<para>
<quote>Vocatives</quote>are words used to address someone directly; they precede and mark a name used in direct address, just as
<!-- ^^ direct address, 323 -->
<indexterm><primary>direct address</primary></indexterm>
<quote>la</quote>(and the other members of selma'o LA) mark a name used to refer to someone. The vocatives actually are indicators - in fact, discursives - but the need to tie them to names and other descriptions of listeners requires them to be separated from selma'o UI. But like the cmavo of UI, the members of selma'o COI can be
<quote>negated</quote>with
<quote>nai</quote>to get the opposite part of the scale.</para>
<para>Because of the need for redundancy in noisy environments, the Lojban design does not compress the vocatives into a minimum number of scales. Doing so would make a non-redundant
<!-- ^^ redundancy: effect on vocative design, 323 -->
<indexterm><primary>redundancy</primary></indexterm>
@@ -2716,21 +2716,21 @@
<quote>wilco</quote>,
<quote>over and out</quote>. This form of translation does not mean that Lojban is a language of CB enthusiasts, but rather that in most natural languages these forms are so well handled by the context that only in specific domains (like speaking on the radio) do they need special words. In Lojban, dependence on the context can be dangerous, as speaker and listener may not share the right context, and so the vocatives provide a formal protocol for use when it is appropriate. Other appropriate contexts include computer communications and parliamentary procedure: in the latter context, the protocol question
<!-- ^^ protocol: computer communications using COI, 326; parliamentary using COI, 326; using vocatives, 326 -->
<indexterm><primary>protocol</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ta'apei</quote>would mean
<!-- ^^ ta'apei, 326 -->
<indexterm><primary>ta'apei</primary></indexterm>
<quote>Will the speaker yield?</quote></para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter13-section15">
- <title>15. A sample dialogue</title>
+ <title>A sample dialogue</title>
<para>The following dialogue in Lojban illustrates the uses of attitudinals and protocol vocatives in conversation. The phrases enclosed in
<!-- ^^ protocol: computer communications using COI, 326; parliamentary using COI, 326; using vocatives, 326 -->
<indexterm><primary>protocol</primary></indexterm>
<quote>sei ... se'u</quote>indicate the speaker of each sentence.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-RFU7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e15d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section15-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e15d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section15-example2" />
@@ -2900,21 +2900,21 @@
<en>
<quote>Goodbye to all of you,</quote>said George sneeringly,
<quote>except John.</quote></en>
<jbo>.i la djordj. cliva</jbo>
<gloss>George leaves.</gloss>
<en>George left.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter13-section16">
- <title>16. Tentative conclusion</title>
+ <title>Tentative conclusion</title>
<para>The exact ramifications of the indicator system in actual usage are unknown. There has never been anything like it in natural language before. The system provides great potential for emotional expression and transcription, from which significant Sapir-Whorf effects can be anticipated. When communicating across cultural boundaries, where different indicators are often used for the same emotion, accidental offense can be avoided. If we ever ran into an alien race, a culturally neutral language of emotion could be vital. (A classic example, taken from the science fiction of Larry Niven, is to imagine speaking Lojban to the carnivorous warriors called Kzinti, noting that a human smile bares the teeth, and could be seen as an intent to attack.) And for communicating emotions to computers, when we cannot identify all of the signals involved in subliminal human communication (things like body language are also cultural), a system like this is needed.</para>
<!-- ^^ Sapir-Whorf effects: and emotional indicators, 329 -->
<indexterm><primary>Sapir-Whorf effects</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ Kzinti: communication with, 329 -->
<indexterm><primary>Kzinti</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ anticipated: example, 316 -->
<indexterm><primary>anticipated</primary></indexterm>
<para>We have tried to err on the side of overkill. There are distinctions possible in this system that no one may care to make in any culture. But it was deemed more neutral to overspecify and let usage decide, than to choose a limited set and constrain emotional expression. For circumstances in which even the current indicator set is not enough, it is possible using the cmavo
<quote>sei</quote>, explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19" />, to create metalinguistic comments that act like indicators.</para>
diff --git a/todocbook/14.xml b/todocbook/14.xml
index 2e7de67..f476149 100644
--- a/todocbook/14.xml
+++ b/todocbook/14.xml
@@ -1,14 +1,14 @@
<chapter xml:id="cll_chapter14">
<title>Chapter 14 If Wishes Were Horses: The Lojban Connective System</title>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section1">
- <title>1. Logical connection and truth tables</title>
+ <title>Logical connection and truth tables</title>
<!-- ^^ truth tables: abbreviated format, 334; for 4 fundamental Lojban truth functions, 335; list of 16 in abbreviated form, 334; notation convention, 334 -->
<indexterm><primary>truth tables</primary></indexterm>
<para>Lojban is a logical language: the name of the language itself means
<!-- ^^ logical language: truth functions, 333 -->
<indexterm><primary>logical language</primary></indexterm>
<quote>logical language</quote>. The fundamentals of ordinary logic (there are variant logics, which aren't addressed in this book) include the notions of a
<!-- ^^ logical language: truth functions, 333 -->
<indexterm><primary>logical language</primary></indexterm>
<quote>sentence</quote>(sometimes called a
<quote>statement</quote>or
@@ -140,21 +140,21 @@
FFTT first is false whether or not second is true.
FFTF first is false, but second is true.
FFFT neither first nor second is true.
FFFF (always false)
</programlisting>
<para>Skeptics may work out the detailed truth tables for themselves.</para>
<!-- ^^ truth tables: abbreviated format, 334; for 4 fundamental Lojban truth functions, 335; list of 16 in abbreviated form, 334; notation convention, 334 -->
<indexterm><primary>truth tables</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section2">
- <title>2. The Four basic vowels</title>
+ <title>The Four basic vowels</title>
<para>Lojban regards four of these 16 truth functions as fundamental, and assigns them the four vowels
<phrase role="logical-vowel">A</phrase>,
<phrase role="logical-vowel">E</phrase>,
<phrase role="logical-vowel">O</phrase>, and
<phrase role="logical-vowel">U</phrase>. These letters do not represent actual cmavo or selma'o, but rather a component vowel from which actual logical-connective cmavo are built up, as explained in the next section. Here are the four vowels, their truth tables, and rough English equivalents:</para>
<!-- ^^ truth tables: abbreviated format, 334; for 4 fundamental Lojban truth functions, 335; list of 16 in abbreviated form, 334; notation convention, 334 -->
<indexterm><primary>truth tables</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<phrase role="logical-vowel">A</phrase> TTTF or, and/or
@@ -205,21 +205,21 @@
<phrase role="logical-vowel">E</phrase> with first sentence negated
FFFT
<phrase role="logical-vowel">E</phrase> with both sentences negated
</programlisting>
<para>Note that exchanging the sentences is only necessary with
<phrase role="logical-vowel">U</phrase>. The three other basic truth functions are commutative; that is, they mean the same thing regardless of the order of the component sentences. There are other ways of getting some of these truth tables; these just happen to be the methods usually employed.</para>
<!-- ^^ truth tables: abbreviated format, 334; for 4 fundamental Lojban truth functions, 335; list of 16 in abbreviated form, 334; notation convention, 334 -->
<indexterm><primary>truth tables</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section3">
- <title>3. The six types of logical connectives</title>
+ <title>The six types of logical connectives</title>
<para>In order to remain unambiguous, Lojban cannot have only a single logical connective for each truth function. There are many places in the grammar of the language where logical connection is permitted, and each must have its appropriate set of connectives. If the connective suitable for sumti were used to connect selbri, ambiguity would result.</para>
<para>Consider the English sentence:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ptgf">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e3d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section3-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>Mary went to the window and ...</jbo>
<!-- ^^ window: example, 336 -->
@@ -262,21 +262,21 @@
<indexterm><primary>guheks</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ giheks: syntax of, 346 -->
<indexterm><primary>giheks</primary></indexterm>
<para>There also exist giks, joiks, ijoiks, and joigiks, which are not logical connectives, but are other kinds of compound cmavo which will be introduced later.</para>
<!-- ^^ joigiks: connection types, 361; syntax of, 361 -->
<indexterm><primary>joigiks</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ giks: syntax of, 340 -->
<indexterm><primary>giks</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section4">
- <title>4. Logical connection of bridi</title>
+ <title>Logical connection of bridi</title>
<para>Now we are ready to express
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section1-example1" />in Lojban! The kind of logical connective which is placed between two Lojban bridi to connect them logically is an ijek:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-h2hN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e4d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section4-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. nanmu .ija la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
<en>John is-a-man or James is-a-woman.</en>
@@ -426,21 +426,21 @@
<quote>se</quote>are present, which is legal but never necessary,
<quote>na</quote>would come before
<quote>se</quote>.</para>
<para>The full syntax of ijeks, therefore, is:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
.i [na] [se] JA [nai]
</programlisting>
<para>where the cmavo in brackets are optional.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section5">
- <title>5. Forethought bridi connection</title>
+ <title>Forethought bridi connection</title>
<!-- ^^ bridi connection: use of imperatives in, 353; use of truth questions in, 353 -->
<!-- ^^ imperatives: and truth, 353; attitude, 308; English contrasted with Lojban in presence of subject of command, 147; quick-tour version, 22; with ko, 146 -->
<indexterm><primary>imperatives</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm><primary>bridi connection</primary></indexterm>
<para>Many concepts in Lojban are expressible in two different ways, generally referred to as
<quote>afterthought</quote>and
<quote>forethought</quote>.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section4" />discussed what is called
<quote>afterthought bridi logical connection</quote>. The word
<!-- ^^ bridi logical connection: compared with sumti logical connections, 340 -->
@@ -624,21 +624,21 @@
<indexterm><primary>giks</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ forethought connection: contrasted with afterthought for grammatical utterances, 352; definition, 199; in abstractions, 365; in tenses, 363; observatives, 347; of operands, 453; of operators, 453 -->
<!-- ^^ observatives: and abstractions, 255; quick-tour version, 15 -->
<indexterm><primary>observatives</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm><primary>forethought connection</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
gi [nai]
</programlisting>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section6">
- <title>6. sumti connection</title>
+ <title>sumti connection</title>
<!-- ^^ sumti connection: afterthought, 340; forethought, 341 -->
<indexterm><primary>sumti connection</primary></indexterm>
<para>Geks and ijeks are sufficient to state every possible logical connection between two bridi. However, it is often the case that two bridi to be logically connected have one or more portions in common:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Ecnq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e6d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section6-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. klama le zarci .ije la .alis. klama le zarci</jbo>
@@ -717,21 +717,21 @@
<gloss>John only if Alice goes-to the market.</gloss>
<en>John goes to the market only if Alice does.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note the period in
<quote>na.a</quote>. The cmavo of A begin with vowels, and therefore must always be preceded by a pause. It is conventional to write all connective compounds as single words (with no spaces), but this pause must still be marked in writing as in speech; otherwise, the
<quote>na</quote>and
<quote>a</quote>would tend to run together.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section7">
- <title>7. More than two propositions</title>
+ <title>More than two propositions</title>
<para>So far we have seen logical connectives used to connect exactly two sentences. How about connecting three or more? Is this possible in Lojban? The answer is yes, subject to some warnings and some restrictions.</para>
<para>Of the four primitive truth functions
<phrase role="logical-vowel">A</phrase>,
<phrase role="logical-vowel">E</phrase>,
<phrase role="logical-vowel">O</phrase>, and
<phrase role="logical-vowel">U</phrase>, all but
<phrase role="logical-vowel">O</phrase>have the same truth values no matter how their component sentences are associated in pairs. Therefore,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-9tHr">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e7d1" />
@@ -835,21 +835,21 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ge mi nelci la djan. gi ga mi nelci la martas. gi mi nelci la meris.</jbo>
<en>Both I like John and (Either I like Martha or I like Mary).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is not equivalent to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section7-example4" />, but is instead a valid translation into Lojban, using forethought, of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section7-example5" />.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section8">
- <title>8. Grouping of afterthought connectives</title>
+ <title>Grouping of afterthought connectives</title>
<para>There are several ways in Lojban to render
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section7-example5" />using afterthought only. The simplest method is to make use of the cmavo
<quote>bo</quote>(of selma'o BO). This cmavo has several functions in Lojban, but is always associated with high precedence and short scope. In particular, if
<quote>bo</quote>is placed after an ijek, the result is a grammatically distinct kind of ijek which overrides the regular left-grouping rule. Connections marked with
<quote>bo</quote>are interpreted before connections not so marked.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section8-example1" />is equivalent in meaning to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section7-example8" />:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Uu7D">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e8d1" />
@@ -1018,21 +1018,21 @@
<gloss>.ije tu'e mi dotco .ijo mi nanmu [tu'u]</gloss>
<gloss>( I am-German if-and-only-if I am-rich )</gloss>
<en>and (I am-German if-and-only-if I am-a-man ).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The truth table, when worked out, produces T if and only if all three component sentences are true or all three are false.</para>
<!-- ^^ truth table: explanation, 333 -->
<indexterm><primary>truth table</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section9">
- <title>9. Compound bridi</title>
+ <title>Compound bridi</title>
<para>So far we have seen how to handle two sentences that need have no similarity at all (bridi connection) and sentences that are identical except for a difference in one sumti (sumti connection). It would seem natural to ask how to logically connect sentences that are identical except for having different selbri.</para>
<!-- ^^ sumti connection: afterthought, 340; forethought, 341 -->
<indexterm><primary>sumti connection</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ bridi connection: use of imperatives in, 353; use of truth questions in, 353 -->
<!-- ^^ imperatives: and truth, 353; attitude, 308; English contrasted with Lojban in presence of subject of command, 147; quick-tour version, 22; with ko, 146 -->
<indexterm><primary>imperatives</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm><primary>bridi connection</primary></indexterm>
<para>Surprise! Lojban provides no logical connective that is designed to handle selbri and nothing else. Instead, selbri connection is provided as part of a more general-purpose mechanism called
<quote>compound bridi</quote>. Compound bridi result from logically connecting sentences that differ in their selbri and possibly some of their sumti.</para>
<!-- ^^ compound bridi: definition, 344; logical connection of, 344; more than one sumti in common, 345; multiple with bo, 346; multiple with ke...ke'e, 346; one sumti in common, 344; separate tail-terms for bridi-tails, 346; separate tail-terms for forethought-connected bridi-tails, 347 -->
@@ -1206,21 +1206,21 @@
</example>
<para>The syntax of giheks is:</para>
<!-- ^^ giheks: syntax of, 346 -->
<indexterm><primary>giheks</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
[na] [se] GIhA [nai]
</programlisting>
<para>which is exactly parallel to the syntax of eks.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section10">
- <title>10. Multiple compound bridi</title>
+ <title>Multiple compound bridi</title>
<!-- ^^ compound bridi: definition, 344; logical connection of, 344; more than one sumti in common, 345; multiple with bo, 346; multiple with ke...ke'e, 346; one sumti in common, 344; separate tail-terms for bridi-tails, 346; separate tail-terms for forethought-connected bridi-tails, 347 -->
<indexterm><primary>compound bridi</primary></indexterm>
<para>Giheks can be combined with
<quote>bo</quote>in the same way as eks:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-DpCN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e10d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section10-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1370,21 +1370,21 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section10-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi gonai le zarci cu klama gi le bisli cu dansu</jbo>
<gloss>I either-but-not-both to-the office go or on-the ice dance.</gloss>
<en>I either go to the office or dance on the ice (but not both).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section11">
- <title>11. Termset logical connection</title>
+ <title>Termset logical connection</title>
<para>So far we have seen sentences that differ in all components, and require bridi connection; sentences that differ in one sumti only, and permit sumti connection; and sentences that differ in the selbri and possibly one or more sumti, and permit bridi-tail connection. Termset logical connectives are employed for sentences that differ in more than one sumti but not in the selbri, such as:</para>
<!-- ^^ sumti connection: afterthought, 340; forethought, 341 -->
<indexterm><primary>sumti connection</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ bridi connection: use of imperatives in, 353; use of truth questions in, 353 -->
<!-- ^^ imperatives: and truth, 353; attitude, 308; English contrasted with Lojban in presence of subject of command, 147; quick-tour version, 22; with ko, 146 -->
<indexterm><primary>imperatives</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm><primary>bridi connection</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-G02C">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e11d1" />
@@ -1506,21 +1506,21 @@
<en>[joint] and to-the house from-the school [end termset].</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that even though two termsets are being connected, only one
<quote>nu'i</quote>is used.</para>
<para>The grammatical uses of termsets that do not contain logical connectives are explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16" />.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section12">
- <title>12. Logical connection within tanru</title>
+ <title>Logical connection within tanru</title>
<para>As noted at the beginning of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section9" />, there is no logical connective in Lojban that joins selbri and nothing but selbri. However, it is possible to have logical connectives within a selbri, forming a kind of tanru that involves a logical connection. Consider the simple tanru
<quote>blanu zdani</quote>, blue house. Now anything that is a blue ball, in the most ordinary understanding of the phrase at least, is both blue and a ball. And indeed, instead of
<quote>blanu bolci</quote>, Lojbanists can say
<quote>blanu je bolci</quote>, using a jek connective within the tanru. (We saw jeks used in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section11" />also, but there they were always prefixed by
<quote>pe'e</quote>; in this section they are used alone.) Here is a pair of examples:</para>
<!-- ^^ pe'e, 347 -->
<indexterm><primary>pe'e</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-IxBH">
@@ -1721,21 +1721,21 @@
<en>I see a man and woman.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>But
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section12-example14" />means that you see one thing which is both a man and a woman simultaneously! A
<quote>nanmu je ninmu</quote>is a manwoman, a presumably non-existent creature who is both a
<quote>nanmu</quote>and a
<quote>ninmu</quote>.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section13">
- <title>13. Truth questions and connective questions</title>
+ <title>Truth questions and connective questions</title>
<!-- ^^ connective questions: answering, 352; compared with other languages, 353; non-logical, 359 -->
<indexterm><primary>connective questions</primary></indexterm>
<para>So far we have addressed only sentences which are statements. Lojban, like all human languages, needs also to deal with sentences which are questions. There are many ways of asking questions in Lojban, but some of these (like questions about quantity, tense, and emotion) are discussed in other chapters.</para>
<para>The simplest kind of question is of the type
<quote>Is it true that ...</quote>where some statement follows. This type is called a
<quote>truth question</quote>, and can be represented in English by
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section13-example1" />:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-bMjE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d1" />
@@ -2027,21 +2027,21 @@
<quote>but</quote>is the same as
<quote>and</quote>; the difference is that the sentence after a
<quote>but</quote>is felt to be in tension or opposition to the sentence before it. Lojban represents this distinction by adding the discursive cmavo
<quote>ku'i</quote>(of selma'o UI), which is explained in
<!-- ^^ ku'i, 317, 353 -->
<indexterm><primary>ku'i</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13" />, to the logical
<quote>.ije</quote>.)</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section14">
- <title>14. Non-logical connectives</title>
+ <title>Non-logical connectives</title>
<para>Way back in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section1" />, the point was made that not every use of English
<quote>and</quote>,
<quote>if ... then</quote>, and so on represents a Lojban logical connective. In particular, consider the
<!-- ^^ if ... then: compared with only if, 338; logical connectives contrasted with other translations, 339 -->
<indexterm><primary>if ... then</primary></indexterm>
<quote>and</quote>of:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-x6JW">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d1" />
@@ -2342,21 +2342,21 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section14-example16" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djeimyz. fa'u la djordj. prami re mensi</jbo>
<en>James and-respectively George love two sisters.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which conveys that James loves one sister and George the other, though we are not able to tell which of the sisters is which.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section15">
- <title>15. More about non-logical connectives</title>
+ <title>More about non-logical connectives</title>
<para>The final three JOI cmavo,
<quote>jo'e</quote>,
<!-- ^^ jo'e, 354, 356 -->
<indexterm><primary>jo'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ku'a</quote>, and
<!-- ^^ ku'a, 354, 356 -->
<indexterm><primary>ku'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>pi'u</quote>, are probably only useful when talking explicitly about sets. They represent three standard set operators usually called
<!-- ^^ pi'u, 246, 354, 356; contrasted with .e, 357; use in connecting tenses, 246 -->
<indexterm><primary>pi'u</primary></indexterm>
@@ -2604,21 +2604,21 @@
<!-- ^^ coffee or tea: example, 352 -->
<indexterm><primary>coffee or tea</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>joi</jbo>
<gloss>Mixed-mass-and.</gloss>
<en>Both as a mass (i.e, mixed together).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Ugh. (Or in Lojban: .a'unaisairo'o.)</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section16">
- <title>16. Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection</title>
+ <title>Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection</title>
<!-- ^^ non-logical connection: and elidability of terminators, 354; in mathematical expressions, 361; in tanru, distinguishing from connection of sumti, 354; of individuals into mass, 355; of individuals into set, 355; of modals, 208; of operands, 455; of operators, 455; of sumti, distinguishing from connection in tanru, 354; of termsets, 357 -->
<indexterm><primary>non-logical connection</primary></indexterm>
<para>In addition to the non-logical connectives of selma'o JOI explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section14" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section15" />, there are three other connectives which can appear in joiks:
<quote>bi'i</quote>,
<quote>bi'o</quote>, and
<quote>mi'i</quote>, all of selma'o BIhI. The first two cmavo are used to specify intervals: abstract objects defined by two endpoints. The cmavo
<!-- ^^ mi'i, 359, 455 -->
<indexterm><primary>mi'i</primary></indexterm>
@@ -2822,21 +2822,21 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ca sanli ke'i bi'i ga'o gi la drezdn. gi la frankfurt.</jbo>
<gloss>I [present] stand [exclusive] between [inclusive] Dresden and Frankfurt.</gloss>
<en>I am standing between Dresden (exclusive) and Frankfurt (inclusive).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In forethought, unfortunately, the GAhOs become physically separated from the endpoints, but the same rule applies: the first GAhO refers to the first endpoint.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section17">
- <title>17. Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso</title>
+ <title>Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso</title>
<para>Lojban has a separate grammar embedded within the main grammar for representing mathematical expressions (or mekso in Lojban) such as
<!-- ^^ mathematical expressions: connectives in, 361; implicit quantifier for, 142; tensed connection in, 364 -->
<indexterm><primary>mathematical expressions</primary></indexterm>
<quote>2 + 2</quote>. Mathematical expressions are explained fully in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18" />. The basic components of mekso are operands, like
<quote>2</quote>, and operators, like
<quote>+</quote>. Both of these may be either logically or non-logically connected.</para>
<para>Operands are connected in afterthought with eks and in forethought with geks, just like sumti. Operators, on the other hand, are connected in afterthought with jeks and in forethought with guheks, just like tanru components. (However, jeks and joiks with
<!-- ^^ guheks: connecting operators, 361; syntax of, 350 -->
<indexterm><primary>guheks</primary></indexterm>
@@ -2947,21 +2947,21 @@
<quote>d</quote>)</gloss>
<en>x</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that the
<quote>boi</quote>in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section17-example6" />is not elidable, because the
<quote>xi</quote>subscript needs something to attach to.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section18">
- <title>18. Tenses, modals, and logical connection</title>
+ <title>Tenses, modals, and logical connection</title>
<para>The tense and modal systems of Lojban interact with the logical connective system. No one chapter can explain all of these simultaneously, so each chapter must present its own view of the area of interaction with emphasis on its own concepts and terminology. In the examples of this chapter, the many tenses of various selma'o as well as the modals of selma'o BAI are represented by the simple time cmavo
<quote>pu</quote>,
<quote>ca</quote>, and
<quote>ba</quote>(of selma'o PU) representing the past, the present, and the future respectively. Preceding a selbri, these cmavo state the time when the bridi was, is, or will be true (analogous to English verb tenses); preceding a sumti, they state that the event of the main bridi is before, simultaneous with, or after the event given by the sumti (which is generally a
<quote>le nu</quote>abstraction; see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11" />).</para>
<para>The two types of interaction between tenses and logical connectives are logically connected tenses and tensed logical connections. The former are fairly simple. Jeks may be used between tense cmavo to specify two connected bridi that differ only in tense:</para>
<!-- ^^ logically connected tenses: definition, 363; expansion to sentences, 245; with JA, 245 -->
<indexterm><primary>logically connected tenses</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ connected tenses: negation of compared with negation in connective, 245 -->
@@ -3209,21 +3209,21 @@
<indexterm><primary>pu ge</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I [past] both go-to the market and buy some food</gloss>
<en>I went to the market and bought some food.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section18-example15" />is similar to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section18-example5" />. There is no time relationship specified between the going and the buying; both are simply set in the past.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section19">
- <title>19. Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions</title>
+ <title>Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions</title>
<para>Last and (as a matter of fact) least: a logical connective is allowed between abstraction markers of selma'o NU. As usual, the connection can be expanded to a bridi connection between two bridi which differ only in abstraction marker. Jeks are the appropriate connective.
<!-- ^^ bridi connection: use of imperatives in, 353; use of truth questions in, 353 -->
<!-- ^^ imperatives: and truth, 353; attitude, 308; English contrasted with Lojban in presence of subject of command, 147; quick-tour version, 22; with ko, 146 -->
<indexterm><primary>imperatives</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm><primary>bridi connection</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section19-example1" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section19-example2" />are equivalent in meaning:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-C7PL">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e19d1" />
@@ -3264,21 +3264,21 @@
<gloss>.ijonai mi jinvi le du'u loi jmive cu zvati la .iupiter.</gloss>
<gloss>I opine the fact-that a-mass-of living-things is-at Jupiter</gloss>
<en>or-else I opine the fact-that a-mass-of living-things isn't-at Jupiter</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is false, since I have no evidence one way or the other (
<quote>jinvi</quote>requires some sort of evidence, real or fancied, unlike
<quote>krici</quote>).</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section20">
- <title>20. Constructs and appropriate connectives</title>
+ <title>Constructs and appropriate connectives</title>
<para>The following table specifies, for each kind of construct that can be logically or non-logically connected in Lojban, what kind of connective is required for both afterthought and (when possible) forethought modes. An asterisk (*) indicates that tensed connection is permitted.</para>
<para>A dash indicates that connection of the specified type is not possible.</para>
<informaltable>
<tgroup cols="5">
<colspec colnum="1" colname="col1" />
<colspec colnum="2" colname="col2" />
<colspec colnum="3" colname="col3" />
<colspec colnum="4" colname="col4" />
<colspec colnum="5" colname="col5" />
<thead>
@@ -3352,21 +3352,21 @@
<entry>jek</entry>
<entry>-</entry>
<entry>joik</entry>
<entry>-</entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</informaltable>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section21">
- <title>21. Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives</title>
+ <title>Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives</title>
<para>The following table specifies, for each truth function, the most-often used cmavo or compound cmavo which expresses it for each of the six types of logical connective. (Other compound cmavo are often possible: for example,
<quote>se.a</quote>means the same as
<quote>a</quote>, and could be used instead.)</para>
<informaltable>
<tgroup cols="6">
<colspec colnum="1" colname="col1" />
<colspec colnum="2" colname="col2" />
<colspec colnum="3" colname="col3" />
<colspec colnum="4" colname="col4" />
<colspec colnum="5" colname="col5" />
@@ -3494,21 +3494,21 @@
<entry>genai–ginai</entry>
<entry>gu'enai–ginai</entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</informaltable>
<para>Note: Ijeks are exactly the same as the corresponding jeks, except for the prefixed
<quote>.i</quote>.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section22">
- <title>22. Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives</title>
+ <title>Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives</title>
<para>The full set of rules for inserting
<quote>na</quote>,
<quote>se</quote>, and
<quote>nai</quote>into any connective is:</para>
<para>Afterthought logical connectives (eks, jeks, giheks, ijeks):</para>
<!-- ^^ giheks: syntax of, 346 -->
<indexterm><primary>giheks</primary></indexterm>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Negate first construct: Place
@@ -3554,21 +3554,21 @@
<!-- ^^ joigik: as name for compound cmavo, 336; definition, 361 -->
<indexterm><primary>joigik</primary></indexterm>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Exchange constructs: Place
<quote>se</quote>before the connective cmavo.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section23">
- <title>23. Locations of other tables</title>
+ <title>Locations of other tables</title>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section1" />: a table explaining the meaning of each truth function in English.</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section2" />: a table relating the truth functions to the four basic vowels.</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section13" />: a table of the connective question cmavo.</para>
<!-- ^^ connective question cmavo: departure from regularity of, 352 -->
<indexterm><primary>connective question cmavo</primary></indexterm>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section14" />: a table of the meanings of JOI cmavo when used to connect sumti.</para>
diff --git a/todocbook/15.xml b/todocbook/15.xml
index 1e4b1d9..931bbbe 100644
--- a/todocbook/15.xml
+++ b/todocbook/15.xml
@@ -1,15 +1,15 @@
<chapter xml:id="cll_chapter15">
<title>Chapter 15
<quote>No</quote>Problems: On Lojban Negation</title>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter15-section1">
- <title>1. Introductory</title>
+ <title>Introductory</title>
<para>The grammatical expression of negation is a critical part of Lojban's claim to being logical. The problem of negation, simply put, is to come up with a complete definition of the word
<quote>not</quote>. For Lojban's unambiguous grammar, this means further that meanings of
<quote>not</quote>with different grammatical effect must be different words, and even different grammatical structures.</para>
<para>Logical assertions are implicitly required in a logical language; thus, an apparatus for expressing them is built into Lojban's logical connectives and other structures.</para>
<!-- ^^ logical language: truth functions, 333 -->
<indexterm><primary>logical language</primary></indexterm>
<para>In natural languages, especially those of Indo-European grammar, we have sentences composed of two parts which are typically called
<quote>subject</quote>and
<quote>predicate</quote>. In the statement</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-vrXe">
@@ -101,21 +101,21 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>The King of Mexico didn't come to dinner.</jbo>
<jbo>The King of Mexico did come to dinner.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In the natural languages, we would be inclined to say that both of these statements are false, since there is no King of Mexico.</para>
<para>The rest of this chapter is designed to explain the Lojban model of negation.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter15-section2">
- <title>2. bridi negation</title>
+ <title>bridi negation</title>
<para>In discussing Lojban negation, we will call the form of logical negation that simply denies the truth of a statement
<quote>bridi negation</quote>. Using bridi negation, we can say the equivalent of
<quote>I haven't stopped beating my wife</quote>without implying that I ever started, nor even that I have a wife, meaning simply
<quote>It isn't true that I have stopped beating my wife.</quote>Since Lojban uses bridi as smaller components of complex sentences, bridi negation is permitted in these components as well at the sentence level.</para>
<para>For the bridi negation of a sentence to be true, the sentence being negated must be false. A major use of bridi negation is in making a negative response to a yes/no question; such responses are usually contradictory, denying the truth of the entire sentence. A negative answer to</para>
<!-- ^^ negative answer: quick-tour version, 24 -->
<indexterm><primary>negative answer</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-sCNE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d1" />
@@ -371,21 +371,21 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>The event-of (my [false] being-conscripted-into the Army) was aided by my uncle the Senator.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>It is possible that someone will want to incorporate bridi negations into lujvo. For this reason, the rafsi
<quote>-nar-</quote>has been reserved for
<quote>na</quote>. However, before using this rafsi, make sure that you intend the contradictory bridi negation, and not the scalar negation described in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section3" />, which will be much more common in tanru and lujvo.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter15-section3">
- <title>3. Scalar Negation</title>
+ <title>Scalar Negation</title>
<para>Let us now consider some other types of negation. For example, when we say:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-GJga">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e3d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section3-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>The chair is not brown.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -582,21 +582,21 @@
<quote>non-</quote>,
<quote>un-</quote>,
<quote>il-</quote>, and
<quote>im-</quote>. Just which form and permissible values are implied by a scalar negation is dependent on the semantics of the word or concept which is being negated, and on the context. Much confusion in English results from the uncontrolled variations in meaning of these phrases and prefixes.</para>
<para>In the examples of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section4" />, we will translate the general case of scalar negation using the general formula
<quote>other than</quote>when a phrase is scalar-negated, and
<quote>non-</quote>when a single word is scalar-negated.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter15-section4">
- <title>4. selbri and tanru negation</title>
+ <title>selbri and tanru negation</title>
<para>All the scalar negations illustrated in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section3" />are expressed in Lojban using the cmavo
<quote>na'e</quote>(of selma'o NAhE). The most common use of
<quote>na'e</quote>is as a prefix to the selbri:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-uMSb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section4-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section4-example2" />
@@ -891,21 +891,21 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note:
<quote>lo</quote>is used in these sentences because negation relates to truth conditions. To meaningfully talk about truth conditions in sentences carrying a description, it must be clear that the description actually applies to the referent. A sentence using
<quote>le</quote>instead of
<quote>lo</quote>can be true even if there is no current king of France, as long as the speaker and the listener agree to describe something as the current king of France. (See the explanations of
<quote>le</quote>in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6" />.)</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter15-section5">
- <title>5. Expressing scales in selbri negation</title>
+ <title>Expressing scales in selbri negation</title>
<para>In expressing a scalar negation, we can provide some indication of the scale, range, frame-of-reference, or universe of discourse that is being dealt with in an assertion. As stated in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section4" />, the default is the set of plausible alternatives. Thus if we say:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-mw3B">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e5d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section5-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le stizu cu na'e xunre</jbo>
<en>The chair is a non-(red-thing).</en>
@@ -1063,21 +1063,21 @@
<quote>ultimately ugly</quote>or
<quote>ultimately beautiful</quote>. Other scales, like temperature, are open at one end and closed at the other: there is a minimum temperature (so-called
<quote>absolute zero</quote>) but no maximum temperature. Still other scales are closed at both ends.</para>
<para>Correspondingly, some selbri have no obvious
<quote>to'e</quote>- what is the opposite of a dog? - while others have more than one, and need
<quote>ci'u</quote>to specify which opposite is meant.</para>
<!-- ^^ ci'u, 204 -->
<indexterm><primary>ci'u</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter15-section6">
- <title>6. sumti negation</title>
+ <title>sumti negation</title>
<para>There are two ways of negating sumti in Lojban. We have the choice of quantifying the sumti with zero, or of applying the sumti-negator
<quote>na'ebo</quote>before the sumti. It turns out that a zero quantification serves for contradictory negation. As the cmavo we use implies,
<!-- ^^ na'ebo, 135 -->
<indexterm><primary>na'ebo</primary></indexterm>
<quote>na'ebo</quote>forms a scalar negation.</para>
<!-- ^^ na'ebo, 135 -->
<indexterm><primary>na'ebo</primary></indexterm>
<para>Let us show examples of each.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-PL1E">
<title>
@@ -1129,21 +1129,21 @@
<en>I go to Perth.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(Boston and Perth are nearly, but not quite, antipodal cities. In a purely United States context, San Francisco might be a better
<quote>opposite</quote>.) Coming up with good examples is difficult, because attaching
<quote>to'ebo</quote>to a description sumti is usually the same as attaching
<quote>to'e</quote>to the selbri of the description.</para>
<para>It is not possible to transform sumti negations of either type into bridi negations or scalar selbri negations. Negations of sumti will be used in Lojban conversation. The inability to manipulate these negations logically will, it is hoped, prevent the logical errors that result when natural languages attempt corresponding manipulations.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter15-section7">
- <title>7. Negation of minor grammatical constructs</title>
+ <title>Negation of minor grammatical constructs</title>
<para>We have a few other constructs that can be negated, all of them based on negating individual words. For such negation, we use the suffix-combining negator, which is
<quote>nai</quote>.
