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[bpfk] dag-cll git updates for Tue Dec 14 02:21:05 EST 2010
commit 412dbf650f2aecc1e9d3c725324360431c9489cc
Author: Robin Lee Powell <rlpowell@digitalkingdom.org>
Date: Mon Dec 13 23:09:12 2010 -0800
Added automated, and crappy, index entries.
diff --git a/todocbook/1.xml b/todocbook/1.xml
index 0d37683..d4ee435 100644
--- a/todocbook/1.xml
+++ b/todocbook/1.xml
@@ -1,19 +1,27 @@
<chapter xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"; xml:id="cll_chapter1">
<title>Chapter 1 Lojban As We Mangle It In Lojbanistan: About This Book</title>
+<!-- ^^ Lojbanistan, 4 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Lojbanistan</primary></indexterm>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter1-section1">
<title>1. What is Lojban?</title>
<para>Lojban (pronounced
<quote>LOZH-bahn</quote>) is a constructed language. Previous versions of the language were called
<quote>Loglan</quote>by Dr. James Cooke Brown, who founded the Loglan Project and started the development of the language in 1955. The goals for the language were first described in the open literature in the article
+<!-- ^^ Brown: James Cooke, 6; James Cooke, and "letteral", 413 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Brown</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ article, 498; number, 435 -->
+<indexterm><primary>article</primary></indexterm>
<quote>Loglan</quote>, published in
<citation>Scientific American</citation>, June, 1960. Made well-known by that article and by occasional references in science fiction (most notably in Robert Heinlein's novel
+<!-- ^^ article, 498; number, 435 -->
+<indexterm><primary>article</primary></indexterm>
<citation>The Moon Is A Harsh Mistress</citation>) and computer publications, Loglan and Lojban have been built over four decades by dozens of workers and hundreds of supporters, led since 1987 by The Logical Language Group (who are the publishers of this book).</para>
<para>There are thousands of artificial languages (of which Esperanto is the best-known), but Loglan/Lojban has been engineered to make it unique in several ways. The following are the main features of Lojban:</para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Lojban is designed to be used by people in communication with each other, and possibly in the future with computers.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Lojban is designed to be neutral between cultures.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
@@ -42,103 +50,141 @@
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Lojban has been demonstrated in translation and in original works of prose and poetry.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter1-section2">
<title>2. What is this book?</title>
<para>This book is what is called a
<quote>reference grammar</quote>. It attempts to expound the whole Lojban language, or at least as much of it as is understood at present. Lojban is a rich language with many features, and an attempt has been made to discover the functions of those features. The word
+<!-- ^^ reference grammar, 3 -->
+<indexterm><primary>reference grammar</primary></indexterm>
<quote>discover</quote>is used advisedly; Lojban was not
<quote>invented</quote>by any one person or committee. Often, grammatical features were introduced into the language long before their usage was fully understood. Sometimes they were introduced for one reason, only to prove more useful for other reasons not recognized at the time.</para>
<para>By intention, this book is complete in description but not in explanation. For every rule in the formal Lojban grammar (given in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter21" />), there is a bit of explanation and an example somewhere in the book, and often a great deal more than a bit. In essence,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter2" />gives a brief overview of the language,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter21" />gives the formal structure of the language, and the chapters in between put semantic flesh on those formal bones. I hope that eventually more grammatical material founded on (or even correcting) the explanations in this book will become available.</para>
<para>Nevertheless, the publication of this book is, in one sense, the completion of a long period of language evolution. With the exception of a possible revision of the language that will not even be considered until five years from publication date, and any revisions of this book needed to correct outright errors, the language described in this book will not be changing by deliberate act of its creators any more. Instead, language change will take place in the form of new vocabulary - Lojban does not yet have nearly the vocabulary it needs to be a fully usable language of the modern world, as
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12" />explains - and through the irregular natural processes of drift and (who knows?) native-speaker evolution. (Teach your children Lojban!) You can learn the language described here with assurance that (unlike previous versions of Lojban and Loglan, as well as most other artificial languages) it will not be subject to further fiddling by language-meisters.</para>
<para>It is probably worth mentioning that this book was written somewhat piecemeal. Each chapter began life as an explication of a specific Lojban topic; only later did these begin to clump together into a larger structure of words and ideas. Therefore, there are perhaps not as many cross-references as there should be. However, I have attempted to make the index as comprehensive as possible.</para>
<para>Each chapter has a descriptive title, often involving some play on words; this is an attempt to make the chapters more memorable. The title of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter1" />(which you are now reading), for example, is an allusion to the book
<citation>English As We Speak It In Ireland</citation>, by P. W. Joyce, which is a sort of informal reference grammar of Hiberno-English.
+<!-- ^^ reference grammar, 3 -->
+<indexterm><primary>reference grammar</primary></indexterm>
<quote>Lojbanistan</quote>is both an imaginary country where Lojban is the native language, and a term for the actual community of Lojban-speakers, scattered over the world. Why
+<!-- ^^ Lojbanistan, 4 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Lojbanistan</primary></indexterm>
<quote>mangle</quote>? As yet, nobody in the real Lojbanistan speaks the language at all well, by the standards of the imaginary Lojbanistan; that is one of the circumstances this book is meant to help remedy.</para>
+<!-- ^^ Lojbanistan, 4 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Lojbanistan</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter1-section3">
<title>3. What are the typographical conventions of this book?</title>
+<!-- ^^ typographical conventions, 4 -->
+<indexterm><primary>typographical conventions</primary></indexterm>
<para>Each chapter is broken into numbered sections; each section contains a mixture of expository text, numbered examples, and possibly tables.</para>
<para>The reader will notice a certain similarity in the examples used throughout the book. One chapter after another rings the changes on the self-same sentences:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-hrtj">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c1e3d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter1-section3-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I go-to that-which-I-describe-as-a store.</gloss>
<en>I go to the store.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>will become wearisomely familiar before
<xref linkend="cll_chapter21" />is reached. This method is deliberate; I have tried to use simple and (eventually) familiar examples wherever possible, to avoid obscuring new grammatical points with new vocabulary. Of course, this is not the method of a textbook, but this book is not a textbook (although people have learned Lojban from it and its predecessors). Rather, it is intended both for self-learning (of course, at present would-be Lojban teachers must be self-learners) and to serve as a reference in the usual sense, for looking up obscure points about the language.</para>
<para>It is useful to talk further about
<xref linkend="cll_chapter1-section3-example1" />for what it illustrates about examples in this book. Examples usually occupy three lines. The first of these is in Lojban, the second in a word-by-word literal translation of the Lojban into English, and the third in colloquial English. The second and third lines are sometimes called the
+<!-- ^^ examples in this book, 4 -->
+<indexterm><primary>examples in this book</primary></indexterm>
<quote>literal translation</quote>and the
<quote>colloquial translation</quote>respectively. Sometimes, when clarity is not sacrificed thereby, one or both are omitted. If there is more than one Lojban sentence, it generally means that they have the same meaning.</para>
<para>Words are sometimes surrounded by square brackets. In Lojban texts, these enclose optional grammatical particles that may (in the context of the particular example) be either omitted or included. In literal translations, they enclose words that are used as conventional translations of specific Lojban words, but don't have exactly the meanings or uses that the English word would suggest. In
+<!-- ^^ square brackets: use of in notation, 5 -->
+<indexterm><primary>square brackets</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter3" />, square brackets surround phonetic representations in the International Phonetic Alphabet.</para>
+<!-- ^^ square brackets: use of in notation, 5 -->
+<indexterm><primary>square brackets</primary></indexterm>
<para>Many of the tables, especially those placed at the head of various sections, are in three columns. The first column contains Lojban words discussed in that section; the second column contains the grammatical category (represented by an UPPER CASE Lojban word) to which the word belongs, and the third column contains a brief English gloss, not necessarily or typically a full explanation. Other tables are explained in context.</para>
<para>A few Lojban words are used in this book as technical terms. All of these are explained in
+<!-- ^^ technical terms, 5 -->
+<indexterm><primary>technical terms</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter2" />, except for a few used only in single chapters, which are explained in the introductory sections of those chapters.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter1-section4">
<title>4. Disclaimers</title>
<para>It is necessary to add, alas, that the examples used in this book do not refer to any existing person, place, or institution, and that any such resemblance is entirely coincidental and unintentional, and not intended to give offense.</para>
<para>When definitions and place structures of gismu, and especially of lujvo, are given in this book, they may differ from those given in the English-Lojban dictionary (which, as of this writing, is not yet published). If so, the information given in the dictionary supersedes whatever is given here.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter1-section5">
<title>5. Acknowledgements and Credits</title>
<para>Although the bulk of this book was written for the Logical Language Group (LLG) by John Cowan, who is represented by the occasional authorial
+<!-- ^^ LLG, 5 -->
+<indexterm><primary>LLG</primary></indexterm>
<quote>I</quote>, certain chapters were first written by others and then heavily edited by me to fit into this book.</para>
<para>In particular:
<xref linkend="cll_chapter2" />is a fusion of originally separate documents, one by Athelstan, and one by Nora Tansky LeChevalier and Bob LeChevalier;
<xref linkend="cll_chapter3" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4" />were originally written by Bob LeChevalier with contributions by Chuck Barton;
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12" />was originally written (in much longer form) by Nick Nicholas; the dialogue near the end of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13" />was contributed by Nora Tansky LeChevalier;
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15" />and parts of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16" />were originally by Bob LeChevalier; and the YACC grammar in
+<!-- ^^ YACC grammar, 511 -->
+<indexterm><primary>YACC grammar</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter21" />is the work of several hands, but is primarily by Bob LeChevalier and Jeff Taylor. The BNF grammar, which is also in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter21" />, was originally written by me, then rewritten by Clark Nelson, and finally touched up by me again.</para>
<para>The research into natural languages from which parts of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5" />draw their material was performed by Ivan Derzhanski. LLG acknowledges his kind permission to use the fruits of his research.</para>
+<!-- ^^ LLG, 5 -->
+<indexterm><primary>LLG</primary></indexterm>
<para>The pictures in this book were drawn by Nora Tansky LeChevalier, except for the picture appearing in
+<!-- ^^ pictures: captions to, 7; credits for, 6 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pictures</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4" />, which is by Sylvia Rutiser Rissell.</para>
<para>The index was made by Nora Tansky LeChevalier.</para>
<para>I would like to thank the following people for their detailed reviews, suggestions, comments, and early detection of my embarrassing errors in Lojban, logic, English, and cross-references: Nick Nicholas, Mark Shoulson, Veijo Vilva, Colin Fine, And Rosta, Jorge Llambias, Iain Alexander, Paulo S. L. M. Barreto, Robert J. Chassell, Gale Cowan, Karen Stein, Ivan Derzhanski, Jim Carter, Irene Gates, Bob LeChevalier, John Parks-Clifford (also known as
<quote>pc</quote>), and Nora Tansky LeChevalier.</para>
<para>Nick Nicholas (NSN) would like to thank the following Lojbanists: Mark Shoulson, Veijo Vilva, Colin Fine, And Rosta, and Iain Alexander for their suggestions and comments; John Cowan, for his extensive comments, his exemplary trailblazing of Lojban grammar, and for solving the
<quote>manskapi</quote>dilemma for NSN; Jorge Llambias, for his even more extensive comments, and for forcing NSN to think more than he was inclined to; Bob LeChevalier, for his skeptical overview of the issue, his encouragement, and for scouring all Lojban text his computer has been burdened with for lujvo; Nora Tansky LeChevalier, for writing the program converting old rafsi text to new rafsi text, and sparing NSN from embarrassing errors; and Jim Carter, for his dogged persistence in analyzing lujvo algorithmically, which inspired this research, and for first identifying the three lujvo classes.</para>
+<!-- ^^ converting: operand to operator, 500; operator to selbri, 502; quantifier to selbri, 500; selbri to operand, 501; selbri to operator, 501; sumti to operand, 500; sumti to tanru unit, 500 -->
+<indexterm><primary>converting</primary></indexterm>
<para>Of course, the entire Loglan Project owes a considerable debt to James Cooke Brown as the language inventor, and also to several earlier contributors to the development of the language. Especially noteworthy are Doug Landauer, Jeff Prothero, Scott Layson, Jeff Taylor, and Bob McIvor. Final responsibility for the remaining errors and infelicities is solely mine.</para>
+<!-- ^^ Brown: James Cooke, 6; James Cooke, and "letteral", 413 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Brown</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter1-section6">
<title>6. Informal Bibliography</title>
<para>The founding document for the Loglan Project, of which this book is one of the products, is
<citation>Loglan 1: A Logical Language</citation>by James Cooke Brown (4th ed. 1989, The Loglan Institute, Gainesville, Florida, U.S.A.) The language described therein is not Lojban, but is very close to it and may be considered an ancestral version. It is regrettably necessary to state that nothing in this book has been approved by Dr. Brown, and that the very existence of Lojban is disapproved of by him.</para>
+<!-- ^^ Brown: James Cooke, 6; James Cooke, and "letteral", 413 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Brown</primary></indexterm>
<para>The logic of Lojban, such as it is, owes a good deal to the American philosopher W. v.O. Quine, especially
<citation>Word and Object</citation>(1960, M.I.T. Press). Much of Quine's philosophical writings, especially on observation sentences, reads like a literal translation from Lojban.</para>
+<!-- ^^ observation: example, 316 -->
+<indexterm><primary>observation</primary></indexterm>
<para>The theory of negation expounded in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15" />is derived from a reading of Larry Horn's work
<citation>The Natural History of Negation</citation>.</para>
<para>Of course, neither Brown nor Quine nor Horn is in any way responsible for the uses or misuses I have made of their works.</para>
+<!-- ^^ Brown: James Cooke, 6; James Cooke, and "letteral", 413 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Brown</primary></indexterm>
<para>Depending on just when you are reading this book, there may be three other books about Lojban available: a textbook, a Lojban/English dictionary, and a book containing general information about Lojban. You can probably get these books, if they have been published, from the same place where you got this book. In addition, other books not yet foreseen may also exist.</para>
+<!-- ^^ books about Lojban, 6 -->
+<indexterm><primary>books about Lojban</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter1-section7">
<title>7. Captions to Pictures</title>
<para>The following examples list the Lojban caption, with a translation, for the picture at the head of each chapter. If a chapter's picture has no caption,
<quote>(none)</quote>is specified instead.</para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>
<anchor xml:id="c1" />
<mediaobject>
@@ -232,20 +278,22 @@ Two men (jointly) carry two men (both of them).
<anchor xml:id="c7" />
<mediaobject>
<alt>The picture for chapter 7</alt>
<imageobject>
<imagedata fileref="chapter7.gif" />
</imageobject>
</mediaobject>has the following text:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ma drani danfu
.i di'e
+<!-- ^^ di'e, 149, 358; effect of tu'e/tu'u on, 358 -->
+<indexterm><primary>di'e</primary></indexterm>
.i di'u
.i dei
.i ri
.i do'i
</programlisting>
<para>which has the following translation:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
[What sumti] is-the-correct type-of-answer?
The-next-sentence.
The-previous-sentence.
@@ -262,20 +310,22 @@ An-unspecified-utterance.
<imageobject>
<imagedata fileref="chapter8.gif" />
</imageobject>
</mediaobject>has the following text:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ko viska re prenu poi bruna la santas.
</programlisting>
<para>which has the following translation:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
[You!] see two persons who-are brothers-of Santa.
+<!-- ^^ brothers: example, 355 -->
+<indexterm><primary>brothers</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
<anchor xml:id="c9" />
<mediaobject>
<alt>The picture for chapter 9</alt>
<imageobject>
<imagedata fileref="chapter9.gif" />
</imageobject>
@@ -285,25 +335,29 @@ ko viska re prenu poi bruna la santas.
<para>
<anchor xml:id="c10" />
<mediaobject>
<alt>The picture for chapter 10</alt>
<imageobject>
<imagedata fileref="chapter10.gif" />
</imageobject>
</mediaobject>has the following text:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
za'o klama
+<!-- ^^ za'o, 230 -->
+<indexterm><primary>za'o</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>which has the following translation:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
[superfective] come/go
Something goes (or comes) for too long.
+<!-- ^^ too long: example, 233; Example, 230 -->
+<indexterm><primary>too long</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
<anchor xml:id="c11" />
<mediaobject>
<alt>The picture for chapter 11</alt>
<imageobject>
<imagedata fileref="chapter11.gif" />
</imageobject>
@@ -330,20 +384,26 @@ The concept-of emptiness
<para>
<anchor xml:id="c13" />
<mediaobject>
<alt>The picture for chapter 13</alt>
<imageobject>
<imagedata fileref="chapter13.gif" />
</imageobject>
</mediaobject>has the following text:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
.oi ro'i ro'a ro'o
+<!-- ^^ ro'o, 307 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ro'o</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ ro'i, 307 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ro'i</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ ro'a, 307 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ro'a</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>which has the following translation:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
[Pain!] [emotional] [social] [physical]
</programlisting>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
<anchor xml:id="c14" />
<mediaobject>
@@ -393,20 +453,22 @@ Another example, John, please!
<para>
<anchor xml:id="c17" />
<mediaobject>
<alt>The picture for chapter 17</alt>
<imageobject>
<imagedata fileref="chapter17.gif" />
</imageobject>
</mediaobject>has the following text:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
zai xanlerfu by. ly. .obu .jy by. .abu ny.
+<!-- ^^ zai, 418 -->
+<indexterm><primary>zai</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>which has the following translation:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
[Shift] hand-letters l o j b a n
"Lojban" in a manual alphabet
</programlisting>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
<anchor xml:id="c18" />
diff --git a/todocbook/10.xml b/todocbook/10.xml
index 839a0e6..ade4eb0 100644
--- a/todocbook/10.xml
+++ b/todocbook/10.xml
@@ -1,26 +1,44 @@
<chapter xml:id="cll_chapter10">
<title>Chapter 10 Imaginary Journeys: The Lojban Space/Time Tense System</title>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section1">
<title>1. Introductory</title>
<para>This chapter attempts to document and explain the space/time tense system of Lojban. It does not attempt to answer all questions of the form
+<!-- ^^ tense system: and space location, 215 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tense system</primary></indexterm>
<quote>How do I say such-and-such (an English tense) in Lojban?</quote>Instead, it explores the Lojban tense system from the inside, attempting to educate the reader into a Lojbanic viewpoint. Once the overall system is understood and the resources that it makes available are familiar, the reader should have some hope of using appropriate tense constructs and being correctly understood.</para>
+<!-- ^^ tense system: and space location, 215 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tense system</primary></indexterm>
<para>The system of Lojban tenses presented here may seem really complex because of all the pieces and all the options; indeed, this chapter is the longest one in this book. But tense is in fact complex in every language. In your native language, the subtleties of tense are intuitive. In foreign languages, you are seldom taught the entire system until you have reached an advanced level. Lojban tenses are extremely systematic and productive, allowing you to express subtleties based on what they mean rather than on how they act similarly to English tenses. This chapter concentrates on presenting an intuitive approach to the meaning of Lojban tense words and how they may be creatively and productively combined.</para>
<para>What is
<quote>tense</quote>? Historically,
<quote>tense</quote>is the attribute of verbs in English and related languages that expresses the time of the action. In English, three tenses are traditionally recognized, conventionally called the past, the present, and the future. There are also a variety of compound tenses used in English. However, there is no simple relationship between the form of an English tense and the time actually expressed:</para>
+<!-- ^^ verbs: brivla as Lojban equivalents, 52 -->
+<indexterm><primary>verbs</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
I go to London tomorrow.
+<!-- ^^ tomorrow: example, 282 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tomorrow</primary></indexterm>
I will go to London tomorrow.
+<!-- ^^ tomorrow: example, 282 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tomorrow</primary></indexterm>
I am going to London tomorrow.