<quote>nai</quote>, by the way, is almost always written as a compound into the previous word that it is negating, although it is a regular separate-word cmavo and the sole member of selma'o NAI.</para>
<para>Most of these negation forms are straightforward, and should be discussed and interpreted in connection with an analysis of the particular construct being negated. Thus, we will not go into much detail here.</para>
<para>The following are places where
<quote>nai</quote>is used:</para>
<para>When attached to tenses and modals (see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10" />), the
<quote>nai</quote>suffix usually indicates a contradictory negation of the tagged bridi. Thus
<quote>punai</quote>as a tense inflection means
@@ -1224,21 +1224,21 @@
<quote>su'ujeninai</quote>, which corresponds to
<quote>su'u jenai ni</quote>just as
<quote>punai je ca</quote>corresponds to
<quote>pu naje ca</quote>. It is not clear how much use logically connected abstractors will be: see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13" />.</para>
<para>A
<quote>nai</quote>attached to a non-logical connective (of selma'o JOI or BIhI) is a scalar negation, and says that the bridi is false under the specified mixture, but that another connective is applicable. Non-logical connectives are discussed in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14" />.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter15-section8">
- <title>8. Truth questions</title>
+ <title>Truth questions</title>
<para>One application of negation is in answer to truth questions (those which expect the answers
<quote>Yes</quote>or
<quote>No</quote>). The truth question cmavo
<quote>xu</quote>is in selma'o UI; placed at the beginning of a sentence, it asks whether the sentence as a whole is true or false.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-5y84">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e8d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section8-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1349,21 +1349,21 @@
<gloss>[ke'e] la paris. .e la rom.</gloss>
<gloss>John previously other-than(went-to)</gloss>
<en>[both] Paris and Rome.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>He might have telephoned the two cities instead of going there. The unnecessary
<quote>ke</quote>and
<quote>ke'e</quote>would have been essential if the selbri had been a tanru.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter15-section9">
- <title>9. Affirmations</title>
+ <title>Affirmations</title>
<para>There is an explicit positive form for both selma'o NA (
<quote>ja'a</quote>) and selma'o NAhE (
<quote>je'a</quote>), each of which would supplant the corresponding negator in the grammatical position used, allowing one to assert the positive in response to a negative question or statement without confusion. Assuming the same context as in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section8" />:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-KhoH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e9d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section9-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1451,21 +1451,21 @@
<anchor xml:id="c15e9d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section9-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta je'a melbi</jbo>
<en>that is-indeed beautiful.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter15-section10">
- <title>10. Metalinguistic negation forms</title>
+ <title>Metalinguistic negation forms</title>
<para>The question of truth or falsity is not entirely synonymous with negation. Consider the English sentence</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-QsJ9">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section10-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>I have not stopped beating my wife.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1661,21 +1661,21 @@
</example>
<para>Finally, one may metalinguistically affirm a bridi with
<quote>jo'a</quote>, another cmavo of selma'o UI. A common use for
<!-- ^^ jo'a, 321 -->
<indexterm><primary>jo'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>jo'a</quote>might be to affirm that a particular construction, though unusual or counterintuitive, is in fact correct; another usage would be to disagree with - by overriding - a respondent's metalinguistic negation.</para>
<!-- ^^ jo'a, 321 -->
<indexterm><primary>jo'a</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter15-section11">
- <title>11. Summary - Are All Possible Questions About Negation Now Answered?</title>
+ <title>Summary - Are All Possible Questions About Negation Now Answered?</title>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-MdRP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e11d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section11-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>na go'i .ije na'e go'i .ije na'i go'i</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
diff --git a/todocbook/16.xml b/todocbook/16.xml
index f862da6..d22bcad 100644
--- a/todocbook/16.xml
+++ b/todocbook/16.xml
@@ -1,15 +1,15 @@
<chapter xml:id="cll_chapter16">
<title>Chapter 16
<quote>Who Did You Pass On The Road? Nobody</quote>: Lojban And Logic</title>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter16-section1">
- <title>1. What's wrong with this picture?</title>
+ <title>What's wrong with this picture?</title>
<para>The following brief dialogue is from
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7" />of
<citation>Through The Looking Glass</citation>by Lewis Carroll.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-KB90">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e1d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section1-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
@@ -97,21 +97,21 @@
<jbo>mi viska le nanmu</jbo>
<gloss>I see the-one-I-refer-to-as-the man.</gloss>
<en>I see the man/men.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>that there really is a man; the only thing you can conclude is that there is one thing (or more) that I choose to refer to as a man. You cannot even tell which man is meant for sure without asking me (although communication is served if you already know from the context).</para>
<para>In addition, the use of attitudinals (see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13" />) often reduces or removes the ability to make deductions about the bridi to which those attitudinals are applied. From the fact that I hope George will win the election, you can conclude nothing about George's actual victory or defeat.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter16-section2">
- <title>2. Existential claims, prenexes, and variables</title>
+ <title>Existential claims, prenexes, and variables</title>
<para>Let us consider, to begin with, a sentence that is not in the dialogue:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Mxj3">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e2d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section2-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>Something sees me.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -244,21 +244,21 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>da zo'u la ralf. gerku</jbo>
<en>There is something such that Ralph is a dog.</en>
<!-- ^^ Ralph: example, 393 -->
<indexterm><primary>Ralph</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>has a variable bound in a prenex whose relevance to the claim of the following bridi is completely unspecified.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter16-section3">
- <title>3. Universal claims</title>
+ <title>Universal claims</title>
<para>What happens if we substitute
<quote>everything</quote>for
<quote>something</quote>in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section2-example1" />? We get:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-UwYG">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e3d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section3-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -337,21 +337,21 @@
<!-- ^^ can see: example, 244 -->
<indexterm><primary>can see</primary></indexterm>
<para>There are various possible translations of universal claims in English: sometimes we use
<!-- ^^ universal claims: dangers of using, 396; explanation, 393; restricting, 394, 395 -->
<indexterm><primary>universal claims</primary></indexterm>
<quote>anybody/anything</quote>rather than
<quote>everybody/everything</quote>. Often it makes no difference which of these is used: when it does make a difference, it is a rather subtle one which is explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section8" />.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter16-section4">
- <title>4. Restricted claims:
+ <title>Restricted claims:
<quote>da poi</quote></title>
<para>The universal claims of
<!-- ^^ universal claims: dangers of using, 396; explanation, 393; restricting, 394, 395 -->
<indexterm><primary>universal claims</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section3" />are not only false but absurd: there is really very little to be said that is both true and non-trivial about every object whatsoever. Furthermore, we have been glossing over the distinction between
<quote>everything</quote>and
<quote>everybody</quote>and the other pairs ending in
<quote>-thing</quote>and
<quote>-body</quote>. It is time to bring up the most useful feature of Lojban variables: the ability to restrict their ranges.</para>
<para>In Lojban, a variable
@@ -451,21 +451,21 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>da poi gerku zo'u da vasxu</jbo>
<gloss>There-is-an-X which is-a-dog : X breathes.</gloss>
<en>Some dog breathes.</en>
<!-- ^^ dog breathes, 395 -->
<indexterm><primary>dog breathes</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter16-section5">
- <title>5. Dropping the prenex</title>
+ <title>Dropping the prenex</title>
<para>It isn't really necessary for every Lojban bridi involving variables to have a prenex on the front. In fact, none of the examples we've seen so far required prenexes at all! The rule for dropping the prenex is simple: if the variables appear in the same order within the bridi as they did in the prenex, then the prenex is superfluous. However, any
<quote>ro</quote>or
<quote>poi</quote>appearing in the prenex must be transferred to the first occurrence of the variable in the main part of the bridi. Thus,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section2-example3" />becomes just:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-9zAo">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e5d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section5-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -591,21 +591,21 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section5-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti xarci di poi prenu ku'o di</jbo>
<en>This-thing is-a-weapon-for-use-against some-Z which is-a-person by-Z.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>As the examples in this section show, dropping the prenex makes for terseness of expression often even greater than that of English (Lojban is meant to be an unambiguous language, not necessarily a terse or verbose one), provided the rules are observed.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter16-section6">
- <title>6. Variables with generalized quantifiers</title>
+ <title>Variables with generalized quantifiers</title>
<para>So far, we have seen variables with either nothing in front, or with the cmavo
<quote>ro</quote>in front. Now
<quote>ro</quote>is a Lojban number, and means
<quote>all</quote>; thus
<quote>ro prenu</quote>means
<!-- ^^ ro prenu, 398 -->
<indexterm><primary>ro prenu</primary></indexterm>
<quote>all persons</quote>, just as
<!-- ^^ all persons: example, 398 -->
<indexterm><primary>all persons</primary></indexterm>
@@ -743,21 +743,21 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section6-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>re da poi prenu zo'u da viska mi</jbo>
<en>For-two Xes which are-persons : X sees me.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that when we move more than one variable to the prenex (along with its attached relative clause), we must make sure that the variables are in the same order in the prenex as in the bridi proper.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter16-section7">
- <title>7. Grouping of quantifiers</title>
+ <title>Grouping of quantifiers</title>
<para>Let us consider a sentence containing two quantifier expressions neither of which is
<quote>ro</quote>or
<quote>su'o</quote>(remembering that
<quote>su'o</quote>is implicit where no explicit quantifier is given):</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Uovr">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e7d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section7-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -850,21 +850,21 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>[ro] le ci gerku cu batci [ro] le re nanmu</jbo>
<en>[All of] the three dogs bite [all of] the two men.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means that each of the dogs specified bites each of the men specified, for six acts of biting altogether. However, if there is an explicit quantifier before
<quote>le</quote>other than
<quote>ro</quote>, the problems of this section reappear.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter16-section8">
- <title>8. The problem of
+ <title>The problem of
<quote>any</quote></title>
<para>Consider the English sentence</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-R4mX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e8d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section8-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>Anyone who goes to the store, walks across the field.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1009,21 +1009,21 @@
<jbo>There's a box, bigger than this one, that I need</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which is what
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section8-example6" />says, whereas
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section8-example7" />turns out to be an effective translation of our original
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section8-example1" />. So uses of
<quote>any</quote>that aren't universal end up being reflected by variables bound in the prenex of a subordinate bridi.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter16-section9">
- <title>9. Negation boundaries</title>
+ <title>Negation boundaries</title>
<para>This section, as well as
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section10" />through
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section12" />, are in effect a continuation of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15" />, introducing features of Lojban negation that require an understanding of prenexes and variables. In the examples below,
<quote>there is a Y</quote>and the like must be understood as
<!-- ^^ there is a Y: expression, notation convention, 401 -->
<indexterm><primary>there is a Y</primary></indexterm>
<quote>there is at least one Y, possibly more</quote>.</para>
<para>As explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15" />, the negation of a bridi is usually accomplished by inserting
@@ -1289,21 +1289,21 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section9-example13" />.</para>
<para>The interactions between quantifiers and negation mean that you cannot eliminate double negatives that are not adjacent. You must first move the negation phrases so that they are adjacent, inverting any quantifiers they cross, and then the double negative can be eliminated.</para>
<!-- ^^ interactions between quantifiers and negation: effect, 403 -->
<indexterm><primary>interactions between quantifiers and negation</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ double negatives: effect of interactions between quantifiers and negation on, 403 -->
<!-- ^^ interactions between quantifiers and negation: effect, 403 -->
<indexterm><primary>interactions between quantifiers and negation</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm><primary>double negatives</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter16-section10">
- <title>10. bridi negation and logical connectives</title>
+ <title>bridi negation and logical connectives</title>
<!-- ^^ negation and logical connectives: caveat for logic chapter discussions, 403 -->
<indexterm><primary>negation and logical connectives</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ bridi negation and logical connectives, 403 -->
<!-- ^^ negation and logical connectives: caveat for logic chapter discussions, 403 -->
<indexterm><primary>negation and logical connectives</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm><primary>bridi negation and logical connectives</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ negation and logical connectives: caveat for logic chapter discussions, 403 -->
<indexterm><primary>negation and logical connectives</primary></indexterm>
<para>A complete discussion of logical connectives appears in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14" />. What is said here is intentionally quite incomplete and makes several oversimplifications.</para>
@@ -1439,21 +1439,21 @@
<quote>naku</quote>past a bound variable (da, de, di, etc.), you must invert the quantifier.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>A
<quote>na</quote>before the selbri is always transformed into a
<quote>naku</quote>at the left-hand end of the prenex, and vice versa.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter16-section11">
- <title>11. Using
+ <title>Using
<quote>naku</quote>outside a prenex</title>
<para>Let us consider the English sentence</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-hp0j">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e11d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section11-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>Some children do not go to school.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1672,21 +1672,21 @@
<jbo>mi naku naku le zarci cu klama</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Other expressions using two
<quote>naku</quote>s may or may not cancel out. If there is no quantified variable between them, then the
<quote>naku</quote>s cancel.</para>
<para>Negation with internal
<quote>naku</quote>is clumsy and non-intuitive for logical manipulations, but then, so are the natural language features it is emulating.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter16-section12">
- <title>12. Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law</title>
+ <title>Logical Connectives and DeMorgan's Law</title>
<para>DeMorgan's Law states that when a logical connective between terms falls within a negation, then expanding the negation requires a change in the connective. Thus (where
<quote>p</quote>and
<quote>q</quote>stand for terms or sentences)
<quote>not (p or q)</quote>is identical to
<quote>not p and not q</quote>, and
<quote>not (p and q)</quote>is identical to
<quote>not p or not q</quote>. The corresponding changes for the other two basic Lojban connectives are:
<quote>not (p equivalent to q)</quote>is identical to
<quote>not p exclusive-or not q</quote>, and
<quote>not (p whether-or-not q)</quote>is identical to both
@@ -1866,21 +1866,21 @@
<en>(Either Paris or Rome) is-not gone-to-by John.</en>
<jbo>la djan. naku klama ge la paris. gi la rom.</jbo>
<en>John doesn't go-to both Paris and Rome.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>That
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section12-example10" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section12-example11" />mean the same should become evident by studying the English. It is a good exercise to work through the Lojban and prove that they are the same.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter16-section13">
- <title>13. selbri variables</title>
+ <title>selbri variables</title>
<!-- ^^ selbri variables: form when not in prenex, 410; prenex form as indefinite description, 409; quantified, 410 -->
<indexterm><primary>selbri variables</primary></indexterm>
<para>In addition to the variables
<quote>da</quote>,
<quote>de</quote>, and
<quote>di</quote>that we have seen so far, which function as sumti and belong to selma'o KOhA, there are three corresponding variables
<quote>bu'a</quote>,
<quote>bu'e</quote>, and
<!-- ^^ bu'e, 409 -->
<indexterm><primary>bu'e</primary></indexterm>
@@ -1953,21 +1953,21 @@
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section13-example1" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section13-example2" />are almost certainly true: Jim and John might be brothers, or might live in the same city, or at least have the property of being jointly human.
<!-- ^^ brothers: example, 355 -->
<indexterm><primary>brothers</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section13-example3" />is palpably false, however; if Jim and John were related by every possible relationship, then they would have to be both brothers and father-and-son, which is impossible.</para>
<!-- ^^ brothers: example, 355 -->
<indexterm><primary>brothers</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter16-section14">
- <title>14. A few notes on variables</title>
+ <title>A few notes on variables</title>
<para>A variable may have a quantifier placed in front of it even though it has already been quantified explicitly or implicitly by a previous appearance, as in:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-x0FP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e14d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section14-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ci da poi mlatu cu blabi .ije re da cu barda</jbo>
<en>Three Xs which-are cats are white, and two Xs are big.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -2017,16 +2017,16 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The
<quote>pa da</quote>in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section14-example2" />does not specify the number of things to which
<quote>da</quote>refers, as the preceding
<quote>ci da</quote>does. Instead, it selects one of them for use in this sumti only. The number of referents of
<quote>da</quote>remains three, but a single one (there is no way of knowing which one) is selected to be the leader.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter16-section15">
- <title>15. Conclusion</title>
+ <title>Conclusion</title>
<para>This chapter is incomplete. There are many more aspects of logic that I neither fully understand nor feel competent to explain, neither in abstract nor in their Lojban realization. Lojban was designed to be a language that makes predicate logic speakable, and achieving that goal completely will need to wait for someone who understands both logic and Lojban better than I do. I can only hope to have pointed out the areas that are well-understood (and by implication, those that are not).</para>
<!-- ^^ logic and Lojban: more aspects, 411 -->
<indexterm><primary>logic and Lojban</primary></indexterm>
</section>
</chapter>
diff --git a/todocbook/17.xml b/todocbook/17.xml
index ab6b904..1bdea05 100644
--- a/todocbook/17.xml
+++ b/todocbook/17.xml
@@ -1,14 +1,14 @@
<chapter xml:id="cll_chapter17">
<title>Chapter 17 As Easy As A-B-C? The Lojban Letteral System And Its Uses</title>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section1">
- <title>1. What's a letteral, anyway?</title>
+ <title>What's a letteral, anyway?</title>
<para>James Cooke Brown, the founder of the Loglan Project, coined the word
<!-- ^^ Brown: James Cooke, 6; James Cooke, and "letteral", 413 -->
<indexterm><primary>Brown</primary></indexterm>
<quote>letteral</quote>(by analogy with
<quote>numeral</quote>) to mean a letter of the alphabet, such as
<quote>f</quote>or
<quote>z</quote>. A typical example of its use might be</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-tvHm">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e1d1" />
@@ -39,21 +39,21 @@
<para>Letterals have several uses in Lojban: in forming acronyms and abbreviations, as mathematical symbols, and as pro-sumti - the equivalent of English pronouns.</para>
<!-- ^^ acronyms: as lerfu strings using "me", 424; using names based on lerfu words, 423 -->
<indexterm><primary>acronyms</primary></indexterm>
<para>In earlier writings about Lojban, there has been a tendency to use the word
<quote>lerfu</quote>for both the letterals themselves and for the Lojban words which represent them. In this chapter, that tendency will be ruthlessly suppressed, and the term
<quote>lerfu word</quote>will invariably be used for the latter. The Lojban equivalent would be
<quote>lerfu valsi</quote>or
<quote>lervla</quote>.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section2">
- <title>2. A to Z in Lojban, plus one</title>
+ <title>A to Z in Lojban, plus one</title>
<para>The first requirement of a system of lerfu words for any language is that they must represent the lerfu used to write the language. The lerfu words for English are a motley crew: the relationship between
<quote>doubleyou</quote>and
<quote>w</quote>is strictly historical in nature;
<quote>aitch</quote>represents
<quote>h</quote>but has no clear relationship to it at all; and
<quote>z</quote>has two distinct lerfu words,
<quote>zee</quote>and
<quote>zed</quote>, depending on the dialect of English in question.</para>
<para>All of Lojban's basic lerfu words are made by one of three rules:</para>
<itemizedlist>
@@ -185,21 +185,21 @@
<jbo>micyclaxu</jbo>
<gloss>(Observative:) doctor-without</gloss>
<en>Something unspecified is without a doctor.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>A safe guideline is to pause after any cmavo ending in
<quote>y</quote>unless the next word is also a cmavo ending in
<quote>y</quote>. The safest and easiest guideline is to pause after all of them.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section3">
- <title>3. Upper and lower cases</title>
+ <title>Upper and lower cases</title>
<para>Lojban doesn't use lower-case (small) letters and upper-case (capital) letters in the same way that English does; sentences do not begin with an upper-case letter, nor do names. However, upper-case letters are used in Lojban to mark irregular stress within names, thus:</para>
<!-- ^^ upper-case letters: English usage contrasted with Lojban, 415; Lojban usage contrasted with English, 415 -->
<indexterm><primary>upper-case letters</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ upper-case: lerfu word for, 415 -->
<indexterm><primary>upper-case</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ lower-case: lerfu word for, 415 -->
<indexterm><primary>lower-case</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Fam2">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e3d1" />
@@ -283,21 +283,21 @@
<gloss>[single shift] S i</gloss>
<en>Si (chemical symbol for silicon)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>If a shift to upper-case is in effect when
<!-- ^^ upper-case: lerfu word for, 415 -->
<indexterm><primary>upper-case</primary></indexterm>
<quote>tau</quote>appears, it shifts the next lerfu word only to lower case, reversing its usual effect.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section4">
- <title>4. The universal
+ <title>The universal
<quote>bu</quote></title>
<para>So far we have seen
<quote>bu</quote>only as a suffix to vowel cmavo to produce vowel lerfu words. Originally, this was the only use of
<quote>bu</quote>. In developing the lerfu word system, however, it proved to be useful to allow
<quote>bu</quote>to be attached to any word whatsoever, in order to allow arbitrary extensions of the basic lerfu word set.</para>
<para>Formally,
<quote>bu</quote>may be attached to any single Lojban word. Compound cmavo do not count as words for this purpose. The special cmavo
<quote>ba'e</quote>,
<quote>za'e</quote>,
<!-- ^^ za'e, 69, 416, 480; interaction with bu, 416; use to avoid lujvo misunderstandings, 69 -->
@@ -374,21 +374,21 @@
<quote>syllable bu</quote>). The written space is mandatory here, because
<quote>denpa</quote>and
<quote>slaka</quote>are normal gismu with normal stress:
<quote>denpabu</quote>would be a fu'ivla (word borrowed from another language into Lojban) stressed
<quote>denPAbu</quote>. No pause is required between
<quote>denpa</quote>(or
<quote>slaka</quote>) and
<quote>bu</quote>, though.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section5">
- <title>5. Alien alphabets</title>
+ <title>Alien alphabets</title>
<para>As stated in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17-section1" />, Lojban's goal of cultural neutrality demands a standard set of lerfu words for the lerfu of as many other writing systems as possible. When we meet these lerfu in written text (particularly, though not exclusively, mathematical text), we need a standard Lojbanic way to pronounce them.</para>
<para>There are certainly hundreds of alphabets and other writing systems in use around the world, and it is probably an unachievable goal to create a single system which can express all of them, but if perfection is not demanded, a usable system can be created from the raw material which Lojban provides.</para>
<para>One possibility would be to use the lerfu word associated with the language itself, Lojbanized and with
<quote>bu</quote>added. Indeed, an isolated Greek
<quote>alpha</quote>in running Lojban text is probably most easily handled by calling it
<!-- ^^ alpha: example, 416 -->
<indexterm><primary>alpha</primary></indexterm>
<quote>.alfas. bu</quote>. Here the Greek lerfu word has been made into a Lojbanized name by adding
<quote>s</quote>and then into a Lojban lerfu word by adding
@@ -578,21 +578,21 @@
<quote>lo'a</quote>, which changes the alphabet only, potentially leaving font and case shifts in place.</para>
<!-- ^^ lo'a: contrasted with na'a, 418 -->
<!-- ^^ na'a, 418; contrasted with lo'a, 418 -->
<indexterm><primary>na'a</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm><primary>lo'a</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ font: example, 418; specifying for letters, 418 -->
<indexterm><primary>font</primary></indexterm>
<para>Several sections at the end of this chapter contain tables of proposed lerfu word assignments for various languages.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section6">
- <title>6. Accent marks and compound lerfu words</title>
+ <title>Accent marks and compound lerfu words</title>
<para>Many languages that make use of the Latin alphabet add special marks to some of the lerfu they use. French, for example, uses three accent marks above vowels, called (in English)
<!-- ^^ Latin alphabet, 29; language shift word for, 417 -->
<indexterm><primary>Latin alphabet</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ accent marks: proposed lerfu words for, 429 -->
<indexterm><primary>accent marks</primary></indexterm>
<quote>acute</quote>,
<quote>grave</quote>, and
<quote>circumflex</quote>. Likewise, German uses a mark called
<!-- ^^ circumflex: a diacritical mark, 418 -->
<indexterm><primary>circumflex</primary></indexterm>
@@ -645,21 +645,21 @@
<para>In addition, when discussing a specific language, it is permissible to make up new lerfu words, as long as they are either explained locally or well understood from context: thus Spanish
<quote>ll</quote>or Croatian
<quote>lj</quote>could be called
<quote>libu</quote>, but that usage would not necessarily be universally understood.</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17-section19" />contains a table of proposed lerfu words for some common accent marks.</para>
<!-- ^^ accent marks: proposed lerfu words for, 429 -->
<indexterm><primary>accent marks</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section7">
- <title>7. Punctuation marks</title>
+ <title>Punctuation marks</title>
<para>Lojban does not have punctuation marks as such: the denpa bu and the slaka bu are really a part of the alphabet. Other languages, however, use punctuation marks extensively. As yet, Lojban does not have any words for these punctuation marks, but a mechanism exists for devising them: the cmavo
<!-- ^^ punctuation marks: cmavo as Lojban equivalents, 50 -->
<indexterm><primary>punctuation marks</primary></indexterm>
<quote>lau</quote>of selma'o LAU.