+<!-- ^^ tomorrow: example, 282 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tomorrow</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>all mean the same thing, even though the first sentence uses the present tense; the second, the future tense; and the third, a compound tense usually called
+<!-- ^^ compound tense: compared with multiple tenses in sentence, 234; compared with tense in scope of sticky tense, 234; definition, 218; Lojban contrasted with English in order of specification, 218 -->
+<!-- ^^ tense in scope of sticky tense: compared with compound tense, 234 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tense in scope of sticky tense</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ multiple tenses: effect of order in sentence, 235 -->
+<indexterm><primary>multiple tenses</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>compound tense</primary></indexterm>
<quote>present progressive</quote>. Likewise, a newspaper headline says
<quote>JONES DIES</quote>, although it is obvious that the time referred to must be in the past. Tense is a mandatory category of English: every sentence must be marked for tense, even if in a way contrary to logic, because every main verb has a tense marker built into to it. By contrast, Lojban brivla have no implicit tense marker attached to them.</para>
<para>In Lojban, the concept of tense extends to every selbri, not merely the verb-like ones. In addition, tense structures provide information about location in space as well as in time. All tense information is optional in Lojban: a sentence like:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-cKSK">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e1d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section1-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci</jbo>
@@ -140,30 +158,40 @@
<selmaho>FAhA</selmaho>
<description>front</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ne'i</cmavo>
<selmaho>FAhA</selmaho>
<description>within</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>be'a</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ be'a, 231 -->
+<indexterm><primary>be'a</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>FAhA</selmaho>
<description>north of</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>(The complete list of FAhA cmavo can be found in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section27" />.)</para>
<para>Why is this section about spatial tenses rather than the more familiar time tenses of
+<!-- ^^ time tenses: quick-tour version, 25 -->
+<indexterm><primary>time tenses</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section1" />, asks the reader? Because the model to be used in explaining both will be easier to grasp for space than for time. The explanation of time tenses will resume in
+<!-- ^^ time tenses: quick-tour version, 25 -->
+<indexterm><primary>time tenses</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ resume: contrasted with begin, 229 -->
+<indexterm><primary>resume</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section4" />.</para>
<para>English doesn't have mandatory spatial tenses. Although there are plenty of ways in English of showing where an event happens, there is absolutely no need to do so. Considering this fact may give the reader a feel for what the optional Lojban time tenses are like. From the Lojban point of view, space and time are interchangeable, although they are not treated identically.</para>
+<!-- ^^ time tenses: quick-tour version, 25 -->
+<indexterm><primary>time tenses</primary></indexterm>
<para>Lojban specifies the spatial tense of a bridi (the place at which it occurs) by using words from selma'o FAhA and VA to describe an imaginary journey from the speaker to the place referred to. FAhA cmavo specify the direction taken in the journey, whereas VA cmavo specify the distance gone. For example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-hNAJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e2d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section2-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu va batci le gerku</jbo>
<gloss>The man [medium distance] bites the dog.</gloss>
<en>Over there the man is biting the dog.</en>
@@ -179,20 +207,22 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e2d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section2-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu zu'a batci le gerku</jbo>
<en>The man [left] bites the dog.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the imaginary journey is again from the speaker's location to the location of the bridi, but it is now performed by going to the left (in the speaker's reference frame) for an unspecified distance. So a reasonable translation is:</para>
+<!-- ^^ reference frame: specifying for direction tenses, 224 -->
+<indexterm><primary>reference frame</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
To my left, the man bites the dog.
</programlisting>
<para>The
<quote>my</quote>does not have an explicit equivalent in the Lojban, because the speaker's location is understood as the starting point.</para>
<para>(Etymologically, by the way,
<quote>zu'a</quote>is derived from
<quote>zunle</quote>, the gismu for
<quote>left</quote>, whereas
<quote>vi</quote>,
@@ -232,36 +262,44 @@
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section3">
<title>3. Compound spatial tenses</title>
<para>Humph, says the reader: this talk of
<quote>imaginary journeys</quote>is all very well, but what's the point of it? -
<quote>zu'a</quote>means
<quote>on the left</quote>and
<quote>vi</quote>means
<quote>nearby</quote>, and there's no more to be said. The imaginary-journey model becomes more useful when so-called compound tenses are involved. A compound tense is exactly like a simple tense, but has several FAhAs run together:</para>
+<!-- ^^ compound tense: compared with multiple tenses in sentence, 234; compared with tense in scope of sticky tense, 234; definition, 218; Lojban contrasted with English in order of specification, 218 -->
+<!-- ^^ tense in scope of sticky tense: compared with compound tense, 234 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tense in scope of sticky tense</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ multiple tenses: effect of order in sentence, 235 -->
+<indexterm><primary>multiple tenses</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>compound tense</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-rWtP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e3d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section3-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu ga'u zu'a batci le gerku</jbo>
<en>The man [up] [left] bites the dog.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The proper interpretation of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section3-example1" />is that the imaginary journey has two stages: first move from the speaker's location upward, and then to the left. A translation might read:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
Left of a place above me, the man bites the dog.
</programlisting>
<para>(Perhaps the speaker is at the bottom of a manhole, and the dog-biting is going on at the edge of the street.)</para>
+<!-- ^^ manhole: example, 218 -->
+<indexterm><primary>manhole</primary></indexterm>
<para>In the English translation, the keywords
<quote>left</quote>and
<quote>above</quote>occur in reverse order to the Lojban order. This effect is typical of what happens when we
<quote>unfold</quote>Lojban compound tenses into their English equivalents, and shows why it is not very useful to try to memorize a list of Lojban tense constructs and their colloquial English equivalents.</para>
<para>The opposite order also makes sense:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-d1gU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e3d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section3-example2" />
</title>
@@ -291,20 +329,26 @@
<anchor xml:id="c10e3d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section3-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu vi zu'a batci le gerku</jbo>
<gloss>The man [short distance] [left] bites the dog.</gloss>
<en>Left of a place near me, the man bites the dog.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Any number of directions may be used in a compound tense, with or without specified distances for each:</para>
+<!-- ^^ compound tense: compared with multiple tenses in sentence, 234; compared with tense in scope of sticky tense, 234; definition, 218; Lojban contrasted with English in order of specification, 218 -->
+<!-- ^^ tense in scope of sticky tense: compared with compound tense, 234 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tense in scope of sticky tense</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ multiple tenses: effect of order in sentence, 235 -->
+<indexterm><primary>multiple tenses</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>compound tense</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-mqTU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e3d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section3-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu ca'uvi ni'ava ri'uvu ne'i</jbo>
<gloss>batci le gerku</gloss>
<gloss>The man [front] [short] [down] [medium] [right] [long] [within]</gloss>
<gloss>bites the dog.</gloss>
@@ -345,53 +389,71 @@
<selmaho>ZI</selmaho>
<description>medium time distance</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>zu</cmavo>
<selmaho>ZI</selmaho>
<description>long time distance</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>Now that the reader understands spatial tenses, there are only two main facts to understand about temporal tenses: they work exactly like the spatial tenses, with selma'o PU and ZI standing in for FAhA and VA; and when both spatial and temporal tense cmavo are given in a single tense construct, the temporal tense is expressed first. (If space could be expressed before or after time at will, then certain constructions would be ambiguous.)</para>
+<!-- ^^ temporal tenses: compared with spatial tenses, 219 -->
+<indexterm><primary>temporal tenses</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ temporal tense: as mandatory in English, 215; compared with spatial tense in elidability, 217; historical definition, 215; interaction with 4-dimensional spatial tense, 224; Lojban contrasted with English in necessity, 215; order relative to spatial, 219; quantified with direction, 227; real relationship to time in English, 215 -->
+<indexterm><primary>temporal tense</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ameb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e4d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section4-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu pu batci le gerku</jbo>
<gloss>The man [past] bites the dog.</gloss>
<en>The man bit the dog.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means that to reach the dog-biting, you must take an imaginary journey through time, moving towards the past an unspecified distance. (Of course, this journey is even more imaginary than the ones talked about in the previous sections, since time-travel is not an available option.)</para>
<para>Lojban recognizes three temporal directions:
<quote>pu</quote>for the past,
<quote>ca</quote>for the present, and
<quote>ba</quote>for the future. (Etymologically, these derive from the corresponding gismu
<quote>purci</quote>,
<quote>cabna</quote>, and
<quote>balvi</quote>. See
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section23" />for an explanation of the exact relationship between the cmavo and the gismu.) There are many more spatial directions, since there are FAhA cmavo for both absolute and relative directions as well as
+<!-- ^^ spatial directions: list of, 253 -->
+<indexterm><primary>spatial directions</primary></indexterm>
<quote>direction-like relationships</quote>like
<quote>surrounding</quote>,
<quote>within</quote>,
<quote>touching</quote>, etc. (See
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section27" />for a complete list.) But there are really only two directions in time: forward and backward, toward the future and toward the past. Why, then, are there three cmavo of selma'o PU?</para>
<para>The reason is that tense is subjective: human beings perceive space and time in a way that does not necessarily agree with objective measurements. We have a sense of
+<!-- ^^ measurements: expressing, 435 -->
+<indexterm><primary>measurements</primary></indexterm>
<quote>now</quote>which includes part of the objective past and part of the objective future, and so we naturally segment the time line into three parts. The Lojban design recognizes this human reality by providing a separate time-direction cmavo for the
<quote>zero direction</quote>, Similarly, there is a FAhA cmavo for the zero space direction:
<quote>bu'u</quote>, which means something like
+<!-- ^^ bu'u, 219; compared with ca, 219 -->
+<indexterm><primary>bu'u</primary></indexterm>
<quote>coinciding</quote>.</para>
<para>(Technical note for readers conversant with relativity theory: The Lojban time tenses reflect time as seen by the speaker, who is assumed to be a
+<!-- ^^ time tenses: quick-tour version, 25 -->
+<indexterm><primary>time tenses</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ relativity theory: relation to Lojban tense system, 220 -->
+<!-- ^^ tense system: and space location, 215 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tense system</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>relativity theory</primary></indexterm>
<quote>point-like observer</quote>in the relativistic sense: they do not say anything about physical relationships of relativistic interval, still less about implicit causality. The nature of tense is not only subjective but also observer-based.)</para>
<para>Here are some examples of temporal tenses:</para>
+<!-- ^^ temporal tenses: compared with spatial tenses, 219 -->
+<indexterm><primary>temporal tenses</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-2Az7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e4d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section4-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e4d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section4-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e4d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section4-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -430,20 +492,22 @@
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section4-example5" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section4-example6" />are perfectly legitimate, but may not be very much used:
<quote>zi</quote>by itself signals an event that happens at a time close to the present, but without saying whether it is in the past or the future. A rough translation might be
<quote>about now, but not exactly now</quote>.</para>
<para>Because we can move in any direction in space, we are comfortable with the idea of events happening in an unspecified space direction (
<quote>nearby</quote>or
<quote>far away</quote>), but we live only from past to future, and the idea of an event which happens
<quote>nearby in time</quote>is a peculiar one. Lojban provides lots of such possibilities that don't seem all that useful to English-speakers, even though you can put them together productively; this fact may be a limitation of English.</para>
+<!-- ^^ nearby in time: example, 220 -->
+<indexterm><primary>nearby in time</primary></indexterm>
<para>Finally, here are examples which combine temporal and spatial tense:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-vtUw">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e4d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section4-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu puzu vu batci le gerku</jbo>
<gloss>The man [past] [long time] [long space] bites the dog.</gloss>
<en>Long ago and far away, the man bit the dog.</en>
@@ -452,20 +516,22 @@
<para>Alternatively,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Jsw5">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e4d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section4-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu batci le gerku puzuvuku</jbo>
<gloss>The man bites the dog [past] [long time] [long space].</gloss>
<en>The man bit the dog long ago and far away.</en>
+<!-- ^^ long ago and far away: example, 220 -->
+<indexterm><primary>long ago and far away</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section5">
<title>5. Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ve'i</cmavo>
<selmaho>VEhA</selmaho>
@@ -493,20 +559,22 @@
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ze'u</cmavo>
<selmaho>ZEhA</selmaho>
<description>long time interval</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>So far, we have considered only events that are usually thought of as happening at a particular point in space and time: a man biting a dog at a specified place and time. But Lojbanic events may be much more
<quote>spread out</quote>than that:
<quote>mi vasxu</quote>(I breathe) is something which is true during the whole of my life from birth to death, and over the entire part of the earth where I spend my life. The cmavo of VEhA (for space) and ZEhA (for time) can be added to any of the tense constructs we have already studied to specify the size of the space or length of the time over which the bridi is claimed to be true.</para>
+<!-- ^^ breathe: example, 363 -->
+<indexterm><primary>breathe</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Pgzz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e5d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section5-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le verba ve'i cadzu le bisli</jbo>
<gloss>The child [small space interval] walks-on the ice.</gloss>
<gloss>In a small space, the child walks on the ice.</gloss>
<en>The child walks about a small area of the ice.</en>
@@ -627,21 +695,25 @@
<jbo>ta ri'u ve'ica'u finpe</jbo>
<gloss>That-there [right] [short space interval – front] is-a-fish.</gloss>
<en>That thing on my right extending forwards is a fish.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the space interval occupied by the fish extends from a point on my right to another point in front of the first point.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section6">
<title>6. Vague intervals and non-specific tenses</title>
<para>What is the significance of failing to specify an interval size of the type discussed in
+<!-- ^^ interval size: as context-dependent, 222; meaning as sumti tcita, 233; spatial, 506; time, 507; unspecified, 223; vague, 223 -->
+<indexterm><primary>interval size</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section5" />? The Lojban rule is that if no interval size is given, the size of the space or time interval is left vague by the speaker. For example:</para>
+<!-- ^^ interval size: as context-dependent, 222; meaning as sumti tcita, 233; spatial, 506; time, 507; unspecified, 223; vague, 223 -->
+<indexterm><primary>interval size</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-naft">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e6d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section6-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu klama le zarci</jbo>
<en>I [past] go-to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -651,286 +723,388 @@
well, the event
<quote>I went to the market</quote> was in progress.
</programlisting>
<para>The vague or unspecified interval contains an instant in the speaker's past. However, there is no indication whether or not the whole interval is in the speaker's past! It is entirely possible that the interval during which the going-to-the-market is happening stretches into the speaker's present or even future.</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section6-example1" />points up a fundamental difference between Lojban tenses and English tenses. An English past-tense sentence like
<quote>I went to the market</quote>generally signifies that the going-to-the-market is entirely in the past; that is, that the event is complete at the time of speaking. Lojban
<quote>pu</quote>has no such implication.</para>
<para>This property of a past tense is sometimes called
<quote>aorist</quote>, in reference to a similar concept in the tense system of Classical Greek. All of the Lojban tenses have the same property, however:</para>
+<!-- ^^ tense system: and space location, 215 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tense system</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ aorist: definition, 223 -->
+<indexterm><primary>aorist</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-xQ0w">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e6d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section6-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le tricu ba crino</jbo>
<gloss>The tree [future] is-green.</gloss>
<en>The tree will be green.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>does not imply (as the colloquial English translation does) that the tree is not green now. The vague interval throughout which the tree is, in fact, green may have already started.</para>
<para>This general principle does not mean that Lojban has no way of indicating that a tree will be green but is not yet green. Indeed, there are several ways of expressing that concept: see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section10" />(event contours) and
+<!-- ^^ event contours: achievative, 230; as characteristic portions of events, 228; as sumti tcita, 232; as timeless in perspective, 228; cessative, 229; completitive, 229; continuitive, 228; contrasted with tense direction in implication of extent, 229; definition, 228; division of the event into, 229; implications on scope of event, 229; inchoative, 228; initiative, 229; interruption, 229; order with respect to TAhE and ROI, 228; pausative, 229; perfective, 229; points associated with, 229; resumption, 229; resumptive, 229; strings of, 246; superfective, 230; syntax of, 228; temporal contrasted with spatial, 231 -->
+<!-- ^^ tense direction: as sumti tcita, 232; contrasted with event contours in implication of extent, 229; implications on scope of event, 223 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tense direction</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>event contours</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section20" />(logical connection between tenses).</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section7">
<title>7. Dimensionality: VIhA</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>vi'i</cmavo>
<selmaho>VIhA</selmaho>
<description>on a line</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>vi'a</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ vi'a, 224 -->
+<indexterm><primary>vi'a</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>VIhA</selmaho>
<description>in an area</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>vi'u</cmavo>
<selmaho>VIhA</selmaho>
<description>through a volume</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>vi'e</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ vi'e, 224 -->
+<indexterm><primary>vi'e</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>VIhA</selmaho>
<description>throughout a space/time interval</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>The cmavo of ZEhA are sufficient to express time intervals. One fundamental difference between space and time, however, is that space is multi-dimensional. Sometimes we want to say not only that something moves over a small interval, but also perhaps that it moves in a line. Lojban allows for this. I can specify that a motion
<quote>in a small space</quote>is more specifically
<quote>in a short line</quote>,
<quote>in a small area</quote>, or
<quote>through a small volume</quote>.</para>
<para>What about the child walking on the ice in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section5-example1" />through
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section5-example3" />? Given the nature of ice, probably the area interpretation is most sensible. I can make this assumption explicit with the appropriate member of selma'o VIhA:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-vKp6">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e7d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section7-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le verba ve'a vi'a cadzu le bisli</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ vi'a, 224 -->
+<indexterm><primary>vi'a</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>The child [medium space interval] [2-dimensional] walks-on the ice.</gloss>
<en>In a medium-sized area, the child walks on the ice.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Space intervals can contain either VEhA or VIhA or both, but if both, VEhA must come first, as
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section7-example1" />shows.</para>
<para>The reader may wish to raise a philosophical point here. (Readers who don't wish to, should skip this paragraph.) The ice may be two-dimensional, or more accurately its surface may be, but since the child is three-dimensional, her walking must also be. The subjective nature of Lojban tense comes to the rescue here: the action is essentially planar, and the third dimension of height is simply irrelevant to walking. Even walking on a mountain could be called
+<!-- ^^ irrelevant: specifying of sumti place, 157 -->
+<indexterm><primary>irrelevant</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ dimension: meaning as sumti tcita, 233 -->
+<indexterm><primary>dimension</primary></indexterm>
<quote>vi'a</quote>, because relatively speaking the mountain is associated with an essentially two-dimensional surface. Motion which is not confined to such a surface (e.g., flying, or walking through a three-dimensional network of tunnels, or climbing among mountains rather than on a single mountain) would be properly described with
+<!-- ^^ vi'a, 224 -->
+<indexterm><primary>vi'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>vi'u</quote>. So the cognitive, rather than the physical, dimensionality controls the choice of VIhA cmavo.</para>
+<!-- ^^ dimensionality: of walking, 224; order with size in spatial tense intervals, 224; spatial, 506 -->
+<indexterm><primary>dimensionality</primary></indexterm>
<para>VIhA has a member
<quote>vi'e</quote>which indicates a 4-dimensional interval, one that involves both space and time. This allows the spatial tenses to invade, to some degree, the temporal tenses; it is possible to make statements about space-time considered as an Einsteinian whole. (There are presently no cmavo of FAhA assigned to
+<!-- ^^ vi'e, 224 -->
+<indexterm><primary>vi'e</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ temporal tenses: compared with spatial tenses, 219 -->
+<indexterm><primary>temporal tenses</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ Einsteinian: space-time intervals with 4 dimensions, 224 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Einsteinian</primary></indexterm>
<quote>pastward</quote>and
+<!-- ^^ pastward: as a spatial tense, 224 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pastward</primary></indexterm>
<quote>futureward</quote>considered as space rather than time directions - they could be added, though, if Lojbanists find space-time expression useful.) If a temporal tense cmavo is used in the same tense construct with a
+<!-- ^^ temporal tense: as mandatory in English, 215; compared with spatial tense in elidability, 217; historical definition, 215; interaction with 4-dimensional spatial tense, 224; Lojban contrasted with English in necessity, 215; order relative to spatial, 219; quantified with direction, 227; real relationship to time in English, 215 -->
+<indexterm><primary>temporal tense</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ futureward: as a spatial tense, 224 -->
+<indexterm><primary>futureward</primary></indexterm>
<quote>vi'e</quote>interval, the resulting tense may be self-contradictory.</para>
+<!-- ^^ vi'e, 224 -->
+<indexterm><primary>vi'e</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section8">
<title>8. Movement in space: MOhI</title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>mo'i</cmavo>
<selmaho>MOhI</selmaho>
<description>movement flag</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>All the information carried by the tense constructs so far presented has been presumed to be static: the bridi is occurring somewhere or other in space and time, more or less remote from the speaker. Suppose the truth of the bridi itself depends on the result of a movement, or represents an action being done while the speaker is moving? This too can be represented by the tense system, using the cmavo
+<!-- ^^ tense system: and space location, 215 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tense system</primary></indexterm>
<quote>mo'i</quote>(of selma'o MOhI) plus a spatial direction and optional distance; the direction now refers to a direction of motion rather than a static direction from the speaker.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-d8yP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e8d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section8-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le verba mo'i ri'u cadzu le bisli</jbo>
<gloss>The child [movement] [right] walks-on the ice.</gloss>
<en>The child walks toward my right on the ice.</en>
+<!-- ^^ toward my right: example, 224 -->
+<indexterm><primary>toward my right</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This is quite different from:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-abBF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e8d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section8-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le verba ri'u cadzu le bisli</jbo>
<gloss>The child [right] walks-on the ice.</gloss>
<en>To the right of me, the child walks on the ice.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In either case, however, the reference frame for defining
+<!-- ^^ reference frame: specifying for direction tenses, 224 -->
+<indexterm><primary>reference frame</primary></indexterm>
<quote>right</quote>and
<quote>left</quote>is the speaker's, not the child's. This can be changed thus:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-mfgA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e8d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section8-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le verba mo'i ri'u cadzu le bisli ma'i vo'a</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ma'i, 224 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ma'i</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>The child [movement] [right] walks on the ice in-reference-frame the-x1-place.</gloss>
<en>The child walks toward her right on the ice.</en>
+<!-- ^^ toward her right: example, 225 -->
+<indexterm><primary>toward her right</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section8-example3" />is analogous to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section8-example1" />. The cmavo
<quote>ma'i</quote>belongs to selma'o BAI (explained in
+<!-- ^^ ma'i, 224 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ma'i</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9" />), and allows specifying a reference frame.</para>
+<!-- ^^ reference frame: specifying for direction tenses, 224 -->
+<indexterm><primary>reference frame</primary></indexterm>
<para>Both a regular and a
<quote>mo'i</quote>-flagged spatial tense can be combined, with the
<quote>mo'i</quote>construct coming last:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-fusc">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e8d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section8-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le verba zu'avu mo'i ri'uvi cadzu le bisli</jbo>
<gloss>The child [left] [long] [movement] [right] [short] walks-on the ice.</gloss>
<en>Far to the left of me, the child walks a short distance toward my right on the ice.</en>
+<!-- ^^ toward my right: example, 224 -->
+<indexterm><primary>toward my right</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>It is not grammatical to use multiple directions like
<quote>zu'a ca'u</quote>after
<quote>mo'i</quote>, but complex movements can be expressed in a separate bridi.</para>
+<!-- ^^ complex movements: expressing, 225 -->
+<indexterm><primary>complex movements</primary></indexterm>
<para>Here is an example of a movement tense on a bridi not inherently involving movement:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Avnq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e8d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section8-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi mo'i ca'uvu citka le mi sanmi</jbo>
<gloss>I [movement] [front] [long] eat my meal.</gloss>
<en>While moving a long way forward, I eat my meal.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(Perhaps I am eating in an airplane.)</para>
<para>There is no parallel facility in Lojban at present for expressing movement in time - time travel - but one could be added easily if it ever becomes useful.</para>
+<!-- ^^ time travel, 225 -->
+<indexterm><primary>time travel</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section9">
<title>9. Interval properties: TAhE and
<quote>roi</quote></title>
+<!-- ^^ roi, 226, 458 -->
+<indexterm><primary>roi</primary></indexterm>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
di'i TAhE regularly
+<!-- ^^ di'i, 226 -->
+<indexterm><primary>di'i</primary></indexterm>
na'o TAhE typically
+<!-- ^^ na'o, 226 -->
+<indexterm><primary>na'o</primary></indexterm>
ru'i TAhE continuously
+<!-- ^^ ru'i, 226 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ru'i</primary></indexterm>
ta'e TAhE habitually
+<!-- ^^ ta'e, 226, 324 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ta'e</primary></indexterm>
di'inai TAhE irregularly
na'onai TAhE atypically
ru'inai TAhE intermittently
+<!-- ^^ intermittently: example, 226 -->
+<indexterm><primary>intermittently</primary></indexterm>
ta'enai TAhE contrary to habit
roi ROI
+<!-- ^^ roi, 226, 458 -->
+<indexterm><primary>roi</primary></indexterm>
<quote>n</quote> times
roinai ROI other than
<quote>n</quote> times
ze'e ZEhA whole time interval
+<!-- ^^ ze'e, 227; effect on following PU direction, 227 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ze'e</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ whole time interval: expressing, 227 -->
+<indexterm><primary>whole time interval</primary></indexterm>
ve'e VEhA whole space interval
+<!-- ^^ ve'e, 228 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ve'e</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>Consider Lojban bridi which express events taking place in time. Whether a very short interval (a point) or a long interval of time is involved, the event may not be spread consistently throughout that interval. Lojban can use the cmavo of selma'o TAhE to express the idea of continuous or non-continuous actions.</para>
+<!-- ^^ continuous: of tense intervals, 225 -->
+<indexterm><primary>continuous</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-GCXM">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e9d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section9-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi puzu ze'u velckule</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] [long distance] [long interval] am-a-school-attendee (pupil).</gloss>
<en>Long ago I attended school for a long time.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>probably does not mean that I attended school continuously throughout the whole of that long-ago interval. Actually, I attended school every day, except for school holidays. More explicitly,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-JM1W">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e9d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section9-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi puzu ze'u di'i velckule</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ di'i, 226 -->
+<indexterm><primary>di'i</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I [past] [long distance] [long interval] [regularly] am-a-pupil.</gloss>
<en>Long ago I regularly attended school for a long time.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The four TAhE cmavo are differentiated as follows:
<quote>ru'i</quote>covers the entirety of the interval,
+<!-- ^^ ru'i, 226 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ru'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>di'i</quote>covers the parts of the interval which are systematically spaced subintervals;
+<!-- ^^ di'i, 226 -->
+<indexterm><primary>di'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>na'o</quote>covers part of the interval, but exactly which part is determined by context;
+<!-- ^^ na'o, 226 -->
+<indexterm><primary>na'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ta'e</quote>covers part of the interval, selected with reference to the behavior of the actor (who often, but not always, appears in the x1 place of the bridi).</para>
+<!-- ^^ ta'e, 226, 324 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ta'e</primary></indexterm>
<para>Using TAhE does not require being so specific. Either the time direction or the time interval or both may be omitted (in which case they are vague). For example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-eb2h">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e9d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section9-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ba ta'e klama le zarci</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ta'e, 226, 324 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ta'e</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I [future] [habitually] go-to the market.</gloss>
<gloss>I will habitually go to the market.</gloss>
<en>I will make a habit of going to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>specifies the future, but the duration of the interval is indefinite. Similarly,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-RQTF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e9d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section9-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na'o klama le zarci</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ na'o, 226 -->
+<indexterm><primary>na'o</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I [typically] go-to the market.</gloss>
<en>I typically go/went/will go to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>illustrates an interval property in isolation. There are no distance or direction cmavo, so the point of time is vague; likewise, there is no interval cmavo, so the length of the interval during which these goings-to-the-market take place is also vague. As always, context will determine these vague values.</para>
<para>
<quote>Intermittently</quote>is the polar opposite notion to
<quote>continuously</quote>, and is expressed not with its own cmavo, but by adding the negation suffix
<quote>-nai</quote>(which belongs to selma'o NAI) to
<quote>ru'i</quote>. For example:</para>
+<!-- ^^ ru'i, 226 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ru'i</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-mvdN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e9d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section9-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le verba ru'inai cadzu le bisli</jbo>
<gloss>The child [continuously-not] walks-on the ice.</gloss>
<en>The child intermittently walks on the ice.</en>
+<!-- ^^ intermittently: example, 226 -->
+<indexterm><primary>intermittently</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>As shown in the cmavo table above, all the cmavo of TAhE may be negated with
<quote>-nai</quote>;
<quote>ru'inai</quote>and
<quote>di'inai</quote>are probably the most useful.</para>
<para>An intermittent event can also be specified by counting the number of times during the interval that it takes place. The cmavo
<quote>roi</quote>(which belongs to selma'o ROI) can be appended to a number to make a quantified tense. Quantified tenses are common in English, but not so commonly named: they are exemplified by the adverbs
+<!-- ^^ roi, 226, 458 -->
+<indexterm><primary>roi</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ adverbs: brivla as Lojban equivalents, 52 -->
+<indexterm><primary>adverbs</primary></indexterm>
<quote>never</quote>,
<quote>once</quote>,
<quote>twice</quote>,
<quote>thrice</quote>, ...
<quote>always</quote>, and by the related phrases
<quote>many times</quote>,
<quote>a few times</quote>,
<quote>too many times</quote>, and so on. All of these are handled in Lojban by a number plus
<quote>-roi</quote>:</para>
+<!-- ^^ roi, 226, 458 -->
+<indexterm><primary>roi</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Ifzq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e9d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section9-example6" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e9d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section9-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi paroi klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [one time] go-to the market.</gloss>
@@ -949,79 +1123,111 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu reroi klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] [two times] go-to the market.</gloss>
<en>I went to the market twice.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The English is slightly over-specific here: it entails that both goings-to-the-market were in the past, which may or may not be true in the Lojban sentence, since the implied interval is vague. Therefore, the interval may start in the past but extend into the present or even the future.</para>
<para>Adding
<quote>-nai</quote>to
<quote>roi</quote>is also permitted, and has the meaning
+<!-- ^^ roi, 226, 458 -->
+<indexterm><primary>roi</primary></indexterm>
<quote>other than (the number specified)</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-rXXf">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e9d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section9-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ratcu reroinai citka le cirla</jbo>
<gloss>The rat [twice-not] eats the cheese.</gloss>
<en>The rat eats the cheese other than twice.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This may mean that the rat eats the cheese fewer times, or more times, or not at all.</para>
<para>It is necessary to be careful with sentences like
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section9-example6" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section9-example8" />, where a quantified tense appears without an interval. What
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section9-example8" />really says is that during an interval of unspecified size, at least part of which was set in the past, the event of my going to the market happened twice. The example says nothing about what happened outside that vague time interval. This is often less than we mean. If we want to nail down that I went to the market once and only once, we can use the cmavo
+<!-- ^^ only once: example, 227 -->
+<indexterm><primary>only once</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ze'e</quote>which represents the
+<!-- ^^ ze'e, 227; effect on following PU direction, 227 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ze'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>whole time interval</quote>: conceptually, an interval which stretches from time's beginning to its end:</para>
+<!-- ^^ whole time interval: expressing, 227 -->
+<indexterm><primary>whole time interval</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-8WJS">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e9d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section9-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ze'e paroi klama le zarci</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ze'e, 227; effect on following PU direction, 227 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ze'e</primary></indexterm>
<en>I [whole interval] [once] go-to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Since specifying no ZEhA leaves the interval vague,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section9-example8" />might in appropriate context mean the same as
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section9-example10" />after all - but
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section9-example10" />allows us to be specific when specificity is necessary.</para>
+<!-- ^^ specificity: expressing with po, 173 -->
+<indexterm><primary>specificity</primary></indexterm>
<para>A PU cmavo following
<quote>ze'e</quote>has a slightly different meaning from one that follows another ZEhA cmavo. The compound cmavo
+<!-- ^^ ze'e, 227; effect on following PU direction, 227 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ze'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ze'epu</quote>signifies the interval stretching from the infinite past to the reference point (wherever the imaginary journey has taken you);
+<!-- ^^ ze'epu, 227; meaning of, 227 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ze'epu</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ze'eba</quote>is the interval stretching from the reference point to the infinite future. The remaining form,
+<!-- ^^ ze'eba, 227; meaning of, 227 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ze'eba</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ze'eca</quote>, makes specific the
+<!-- ^^ ze'eca, 227; meaning of, 227 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ze'eca</primary></indexterm>
<quote>whole of time</quote>interpretation just given. These compound forms make it possible to assert that something has never happened without asserting that it never will.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-gA7X">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e9d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section9-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ze'epu noroi klama le zarci</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ze'epu, 227; meaning of, 227 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ze'epu</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I [whole interval] [past] [never] go-to the market.</gloss>
<en>I have never gone to the market.</en>
+<!-- ^^ have never: example, 227 -->
+<indexterm><primary>have never</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>says nothing about whether I might go in future.</para>
<para>The space equivalent of
<quote>ze'e</quote>is
+<!-- ^^ ze'e, 227; effect on following PU direction, 227 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ze'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ve'e</quote>, and it can be used in the same way with a quantified space tense: see
+<!-- ^^ ve'e, 228 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ve'e</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ quantified space, 228 -->
+<indexterm><primary>quantified space</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section11" />for an explanation of space interval modifiers.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section10">
<title>10. Event contours: ZAhO and
<quote>re'u</quote></title>
+<!-- ^^ re'u, 230 -->
+<indexterm><primary>re'u</primary></indexterm>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>pu'o</cmavo>
<selmaho>ZAhO</selmaho>
<description>inchoative</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ca'o</cmavo>
<selmaho>ZAhO</selmaho>
@@ -1042,90 +1248,130 @@
<selmaho>ZAhO</selmaho>
<description>cessitive</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>mo'u</cmavo>
<selmaho>ZAhO</selmaho>
<description>completitive</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>za'o</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ za'o, 230 -->
+<indexterm><primary>za'o</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>ZAhO</selmaho>
<description>superfective</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>co'i</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ co'i, 230 -->
+<indexterm><primary>co'i</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>ZAhO</selmaho>
<description>achievative</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>de'a</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ de'a, 229 -->
+<indexterm><primary>de'a</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>ZAhO</selmaho>
<description>pausative</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>di'a</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ di'a, 229 -->
+<indexterm><primary>di'a</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>ZAhO</selmaho>
<description>resumptive</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>re'u</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ re'u, 230 -->
+<indexterm><primary>re'u</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>ROI</selmaho>
<description>ordinal tense</description>
+<!-- ^^ ordinal tense, 230 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ordinal tense</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>The cmavo of selma'o ZAhO express the Lojban version of what is traditionally called
<quote>aspect</quote>. This is not a notion well expressed by English tenses, but many languages (including Chinese and Russian among Lojban's six source languages) consider it more important than the specification of mere position in time.</para>
+<!-- ^^ source languages: use in creating gismu, 75 -->
+<indexterm><primary>source languages</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ aspect: expressing, 228; natural languages compared with respect to, 228 -->
+<indexterm><primary>aspect</primary></indexterm>
<para>The
<quote>event contours</quote>of selma'o ZAhO, with their bizarre keywords, represent the natural portions of an event considered as a process, an occurrence with an internal structure including a beginning, a middle, and an end. Since the keywords are scarcely self-explanatory, each ZAhO will be explained in detail here. Note that from the viewpoint of Lojban syntax, ZAhOs are interval modifiers like TAhEs or ROI compounds; if both are found in a single tense, the TAhE/ROI comes first and the ZAhO afterward. The imaginary journey described by other tense cmavo moves us to the portion of the event-as-process which the ZAhO specifies.</para>
+<!-- ^^ event contours: achievative, 230; as characteristic portions of events, 228; as sumti tcita, 232; as timeless in perspective, 228; cessative, 229; completitive, 229; continuitive, 228; contrasted with tense direction in implication of extent, 229; definition, 228; division of the event into, 229; implications on scope of event, 229; inchoative, 228; initiative, 229; interruption, 229; order with respect to TAhE and ROI, 228; pausative, 229; perfective, 229; points associated with, 229; resumption, 229; resumptive, 229; strings of, 246; superfective, 230; syntax of, 228; temporal contrasted with spatial, 231 -->
+<!-- ^^ tense direction: as sumti tcita, 232; contrasted with event contours in implication of extent, 229; implications on scope of event, 223 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tense direction</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>event contours</primary></indexterm>
<para>It is important to understand that ZAhO cmavo, unlike the other tense cmavo, specify characteristic portions of the event, and are seen from an essentially timeless perspective. The
<quote>beginning</quote>of an event is the same whether the event is in the speaker's present, past, or future. It is especially important not to confuse the speaker-relative viewpoint of the PU tenses with the event-relative viewpoint of the ZAhO tenses.</para>
+<!-- ^^ speaker-relative viewpoint: contrasted with event-relative viewpoint, 228 -->
+<indexterm><primary>speaker-relative viewpoint</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ PU tenses: contrasted with ZAhO tenses in viewpoint, 228 -->
+<indexterm><primary>PU tenses</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ event-relative viewpoint: contrasted with speaker-relative viewpoint, 228 -->
+<!-- ^^ speaker-relative viewpoint: contrasted with event-relative viewpoint, 228 -->
+<indexterm><primary>speaker-relative viewpoint</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>event-relative viewpoint</primary></indexterm>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>pu'o</quote>,
<quote>ca'o</quote>, and
<quote>ba'o</quote>(etymologically derived from the PU cmavo) refer to an event that has not yet begun, that is in progress, or that has ended, respectively:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-RvHN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e10d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section10-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e10d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section10-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e10d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section10-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu'o damba</jbo>
<gloss>I [inchoative] fight.</gloss>
<en>I'm on the verge of fighting.</en>
<jbo>la stiv. ca'o bacru</jbo>
<gloss>Steve [continuitive] utters.</gloss>
<en>Steve continues to talk.</en>
+<!-- ^^ continues: example, 228 -->
+<indexterm><primary>continues</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>le verba ba'o cadzu le bisli</jbo>
<gloss>The child [perfective] walks-on the ice.</gloss>
<en>The child is finished walking on the ice.</en>
+<!-- ^^ finished: example, 229 -->
+<indexterm><primary>finished</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>As discussed in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section6" />, the simple PU cmavo make no assumptions about whether the scope of a past, present, or future event extends into one of the other tenses as well.
+<!-- ^^ future event: possible extension into present, 223 -->
+<indexterm><primary>future event</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section10-example1" />through
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section10-example3" />illustrate that these ZAhO cmavo do make such assumptions possible: the event in 10.1 has not yet begun, definitively; likewise, the event in 10.3 is definitely over.</para>
<para>Note that in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section10-example1" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section10-example3" />,
<quote>pu'o</quote>and
<quote>ba'o</quote>may appear to be reversed:
<quote>pu'o</quote>, although etymologically connected with
<quote>pu</quote>, is referring to a future event; whereas
+<!-- ^^ future event: possible extension into present, 223 -->
+<indexterm><primary>future event</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ba'o</quote>, connected with
<quote>ba</quote>, is referring to a past event. This is the natural result of the event-centered view of ZAhO cmavo. The inchoative, or
+<!-- ^^ past event: possible extension into present, 223 -->
+<indexterm><primary>past event</primary></indexterm>
<quote>pu'o</quote>, part of an event, is in the
<quote>pastward</quote>portion of that event, when seen from the perspective of the event itself. It is only by inference that we suppose that
+<!-- ^^ pastward: as a spatial tense, 224 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pastward</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section10-example1" />refers to the speaker's future: in fact, no PU tense is given, so the inchoative part of the event need not be coincident with the speaker's present:
<quote>pu'o</quote>is not necessarily, though in fact often is, the same as
<quote>ca pu'o</quote>.</para>
<para>The cmavo in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section10-example1" />through
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section10-example3" />refer to spans of time. There are also two points of time that can be usefully associated with an event: the beginning, marked by
<quote>co'a</quote>, and the end, marked by
<quote>co'u</quote>. Specifically,
<quote>co'a</quote>marks the boundary between the
<quote>pu'o</quote>and
@@ -1151,91 +1397,125 @@
</example>
<para>Compare
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section10-example4" />with:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ChHI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e10d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section10-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ba di'i co'a bajra</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ di'i, 226 -->
+<indexterm><primary>di'i</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I [future] [regularly] [initiative] run.</gloss>
<en>I will regularly begin to run.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which illustrates the combination of a TAhE with a ZAhO.</para>
<para>A process can have two end points, one reflecting the
<quote>natural end</quote>(when the process is complete) and the other reflecting the
+<!-- ^^ natural end: continuing beyond, 230; contrasted with actual stop, 229 -->
+<indexterm><primary>natural end</primary></indexterm>
<quote>actual stopping point</quote>(whether complete or not).