<!-- ^^ lau, 419; effect on following lerfu word, 419 -->
<indexterm><primary>lau</primary></indexterm>
<quote>lau</quote>must always be followed by a BY word; the interpretation of the BY word is changed from a lerfu to a punctuation mark. Typically, this BY word would be a name or brivla with a
<!-- ^^ lau, 419; effect on following lerfu word, 419 -->
<indexterm><primary>lau</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bu</quote>suffix.</para>
@@ -684,21 +684,21 @@
<para>Since different alphabets require different punctuation marks, the interpretation of a
<!-- ^^ punctuation marks: cmavo as Lojban equivalents, 50 -->
<indexterm><primary>punctuation marks</primary></indexterm>
<quote>lau</quote>-marked lerfu word is affected by the current alphabet shift and the current font shift.</para>
<!-- ^^ lau, 419; effect on following lerfu word, 419 -->
<indexterm><primary>lau</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ font: example, 418; specifying for letters, 418 -->
<indexterm><primary>font</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section8">
- <title>8. What about Chinese characters?</title>
+ <title>What about Chinese characters?</title>
<!-- ^^ Chinese characters: contrasted with alphabets and syllabaries, 420; representing based on pinyin spelling, 420; representing based on strokes, 420 -->
<!-- ^^ syllabaries: lerfu word representation, 420 -->
<indexterm><primary>syllabaries</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ pinyin: as a basis for Chinese characters in Lojban lerfu words, 420 -->
<indexterm><primary>pinyin</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm><primary>Chinese characters</primary></indexterm>
<para>Chinese characters (
<!-- ^^ Chinese characters: contrasted with alphabets and syllabaries, 420; representing based on pinyin spelling, 420; representing based on strokes, 420 -->
<!-- ^^ syllabaries: lerfu word representation, 420 -->
<indexterm><primary>syllabaries</primary></indexterm>
@@ -798,21 +798,21 @@
<!-- ^^ Chinese characters: contrasted with alphabets and syllabaries, 420; representing based on pinyin spelling, 420; representing based on strokes, 420 -->
<!-- ^^ syllabaries: lerfu word representation, 420 -->
<indexterm><primary>syllabaries</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ pinyin: as a basis for Chinese characters in Lojban lerfu words, 420 -->
<indexterm><primary>pinyin</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm><primary>Chinese characters</primary></indexterm>
<quote>tei</quote>, the stroke lerfu words in the order of writing (which is standardized for each character), and a
<quote>foi</quote>. No one has as yet attempted this project.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section9">
- <title>9. lerfu words as pro-sumti</title>
+ <title>lerfu words as pro-sumti</title>
<para>So far, lerfu words have only appeared in Lojban text when spelling out words. There are several other grammatical uses of lerfu words within Lojban. In each case, a single lerfu word or more than one may be used. Therefore, the term
<!-- ^^ spelling out words: Lojban contrasted with English, 414 -->
<indexterm><primary>spelling out words</primary></indexterm>
<quote>lerfu string</quote>is introduced: it is short for
<quote>sequence of one or more lerfu words</quote>.</para>
<para>A lerfu string may be used as a pro-sumti (a sumti which refers to some previous sumti), just like the pro-sumti
<quote>ko'a</quote>,
<quote>ko'e</quote>, and so on:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-2wo8">
<title>
@@ -925,21 +925,21 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>requires the first
<quote>boi</quote>to separate the lerfu string
<quote>xy.</quote>from the digit string
<!-- ^^ digit string: definition of, 458 -->
<indexterm><primary>digit string</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ro</quote>.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section10">
- <title>10. References to lerfu</title>
+ <title>References to lerfu</title>
<para>The rules of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17-section9" />make it impossible to use unmarked lerfu words to refer to lerfu themselves. In the sentence:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-CYny">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e10d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section10-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.abu. cu lerfu</jbo>
<en>A is-a-letteral.</en>
@@ -1019,21 +1019,21 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la'e lu .abu li'u cu lerfu</jbo>
<!-- ^^ la'e lu: compared with me'o, 422 -->
<indexterm><primary>la'e lu</primary></indexterm>
<en>The-referent-of [quote] .abu [unquote] is-a-letteral.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which is correct.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section11">
- <title>11. Mathematical uses of lerfu strings</title>
+ <title>Mathematical uses of lerfu strings</title>
<para>This chapter is not about Lojban mathematics, which is explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18" />, so the mathematical uses of lerfu strings will be listed and exemplified but not explained.</para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>A lerfu string as mathematical variable:</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-1Nuz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e11d1" />
@@ -1155,21 +1155,21 @@
<quote>abc</quote>. (Of course, a local convention could be employed that made the value of a variable like
<quote>abc</quote>, with a multi-lerfu-word name, equal to the values of the variables
<quote>a</quote>,
<quote>b</quote>, and
<quote>c</quote>multiplied together.)</para>
<para>There is a special rule about shift words in mathematical text: shifts within mathematical expressions do not affect lerfu words appearing outside mathematical expressions, and vice versa.</para>
<!-- ^^ mathematical expressions: connectives in, 361; implicit quantifier for, 142; tensed connection in, 364 -->
<indexterm><primary>mathematical expressions</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section12">
- <title>12. Acronyms</title>
+ <title>Acronyms</title>
<para>An acronym is a name constructed of lerfu. English examples are
<!-- ^^ acronym: definition, 423 -->
<indexterm><primary>acronym</primary></indexterm>
<quote>DNA</quote>,
<!-- ^^ DNA: example, 424 -->
<indexterm><primary>DNA</primary></indexterm>
<quote>NATO</quote>,
<!-- ^^ NATO: example, 424 -->
<indexterm><primary>NATO</primary></indexterm>
<quote>CIA</quote>. In English, some of these are spelled out (like
@@ -1323,21 +1323,21 @@
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17-section12-example5" />does not of course refer to a bear (
<quote>le cribe</quote>or
<quote>lo cribe</quote>) but to something else, probably a person, named
<quote>Bear</quote>. Similarly,
<quote>me dy ny. .abu</quote>is a predicate which can be used as a name, producing a kind of acronym which can have pauses between the individual lerfu words.</para>
<!-- ^^ acronym: definition, 423 -->
<indexterm><primary>acronym</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section13">
- <title>13. Computerized character codes</title>
+ <title>Computerized character codes</title>
<!-- ^^ character codes: definition, 425 -->
<indexterm><primary>character codes</primary></indexterm>
<para>Since the first application of computers to non-numerical information, character sets have existed, mapping numbers (called
<quote>character codes</quote>) into selected lerfu, digits, and punctuation marks (collectively called
<!-- ^^ punctuation marks: cmavo as Lojban equivalents, 50 -->
<indexterm><primary>punctuation marks</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ character codes: definition, 425 -->
<indexterm><primary>character codes</primary></indexterm>
<quote>characters</quote>). Historically, these character sets have only covered the English alphabet and a few selected punctuation marks. International efforts have now created Unicode, a unified character set that can represent essentially all the characters in essentially all the world's writing systems. Lojban can take advantage of these encoding schemes by using the cmavo
<!-- ^^ Unicode, 425 -->
@@ -1390,21 +1390,21 @@
<jbo>me'o se'erexarerei sinxa le ka panpi</jbo>
<en>the-expression [code] 262E is-a-sign-of the quality-of being-at-peace</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>When a
<quote>se'e</quote>string appears in running discourse, some metalinguistic convention must specify whether the number is base 10 or some other base, and which character set is in use.</para>
<!-- ^^ se'e, 425; and number base convention, 425 -->
<indexterm><primary>se'e</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section14">
- <title>14. List of all auxiliary lerfu-word cmavo</title>
+ <title>List of all auxiliary lerfu-word cmavo</title>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>bu</cmavo>
<selmaho>BU</selmaho>
<description>makes previous word into a lerfu word</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ga'e</cmavo>
<!-- ^^ ga'e, 415 -->
<indexterm><primary>ga'e</primary></indexterm>
@@ -1509,31 +1509,31 @@
<selmaho>FOI</selmaho>
<description>end compound lerfu word</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>Note that LAU cmavo must be followed by a BY cmavo or the equivalent, where
<quote>equivalent</quote>means: either any Lojban word followed by
<quote>bu</quote>, another LAU cmavo (and its required sequel), or a
<quote>tei ... foi</quote>compound cmavo.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section15">
- <title>15. Proposed lerfu words - introduction</title>
+ <title>Proposed lerfu words - introduction</title>
<para>The following sections contain tables of proposed lerfu words for some of the standard alphabets supported by the Lojban lerfu system. The first column of each list is the lerfu (actually, a Latin-alphabet name sufficient to identify it). The second column is the proposed name-based lerfu word, and the third column is the proposed lerfu word in the system based on using the cmavo of selma'o BY with a shift word.</para>
<para>These tables are not meant to be authoritative (several authorities within the Lojban community have niggled over them extensively, disagreeing with each other and sometimes with themselves). They provide a working basis until actual usage is available, rather than a final resolution of lerfu word problems. Probably the system presented here will evolve somewhat before settling down into a final, conventional form.</para>
<!-- ^^ basis: example, 317 -->
<indexterm><primary>basis</primary></indexterm>
<para>For Latin-alphabet lerfu words, see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17-section2" />(for Lojban) and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17-section5" />(for non-Lojban Latin-alphabet lerfu).</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section16">
- <title>16. Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet</title>
+ <title>Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet</title>
<!-- ^^ Greek alphabet: language shift word for, 417; proposed lerfu words for, 426 -->
<indexterm><primary>Greek alphabet</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
alpha .alfas. bu .abu
<!-- ^^ alpha: example, 416 -->
<indexterm><primary>alpha</primary></indexterm>
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
beta .betas. bu by
gamma .gamas. bu gy
delta .deltas. bu dy
@@ -1555,21 +1555,21 @@
upsilon .Upsilon. bu .ubu
phi .fis. bu py. bu
chi .xis. bu ky. bu
psi .psis. bu psis. bu
omega .omegas. bu .o'obu
rough .dasei,as. bu .y'y
smooth .psiles. bu xutla bu
</programlisting>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section17">
- <title>17. Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet</title>
+ <title>Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet</title>
<!-- ^^ Cyrillic alphabet: language shift word for, 417; proposed lerfu words for, 427 -->
<indexterm><primary>Cyrillic alphabet</primary></indexterm>
<para>The second column in this listing is based on the historical names of the letters in Old Church Slavonic. Only those letters used in Russian are shown; other languages require more letters which can be devised as needed.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
a .azys. bu .abu
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
b .bukys. bu by
v .vedis. bu vy
g .glagolis. bu gy
d .dobros. bu dy
@@ -1596,21 +1596,21 @@
shch .ctas. bu ctcys. bu
hard sign .ier. bu jdari bu
yeri .ierys. bu .y.bu
soft sign .ieriys. bu ranti bu
reversed e .ecarn. bu .ecarn. bu
yu .ius. bu .iubu
ya .ias. bu .iabu
</programlisting>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section18">
- <title>18. Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet</title>
+ <title>Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet</title>
<!-- ^^ Hebrew alphabet: language shift word for, 417; proposed lerfu words for, 428 -->
<indexterm><primary>Hebrew alphabet</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
aleph .alef. bu .alef. bu
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
bet .bet. bu by
gimel .gimel. bu gy
daled .daled. bu dy
he .xex. bu .y'y
vav .vav. bu vy
@@ -1639,21 +1639,21 @@
segol .seGOL. bu .ebu
qubbutz .kubuts. bu .ubu
qamatz .kamats. bu .abu
patach .patax. bu .a'abu
sheva .cyVAS. bu .y.bu
kholem .xolem. bu .obu
shuruq .curuk. bu .u'ubu
</programlisting>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section19">
- <title>19. Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters</title>
+ <title>Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters</title>
<!-- ^^ multiple letters: proposed lerfu words for, 429 -->
<indexterm><primary>multiple letters</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ accent marks: proposed lerfu words for, 429 -->
<indexterm><primary>accent marks</primary></indexterm>
<para>This list is intended to be suggestive, not complete: there are lerfu such as Polish
<quote>dark</quote>l and Maltese h-bar that do not yet have symbols.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
acute .akut. bu
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
or .pritygal. bu [pritu galtu]
@@ -1689,21 +1689,21 @@
<!-- ^^ ligatured fi: proposed lerfu word for, 429 -->
<indexterm><primary>ligatured fi</primary></indexterm>
Danish/Latin ae tei .abu .ebu foi
Dutch ij tei .ibu jy. foi
<!-- ^^ Dutch ij: proposed lerfu word for, 429 -->
<indexterm><primary>Dutch ij</primary></indexterm>
German es-zed tei sy. zy. foi
</programlisting>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section20">
- <title>20. Proposed lerfu words for radio communication</title>
+ <title>Proposed lerfu words for radio communication</title>
<!-- ^^ radio communication: proposed lerfu words for, 429 -->
<indexterm><primary>radio communication</primary></indexterm>
<para>There is a set of English words which are used, by international agreement, as lerfu words (for the English alphabet) over the radio, or in noisy situations where the utmost clarity is required. Formally they are known as the
<quote>ICAO Phonetic Alphabet</quote>, and are used even in non-English-speaking countries.</para>
<!-- ^^ ICAO Phonetic Alphabet: proposed lerfu words for, 429 -->
<indexterm><primary>ICAO Phonetic Alphabet</primary></indexterm>
<para>This table presents the standard English spellings and proposed Lojban versions. The Lojbanizations are not straightforward renderings of the English sounds, but make some concessions both to the English spellings of the words and to the Lojban pronunciations of the lerfu (thus
<quote>carlis. bu</quote>, not
<quote>tcarlis. bu</quote>).</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
diff --git a/todocbook/18.xml b/todocbook/18.xml
index c25e26c..e81ea7c 100644
--- a/todocbook/18.xml
+++ b/todocbook/18.xml
@@ -1,14 +1,14 @@
<chapter xml:id="cll_chapter18">
<title>Chapter 18 lojbau mekso: Mathematical Expressions in Lojban</title>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter18-section1">
- <title>1. Introductory</title>
+ <title>Introductory</title>
<para>lojbau mekso (
<quote>Lojbanic mathematical-expression</quote>) is the part of the Lojban language that is tailored for expressing statements of a mathematical character, or for adding numerical information to non-mathematical statements. Its formal design goals include:</para>
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para>representing all the different forms of expression used by mathematicians in their normal modes of writing, so that a reader can unambiguously read off mathematical text as written with minimal effort and expect a listener to understand it;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>providing a vocabulary of commonly used mathematical terms which can readily be expanded to include newly coined words using the full resources of Lojban;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
@@ -42,21 +42,21 @@
<quote>3x</quote>and
<quote>2y</quote>than as mathematical multiplication. Therefore, the Lojban verbal (spoken and written) form of
<!-- ^^ multiplication: explicit expression of, 437; implicit expression of, 437 -->
<indexterm><primary>multiplication</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section1-example1" />must not omit the multiplication operators.</para>
<!-- ^^ multiplication: explicit expression of, 437; implicit expression of, 437 -->
<indexterm><primary>multiplication</primary></indexterm>
<para>The remainder of this chapter explains (in as much detail as is currently possible) the mekso system. This chapter is by intention complete as regards mekso components, but only suggestive about uses of those components - as of now, there has been no really comprehensive use made of mekso facilities, and many matters must await the test of usage to be fully clarified.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter18-section2">
- <title>2. Lojban numbers</title>
+ <title>Lojban numbers</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>pa</cmavo>
<selmaho>PA</selmaho>
<description>1</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>re</cmavo>
<selmaho>PA</selmaho>
@@ -157,21 +157,21 @@
<quote>o</quote>,
<quote>u</quote>respectively; and the cmavo from 6 to 9 likewise end in the vowels
<quote>a</quote>,
<quote>e</quote>,
<quote>i</quote>, and
<quote>o</quote>respectively. None of the digit cmavo begin with the same consonant, to make them easy to tell apart in noisy environments.</para>
<!-- ^^ noisy environments: proposed lerfu words for, 429 -->
<indexterm><primary>noisy environments</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter18-section3">
- <title>3. Signs and numerical punctuation</title>
+ <title>Signs and numerical punctuation</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ma'u PA positive sign
<!-- ^^ positive sign: contrasted with addition operator, 436 -->
<indexterm><primary>positive sign</primary></indexterm>
ni'u PA negative sign
<!-- ^^ negative sign: contrasted with negation operator, 438; contrasted with subtraction operator, 434 -->
<!-- ^^ subtraction operator: contrasted with negation operator, 438; contrasted with negative sign, 434 -->
<indexterm><primary>subtraction operator</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm><primary>negative sign</primary></indexterm>
@@ -339,21 +339,21 @@
<en>.022</en>
<jbo>pi pa ki'o pa re ki'o pa</jbo>
<!-- ^^ ki'o, 433 -->
<indexterm><primary>ki'o</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>point one comma one two comma one</gloss>
<en>.001012001</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter18-section4">
- <title>4. Special numbers</title>
+ <title>Special numbers</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ci'i PA infinity
<!-- ^^ infinity: example, 434 -->
<indexterm><primary>infinity</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ ci'i, 434 -->
<indexterm><primary>ci'i</primary></indexterm>
ka'o PA imaginary i, sqrt(-1)
<!-- ^^ ka'o, 434; as special number compared with as numerical punctuation, 434 -->
<indexterm><primary>ka'o</primary></indexterm>
@@ -430,21 +430,21 @@
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section4-example7" />is not
<quote>1 minus 2</quote>, which is represented by a different cmavo sequence altogether. It is a single number which has not been assigned a meaning. There are many such numbers which have no well-defined meaning; they may be used for experimental purposes or for future expansion of the Lojban number system.</para>
<para>It is possible, of course, that some of these
<quote>oddities</quote>do have a meaningful use in some restricted area of mathematics. A mathematician appropriating these structures for specialized use needs to consider whether some other branch of mathematics would use the structure differently.</para>
<para>More information on numbers may be found in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section8" />to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section12" />.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter18-section5">
- <title>5. Simple infix expressions and equations</title>
+ <title>Simple infix expressions and equations</title>
<!-- ^^ infix expressions: in operands being used in Polish notation, 439 -->
<indexterm><primary>infix expressions</primary></indexterm>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
du GOhA equals
su'i VUhU plus
vu'u VUhU minus
pi'i VUhU times
te'a VUhU raised to the power
<!-- ^^ te'a, 437 -->
@@ -684,21 +684,21 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section5-example10" />is required, but the second use (marked by square brackets) could be elided. Additionally, the first
<!-- ^^ square brackets: use of in notation, 5 -->
<indexterm><primary>square brackets</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bi'e</quote>(also marked by square brackets) is not necessary to get the proper grouping, but it is included here for symmetry with the other one.</para>
<!-- ^^ square brackets: use of in notation, 5 -->
<indexterm><primary>square brackets</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ bi'e, 437; effect on following operator, 437 -->
<indexterm><primary>bi'e</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter18-section6">
- <title>6. Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)</title>
+ <title>Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
boi BOI numeral/lerfu string terminator
va'a VUhU negation/additive inverse
pe'o PEhO forethought flag
<!-- ^^ pe'o, 439 -->
<indexterm><primary>pe'o</primary></indexterm>
ku'e KUhE forethought terminator
py. BY letter
<quote>p</quote>
@@ -843,21 +843,21 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note: When using forethought mekso, be sure that the operands really are operands: they cannot contain regular infix expressions unless parenthesized with
<!-- ^^ infix expressions: in operands being used in Polish notation, 439 -->
<indexterm><primary>infix expressions</primary></indexterm>
<quote>vei</quote>and
<quote>ve'o</quote>. An earlier version of the complex
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section17-example6" />came to grief because I forgot this rule.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter18-section7">
- <title>7. Other useful selbri for mekso bridi</title>
+ <title>Other useful selbri for mekso bridi</title>
<para>So far our examples have been isolated mekso (it is legal to have a bare mekso as a sentence in Lojban) and equation bridi involving
<quote>du</quote>. What about inequalities such as
<quote>x < 5</quote>? The answer is to use a bridi with an appropriate selbri, thus:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-s4TW">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e7d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section7-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li xy. mleca li mu</jbo>
@@ -926,21 +926,21 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li re su'i re na du li mu</jbo>
<gloss>the-number 2 + 2 is-not equal-to the-number 5.</gloss>
<en>2 + 2 ≠ 5</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>As usual in Lojban, negated bridi say what is false, and do not say anything about what might be true.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter18-section8">
- <title>8. Indefinite numbers</title>
+ <title>Indefinite numbers</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ro</cmavo>
<selmaho>PA</selmaho>
<description>all</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>so'a</cmavo>
<!-- ^^ so'a, 440 -->
@@ -1300,21 +1300,21 @@
<gloss>I am-married-to many/three persons.</gloss>
<en>I am married to three persons (which is
<quote>many</quote>in the circumstances).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section8-example19" />assumes a mostly monogamous culture by stating that three is
<quote>many</quote>.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter18-section9">
- <title>9. Approximation and inexact numbers</title>
+ <title>Approximation and inexact numbers</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ji'i PA approximately
su'e PA at most
<!-- ^^ su'e, 443; with elided number, 443 -->
<indexterm><primary>su'e</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ at most: contrasted with more than, at least, less than, 443; example, 443 -->
<indexterm><primary>at most</primary></indexterm>
su'o PA at least
me'i PA less than
@@ -1467,21 +1467,21 @@
<quote>at least some part of</quote>. The quantifiers
<quote>ro</quote>,
<quote>su'o</quote>,
<quote>piro</quote>, and
<quote>pisu'o</quote>are particularly important in Lojban, as they are implicitly used in the descriptions introduced by the cmavo of selma'o LA and LE, as explained in
<!-- ^^ pisu'o: explanation of meaning, 130 -->
<indexterm><primary>pisu'o</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6" />. Descriptions in general are outside the scope of this chapter.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter18-section10">
- <title>10. Non-decimal and compound bases</title>
+ <title>Non-decimal and compound bases</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ju'u</cmavo>
<selmaho>VUhU</selmaho>
<description>to the base</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>dau</cmavo>
<selmaho>PA</selmaho>
@@ -1676,21 +1676,21 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section10-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>dei jufra panopi'epapamoi</jbo>
<gloss>This-utterance is-a-sentence-type-of 10;11th-thing.</gloss>
<en>This is Sentence 10.11.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter18-section11">
- <title>11. Special mekso selbri</title>
+ <title>Special mekso selbri</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>mei</cmavo>
<selmaho>MOI</selmaho>
<description>cardinal selbri</description>
<!-- ^^ cardinal selbri: definition, 446; place structure, 446; place structure effect from subjective numbers, 448 -->
<indexterm><primary>cardinal selbri</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
@@ -2037,21 +2037,21 @@
</example>
<para>Note: the elidable terminator
<quote>boi</quote>is not used between a number and a member of MOI. As a result, the
<quote>me'u</quote>in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section11-example13" />could also be replaced by a
<quote>boi</quote>, which would serve the same function of preventing the
<quote>pa</quote>and
<quote>moi</quote>from joining into a compound.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter18-section12">
- <title>12. Number questions</title>
+ <title>Number questions</title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>xo</cmavo>
<!-- ^^ xo, 449 -->
<indexterm><primary>xo</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>PA</selmaho>
<description>number question</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
@@ -2094,21 +2094,21 @@
<en>The-number 25 times 6 equals the-number 1?0</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>to which the correct reply would be
<quote>mu</quote>, or 5. The ability to utter bare numbers as grammatical Lojban sentences is primarily intended for giving answers to
<quote>xo</quote>questions. (Another use, obviously, is for counting off physical objects one by one.)</para>
<!-- ^^ xo, 449 -->
<indexterm><primary>xo</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter18-section13">
- <title>13. Subscripts</title>
+ <title>Subscripts</title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>xi</cmavo>
<selmaho>XI</selmaho>
<description>subscript</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>Subscripting is a general Lojban feature, not used only in mekso; there are many things that can logically be subscripted, and grammatically a subscript is a free modifier, usable almost anywhere. In particular, of course, mekso variables (lerfu strings) can be subscripted:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-MT0a">
@@ -2161,21 +2161,21 @@
<jbo>xy.boi xi by.boi xi vo</jbo>
<en>x</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>See
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section17-example10" />for the standard method of specifying multiple subscripts on a single object.</para>
<para>More information on the uses of subscripts may be found in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19" />.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter18-section14">
- <title>14. Infix operators revisited</title>
+ <title>Infix operators revisited</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>tu'o</cmavo>
<!-- ^^ tu'o, 450, 453; for infix operations with too few operands, 450 -->
<indexterm><primary>tu'o</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>PA</selmaho>
<description>null operand</description>
<!-- ^^ null operand: for infix operations with too few operands, 450 -->
<indexterm><primary>null operand</primary></indexterm>
@@ -2276,21 +2276,21 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section14-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>papano bi'eju'u re gei pipanopano bi'eju'u re ge'a re</jbo>
<gloss>(one-one-zero base 2) scientific (point-one-zero-one-zero base 2) with-base 2</gloss>
<en>.1010</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter18-section15">
- <title>15. Vectors and matrices</title>
+ <title>Vectors and matrices</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>jo'i</cmavo>
<selmaho>JOhI</selmaho>
<description>start vector</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>te'u</cmavo>
<selmaho>TEhU</selmaho>
@@ -2391,21 +2391,21 @@
<!-- ^^ dimension: meaning as sumti tcita, 233 -->
<indexterm><primary>dimension</primary></indexterm>
<quote>pi'a</quote>and
<!-- ^^ pi'a, 452 -->
<indexterm><primary>pi'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>sa'i</quote>.</para>
<!-- ^^ sa'i, 452 -->
<indexterm><primary>sa'i</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter18-section16">
- <title>16. Reverse Polish notation</title>
+ <title>Reverse Polish notation</title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>fu'a</cmavo>
<!-- ^^ fu'a, 452 -->
<indexterm><primary>fu'a</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>FUhA</selmaho>
<description>reverse Polish flag</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
@@ -2514,21 +2514,21 @@
<indexterm><primary>ge'a gei</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ fu'a, 452 -->
<indexterm><primary>fu'a</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>The-number 30-comma-comma equals</gloss>
<gloss>the-number (RP!) 8, (3, 10, null-op), exponential-notation.</gloss>
<en>30,000,000 = 3 × 10</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter18-section17">
- <title>17. Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso</title>
+ <title>Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
.abu BY letter
<quote>a</quote>
by BY letter
<quote>b</quote>
cy BY letter
<quote>c</quote>
fe'a VUhU nth root of (default square root)
lo'o LOhO terminator for LI
@@ -2738,21 +2738,21 @@
<indexterm><primary>ce'o</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>
<quote>x</quote>sub (
<quote>b</quote>sequence
<quote>d</quote>)</gloss>
<en>x</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter18-section18">
- <title>18. Using Lojban resources within mekso</title>
+ <title>Using Lojban resources within mekso</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>na'u</cmavo>
<selmaho>NAhU</selmaho>
<description>selbri to operator</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ni'e</cmavo>
<!-- ^^ ni'e, 456; terminator for, 456 -->
@@ -2860,21 +2860,21 @@
<!-- ^^ mo'e, 456; terminator for, 456 -->
<indexterm><primary>mo'e</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I see ( the-typical family )-number-of lions.</gloss>
<en>I see a pride of lions.</en>
<!-- ^^ pride of lions: example, 456 -->
<indexterm><primary>pride of lions</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter18-section19">
- <title>19. Other uses of mekso</title>
+ <title>Other uses of mekso</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>me'o</cmavo>
<selmaho>LI</selmaho>
<description>the mekso</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>nu'a</cmavo>
<selmaho>NUhA</selmaho>
@@ -3058,21 +3058,21 @@
<quote>roi</quote>. This usage generates tenses corresponding to English
<!-- ^^ roi, 226, 458 -->
<indexterm><primary>roi</primary></indexterm>
<quote>once</quote>,
<quote>twice</quote>, and so on. This topic belongs to a detailed discussion of Lojban tenses, and is explained further in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10" />.</para>
<para>Note: the elidable terminator
<quote>boi</quote>is not used between a number and a member of MAI or ROI.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter18-section20">
- <title>20. Explicit operator precedence</title>
+ <title>Explicit operator precedence</title>
<!-- ^^ operator precedence: and mathematical notation, 436; effect of pragmatic convention, 436; generalized explicit specification, 437; in Lojban default, 436; plans for future, 458; rationale for default left-grouping, 436; scope modification with bi'e, 437; specifying by parenthesis, 437 -->
<indexterm><primary>operator precedence</primary></indexterm>
<para>As mentioned earlier, Lojban does provide a way for the precedences of operators to be explicitly declared, although current parsers do not understand these declarations.</para>
<para>The declaration is made in the form of a metalinguistic comment using
<!-- ^^ metalinguistic comment: with embedded discursive, 481 -->
<indexterm><primary>metalinguistic comment</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ti'o</quote>, a member of selma'o SEI.
<!-- ^^ ti'o, 458 -->
<indexterm><primary>ti'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>sei</quote>, the other member of SEI, is used to insert metalinguistic comments on a bridi which give information about the discourse which the bridi comprises. The format of a
@@ -3084,21 +3084,21 @@
<quote>ni'e</quote>, or
<!-- ^^ ni'e, 456; terminator for, 456 -->
<indexterm><primary>ni'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ma'o</quote>would remain at the standard low precedence; declarations with respect to them are for future implementation efforts. It is probable that such a parser would have a set of
<quote>commonly assumed precedences</quote>built into it (selectable by a special
<quote>ti'o</quote>declaration) that would match mathematical intuition: times higher than plus, and so on.</para>
<!-- ^^ ti'o, 458 -->
<indexterm><primary>ti'o</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter18-section21">
- <title>21. Miscellany</title>
+ <title>Miscellany</title>
<para>A few other points:</para>
<para>
<quote>se</quote>can be used to convert an operator as if it were a selbri, so that its arguments are exchanged. For example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-NwYJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e21d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section21-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li ci se vu'u vo du li pa</jbo>
@@ -3229,21 +3229,21 @@
<quote>ma'o</quote>, already introduced as a means of changing a lerfu string such as
<quote>fy.</quote>into an operator. In fact,
<quote>ma'o</quote>can be followed by any mekso operand, using the elidable terminator
<quote>te'u</quote>if necessary.</para>
<para>There is a potential semantic ambiguity in
<quote>ma'o fy. [te'u]</quote>if
<quote>fy.</quote>is already in use as a variable: it comes to mean
<quote>the function whose value is always ‘f'</quote>. However, mathematicians do not normally use the same lerfu words or strings as both functions and variables, so this case should not arise in practice.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter18-section22">
- <title>22. Four score and seven: a mekso problem</title>
+ <title>Four score and seven: a mekso problem</title>
<!-- ^^ Four score and seven: example, 460 -->
<indexterm><primary>Four score and seven</primary></indexterm>
<para>Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address begins with the words
<!-- ^^ Gettysburg Address: example, 460 -->
<indexterm><primary>Gettysburg Address</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ Abraham Lincoln: example, 353 -->
<indexterm><primary>Abraham Lincoln</primary></indexterm>
<quote>Four score and seven years ago</quote>. This section exhibits several different ways of saying the number
<!-- ^^ Four score and seven: example, 460 -->
<indexterm><primary>Four score and seven</primary></indexterm>
@@ -3319,21 +3319,21 @@
<en>47</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Overall,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section22-example3" />probably captures the flavor of the English best.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section22-example1" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section22-example2" />are too simple, and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section22-example4" />is too tricky. Nevertheless, all four examples are good Lojban. Pedagogically, these examples illustrate the richness of lojbau mekso: anything that can be said at all, can probably be said in more than one way.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter18-section23">
- <title>23. mekso selma'o summary</title>
+ <title>mekso selma'o summary</title>
<para>Except as noted, each selma'o has only one cmavo.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
BOI elidable terminator for numerals and lerfu strings
BY lerfu for variables and functions (see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17" />)
FUhA reverse-Polish flag
GOhA includes
<quote>du</quote> (mathematical equality) and other non-mekso cmavo
<!-- ^^ mathematical equality: expressing, 435 -->
<indexterm><primary>mathematical equality</primary></indexterm>
@@ -3358,21 +3358,21 @@
PEhO optional forethought mekso marker
TEhU elidable terminator for NAhU, NIhE, MOhE, MAhO, and JOhI
VEI left parenthesis
VEhO right parenthesis
VUhU operators (see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section24" />)
XI subscript flag
</programlisting>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter18-section24">
- <title>24. Complete table of VUhU cmavo, with operand structures</title>
+ <title>Complete table of VUhU cmavo, with operand structures</title>
<para>The operand structures specify what various operands (labeled a, b, c, ...) mean. The implied context is forethought, since only forethought operators can have a variable number of operands; however, the same rules apply to infix and RP uses of VUhU.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
su'i plus (((a + b) + c) + ...)
pi'i times (((a × b) × c) × ...)
vu'u minus (((a − b) − c) − ...)
fe'i divided by (((a / b) / c) / ...)
ju'u number base numeral string
<quote>a</quote> interpreted in the base b
pa'i ratio the ratio of a to b, a:b
fa'i reciprocal of/multiplicative inverse 1 /
@@ -3410,21 +3410,21 @@
<indexterm><primary>integral</primary></indexterm>
sa'o derivative derivative of a with respect to b of degree c (default 1)
fu'u non-specific operator (variable)
si'i sigma (Σ) summation summation of a using variable b over range c
va'a negation of/additive inverse -a
re'a matrix transpose/dual a
<superscript>*</superscript>
</programlisting>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter18-section25">
- <title>25. Complete table of PA cmavo: digits, punctuation, and other numbers.</title>
+ <title>Complete table of PA cmavo: digits, punctuation, and other numbers.</title>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Decimal digits:
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
no, pa, re, ci, vo, mu, xa, ze, bi, so
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
rafsi: non, pav, rel, cib, von, mum, xav, zel, biv, soz
</programlisting></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
@@ -3539,21 +3539,21 @@ rafsi: piz, cez, fi'u (from frinu; see
<!-- ^^ tu'o, 450, 453; for infix operations with too few operands, 450 -->
<indexterm><primary>tu'o</primary></indexterm>
number question, null operand
<!-- ^^ null operand: for infix operations with too few operands, 450 -->
<indexterm><primary>null operand</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting></para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter18-section26">
- <title>26. Table of MOI cmavo, with associated rafsi and place structures</title>
+ <title>Table of MOI cmavo, with associated rafsi and place structures</title>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mei x1 is a mass formed from a set x2 of n members, one or more of
which is/are x3, [measured relative to the set x4/by standard x4]
rafsi: mem, mei
moi x1 is the (n)th member of set x2 when ordered by rule x3
[by standard x4]
rafsi: mom, moi
si'e x1 is an (n)th portion of mass x2 [by standard x3]
diff --git a/todocbook/19.xml b/todocbook/19.xml
index 7da9dbc..9986c91 100644
--- a/todocbook/19.xml
+++ b/todocbook/19.xml
@@ -1,19 +1,19 @@
<chapter xml:id="cll_chapter19">
<title>Chapter 19 Putting It All Together: Notes on the Structure of Lojban Texts</title>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter19-section1">
- <title>1. Introductory</title>
+ <title>Introductory</title>
<para>This chapter is incurably miscellaneous. It describes the cmavo that specify the structure of Lojban texts, from the largest scale (paragraphs) to the smallest (single words). There are fewer examples than are found in other chapters of this book, since the linguistic mechanisms described are generally made use of in conversation or else in long documents.</para>
<para>This chapter is also not very self-contained. It makes passing reference to a great many concepts which are explained in full only in other chapters. The alternative would be a chapter on text structure which was as complex as all the other chapters put together. Lojban is a unified language, and it is not possible to understand any part of it (in full) before understanding every part of it (to some degree).</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter19-section2">
- <title>2. Sentences: I</title>
+ <title>Sentences: I</title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>.i</cmavo>
<selmaho>I</selmaho>
<description>sentence separator</description>
<!-- ^^ sentence separator, 495 -->
<indexterm><primary>sentence separator</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
@@ -62,21 +62,21 @@
<quote>.i</quote>. Another use might be a set of directions, where each numbered direction might be surrounded by
<quote>tu'e ... tu'u</quote>and contain one or more sentences separated by
<quote>.i</quote>. Grouping with
<quote>tu'e</quote>and
<quote>tu'u</quote>is analogous to grouping with
<quote>ke</quote>and
<quote>ke'e</quote>to establish the scope of logical or non-logical connectives (see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14" />).</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter19-section3">
- <title>3. Paragraphs: NIhO</title>
+ <title>Paragraphs: NIhO</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ni'o</cmavo>
<selmaho>NIhO</selmaho>
<description>new topic</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>no'i</cmavo>
<selmaho>NIhO</selmaho>
@@ -146,21 +146,21 @@
<!-- ^^ previous topic, 467 -->
<indexterm><primary>previous topic</primary></indexterm>
<quote>no'i</quote>also resumes tense and pro-sumti assignments dropped at the previous
<quote>ni'o</quote>.</para>
<para>If a
<quote>ni'o</quote>is subscripted, then a
<quote>no'i</quote>with the same subscript is assumed to be a continuation of it. A
<quote>no'i</quote>may also have a negative subscript, which would specify counting backwards a number of paragraphs and resuming the topic found thereby.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter19-section4">
- <title>4. Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU</title>
+ <title>Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU</title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>zo'u</cmavo>
<selmaho>ZOhU</selmaho>
<description>topic/comment separator</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>The normal Lojban sentence is just a bridi, parallel to the normal English sentence which has a subject and a predicate:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-4WsN">
@@ -330,21 +330,21 @@
<!-- ^^ topic-comment: description, 467 -->
<indexterm><primary>topic-comment</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section4-example9" />are inherently vague, and this difference between
<quote>ponse</quote>(which expects a physical object in x2) and
<quote>djica</quote>is ignored. See
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section9-example3" />for another topic/comment sentence.</para>
<para>The subject of an English sentence is often the topic as well, but in Lojban the sumti in the x1 place is not necessarily the topic, especially if it is the normal (unconverted) x1 for the selbri. Thus Lojban sentences don't necessarily have a
<quote>subject</quote>in the English sense.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter19-section5">
- <title>5. Questions and answers</title>
+ <title>Questions and answers</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>xu</cmavo>
<selmaho>UI</selmaho>
<description>truth question</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ma</cmavo>
<selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
@@ -670,21 +670,21 @@
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
<quote>nai</quote>(to vaguely negate something or other, see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15" />)</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
<para>Where not needed for the expression of answers, most of these are made grammatical for pragmatic reasons: people will say them in conversation, and there is no reason to rule them out as ungrammatical merely because most of them are vague.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter19-section6">
- <title>6. Subscripts: XI</title>
+ <title>Subscripts: XI</title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>xi</cmavo>
<selmaho>XI</selmaho>
<description>subscript</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>xi</quote>(of selma'o XI) indicates that a subscript (a number, a lerfu string, or a parenthesized mekso) follows. Subscripts can be attached to almost any construction and are placed following the construction (or its terminator word, which is generally required). They are useful either to extend the finite cmavo list to infinite length, or to make more refined distinctions than the standard cmavo list permits. The remainder of this section mentions some places where subscripts might naturally be used.</para>
@@ -885,21 +885,21 @@
<en>I truly-sub-.5 am-broad</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Finally, as mentioned in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section2" />,
<quote>ni'o</quote>and
<quote>no'i</quote>cmavo with matching subscripts mark the start and the continuation of a given topic respectively. Different topics can be assigned to different subscripts.</para>
<para>Other uses of subscripts will doubtless be devised in future.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter19-section7">
- <title>7. Utterance ordinals: MAI</title>
+ <title>Utterance ordinals: MAI</title>
<!-- ^^ ordinals: utterance, 474 -->
<indexterm><primary>ordinals</primary></indexterm>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>mai</cmavo>
<selmaho>MAI</selmaho>
<description>utterance ordinal, -thly</description>
<!-- ^^ utterance ordinal: lerfu string as, 423 -->
<indexterm><primary>utterance ordinal</primary></indexterm>
@@ -952,21 +952,21 @@
<quote>mo'o</quote>enumerates larger subdivisions of a text;
<quote>mai</quote>was designed for lists of numbered items, whereas
<!-- ^^ lists: use of tu'e/tu'u in, 358 -->
<indexterm><primary>lists</primary></indexterm>
<quote>mo'o</quote>was intended to subdivide structured works. If this chapter were translated into Lojban, it might number each section with
<quote>mo'o</quote>: this section would then be introduced with
<quote>zemo'o</quote>, or
<quote>Section 7.</quote></para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter19-section8">
- <title>8. Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO</title>
+ <title>Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>fu'e</cmavo>
<!-- ^^ fu'e, 475 -->
<indexterm><primary>fu'e</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>FUhE</selmaho>
<description>open attitudinal scope</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
@@ -1060,21 +1060,21 @@
</example>
<para>Here, only the
<quote>blanu zdani</quote>portion of the three-part tanru
<quote>blanu zdani ponse</quote>is marked as a belief of the speaker. Naturally, the attitudinal scope markers do not affect the rules for interpreting multi-part tanru:
<quote>blanu zdani</quote>groups first because tanru group from left to right unless overridden with
<quote>ke</quote>or
<quote>bo</quote>.</para>
<para>Other attitudinals of more local scope can appear after attitudinals marked by FUhE; these attitudinals are added to the globally active attitudinals rather than superseding them.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter19-section9">
- <title>9. Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU</title>
+ <title>Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>lu</cmavo>
<selmaho>LU</selmaho>
<description>begin quotation</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>li'u</cmavo>
<selmaho>LIhU</selmaho>
@@ -1217,21 +1217,21 @@
<quote>lo'u</quote>quotation, it is not directly possible to have a
<quote>lo'u</quote>quotation within another
<quote>lo'u</quote>quotation. However, it is possible for a
<quote>le'u</quote>to occur within a
<quote>lo'u ... le'u</quote>quotation by preceding it with the cmavo
<quote>zo</quote>, discussed in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section10" />. Note that
<quote>le'u</quote>is not an elidable terminator; it is required.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter19-section10">
- <title>10. More on quotations: ZO, ZOI</title>
+ <title>More on quotations: ZO, ZOI</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>zo</cmavo>
<selmaho>ZO</selmaho>
<description>quote single word</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>zoi</cmavo>
<selmaho>ZOI</selmaho>
@@ -1433,21 +1433,21 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Using
<quote>la'o</quote>for all names rather than Lojbanizing, however, makes for very cumbersome text. A rough equivalent of
<!-- ^^ cumbersome text, 479 -->
<indexterm><primary>cumbersome text</primary></indexterm>
<quote>la'o</quote>might be
<quote>la me zoi</quote>.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter19-section11">
- <title>11. Contrastive emphasis: BAhE</title>
+ <title>Contrastive emphasis: BAhE</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ba'e</cmavo>
<selmaho>BAhE</selmaho>
<description>emphasize next word</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>za'e</cmavo>
<!-- ^^ za'e, 69, 416, 480; interaction with bu, 416; use to avoid lujvo misunderstandings, 69 -->
@@ -1563,21 +1563,21 @@
<indexterm><primary>appropriate standard</primary></indexterm>
<quote>la ctiipyris.</quote>, reflecting the country's name in Albanian.</para>
<para>Before a lujvo or fu'ivla,
<quote>za'e</quote>indicates that the word has been made up on the spot and may be used in a sense that is not found in the unabridged dictionary (when we have an unabridged dictionary!).</para>
<!-- ^^ za'e, 69, 416, 480; interaction with bu, 416; use to avoid lujvo misunderstandings, 69 -->
<indexterm><primary>za'e</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ unabridged dictionary, 480 -->
<indexterm><primary>unabridged dictionary</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter19-section12">
- <title>12. Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI</title>
+ <title>Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI</title>
<!-- ^^ metalinguistic commentary, 480 -->
<indexterm><primary>metalinguistic commentary</primary></indexterm>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>to</cmavo>
<selmaho>TO</selmaho>
<description>open parenthesis</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
@@ -1771,21 +1771,21 @@
<quote>sei</quote>and its attached bridi as an editorial insert, not part of the quotation. In a more relaxed style, these
<quote>sa'a</quote>cmavo would probably be dropped.</para>
<!-- ^^ sa'a, 321, 481; editorial insertion of text already containing sa'a, 321; interaction with li'o, 321; interaction with sei, 321; interaction with to'i, 321 -->
<indexterm><primary>sa'a</primary></indexterm>
<para>The elidable terminator for
<quote>sei</quote>is
<quote>se'u</quote>(of selma'o SEhU); it is rarely needed, except to separate a selbri within the
<quote>sei</quote>comment from an immediately following selbri (or component) outside the comment.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter19-section13">
- <title>13. Erasure: SI, SA, SU</title>
+ <title>Erasure: SI, SA, SU</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>si</cmavo>
<selmaho>SI</selmaho>
<description>erase word</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>sa</cmavo>
<selmaho>SA</selmaho>
@@ -1987,21 +1987,21 @@
<indexterm><primary>multiple speakers</primary></indexterm>
<quote>su</quote>will only erase the remarks made by the one who said it, unless that speaker has said nothing. Therefore
<quote>susu</quote>is needed to eradicate a whole discussion in conversation.</para>
<para>Note: The current machine parser does not implement either
<quote>su</quote>or
<quote>susu</quote>erasure.</para>
<!-- ^^ erasure, 482; discourse, 504; multiple word, 483; names, 482; phrase, 503; quotes, 483; sentence, 503; total, 484; word, 482, 504; zo, 482 -->
<indexterm><primary>erasure</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter19-section14">
- <title>14. Hesitation: Y</title>
+ <title>Hesitation: Y</title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>.y.</cmavo>
<selmaho>Y</selmaho>
<description>hesitation noise</description>
<!-- ^^ hesitation, 484, 507 -->
<indexterm><primary>hesitation</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
@@ -2023,21 +2023,21 @@
<indexterm><primary>isomorphism</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ audio-visual isomorphism, 29 -->
<!-- ^^ isomorphism: audio-visual, 29 -->
<indexterm><primary>isomorphism</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm><primary>audio-visual isomorphism</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ isomorphism: audio-visual, 29 -->
<indexterm><primary>isomorphism</primary></indexterm>
<quote>.y.</quote>has no grammatical significance: it can appear anywhere at all in a Lojban sentence except in the middle of a word.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter19-section15">
- <title>15. No more to say: FAhO</title>
+ <title>No more to say: FAhO</title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>fa'o</cmavo>
<!-- ^^ fa'o, 416, 484; contrasted with fe'o, 325; interaction with bu, 416 -->
<indexterm><primary>fa'o</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>FAhO</selmaho>
<description>end of text</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
@@ -2048,21 +2048,21 @@
<!-- ^^ fa'o, 416, 484; contrasted with fe'o, 325; interaction with bu, 416 -->
<indexterm><primary>fa'o</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ computer interaction, 484 -->
<indexterm><primary>computer interaction</primary></indexterm>
<quote>zo</quote>or with
<quote>lo'u ... le'u</quote>. In particular, it is not used at the end of subordinate texts quoted with
<quote>lu ... li'u</quote>or parenthesized with
<quote>to ... toi</quote>.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter19-section16">
- <title>16. List of cmavo interactions</title>
+ <title>List of cmavo interactions</title>
<para>The following list gives the cmavo and selma'o that are recognized by the earliest stages of the parser, and specifies exactly which of them interact with which others. All of the cmavo are at least mentioned in this chapter. The cmavo are written in lower case, and the selma'o in UPPER CASE.</para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>
<quote>zo</quote>quotes the following word, no matter what it is.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
<quote>si</quote>erases the preceding word unless it is a
<quote>zo</quote>.</para>
@@ -2150,21 +2150,21 @@
<!-- ^^ fu'e, 475 -->
<indexterm><primary>fu'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>fu'o</quote>are the same as UI, but do not absorb a following
<!-- ^^ fu'o, 475 -->
<indexterm><primary>fu'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>nai</quote>.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter19-section17">
- <title>17. List of Elidable Terminators</title>
+ <title>List of Elidable Terminators</title>
<para>The following list shows all the elidable terminators of Lojban. The first column is the terminator, the second column is the selma'o that starts the corresponding construction, and the third column states what kinds of grammatical constructs are terminated. Each terminator is the only cmavo of its selma'o, which naturally has the same name as the cmavo.</para>
<!-- ^^ elidable terminators: list, 486 -->
<indexterm><primary>elidable terminators</primary></indexterm>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>be'o</cmavo>
<selmaho>BE</selmaho>
<description>sumti attached to a tanru unit</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
diff --git a/todocbook/2.xml b/todocbook/2.xml
index b508181..0d034cc 100644
--- a/todocbook/2.xml
+++ b/todocbook/2.xml
@@ -1,14 +1,14 @@
<chapter xml:id="cll_chapter2">
<title>Chapter 2 A Quick Tour of Lojban Grammar, With Diagrams</title>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter2-section1">
- <title>1. The concept of the bridi</title>
+ <title>The concept of the bridi</title>
<para>This chapter gives diagrammed examples of basic Lojban sentence structures. The most general pattern is covered first, followed by successive variations on the basic components of the Lojban sentence. There are many more capabilities not covered in this chapter, but covered in detail in later chapters, so this chapter is a
<quote>quick tour</quote>of the material later covered more slowly throughout the book. It also introduces most of the Lojban words used to discuss Lojban grammar.</para>
<para>Let us consider John and Sam and three statements about them:</para>
<!-- ^^ John and Sam: example, 11 -->
<indexterm><primary>John and Sam</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-RT6i">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e1d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section1-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c2e1d2" />
@@ -100,21 +100,21 @@
<para>In Lojban, each selbri has a specified number and type of arguments, known collectively as its
<quote>place structure</quote>. The simplest kind of selbri consists of a single root word, called a
<quote>gismu</quote>, and the definition in a dictionary gives the place structure explicitly. The primary task of constructing a Lojban sentence, after choosing the relationship itself, is deciding what you will use to fill in the sumti places.</para>
<para>This book uses the Lojban terms
<quote>bridi</quote>,
<quote>sumti</quote>, and
<quote>selbri</quote>, because it is best to come to understand them independently of the English associations of the corresponding words, which are only roughly similar in meaning anyhow.</para>
<para>The Lojban examples in this chapter (but not in the rest of the book) use a single underline (---) under each sumti, and a double underline (===) under each selbri, to help you to tell them apart.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter2-section2">
- <title>2. Pronunciation</title>
+ <title>Pronunciation</title>
<para>Detailed pronunciation and spelling rules are given in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter3" />, but what follows will keep the reader from going too far astray while digesting this chapter.</para>
<para>Lojban has six recognized vowels:
<quote>a</quote>,
<quote>e</quote>,
<quote>i</quote>,
<quote>o</quote>,
<quote>u</quote>and
<quote>y</quote>. The first five are roughly pronounced as
<quote>a</quote>as in
@@ -186,21 +186,21 @@
<para>Lojban also has three
<quote>semi-letters</quote>: the period, the comma and the apostrophe. The period represents a glottal stop or a pause; it is a required stoppage of the flow of air in the speech stream. The apostrophe sounds just like the English letter
<!-- ^^ glottal stop: as pause in Lojban, 31 -->
<indexterm><primary>glottal stop</primary></indexterm>
<quote>h</quote>. Unlike a regular consonant, it is not found at the beginning or end of a word, nor is it found adjacent to a consonant; it is only found between two vowels. The comma has no sound associated with it, and is used to separate syllables that might ordinarily run together. It is not used in this chapter.</para>
<para>Stress falls on the next to the last syllable of all words, unless that vowel is
<quote>y</quote>, which is never stressed; in such words the third-to-last syllable is stressed. If a word only has one syllable, then that syllable is not stressed.</para>
<para>All Lojban words are pronounced as they are spelled: there are no silent letters.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter2-section3">
- <title>3. Words that can act as sumti</title>
+ <title>Words that can act as sumti</title>
<para>Here is a short table of single words used as sumti. This table provides examples only, not the entire set of such words, which may be found in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7" />.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi I/me, we/us
do you
ti this, these
ta that, those
tu that far away, those far away
zo'e unspecified value (used when a sumti is
unimportant or obvious)
@@ -215,21 +215,21 @@
<para>Names may also be used as sumti, provided they are preceded with the word
<quote>la</quote>:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
la meris. the one/ones named Mary
la djan. the one/ones named John
</programlisting>
<para>Other Lojban spelling versions are possible for names from other languages, and there are restrictions on which letters may appear in Lojban names: see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6" />for more information.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter2-section4">
- <title>4. Some words used to indicate selbri relations</title>
+ <title>Some words used to indicate selbri relations</title>
<para>Here is a short table of some words used as Lojban selbri in this chapter:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
vecnu x1 (seller) sells x2 (goods) to x3 (buyer) for x4 (price)
tavla x1 (talker) talks to x2 (audience) about x3 (topic) in language x4
sutra x1 (agent) is fast at doing x2 (action)
blari'o x1 (object/light source) is blue-green
melbi x1 (object/idea) is beautiful to x2 (observer) by standard x3
cutci x1 is a shoe/boot for x2 (foot) made of x3 (material)
bajra x1 runs on x2 (surface) using x3 (limbs) in manner x4 (gait)
klama x1 goes/comes to x2 (destination) from x3 (origin point) via x4 (route) using
@@ -246,21 +246,21 @@
zarci x1 is a market/store/shop selling x2 (products) operated by x3 (storekeeper)
</programlisting>
<para>Each selbri (relation) has a specific rule that defines the role of each sumti in the bridi, based on its position. In the table above, that order was expressed by labeling the sumti positions as x1, x2, x3, x4, and x5.</para>
<para>Like the table in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter2-section3" />, this table is far from complete: in fact, no complete table can exist, because Lojban allows new words to be created (in specified ways) whenever a speaker or writer finds the existing supply of words inadequate. This notion is a basic difference between Lojban (and some other languages such as German and Chinese) and English; in English, most people are very leery of using words that
<quote>aren't in the dictionary</quote>. Lojbanists are encouraged to invent new words; doing so is a major way of participating in the development of the language.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4" />explains how to make new words, and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12" />explains how to give them appropriate meanings.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter2-section5">
- <title>5. Some simple Lojban bridi</title>
+ <title>Some simple Lojban bridi</title>
<para>Let's look at a simple Lojban bridi. The place structure of the gismu
<quote>tavla</quote>is</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-5Lis">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e5d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section5-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>x1 talks to x2 about x3 in language x4</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -366,21 +366,21 @@
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">ta</foreignphrase>
You talk to me about that thing (in some language).
</programlisting>
<para>Note that
<xref linkend="cll_chapter2-section5-example7" />is not subject to ellipsis by this direct method, as the
<!-- ^^ ellipsis: quick-tour version, 14 -->
<indexterm><primary>ellipsis</primary></indexterm>
<quote>zo'e</quote>in it is not at the end of the bridi.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter2-section6">
- <title>6. Variant bridi structure</title>
+ <title>Variant bridi structure</title>
<para>Consider the sentence</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c2e6d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section6-example1" />6.1)
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">mi</foreignphrase> [cu]
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="selbri">vecnu</foreignphrase>
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">ti</foreignphrase>
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">ta</foreignphrase>
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">zo'e</foreignphrase>
seller-x1 sells goods-sold-x2 buyer-x3 price-x4
@@ -451,21 +451,21 @@
<quote>cu</quote>does not occur in an observative;
<!-- ^^ observative: contrasted with observation evidential, 316; definition, 188 -->
<indexterm><primary>observative</primary></indexterm>
<quote>cu</quote>is a separator, and there must be a sumti before the selbri that needs to be kept separate for
<quote>cu</quote>to be used. With no sumti preceding the selbri,
<quote>cu</quote>is not permitted. Short words like
<quote>cu</quote>which serve grammatical functions are called
<quote>cmavo</quote>in Lojban.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter2-section7">
- <title>7. Varying the order of sumti</title>
+ <title>Varying the order of sumti</title>
<para>For one reason or another you may want to change the order, placing one particular sumti at the front of the bridi. The cmavo
<quote>se</quote>, when placed before the last word of the selbri, will switch the meanings of the first and second sumti places. So</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c2e7d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section7-example1" />7.1)
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">mi</foreignphrase>
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="selbri">tavla</foreignphrase>
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">do</foreignphrase>
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">ti</foreignphrase>
I talk to you about this.
@@ -515,21 +515,21 @@
<para>The effect is similar to what in English is called the
<quote>passive voice</quote>. In Lojban, the converted selbri has a new place structure that is renumbered to reflect the place reversal, thus having effects when such a conversion is used in combination with other constructs such as
<!-- ^^ passive voice, 16 -->
<indexterm><primary>passive voice</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ converted selbri: as different selbri from unconverted, 192; as resetting standard order, 193; compared with selbri with FA in meaning, 193; contrasted with other similar selbri, 193; contrasted with selbri with FA in structure, 193; definition, 192; forming with SE, 192; in descriptions, 193; place structure of, 192; retention of basic meaning in, 193; to access non-first place in description, 193 -->
<indexterm><primary>converted selbri</primary></indexterm>
<quote>le selbri [ku]</quote>(see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter2-section10" />).</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter2-section8">
- <title>8. The basic structure of longer utterances</title>
+ <title>The basic structure of longer utterances</title>
<para>People don't always say just one sentence. Lojban has a specific structure for talk or writing that is longer than one sentence. The entirety of a given speech event or written text is called an utterance. The sentences (usually, but not always, bridi) in an utterance are separated by the cmavo
<quote>ni'o</quote>and
<quote>.i</quote>. These correspond to a brief pause (or nothing at all) in spoken English, and the various punctuation marks like period, question mark, and exclamation mark in written English. These separators prevent the sumti at the beginning of the next sentence from being mistaken for a trailing sumti of the previous sentence.</para>
<!-- ^^ punctuation marks: cmavo as Lojban equivalents, 50 -->
<indexterm><primary>punctuation marks</primary></indexterm>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>ni'o</quote>separates paragraphs (covering different topics of discussion). In a long text or utterance, the topical structure of the text may be indicated by multiple
<quote>ni'o</quote>s, with perhaps
<quote>ni'oni'oni'o</quote>used to indicate a chapter,
<quote>ni'oni'o</quote>to indicate a section, and a single
@@ -539,21 +539,21 @@
<quote>xu</quote>, discussed in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter2-section15" />, is one such word - it turns the sentence from a statement to a question about truth.) When more than one person is talking, a new speaker will usually omit the
<quote>.i</quote>even though she/he may be continuing on the same topic.</para>
<para>It is still O.K. for a new speaker to say the
<quote>.i</quote>before continuing; indeed, it is encouraged for maximum clarity (since it is possible that the second speaker might merely be adding words onto the end of the first speaker's sentence). A good translation for
<quote>.i</quote>is the
<quote>and</quote>used in run-on sentences when people are talking informally:
<quote>I did this, and then I did that, and ..., and ...</quote>.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter2-section9">
- <title>9. tanru</title>
+ <title>tanru</title>
<para>When two gismu are adjacent, the first one modifies the second, and the selbri takes its place structure from the rightmost word. Such combinations of gismu are called
<quote>tanru</quote>. For example,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-GPcS">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e9d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section9-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>sutra tavla</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -697,21 +697,21 @@
<anchor xml:id="c2e9d13" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section9-example13" />9.13)
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">la tam.</foreignphrase> [cu]
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="selbri">se tavla melbi</foreignphrase>
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">la meris.</foreignphrase>
Tom is audiencely-beautiful to Mary.
</programlisting>
<para>and we see that the manner in which Tom is seen as beautiful by Mary changes, but Tom is still the one perceived as beautiful, and Mary, the observer of beauty.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter2-section10">
- <title>10. Description sumti</title>
+ <title>Description sumti</title>
<para>Often we wish to talk about things other than the speaker, the listener and things we can point to. Let's say I want to talk about a talker other than
<quote>mi</quote>. What I want to talk about would naturally fit into the first place of
<quote>tavla</quote>. Lojban, it turns out, has an operator that pulls this first place out of a selbri and converts it to a sumti called a
<quote>description sumti</quote>. The description sumti
<quote>le tavla ku</quote>means
<quote>the talker</quote>, and may be used wherever any sumti may be used.</para>
<para>For example,</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c2e10d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section10-example1" />10.1)
@@ -806,21 +806,21 @@
<quote>seller</quote>in the x1 place, and uses it in this sentence to describe a particular
<quote>seller</quote>that the speaker has in mind (one that he or she probably expects the listener will also know about). Similarly, the speaker has a particular blue-green thing in mind, which is described using
<quote>le</quote>to mark
<quote>blari'o</quote>, a selbri whose first sumti is something blue-green.</para>
<para>It is safe to omit both occurrences of
<quote>ku</quote>in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter2-section10-example8" />, and it is also safe to omit the
<quote>cu</quote>.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter2-section11">
- <title>11. Examples of brivla</title>
+ <title>Examples of brivla</title>
<para>The simplest form of selbri is an individual word. A word which may by itself express a selbri relation is called a
<quote>brivla</quote>. The three types of brivla are gismu (root words), lujvo (compounds), and fu'ivla (borrowings from other languages). All have identical grammatical uses. So far, most of our selbri have been gismu or tanru built from gismu.</para>
<!-- ^^ borrowings: fu'ivla form with categorizing rafsi, 61; fu'ivla form without categorizing rafsi, 62; most common form for, 61; Stage 1, 61; Stage 2, 61; Stage 3, 61; Stage 3 contrasted with Stage 4 in ease of construction, 62; Stage 4, 62; using foreign-language name, 61; using lojbanized name, 61 -->
<indexterm><primary>borrowings</primary></indexterm>
<para>gismu:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c2e11d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section11-example1" />11.1)
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">mi</foreignphrase> [cu]
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="selbri">klama</foreignphrase>
@@ -856,21 +856,21 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section11-example4" />11.4)
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">ta</foreignphrase> [cu]
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="selbri">go'i</foreignphrase>
That too/same-as-last selbri.