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section10-example5" />may be contrasted with:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-3s6c">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e10d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section10-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu mo'u citka le mi sanmi</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] [completitive] eat my meal.</gloss>
<en>I finished eating my meal.</en>
+<!-- ^^ finished: example, 229 -->
+<indexterm><primary>finished</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section10-example7" />, the meal has reached its natural end; in
+<!-- ^^ natural end: continuing beyond, 230; contrasted with actual stop, 229 -->
+<indexterm><primary>natural end</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section10-example5" />, the meal has merely ceased, without necessarily reaching its natural end.</para>
+<!-- ^^ natural end: continuing beyond, 230; contrasted with actual stop, 229 -->
+<indexterm><primary>natural end</primary></indexterm>
<para>A process such as eating a meal does not necessarily proceed uninterrupted. If it is interrupted, there are two more relevant point events: the point just before the interruption, marked by
<quote>de'a</quote>, and the point just after the interruption, marked by
+<!-- ^^ de'a, 229 -->
+<indexterm><primary>de'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>di'a</quote>. Some examples:</para>
+<!-- ^^ di'a, 229 -->
+<indexterm><primary>di'a</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Gqm1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e10d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section10-example8" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e10d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section10-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu de'a citka le mi sanmi</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ de'a, 229 -->
+<indexterm><primary>de'a</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I [past] [pausative] eat my meal.</gloss>
<en>I stopped eating my meal (with the intention of resuming).</en>
<jbo>mi ba di'a citka le mi sanmi</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ di'a, 229 -->
+<indexterm><primary>di'a</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I [future] [resumptive] eat my meal.</gloss>
<en>I will resume eating my meal.</en>
+<!-- ^^ resume: contrasted with begin, 229 -->
+<indexterm><primary>resume</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In addition, it is possible for a process to continue beyond its natural end. The span of time between the natural and the actual end points is represented by
+<!-- ^^ natural end: continuing beyond, 230; contrasted with actual stop, 229 -->
+<indexterm><primary>natural end</primary></indexterm>
<quote>za'o</quote>:</para>
+<!-- ^^ za'o, 230 -->
+<indexterm><primary>za'o</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-jSQ4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e10d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section10-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ctuca pu za'o ciksi le cmaci seldanfu le tadgri</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ za'o, 230 -->
+<indexterm><primary>za'o</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>The teacher [past] [superfective] explained the mathematics problem to the student-group.</gloss>
<en>The teacher kept on explaining the mathematics problem to the class too long.</en>
+<!-- ^^ too long: example, 233; Example, 230 -->
+<indexterm><primary>too long</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>That is, the teacher went on explaining after the class already understood the problem.</para>
<para>An entire event can be treated as a single moment using the cmavo
<quote>co'i</quote>:</para>
+<!-- ^^ co'i, 230 -->
+<indexterm><primary>co'i</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-odH5">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e10d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section10-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. pu co'i catra la djim</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ co'i, 230 -->
+<indexterm><primary>co'i</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>John [past] [achievative] kills Jim.</gloss>
<en>John was at the point in time where he killed Jim.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Finally, since an activity is cyclical, an individual cycle can be referred to using a number followed by
<quote>re'u</quote>, which is the other cmavo of selma'o ROI:</para>
+<!-- ^^ re'u, 230 -->
+<indexterm><primary>re'u</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-msrS">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e10d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section10-example12" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pare'u klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [first time] go-to the store.</gloss>
<en>I go to the store for the first time (within a vague interval).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1269,81 +1549,111 @@
<title>11. Space interval modifiers: FEhE</title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>fe'e</cmavo>
<selmaho>FEhE</selmaho>
<description>space interval modifier flag</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>Like time intervals, space intervals can also be continuous, discontinuous, or repetitive. Rather than having a whole separate set of selma'o for space interval properties, we instead prefix the flag
+<!-- ^^ interval properties: meaning as sumti tcita, 233; strings of, 246 -->
+<indexterm><primary>interval properties</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ continuous: of tense intervals, 225 -->
+<indexterm><primary>continuous</primary></indexterm>
<quote>fe'e</quote>to the cmavo used for time interval properties. A space interval property would be placed just after the space interval size and/or dimensionality cmavo:</para>
+<!-- ^^ interval size: as context-dependent, 222; meaning as sumti tcita, 233; spatial, 506; time, 507; unspecified, 223; vague, 223 -->
+<indexterm><primary>interval size</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ interval properties: meaning as sumti tcita, 233; strings of, 246 -->
+<indexterm><primary>interval properties</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ dimensionality: of walking, 224; order with size in spatial tense intervals, 224; spatial, 506 -->
+<indexterm><primary>dimensionality</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-MFQ7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e11d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section11-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e11d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section11-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e11d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section11-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ko vi'i fe'e di'i sombo le gurni</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ di'i, 226 -->
+<indexterm><primary>di'i</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>You-imperative [1-dimensional] [space:] [regularly] sow the grain.</gloss>
<en>Sow the grain in a line and evenly!</en>
<jbo>mi fe'e ciroi tervecnu lo selsalta</jbo>
<gloss>I [space:] [three places] buy those-which-are salad-ingredients.</gloss>
<en>I buy salad ingredients in three locations.</en>
+<!-- ^^ salad ingredients: example, 231 -->
+<indexterm><primary>salad ingredients</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>ze'e roroi ve'e fe'e roroi ku</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ze'e, 227; effect on following PU direction, 227 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ze'e</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ ve'e, 228 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ve'e</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>li re su'i re du li vo</gloss>
<gloss>[whole time] [all times] [whole space] [space:] [all places]</gloss>
<gloss>The-number 2 + 2 = the-number 4.</gloss>
<en>Always and everywhere, two plus two is four.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>As shown in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section11-example3" />, when a tense comes first in a bridi, rather than in its normal position before the selbri (in this case
<quote>du</quote>), it is emphasized.</para>
<para>The
<quote>fe'e</quote>marker can also be used for the same purpose before members of ZAhO. (The cmavo
<quote>be'a</quote>belongs to selma'o FAhA; it is the space direction meaning
+<!-- ^^ be'a, 231 -->
+<indexterm><primary>be'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>north of</quote>.)</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-L4un">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e11d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section11-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>tu ve'abe'a fe'e co'a rokci</jbo>
<gloss>That-yonder [medium space interval – north] [space] [initiative] is-a-rock.</gloss>
<gloss>That is the beginning of a rock extending to my north.</gloss>
<en>That is the south face of a rock.</en>
+<!-- ^^ south face: example, 231 -->
+<indexterm><primary>south face</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the notion of a
<quote>beginning point</quote>represented by the cmavo
+<!-- ^^ beginning point: spatial, 231 -->
+<indexterm><primary>beginning point</primary></indexterm>
<quote>co'a</quote>is transferred from
<quote>beginning in time</quote>to
<quote>beginning in space</quote>under the influence of the
<quote>fe'e</quote>flag. Space is not inherently oriented, unlike time, which flows from past to future: therefore, some indication of orientation is necessary, and the
<quote>ve'abe'a</quote>provides an orientation in which the south face is the
+<!-- ^^ south face: example, 231 -->
+<indexterm><primary>south face</primary></indexterm>
<quote>beginning</quote>and the north face is the
<quote>end</quote>, since the rock extends from south (near me) to north (away from me).</para>
<para>Many natural languages represent time by a space-based metaphor: in English, what is past is said to be
<quote>behind us</quote>. In other languages, the metaphor is reversed. Here, Lojban is representing space (or space interval modifiers) by a time-based metaphor: the choice of a FAhA cmavo following a VEhA cmavo indicates which direction is mapped onto the future. (The choice of future rather than past is arbitrary, but convenient for English-speakers.)</para>
<para>If both a TAhE (or ROI) and a ZAhO are present as space interval modifiers, the
<quote>fe'e</quote>flag must be prefixed to each.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section12">
<title>12. Tenses as sumti tcita</title>
<para>So far, we have seen tenses only just before the selbri, or (equivalently in meaning) floating about the bridi with
<quote>ku</quote>. There is another major use for tenses in Lojban: as sumti tcita, or argument tags. A tense may be used to add spatial or temporal information to a bridi as, in effect, an additional place:</para>
+<!-- ^^ temporal information: adding to a sentence with tense sumti tcita, 231 -->
+<indexterm><primary>temporal information</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ argument tags: based on tenses (see also sumti tcita), 231 -->
+<indexterm><primary>argument tags</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-v761">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e12d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section12-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci ca le nu do klama le zdani</jbo>
<gloss>I go-to the market [present] the event-of you go-to the house.</gloss>
<en>I go to the market when you go to the house.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1382,39 +1692,47 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section12-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e12d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section12-example4" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e12d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section12-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ratcu cu citka le cirla vi le panka</jbo>
<gloss>The rat eats the cheese [short distance] the park.</gloss>
<en>The rat eats the cheese near the park.</en>
+<!-- ^^ near the park: example, 232 -->
+<indexterm><primary>near the park</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>le ratcu cu citka le cirla vi le vu panka</jbo>
<gloss>The rat eats the cheese [short distance] the [long distance] park</gloss>
<en>The rat eats the cheese near the faraway park.</en>
<jbo>le ratcu cu citka le cirla vu le vi panka</jbo>
<gloss>The rat eats the cheese [long distance] the [short distance] park</gloss>
<en>The rat eats the cheese far away from the nearby park.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The event contours of selma'o ZAhO (and their space equivalents, prefixed with
+<!-- ^^ event contours: achievative, 230; as characteristic portions of events, 228; as sumti tcita, 232; as timeless in perspective, 228; cessative, 229; completitive, 229; continuitive, 228; contrasted with tense direction in implication of extent, 229; definition, 228; division of the event into, 229; implications on scope of event, 229; inchoative, 228; initiative, 229; interruption, 229; order with respect to TAhE and ROI, 228; pausative, 229; perfective, 229; points associated with, 229; resumption, 229; resumptive, 229; strings of, 246; superfective, 230; syntax of, 228; temporal contrasted with spatial, 231 -->
+<!-- ^^ tense direction: as sumti tcita, 232; contrasted with event contours in implication of extent, 229; implications on scope of event, 223 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tense direction</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>event contours</primary></indexterm>
<quote>fe'e</quote>) are also useful as sumti tcita. The interpretation of ZAhO tcita differs from that of FAhA, VA, PU, and ZI tcita, however. The event described in the sumti is viewed as a process, and the action of the main bridi occurs at the phase of the process which the ZAhO specifies, or at least some part of that phase. The action of the main bridi itself is seen as a point event, so that there is no issue about which phase of the main bridi is intended. For example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Y2Kb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e12d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section12-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi morsi ba'o le nu mi jmive</jbo>
<gloss>I am-dead [perfective] the event-of I live.</gloss>
<en>I die in the aftermath of my living.</en>
+<!-- ^^ in the aftermath: example, 232 -->
+<indexterm><primary>in the aftermath</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the (point-)event of my being dead is the portion of my living-process which occurs after the process is complete. Contrast
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section12-example6" />with:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-18dT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e12d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section12-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1441,51 +1759,69 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e12d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section12-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci ba'o le nu mi citka</jbo>
<en>I go-to the store [perfective] the event-of I eat</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>would indicate that I go to the store after I am finished eating.</para>
+<!-- ^^ finished: example, 229 -->
+<indexterm><primary>finished</primary></indexterm>
<para>Here is an example which mixes temporal ZAhO (as a tense) and spatial ZAhO (as a sumti tcita):</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-PABV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e12d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section12-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le bloti pu za'o xelklama</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ za'o, 230 -->
+<indexterm><primary>za'o</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>fe'e ba'o le lalxu</gloss>
<gloss>The boat [past] [superfective] is-a-transport-mechanism</gloss>
<gloss>[space] [perfective] the lake.</gloss>
<en>The boat sailed for too long and beyond the lake.</en>
+<!-- ^^ too long: example, 233; Example, 230 -->
+<indexterm><primary>too long</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ boat sailed: example, 233 -->
+<indexterm><primary>boat sailed</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Probably it sailed up onto the dock. One point of clarification: although
<quote>xelklama</quote>appears to mean simply
<quote>is-a-mode-of-transport</quote>, it does not - the bridi of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section12-example10" />has four omitted arguments, and thus has the (physical) journey which goes on too long as part of its meaning.</para>
+<!-- ^^ too long: example, 233; Example, 230 -->
+<indexterm><primary>too long</primary></indexterm>
<para>The remaining tense cmavo, which have to do with interval size, dimension, and continuousness (or lack thereof) are interpreted to let the sumti specify the particular interval over which the main bridi operates:</para>
+<!-- ^^ interval size: as context-dependent, 222; meaning as sumti tcita, 233; spatial, 506; time, 507; unspecified, 223; vague, 223 -->
+<indexterm><primary>interval size</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ dimension: meaning as sumti tcita, 233 -->
+<indexterm><primary>dimension</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-bLaQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e12d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section12-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci reroi le ca djedi</jbo>
<gloss>I go-to the market [twice] the [present] day.</gloss>
<en>I go/went/will go to the market twice today.</en>
+<!-- ^^ twice today: example, 233 -->
+<indexterm><primary>twice today</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Be careful not to confuse a tense used as a sumti tcita with a tense used within a seltcita sumti:</para>
+<!-- ^^ seltcita sumti: definition (see also modal sumti), 195 -->
+<indexterm><primary>seltcita sumti</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-sTxE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e12d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section12-example12" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>loi snime cu carvi ze'u le ca dunra</jbo>
<gloss>Some-of-the-mass-of snow rains [long time interval] the [present] winter.</gloss>
<en>Snow falls during this winter.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1497,23 +1833,27 @@
<anchor xml:id="c10e12d13" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section12-example13" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>loi snime cu carvi ca le ze'u dunra</jbo>
<gloss>Some-of-the-mass-of snow rains [present] the [long time] winter.</gloss>
<en>Snow falls in the long winter.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>claims that during some part of the winter, which is long as winters go, snow falls.</para>
+<!-- ^^ snow falls: example, 233 -->
+<indexterm><primary>snow falls</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section13">
<title>13. Sticky and multiple tenses: KI</title>
+<!-- ^^ multiple tenses: effect of order in sentence, 235 -->
+<indexterm><primary>multiple tenses</primary></indexterm>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ki</cmavo>
<selmaho>KI</selmaho>
<description>sticky tense set/reset</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>So far we have only considered tenses in isolated bridi. Lojban provides several ways for a tense to continue in effect over more than a single bridi. This property is known as
<quote>stickiness</quote>: the tense gets
@@ -1531,20 +1871,22 @@
<gloss>I [past] [sticky] go-to the market. The man bites the dog.</gloss>
<en>I went to the market. The man bit the dog.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the use of
<quote>puki</quote>rather than just
<quote>pu</quote>ensures that the tense will affect the next sentence as well. Otherwise, since the second sentence is tenseless, there would be no way of determining its tense; the event of the second sentence might happen before, after, or simultaneously with that of the first sentence.</para>
<para>(The last statement does not apply when the two sentences form part of a narrative. See
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section14" />for an explanation of
<quote>story time</quote>, which employs a different set of conventions.)</para>
+<!-- ^^ story time: as a convention for inferring tense, 236; definition, 236; rationale for, 236; tenseless sentences in, 236; with no initial sticky time, 237 -->
+<indexterm><primary>story time</primary></indexterm>
<para>What if the second sentence has a tense anyway?</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-L9GA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e13d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section13-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi puki klama le zarci .i le nanmu pu batci le gerku</jbo>
<en>I [past] [sticky] go-to the market. The man [past] bites the dog.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1552,20 +1894,22 @@
<para>Here the second
<quote>pu</quote>does not replace the sticky tense, but adds to it, in the sense that the starting point of its imaginary journey is taken to be the previously set sticky time. So the translation of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section13-example2" />is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-oJQz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e13d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section13-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>I went to the market. The man had earlier bitten the dog.</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ had earlier: example, 234 -->
+<indexterm><primary>had earlier</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and it is equivalent in meaning (when considered in isolation from any other sentences) to:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-N5xa">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e13d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section13-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu klama le zarci .i le nanmu pupu batci le gerku</jbo>
@@ -1647,58 +1991,72 @@
<para>Lojban has several ways of embedding a bridi within another bridi: descriptions, abstractors, relative clauses. (Technically, descriptions contain selbri rather than bridi.) Any of the selbri of these subordinate bridi may have tenses attached. These tenses are interpreted relative to the tense of the main bridi:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-yxFP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e13d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section13-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu klama le ba'o zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] go-to the [perfective] market</gloss>
<en>I went to the former market.</en>
+<!-- ^^ former market: example, 235 -->
+<indexterm><primary>former market</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The significance of the
<quote>ba'o</quote>in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section13-example10" />is that the speaker's destination is described as being
<quote>in the aftermath of being a market</quote>; that is, it is a market no longer. In particular, the time at which it was no longer a market is in the speaker's past, because the
+<!-- ^^ in the aftermath: example, 232 -->
+<indexterm><primary>in the aftermath</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ba'o</quote>is interpreted relative to the
<quote>pu</quote>tense of the main bridi.</para>
<para>Here is an example involving an abstraction bridi:</para>
+<!-- ^^ abstraction bridi: contrasted with component non-abstraction bridi in meaning, 98; effect on claim of bridi, 198 -->
+<indexterm><primary>abstraction bridi</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-NfS1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e13d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section13-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ca jinvi le du'u mi ba morsi</jbo>
<gloss>I now opine the fact-that I will-be dead.</gloss>
<en>I now believe that I will be dead.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the event of being dead is said to be in the future with respect to the opinion, which is in the present.</para>
+<!-- ^^ opinion: example, 317 -->
+<indexterm><primary>opinion</primary></indexterm>
<para>
<quote>ki</quote>may also be used as a tense by itself. This cancels all stickiness and returns the bridi and all following bridi to the speaker's location in both space and time.</para>
<para>In complex descriptions, multiple tenses may be saved and then used by adding a subscript to
+<!-- ^^ multiple tenses: effect of order in sentence, 235 -->
+<indexterm><primary>multiple tenses</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ki</quote>. A time made sticky with
<quote>kixipa</quote>(ki-sub-1) can be returned to by specifying
<quote>kixipa</quote>as a tense by itself. In the case of written expression, the writer's here-and-now is often different from the reader's, and a pair of subscripted
<quote>ki</quote>tenses could be used to distinguish the two.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section14">
<title>14. Story time</title>
<para>Making strict use of the conventions explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section13" />would be intolerably awkward when a story is being told. The time at which a story is told by the narrator is usually unimportant to the story. What matters is the flow of time within the story itself. The term
<quote>story</quote>in this section refers to any series of statements related in more-or-less time-sequential order, not just a fictional one.</para>
<para>Lojban speakers use a different set of conventions, commonly called
<quote>story time</quote>, for inferring tense within a story. It is presumed that the event described by each sentence takes place some time more or less after the previous ones. Therefore, tenseless sentences are implicitly tensed as
+<!-- ^^ story time: as a convention for inferring tense, 236; definition, 236; rationale for, 236; tenseless sentences in, 236; with no initial sticky time, 237 -->
+<indexterm><primary>story time</primary></indexterm>
<quote>what happens next</quote>. In particular, any sticky time setting is advanced by each sentence.</para>
<para>The following mini-story illustrates the important features of story time. A sentence-by-sentence explication follows:</para>
+<!-- ^^ story time: as a convention for inferring tense, 236; definition, 236; rationale for, 236; tenseless sentences in, 236; with no initial sticky time, 237 -->
+<indexterm><primary>story time</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-CDcb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e14d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section14-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e14d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section14-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e14d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section14-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e14d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section14-example4" />
@@ -1706,50 +2064,66 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section14-example5" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e14d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section14-example6" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e14d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section14-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>puzuki ku ne'iki le kevna</jbo>
<gloss>le ninmu goi ko'a zutse le rokci</gloss>
<gloss>[past] [long] [sticky] [,] [inside] [sticky] the cave,</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ cave: example, 236 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cave</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>the woman defined-as she-1 sat-on the rock</gloss>
<en>Long ago, in a cave, a woman sat on a rock.</en>
+<!-- ^^ cave: example, 236 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cave</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>.i ko'a citka loi kanba rectu</jbo>
<gloss>She-1 [tenseless] eat some-of-the-mass-of goat flesh.</gloss>
<en>She was eating goat's meat.</en>
<jbo>.i ko'a pu jukpa ri le mudyfagri</jbo>
<gloss>She [past] cook the-last-mentioned by-method the wood-fire.</gloss>
<en>She had cooked the meat over a wood fire.</en>
<jbo>.i lei rectu cu zanglare</jbo>
<gloss>The-mass-of flesh is-(favorable)-warm.</gloss>
<en>The meat was pleasantly warm.</en>
<jbo>.i le labno goi ko'e bazaki nenri klama le kevna</jbo>
<gloss>The wolf defined-as it-2 [future] [medium] [sticky] within-came to-the cave.</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ cave: example, 236 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cave</primary></indexterm>
<en>A while later, a wolf came into the cave.</en>
+<!-- ^^ cave: example, 236 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cave</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>.i ko'e lebna lei rectu ko'a</jbo>
<gloss>It-2 [tenseless] takes the-mass-of flesh from-her-1.</gloss>
<en>It took the meat from her.</en>
<jbo>.i ko'e bartu klama</jbo>
<gloss>It-2 out ran</gloss>
<en>It ran out.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section14-example1" />sets both the time (long ago) and the place (in a cave) using
+<!-- ^^ cave: example, 236 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cave</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ki</quote>, just like the sentence sequences in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section13" />. No further space cmavo are used in the rest of the story, so the place is assumed to remain unchanged. The English translation of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section14-example1" />is marked for past tense also, as the conventions of English storytelling require: consequently, all other English translation sentences are also in the past tense. (We don't notice how strange this is; even stories about the future are written in past tense!) This conventional use of past tense is not used in Lojban narratives.</para>
+<!-- ^^ stories: flow of time in, 236 -->
+<indexterm><primary>stories</primary></indexterm>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section14-example2" />is tenseless. Outside story time, it would be assumed that its event happens simultaneously with that of
+<!-- ^^ story time: as a convention for inferring tense, 236; definition, 236; rationale for, 236; tenseless sentences in, 236; with no initial sticky time, 237 -->
+<indexterm><primary>story time</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section14-example1" />, since a sticky tense is in effect; the rules of story time, however, imply that the event occurs afterwards, and that the story time has advanced (changing the sticky time set in
+<!-- ^^ story time: as a convention for inferring tense, 236; definition, 236; rationale for, 236; tenseless sentences in, 236; with no initial sticky time, 237 -->
+<indexterm><primary>story time</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section14-example1" />).</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section14-example3" />has an explicit tense. This is taken relative to the latest setting of the sticky time; therefore, the event of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section14-example3" />happens before that of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section14-example2" />. It cannot be determined if
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section14-example3" />happens before or after
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section14-example1" />.</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section14-example4" />is again tenseless. Story time was not changed by the flashback in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section14-example3" />, so
@@ -1758,25 +2132,31 @@
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section14-example5" />specifies the future (relative to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section14-example4" />) and makes it sticky. So all further events happen after
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section14-example5" />.</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section14-example6" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section14-example7" />are again tenseless, and so happen after
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section14-example5" />. (Story time is changed.)</para>
<para>So the overall order is 14.1 - 14.3 - 14.2 - 14.4 - (medium interval) - 14.5 - 14.6 - 14.7. It is also possible that 14.3 happens before 14.1.</para>
<para>If no sticky time (or space) is set initially, the story is set at an unspecified time (or space): the effect is like that of choosing an arbitrary reference point and making it sticky. This style is common in stories that are jokes. The same convention may be used if the context specifies the sticky time sufficiently.</para>
+<!-- ^^ stories: flow of time in, 236 -->
+<indexterm><primary>stories</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ jokes, 4 -->
+<indexterm><primary>jokes</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section15">
<title>15. Tenses in subordinate bridi</title>
<para>English has a set of rules, formally known as
<quote>sequence of tense rules</quote>, for determining what tense should be used in a subordinate clause, depending on the tense used in the main sentence. Here are some examples:</para>
+<!-- ^^ sequence of tense rules: Lojban contrasted with English, 238 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sequence of tense rules</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-AVLX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e15d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section15-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e15d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section15-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e15d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section15-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e15d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section15-example4" />
@@ -1825,42 +2205,58 @@
<jbo>la djan. pu cusku le se du'u la djordj. pu klama le zarci</jbo>
<en>John [past] says the statement-that George [past] goes-to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Probably the most counterintuitive of the Lojban examples is
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section15-example7" />. The
<quote>ca</quote>looks quite odd, as if George were going to the market right now, rather than back when John spoke. But this
<quote>ca</quote>is really a
<quote>ca</quote>with respect to a reference point specified by the outer
<quote>pu</quote>. This behavior is the same as the additive behavior of multiple tenses in the same bridi, as explained in
+<!-- ^^ multiple tenses: effect of order in sentence, 235 -->
+<indexterm><primary>multiple tenses</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section13" />.</para>
<para>There is a special cmavo
<quote>nau</quote>(of selma'o CUhE) which can be used to override these rules and get to the speaker's current reference point. (Yes, it sounds like English
+<!-- ^^ nau, 238; effect on sticky tenses, 238; syntax, 238 -->
+<indexterm><primary>nau</primary></indexterm>
<quote>now</quote>.) It is not grammatical to combine
<quote>nau</quote>with any other cmavo in a tense, except by way of a logical or non-logical connection (see
+<!-- ^^ non-logical connection: and elidability of terminators, 354; in mathematical expressions, 361; in tanru, distinguishing from connection of sumti, 354; of individuals into mass, 355; of individuals into set, 355; of modals, 208; of operands, 455; of operators, 455; of sumti, distinguishing from connection in tanru, 354; of termsets, 357 -->
+<indexterm><primary>non-logical connection</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ nau, 238; effect on sticky tenses, 238; syntax, 238 -->
+<indexterm><primary>nau</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section20" />). Here is a convoluted sentence with several nested bridi which uses
<quote>nau</quote>at the lowest level:</para>
+<!-- ^^ nau, 238; effect on sticky tenses, 238; syntax, 238 -->
+<indexterm><primary>nau</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Yjop">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e15d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section15-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. pu cusku le se du'u la .alis pu cusku le se du'u</jbo>
<gloss>la djordj. pu cusku le se du'u la maris. nau klama le zarci</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ nau, 238; effect on sticky tenses, 238; syntax, 238 -->
+<indexterm><primary>nau</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>John [past] says the statement-that Alice [past] says the statement-that</gloss>
<gloss>George [past] says the statement that Mary [now] goes-to the market.</gloss>
<en>John said that Alice had said that George had earlier said that Mary is now going to the market.</en>
+<!-- ^^ had earlier: example, 234 -->
+<indexterm><primary>had earlier</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The use of
<quote>nau</quote>does not affect sticky tenses.</para>
+<!-- ^^ nau, 238; effect on sticky tenses, 238; syntax, 238 -->
+<indexterm><primary>nau</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section16">
<title>16. Tense relations between sentences</title>
<para>The sumti tcita method, explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section12" />, of asserting a tense relationship between two events suffers from asymmetry. Specifically,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-vreo">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e16d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section16-example1" />
</title>
@@ -1888,30 +2284,34 @@
<quote>.izu'abo</quote>is a compound cmavo: the
<quote>.i</quote>separates the sentences and the
<quote>zu'a</quote>is the tense. The
<quote>bo</quote>is required to prevent the
<quote>zu'a</quote>from gobbling up the following sumti, namely
<quote>le verba</quote>.</para>
<para>Note that the bridi in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section16-example2" />appear in the reverse order from their appearance in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section16-example1" />. With
<quote>.izu'abo</quote>(and all other afterthought tense connectives) the sentence specifying the origin of the journey comes first. This is a natural order for sentences, but requires some care when converting between this form and the sumti tcita form.</para>
+<!-- ^^ converting: operand to operator, 500; operator to selbri, 502; quantifier to selbri, 500; selbri to operand, 501; selbri to operator, 501; sumti to operand, 500; sumti to tanru unit, 500 -->
+<indexterm><primary>converting</primary></indexterm>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section16-example2" />means the same thing as:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Ne2C">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e16d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section16-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu cu batci le gerku</jbo>
<gloss>.i zu'a la'edi'u le verba cu cadzu le bisli</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ la'edi'u, 149; contrasted with di'u, 149; quick-tour version, 21 -->
+<indexterm><primary>la'edi'u</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>The man bites the dog.</gloss>
<gloss>[Left] the-referent-of-the-last-sentence the child walks-on the ice.</gloss>
<en>The man bites the dog. Left of what I just mentioned, the child walks on the ice.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>If the
<quote>bo</quote>is omitted in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section16-example2" />, the meaning changes:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-jThf">
<title>
@@ -1939,20 +2339,34 @@
<jbo>le nanmu cu batci le gerku .i zu'aku le verba cu cadzu le bisli</jbo>
<gloss>The man bites the dog. [Left] the child walks-on the ice.</gloss>
<en>The man bites the dog. Left of me, the child walks on the ice.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section16-example5" />, the origin point is the speaker, as is usual with
<quote>zu'aku</quote>.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section16-example2" />makes the origin point of the tense the event described by the first sentence.</para>
<para>Two sentences may also be connected in forethought by a tense relationship. Just like afterthought tense connection, forethought tense connection claims both sentences, and in addition claims that the time or space relationship specified by the tense holds between the events the two sentences describe.</para>
+<!-- ^^ tense connection: equivalent meanings, 240; expansions of, 240 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tense connection</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ forethought tense connection: contrasted with afterthought in likeness to modal connection, 249 -->
+<!-- ^^ tense connection: equivalent meanings, 240; expansions of, 240 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tense connection</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>forethought tense connection</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ tense connection: equivalent meanings, 240; expansions of, 240 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tense connection</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ afterthought tense connection: contrasted with forethought in likeness to modal connection, 249 -->
+<!-- ^^ tense connection: equivalent meanings, 240; expansions of, 240 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tense connection</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>afterthought tense connection</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ tense connection: equivalent meanings, 240; expansions of, 240 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tense connection</primary></indexterm>
<para>The origin sentence is placed first, preceded by a tense plus
<quote>gi</quote>. Another
<quote>gi</quote>is used to separate the sentences:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-9cXU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e16d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section16-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>pugi mi klama le zarci gi mi klama le zdani</jbo>
@@ -1965,20 +2379,22 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e16d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section16-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama pugi le zarci gi le zdani</jbo>
<en>I go-to [past] the market [,] the house.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Because English does not have any direct way of expressing a tense-like relationship between nouns,
+<!-- ^^ nouns: brivla as Lojban equivalents, 52 -->
+<indexterm><primary>nouns</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section16-example7" />cannot be expressed in English without paraphrasing it either into
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section16-example6" />or else into
<quote>I go to the house before the market</quote>, which is ambiguous - is the market going?</para>
<para>Finally, a third forethought construction expresses a tense relationship between bridi-tails rather than whole bridi. (The construct known as a
<quote>bridi-tail</quote>is explained fully in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14" />; roughly speaking, it is a selbri, possibly with following sumti.)
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section16-example8" />is equivalent in meaning to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section16-example6" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section16-example7" />:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-vSCv">
@@ -2000,20 +2416,22 @@
<para>Both the forethought and the afterthought forms are appropriate with PU, ZI, FAhA, VA, and ZAhO tenses. In all cases, the equivalent forms are (where X and Y stand for sentences, and TENSE for a tense cmavo):</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
subordinate: X TENSE le nu Y
afterthought coordinate: Y .i+TENSE+bo X
forethought coordinate: TENSE+gi X gi Y
</programlisting>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section17">
<title>17. Tensed logical connectives</title>
<para>The Lojban tense system interacts with the Lojban logical connective system. That system is a separate topic, explained in
+<!-- ^^ tense system: and space location, 215 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tense system</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14" />and touched on only in summary here. By the rules of the logical connective system,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section17-example1" />through 17.3 are equivalent in meaning:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-QyUo">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e17d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section17-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e17d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section17-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e17d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section17-example3" />
@@ -2034,39 +2452,49 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e17d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section17-example4" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e17d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section17-example5" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e17d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section17-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la teris. satre le mlatu .ijebabo la teris. satre le ractu</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ijebabo, 363 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ijebabo</primary></indexterm>
<en>Terry strokes the cat. And then Terry strokes the rabbit.</en>
<jbo>la teris. satre le mlatu gi'ebabo satre le ractu</jbo>
<en>Terry strokes the cat, and then strokes the rabbit.</en>
<jbo>la teris. satre le mlatu .ebabo le ractu</jbo>
<en>Terry strokes the cat and then the rabbit.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section17-example4" />through 17.6 are equivalent in meaning. They are also analogous to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section17-example1" />through
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section17-example3" />respectively. The
<quote>bo</quote>is required for the same reason as in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section16-example2" />: to prevent the
<quote>ba</quote>from functioning as a sumti tcita for the following sumti (or, in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section17-example5" />, from being attached to the following selbri).</para>
<para>In addition to the
<quote>bo</quote>construction of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section17-example4" />through
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section17-example6" />, there is also a form of tensed logical connective with
+<!-- ^^ tensed logical connective(s): in ek...bo, 364; in ek...ke, 364; in gihek...bo, 364; in gihek...ke, 364; in ijek...bo, 364; in ijek...tu'e, 364; in ijoik...bo, 364; in ijoik...tu'e, 364; in jek...bo, 364; in joik...bo, 364; in joik...ke, 364 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tensed logical connective</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ tensed logical connective, 240; forethought, 364; with ke...ke'e, 241; with tu'e...tu'u, 241 -->
+<!-- ^^ tensed logical connective(s): in ek...bo, 364; in ek...ke, 364; in gihek...bo, 364; in gihek...ke, 364; in ijek...bo, 364; in ijek...tu'e, 364; in ijoik...bo, 364; in ijoik...tu'e, 364; in jek...bo, 364; in joik...bo, 364; in joik...ke, 364 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tensed logical connective</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>tensed logical connective</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ tensed logical connective(s): in ek...bo, 364; in ek...ke, 364; in gihek...bo, 364; in gihek...ke, 364; in ijek...bo, 364; in ijek...tu'e, 364; in ijoik...bo, 364; in ijoik...tu'e, 364; in jek...bo, 364; in joik...bo, 364; in joik...ke, 364 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tensed logical connective</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ke ... ke'e</quote>(
<quote>tu'e ... tu'u</quote>for sentences). The logical connective system makes
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section17-example7" />through
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section17-example9" />equivalent in meaning:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-FgKB">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e17d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section17-example7" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e17d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section17-example8" />
@@ -2182,20 +2610,24 @@
<jbo>mi klama le zarci na'e ca le nu do klama le zdani</jbo>
<gloss>I go-to the market [non-] [present] the event-of you go-to the house.</gloss>
<en>I went to the market at a time other than the time at which you went to the house.</en>
<jbo>mi morsi na'e ca'o le nu mi jmive</jbo>
<gloss>I am-dead [non-] [continuitive] the event-of I live.</gloss>
<en>I am dead other than during my life.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Unlike
<quote>-nai</quote>contradictory negation, scalar negation of tenses is not limited to PU and FAhA:</para>
+<!-- ^^ scalar negation of tenses: selma'o allowed with, 242 -->
+<indexterm><primary>scalar negation of tenses</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ negation of tenses: meaning of, 241 -->
+<indexterm><primary>negation of tenses</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-THJJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e18d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section18-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le verba na'e ri'u cadzu le bisli</jbo>
<gloss>The child [non-] [right] walks-on the ice</gloss>
<en>The child walks on the ice other than to my right.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -2203,49 +2635,63 @@
<para>The use of
<quote>-nai</quote>on cmavo of TAhE and ROI has already been discussed in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section9" />; this use is also a scalar negation.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section19">
<title>19. Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ca'a</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ ca'a, 243 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ca'a</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>CAhA</selmaho>
<description>actually is</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ka'e</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ ka'e, 243 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ka'e</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>CAhA</selmaho>
<description>is innately capable of</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>nu'o</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ nu'o, 244 -->
+<indexterm><primary>nu'o</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>CAhA</selmaho>
<description>can but has not</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>pu'i</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ pu'i, 244 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pu'i</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>CAhA</selmaho>
<description>can and has</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>Lojban bridi without tense markers may not necessarily refer to actual events: they may also refer to capabilities or potential events. For example:</para>
+<!-- ^^ potential events: expressing implicitly, 243 -->
+<indexterm><primary>potential events</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ actual events: explicitly expressing, 243 -->
+<indexterm><primary>actual events</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-HjjN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e19d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section19-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro datka cu flulimna</jbo>
<gloss>All ducks are-float-swimmers.</gloss>
<en>All ducks swim by floating.</en>
+<!-- ^^ ducks swim: example, 243 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ducks swim</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is a Lojban truth, even though the colloquial English translation is false or at best ambiguous. This is because the tenseless Lojban bridi doesn't necessarily claim that every duck is swimming or floating now or even at a specific time or place. Even if we add a tense marker to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section19-example1" />,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-o9Yu">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e19d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section19-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -2257,159 +2703,221 @@
<para>the resulting
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section19-example2" />might still be considered a truth, even though the colloquial English seems even more likely to be false. All ducks have the potential of swimming even if they are not exercising that potential at present. To get the full flavor of
<quote>All ducks are now swimming</quote>, we must append a marker from selma'o CAhA to the tense, and say:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-hXpB">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e19d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section19-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro datka ca ca'a flulimna</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ca'a, 243 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ca'a</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>All ducks [present] [actual] are-float-swimmers.</gloss>
<en>All ducks are now actually swimming by floating.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>A CAhA cmavo is always placed after any other tense cmavo, whether for time or for space. However, a CAhA cmavo comes before
<quote>ki</quote>, so that a CAhA condition can be made sticky.</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section19-example3" />is false in both Lojban and English, since it claims that the swimming is an actual, present fact, true of every duck that exists, whereas in fact there is at least one duck that is not swimming now.</para>
<para>Furthermore, some ducks are dead (and therefore sink); some ducks have just hatched (and do not know how to swim yet), and some ducks have been eaten by predators (and have ceased to exist as separate objects at all). Nevertheless, all these ducks have the innate capability of swimming - it is part of the nature of duckhood. The cmavo
+<!-- ^^ innate capability: expressing explicitly, 243; expressing implicitly, 243 -->
+<indexterm><primary>innate capability</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ka'e</quote>expresses this notion of innate capability:</para>
+<!-- ^^ ka'e, 243 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ka'e</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ innate capability: expressing explicitly, 243; expressing implicitly, 243 -->
+<indexterm><primary>innate capability</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ApiH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e19d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section19-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro datka ka'e flulimna</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ka'e, 243 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ka'e</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>All ducks [capable] are-float-swimmers.</gloss>
<en>All ducks are innately capable of swimming.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Under some epistemologies, innate capability can be extended in order to apply the innate properties of a mass to which certain individuals belong to the individuals themselves, even if those individuals are themselves not capable of fulfilling the claim of the bridi. For example:</para>
+<!-- ^^ innate capability: expressing explicitly, 243; expressing implicitly, 243 -->
+<indexterm><primary>innate capability</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ebcg">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e19d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section19-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. ka'e viska</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ka'e, 243 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ka'e</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>John [capable] sees.</gloss>
<gloss>John is innately capable of seeing.</gloss>
<en>John can see.</en>
+<!-- ^^ can see: example, 244 -->
+<indexterm><primary>can see</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>might be true about a human being named John, even though he has been blind since birth, because the ability to see is innately built into his nature as a human being. It is theoretically possible that conditions might occur that would enable John to see (a great medical discovery, for example). On the other hand,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-NC6V">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e19d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section19-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le cukta ka'e viska</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ka'e, 243 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ka'e</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>The book [capable] sees.</gloss>
<en>The book can see.</en>
+<!-- ^^ can see: example, 244 -->
+<indexterm><primary>can see</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is not true in most epistemologies, since the ability to see is not part of the innate nature of a book.</para>
<para>Consider once again the newly hatched ducks mentioned earlier. They have the potential of swimming, but have not yet demonstrated that potential. This may be expressed using
<quote>nu'o</quote>, the cmavo of CAhA for undemonstrated potential:</para>
+<!-- ^^ undemonstrated potential: expressing, 244 -->
+<indexterm><primary>undemonstrated potential</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ nu'o, 244 -->
+<indexterm><primary>nu'o</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-sHpR">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e19d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section19-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro cifydatka nu'o flulimna</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ nu'o, 244 -->
+<indexterm><primary>nu'o</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>All infant-ducks [can but has not] are-float-swimmers.</gloss>
<gloss>All infant ducks have an undemonstrated potential for swimming by floating.</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ undemonstrated potential: expressing, 244 -->
+<indexterm><primary>undemonstrated potential</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ infant ducks: example, 244 -->
+<indexterm><primary>infant ducks</primary></indexterm>
<en>Baby ducks can swim but haven't yet.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Contrariwise, if Frank is not blind from birth, then
<quote>pu'i</quote>is appropriate:</para>
+<!-- ^^ pu'i, 244 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pu'i</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-VPfM">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e19d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section19-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la frank. pu'i viska</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ pu'i, 244 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pu'i</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>Frank [can and has] sees.</gloss>
<gloss>Frank has demonstrated a potential for seeing.</gloss>
<en>Frank can see and has seen.</en>
+<!-- ^^ can see: example, 244 -->
+<indexterm><primary>can see</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that the glosses given at the beginning of this section for
<quote>ca'a</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ ca'a, 243 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ca'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>nu'o</quote>, and
+<!-- ^^ nu'o, 244 -->
+<indexterm><primary>nu'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>pu'i</quote>incorporate
+<!-- ^^ pu'i, 244 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pu'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ca</quote>into their meaning, and are really correct for