That (is spaghetti), too.
<!-- ^^ spaghetti, 61; example, 63 -->
<indexterm><primary>spaghetti</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter2-section12">
- <title>12. The sumti
+ <title>The sumti
<quote>di'u</quote>and
<quote>la'e di'u</quote></title>
<para>In English, I might say
<quote>The dog is beautiful</quote>, and you might reply
<quote>This pleases me.</quote>How do you know what
<!-- ^^ pleases, 20 -->
<indexterm><primary>pleases</primary></indexterm>
<quote>this</quote>refers to? Lojban uses different expressions to convey the possible meanings of the English:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c2e12d1" />
@@ -914,41 +914,41 @@
<indexterm><primary>pleases</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter2-section12-example4" />uses one sumti to point to or refer to another by inference. It is common to write
<quote>la'edi'u</quote>as a single word; it is used more often than
<!-- ^^ la'edi'u, 149; contrasted with di'u, 149; quick-tour version, 21 -->
<indexterm><primary>la'edi'u</primary></indexterm>
<quote>di'u</quote>by itself.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter2-section13">
- <title>13. Possession</title>
+ <title>Possession</title>
<para>
<quote>Possession</quote>refers to the concept of specifying an object by saying who it belongs to (or with). A full explanation of Lojban possession is given in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8" />. A simple means of expressing possession, however, is to place a sumti representing the possessor of an object within the description sumti that refers to the object: specifically, between the
<quote>le</quote>and the selbri of the description:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c2e13d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section13-example1" />13.1)
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">le mi gerku</foreignphrase> cu
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="selbri">sutra</foreignphrase>
The of-me dog is fast.
My dog is fast.
</programlisting>
<para>In Lojban, possession doesn't necessarily mean ownership: one may
<quote>possess</quote>a chair simply by sitting on it, even though it actually belongs to someone else. English uses possession casually in the same way, but also uses it to refer to actual ownership or even more intimate relationships:
<quote>my arm</quote>doesn't mean
<quote>some arm I own</quote>but rather
<quote>the arm that is part of my body</quote>. Lojban has methods of specifying all these different kinds of possession precisely and easily.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter2-section14">
- <title>14. Vocatives and commands</title>
+ <title>Vocatives and commands</title>
<!-- ^^ commands: quick-tour version, 22; with ko, 146 -->
<indexterm><primary>commands</primary></indexterm>
<para>You may call someone's attention to the fact that you are addressing them by using
<quote>doi</quote>followed by their name. The sentence</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ahVb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e14d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section14-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1043,21 +1043,21 @@
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">ko</foreignphrase>
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">ko</foreignphrase>
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="selbri">kurji</foreignphrase>
</programlisting>
<para>both mean
<quote>You take care of you</quote>and
<quote>Be taken care of by you</quote>, or to put it colloquially,
<quote>Take care of yourself</quote>.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter2-section15">
- <title>15. Questions</title>
+ <title>Questions</title>
<para>There are many kinds of questions in Lojban: full explanations appear in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19" />and in various other chapters throughout the book. In this chapter, we will introduce three kinds: sumti questions, selbri questions, and yes/no questions.</para>
<!-- ^^ sumti questions: quick-tour version, 22 -->
<indexterm><primary>sumti questions</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ selbri questions: quick-tour version, 23 -->
<indexterm><primary>selbri questions</primary></indexterm>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>ma</quote>is used to create a sumti question: it indicates that the speaker wishes to know the sumti which should be placed at the location of the
<quote>ma</quote>to make the bridi true. It can be translated as
<quote>Who?</quote>or
@@ -1241,21 +1241,21 @@
<para>A general negative answer may be given by
<!-- ^^ negative answer: quick-tour version, 24 -->
<indexterm><primary>negative answer</primary></indexterm>
<quote>na go'i</quote>.
<quote>na</quote>may be placed before any selbri (but after the
<quote>cu</quote>). It is equivalent to stating
<quote>It is not true that ...</quote>before the bridi. It does not imply that anything else is true or untrue, only that that specific bridi is not true. More details on negative statements are available in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15" />.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter2-section16">
- <title>16. Indicators</title>
+ <title>Indicators</title>
<para>Different cultures express emotions and attitudes with a variety of intonations and gestures that are not usually included in written language. Some of these are available in some languages as interjections (i.e. Aha!, Oh no!, Ouch!, Aahh!, etc.), but they vary greatly from culture to culture.</para>
<!-- ^^ interjections: quick-tour version, 24 -->
<indexterm><primary>interjections</primary></indexterm>
<para>Lojban has a group of cmavo known as
<quote>attitudinal indicators</quote>which specifically covers this type of commentary on spoken statements. They are both written and spoken, but require no specific intonation or gestures. Grammatically they are very simple: one or more attitudinals at the beginning of a bridi apply to the entire bridi; anywhere else in the bridi they apply to the word immediately to the left. For example:</para>
<!-- ^^ attitudinal indicators, 297; conventions of interpretation, 311; placement of "nai" in, 311; placement of scale in, 311; quick-tour version, 24 -->
<indexterm><primary>attitudinal indicators</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c2e16d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section16-example1" />16.1) .ie
@@ -1346,21 +1346,21 @@
<anchor xml:id="c2e16d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section16-example8" />16.8) za'a
<!-- ^^ za'a, 316 -->
<indexterm><primary>za'a</primary></indexterm>
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">do</foreignphrase> [cu]
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="selbri">melbi</foreignphrase>
I directly observe! You are beautiful.
</programlisting>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter2-section17">
- <title>17. Tenses</title>
+ <title>Tenses</title>
<para>In English, every verb is tagged for the grammatical category called tense: past, present, or future. The sentence</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-xIVa">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e17d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section17-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>John went to the store</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1459,21 +1459,21 @@
<anchor xml:id="c2e17d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section17-example9" />17.9)
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">le vi tavla [ku]</foreignphrase> cu
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="selbri">ba klama</foreignphrase>
The here talker [future] goes.
The talker who is here will go.
This talker will go.
</programlisting>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter2-section18">
- <title>18. Lojban grammatical terms</title>
+ <title>Lojban grammatical terms</title>
<!-- ^^ grammatical terms: quick-tour version, 26 -->
<indexterm><primary>grammatical terms</primary></indexterm>
<para>Here is a review of the Lojban grammatical terms used in this chapter, plus some others used throughout this book. Only terms that are themselves Lojban words are included: there are of course many expressions like
<!-- ^^ grammatical terms: quick-tour version, 26 -->
<indexterm><primary>grammatical terms</primary></indexterm>
<quote>indicator</quote>in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16" />that are not explained here. See the Index for further help with these.</para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry>
<term>bridi:</term>
diff --git a/todocbook/21.xml b/todocbook/21.xml
index d422ebc..07881f3 100644
--- a/todocbook/21.xml
+++ b/todocbook/21.xml
@@ -1,14 +1,14 @@
<chapter xml:id="cll_chapter21">
<title>Chapter 21 Formal Grammars</title>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter21-section1">
- <title>1. YACC Grammar of Lojban</title>
+ <title>YACC Grammar of Lojban</title>
<para>The following two listings constitute the formal grammar of Lojban. The first version is written in the YACC language, which is used to describe parsers, and has been used to create a parser for Lojban texts. This parser is available from the Logical Language Group. The second listing is in Extended Backus-Naur Form (EBNF) and represents the same grammar in a more human-readable form. (In case of discrepancies, the YACC version is official.) There is a cross-reference listing for each format that shows, for each selma'o and rule, which rules refer to it.</para>
<!-- ^^ formal grammar, 511 -->
<indexterm><primary>formal grammar</primary></indexterm>
<para>/* /*Lojban Machine Grammar, Final Baseline The Lojban Machine Grammardocument is explicitly dedicated to the public domain by its author,The Logical Language Group, Inc.</para>
<para>grammar.300 */</para>
<para>/* The Lojban machine parsing algorithm is a multi-step process. The YACC machine grammar presented here is an amalgam of those steps, concatenated so as to allow YACC to verify the syntactic ambiguity of the grammar. YACC is used to generate a parser for a portion of the grammar, which is LALR1 (the type of grammar that YACC is designed to identify and process successfully), but most of the rest of the grammar must be parsed using some language-coded processing.</para>
<!-- ^^ machine grammar, 511 -->
<indexterm><primary>machine grammar</primary></indexterm>
<bridgehead>Step 1 - Lexing</bridgehead>
<para>From phonemes, stress, and pause, it is possible to resolve Lojban unambiguously into a stream of words. Any machine processing of speech will have to have some way to deal with ’non-Lojban’ failures of fluent speech, of course. The resolved words can be expressed as a text file using Lojban’s phonetic spelling rules.</para>
@@ -7000,21 +7000,21 @@ the 900 series rules are found in the lexer. */
<term>ZO_quote_435</term>
<listitem>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-433" />
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter21-section2">
- <title>2. EBNF Grammar of Lojban</title>
+ <title>EBNF Grammar of Lojban</title>
<para>Lojban Machine Grammar, EBNF Version, Final Baseline</para>
<para>This EBNF document is explicitly dedicated to the public domain by its author, The Logical Language Group, Inc. Contact that organization at: 2904 Beau Lane, Fairfax VA 22031 USA 703-385-0273 (intl: +1 703 385 0273)</para>
<para>Explanation of notation: All rules have the form:</para>
<para>name
<subscript>number</subscript>= bnf-expression</para>
<para>which means that the grammatical construct “name” is defined by “bnf-expression”. The number cross-references this grammar with the rule numbers in the YACC grammar. The names are the same as those in the YACC grammar, except that subrules are labeled with A, B, C, ... in the YACC grammar and with 1, 2, 3, ... in this grammar. In addition, rule 971 is “simple_tag” in the YACC grammar but “stag” in this grammar, because of its frequent appearance.</para>
<!-- ^^ YACC grammar, 511 -->
<indexterm><primary>YACC grammar</primary></indexterm>
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
@@ -7967,21 +7967,21 @@ the 900 series rules are found in the lexer. */
<term>null
<subscript>1101</subscript>=</term>
<listitem>
<para>any-word SI | utterance SA | text SU</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
<para>FAhO is a universal terminator and signals the end of parsable input.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter21-section3">
- <title>3. EBNF Cross-Reference</title>
+ <title>EBNF Cross-Reference</title>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry>
<term>A</term>
<listitem>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_bnf-802" />
<subscript>802</subscript>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
diff --git a/todocbook/3.xml b/todocbook/3.xml
index a841678..03ab029 100644
--- a/todocbook/3.xml
+++ b/todocbook/3.xml
@@ -1,14 +1,14 @@
<chapter xml:id="cll_chapter3">
<title>Chapter 3 The Hills Are Alive With The Sounds Of Lojban</title>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter3-section1">
- <title>1. Orthography</title>
+ <title>Orthography</title>
<para>Lojban is designed so that any properly spoken Lojban utterance can be uniquely transcribed in writing, and any properly written Lojban can be spoken so as to be uniquely reproduced by another person. As a consequence, the standard Lojban orthography must assign to each distinct sound, or phoneme, a unique letter or symbol. Each letter or symbol has only one sound or, more accurately, a limited range of sounds that are permitted pronunciations for that phoneme. Some symbols indicate stress (speech emphasis) and pause, which are also essential to Lojban word recognition. In addition, everything that is represented in other languages by punctuation (when written) or by tone of voice (when spoken) is represented in Lojban by words. These two properties together are known technically as
<!-- ^^ tone of voice, 297 -->
<indexterm><primary>tone of voice</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ orthography: non-standard, 45; relation to pronunciation, 29 -->
<indexterm><primary>orthography</primary></indexterm>
<quote>audio-visual isomorphism</quote>.</para>
<!-- ^^ isomorphism: audio-visual, 29 -->
<indexterm><primary>isomorphism</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ audio-visual isomorphism, 29 -->
<!-- ^^ isomorphism: audio-visual, 29 -->
@@ -36,21 +36,21 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter3-section2" />for an explanation of the symbols within square brackets.) Technically, it is sufficient to capitalize the vowel letter, in this case
<!-- ^^ square brackets: use of in notation, 5 -->
<indexterm><primary>square brackets</primary></indexterm>
<quote>O</quote>, but it is easier on the reader to capitalize the whole syllable.</para>
<para>Without the capitalization, the ordinary rules of Lojban stress would cause the
<!-- ^^ capitalization: for unusual stress in names, 66; use in names, 66; use of, 66 -->
<indexterm><primary>capitalization</primary></indexterm>
<quote>se</quote>syllable to be stressed. Lojbanized names are meant to represent the pronunciation of names from other languages with as little distortion as may be; as such, they are exempt from many of the regular rules of Lojban phonology, as will appear in the rest of this chapter.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter3-section2">
- <title>2. Basic Phonetics</title>
+ <title>Basic Phonetics</title>
<para>Lojban pronunciations are defined using the International Phonetic Alphabet, or IPA, a standard method of transcribing pronunciations. By convention, IPA transcriptions are always within square brackets: for example, the word
<!-- ^^ square brackets: use of in notation, 5 -->
<indexterm><primary>square brackets</primary></indexterm>
<quote>cat</quote>is pronounced (in General American pronunciation)
<!-- ^^ General American, 42 -->
<indexterm><primary>General American</primary></indexterm>
<phrase role="IPA">[kæt]</phrase>.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter3-section10" />contains a brief explanation of the IPA characters used in this chapter, with their nearest analogues in English, and will be especially useful to those not familiar with the technical terms used in describing speech sounds.</para>
<!-- ^^ technical terms, 5 -->
<indexterm><primary>technical terms</primary></indexterm>
@@ -310,21 +310,21 @@
<quote>church</quote>and the
<quote>j</quote>of
<quote>judge</quote>. In Lojban, these are considered two consonant sounds spoken together without an intervening vowel sound, and so are represented in Lojban by the two separate consonants:
<quote>tc</quote>(IPA
<phrase role="IPA">[tʃ]</phrase>) and
<quote>dj</quote>(IPA
<phrase role="IPA">[dʒ]</phrase>). In general, whether a complex sound is considered one sound or two depends on the language: Russian views
<quote>ts</quote>as a single sound, whereas English, French, and Lojban consider it to be a consonant cluster.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter3-section3">
- <title>3. The Special Lojban Characters</title>
+ <title>The Special Lojban Characters</title>
<para>The apostrophe, period, and comma need special attention. They are all used as indicators of a division between syllables, but each has a different pronunciation, and each is used for different reasons:</para>
<para>The apostrophe represents a phoneme similar to a short, breathy English
<quote>h</quote>, (IPA
<phrase role="IPA">[h]</phrase>). The letter
<quote>h</quote>is not used to represent this sound for two reasons: primarily in order to simplify explanations of the morphology, but also because the sound is very common, and the apostrophe is a visually lightweight representation of it. The apostrophe sound is a consonant in nature, but is not treated as either a consonant or a vowel for purposes of Lojban morphology (word-formation), which is explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4" />. In addition, the apostrophe visually parallels the comma and the period, which are also used (in different ways) to separate syllables.</para>
<para>The apostrophe is included in Lojban only to enable a smooth transition between vowels, while joining the vowels within a single word. In fact, one way to think of the apostrophe is as representing an unvoiced vowel glide.</para>
<!-- ^^ unvoiced vowel glide: apostrophe as, 31 -->
<indexterm><primary>unvoiced vowel glide</primary></indexterm>
<para>As a permitted variant, any unvoiced fricative other than those already used in Lojban may be used to render the apostrophe: IPA
@@ -387,21 +387,21 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter3-section3-example2" />, it would appear as:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c3e3d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter3-section3-example4" />3.4) .i'ai'i'ai'on.
<phrase role="IPA">[ʔi hai hi hai honʔ]</phrase>
</programlisting>
<para>which preserves the rhythm and length, if not the exact sounds, of the original English.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter3-section4">
- <title>4. Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants</title>
+ <title>Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants</title>
<para>There exist 16 diphthongs in the Lojban language. A diphthong is a vowel sound that consists of two elements, a short vowel sound and a glide, either a labial (IPA
<phrase role="IPA">[w]</phrase>) or palatal (IPA
<phrase role="IPA">[j]</phrase>) glide, that either precedes (an on-glide) or follows (an off-glide) the main vowel. Diphthongs always constitute a single syllable.</para>
<para>For Lojban purposes, a vowel sound is a relatively long speech-sound that forms the nucleus of a syllable. Consonant sounds are relatively brief and normally require an accompanying vowel sound in order to be audible. Consonants may occur at the beginning or end of a syllable, around the vowel, and there may be several consonants in a cluster in either position. Each separate vowel sound constitutes a distinct syllable; consonant sounds do not affect the determination of syllables.</para>
<para>The six Lojban vowels are
<quote>a</quote>,
<quote>e</quote>,
<quote>i</quote>,
<quote>o</quote>,
<quote>u</quote>, and
@@ -506,21 +506,21 @@
<!-- ^^ syllabic consonants, 34; effect on stress, 34; final in word, 34 -->
<indexterm><primary>syllabic consonants</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ Earl: example, 34 -->
<indexterm><primary>Earl</primary></indexterm>
<para>Syllables with syllabic consonants and no vowel are never stressed or counted when determining which syllables to stress (see
<!-- ^^ syllabic consonants, 34; effect on stress, 34; final in word, 34 -->
<indexterm><primary>syllabic consonants</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter3-section9" />).</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter3-section5">
- <title>5. Vowel Pairs</title>
+ <title>Vowel Pairs</title>
<para>Lojban vowels also occur in pairs, where each vowel sound is in a separate syllable. These two vowel sounds are connected (and separated) by an apostrophe. Lojban vowel pairs should be pronounced continuously with the
<!-- ^^ vowel pairs: contrasted with diphthongs, 34; definition of, 34; grouping of, 35; involving y, 35; list of, 35; use of apostrophe in, 34 -->
<indexterm><primary>vowel pairs</primary></indexterm>
<phrase role="IPA">[h]</phrase>sound between (and not by a glottal stop or pause, which would split the two vowels into separate words).</para>
<!-- ^^ glottal stop: as pause in Lojban, 31 -->
<indexterm><primary>glottal stop</primary></indexterm>
<para>All vowel combinations are permitted in two-syllable pairs with the apostrophe separating them; this includes those which constitute diphthongs when the apostrophe is not included.</para>
<para>The Lojban vowel pairs are:</para>
<!-- ^^ vowel pairs: contrasted with diphthongs, 34; definition of, 34; grouping of, 35; involving y, 35; list of, 35; use of apostrophe in, 34 -->
<indexterm><primary>vowel pairs</primary></indexterm>
@@ -584,21 +584,21 @@
</example>
<para>which contains the vowel
<quote>e</quote>followed by the diphthong
<quote>ii</quote>. In rough English representation,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter3-section5-example1" />is
<quote>May Een</quote>, whereas
<xref linkend="cll_chapter3-section5-example2" />is
<quote>Meh Yeen</quote>.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter3-section6">
- <title>6. Consonant Clusters</title>
+ <title>Consonant Clusters</title>
<para>A consonant sound is a relatively brief speech-sound that precedes or follows a vowel sound in a syllable; its presence either preceding or following does not add to the count of syllables, nor is a consonant required in either position for any syllable. Lojban has seventeen consonants: for the purposes of this section, the apostrophe is not counted as a consonant.</para>
<para>An important distinction dividing Lojban consonants is that of voicing. The following table shows the unvoiced consonants and the corresponding voiced ones:</para>
<!-- ^^ unvoiced consonants: contrasted with voiced in allowable consonant pairs, 37 -->
<indexterm><primary>unvoiced consonants</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
UNVOICED VOICED
p b
t d
k g
f v
@@ -682,21 +682,21 @@
<phrase role="IPA">[dʒɛj məzʔ]</phrase>
James
</programlisting>
<para>The regular English pronunciation of
<quote>James</quote>, which is
<phrase role="IPA">[dʒɛjmz]</phrase>, would Lojbanize as
<quote>djeimz.</quote>, which contains a forbidden consonant pair.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter3-section7">
- <title>7. Initial Consonant Pairs</title>
+ <title>Initial Consonant Pairs</title>
<para>The set of consonant pairs that may appear at the beginning of a word (excluding Lojbanized names) is far more restricted than the fairly large group of permissible consonant pairs described in
<!-- ^^ consonant pairs: in brivla, 53; initial, 36; letter y within, 53; restrictions on, 36 -->
<indexterm><primary>consonant pairs</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter3-section6" />. Even so, it is more than English allows, although hopefully not more than English-speakers (and others) can learn to pronounce.</para>
<para>There are just 48 such permissible initial consonant pairs, as follows:</para>
<!-- ^^ initial consonant pairs: list of, 37 -->
<indexterm><primary>initial consonant pairs</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ consonant pairs: in brivla, 53; initial, 36; letter y within, 53; restrictions on, 36 -->
<indexterm><primary>consonant pairs</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
@@ -752,21 +752,21 @@
<!-- ^^ consonant triples, 37; restrictions on, 37 -->
<indexterm><primary>consonant triples</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ consonant pairs: in brivla, 53; initial, 36; letter y within, 53; restrictions on, 36 -->
<indexterm><primary>consonant pairs</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ consonant clusters: buffering of, 38; contrasted with doubled consonants, 35; contrasted with single consonants, 35; definition of, 35; more than three consonants in, 37 -->
<!-- ^^ doubled consonants: contrasted with consonant clusters, 35; contrasted with single consonants, 35 -->
<indexterm><primary>doubled consonants</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm><primary>consonant clusters</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter3-section8">
- <title>8. Buffering Of Consonant Clusters</title>
+ <title>Buffering Of Consonant Clusters</title>
<para>Many languages do not have consonant clusters at all, and even those languages that do have them often allow only a subset of the full Lojban set. As a result, the Lojban design allows the use of a buffer sound between consonant combinations which a speaker finds unpronounceable. This sound may be any non-Lojbanic vowel which is clearly separable by the listener from the Lojban vowels. Some possibilities are IPA
<!-- ^^ consonant clusters: buffering of, 38; contrasted with doubled consonants, 35; contrasted with single consonants, 35; definition of, 35; more than three consonants in, 37 -->
<!-- ^^ doubled consonants: contrasted with consonant clusters, 35; contrasted with single consonants, 35 -->
<indexterm><primary>doubled consonants</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm><primary>consonant clusters</primary></indexterm>
<phrase role="IPA">[ɪ]</phrase>,
<phrase role="IPA">[ɨ]</phrase>,
<phrase role="IPA">[ʊ]</phrase>, or even
<phrase role="IPA">[ʏ]</phrase>, but there probably is no universally acceptable buffer sound. When using a consonant buffer, the sound should be made as short as possible. Two examples showing such buffering (we will use
<phrase role="IPA">[ɪ]</phrase>in this chapter) are:</para>
@@ -855,21 +855,21 @@
<indexterm><primary>buffer vowel</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter3-section8-example8" />would be pronounced</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c3e8d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter3-section8-example9" />8.9)
<phrase role="IPA">[boːŋ gɪ ˈnaːn baː]</phrase>
</programlisting>
<para>with lengthened vowels.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter3-section9">
- <title>9. Syllabication And Stress</title>
+ <title>Syllabication And Stress</title>
<para>A Lojban word has one syllable for each of its vowels, diphthongs, and syllabic consonants (referred to simply as
<!-- ^^ syllabic consonants, 34; effect on stress, 34; final in word, 34 -->
<indexterm><primary>syllabic consonants</primary></indexterm>
<quote>vowels</quote>for the purposes of this section.) Syllabication rules determine which of the consonants separating two vowels belong to the preceding vowel and which to the following vowel. These rules are conventional only; the phonetic facts of the matter about how utterances are syllabified in any language are always very complex.</para>
<para>A single consonant always belongs to the following vowel. A consonant pair is normally divided between the two vowels; however, if the pair constitute a valid initial consonant pair, they are normally both assigned to the following vowel. A consonant triple is divided between the first and second consonants. Apostrophes and commas, of course, also represent syllable breaks. Syllabic consonants usually appear alone in their syllables.</para>
<para>It is permissible to vary from these rules in Lojbanized names. For example, there are no definitive rules for the syllabication of names with consonant clusters longer than three consonants. The comma is used to indicate variant syllabication or to explicitly mark normal syllabication.</para>
<!-- ^^ syllabication: and names, 39; definition of, 39; examples of, 39; rules for, 39; variants of, 41 -->
<indexterm><primary>syllabication</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ consonant clusters: buffering of, 38; contrasted with doubled consonants, 35; contrasted with single consonants, 35; definition of, 35; more than three consonants in, 37 -->
<!-- ^^ doubled consonants: contrasted with consonant clusters, 35; contrasted with single consonants, 35 -->
@@ -1111,21 +1111,21 @@
<jbo>le re no bliprenu</jbo>
<en>le re no bliPREnu</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>If the cmavo
<quote>no</quote>in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter3-section9-example15" />were to be stressed, the phrase would sound exactly like the given pronunciation of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter3-section9-example14" />, which is unacceptable in Lojban: a single pronunciation cannot represent both.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter3-section10">
- <title>10. IPA For English Speakers</title>
+ <title>IPA For English Speakers</title>
<para>There are many dialects of English, thus making it difficult to define the standardized symbols of the IPA in terms useful to every reader. All the symbols used in this chapter are repeated here, in more or less alphabetical order, with examples drawn from General American. In addition, some attention is given to the Received Pronunciation of (British) English. These two dialects are referred to as GA and RP respectively. Speakers of other dialects should consult a book on phonetics or their local television sets.</para>
<!-- ^^ television, 42 -->
<indexterm><primary>television</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ Received Pronunciation, 42 -->
<indexterm><primary>Received Pronunciation</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ General American, 42 -->
<indexterm><primary>General American</primary></indexterm>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry>
<term>[ˈ]</term>
@@ -1628,21 +1628,21 @@
<term>[ʐ]</term>
<listitem>
<para>An allowed variant of Lojban
<quote>z</quote>. Not an English sound. The voiced version of
<phrase role="IPA">[ʂ]</phrase>.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter3-section11">
- <title>11. English Analogues For Lojban Diphthongs</title>
+ <title>English Analogues For Lojban Diphthongs</title>
<para>Here is a list of English words that contain diphthongs that are similar to the Lojban diphthongs. This list does not constitute an official pronunciation guide; it is intended as a help to English-speakers.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
Lojban English
ai
<quote>pie</quote>
ei
<quote>pay</quote>
oi
<quote>boy</quote>
@@ -1675,21 +1675,21 @@
<quote>woo</quote>
iy
<quote>million</quote> (the
<quote>io</quote> part, that is)
uy
<quote>was</quote> (when unstressed)
</programlisting>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter3-section12">
- <title>12. Oddball Orthographies</title>
+ <title>Oddball Orthographies</title>
<para>The following notes describe ways in which Lojban has been written or could be written that differ from the standard orthography explained in the rest of this chapter. Nobody needs to read this section except people with an interest in the obscure. Technicalities are used without explanation or further apology.</para>
<!-- ^^ orthography: non-standard, 45; relation to pronunciation, 29 -->
<indexterm><primary>orthography</primary></indexterm>
<para>There exists an alternative orthography for Lojban, which is designed to be as compatible as possible (but no more so) with the orthography used in pre-Lojban versions of Loglan. The consonants undergo no change, except that
<!-- ^^ orthography: non-standard, 45; relation to pronunciation, 29 -->
<indexterm><primary>orthography</primary></indexterm>
<quote>x</quote>is replaced by
<quote>h</quote>. The individual vowels likewise remain unchanged. However, the vowel pairs and diphthongs are changed as follows:</para>
<!-- ^^ vowel pairs: contrasted with diphthongs, 34; definition of, 34; grouping of, 35; involving y, 35; list of, 35; use of apostrophe in, 34 -->
<indexterm><primary>vowel pairs</primary></indexterm>
diff --git a/todocbook/4.xml b/todocbook/4.xml
index 41fe4ca..bf34490 100644
--- a/todocbook/4.xml
+++ b/todocbook/4.xml
@@ -1,14 +1,14 @@
<chapter xml:id="cll_chapter4">
<title>Chapter 4 The Shape Of Words To Come: Lojban Morphology</title>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter4-section1">
- <title>1. Introductory</title>
+ <title>Introductory</title>
<para>Morphology is the part of grammar that deals with the form of words. Lojban's morphology is fairly simple compared to that of many languages, because Lojban words don't change form depending on how they are used. English has only a small number of such changes compared to languages like Russian, but it does have changes like
<quote>boys</quote>as the plural of
<!-- ^^ plural: Lojban contrasted with English in necessity of marking, 120; Lojban equivalent of, 443; meaning of le with, 123 -->
<indexterm><primary>plural</primary></indexterm>
<quote>boy</quote>, or
<quote>walked</quote>as the past-tense form of
<quote>walk</quote>. To make plurals or past tenses in Lojban, you add separate words to the sentence that express the number of boys, or the time when the walking was going on.</para>
<para>However, Lojban does have what is called
<quote>derivational morphology</quote>: the capability of building new words from old words. In addition, the form of words tells us something about their grammatical uses, and sometimes about the means by which they entered the language. Lojban has very orderly rules for the formation of words of various types, both the words that already exist and new words yet to be created by speakers and writers.</para>
<!-- ^^ derivational morphology: definition, 49 -->
@@ -173,21 +173,21 @@
<quote>to</quote>; brivla are the content words, corresponding to English words like
<quote>come</quote>,
<quote>red</quote>,
<quote>doctor</quote>, and
<quote>freely</quote>; cmene are proper names, corresponding to English
<quote>James</quote>,
<quote>Afghanistan</quote>, and
<quote>Pope John Paul II</quote>.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter4-section2">
- <title>2. cmavo</title>
+ <title>cmavo</title>
<para>The first group of Lojban words discussed in this chapter are the cmavo. They are the structure words that hold the Lojban language together. They often have no semantic meaning in themselves, though they may affect the semantics of brivla to which they are attached. The cmavo include the equivalent of English articles, conjunctions, prepositions, numbers, and punctuation marks. There are over a hundred subcategories of cmavo, known as
<!-- ^^ structure words, 50 -->
<indexterm><primary>structure words</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ punctuation marks: cmavo as Lojban equivalents, 50 -->
<indexterm><primary>punctuation marks</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ prepositions: cmavo as Lojban equivalents, 50 -->
<indexterm><primary>prepositions</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ hundred: expressing as number, 432 -->
<indexterm><primary>hundred</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ conjunctions: cmavo as Lojban equivalents, 50 -->
@@ -401,21 +401,21 @@
<anchor xml:id="c4e2d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section2-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le re NANmu</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This would probably be the most common usage.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter4-section3">
- <title>3. brivla</title>
+ <title>brivla</title>
<para>Predicate words, called
<quote>brivla</quote>, are at the core of Lojban. They carry most of the semantic information in the language. They serve as the equivalent of English nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, all in a single part of speech.</para>
<!-- ^^ verbs: brivla as Lojban equivalents, 52 -->
<indexterm><primary>verbs</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ nouns: brivla as Lojban equivalents, 52 -->
<indexterm><primary>nouns</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ adverbs: brivla as Lojban equivalents, 52 -->
<indexterm><primary>adverbs</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ adjectives: brivla as Lojban equivalents, 52 -->
<indexterm><primary>adjectives</primary></indexterm>
@@ -461,21 +461,21 @@
<listitem>
<para>lujvo, the compounds of two or more gismu; and</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>fu'ivla (literally
<quote>copy-word</quote>), the specialized words that are not Lojban primitives or natural compounds, and are therefore borrowed from other languages.</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter4-section4">
- <title>4. gismu</title>
+ <title>gismu</title>
<para>The gismu, or Lojban root words, are those brivla representing concepts most basic to the language. The gismu were chosen for various reasons: some represent concepts that are very familiar and basic; some represent concepts that are frequently used in other languages; some were added because they would be helpful in constructing more complex words; some because they represent fundamental Lojban concepts (like
<quote>cmavo</quote>and
<quote>gismu</quote>themselves).</para>
<para>The gismu do not represent any sort of systematic partitioning of semantic space. Some gismu may be superfluous, or appear for historical reasons: the gismu list was being collected for almost 35 years and was only weeded out once. Instead, the intention is that the gismu blanket semantic space: they make it possible to talk about the entire range of human concerns.</para>
<para>There are about 1350 gismu. In learning Lojban, you need only to learn most of these gismu and their combining forms (known as
<!-- ^^ learning Lojban: magnitude of task, 53 -->
<!-- ^^ magnitude: tense, 250 -->
<indexterm><primary>magnitude</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm><primary>learning Lojban</primary></indexterm>
<quote>rafsi</quote>) as well as perhaps 200 major cmavo, and you will be able to communicate effectively in the language. This may sound like a lot, but it is a small number compared to the vocabulary needed for similar communications in other languages.</para>
@@ -550,21 +550,21 @@
<jbo>nanmu</jbo>
<en>man</en>
<jbo>ninmu</jbo>
<en>woman</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>A small number of gismu were formed differently; see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4-section15" />for a list.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter4-section5">
- <title>5. lujvo</title>
+ <title>lujvo</title>
<para>When specifying a concept that is not found among the gismu (or, more specifically, when the relevant gismu seems too general in meaning), a Lojbanist generally attempts to express the concept as a tanru. Lojban tanru are an elaboration of the concept of
<quote>metaphor</quote>used in English. In Lojban, any brivla can be used to modify another brivla. The first of the pair modifies the second. This modification is usually restrictive - the modifying brivla reduces the broader sense of the modified brivla to form a more narrow, concrete, or specific concept. Modifying brivla may thus be seen as acting like English adverbs or adjectives. For example,</para>
<!-- ^^ adverbs: brivla as Lojban equivalents, 52 -->
<indexterm><primary>adverbs</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ adjectives: brivla as Lojban equivalents, 52 -->
<indexterm><primary>adjectives</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-xhQP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e5d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section5-example1" />
@@ -726,21 +726,21 @@
<quote>r</quote>making up the
<quote>rs</quote>consonant pair needed to make the word a brivla. Without the
<quote>r</quote>, the word would break up into
<quote>soi sai</quote>, two cmavo. The pair of cmavo have no relation to their rafsi lookalikes; they will either be ungrammatical (as in this case), or will express a different meaning from what was intended.</para>
<!-- ^^ sai, 305 -->
<indexterm><primary>sai</primary></indexterm>
<para>Learning rafsi and the rules for assembling them into lujvo is clearly seen to be necessary for fully using the potential Lojban vocabulary.</para>
<para>Most important, it is possible to invent new lujvo while you speak or write in order to represent a new or unfamiliar concept, one for which you do not know any existing Lojban word. As long as you follow the rules for building these compounds, there is a good chance that you will be understood without explanation.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter4-section6">
- <title>6. rafsi</title>
+ <title>rafsi</title>
<para>Every gismu has from two to five rafsi, each of a different form, but each such rafsi represents only one gismu. It is valid to use any of the rafsi forms in building lujvo - whichever the reader or listener will most easily understand, or whichever is most pleasing - subject to the rules of lujvo making. There is a scoring algorithm which is intended to determine which of the possible and legal lujvo forms will be the standard dictionary form (see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4-section12" />).</para>
<para>Each gismu always has at least two rafsi forms; one is the gismu itself (used only at the end of a lujvo), and one is the gismu without its final vowel (used only at the beginning or middle of a lujvo). These forms are represented as CVC/CV or CCVCV (called
<quote>the 5-letter rafsi</quote>), and CVC/C or CCVC (called
<quote>the 4-letter rafsi</quote>) respectively. The dashes in these rafsi form representations show where other rafsi may be attached to form a valid lujvo. When lujvo are formed only from 4-letter and 5-letter rafsi, known collectively as
<!-- ^^ rafsi form: effect of choice on meaning of lujvo, 56 -->
<indexterm><primary>rafsi form</primary></indexterm>
<quote>long rafsi</quote>, they are called
<!-- ^^ long rafsi: definition, 57 -->
<indexterm><primary>long rafsi</primary></indexterm>
@@ -1122,21 +1122,21 @@
<indexterm><primary>hepatitis</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>the whole phrase would become a single lujvo. The longer lujvo of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4-section6-example17" />may be preferable, because its place structure can be built from that of
<quote>bilma</quote>, whereas the place structure of a lujvo without a brivla must be constructed ad hoc.</para>
<para>Note that rafsi may not be used in
<quote>zei</quote>phrases, because they are not words. CVV rafsi look like words (specifically cmavo) but there can be no confusion between the two uses of the same letters, because cmavo appear only as separate words or in compound cmavo (which are really just a notation for writing separate but closely related words as if they were one); rafsi appear only as parts of lujvo.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter4-section7">
- <title>7. fu'ivla</title>
+ <title>fu'ivla</title>
<para>The use of tanru or lujvo is not always appropriate for very concrete or specific terms (e.g.
<!-- ^^ specific terms: use of fu'ivla for, 61 -->
<indexterm><primary>specific terms</primary></indexterm>
<quote>brie</quote>or
<!-- ^^ brie: example, 63 -->
<indexterm><primary>brie</primary></indexterm>
<quote>cobra</quote>), or for jargon words specialized to a narrow field (e.g.
<!-- ^^ jargon: use of fu'ivla for, 61 -->
<indexterm><primary>jargon</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ cobra: example, 63 -->
@@ -1464,21 +1464,21 @@
<quote>Chosen</quote>should have been used instead of the internationally known
<quote>Korea</quote>; this is a recurring problem in all borrowings. In general, it is better to use the native name unless using it will severely impede understanding:
<!-- ^^ borrowings: fu'ivla form with categorizing rafsi, 61; fu'ivla form without categorizing rafsi, 62; most common form for, 61; Stage 1, 61; Stage 2, 61; Stage 3, 61; Stage 3 contrasted with Stage 4 in ease of construction, 62; Stage 4, 62; using foreign-language name, 61; using lojbanized name, 61 -->
<indexterm><primary>borrowings</primary></indexterm>
<quote>Navajo</quote>is far more widely known than
<!-- ^^ Navajo: example, 64 -->
<indexterm><primary>Navajo</primary></indexterm>
<quote>Dine'e</quote>.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter4-section8">
- <title>8. cmene</title>
+ <title>cmene</title>
<para>Lojbanized names, called
<quote>cmene</quote>, are very much like their counterparts in other languages. They are labels applied to things (or people) to stand for them in descriptions or in direct address. They may convey meaning in themselves, but do not necessarily do so.</para>
<!-- ^^ direct address, 323 -->
<indexterm><primary>direct address</primary></indexterm>
<para>Because names are often highly personal and individual, Lojban attempts to allow native language names to be used with a minimum of modification. The requirement that the Lojban speech stream be unambiguously analyzable, however, means that most names must be modified somewhat when they are Lojbanized. Here are a few examples of English names and possible Lojban equivalents:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-1LIJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e8d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section8-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e8d2" />
@@ -1869,21 +1869,21 @@
<!-- ^^ Mao Zedong: example, 68 -->
<indexterm><primary>Mao Zedong</primary></indexterm>
Japanese
<quote>Fujiko</quote> fudjikos.
<!-- ^^ Fujiko: example, 68 -->
<indexterm><primary>Fujiko</primary></indexterm>
or fujikos.
</programlisting>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter4-section9">
- <title>9. Rules for inserting pauses</title>
+ <title>Rules for inserting pauses</title>
<para>Summarized in one place, here are the rules for inserting pauses between Lojban words:</para>
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Any two words may have a pause between them; it is always illegal to pause in the middle of a word, because that breaks up the word into two words.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Every word ending in a consonant must be followed by a pause. Necessarily, all such words are cmene.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Every word beginning with a vowel must be preceded by a pause. Such words are either cmavo, fu'ivla, or cmene; all gismu and lujvo begin with consonants.</para>
@@ -1905,21 +1905,21 @@
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>When non-Lojban text is embedded in Lojban, it must be preceded and followed by pauses. (How to embed non-Lojban text is explained in
<!-- ^^ non-Lojban text: rules for pause with, 69 -->
<indexterm><primary>non-Lojban text</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19" />.)</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter4-section10">
- <title>10. Considerations for making lujvo</title>
+ <title>Considerations for making lujvo</title>
<para>Given a tanru which expresses an idea to be used frequently, it can be turned into a lujvo by following the lujvo-making algorithm which is given in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4-section11" />.</para>
<para>In building a lujvo, the first step is to replace each gismu with a rafsi that uniquely represents that gismu. These rafsi are then attached together by fixed rules that allow the resulting compound to be recognized as a single word and to be analyzed in only one way.</para>
<para>There are three other complications; only one is serious.</para>
<para>The first is that there is usually more than one rafsi that can be used for each gismu. The one to be used is simply whichever one sounds or looks best to the speaker or writer. There are usually many valid combinations of possible rafsi. They all are equally valid, and all of them mean exactly the same thing. (The scoring algorithm given in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4-section12" />is used to choose the standard form of the lujvo - the version which would be entered into a dictionary.)</para>
<para>The second complication is the serious one. Remember that a tanru is ambiguous - it has several possible meanings. A lujvo, or at least one that would be put into the dictionary, has just a single meaning. Like a gismu, a lujvo is a predicate which encompasses one area of the semantic universe, with one set of places. Hopefully the meaning chosen is the most useful of the possible semantic spaces. A possible source of linguistic drift in Lojban is that as Lojbanic society evolves, the concept that seems the most useful one may change.</para>
<!-- ^^ linguistic drift in Lojban: possible source of, 69 -->
<indexterm><primary>linguistic drift in Lojban</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ linguistic drift, 4 -->
@@ -1947,21 +1947,21 @@
<para>This doesn't lead to ambiguity, as it might seem to. A given lujvo still has exactly one meaning and place structure. It is just that more than one tanru is competing for the same lujvo. But more than one meaning for the tanru was already competing for the
<quote>right</quote>to define the meaning of the lujvo. Someone has to use judgment in deciding which one meaning is to be chosen over the others.</para>
<para>If the lujvo made by a shorter form of tanru is in use, or is likely to be useful for another meaning, the decider then retains one or more of the cmavo, preferably ones that set this meaning apart from the shorter form meaning that is used or anticipated. As a rule, therefore, the shorter lujvo will be used for a more general concept, possibly even instead of a more frequent word. If both words are needed, the simpler one should be shorter. It is easier to add a cmavo to clarify the meaning of the more complex term than it is to find a good alternate tanru for the simpler term.</para>
<!-- ^^ anticipated: example, 316 -->
<indexterm><primary>anticipated</primary></indexterm>
<para>And of course, we have to consider the listener. On hearing an unknown word, the listener will decompose it and get a tanru that makes no sense or the wrong sense for the context. If the listener realizes that the grouping operators may have been dropped out, he or she may try alternate groupings, or try inserting an abstraction operator if that seems plausible. (The grouping of tanru is explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5" />; abstraction is explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11" />.) Plausibility is the key to learning new ideas and to evaluating unfamiliar lujvo.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter4-section11">
- <title>11. The lujvo-making algorithm</title>
+ <title>The lujvo-making algorithm</title>
<para>The following is the current algorithm for generating Lojban lujvo given a known tanru and a complete list of gismu and their assigned rafsi. The algorithm was designed by Bob LeChevalier and Dr. James Cooke Brown for computer program implementation. It was modified in 1989 with the assistance of Nora LeChevalier, who detected a flaw in the original
<!-- ^^ Brown: James Cooke, 6; James Cooke, and "letteral", 413 -->
<indexterm><primary>Brown</primary></indexterm>
<quote>tosmabru test</quote>.</para>
<!-- ^^ tosmabru test, 71 -->
<indexterm><primary>tosmabru test</primary></indexterm>
<para>Given a tanru that is to be made into a lujvo:</para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry>
<term>1)</term>
@@ -2035,21 +2035,21 @@
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
<para>Note that the
<quote>tosmabru test</quote>implies that the algorithm will be more efficient if rafsi junctures are tested for required hyphens from right to left, instead of from left to right; when the test is required, it cannot be completed until hyphenation to the right has been determined.</para>
<!-- ^^ tosmabru test, 71 -->
<indexterm><primary>tosmabru test</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ hyphens: use of, 59 -->
<indexterm><primary>hyphens</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter4-section12">
- <title>12. The lujvo scoring algorithm</title>
+ <title>The lujvo scoring algorithm</title>
<para>This algorithm was devised by Bob and Nora LeChevalier in 1989. It is not the only possible algorithm, but it usually gives a choice that people find preferable. The algorithm may be changed in the future. The lowest-scoring variant will usually be the dictionary form of the lujvo. (In previous versions, it was the highest-scoring variant.)</para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry>
<term>1)</term>
<listitem>
<para>Count the total number of letters, including hyphens and apostrophes; call it
<!-- ^^ hyphens: use of, 59 -->
<indexterm><primary>hyphens</primary></indexterm>
<quote>L</quote>.</para>
</listitem>
@@ -2176,21 +2176,21 @@
<gloss>(1000 * 11) - (500 * 1) + (100 * 1) - (10 * 21) - 5</gloss>
<en>= 10385</en>
<jbo>zbazbasysarji</jbo>
<gloss>zba + zbas + y + sarji</gloss>
<gloss>(1000 * 13) - (500 * 0) + (100 * 1) - (10 * 12) - 4</gloss>
<en>= 12976</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter4-section13">
- <title>13. lujvo-making examples</title>
+ <title>lujvo-making examples</title>
<para>This section contains examples of making and scoring lujvo. First, we will start with the tanru
<quote>gerku zdani</quote>(
<quote>dog house</quote>) and construct a lujvo meaning
<!-- ^^ lujvo meaning, 274 -->
<indexterm><primary>lujvo meaning</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ dog house: example, 274 -->
<indexterm><primary>dog house</primary></indexterm>
<quote>doghouse</quote>, that is, a house where a dog lives. We will use a brute-force application of the algorithm in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4-section12" />, using every possible rafsi.</para>
<para>The rafsi for
@@ -2348,21 +2348,21 @@
<para>Of these forms,
<quote>nakykemcinctu</quote>is the shortest and is preferred by the scoring algorithm. On the whole, however, it might be better to just make a lujvo for
<quote>cinse ctuca</quote>(which would be
<quote>cinctu</quote>) since the sex of the teacher is rarely important. If there was a reason to specify
<quote>male</quote>, then the simpler tanru
<quote>nakni cinctu</quote>(
<quote>male sexual-teacher</quote>) would be appropriate. This tanru is actually shorter than the four-part lujvo, since the
<quote>ke</quote>required for grouping need not be expressed.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter4-section14">
- <title>14. The gismu creation algorithm</title>
+ <title>The gismu creation algorithm</title>
<para>The gismu were created through the following process:</para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry>
<term>1)</term>
<listitem>
<para>At least one word was found in each of the six source languages (Chinese, English, Hindi, Spanish, Russian, Arabic) corresponding to the proposed gismu. This word was rendered into Lojban phonetics rather liberally: consonant clusters consisting of a stop and the corresponding fricative were simplified to just the fricative (
<!-- ^^ source languages: use in creating gismu, 75 -->
<indexterm><primary>source languages</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ consonant clusters: buffering of, 38; contrasted with doubled consonants, 35; contrasted with single consonants, 35; definition of, 35; more than three consonants in, 37 -->
<!-- ^^ doubled consonants: contrasted with consonant clusters, 35; contrasted with single consonants, 35 -->
@@ -2424,21 +2424,21 @@
<para>Note that the stressed vowel of the gismu was considered sufficiently distinctive that two or more gismu may differ only in this vowel; as an extreme example,
<!-- ^^ stressed vowel: compared with stressed syllable, 40 -->
<indexterm><primary>stressed vowel</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bradi</quote>,
<quote>bredi</quote>,
<quote>bridi</quote>, and
<quote>brodi</quote>(but fortunately not
<quote>brudi</quote>) are all existing gismu.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter4-section15">
- <title>15. Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu</title>
+ <title>Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu</title>
<para>The following gismu were not made by the gismu creation algorithm. They are, in effect, coined words similar to fu'ivla. They are exceptions to the otherwise mandatory gismu creation algorithm where there was sufficient justification for such exceptions. Except for the small metric prefixes and the assignable predicates beginning with
<quote>brod-</quote>, they all end in the letter
<quote>o</quote>, which is otherwise a rare letter in Lojban gismu.</para>
<para>The following gismu represent concepts that are sufficiently unique to Lojban that they were either coined from combining forms of other gismu, or else made up out of whole cloth. These gismu are thus conceptually similar to lujvo even though they are only five letters long; however, unlike lujvo, they have rafsi assigned to them for use in building more complex lujvo. Assigning gismu to these concepts helps to keep the resulting lujvo reasonably short.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
broda 1st assignable predicate
brode 2nd assignable predicate
brodi 3rd assignable predicate
brodo 4th assignable predicate
brodu 5th assignable predicate
@@ -2605,21 +2605,21 @@
</programlisting>
<para>A few terms that cover multiple groups of the above:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
jegvo Jehovist (Judeo-Christian-Moslem)
semto Semitic
slovo Slavic
xispo Hispanic (New World Spanish)
</programlisting>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter4-section16">
- <title>16. rafsi fu'ivla: a proposal</title>
+ <title>rafsi fu'ivla: a proposal</title>
<para>The list of cultures represented by gismu, given in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4-section15" />, is unavoidably controversial. Much time has been spent debating whether this or that culture
<quote>deserves a gismu</quote>or
<quote>must languish in fu'ivla space</quote>. To help defuse this argument, a last-minute proposal was made when this book was already substantially complete. I have added it here with experimental status: it is not yet a standard part of Lojban, since all its implications have not been tested in open debate, and it affects a part of the language (lujvo-making) that has long been stable, but is known to be fragile in the face of small changes. (Many attempts were made to add general mechanisms for making lujvo that contained fu'ivla, but all failed on obvious or obscure counterexamples; finally the general
<quote>zei</quote>mechanism was devised instead.)</para>
<para>The first part of the proposal is uncontroversial and involves no change to the language mechanisms. All valid Type 4 fu'ivla of the form CCVVCV would be reserved for cultural brivla analogous to those described in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4-section15" />. For example,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-PMb2">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e16d1" />
diff --git a/todocbook/5.xml b/todocbook/5.xml
index 9d3b7a4..b423caa 100644
--- a/todocbook/5.xml
+++ b/todocbook/5.xml
@@ -1,15 +1,15 @@
<chapter xml:id="cll_chapter5">
<title>Chapter 5
<quote>Pretty Little Girls' School</quote>: The Structure Of Lojban selbri</title>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter5-section1">
- <title>1. Lojban content words: brivla</title>
+ <title>Lojban content words: brivla</title>
<para>At the center, logically and often physically, of every Lojban bridi is one or more words which constitute the selbri. A bridi expresses a relationship between things: the selbri specifies which relationship is referred to. The difference between:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-dNXY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e1d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section1-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do mamta mi</jbo>
<gloss>You are-a-mother-of me</gloss>
<en>You are my mother</en>
@@ -66,21 +66,21 @@
<indexterm><primary>schooner</primary></indexterm>
<en>That is a schooner.</en>
<!-- ^^ schooner: example, 83 -->
<indexterm><primary>schooner</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>illustrate the three types of brivla (gismu, lujvo, and fu'ivla respectively), but in each case the selbri is composed of a single word whose meaning can be learned independent of its origins.</para>
<para>The remainder of this chapter will mostly use gismu as example brivla, because they are short. However, it is important to keep in mind that wherever a gismu appears, it could be replaced by any other kind of brivla.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter5-section2">
- <title>2. Simple tanru</title>
+ <title>Simple tanru</title>
<para>Beyond the single brivla, a selbri may consist of two brivla placed together. When a selbri is built in this way from more than one brivla, it is called a tanru, a word with no single English equivalent. The nearest analogue to tanru in English are combinations of two nouns such as
<!-- ^^ nouns: brivla as Lojban equivalents, 52 -->
<indexterm><primary>nouns</primary></indexterm>
<quote>lemon tree</quote>. There is no way to tell just by looking at the phrase
<!-- ^^ lemon tree: example, 84 -->
<indexterm><primary>lemon tree</primary></indexterm>
<quote>lemon tree</quote>exactly what it refers to, even if you know the meanings of
<!-- ^^ lemon tree: example, 84 -->
<indexterm><primary>lemon tree</primary></indexterm>
<quote>lemon</quote>and
@@ -237,21 +237,21 @@
</example>
<para>are parallel tanru, in the sense that the relationship between
<quote>barda</quote>and
<quote>prenu</quote>is the same as that between
<quote>cmalu</quote>and
<quote>prenu</quote>.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section14" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section15" />contain a partial listing of some types of tanru, with examples.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter5-section3">
- <title>3. Three-part tanru grouping with
+ <title>Three-part tanru grouping with
<!-- ^^ tanru grouping: complex, 87; effect of tanru inversion on, 96; guheks compared with jeks, 350; three-part, 85; with bo, 87; with ke, 88; with ke and bo, 88 -->
<!-- ^^ tanru inversion, 95; definition, 95; effect on tanru grouping, 96; in complex tanru, 96; multiple, 96; rule for removing, 96; where allowed, 96 -->
<indexterm><primary>tanru inversion</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm><primary>tanru grouping</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bo</quote></title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>bo</cmavo>
<selmaho>BO</selmaho>
@@ -384,21 +384,21 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta klama bo jubme</jbo>
<en>That is-a goer–table.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is a legal Lojban bridi that means exactly the same thing as
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section2-example8" />, and is ambiguous in exactly the same ways. The cmavo
<quote>bo</quote>serves only to resolve grouping ambiguity: it says nothing about the more basic ambiguity present in all tanru.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter5-section4">
- <title>4. Complex tanru grouping</title>
+ <title>Complex tanru grouping</title>
<!-- ^^ tanru grouping: complex, 87; effect of tanru inversion on, 96; guheks compared with jeks, 350; three-part, 85; with bo, 87; with ke, 88; with ke and bo, 88 -->
<!-- ^^ tanru inversion, 95; definition, 95; effect on tanru grouping, 96; in complex tanru, 96; multiple, 96; rule for removing, 96; where allowed, 96 -->
<indexterm><primary>tanru inversion</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm><primary>tanru grouping</primary></indexterm>
<para>If one element of a tanru can be another tanru, why not both elements?</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-m5SD">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e4d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section4-example1" />
</title>
@@ -476,21 +476,21 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section3-example4" />, not
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section3-example5" />. This rule may seem peculiar at first, but one of its consequences is that
<quote>bo</quote>is never necessary between the first two elements of any of the complex tanru presented so far: all of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section4-example2" />through
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section4-example5" />could have
<quote>bo</quote>inserted between
<quote>melbi</quote>and
<quote>cmalu</quote>with no change in meaning.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter5-section5">
- <title>5. Complex tanru with
+ <title>Complex tanru with
<quote>ke</quote>and
<quote>ke'e</quote></title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ke</cmavo>
<selmaho>KE</selmaho>
<description>start grouping</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
@@ -599,21 +599,21 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section5-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta melbi ke cmalu nixli bo ckule [ke'e]</jbo>
<en>That is-a-pretty type-of ( little type-of ( girl type-of school ) ).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and in many other different forms as well.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter5-section6">
- <title>6. Logical connection within tanru</title>
+ <title>Logical connection within tanru</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
je JA tanru logical
<quote>and</quote>
ja JA tanru logical
<quote>or</quote>
joi JOI mixed mass
<quote>and</quote>
gu'e GUhA tanru forethought logical
<quote>and</quote>
@@ -973,21 +973,21 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>leaves
<quote>mlatu</quote>outside the
<quote>gu'e ... gi</quote>construction. The scope of the
<quote>gi</quote>arm extends only to a single brivla or to two or more brivla connected with
<quote>bo</quote>or
<quote>ke ... ke'e</quote>.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter5-section7">
- <title>7. Linked sumti:
+ <title>Linked sumti:
<quote>be–bei–be'o</quote></title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>be</cmavo>
<selmaho>BE</selmaho>
<description>linked sumti marker</description>
<!-- ^^ linked sumti: definition, 93; in tanru, 93 -->
<indexterm><primary>linked sumti</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
@@ -1232,21 +1232,21 @@
</example>
<para>requires either
<quote>ku</quote>or
<quote>be'o</quote>, and since there is only one occurrence of
<quote>be</quote>, the
<quote>be'o</quote>must match it, whereas it may be confusing which occurrence of
<quote>le</quote>the
<quote>ku</quote>terminates (in fact the second one is correct).</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter5-section8">
- <title>8. Inversion of tanru:
+ <title>Inversion of tanru:
<quote>co</quote></title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>co</cmavo>
<selmaho>CO</selmaho>
<description>tanru inversion marker</description>
<!-- ^^ tanru inversion, 95; definition, 95; effect on tanru grouping, 96; in complex tanru, 96; multiple, 96; rule for removing, 96; where allowed, 96 -->
<indexterm><primary>tanru inversion</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
@@ -1452,21 +1452,21 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section8-example13" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama be le zarci be'o co sutra</jbo>
<gloss>I am-a-goer (to the store) of-type quick.</gloss>
<en>I go to the store quickly.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter5-section9">
- <title>9. Other kinds of simple selbri</title>
+ <title>Other kinds of simple selbri</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>go'i</cmavo>
<selmaho>GOhA</selmaho>
<description>repeats the previous bridi</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>du</cmavo>
<selmaho>GOhA</selmaho>
@@ -1640,21 +1640,21 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti zdile kumfa</jbo>
<en>This is-an-amuser room.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which suggests the meaning
<quote>a room that amuses someone</quote>.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter5-section10">
- <title>10. selbri based on sumti:
+ <title>selbri based on sumti:
<quote>me</quote></title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
me ME changes sumti to simple selbri
me'u MEhU terminator for
<quote>me</quote>
</programlisting>
<para>A sumti can be made into a simple selbri by preceding it with
<quote>me</quote>(of selma'o ME) and following it with the elidable terminator
<quote>me'u</quote>(of selma'o MEhU). This makes a selbri with the place structure</para>
@@ -1827,21 +1827,21 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>requires either
<quote>ku</quote>or
<quote>me'u</quote>to be explicit, and (as with
<quote>be'o</quote>in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section7" />) the
<quote>me'u</quote>leaves no doubt which cmavo it is paired with.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter5-section11">
- <title>11. Conversion of simple selbri</title>
+ <title>Conversion of simple selbri</title>
<para>Conversion is the process of changing a selbri so that its places appear in a different order. This is not the same as labeling the sumti with the cmavo of FA, as mentioned in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section7" />, and then rearranging the order in which the sumti are spoken or written. Conversion transforms the selbri into a distinct, though closely related, selbri with renumbered places.</para>
<para>In Lojban, conversion is accomplished by placing a cmavo of selma'o SE before the selbri:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-29Gu">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e11d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section11-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi prami do</jbo>
@@ -1929,21 +1929,21 @@
<jbo>la djan. cu cadzu se klama la .alis</jbo>
<en>John walkingly is-gone-to by Alice</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>suggests that Alice is going to John, who is a moving target.</para>
<para>There is an alternative type of conversion, using the cmavo
<quote>jai</quote>of selma'o JAI optionally followed by a modal or tense construction. Grammatically, such a combination behaves exactly like conversion using SE. More details can be found in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9" />.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter5-section12">
- <title>12. Scalar negation of selbri</title>
+ <title>Scalar negation of selbri</title>
<para>Negation is too large and complex a topic to explain fully in this chapter; see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15" />. In brief, there are two main types of negation in Lojban. This section is concerned with so-called
<quote>scalar negation</quote>, which is used to state that a true relation between the sumti is something other than what the selbri specifies. Scalar negation is expressed by cmavo of selma'o NAhE:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-4oxH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e12d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section12-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .alis. cu na'e ke cadzu klama [ke'e] le zarci</jbo>
@@ -2107,21 +2107,21 @@
<quote>arm-type goer</quote>might be. Furthermore, since the x3 place has been occupied by the linked sumti, the
<!-- ^^ linked sumti: definition, 93; in tanru, 93 -->
<indexterm><primary>linked sumti</primary></indexterm>
<quote>le zarci</quote>following the selbri falls into the nonexistent x4 place of
<quote>cadzu</quote>. As a result, the whole example, though grammatical, is complete nonsense. (The bracketed Lojban words appear where a fluent Lojbanist would understand them to be implied.)</para>
<para>Finally, it is also possible to place
<quote>na'e</quote>before a
<quote>gu'e ... gi</quote>logically connected tanru construction. The meaning of this usage has not yet been firmly established.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter5-section13">
- <title>13. Tenses and bridi negation</title>
+ <title>Tenses and bridi negation</title>
<para>A bridi can have cmavo associated with it which specify the time, place, or mode of action. For example, in</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-uz13">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e13d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section13-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] go to-the market.</gloss>
<en>I went to the market.</en>
@@ -2200,21 +2200,21 @@
<gloss>went to the market.</gloss>
<gloss>I didn't not go to the market.</gloss>
<en>I went to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Tense, modal, and negation cmavo can appear only at the beginning of the selbri. They cannot be embedded within it.</para>
<!-- ^^ negation cmavo: position relative to selbri, 104 -->
<indexterm><primary>negation cmavo</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter5-section14">
- <title>14. Some types of asymmetrical tanru</title>
+ <title>Some types of asymmetrical tanru</title>
<!-- ^^ asymmetrical tanru, 104; definition, 104 -->
<indexterm><primary>asymmetrical tanru</primary></indexterm>
<para>This section and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section15" />contain some example tanru classified into groups based on the type of relationship between the modifying seltau and the modified tertau. All the examples are paralleled by compounds actually observed in various natural languages. In the tables which follow, each group is preceded by a brief explanation of the relationship. The tables themselves contain a tanru, a literal gloss, an indication of the languages which exhibit a compound analogous to this tanru, and (for those tanru with no English parallel) a translation.</para>
<para>Here are the 3-letter abbreviations used for the various languages (it is presumed to be obvious whether a compound is found in English or not, so English is not explicitly noted):</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
Aba = Abazin Kaz = Kazakh
Chi = Chinese Kor = Korean
<!-- ^^ Korean: example, 64 -->
<indexterm><primary>Korean</primary></indexterm>
@@ -2543,21 +2543,21 @@
<para>It is clear that
<quote>tooth</quote>is being specified, and that
<quote>milk</quote>and
<quote>eye</quote>act as modifiers. However, the relationship between
<quote>ladru</quote>and
<quote>denci</quote>is something like
<quote>tooth which one has when one is drinking milk from one's mother</quote>, a relationship certainly present nowhere except in this particular concept. As for
<quote>kanla denci</quote>, the relationship is not only not present on the surface, it is hardly possible to formulate it at all.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter5-section15">
- <title>15. Some types of symmetrical tanru</title>
+ <title>Some types of symmetrical tanru</title>
<!-- ^^ symmetrical tanru, 111 -->
<indexterm><primary>symmetrical tanru</primary></indexterm>
<para>This section deals with symmetrical tanru, where order is not important. Many of these tanru can be expressed with a logical or non-logical connective between the components.</para>
<!-- ^^ symmetrical tanru, 111 -->
<indexterm><primary>symmetrical tanru</primary></indexterm>
<para>The tanru may refer to things which are correctly specified by both tanru components. Some of these instances may also be seen as asymmetrical tanru where the seltau specifies a material. The connective
<!-- ^^ asymmetrical tanru, 104; definition, 104 -->
<indexterm><primary>asymmetrical tanru</primary></indexterm>
<quote>je</quote>is appropriate:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
@@ -2622,21 +2622,21 @@
prenu so'imei people multitude (Mon = masses)
djacu dertu water earth (Chi = climate)
sudysrasu = dry-grass
so'imei = manysome
<!-- ^^ manysome: example, 447 -->
<indexterm><primary>manysome</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter5-section16">
- <title>16.