<quote>ca ca'a</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ ca'a, 243 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ca'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ca nu'o</quote>, and
+<!-- ^^ nu'o, 244 -->
+<indexterm><primary>nu'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ca pu'i</quote>. However, the CAhA cmavo are perfectly meaningful with other tenses than the present:</para>
+<!-- ^^ pu'i, 244 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pu'i</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-jXQm">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e19d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section19-example9" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e19d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section19-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu ca'a klama le zarci</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ca'a, 243 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ca'a</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I [past] [actual] go-to the store.</gloss>
<en>I actually went to the store.</en>
<jbo>la frank. ba nu'o klama le zdani</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ nu'o, 244 -->
+<indexterm><primary>nu'o</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>Frank [future] [can but has not] goes-to the store.</gloss>
<gloss>Frank could have, but will not have, gone to the store</gloss>
<en>(at some understood moment in the future).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>As always in Lojban tenses, a missing CAhA can have an indeterminate meaning, or the context can be enough to disambiguate it. Saying</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-IKGW">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e19d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section19-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta jelca</jbo>
<en>That burns/is-burning/might-burn/will-burn.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>with no CAhA specified can translate the two very different English sentences
<quote>That is on fire</quote>and
<quote>That is inflammable.</quote>The first demands immediate action (usually), whereas the second merely demands caution. The two cases can be disambiguated with:</para>
+<!-- ^^ inflammable: example, 245 -->
+<indexterm><primary>inflammable</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-5tur">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e19d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section19-example12" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta ca ca'a jelca</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ca'a, 243 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ca'a</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>That [present] [actual] burns.</gloss>
<en>That is on fire.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-PRrR">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e19d13" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section19-example13" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta ka'e jelca</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ka'e, 243 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ka'e</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>That [capable] burns.</gloss>
<gloss>That is capable of burning.</gloss>
<en>That is inflammable.</en>
+<!-- ^^ inflammable: example, 245 -->
+<indexterm><primary>inflammable</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>When no indication is given, as in the simple observative</para>
+<!-- ^^ observative: contrasted with observation evidential, 316; definition, 188 -->
+<indexterm><primary>observative</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-FWoz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e19d14" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section19-example14" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>jelca</jbo>
<en>It burns!</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -2494,72 +3002,100 @@
<quote>bi'o</quote>belongs to selma'o BIhI, and connects the end-points of an ordered interval, like English
<quote>from ... to</quote>):</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-KQUM">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e20d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section20-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi puza bi'o bazu vasxu</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] [medium] from ... to [future] [long] breathe.</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ breathe: example, 363 -->
+<indexterm><primary>breathe</primary></indexterm>
<en>I breathe from a medium time ago till a long time to come.</en>
+<!-- ^^ breathe: example, 363 -->
+<indexterm><primary>breathe</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(It is to be hoped that I have a long life ahead of me.)</para>
<para>One additional use of non-logical connectives within tenses is discussed in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section21" />. Other uses will probably be identified in future.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section21">
<title>21. Sub-events</title>
<para>Another application of non-logical tense connection is to talk about sub-events of events. Consider a six-shooter: a gun which can fire six bullets in succession before reloading. If I fire off the entire magazine twice, I can express the fact in Lojban thus:</para>
+<!-- ^^ tense connection: equivalent meanings, 240; expansions of, 240 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tense connection</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ six-shooter: example, 246 -->
+<indexterm><primary>six-shooter</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-9CqG">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e21d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section21-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi reroi pi'u xaroi cecla le seldanti</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ pi'u, 246, 354, 356; contrasted with .e, 357; use in connecting tenses, 246 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pi'u</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I [twice] [cross-product] [six times] shoot the projectile-launcher.</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ cross-product: contrasted with and, 357; of sets, 356 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cross-product</primary></indexterm>
<en>On two occasions, I fire the gun six times.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>It would be confusing, though grammatical, to run the
<quote>reroi</quote>and the
<quote>xaroi</quote>directly together. However, the non-logical connective
<quote>pi'u</quote>expresses a Cartesian product (also known as a cross product) of two sets. In this case, there is a set of two firings each of which is represented by a set of six shots, for twelve shots in all (hence the name
+<!-- ^^ pi'u, 246, 354, 356; contrasted with .e, 357; use in connecting tenses, 246 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pi'u</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ cross product: with tenses, 246 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cross product</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ Cartesian product: with tenses, 246 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Cartesian product</primary></indexterm>
<quote>product</quote>: the product of 2 and 6 is 12). Its use specifies very precisely what occurs.</para>
<para>In fact, you can specify strings of interval properties and event contours within a single tense without the use of a logical or non-logical connective cmavo. This allows tenses of the type:</para>
+<!-- ^^ interval properties: meaning as sumti tcita, 233; strings of, 246 -->
+<indexterm><primary>interval properties</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ event contours: achievative, 230; as characteristic portions of events, 228; as sumti tcita, 232; as timeless in perspective, 228; cessative, 229; completitive, 229; continuitive, 228; contrasted with tense direction in implication of extent, 229; definition, 228; division of the event into, 229; implications on scope of event, 229; inchoative, 228; initiative, 229; interruption, 229; order with respect to TAhE and ROI, 228; pausative, 229; perfective, 229; points associated with, 229; resumption, 229; resumptive, 229; strings of, 246; superfective, 230; syntax of, 228; temporal contrasted with spatial, 231 -->
+<!-- ^^ tense direction: as sumti tcita, 232; contrasted with event contours in implication of extent, 229; implications on scope of event, 223 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tense direction</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>event contours</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-x8BA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e21d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section21-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c10e21d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section21-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djordj. ca'o co'a ciska</jbo>
<gloss>George [continuitive] [initiative] writes.</gloss>
<en>George continues to start to write.</en>
+<!-- ^^ continues: example, 228 -->
+<indexterm><primary>continues</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>mi reroi ca'o xaroi darxi le damri</jbo>
<gloss>I [twice] [continuitive] [six times] hit the drum.</gloss>
<en>On two occasions, I continue to beat the drum six times.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section22">
<title>22. Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>jai</cmavo>
<selmaho>JAI</selmaho>
<description>tense conversion</description>
+<!-- ^^ tense conversion: accessing original first place with fai, 247; accessing tense of bridi with jai, 247; of temporal tenses, 248; use in sumti descriptions, 247 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tense conversion</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>fai</cmavo>
<selmaho>FA</selmaho>
<description>indefinite place</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>Conversion is the regular Lojban process of moving around the places of a place structure. The cmavo of selma'o SE serve this purpose, exchanging the first place with one of the others:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-5L61">
<title>
@@ -2621,33 +3157,41 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e22d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section22-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cu klama le zarci</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>in which the place structure is determined by position.)</para>
<para>Like SE conversion, JAI+tense conversion is especially useful in descriptions with LE selma'o:</para>
+<!-- ^^ tense conversion: accessing original first place with fai, 247; accessing tense of bridi with jai, 247; of temporal tenses, 248; use in sumti descriptions, 247 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tense conversion</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ LE selma'o, 120, 193, 247, 354, 498; contrasted with LA in use of name-words, 138; terminator for, 497 -->
+<!-- ^^ name-words: limitations on, 138; pause requirements before, 138; permissible consonant combinations, 138 -->
+<indexterm><primary>name-words</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>LE selma'o</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-esDa">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e22d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section22-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska le jai vi citka be le cirla</jbo>
<en>I saw the place-of eating the cheese.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the eater of the cheese is elided, so no
<quote>fai</quote>appears.</para>
<para>Of course, temporal tenses are also usable with JAI:</para>
+<!-- ^^ temporal tenses: compared with spatial tenses, 219 -->
+<indexterm><primary>temporal tenses</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-nSnh">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e22d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section22-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi djuno fi le jai ca morsi be fai la djan.</jbo>
<gloss>I know about the [present] is-dead of-the-one-called
<quote>John</quote>.</gloss>
<gloss>I know the time of John's death.</gloss>
@@ -2660,28 +3204,32 @@
<para>Grammatically, every use of tenses seen so far is exactly paralleled by some use of modals as explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9" />. Modals and tenses alike can be followed by sumti, can appear before the selbri, can be used in pure and mixed connections, can participate in JAI conversions. The parallelism is perfect. However, there is a deep difference in the semantics of tense constructs and modal constructs, grounded in historical differences between the two forms. Originally, modals and tenses were utterly different things in earlier versions of Loglan; only in Lojban have they become grammatically interchangeable. And even now, differences in semantics continue to be maintained.</para>
<para>The core distinction is that whereas the modal bridi</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-YLmV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e23d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section23-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci do mu'i le nu do nelci mi</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ mu'i, 197 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mu'i</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I like you with-motivation the event-of you like me.</gloss>
<en>I like you because you like me.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>places the
<quote>le nu</quote>sumti in the x1 place of the gismu
<quote>mukti</quote>(which underlies the modal
<quote>mu'i</quote>), namely the motivating event, the tensed bridi</para>
+<!-- ^^ mu'i, 197 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mu'i</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-zXi8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e23d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section23-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci do ba le nu do nelci mi</jbo>
<gloss>I like you after the event-of you like me.</gloss>
<en>I like you after you like me.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -2741,20 +3289,22 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section23-example5" />, the order of the two bridi
<quote>mi nelci do</quote>and
<quote>do nelci mi</quote>is the same as in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section23-example1" />. In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section23-example6" />, however, the order is reversed: the origin point
<quote>do nelci mi</quote>physically appears before the future-time event
<quote>mi nelci do</quote>. In both cases, the bridi characterizing the event in the x2 place appears before the bridi characterizing the event in the x1 place of
<quote>mukti</quote>or
<quote>balvi</quote>.</para>
<para>In forethought connections, however, the asymmetry between modals and tenses is not found. The forethought equivalents of
+<!-- ^^ forethought connections: modal compared with tense in semantics, 249 -->
+<indexterm><primary>forethought connections</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section23-example5" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section23-example6" />are</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ENKj">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e23d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section23-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mu'igi do nelci mi gi mi nelci do</jbo>
<en>Because you like me, I like you.</en>
@@ -2878,30 +3428,34 @@
<quote>cu'e</quote>with other tense cmavo is through logical connection, which makes a question that pre-specifies some information:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-QTts">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e24d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section24-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do puzi je cu'e sombo le gurni</jbo>
<gloss>You [past] [short] and [when?] sow the grain?</gloss>
<en>You sowed the grain a little while ago; when else do you sow it?</en>
+<!-- ^^ when else: example, 250 -->
+<indexterm><primary>when else</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Additionally, the logical connective itself can be replaced by a question word:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-I6xI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e24d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section24-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .artr. pu je'i ba nolraitru</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ je'i, 352 -->
+<indexterm><primary>je'i</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>Arthur [past] [which?] [future] is-a-king</gloss>
<en>Was Arthur a king or will he be?</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Answers to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section24-example10" />would be logical connectives such as
<quote>je</quote>, meaning
<quote>both</quote>,
<quote>naje</quote>meaning
<quote>the latter</quote>, or
@@ -2930,20 +3484,28 @@
<para>Here the termset extends from the
<quote>nu'i</quote>to the implicit
<quote>nu'u</quote>at the end of the sentence, and includes the terms
<quote>la djordj.</quote>, which is the unmarked origin point, and the tagged sumti
<quote>lo mitre be li mu</quote>, which the cmavo
<quote>la'u</quote>(of selma'o BAI, and meaning
<quote>with quantity</quote>; see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9" />) marks as a quantity. Both terms are governed by the tag
<quote>zu'a</quote></para>
<para>It is not necessary to have both an origin point and an explicit magnitude: a termset may have only a single term in it. A less precise version of
+<!-- ^^ magnitude: tense, 250 -->
+<indexterm><primary>magnitude</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ explicit magnitude, 250 -->
+<!-- ^^ magnitude: tense, 250 -->
+<indexterm><primary>magnitude</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>explicit magnitude</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ magnitude: tense, 250 -->
+<indexterm><primary>magnitude</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section25-example1" />is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-RWEE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e25d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section25-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la frank. sanli zu'a nu'i la'u</jbo>
<gloss>lo mitre be li mu</gloss>
<gloss>Frank stands [left] [termset] [quantity]</gloss>
@@ -2954,93 +3516,153 @@
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section26">
<title>26. Finally (an exercise for the much-tried reader)</title>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-NxGB">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e26d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter10-section26-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.a'o do pu seju ba roroi ca'o fe'e su'oroi jimpe</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ a'o, 297, 302 -->
+<indexterm><primary>a'o</primary></indexterm>
<en>fi le lojbo temci selsku ciste</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section27">
<title>27. Summary of tense selma'o</title>
+<!-- ^^ tense selma'o: summary of, 252 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tense selma'o</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
PU temporal direction
+<!-- ^^ temporal direction: exception in meaning when following ze'e, 227 -->
+<!-- ^^ ze'e, 227; effect on following PU direction, 227 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ze'e</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>temporal direction</primary></indexterm>
pu = past, ca = present, ba = future
ZI temporal distance
zi = short, za = medium, zu = long
ZEhA temporal interval
ze'i = short, ze'a = medium, ze'u = long, ze'e = infinite
+<!-- ^^ ze'e, 227; effect on following PU direction, 227 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ze'e</primary></indexterm>
ROI objective quantified tense flag
noroi = never, paroi = once, ..., roroi = always, etc.
pare'u = the first time, rere'u = the second time, etc.
TAhE subjective quantified tense
di'i = regularly, na'o = typically, ru'i = continuously, ta'e = habitually
+<!-- ^^ ta'e, 226, 324 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ta'e</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ ru'i, 226 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ru'i</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ na'o, 226 -->
+<indexterm><primary>na'o</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ di'i, 226 -->
+<indexterm><primary>di'i</primary></indexterm>
ZAhO event contours
+<!-- ^^ event contours: achievative, 230; as characteristic portions of events, 228; as sumti tcita, 232; as timeless in perspective, 228; cessative, 229; completitive, 229; continuitive, 228; contrasted with tense direction in implication of extent, 229; definition, 228; division of the event into, 229; implications on scope of event, 229; inchoative, 228; initiative, 229; interruption, 229; order with respect to TAhE and ROI, 228; pausative, 229; perfective, 229; points associated with, 229; resumption, 229; resumptive, 229; strings of, 246; superfective, 230; syntax of, 228; temporal contrasted with spatial, 231 -->
+<!-- ^^ tense direction: as sumti tcita, 232; contrasted with event contours in implication of extent, 229; implications on scope of event, 223 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tense direction</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>event contours</primary></indexterm>
see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section10" />
FAhA spatial direction
see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section28" />
VA spatial distance
vi = short, va = medium, vu = long
VEhA spatial interval
+<!-- ^^ spatial interval: expressing degree of continuity over, 230 -->
+<indexterm><primary>spatial interval</primary></indexterm>
ve'i = short, ve'a = medium, ve'u = long, ve'e = infinite
+<!-- ^^ ve'e, 228 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ve'e</primary></indexterm>
VIhA spatial dimensionality
+<!-- ^^ dimensionality: of walking, 224; order with size in spatial tense intervals, 224; spatial, 506 -->
+<indexterm><primary>dimensionality</primary></indexterm>
vi'i = line, vi'a = plane, vi'u = space, vi'e = space-time
+<!-- ^^ vi'e, 224 -->
+<indexterm><primary>vi'e</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ vi'a, 224 -->
+<indexterm><primary>vi'a</primary></indexterm>
FEhE spatial interval modifier flag
+<!-- ^^ spatial interval: expressing degree of continuity over, 230 -->
+<indexterm><primary>spatial interval</primary></indexterm>
fe'enoroi = nowhere, fe'eroroi = everywhere, fe'eba'o = beyond, etc.
MOhI spatial movement flag
mo'i = motion; see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section28" />
KI set or reset sticky tense
tense+
<quote>ki</quote> = set,
<quote>ki</quote> alone = reset
CUhE tense question, reference point
cu'e = asks for a tense or aspect, nau = use speaker's reference point
+<!-- ^^ nau, 238; effect on sticky tenses, 238; syntax, 238 -->
+<indexterm><primary>nau</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ aspect: expressing, 228; natural languages compared with respect to, 228 -->
+<indexterm><primary>aspect</primary></indexterm>
JAI tense conversion
+<!-- ^^ tense conversion: accessing original first place with fai, 247; accessing tense of bridi with jai, 247; of temporal tenses, 248; use in sumti descriptions, 247 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tense conversion</primary></indexterm>
jaica = the time of, jaivi = the place of, etc.
</programlisting>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter10-section28">
<title>28. List of spatial directions and direction-like relations</title>
+<!-- ^^ spatial directions: list of, 253 -->
+<indexterm><primary>spatial directions</primary></indexterm>
<para>The following list of FAhA cmavo gives rough English glosses for the cmavo, first when used without
<quote>mo'i</quote>to express a direction, and then when used with
<quote>mo'i</quote>to express movement in the direction. When possible, the gismu from which the cmavo is derived is also listed.</para>
<cmavo-list>ca'u crane in front (of) forwardti'a trixe behind backwardzu'a zunle on the left (of) leftwardga'u gapru above upward(ly)ni'a cnita below downward(ly)ne'i nenri within intoru'u sruri surrounding orbitingpa'o pagre transfixing passing throughne'a next to moving while next to
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>te'e</cmavo>
<selmaho>bordering</selmaho>
<description>moving along the border (of)</description>
</cmavo-entry>re'o adjacent (to) alongfa'a farna towards arriving atto'o away from departing fromzo'i inward (from) approachingze'o outward (from) receding fromzo'a tangential (to) passing (by)be'a berti north (of) northward(ly)ne'u snanu south (of) southward(ly)du'a stuna east (of) eastward(ly)vu'a west (of) westward(ly)</cmavo-list>
+<!-- ^^ be'a, 231 -->
+<indexterm><primary>be'a</primary></indexterm>
<para>Special note on
<quote>fa'a</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ fa'a: special note on direction orientation, 253 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fa'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>to'o</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ to'o: special note on direction orientation, 253 -->
+<indexterm><primary>to'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>zo'i</quote>, and
+<!-- ^^ zo'i: special note on direction orientation, 253 -->
+<indexterm><primary>zo'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ze'o</quote>:</para>
+<!-- ^^ ze'o: special note on direction orientation, 253 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ze'o</primary></indexterm>
<para>
<quote>zo'i</quote>and
+<!-- ^^ zo'i: special note on direction orientation, 253 -->
+<indexterm><primary>zo'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ze'o</quote>refer to direction towards or away from the speaker's location, or whatever the origin is.</para>
+<!-- ^^ ze'o: special note on direction orientation, 253 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ze'o</primary></indexterm>
<para>
<quote>fa'a</quote>and
+<!-- ^^ fa'a: special note on direction orientation, 253 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fa'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>to'o</quote>refer to direction towards or away from some other point.</para>
+<!-- ^^ to'o: special note on direction orientation, 253 -->
+<indexterm><primary>to'o</primary></indexterm>
</section>
</chapter>
diff --git a/todocbook/11.xml b/todocbook/11.xml
index cd51721..c82461e 100644
--- a/todocbook/11.xml
+++ b/todocbook/11.xml
@@ -31,20 +31,22 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The bridi may be a simple selbri, or it may have associated sumti, as here. It is important to beware of eliding
<quote>kei</quote>improperly, as many of the common uses of abstraction selbri involve following them with words that would appear to be part of the abstraction if
<quote>kei</quote>had been elided.</para>
<para>(Technically,
<quote>kei</quote>is never necessary, because the elidable terminator
<quote>vau</quote>that closes every bridi can substitute for it; however,
<quote>kei</quote>is specific to abstractions, and using it is almost always clearer.)</para>
<para>The grammatical uses of an abstraction selbri are exactly the same as those of a simple brivla. In particular, abstraction selbri may be used as observatives, as in
+<!-- ^^ observatives: and abstractions, 255; quick-tour version, 15 -->
+<indexterm><primary>observatives</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section1-example2" />, or used in tanru:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-0Ff4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e1d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section1-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. cu nu sonci kei djica</jbo>
<gloss>John is-an-(event-of being-a-soldier) type-of desirer.</gloss>
<en>John wants to be a soldier.</en>
@@ -81,20 +83,22 @@
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>nu</cmavo>
<selmaho>NU</selmaho>
<description>event abstractor</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>The examples in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section1" />made use of
<quote>nu</quote>as the abstractor, and it is certainly the most common abstractor in Lojban text. Its purpose is to capture the event or state of the bridi considered as a whole. Do not confuse the
+<!-- ^^ common abstractor, 256 -->
+<indexterm><primary>common abstractor</primary></indexterm>
<quote>le</quote>description built on a
<quote>nu</quote>abstraction with ordinary descriptions based on
<quote>le</quote>alone. The following sumti are quite distinct:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-TPFz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e2d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section2-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c11e2d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section2-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c11e2d3" />
@@ -104,23 +108,27 @@
<anchor xml:id="c11e2d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section2-example5" />
<anchor xml:id="c11e2d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section2-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le klama</jbo>
<en>the comer, that which comes</en>
<jbo>le se klama</jbo>
<en>the destination</en>
+<!-- ^^ the destination: example, 193 -->
+<indexterm><primary>the destination</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>le te klama</jbo>
<en>the origin</en>
<jbo>le ve klama</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ve klama, 193; contrasted with pluta, 193 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ve klama</primary></indexterm>
<en>the route</en>
<jbo>le xe klama</jbo>
<en>the means of transportation</en>
<jbo>le nu klama</jbo>
<en>the event of someone coming to somewhere from somewhere by some route using some means</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section2-example1" />through
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section2-example5" />are descriptions that isolate the five individual sumti places of the selbri
@@ -132,34 +140,46 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e2d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section2-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nu mi vasxu</jbo>