+ <title>
<quote>Pretty little girls' school</quote>: forty ways to say it</title>
<para>The following examples show every possible grouping arrangement of
<quote>melbi cmalu nixli ckule</quote>using
<quote>bo</quote>or
<quote>ke ... ke'e</quote>for grouping and
<quote>je</quote>or
<quote>jebo</quote>for logical connection. Most of these are definitely not plausible interpretations of the English phrase
<quote>pretty little girls' school</quote>, especially those which describe something which is both a girl and a school.</para>
<!-- ^^ pretty little girls' school: forty ways, examples, 112 -->
<indexterm><primary>pretty little girls' school</primary></indexterm>
diff --git a/todocbook/6.xml b/todocbook/6.xml
index 9fc4547..3e723f9 100644
--- a/todocbook/6.xml
+++ b/todocbook/6.xml
@@ -1,14 +1,14 @@
<chapter xml:id="cll_chapter6">
<title>Chapter 6 To Speak Of Many Things: The Lojban sumti</title>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter6-section1">
- <title>1. The five kinds of simple sumti</title>
+ <title>The five kinds of simple sumti</title>
<!-- ^^ simple sumti, 119 -->
<indexterm><primary>simple sumti</primary></indexterm>
<para>If you understand anything about Lojban, you know what a sumti is by now, right? An argument, one of those things that fills the places of simple Lojban sentences like:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-VKU6">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e1d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section1-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci</jbo>
@@ -116,21 +116,21 @@
<quote>ti</quote>, a pro-sumti; and
<quote>li ci</quote>, a number.</para>
<para>Most of this chapter is about descriptions, as they have the most complicated syntax and usage. Some attention is also given to names, which are closely interwoven with descriptions. Pro-sumti, numbers, and quotations are described in more detail in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7" />,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18" />, and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19" />respectively, so this chapter only gives summaries of their forms and uses. See
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section13" />through
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section15" />for these summaries.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter6-section2">
- <title>2. The three basic description types</title>
+ <title>The three basic description types</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>le</cmavo>
<selmaho>LE</selmaho>
<description>the, the one(s) described as</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>lo</cmavo>
<selmaho>LE</selmaho>
@@ -371,21 +371,21 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8" />, and in the case of a description immediately preceding the selbri. In this latter case, using an explicit
<quote>cu</quote>before the selbri makes the
<quote>ku</quote>unnecessary. There are also a few other uses of
<quote>ku</quote>: in the compound negator
<quote>naku</quote>(discussed in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15" />) and to terminate place-structure, tense, and modal tags that do not have associated sumti (discussed in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10" />).</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter6-section3">
- <title>3. Individuals and masses</title>
+ <title>Individuals and masses</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>lei</cmavo>
<selmaho>LE</selmaho>
<description>the mass I describe as</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>loi</cmavo>
<selmaho>LE</selmaho>
@@ -538,21 +538,21 @@
</example>
<para>in a context where
<quote>la cribe</quote>would be understood as plural, would mean that either Tom Bear or Fred Bear (to make up some names) might have written the book, or that Tom and Fred might have written it as collaborators. Using
<!-- ^^ plural: Lojban contrasted with English in necessity of marking, 120; Lojban equivalent of, 443; meaning of le with, 123 -->
<indexterm><primary>plural</primary></indexterm>
<quote>la</quote>instead of
<quote>lai</quote>in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section3-example6" />would give the implication that each of Tom and Fred, considered individually, had written it.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter6-section4">
- <title>4. Masses and sets</title>
+ <title>Masses and sets</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>le'i</cmavo>
<selmaho>LE</selmaho>
<description>the set described as</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>lo'i</cmavo>
<selmaho>LE</selmaho>
@@ -628,21 +628,21 @@
<indexterm><primary>typical Lojban user</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that the x2 place has been omitted; I am not specifying in exactly which way I am typical - whether in language knowledge, or age, or interests, or something else. If
<quote>lo'i</quote>were changed to
<quote>lo</quote>in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section4-example4" />, the meaning would be something like
<quote>I am typical of some Lojban user</quote>, which is nonsense.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter6-section5">
- <title>5. Descriptors for typical objects</title>
+ <title>Descriptors for typical objects</title>
<!-- ^^ typical objects: and instantiation, 126; determining characteristics of, 126 -->
<indexterm><primary>typical objects</primary></indexterm>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>lo'e</cmavo>
<selmaho>LE</selmaho>
<description>the typical</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
@@ -732,21 +732,21 @@
<para>is probably true to an American, but might be false (not the stereotype) to someone living in India or Russia.</para>
<para>Note that there is no naming equivalent of
<quote>lo'e</quote>and
<quote>le'e</quote>, because there is no need, as a rule, for a
<quote>typical George</quote>or a
<quote>typical Smith</quote>. People or things who share a common name do not, in general, have any other common attributes worth mentioning.</para>
<!-- ^^ typical Smith: example, 127 -->
<indexterm><primary>typical Smith</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter6-section6">
- <title>6. Quantified sumti</title>
+ <title>Quantified sumti</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ro</cmavo>
<selmaho>PA</selmaho>
<description>all of/each of</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>su'o</cmavo>
<selmaho>PA</selmaho>
@@ -900,21 +900,21 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section6-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cusku re lu do cadzu le bisli li'u</jbo>
<en>I express two-of [quote] you walk-on the ice [unquote].</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means that I say the sentence exactly twice, neither more nor less.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter6-section7">
- <title>7. Quantified descriptions</title>
+ <title>Quantified descriptions</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>piro</cmavo>
<selmaho>PA</selmaho>
<description>the whole of</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>Like other sumti, descriptions can be quantified. When a quantifier appears before a description, it has the same meaning as one appearing before a non-description sumti: it specifies how many things, of all those referred to by the description, are being talked about in this particular bridi. Suppose that context tells us that
<quote>le gerku</quote>refers to three dogs. Then we can say that exactly two of them are white as follows:</para>
@@ -1152,21 +1152,21 @@
<para>Nevertheless, inner quantifiers are permitted on
<quote>lo</quote>descriptors for consistency's sake, and may occasionally be useful.</para>
<para>Note that the inner quantifier of
<quote>le</quote>, even when exact, need not be truthful:
<quote>le ci nanmu</quote>means
<quote>what I describe as three men</quote>, not
<quote>three of what I describe as men</quote>. This follows from the rule that what is described by a
<quote>le</quote>description represents the speaker's viewpoint rather than the objective way things are.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter6-section8">
- <title>8. Indefinite descriptions</title>
+ <title>Indefinite descriptions</title>
<para>By a quirk of Lojban syntax, it is possible to omit the descriptor
<quote>lo</quote>, but never any other descriptor, from a description like that of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section7-example5" />; namely, one which has an explicit outer quantifier but no explicit inner quantifier. The following example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-EsVd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e8d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section8-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ci gerku [ku] cu blabi</jbo>
@@ -1201,21 +1201,21 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section8-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ponse su'o ci lo cutci</jbo>
<gloss>I possess at-least three things-which-really-are shoes</gloss>
<en>I own three (or more) shoes.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter6-section9">
- <title>9. sumti-based descriptions</title>
+ <title>sumti-based descriptions</title>
<para>As stated in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section2" />, most descriptions consist of just a descriptor and a selbri. (In this chapter, the selbri have always been single gismu, but of course any selbri, however complex, can be employed in a description. The syntax and semantics of selbri are explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5" />.) In the intervening sections, inner and outer quantifiers have been added to the syntax. Now it is time to discuss a description of a radically different kind: the sumti-based description.</para>
<!-- ^^ sumti-based description: definition, 132; inner quantifier on, 132; outer quantifier on, 132 -->
<indexterm><primary>sumti-based description</primary></indexterm>
<para>A sumti-based description has a sumti where the selbri would normally be, and the inner quantifier is required - it cannot be implicit. An outer quantifier is permitted but not required.</para>
<!-- ^^ sumti-based description: definition, 132; inner quantifier on, 132; outer quantifier on, 132 -->
<indexterm><primary>sumti-based description</primary></indexterm>
<para>A full theory of sumti-based descriptions has yet to be worked out. One common case, however, is well understood. Compare the following:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-aJEh">
@@ -1268,21 +1268,21 @@
<indexterm><primary>three bears</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In each case,
<quote>le ci cribe</quote>restricts the bears (or alleged bears) being talked of to some group of three which the speaker has in mind.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section9-example3" />says that two of them (which two is not stated) are brown.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section9-example4" />says that a specific pair of them are brown.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section9-example5" />says that of a specific pair chosen from the original three, one or the other of that pair is brown.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter6-section10">
- <title>10. sumti qualifiers</title>
+ <title>sumti qualifiers</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>la'e</cmavo>
<selmaho>LAhE</selmaho>
<description>something referred to by</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>lu'e</cmavo>
<selmaho>LAhE</selmaho>
@@ -1549,21 +1549,21 @@
<para>(In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section10-example11" />, the sumti
<quote>ra</quote>refers to some previously mentioned sumti other than that referred to by
<quote>ri</quote>. We cannot use
<quote>ri</quote>here, because it would signify
<quote>la djein.</quote>, that being the most recent sumti available to
<quote>ri</quote>. See more detailed explanations in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7" />.)</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter6-section11">
- <title>11. The syntax of vocative phrases</title>
+ <title>The syntax of vocative phrases</title>
<para>Vocative phrases are not sumti, but are explained in this chapter because their syntax is very similar to that of sumti. Grammatically, a vocative phrase is one of the so-called
<!-- ^^ vocative phrase: as a free modifier, 135; effect of position on meaning, 137; elidable terminator for, 137; explicit quantifiers prohibited on, 136; forms of, 136; implicit descriptor on, 136; implicit quantifiers on, 136; purpose of, 136; relative clauses on, 184; with complete sumti, 136; with sumti without descriptor, 136 -->
<indexterm><primary>vocative phrase</primary></indexterm>
<quote>free modifiers</quote>of Lojban, along with subscripts, parentheses, and various other constructs explained in
<!-- ^^ free modifiers: effects on elidability of terminators, 450 -->
<indexterm><primary>free modifiers</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19" />. They can be placed after many, but not all, constructions of the grammar: in general, after any elidable terminator (which, however, must not then be elided!), at the beginnings and ends of sentences, and in many other places.</para>
<para>The purpose of a vocative phrase is to indicate who is being addressed, or to indicate to that person that he or she ought to be listening. A vocative phrase begins with a cmavo of selma'o COI or DOI, all of which are explained in more detail in
<!-- ^^ vocative phrase: as a free modifier, 135; effect of position on meaning, 137; elidable terminator for, 137; explicit quantifiers prohibited on, 136; forms of, 136; implicit descriptor on, 136; implicit quantifiers on, 136; purpose of, 136; relative clauses on, 184; with complete sumti, 136; with sumti without descriptor, 136 -->
<indexterm><primary>vocative phrase</primary></indexterm>
@@ -1703,21 +1703,21 @@
<jbo>doi djan. ko klama mi</jbo>
<en>John, come to me!</en>
<jbo>ko klama mi doi djan.</jbo>
<en>Come to me, John!</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>As usual for this chapter, the full syntax of vocative phrases has not been explained: relative clauses, discussed in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8" />, make for more possibilities.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter6-section12">
- <title>12. Lojban names</title>
+ <title>Lojban names</title>
<para>Names have been used freely as sumti throughout this chapter without too much explanation. The time for the explanation has now come.</para>
<para>First of all, there are two different kinds of things usually called
<quote>names</quote>when talking about Lojban. The naming predicates of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section2" />are just ordinary predicates which are being used in a special sense. In addition, though, there is a class of Lojban words which are used only to name things: these can be recognized by the fact that they end in a consonant followed by a pause. Some examples:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-u0zY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e12d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section12-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1878,21 +1878,21 @@
<quote>s</quote>or
<quote>n</quote>when borrowing vowel-final names from English; speakers of other languages may wish to use other consonant endings.</para>
<!-- ^^ borrowing: four stages of, 61 -->
<indexterm><primary>borrowing</primary></indexterm>
<para>The implicit quantifier for name sumti of the form
<quote>la</quote>followed by a name is
<quote>su'o</quote>, just as for
<quote>la</quote>followed by a selbri.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter6-section13">
- <title>13. Pro-sumti summary</title>
+ <title>Pro-sumti summary</title>
<para>The Lojban pro-sumti are the cmavo of selma'o KOhA. They fall into several classes: personal, definable, quantificational, reflexive, back-counting, indefinite, demonstrative, metalinguistic, relative, question. More details are given in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7" />; this section mostly duplicates information found there, but adds material on the implicit quantifier of each pro-sumti.</para>
<para>The following examples illustrate each of the classes. Unless otherwise noted below, the implicit quantification for pro-sumti is
<quote>ro</quote>(all). In the case of pro-sumti which refer to other sumti, the
<quote>ro</quote>signifies
<quote>all of those referred to by the other sumti</quote>: thus it is possible to restrict, but not to extend, the quantification of the other sumti.</para>
<para>Personal pro-sumti (
<quote>mi</quote>,
<quote>do</quote>,
<quote>mi'o</quote>,
@@ -2123,21 +2123,21 @@
</example>
<para>The implicit quantifier for the question pro-sumti is
<!-- ^^ question pro-sumti, 140; implicit quantifier for, 140 -->
<indexterm><primary>question pro-sumti</primary></indexterm>
<quote>su'o</quote>(at least one), because the listener is only being asked to supply a single answer, not all correct answers.</para>
<para>In addition, sequences of lerfu words (of selma'o BY and related selma'o) can also be used as definable pro-sumti.</para>
<!-- ^^ definable pro-sumti, 139; sequences of lerfu words as, 140 -->
<indexterm><primary>definable pro-sumti</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter6-section14">
- <title>14. Quotation summary</title>
+ <title>Quotation summary</title>
<para>There are four kinds of quotation in Lojban: text quotation, words quotation, single-word quotation, non-Lojban quotation. More information is provided in
<!-- ^^ word quotation: as morphologically valid, 141; internal grammar of, 141 -->
<indexterm><primary>word quotation</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ text quotation: as internally grammatical, 141; syntax of, 141 -->
<indexterm><primary>text quotation</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ single-word quotation, 141 -->
<!-- ^^ word quotation: as morphologically valid, 141; internal grammar of, 141 -->
<indexterm><primary>word quotation</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm><primary>single-word quotation</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ word quotation: as morphologically valid, 141; internal grammar of, 141 -->
@@ -2200,21 +2200,21 @@
<jbo>mi cusku zoi kuot. I'm John .kuot</jbo>
<en>I say
<quote>I'm John</quote>.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The implicit quantifier for all types of quotation is
<quote>su'o</quote>(at least one), because quotations are analogous to
<quote>lo</quote>descriptions: they refer to things which actually are words or sequences of words.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter6-section15">
- <title>15. Number summary</title>
+ <title>Number summary</title>
<para>The sumti which refer to numbers consist of the cmavo
<quote>li</quote>(of selma'o LI) followed by an arbitrary Lojban mekso, or mathematical expression. This can be anything from a simple number up to the most complicated combination of numbers, variables, operators, and so on. Much more information on numbers is given in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18" />. Here are a few examples of increasing complexity:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-w8u8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e15d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section15-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c6e15d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section15-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c6e15d3" />
diff --git a/todocbook/7.xml b/todocbook/7.xml
index 815df9e..4e1f081 100644
--- a/todocbook/7.xml
+++ b/todocbook/7.xml
@@ -1,14 +1,14 @@
<chapter xml:id="cll_chapter7">
<title>Chapter 7 Brevity Is The Soul Of Language: Pro-sumti And Pro-bridi</title>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter7-section1">
- <title>1. What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?</title>
+ <title>What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?</title>
<para>Speakers of Lojban, like speakers of other languages, require mechanisms of abbreviation. If every time we referred to something, we had to express a complete description of it, life would be too short to say what we have to say. In English, we have words called
<quote>pronouns</quote>which allow us to replace nouns or noun phrases with shorter terms. An English with no pronouns might look something like this:</para>
<!-- ^^ nouns: brivla as Lojban equivalents, 52 -->
<indexterm><primary>nouns</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-KeL4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e1d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section1-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -67,21 +67,21 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>John loves himself</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>the antecedent of
<quote>himself</quote>is
<quote>John</quote>; not the person, but a piece of text (a name, in this case). John, the person, would be the referent of
<quote>himself</quote>. Not all pro-sumti or pro-bridi have antecedents, but all of them have referents.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter7-section2">
- <title>2. Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series</title>
+ <title>Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi KOhA mi-series I, me
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
do KOhA mi-series you
mi'o KOhA mi-series you and I
mi'a KOhA mi-series I and others, we but not you
<!-- ^^ mi'a, 146 -->
<indexterm><primary>mi'a</primary></indexterm>
ma'a KOhA mi-series you and I and others
@@ -239,21 +239,21 @@
<gloss>Make
<quote>I see the person that loves you</quote>true!</gloss>
<gloss>Be such that the person who loves you is seen by me!</gloss>
<en>Show me the person who loves you!</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>As mentioned in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section1" />, some pro-sumti series have corresponding pro-bridi series. However, there is no equivalent of the mi-series among pro-bridi, since a person isn't a relationship.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter7-section3">
- <title>3. Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series</title>
+ <title>Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ti KOhA ti-series this here, a nearby object
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
ta KOhA ti-series that there, a medium-distant object
tu KOhA ti-series that yonder, a far-distant object
</programlisting>
<para>It is often useful to refer to things by pointing to them or by some related non-linguistic mechanism. In English, the words
<quote>this</quote>and
<quote>that</quote>serve this function among others:
@@ -329,21 +329,21 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti noi bloti</jbo>
<!-- ^^ ti noi: as adjective expression for this, 148 -->
<indexterm><primary>ti noi</primary></indexterm>
<en>this-thing which-incidentally is-a-boat</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>There are no demonstrative pro-bridi to correspond to the ti-series: you can't point to a relationship.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter7-section4">
- <title>4. Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series</title>
+ <title>Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
di'u KOhA di'u-series the previous utterance
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
de'u KOhA di'u-series an earlier utterance
<!-- ^^ de'u, 148 -->
<indexterm><primary>de'u</primary></indexterm>
da'u KOhA di'u-series a much earlier utterance
<!-- ^^ da'u, 148 -->
<indexterm><primary>da'u</primary></indexterm>
@@ -490,21 +490,21 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi prami la djein. .i mi nelci di'u</jbo>
<en>I love Jane. And I like the-last-utterance.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>says that the speaker likes one of his own sentences.</para>
<para>There are no pro-bridi corresponding to the di'u-series.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter7-section5">
- <title>5. Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series</title>
+ <title>Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series</title>
<para>The following cmavo and gismu are discussed in this section:</para>
<!-- ^^ cmavo and gismu: major, 53 -->
<indexterm><primary>cmavo and gismu</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ko'a KOhA ko'a-series it-1
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
ko'e KOhA ko'a-series it-2
ko'i KOhA ko'a-series it-3
ko'o KOhA ko'a-series it-4
ko'u KOhA ko'a-series it-5
@@ -730,21 +730,21 @@
<jbo>le ninmu goi la sam. cu klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>The woman also-known-as Sam goes to-the store.</gloss>
<en>The woman, whom I'll call Sam, goes to the store.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This usage does not imply that the woman's name is Sam, or even that the speaker usually calls the woman
<quote>Sam</quote>.
<quote>Sam</quote>is simply a name chosen, as if at random, for use in the current context only.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter7-section6">
- <title>6. Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series</title>
+ <title>Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ri KOhA ri-series (repeats last sumti)
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
ra KOhA ri-series (repeats previous sumti)
ru KOhA ri-series (repeats long-ago sumti)
go'i GOhA go'i-series (repeats last bridi)
go'a GOhA go'i-series (repeats previous bridi)
<!-- ^^ go'a, 154 -->
@@ -1194,21 +1194,21 @@
<gloss>Alice says [quote] I [repeat] [unquote].</gloss>
<gloss>John says,
<quote>I am going to the store.</quote></gloss>
<en>Alice says,
<quote>Me too.</quote></en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Of course, there is no problem with narrative material referring to something within a quotation: people who quote, unlike people who are quoted, are aware of what they are doing.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter7-section7">
- <title>7. Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series</title>
+ <title>Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series</title>
<!-- ^^ zo'e-series: compared with do'i as indefinite pro-sumti, 158 -->
<indexterm><primary>zo'e-series</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ co'e, 158, 164; as selbri place-holder, 158; rationale for word form, 158 -->
<indexterm><primary>co'e</primary></indexterm>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
zo'e KOhA zo'e-series the obvious value
<!-- ^^ zo'e-series: compared with do'i as indefinite pro-sumti, 158 -->
<indexterm><primary>zo'e-series</primary></indexterm>
zu'i KOhA zo'e-series the typical value
@@ -1388,21 +1388,21 @@
<quote>do'e</quote>of selma'o BAI (see
<!-- ^^ do'e, 197; compared with English of, 197 -->
<indexterm><primary>do'e</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9" />) also belongs to the same group of cmavo.</para>
<para>Note that
<quote>do'i</quote>, of the di'u-series, is also a kind of indefinite pro-sumti: it is indefinite in referent, but is restricted to referring only to an utterance.</para>
<!-- ^^ indefinite pro-sumti, 140, 157; implicit quantifier for, 140; stability of, 162 -->
<indexterm><primary>indefinite pro-sumti</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter7-section8">
- <title>8. Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series</title>
+ <title>Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series</title>
<!-- ^^ reciprocal pro-sumti, 158 -->
<indexterm><primary>reciprocal pro-sumti</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ reciprocal: expression of mathematical, 433 -->
<indexterm><primary>reciprocal</primary></indexterm>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
vo'a KOhA vo'a-series x1 of this bridi
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
vo'e KOhA vo'a-series x2 of this bridi
vo'i KOhA vo'a-series x3 of this bridi
@@ -1514,21 +1514,21 @@
<gloss>I runningly-go to-this [reciprocity] [x3 of this bridi] from-that</gloss>
<!-- ^^ reciprocity: expressing with soi, 159; expressing with vo'a-series pro-sumti and soi, 159; marking, 504 -->
<!-- ^^ vo'a-series pro-sumti: use in expressing reciprocity with soi, 159 -->
<indexterm><primary>vo'a-series pro-sumti</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm><primary>reciprocity</primary></indexterm>
<en>I runningly-go to this from that and vice versa.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter7-section9">
- <title>9. sumti and bridi questions:
+ <title>sumti and bridi questions:
<!-- ^^ bridi questions: quick-tour version, 23 -->
<indexterm><primary>bridi questions</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ma</quote>and
<quote>mo</quote></title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ma</cmavo>
<selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
<description>sumti question</description>
@@ -1623,21 +1623,21 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section9-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ma djuno ma</jbo>
<gloss>[What sumti] knows [what sumti]?</gloss>
<en>Who knows what?</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter7-section10">
- <title>10. Relativized pro-sumti:
+ <title>Relativized pro-sumti:
<quote>ke'a</quote></title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ke'a</cmavo>
<selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
<description>relativized sumti</description>
<!-- ^^ relativized sumti: definition, 169; in relative clauses within relative clauses, 184 -->
<indexterm><primary>relativized sumti</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
@@ -1682,21 +1682,21 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section10-example2" />, because the relativized sumti is not yet complete when the
<!-- ^^ relativized sumti: definition, 169; in relative clauses within relative clauses, 184 -->
<indexterm><primary>relativized sumti</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ke'a</quote>appears.</para>
<para>Note that
<quote>ke'a</quote>is used only with relative clauses, and not with other embedded bridi such as abstract descriptions. In the case of relative clauses within relative clauses,
<quote>ke'a</quote>may be subscripted to make the difference clear (see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8" />).</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter7-section11">
- <title>11. Abstraction focus pro-sumti:
+ <title>Abstraction focus pro-sumti:
<quote>ce'u</quote></title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ce'u</cmavo>
<selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
<description>abstraction focus</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>The cmavo
@@ -1733,21 +1733,21 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section11-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ka gleki ce'u</jbo>
<gloss>the property-of (being-happy about-X)</gloss>
<en>the property of being that which someone is happy about</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter7-section12">
- <title>12. Bound variable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the da-series and the bu'a-series</title>
+ <title>Bound variable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the da-series and the bu'a-series</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
da KOhA da-series something-1
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
de KOhA da-series something-2
di KOhA da-series something-3
bu'a GOhA bu'a-series some-predicate-1
bu'e GOhA bu'a-series some-predicate-2
<!-- ^^ bu'e, 409 -->
@@ -1765,21 +1765,21 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section12-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. cu lafti da poi grana ku'o gi'e desygau da</jbo>
<gloss>John raised something-1 which is-a-stick and shake-did something-1.</gloss>
<en>John picked up a stick and shook it.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter7-section13">
- <title>13. Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling</title>
+ <title>Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>da'o</cmavo>
<!-- ^^ da'o, 162, 466; for cancellation of pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignment, 162; syntax of, 162 -->
<indexterm><primary>da'o</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>DAhO</selmaho>
<description>cancel all pro-sumti/pro-bridi</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
@@ -1806,21 +1806,21 @@
<indexterm><primary>da'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>da'o</quote>is when entering a conversation, to indicate that one's pro-sumti assignments have nothing to do with any assignments already made by other participants in the conversation.</para>
<!-- ^^ da'o, 162, 466; for cancellation of pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignment, 162; syntax of, 162 -->
<indexterm><primary>da'o</primary></indexterm>
<para>In addition, the cmavo
<quote>ni'o</quote>and
<quote>no'i</quote>of selma'o NIhO, which are used primarily to indicate shifts in topic, may also have the effect of canceling pro-sumti and pro-bridi assignments, or of reinstating ones formerly in effect. More explanations of NIhO can be found in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19" />.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter7-section14">
- <title>14. The identity predicate: du</title>
+ <title>The identity predicate: du</title>
<!-- ^^ identity predicate, 162 -->
<indexterm><primary>identity predicate</primary></indexterm>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>du</cmavo>
<selmaho>GOhA</selmaho>
<description>identity</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
@@ -1870,21 +1870,21 @@
<quote>du</quote>historically is derived from
<quote>dunli</quote>, but
<!-- ^^ dunli: contrasted with du, 163, 439 -->
<indexterm><primary>dunli</primary></indexterm>
<quote>dunli</quote>has a third place which
<!-- ^^ dunli: contrasted with du, 163, 439 -->
<indexterm><primary>dunli</primary></indexterm>
<quote>du</quote>lacks: the standard of equality.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter7-section15">
- <title>15. lujvo based on pro-sumti</title>
+ <title>lujvo based on pro-sumti</title>
<para>There exist rafsi allocated to a few cmavo of selma'o KOhA, but they are rarely used. (See
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section16" />for a complete list.) The obvious way to use them is as internal sumti, filling in an appropriate place of the gismu or lujvo to which they are attached; as such, they usually stand as the first rafsi in their lujvo.</para>
<para>Thus
<quote>donta'a</quote>, meaning
<quote>you-talk</quote>, would be interpreted as
<!-- ^^ you-talk: example, 163 -->
<indexterm><primary>you-talk</primary></indexterm>
<quote>tavla be do</quote>, and would have the place structure</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-unmV">
<title>
@@ -1956,21 +1956,21 @@
<indexterm><primary>beverage</primary></indexterm>
<para>The pro-bridi
<quote>co'e</quote>,
<!-- ^^ co'e, 158, 164; as selbri place-holder, 158; rationale for word form, 158 -->
<indexterm><primary>co'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>du</quote>, and
<quote>bu'a</quote>also have rafsi, which can be used just as if they were gismu. The resulting lujvo have (except for
<quote>du</quote>-based lujvo) highly context-dependent meanings.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter7-section16">
- <title>16. KOhA cmavo by series</title>
+ <title>KOhA cmavo by series</title>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi-series:
mi I (rafsi:
<quote>mib</quote>)
do you (rafsi:
<quote>don</quote> and
<quote>doi</quote>)
mi'o you and I
mi'a I and others, we but not you
<!-- ^^ mi'a, 146 -->
@@ -2064,21 +2064,21 @@
others:
ke'a relativized sumti
<!-- ^^ relativized sumti: definition, 169; in relative clauses within relative clauses, 184 -->
<indexterm><primary>relativized sumti</primary></indexterm>
ma sumti question
ce'u abstraction focus
</programlisting>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter7-section17">
- <title>17. GOhA and other pro-bridi by series</title>
+ <title>GOhA and other pro-bridi by series</title>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
broda-series (not GOhA):
broda is-1; 1st assignable pro-bridi
brode is-2; 2nd assignable pro-bridi
brodi is-3; 3rd assignable pro-bridi
brodo is-4; 4th assignable pro-bridi
brodu is-5; 5th assignable pro-bridi
go'i-series:
go'i (repeats the last bridi)
@@ -2119,21 +2119,21 @@
<quote>co'e</quote>)
<!-- ^^ co'e, 158, 164; as selbri place-holder, 158; rationale for word form, 158 -->
<indexterm><primary>co'e</primary></indexterm>
mo bridi question
du identity: x1 is identical to x2, x3 ... (rafsi:
<quote>dub</quote>/
<quote>du'o</quote>)
</programlisting>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter7-section18">
- <title>18. Other cmavo discussed in this chapter</title>
+ <title>Other cmavo discussed in this chapter</title>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>goi</cmavo>
<selmaho>GOI</selmaho>
<description>pro-sumti assignment (ko'a-series)</description>
<!-- ^^ pro-sumti assignment: explicit cancellation of with da'o, 162; no'i effect on, 162; stability of, 162 -->
<indexterm><primary>pro-sumti assignment</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>cei</cmavo>
diff --git a/todocbook/8.xml b/todocbook/8.xml
index 830d902..df74b5c 100644
--- a/todocbook/8.xml
+++ b/todocbook/8.xml
@@ -1,14 +1,14 @@
<chapter xml:id="cll_chapter8">
<title>Chapter 8 Relative Clauses, Which Make sumti Even More Complicated</title>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter8-section1">
- <title>1. What are you pointing at?</title>
+ <title>What are you pointing at?</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>poi</cmavo>
<selmaho>NOI</selmaho>
<description>restrictive relative clause introducer</description>
<!-- ^^ restrictive relative clause: definition, 171 -->
<indexterm><primary>restrictive relative clause</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
@@ -184,21 +184,21 @@
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section1-example10" />the relative clause is
<quote>who was going to the store</quote>, and in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section1-example11" />it is
<quote>that the school was located in</quote>. Sometimes
<quote>who</quote>,
<quote>which</quote>, and
<quote>that</quote>are used in literal translations in this chapter in order to make them read more smoothly.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter8-section2">
- <title>2. Incidental relative clauses</title>
+ <title>Incidental relative clauses</title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>noi</cmavo>
<selmaho>NOI</selmaho>
<description>incidental relative clause introducer</description>
<!-- ^^ incidental relative clause: as a parenthetical device, 171; definition, 171 -->
<indexterm><primary>incidental relative clause</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
@@ -309,21 +309,21 @@
</example>
<para>So a restrictive relative clause attached to a description can often mean the same as a description involving a tanru. However,
<!-- ^^ restrictive relative clause: definition, 171 -->
<indexterm><primary>restrictive relative clause</primary></indexterm>
<quote>blabi karce</quote>, like all tanru, is somewhat vague: in principle, it might refer to a car which carries white things, or even express some more complicated concept involving whiteness and car-ness; the restrictive relative clause of
<!-- ^^ restrictive relative clause: definition, 171 -->
<indexterm><primary>restrictive relative clause</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section2-example5" />can only refer to a car which is white, not to any more complex or extended concept.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter8-section3">
- <title>3. Relative phrases</title>
+ <title>Relative phrases</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>pe</cmavo>
<selmaho>GOI</selmaho>
<description>restrictive association</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>po</cmavo>
<selmaho>GOI</selmaho>
@@ -646,21 +646,21 @@
</example>
<para>is very natural. Of course, if the man is in fact putting his hands into another's pockets, or another's hands into his pockets, the fact can be specified.</para>
<para>Finally, the elidable terminator for GOI cmavo is
<quote>ge'u</quote>of selma'o GEhU; it is almost never required. However, if a logical connective immediately follows a sumti modified by a relative phrase, then an explicit
<quote>ge'u</quote>is needed to allow the connective to affect the relativized sumti rather than the sumti of the relative phrase. (What about the cmavo after which selma'o GOI is named? It is discussed in
<!-- ^^ relativized sumti: definition, 169; in relative clauses within relative clauses, 184 -->
<indexterm><primary>relativized sumti</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7" />, as it is not semantically akin to the other kinds of relative phrases, although the syntax is the same.)</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter8-section4">
- <title>4. Multiple relative clauses:
+ <title>Multiple relative clauses:
<quote>zi'e</quote></title>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>zi'e</cmavo>
<selmaho>ZIhE</selmaho>
<description>relative clause joiner</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>Sometimes it is necessary or useful to attach more than one relative clause to a sumti. This is made possible in Lojban by the cmavo
<quote>zi'e</quote>(of selma'o ZIhE), which is used to join one or more relative clauses together into a single unit, thus making them apply to the same sumti. For example:</para>
@@ -751,21 +751,21 @@
<indexterm><primary>beans</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>and which are-upon my plate</gloss>
<gloss>and which-incidentally you gave IT to-me.</gloss>
<en>I'll eat my beans that are on my plate, the ones you gave me.</en>
<!-- ^^ beans: example, 176 -->
<indexterm><primary>beans</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter8-section5">
- <title>5. Non-veridical relative clauses:
+ <title>Non-veridical relative clauses:
<quote>voi</quote></title>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>voi</cmavo>
<selmaho>NOI</selmaho>
<description>non-veridical relative clause introducer</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>There is another member of selma'o NOI which serves to introduce a third kind of relative clause:
<quote>voi</quote>. Relative clauses introduced by
@@ -817,21 +817,21 @@
<jbo>ti voi nanmu cu ninmu</jbo>
<en>This-thing which-I-describe-as a-man is-a-woman.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>mean essentially the same thing (except that
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section5-example4" />involves pointing thanks to the use of
<quote>ti</quote>, whereas
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section5-example3" />doesn't), and neither one is self-contradictory: it is perfectly all right to describe something as a man (although perhaps confusing to the listener) even if it actually is a woman.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter8-section6">
- <title>6. Relative clauses and descriptors</title>
+ <title>Relative clauses and descriptors</title>
<para>So far, this chapter has described the various kinds of relative clauses (including relative phrases). The list is now complete, and the rest of the chapter will be concerned with the syntax of sumti that include relative clauses. So far, all relative clauses have appeared directly after the sumti to which they are attached. This is the most common position (and originally the only one), but a variety of other placements are also possible which produce a variety of semantic effects.</para>
<para>There are actually three places where a relative clause can be attached to a description sumti: after the descriptor (
<quote>le</quote>,
<quote>lo</quote>, or whatever), after the embedded selbri but before the elidable terminator (which is
<quote>ku</quote>), and after the
<quote>ku</quote>. The relative clauses attached to descriptors that we have seen have occupied the second position. Thus
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section5-example1" />, if written out with all elidable terminators, would appear as:</para>
<!-- ^^ elidable terminators: list, 486 -->
<indexterm><primary>elidable terminators</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-UmLX">
@@ -1035,21 +1035,21 @@
<!-- ^^ restrictive relative clause: definition, 171 -->
<indexterm><primary>restrictive relative clause</primary></indexterm>
<!-- ^^ indefinite sumti: as implicit quantification, 406; compared to sumti with lo, 399; meaning when multiple in sentence, 398; multiple in sentence, 398 -->
<!-- ^^ sumti with lo: compared to indefinite sumti, 399 -->
<indexterm><primary>sumti with lo</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm><primary>indefinite sumti</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ku</quote>.) Use an explicit
<quote>lo</quote>instead.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter8-section7">
- <title>7. Possessive sumti</title>
+ <title>Possessive sumti</title>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section2-example4" />through
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section2-example6" />, the sumti
<quote>le mi karce</quote>appears, glossed as
<quote>my car</quote>. Although it might not seem so, this sumti actually contains a relative phrase. When a sumti appears between a descriptor and its description selbri, it is actually a
<quote>pe</quote>relative phrase. So</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-pALv">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e7d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section7-example1" />
@@ -1168,21 +1168,21 @@
</example>
<para>Note that
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section7-example6" />uses
<quote>vau</quote>rather than
<quote>ku'o</quote>at the end of the relative clause: this terminator ends every simple bridi and is almost always elidable; in this case, though, it is a syllable shorter than the equally valid alternative,
<!-- ^^ simple bridi: terminator for, 506 -->
<indexterm><primary>simple bridi</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ku'o</quote>.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter8-section8">
- <title>8. Relative clauses and complex sumti:
+ <title>Relative clauses and complex sumti:
<quote>vu'o</quote></title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>vu'o</cmavo>
<selmaho>VUhO</selmaho>
<description>relative clause attacher</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>Normally, relative clauses attach only to simple sumti or parts of sumti: pro-sumti, names and descriptions, pure numbers, and quotations. An example of a relative clause attached to a pure number is:</para>
@@ -1346,21 +1346,21 @@
<jbo>la frank. .e la djordj. vu'o noi pu bajra cu klama le zdani</jbo>
<gloss>(Frank and George) who [past] run go to-the house.</gloss>
<en>Frank and George, who ran, go to the house.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In spoken English, tone of voice would serve; in written English, one or both sentences would need rewriting.</para>
<!-- ^^ tone of voice, 297 -->
<indexterm><primary>tone of voice</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter8-section9">
- <title>9. Relative clauses in vocative phrases</title>
+ <title>Relative clauses in vocative phrases</title>
<para>Vocative phrases are explained in more detail in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6" />. Briefly, they are a method of indicating who a sentence or discourse is addressed to: of identifying the intended listener. They take three general forms, all beginning with cmavo from selma'o COI or DOI (called
<quote>vocative words</quote>; there can be one or many), followed by either a name, a selbri, or a sumti. Here are three examples:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-4KpX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e9d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section9-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c8e9d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section9-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c8e9d3" />
@@ -1432,21 +1432,21 @@
<en>Goodbye, horse where I am!</en>
<jbo>co'o xirma poi mi zvati</jbo>
<en>Goodbye, horse such-that-(I am-at-it).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section9-example6" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section9-example7" />mean the same thing. In fact, relative clauses can appear in both places.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter8-section10">
- <title>10. Relative clauses within relative clauses</title>
+ <title>Relative clauses within relative clauses</title>
<para>For the most part, these are straightforward and uncomplicated: a sumti that is part of a relative clause bridi may itself be modified by a relative clause:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-TGiu">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e10d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section10-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le prenu poi zvati le kumfa poi blanu cu masno</jbo>
<en>The person who is-in the room which is-blue is-slow.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1490,21 +1490,21 @@
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section10-example3" />is more verbose than
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section10-example2" />, but may be clearer, since it explicitly spells out the two
<quote>ke'a</quote>cmavo, each on its own level, and assigns them to the assignable cmavo
<quote>ko'a</quote>and
<quote>ko'e</quote>(explained in Chapter
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6" />).</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter8-section11">
- <title>11. Index of relative clause cmavo</title>
+ <title>Index of relative clause cmavo</title>
<para>Relative clause introducers (selma'o NOI):</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
noi incidental clauses
poi restrictive clauses
voi restrictive clauses (non-veridical)
</programlisting>
<para>Relative phrase introducers (selma'o GOI):</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
goi pro-sumti assignment
<!-- ^^ pro-sumti assignment: explicit cancellation of with da'o, 162; no'i effect on, 162; stability of, 162 -->
diff --git a/todocbook/9.xml b/todocbook/9.xml
index 5326d9d..be4802b 100644
--- a/todocbook/9.xml
+++ b/todocbook/9.xml
@@ -1,34 +1,34 @@
<chapter xml:id="cll_chapter9">
<title>Chapter 9 To Boston Via The Road Go I, With An Excursion Into The Land Of Modals</title>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter9-section1">
- <title>1. Introductory</title>
+ <title>Introductory</title>
<para>The basic type of Lojban sentence is the bridi: a claim by the speaker that certain objects are related in a certain way. The objects are expressed by Lojban grammatical forms called
<quote>sumti</quote>; the relationship is expressed by the Lojban grammatical form called a
<quote>selbri</quote>.</para>
<para>The sumti are not randomly associated with the selbri, but according to a systematic pattern known as the
<quote>place structure</quote>of the selbri. This chapter describes the various ways in which the place structure of Lojban bridi is expressed and by which it can be manipulated. The place structure of a selbri is a sequence of empty slots into which the sumti associated with that selbri are placed. The sumti are said to occupy the places of the selbri.</para>
<para>For our present purposes, every selbri is assumed to have a well-known place structure. If the selbri is a brivla, the place structure can be looked up in a dictionary (or, if the brivla is a lujvo not in any dictionary, inferred from the principles of lujvo construction as explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12" />); if the selbri is a tanru, the place structure is the same as that of the final component in the tanru.</para>
<para>The stock example of a place structure is that of the gismu
<quote>klama</quote>:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
klama: x1 comes/goes to destination x2 from origin x3 via route x4
employing means of transport x5.
</programlisting>
<para>The
<quote>x1 ... x5</quote>indicates that
<quote>klama</quote>is a five-place predicate, and show the natural order (as assigned by the language engineers) of those places: agent, destination, origin, route, means.</para>
<para>The place structures of brivla are not absolutely stable aspects of the language. The work done so far has attempted to establish a basic place structure on which all users can, at first, agree. In the light of actual experience with the individual selbri of the language, there will inevitably be some degree of change to the brivla place structures.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter9-section2">
- <title>2. Standard bridi form:
+ <title>Standard bridi form:
<quote>cu</quote></title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>cu</cmavo>
<selmaho>CU</selmaho>
<description>prefixed selbri separator</description>
<!-- ^^ selbri separator, 492 -->
<indexterm><primary>selbri separator</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
@@ -166,21 +166,21 @@
<jbo>mi klama la bastn. la .atlantas. zo'e le karce</jbo>
<en>I go to-Boston from-Atlanta via-something-unspecified using-the car.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the sumti cmavo
<quote>zo'e</quote>is used to explicitly fill the x4 place;
<quote>zo'e</quote>means
<quote>the unspecified thing</quote>and has the same meaning as leaving the place empty: the listener must infer the correct meaning from context.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter9-section3">
- <title>3. Tagging places: FA</title>
+ <title>Tagging places: FA</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>fa</cmavo>
<selmaho>FA</selmaho>
<description>tags x1 place</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>fe</cmavo>
<selmaho>FA</selmaho>
@@ -423,21 +423,21 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section3-example10" />, but it is actually not necessary, because
<quote>fi'a</quote>does not count as a numeric tag; therefore,
<!-- ^^ fi'a, 191; effect on subsequent untagged sumti, 192 -->
<indexterm><primary>fi'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>le vi rozgu</quote>would necessarily be in the x2 place even if no tag were present, because it immediately follows the selbri.</para>
<para>There is also another member of FA, namely
<quote>fai</quote>, which is discussed in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section12" />.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter9-section4">
- <title>4. Conversion: SE</title>
+ <title>Conversion: SE</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>se</cmavo>
<selmaho>SE</selmaho>
<description>2nd place conversion</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>te</cmavo>
<selmaho>SE</selmaho>
@@ -646,21 +646,21 @@
<!-- ^^ setese, 194 -->
<indexterm><primary>setese</primary></indexterm>
<quote>setese</quote>(or equivalently
<!-- ^^ setese, 194 -->
<indexterm><primary>setese</primary></indexterm>
<quote>tesete</quote>) swap the x2 and x3 places, whereas
<quote>texete</quote>(or
<quote>xetexe</quote>) swap the x3 and x5 places.)</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter9-section5">
- <title>5. Modal places: FIhO, FEhU</title>
+ <title>Modal places: FIhO, FEhU</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>fi'o</cmavo>
<selmaho>FIhO</selmaho>
<description>modal place prefix</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>fe'u</cmavo>
<selmaho>FEhU</selmaho>
@@ -748,21 +748,21 @@
<!-- ^^ seltcita sumti: definition (see also modal sumti), 195 -->
<indexterm><primary>seltcita sumti</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm><primary>modal sumti</primary></indexterm>
<quote>tool user</quote>place is the x2 of
<quote>se pilno</quote>(because it is the x1 of
<quote>pilno</quote>) and remains unspecified. The tag
<quote>fi'o pilno</quote>would mean
<quote>with tool user</quote>, leaving the tool unspecified.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter9-section6">
- <title>6. Modal tags: BAI</title>
+ <title>Modal tags: BAI</title>
<para>There are certain selbri which seem particularly useful in constructing modal tags. In particular,
<quote>pilno</quote>is one of them. The place structure of
<quote>pilno</quote>is:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
pilno: x1 uses x2 as a tool for purpose x3
</programlisting>
<para>and almost any selbri which represents an action may need to specify a tool. Having to say
<quote>fi'o se pilno</quote>frequently would make many Lojban sentences unnecessarily verbose and clunky, so an abbreviation is provided in the language design: the compound cmavo
<quote>sepi'o</quote>.</para>
<!-- ^^ sepi'o, 195 -->
@@ -907,21 +907,21 @@
<para>Here
<quote>le berti</quote>is provided as a modal place of the selbri
<quote>nanmu</quote>, but its exact significance is vague, and is paralleled in the colloquial translation by the vague English preposition
<quote>of</quote>.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section6-example7" />also illustrates a modal place bound into a selbri with
<quote>be</quote>. This construction is useful when the selbri of a description requires a modal place; this and other uses of
<quote>be</quote>are more fully explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5" />.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter9-section7">
- <title>7. Modal sentence connection: the causals</title>
+ <title>Modal sentence connection: the causals</title>
<!-- ^^ causals: claiming the relation contrasted with claiming cause and/or effect and/or relation, 198; gismu, 197; modal, 197 -->
<indexterm><primary>causals</primary></indexterm>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ri'a</cmavo>
<selmaho>BAI</selmaho>
<description>rinka modal: physical cause</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
@@ -1118,21 +1118,21 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section7-example8" />is that the modal,
<quote>ri'a</quote>in this example, no longer modifies an explicit sumti. Instead, the sumti is implicit, the event given by a full bridi. Furthermore, there is a second implication: that the first bridi fills the x2 place of the gismu
<quote>rinka</quote>; it specifies an event which is the effect. I am therefore claiming three things: that the plant grows, that you have watered it, and that there is a cause-and-effect relationship between the two.</para>
<para>In principle, any modal tag can appear in a sentence connective of the type exemplified by
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section7-example7" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section7-example8" />. However, it makes little sense to use any modals which do not expect events or other abstractions to fill the places of the corresponding gismu. The sentence connective
<quote>.ibaubo</quote>is perfectly grammatical, but it is hard to imagine any two sentences which could be connected by an
<quote>in-language</quote>modal. This is because a sentence describes an event, and an event can be a cause or an effect, but not a language.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter9-section8">
- <title>8. Other modal connections</title>
+ <title>Other modal connections</title>
<para>Like many Lojban grammatical constructions, sentence modal connection has both forethought and afterthought forms. (See
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14" />for a more detailed discussion of Lojban connectives.)
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section7" />exemplifies only afterthought modal connection, illustrated here by:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-2D4c">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e8d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section8-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi jgari lei djacu .iri'abo mi jgari le kabri</jbo>
@@ -1309,21 +1309,21 @@
<quote>ve'o</quote>, is an elidable terminator.) As usual, no English translation does
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section8-example11" />justice.</para>
<para>Note: Due to restrictions on the Lojban parsing algorithm, it is not possible to form modal connectives using the
<!-- ^^ modal connectives: fi'o prohibited in, 201 -->
<indexterm><primary>modal connectives</primary></indexterm>
<quote>fi'o</quote>-plus-selbri form of modal. Only the predefined modals of selma'o BAI can be compounded as shown in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section7" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section8" />.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter9-section9">
- <title>9. Modal selbri</title>
+ <title>Modal selbri</title>
<para>Consider the example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-bT4c">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e9d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section9-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi tavla bau la lojban. bai tu'a la frank.</jbo>
<gloss>I speak in-language Lojban with-compeller some-act-by Frank.</gloss>
<en>I speak in Lojban, under compulsion by Frank.</en>
@@ -1458,21 +1458,21 @@
<jbo>bai tu'e mi klama le zarci .i mi cadzu le bisli [tu'u]</jbo>
<en>Under-compulsion [start] I go to-the market. I walk on-the ice [end].</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means the same thing as
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section9-example8" />.</para>
<para>Note: Either BAI modals or
<quote>fi'o</quote>-plus-selbri modals may correctly be used in any of the constructions discussed in this section.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter9-section10">
- <title>10. Modal relative phrases; Comparison</title>
+ <title>Modal relative phrases; Comparison</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>pe</cmavo>
<selmaho>GOI</selmaho>
<description>restrictive relative phrase</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ne</cmavo>
<selmaho>GOI</selmaho>
@@ -1719,21 +1719,21 @@
<indexterm><primary>de'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>dated</quote>),
<quote>du'i</quote>(
<!-- ^^ du'i, 204 -->
<indexterm><primary>du'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>as much as</quote>). Some BAI tags can be used equally well in relative phrases or attached to bridi; others seem useful only attached to bridi. But it is also possible that the usefulness of particular BAI modals is an English-speaker bias, and that speakers of other languages may find other BAIs useful in divergent ways.</para>
<para>Note: The uses of modals discussed in this section are applicable both to BAI modals and to
<quote>fi'o</quote>-plus-selbri modals.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter9-section11">
- <title>11. Mixed modal connection</title>
+ <title>Mixed modal connection</title>
<para>It is possible to mix logical connection (explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14" />) with modal connection, in a way that simultaneously asserts the logical connection and the modal relationship. Consider the sentences:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-4qz4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e11d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section11-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci do .ije mi nelci la djein.</jbo>
<en>I like you. And I like Jane.</en>
@@ -1840,21 +1840,21 @@
<quote>.ijeseri'abo</quote>to
<quote>.ije seri'a</quote>, which would show that the
<quote>tu'e ... tu'u</quote>portion was an effect, but would not pin down the
<quote>mi bevri le dakli</quote>portion as the cause. It is legal for a modal (or a tense; see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10" />) to modify the whole of a
<quote>tu'e ... tu'u</quote>construct.</para>
<para>Note: The uses of modals discussed in this section are applicable both to BAI modals and to
<quote>fi'o</quote>-plus-selbri modals.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter9-section12">
- <title>12. Modal conversion: JAI</title>
+ <title>Modal conversion: JAI</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>jai</cmavo>
<selmaho>JAI</selmaho>
<description>modal conversion</description>
<!-- ^^ modal conversion: access to original first place with fai, 206; grammar of, 206; place structure of, 206; with no modal specified, 206 -->
<indexterm><primary>modal conversion</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
@@ -1933,21 +1933,21 @@
<en>I am justified in taking the book by seeing the book.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section12-example4" />, with the bracketed part omitted, allows us to say that
<quote>I am justified</quote>whereas in fact it is my action that is justified. This construction is vague, but useful in representing natural-language methods of expression.</para>
<para>Note: The uses of modals discussed in this section are applicable both to BAI modals and to
<quote>fi'o</quote>-plus-selbri modals.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter9-section13">
- <title>13. Modal negation</title>
+ <title>Modal negation</title>
<para>Negation is explained in detail in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15" />. There are two forms of negation in Lojban: contradictory and scalar negation. Contradictory negation expresses what is false, whereas scalar negation says that some alternative to what has been stated is true. A simple example is the difference between
<quote>John didn't go to Paris</quote>(contradictory negation) and
<quote>John went to (somewhere) other than Paris</quote>(scalar negation).</para>
<para>Contradictory negation involving BAI cmavo is performed by appending
<quote>-nai</quote>(of selma'o NAI) to the BAI. A common use of modals with
<quote>-nai</quote>is to deny a causal relationship:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ej84">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e13d1" />
@@ -1977,21 +1977,21 @@
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section13-example2" />says that the relationship between the plant's growth and your watering it is not one of motivation: the plant is not motivated to grow, as plants are not something which can have motivation as a rule. Implicitly, some other relationship between watering and growth exists, but
<!-- ^^ plants: use of fu'ivla for specific, 61 -->
<indexterm><primary>plants</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section13-example2" />doesn't say what it is (presumably
<quote>ri'a</quote>).</para>
<para>Note: Modals made with
<quote>fi'o</quote>plus a selbri cannot be negated directly. The selbri can itself be negated either with contradictory or with scalar negation, however.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter9-section14">
- <title>14. Sticky modals</title>
+ <title>Sticky modals</title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ki</cmavo>
<selmaho>KI</selmaho>
<description>stickiness flag</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>Like tenses, modals can be made persistent from the bridi in which they appear to all following bridi. The effect of this
<quote>stickiness</quote>is to make the modal, along with its following sumti, act as if it appeared in every successive bridi. Stickiness is put into effect by following the modal (but not any following sumti) with the cmavo
@@ -2039,21 +2039,21 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ki tavla</jbo>
<en>I speak (no implication about language or compulsion).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note: Modals made with
<quote>fi'o</quote>-plus-selbri cannot be made sticky. This is an unfortunate, but unavoidable, restriction.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter9-section15">
- <title>15. Logical and non-logical connection of modals</title>
+ <title>Logical and non-logical connection of modals</title>
<!-- ^^ non-logical connection: and elidability of terminators, 354; in mathematical expressions, 361; in tanru, distinguishing from connection of sumti, 354; of individuals into mass, 355; of individuals into set, 355; of modals, 208; of operands, 455; of operators, 455; of sumti, distinguishing from connection in tanru, 354; of termsets, 357 -->
<indexterm><primary>non-logical connection</primary></indexterm>
<para>Logical and non-logical connectives are explained in detail in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14" />. For the purposes of this chapter, it suffices to point out that a logical (or non-logical) connection between two bridi which differ only in a modal can be reduced to a single bridi with a connective between the modals. As a result,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section15-example1" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section15-example2" />mean the same thing:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-2NAa">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e15d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section15-example1" />
@@ -2079,21 +2079,21 @@
<jbo>la frank. bajra seka'a le zdani ce'e teka'a le zdani</jbo>
<en>Frank runs with-destination the house [joined-to] with-origin the-house.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>ce'e</quote>creates a termset containing two terms (termsets are explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16" />). When a termset contains more than one modal tag derived from a single BAI, the convention is that the two tags are derived from a common event.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter9-section16">
- <title>16. CV'V cmavo of selma'o BAI with irregular forms</title>
+ <title>CV'V cmavo of selma'o BAI with irregular forms</title>
<para>There are 65 cmavo of selma'o BAI, of which all but one (
<quote>do'e</quote>, discussed in
<!-- ^^ do'e, 197; compared with English of, 197 -->
<indexterm><primary>do'e</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section6" />), are derived directly from selected gismu. Of these 64 cmavo, 36 are entirely regular and have the form CV'V, where C is the first consonant of the corresponding gismu, and the Vs are the two vowels of the gismu. The remaining BAI cmavo, which are irregular in one way or another, are listed in the table below. The table is divided into sub-tables according to the nature of the exception; some cmavo appear in more than one sub-table, and are so noted.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
cmavo gismu comments
Monosyllables of the form CVV:
@@ -2144,21 +2144,21 @@
Special cases:
ri'i lifri uses 3rd consonant of gismu
tai tamsmi based on lujvo, not gismu
va'u xamgu CV'V cmavo can't begin with
<quote>x</quote>
</programlisting>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter9-section17">
- <title>17. Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents</title>
+ <title>Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents</title>
<para>The following table shows all the cmavo belonging to selma'o BAI, and has five columns. The first column is the cmavo itself; the second column is the gismu linked to it. The third column gives an English phrase which indicates the meaning of the cmavo; and the fourth column indicates its meaning when preceded by
<quote>se</quote>.</para>
<para>For those cmavo with meaningful
<quote>te</quote>,
<quote>ve</quote>, and even
<quote>xe</quote>conversions (depending on the number of places of the underlying gismu), the meanings of these are shown on one or two extra rows following the primary row for that cmavo.</para>
<para>It should be emphasized that the place structures of the gismu control the meanings of the BAI cmavo. The English phrases shown here are only suggestive, and are often too broad or too narrow to correctly specify what the acceptable range of uses for the modal tag are.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ba'i basti replaced by instead of
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
diff --git a/todocbook/TODO b/todocbook/TODO
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5fee21e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/todocbook/TODO
@@ -0,0 +1,35 @@
+
+==================
+ Instructions For Helpers
+==================
+Fix the chapter name so it's just the second part, i.e.
+
+ <title>Chapter 5
+ <quote>Pretty Little Girls' School</quote>: The Structure Of Lojban selbri</title>
+
+becomes:
+
+ <title><quote>Pretty Little Girls' School</quote>: The Structure Of Lojban selbri</title>
+
+Make sure the <interlinear-gloss> bits look right (which is why the
+columns are so spaced out).
+
+==================
+ Data
+==================
+- lojban words, lojban phrases, terms of art ("abstraction"),
+ others?... should each have their own index
+
+==================
+ Display
+==================
+- links to examples should *say* "example N"; easy to test from the
+ index
+- links to sections should say the number of section and chapter
+- examples should be 5.2.1 rather than 5.6 for the first example in
+ section 2 of chatpre 5
+
+==================
+ Both/Other
+==================
+- make sure backwards-compatible anchors exist
diff --git a/todocbook/docbook2html.css b/todocbook/docbook2html.css
index 0dff909..963c94b 100644
--- a/todocbook/docbook2html.css
+++ b/todocbook/docbook2html.css
@@ -46,10 +46,15 @@ em[lang=jbo] {
.example-literalistic {
font-style: italic;
font-size: 1em;
}
.example-final {
font-size: 1em;
font-weight: bold;
}
*/
+
+td
+{
+ padding:15px;
+}
--
You received this message because you are subscribed to the Google Groups "BPFK" group.
To post to this group, send email to bpfk-list@googlegroups.com.
To unsubscribe from this group, send email to bpfk-list+unsubscribe@googlegroups.com.
For more options, visit this group at http://groups.google.com/group/bpfk-list?hl=en.