<en>the event-of my breathing</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is an event which lasts for the whole of my life (under normal circumstances). On the other hand,</para>
+<!-- ^^ normal circumstances, 256 -->
+<indexterm><primary>normal circumstances</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-BPcI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e2d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section2-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nu la djan. cinba la djein.</jbo>
<en>the event-of John kissing Jane</en>
+<!-- ^^ kissing Jane, example, 256 -->
+<indexterm><primary>kissing Jane</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is relatively brief by comparison (again, under normal circumstances).</para>
+<!-- ^^ normal circumstances, 256 -->
+<indexterm><primary>normal circumstances</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ comparison: claims related to based on form, 204 -->
+<indexterm><primary>comparison</primary></indexterm>
<para>We can see from
+<!-- ^^ can see: example, 244 -->
+<indexterm><primary>can see</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section2-example6" />through
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section2-example8" />that ellipsis of sumti is valid in the bridi of abstraction selbri, just as in the main bridi of a sentence. Any sumti may be ellipsized if the listener will be able to figure out from context what the proper value of it is, or else to recognize that the proper value is unimportant. It is extremely common for
+<!-- ^^ ellipsis: quick-tour version, 14 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ellipsis</primary></indexterm>
<quote>nu</quote>abstractions in descriptions to have the x1 place ellipsized:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-FRoP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e2d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section2-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci le nu limna</jbo>
<gloss>I like the event-of swimming.</gloss>
<en>I like swimming.</en>
@@ -218,180 +238,252 @@
<para>(The
<quote>when</quote>of the English would also be appropriate for a construction involving a Lojban tense, but the Lojban sentence says more than that the studying is concurrent with the ease.)</para>
<para>The place structure of a
<quote>nu</quote>abstraction selbri is simply:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
x1 is an event of (the bridi)
</programlisting>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter11-section3">
<title>3. Types of event abstractions</title>
+<!-- ^^ event abstractions, 256 -->
+<indexterm><primary>event abstractions</primary></indexterm>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>mu'e</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ mu'e, 257, 258; place structure, 259 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mu'e</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>NU</selmaho>
<description>point-event abstractor</description>
+<!-- ^^ point-event abstractor, 258 -->
+<indexterm><primary>point-event abstractor</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>pu'u</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ pu'u, 257, 258, 268; place structure, 259 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pu'u</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>NU</selmaho>
<description>process abstractor</description>
+<!-- ^^ process abstractor, 258 -->
+<indexterm><primary>process abstractor</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>zu'o</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ zu'o, 257, 258, 268; place structure, 259 -->
+<indexterm><primary>zu'o</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>NU</selmaho>
<description>activity abstractor</description>
+<!-- ^^ activity abstractor, 258 -->
+<indexterm><primary>activity abstractor</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>za'i</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ za'i, 257, 258, 268; place structure, 259 -->
+<indexterm><primary>za'i</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>NU</selmaho>
<description>state abstractor</description>
+<!-- ^^ state abstractor, 258 -->
+<indexterm><primary>state abstractor</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>Event abstractions with
<quote>nu</quote>suffice to express all kinds of events, whether long, short, unique, repetitive, or whatever. Lojban also has more finely discriminating machinery for talking about events, however. There are four other abstractors of selma'o NU for talking about four specific types of events, or four ways of looking at the same event.</para>
<para>An event considered as a point in time is called a
<quote>point-event</quote>, or sometimes an
<quote>achievement</quote>. (This latter word should be divorced, in this context, from all connotations of success or triumph.) A point-event can be extended in duration, but it is still a point-event if it is thought of as unitary, having no internal structure. The abstractor
+<!-- ^^ triumph, 258 -->
+<indexterm><primary>triumph</primary></indexterm>
<quote>mu'e</quote>means
+<!-- ^^ mu'e, 257, 258; place structure, 259 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mu'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>point-event-of</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-nFR1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e3d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section3-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le mu'e la djan. catra la djim. cu zekri</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ mu'e, 257, 258; place structure, 259 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mu'e</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>The point-event-of (John kills Jim) is-a-crime.</gloss>
<en>John's killing Jim (considered as a point in time) is a crime.</en>
+<!-- ^^ killing Jim, 258; example, 258 -->
+<indexterm><primary>killing Jim</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>An event considered as extended in time, and structured with a beginning, a middle containing one or more stages, and an end, is called a
<quote>process</quote>. The abstractor
<quote>pu'u</quote>means
+<!-- ^^ pu'u, 257, 258, 268; place structure, 259 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pu'u</primary></indexterm>
<quote>process-of</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-WaxD">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e3d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section3-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ca'o le pu'u le latmo balje'a</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ pu'u, 257, 258, 268; place structure, 259 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pu'u</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>cu porpi kei</gloss>
<gloss>so'i je'atru cu selcatra</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ so'i, 440 -->
+<indexterm><primary>so'i</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>[continuitive] the process-of( the Latin great-state breaking-up )</gloss>
<gloss>many state-rulers were-killed</gloss>
<gloss>During the fall of the Roman Empire,</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ Roman Empire, 258; example, 258 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Roman Empire</primary></indexterm>
<en>many Emperors were killed.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>An event considered as extended in time and cyclic or repetitive is called an
<quote>activity</quote>. The abstractor
<quote>zu'o</quote>means
+<!-- ^^ zu'o, 257, 258, 268; place structure, 259 -->
+<indexterm><primary>zu'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>activity-of</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-89nw">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e3d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section3-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi tatpi ri'a le zu'o mi plipe</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ zu'o, 257, 258, 268; place structure, 259 -->
+<indexterm><primary>zu'o</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I am-tired because-of the activity-of (I jump).</gloss>
<en>I am tired because I jump.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>An event considered as something that is either happening or not happening, with sharp boundaries, is called a
<quote>state</quote>. The abstractor
<quote>za'i</quote>means
+<!-- ^^ za'i, 257, 258, 268; place structure, 259 -->
+<indexterm><primary>za'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>state-of</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-WztQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e3d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section3-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le za'i mi jmive cu ckape do</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ za'i, 257, 258, 268; place structure, 259 -->
+<indexterm><primary>za'i</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>The state-of (I am-alive) is-dangerous-to you.</gloss>
<en>My being alive is dangerous to you.</en>
+<!-- ^^ being alive: example, 258 -->
+<indexterm><primary>being alive</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The abstractors in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section3-example1" />through
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section3-example4" />could all have been replaced by
<quote>nu</quote>, with some loss of precision. Note that Lojban allows every sort of event to be viewed in any of these four ways:</para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>the
<quote>state of running</quote>begins when the runner starts and ends when the runner stops;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>the
<quote>activity of running</quote>consists of the cycle
<quote>lift leg, step forward, drop leg, lift other leg...</quote>(each such cycle is a process, but the activity consists in the repetition of the cycle);</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>the
<quote>process of running</quote>puts emphasis on the initial sprint, the steady speed, and the final slowdown;</para>
+<!-- ^^ steady speed, 258 -->
+<indexterm><primary>steady speed</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ slowdown, 258 -->
+<indexterm><primary>slowdown</primary></indexterm>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>the
<quote>achievement of running</quote>is most alien to English, but sees the event of running as a single indivisible thing, like
+<!-- ^^ indivisible, 258 -->
+<indexterm><primary>indivisible</primary></indexterm>
<quote>Pheidippides' run from Marathon to Athens</quote>(the original marathon).</para>
+<!-- ^^ Pheidippides, 258 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Pheidippides</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ marathon, 258 -->
+<indexterm><primary>marathon</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ Athens, 258 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Athens</primary></indexterm>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
<para>Further information on types of events can be found in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section12" />.</para>
<para>The four event type abstractors have the following place structures:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<quote>mu'e</quote>: x1 is a point event of (the bridi)
+<!-- ^^ mu'e, 257, 258; place structure, 259 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mu'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>pu'u</quote>: x1 is a process of (the bridi) with stages x2
+<!-- ^^ pu'u, 257, 258, 268; place structure, 259 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pu'u</primary></indexterm>
<quote>za'i</quote>: x1 is a continuous state of (the bridi) being true
+<!-- ^^ za'i, 257, 258, 268; place structure, 259 -->
+<indexterm><primary>za'i</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ continuous: of tense intervals, 225 -->
+<indexterm><primary>continuous</primary></indexterm>
<quote>zu'o</quote>: x1 is an activity of (the bridi) consisting of repeated actions x2
+<!-- ^^ zu'o, 257, 258, 268; place structure, 259 -->
+<indexterm><primary>zu'o</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter11-section4">
<title>4. Property abstractions</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ka</cmavo>
<selmaho>NU</selmaho>
<description>property abstractor</description>
+<!-- ^^ property abstractor, 259 -->
+<indexterm><primary>property abstractor</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ce'u</cmavo>
<selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
<description>abstraction focus</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>The things described by
<quote>le nu</quote>descriptions (or, to put it another way, the things of which
<quote>nu</quote>selbri may correctly be predicated) are only moderately
<quote>abstract</quote>. They are still closely tied to happenings in space and time. Properties, however, are much more ethereal. What is
<quote>the property of being blue</quote>, or
<quote>the property of being a go-er</quote>? They are what logicians call
<quote>intensions</quote>. If John has a heart, then
+<!-- ^^ has a heart: example, 259 -->
+<indexterm><primary>has a heart</primary></indexterm>
<quote>the property of having a heart</quote>is an abstract object which, when applied to John, is true. In fact,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-YSUx">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e4d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section4-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. cu se risna zo'e</jbo>
<gloss>John has-as-heart something-unspecified.</gloss>
<en>John has a heart.</en>
+<!-- ^^ has a heart: example, 259 -->
+<indexterm><primary>has a heart</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>has the same truth conditions as</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-1PPS">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e4d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section4-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. cu ckaji</jbo>
@@ -415,37 +507,47 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do cnino mi</jbo>
<gloss>le ka xunre [kei]</gloss>
<gloss>You are-new to-me</gloss>
<gloss>in-the-quality-of-the property-of being-red.</gloss>
<en>You are new to me in redness.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(The English suffix
<quote>-ness</quote>often signals a property abstraction, as does the suffix
+<!-- ^^ property abstraction, 259; use of multiple ce'u for relationship abstraction, 260 -->
+<!-- ^^ relationship abstraction, 260 -->
+<indexterm><primary>relationship abstraction</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>property abstraction</primary></indexterm>
<quote>-ity</quote>.)</para>
<para>We can also move the property description to the x1 place of
+<!-- ^^ property description, 259 -->
+<indexterm><primary>property description</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section4-example3" />, producing:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-proQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e4d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section4-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ka do xunre [kei] cu cnino mi</jbo>
<gloss>The property-of your being-red is-new to me.</gloss>
<en>Your redness is new to me.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>It would be suitable to use
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section4-example3" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section4-example4" />to someone who has returned from the beach with a sunburn.</para>
+<!-- ^^ sunburn: example, 259 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sunburn</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ beach: example, 259 -->
+<indexterm><primary>beach</primary></indexterm>
<para>There are several different properties that can be extracted from a bridi, depending on which place of the bridi is
<quote>understood</quote>as being specified externally. Thus:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-H71J">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e4d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section4-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ka mi prami [zo'e] [kei]</jbo>
<en>a-property-of me loving something-unspecified</en>
@@ -478,25 +580,29 @@
<en>I love John more than I love George.</en>
<jbo>la djan. cu zmadu la djordj. le ka prami mi</jbo>
<gloss>John exceeds George in the property of (X loves me).</gloss>
<en>John loves me more than George loves me.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The
<quote>X</quote>used in the glosses of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section4-example7" />through
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section4-example8" />as a place-holder cannot be represented only by ellipsis in Lojban, because ellipsis means that there must be a specific value that can fill the ellipsis, as mentioned in
+<!-- ^^ ellipsis: quick-tour version, 14 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ellipsis</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section2" />. Instead, the cmavo
<quote>ce'u</quote>of selma'o KOhA is employed when an explicit sumti is wanted. (The form
<quote>X</quote>will be used in literal translations.)</para>
<para>Therefore, an explicit equivalent of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section4-example7" />, with no ellipsis, is:</para>
+<!-- ^^ ellipsis: quick-tour version, 14 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ellipsis</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-8DD8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e4d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section4-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. cu zmadu la djordj. le ka mi prami ce'u</jbo>
<en>John exceeds George in-the property-of (I love X).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -514,20 +620,22 @@
</example>
<para>This convention allows disambiguation of cases like:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-GiJp">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e4d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section4-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ka [zo'e] dunda le xirma [zo'e] [kei]</jbo>
<en>the property-of giving the horse</en>
+<!-- ^^ giving the horse: example, 260 -->
+<indexterm><primary>giving the horse</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>into</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-1vc4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e4d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section4-example12" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ka ce'u dunda le xirma</jbo>
@@ -549,20 +657,26 @@
<gloss>le xirma ce'u [kei]</gloss>
<gloss>the property-of (someone-unspecified</gloss>
<gloss>is-a-giver of-the horse to X)</gloss>
<en>the property of being one to whom the horse is given</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which is also a possible interpretation.</para>
<para>It is also possible to have more than one
<quote>ce'u</quote>in a
<quote>ka</quote>abstraction, which transforms it from a property abstraction into a relationship abstraction. Relationship abstractions
+<!-- ^^ relationship abstraction, 260 -->
+<indexterm><primary>relationship abstraction</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ property abstraction, 259; use of multiple ce'u for relationship abstraction, 260 -->
+<!-- ^^ relationship abstraction, 260 -->
+<indexterm><primary>relationship abstraction</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>property abstraction</primary></indexterm>
<quote>package up</quote>a complex relationship for future use; such an abstraction can be translated back into a selbri by placing it in the x2 place of the selbri
<quote>bridi</quote>, whose place structure is:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<quote>bridi</quote>: x1 is a predicate relationship with relation
x2 (abstraction) among arguments (sequence/set) x3
</programlisting>
<para>The place structure of
<quote>ka</quote>abstraction selbri is simply:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
@@ -570,59 +684,75 @@
</programlisting>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter11-section5">
<title>5. Amount abstractions</title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ni</cmavo>
<selmaho>NU</selmaho>
<description>amount abstraction</description>
+<!-- ^^ amount abstraction(s): place structure, 262; scale, 262; specifying determining place with ce'u, 261 -->
+<indexterm><primary>amount abstraction</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ amount abstraction, 261 -->
+<!-- ^^ amount abstraction(s): place structure, 262; scale, 262; specifying determining place with ce'u, 261 -->
+<indexterm><primary>amount abstraction</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>amount abstraction</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ amount abstraction(s): place structure, 262; scale, 262; specifying determining place with ce'u, 261 -->
+<indexterm><primary>amount abstraction</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>Amount abstractions are far more limited than event or property abstractions. They really make sense only if the selbri of the abstracted bridi is subject to measurement of some sort. Thus we can speak of:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-QW2C">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e5d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section5-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ni le pixra cu blanu [kei]</jbo>
<gloss>the amount-of (the picture being-blue)</gloss>
<en>the amount of blueness in the picture</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>because
<quote>blueness</quote>could be measured with a colorimeter or a similar device. However,</para>
+<!-- ^^ colorimeter, 261 -->
+<indexterm><primary>colorimeter</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-FyL4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e5d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section5-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ni la djein. cu mamta [kei]</jbo>
<gloss>the amount-of (Jane being-a-mother)</gloss>
<gloss>the amount of Jane's mother-ness (?)</gloss>
<en>the amount of mother-ness in Jane (?)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>makes very little sense in either Lojban or English. We simply do not have any sort of measurement scale for being a mother.</para>
+<!-- ^^ measurement scale, 261 -->
+<indexterm><primary>measurement scale</primary></indexterm>
<para>Semantically, a sumti with
<quote>le ni</quote>is a number; however, it cannot be treated grammatically as a quantifier in Lojban unless prefixed by the mathematical cmavo
<quote>mo'e</quote>:</para>
+<!-- ^^ mo'e, 456; terminator for, 456 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mo'e</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-SaTi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e5d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section5-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li pa vu'u mo'e</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ mo'e, 456; terminator for, 456 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mo'e</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>le ni le pixra cu blanu [kei]</gloss>
<gloss>the-number 1 minus the-operand</gloss>
<gloss>the amount-of (the picture being-blue)</gloss>
<en>1 - B, where B = blueness of the picture</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Mathematical Lojban is beyond the scope of this chapter, and is explained more fully in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18" />.</para>
<para>There are contexts where either property or amount abstractions make sense, and in such constructions, amount abstractions can make use of
<quote>ce'u</quote>just like property abstractors. Thus,</para>
@@ -658,20 +788,22 @@
<quote>ni</quote>abstraction selbri is:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ni: x1 is the amount of (the bridi) on scale x2
</programlisting>
<para>Note: the best way to express the x2 places of abstract sumti is to use something like
<quote>le ni ... kei be</quote>. See
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section9-example5" />for the use of this construction.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter11-section6">
<title>6. Truth-value abstraction:
+<!-- ^^ value abstraction, 262 -->
+<indexterm><primary>value abstraction</primary></indexterm>
<quote>jei</quote></title>
<para>The
<quote>blueness of the picture</quote>discussed in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section5" />refers to the measurable amount of blue pigment (or other source of blueness), not to the degree of truth of the claim that blueness is present. That abstraction is expressed in Lojban using
<quote>jei</quote>, which is closely related semantically to
<quote>ni</quote>. In the simplest cases,
<quote>le jei</quote>produces not a number but a truth value:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-KuTE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e6d1" />
@@ -708,129 +840,159 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ba jdice le jei</jbo>
<gloss>la djordj. cu zekri gasnu [kei]</gloss>
<gloss>I [future] decide the truth-value of</gloss>
<gloss>(George being-a-(crime doer)).</gloss>
<en>I will decide whether George is a criminal.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section6-example3" />does not imply that George is, or is not, definitely a criminal. Depending on the legal system I am using, I may make some intermediate decision. As a result,
+<!-- ^^ legal system, 262 -->
+<indexterm><primary>legal system</primary></indexterm>
<quote>jei</quote>requires an x2 place analogous to that of
<quote>ni</quote>:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
jei: x1 is the truth value of (the bridi) under epistemology x2
</programlisting>
<para>Abstractions using
<quote>jei</quote>are the mechanism for fuzzy logic in Lojban; the
<quote>jei</quote>abstraction refers to a number between 0 and 1 inclusive (as distinct from
<quote>ni</quote>abstractions, which are often on open-ended scales). The detailed conventions for using
<quote>jei</quote>in fuzzy-logic contexts have not yet been established.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter11-section7">
<title>7. Predication/sentence abstraction</title>
+<!-- ^^ sentence abstraction, 262 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sentence abstraction</primary></indexterm>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>du'u</cmavo>
<selmaho>NU</selmaho>
<description>predication abstraction</description>
+<!-- ^^ predication abstraction, 262 -->
+<indexterm><primary>predication abstraction</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>There are some selbri which demand an entire predication as a sumti; they make claims about some predication considered as a whole. Logicians call these the
<quote>propositional attitudes</quote>, and they include (in English) things like knowing, believing, learning, seeing, hearing, and the like. Consider the English sentence:</para>
+<!-- ^^ propositional attitudes, 262; compared with knowledge discursives, 319 -->
+<indexterm><primary>propositional attitudes</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-7N2q">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e7d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section7-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>I know that Frank is a fool.</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ Frank is a fool: example, 263 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Frank is a fool</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>How's that in Lojban? Let us try:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-brpf">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e7d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section7-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi djuno le nu la frank. cu bebna [kei]</jbo>
<en>I know the event of Frank being a fool.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Not quite right. Events are actually or potentially physical, and can't be contained inside one's mind, except for events of thinking, feeling, and the like;
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section7-example2" />comes close to claiming that Frank's being-a-fool is purely a mental activity on the part of the speaker. (In fact,
+<!-- ^^ mental activity, 263 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mental activity</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section7-example2" />is an instance of improperly marked
<quote>sumti raising</quote>, a concept discussed further in
+<!-- ^^ sumti raising, 266 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sumti raising</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section10" />).</para>
<para>Try again:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-oCgP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e7d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section7-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi djuno le jei la frank. cu bebna [kei]</jbo>
<en>I know the truth-value of Frank being a fool.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Closer.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section7-example3" />says that I know whether or not Frank is a fool, but doesn't say that he is one, as
+<!-- ^^ Frank is a fool: example, 263 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Frank is a fool</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section7-example1" />does. To catch that nuance, we must say:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-6p1K">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e7d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section7-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi djuno le du'u la frank. cu bebna [kei]</jbo>
<en>I know the predication that Frank is a fool.</en>
+<!-- ^^ Frank is a fool: example, 263 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Frank is a fool</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Now we have it. Note that the implied assertion
<quote>Frank is a fool</quote>is not a property of
+<!-- ^^ Frank is a fool: example, 263 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Frank is a fool</primary></indexterm>
<quote>le du'u</quote>abstraction, but of
<quote>djuno</quote>; we can only know what is in fact true. (As a result,
<quote>djuno</quote>like
<quote>jei</quote>has a place for epistemology, which specifies how we know.)
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section7-example5" />has no such implied assertion:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-eYiD">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e7d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section7-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi kucli le du'u la frank. cu bebna [kei]</jbo>
<en>I am curious about whether Frank is a fool.</en>
+<!-- ^^ Frank is a fool: example, 263 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Frank is a fool</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ curious, 263; example, 263; example, 263 -->
+<indexterm><primary>curious</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and here
<quote>du'u</quote>could probably be replaced by
<quote>jei</quote>without much change in meaning:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-h4De">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e7d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section7-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi kucli le jei la frank. cu bebna [kei]</jbo>
<en>I am curious about how true it is that Frank is a fool.</en>
+<!-- ^^ Frank is a fool: example, 263 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Frank is a fool</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ curious, 263; example, 263; example, 263 -->
+<indexterm><primary>curious</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>As a matter of convenience rather than logical necessity,
<quote>du'u</quote>has been given an x2 place, which is a sentence (piece of language) expressing the bridi:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
du'u: x1 is the predication (the bridi), expressed in sentence x2
</programlisting>
<para>and
<quote>le se du'u ...</quote>is very useful in filling places of selbri which refer to speaking, writing, or other linguistic behavior regarding bridi:</para>
+<!-- ^^ linguistic behavior, 263 -->
+<indexterm><primary>linguistic behavior</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-hzd8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e7d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section7-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. cusku le se du'u la djordj. klama le zarci [kei]</jbo>
<gloss>John expresses the sentence-expressing-that George goes-to the store</gloss>
<en>John says that George goes to the store.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -859,22 +1021,26 @@
<quote>lu'e</quote>is ungrammatical in a selbri. (See
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6" />for a discussion of
<quote>lu'e</quote>.)</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter11-section8">
<title>8. Indirect questions</title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>kau</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ kau, 264, 323; ma kau, contrasted with la djan. kau, 264 -->
+<indexterm><primary>kau</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>UI</selmaho>
<description>indirect question marker</description>
+<!-- ^^ indirect question, 323 -->
+<indexterm><primary>indirect question</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>There is an alternative type of sentence involving
<quote>du'u</quote>and a selbri expressing a propositional attitude. In addition to sentences like</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Fpid">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e8d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section8-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -882,74 +1048,102 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>we can also say things like</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-N4Ja">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e8d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section8-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>I know who went to the store.</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ know who: contrasted with know that, 264; example, 264 -->
+<indexterm><primary>know who</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This form is called an
<quote>indirect question</quote>in English because the embedded English sentence is a question:
+<!-- ^^ indirect question, 323 -->
+<indexterm><primary>indirect question</primary></indexterm>
<quote>Who went to the store?</quote>A person who says
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section8-example2" />is claiming to know the answer to this question. Indirect questions can occur with many other English verbs as well: I can wonder, or doubt, or see, or hear, as well as know who went to the store.</para>
+<!-- ^^ verbs: brivla as Lojban equivalents, 52 -->
+<indexterm><primary>verbs</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ know who: contrasted with know that, 264; example, 264 -->
+<indexterm><primary>know who</primary></indexterm>
<para>To express indirect questions in Lojban, we use a
+<!-- ^^ indirect questions, 264; "ma kau" contrasted with "la djan. kau", 264 -->
+<!-- ^^ kau, 264, 323; ma kau, contrasted with la djan. kau, 264 -->
+<indexterm><primary>kau</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>indirect questions</primary></indexterm>
<quote>le du'u</quote>abstraction, but rather than using a question word like
<quote>who</quote>(
<quote>ma</quote>in Lojban), we use any word that will fit grammatically and mark it with the suffix particle
<quote>kau</quote>. This cmavo belongs to selma'o UI, so grammatically it can appear anywhere. The simplest Lojban translation of
+<!-- ^^ kau, 264, 323; ma kau, contrasted with la djan. kau, 264 -->
+<indexterm><primary>kau</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section8-example2" />is therefore:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-QUxG">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e8d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section8-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi djuno le du'u</jbo>
<gloss>makau pu klama le zarci</gloss>
<gloss>I know the predication-of</gloss>
<en>X [indirect question] [past] going to the store.</en>
+<!-- ^^ indirect question, 323 -->
+<indexterm><primary>indirect question</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section8-example3" />, we have chosen to use
<quote>ma</quote>as the word marked by
<quote>kau</quote>. In fact, any other sumti would have done as well:
+<!-- ^^ kau, 264, 323; ma kau, contrasted with la djan. kau, 264 -->
+<indexterm><primary>kau</primary></indexterm>
<quote>zo'e</quote>or
<quote>da</quote>or even
<quote>la djan.</quote>. Using
<quote>la djan.</quote>would suggest that it was John who I knew had gone to the store, however:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-hmDo">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e8d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section8-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi djuno le du'u</jbo>
<gloss>la djan. kau pu</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ kau, 264, 323; ma kau, contrasted with la djan. kau, 264 -->
+<indexterm><primary>kau</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>klama le zarci</gloss>
<gloss>I know the predication-of/fact-that</gloss>
<gloss>John [indirect question] [past]</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ indirect question, 323 -->
+<indexterm><primary>indirect question</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>going to the store.</gloss>
<gloss>I know who went to the store, namely John.</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ know who: contrasted with know that, 264; example, 264 -->
+<indexterm><primary>know who</primary></indexterm>
<en>I know that it was John who went to the store.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Using one of the indefinite pro-sumti such as
+<!-- ^^ indefinite pro-sumti, 140, 157; implicit quantifier for, 140; stability of, 162 -->
+<indexterm><primary>indefinite pro-sumti</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ma</quote>,
<quote>zo'e</quote>, or
<quote>da</quote>does not suggest any particular value.</para>
<para>Why does Lojban require the
<quote>kau</quote>marker, rather than using
+<!-- ^^ kau, 264, 323; ma kau, contrasted with la djan. kau, 264 -->
+<indexterm><primary>kau</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ma</quote>as English and Chinese and many other languages do? Because
<quote>ma</quote>always signals a direct question, and so</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-5WU4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e8d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section8-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi djuno le du'u</jbo>
<gloss>ma pu klama le zarci</gloss>
@@ -963,130 +1157,162 @@
<anchor xml:id="c11e8d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section8-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>Who is it that I know goes to the store?</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>It is actually not necessary to use
<quote>le du'u</quote>and
<quote>kau</quote>at all if the indirect question involves a sumti; there is generally a paraphrase of the type:</para>
+<!-- ^^ kau, 264, 323; ma kau, contrasted with la djan. kau, 264 -->
+<indexterm><primary>kau</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ indirect question, 323 -->
+<indexterm><primary>indirect question</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-b6VT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e8d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section8-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi djuno fi le pu klama be le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I know about the [past] goer to-the store.</gloss>
<en>I know something about the one who went to the store (namely, his identity).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>because the x3 place of
<quote>djuno</quote>is the subject of knowledge, as opposed to the fact that is known. But when the questioned point is not a sumti, but (say) a logical connection, then there is no good alternative to
<quote>kau</quote>:</para>
+<!-- ^^ kau, 264, 323; ma kau, contrasted with la djan. kau, 264 -->
+<indexterm><primary>kau</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-2nIX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e8d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section8-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ba zgana le du'u</jbo>
<gloss>la djan. jikau la djordj.</gloss>
<gloss>cu zvati le panka</gloss>
<gloss>I [future] observe the predication-of/fact-that</gloss>
<gloss>John [connective indirect question] George</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ indirect question, 323 -->
+<indexterm><primary>indirect question</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>is-at the park.</gloss>
<gloss>I will see whether John or George (or both)</gloss>
<en>is at the park.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In addition,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section8-example7" />is only a loose paraphrase of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section8-example3" />, because it is left to the listener's insight to realize that what is known about the goer-to-the-store is his identity rather than some other of his attributes.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter11-section9">
<title>9. Minor abstraction types</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>li'i</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ li'i, 265 -->
+<indexterm><primary>li'i</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>NU</selmaho>
<description>experience abstractor</description>
+<!-- ^^ experience abstractor, 265 -->
+<indexterm><primary>experience abstractor</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>si'o</cmavo>
<selmaho>NU</selmaho>
<description>concept abstractor</description>
+<!-- ^^ concept abstractor, 265 -->
+<indexterm><primary>concept abstractor</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>su'u</cmavo>
<selmaho>NU</selmaho>
<description>general abstractor</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>There are three more abstractors in Lojban, all of them little used so far. The abstractor
<quote>li'i</quote>expresses experience:</para>
+<!-- ^^ li'i, 265 -->
+<indexterm><primary>li'i</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-FS6r">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e9d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section9-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi morji le li'i mi verba</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ li'i, 265 -->
+<indexterm><primary>li'i</primary></indexterm>
<en>I remember the experience-of (my being-a-child)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The abstractor
<quote>si'o</quote>expresses a mental image, a concept, an idea:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Yh42">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e9d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section9-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci le si'o la lojban. cu mulno</jbo>
<en>I enjoy the concept-of Lojban being-complete.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Finally, the abstractor
<quote>su'u</quote>is a vague abstractor, whose meaning must be grasped from context:</para>
+<!-- ^^ vague abstractor, 265 -->
+<indexterm><primary>vague abstractor</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ycKt">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e9d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section9-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ko zgana le su'u</jbo>
<gloss>le ci smacu cu bajra</gloss>
<gloss>you [imperative] observe the abstract-nature-of</gloss>
<gloss>the three mice running</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ mice: example, 265 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mice</primary></indexterm>
<en>See how the three mice run!</en>
+<!-- ^^ mice: example, 265 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mice</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>All three of these abstractors have an x2 place. An experience requires an experiencer, so the place structure of
<quote>li'i</quote>is:</para>
+<!-- ^^ li'i, 265 -->
+<indexterm><primary>li'i</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
li'i: x1 is the experience of (the bridi) as experienced by x2
+<!-- ^^ li'i, 265 -->
+<indexterm><primary>li'i</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ experienced: example, 316 -->
+<indexterm><primary>experienced</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>Similarly, an idea requires a mind to hold it, so the place structure of
<quote>si'o</quote>is:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
si'o: x1 is the idea/concept of (the bridi) in the mind of x2
</programlisting>
<para>Finally, there needs to be some way of specifying just what sort of abstraction
<quote>su'u</quote>is representing, so its place structure is:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
su'u: x1 is an abstract nature of (the bridi) of type x2
</programlisting>
<para>The x2 place of
<quote>su'u</quote>allows it to serve as a substitute for any of the other abstractors, or as a template for creating new ones. For example,</para>
+<!-- ^^ template, 266 -->
+<indexterm><primary>template</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-FnNR">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e9d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section9-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nu mi klama</jbo>
<en>the event-of my going</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1106,48 +1332,66 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e9d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section9-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le su'u la .iecuas. kuctai</jbo>
<gloss>selcatra kei</gloss>
<gloss>be lo sa'ordzifa'a</gloss>
<gloss>ke nalmatma'e sutyterjvi</gloss>
<gloss>the abstract-nature-of (Jesus is-an-intersect-shape</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ Jesus, 266; example, 266 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Jesus</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ intersect, 266 -->
+<indexterm><primary>intersect</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>type-of-killed-one)</gloss>
<gloss>of-type a slope-low-direction</gloss>
<gloss>type-of non-motor-vehicle speed-competition</gloss>
<en>The Crucifixion of Jesus Considered As A Downhill Bicycle Race</en>
+<!-- ^^ Jesus, 266; example, 266 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Jesus</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note the importance of using
<quote>kei</quote>after
<quote>su'u</quote>when the x2 of
<quote>su'u</quote>(or any other abstractor) is being specified; otherwise, the
<quote>be lo</quote>ends up inside the abstraction bridi.</para>
+<!-- ^^ abstraction bridi: contrasted with component non-abstraction bridi in meaning, 98; effect on claim of bridi, 198 -->
+<indexterm><primary>abstraction bridi</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter11-section10">
<title>10. Lojban sumti raising</title>
+<!-- ^^ sumti raising, 266 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sumti raising</primary></indexterm>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>tu'a</cmavo>
<selmaho>LAhE</selmaho>
<description>an abstraction involving</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>jai</cmavo>
<selmaho>JAI</selmaho>
<description>abstraction conversion</description>
+<!-- ^^ abstraction conversion, 266 -->
+<indexterm><primary>abstraction conversion</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>It is sometimes inconvenient, in a situation where an abstract description is logically required, to express the abstraction. In English we can say:</para>
+<!-- ^^ English we: contrasted with Lojban pro-sumti for we, 146 -->
+<!-- ^^ pro-sumti for we: contrasted with English we, 146 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pro-sumti for we</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>English we</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ abstract description, 266 -->
+<indexterm><primary>abstract description</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-BYp8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e10d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section10-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>I try to open the door.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which in Lojban is:</para>
@@ -1159,63 +1403,73 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi troci le nu</jbo>
<gloss>[mi] gasnu le nu</gloss>
<gloss>le vorme cu karbi'o</gloss>
<gloss>I try the event-of</gloss>
<gloss>(I am-agent-in the event-of</gloss>
<en>(the door open-becomes)).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which has an abstract description within an abstract description, quite a complex structure. In English (but not in all other languages), we may also say:</para>
+<!-- ^^ abstract description, 266 -->
+<indexterm><primary>abstract description</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-K14X">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e10d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section10-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>I try the door.</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ try the door: example, 266 -->
+<indexterm><primary>try the door</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where it is understood that what I try is actually not the door itself, but the act of opening it. The same simplification can be done in Lojban, but it must be marked explicitly using a cmavo. The relevant cmavo is
<quote>tu'a</quote>, which belongs to selma'o LAhE. The Lojban equivalent of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section10-example3" />is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-gabC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e10d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section10-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi troci tu'a le vorme</jbo>
<en>I try some-action-to-do-with the door.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The term
<quote>sumti-raising</quote>, as in the title of this section, signifies that a sumti which logically belongs within an abstraction (or even within an abstraction which is itself inside an intermediate abstraction) is
+<!-- ^^ intermediate abstraction, 267 -->
+<indexterm><primary>intermediate abstraction</primary></indexterm>
<quote>raised</quote>to the main bridi level. This transformation from
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section10-example2" />to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section10-example4" />loses information: nothing except convention tells us what the abstraction was.</para>
<para>Using
<quote>tu'a</quote>is a kind of laziness: it makes speaking easier at the possible expense of clarity for the listener. The speaker must be prepared for the listener to respond something like:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-mKBy">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e10d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section10-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>tu'a le vorme lu'u ki'a</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ lu'u, 133, 267; as elidable terminator for qualified sumti, 133 -->
+<indexterm><primary>lu'u</primary></indexterm>
<en>something-to-do-with the door [terminator] [confusion!]</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which indicates that
<quote>tu'a le vorme</quote>cannot be understood. (The terminator for
<quote>tu'a</quote>is
<quote>lu'u</quote>, and is used in
+<!-- ^^ lu'u, 133, 267; as elidable terminator for qualified sumti, 133 -->
+<indexterm><primary>lu'u</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section10-example5" />to make clear just what is being questioned: the sumti-raising, rather than the word
<quote>vorme</quote>as such.) An example of a confusing raised sumti might be:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-9S5B">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e10d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section10-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>tu'a la djan. cu cafne</jbo>
<en>something-to-do-with John frequently-occurs</en>
@@ -1294,78 +1548,122 @@
<en>(the event-of your death)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter11-section11">
<title>11. Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses</title>
<para>This section is a logical continuation of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section3" />.</para>
<para>There exists a relationship between the four types of events explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section3" />and the event contour tense cmavo of selma'o ZAhO. The specific cmavo of NU and of ZAhO are mutually interdefining; the ZAhO contours were chosen to fit the needs of the NU event types and vice versa. Event contours are explained in full in
+<!-- ^^ event types: described, 258 -->
+<indexterm><primary>event types</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10" />, and only summarized here.</para>
<para>The purpose of ZAhO cmavo is to represent the natural portions of an event, such as the beginning, the middle, and the end. They fall into several groups:</para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>pu'o</quote>,
<quote>ca'o</quote>, and
<quote>ba'o</quote>represent spans of time: before an event begins, while it is going on, and after it is over, respectively.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>co'a</quote>,
<quote>de'a</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ de'a, 229 -->
+<indexterm><primary>de'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>di'a</quote>, and
+<!-- ^^ di'a, 229 -->
+<indexterm><primary>di'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>co'u</quote>represent points of time: the start of an event, the temporary stopping of an event, the resumption of an event after a stop, and the end of an event, respectively. Not all events can have breaks in them, in which case
<quote>de'a</quote>and
+<!-- ^^ de'a, 229 -->
+<indexterm><primary>de'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>di'a</quote>do not apply.</para>
+<!-- ^^ di'a, 229 -->
+<indexterm><primary>di'a</primary></indexterm>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>mo'u</quote>and
<quote>za'o</quote>correspond to
+<!-- ^^ za'o, 230 -->
+<indexterm><primary>za'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>co'u</quote>and
<quote>ba'o</quote>respectively, in the case of those events which have a natural ending point that may not be the same as the actual ending point:
<quote>mo'u</quote>refers to the natural ending point, and
<quote>za'o</quote>to the time between the natural ending point and the actual ending point (the
+<!-- ^^ za'o, 230 -->
+<indexterm><primary>za'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>excessive</quote>or
<quote>superfective</quote>part of the event).</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>co'i</quote>represents an entire event considered as a point-event or achievement.</para>
+<!-- ^^ co'i, 230 -->
+<indexterm><primary>co'i</primary></indexterm>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
<para>All these cmavo are applicable to events seen as processes and abstracted with
<quote>pu'u</quote>. Only processes have enough internal structure to make all these points and spans of time meaningful.</para>
+<!-- ^^ pu'u, 257, 258, 268; place structure, 259 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pu'u</primary></indexterm>
<para>For events seen as states and abstracted with
<quote>za'i</quote>, the meaningful event contours are the spans
+<!-- ^^ za'i, 257, 258, 268; place structure, 259 -->
+<indexterm><primary>za'i</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ event contours: achievative, 230; as characteristic portions of events, 228; as sumti tcita, 232; as timeless in perspective, 228; cessative, 229; completitive, 229; continuitive, 228; contrasted with tense direction in implication of extent, 229; definition, 228; division of the event into, 229; implications on scope of event, 229; inchoative, 228; initiative, 229; interruption, 229; order with respect to TAhE and ROI, 228; pausative, 229; perfective, 229; points associated with, 229; resumption, 229; resumptive, 229; strings of, 246; superfective, 230; syntax of, 228; temporal contrasted with spatial, 231 -->
+<!-- ^^ tense direction: as sumti tcita, 232; contrasted with event contours in implication of extent, 229; implications on scope of event, 223 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tense direction</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>event contours</primary></indexterm>
<quote>pu'o</quote>,
<quote>ca'o</quote>, and
<quote>ba'o</quote>; the starting and ending points
<quote>co'a</quote>and
<quote>co'u</quote>, and the achievement contour
<quote>co'i</quote>. States do not have natural endings distinct from their actual endings. (It is an open question whether states can be stopped and resumed.)</para>
+<!-- ^^ co'i, 230 -->
+<indexterm><primary>co'i</primary></indexterm>
<para>For events seen as activities and abstracted with
<quote>zu'o</quote>, the meaningful event contours are the spans
+<!-- ^^ zu'o, 257, 258, 268; place structure, 259 -->
+<indexterm><primary>zu'o</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ event contours: achievative, 230; as characteristic portions of events, 228; as sumti tcita, 232; as timeless in perspective, 228; cessative, 229; completitive, 229; continuitive, 228; contrasted with tense direction in implication of extent, 229; definition, 228; division of the event into, 229; implications on scope of event, 229; inchoative, 228; initiative, 229; interruption, 229; order with respect to TAhE and ROI, 228; pausative, 229; perfective, 229; points associated with, 229; resumption, 229; resumptive, 229; strings of, 246; superfective, 230; syntax of, 228; temporal contrasted with spatial, 231 -->
+<!-- ^^ tense direction: as sumti tcita, 232; contrasted with event contours in implication of extent, 229; implications on scope of event, 223 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tense direction</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>event contours</primary></indexterm>
<quote>pu'o</quote>,
<quote>ca'o</quote>, and
<quote>ba'o</quote>, and the achievement contour
<quote>co'i</quote>. Because activities are inherently cyclic and repetitive, the beginning and ending points are not well-defined: you do not know whether an activity has truly begun until it begins to repeat.</para>
+<!-- ^^ co'i, 230 -->
+<indexterm><primary>co'i</primary></indexterm>
<para>For events seen as point-events and abstracted with
<quote>mu'e</quote>, the meaningful event contours are the spans
+<!-- ^^ mu'e, 257, 258; place structure, 259 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mu'e</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ event contours: achievative, 230; as characteristic portions of events, 228; as sumti tcita, 232; as timeless in perspective, 228; cessative, 229; completitive, 229; continuitive, 228; contrasted with tense direction in implication of extent, 229; definition, 228; division of the event into, 229; implications on scope of event, 229; inchoative, 228; initiative, 229; interruption, 229; order with respect to TAhE and ROI, 228; pausative, 229; perfective, 229; points associated with, 229; resumption, 229; resumptive, 229; strings of, 246; superfective, 230; syntax of, 228; temporal contrasted with spatial, 231 -->
+<!-- ^^ tense direction: as sumti tcita, 232; contrasted with event contours in implication of extent, 229; implications on scope of event, 223 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tense direction</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>event contours</primary></indexterm>
<quote>pu'o</quote>and
<quote>ba'o</quote>but not
<quote>ca'o</quote>(a point-event has no duration), and the achievement contour
<quote>co'i</quote>.</para>
+<!-- ^^ co'i, 230 -->
+<indexterm><primary>co'i</primary></indexterm>
<para>Note that the parts of events are themselves events, and may be treated as such. The points in time may be seen as
<quote>mu'e</quote>point-events; the spans of time may constitute processes or activities. Therefore, Lojban allows us to refer to processes within processes, activities within states, and many other complicated abstract things.</para>
+<!-- ^^ mu'e, 257, 258; place structure, 259 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mu'e</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter11-section12">
<title>12. Abstractor connection</title>
<para>An abstractor may be replaced by two or more abstractors joined by logical or non-logical connectives. Connectives are explained in detail in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14" />. The connection can be expanded to one between two bridi which differ only in abstraction marker.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section12-example1" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section12-example2" />are equivalent in meaning:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-hybU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e12d1" />
@@ -1373,46 +1671,58 @@
<anchor xml:id="c11e12d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter11-section12-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ka la frank. ciska cu xlali</jbo>
<gloss>.ije le ni la frank. ciska cu xlali</gloss>
<gloss>The quality-of Frank's writing is bad,</gloss>
<en>and the quantity of Frank's writing is bad.</en>
<jbo>le ka je ni la frank. ciska cu xlali</jbo>
<en>The quality and quantity of Frank's writing is bad.</en>
+<!-- ^^ quality and quantity: example, 365 -->
+<indexterm><primary>quality and quantity</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This feature of Lojban has hardly ever been used, and nobody knows what uses it may eventually have.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter11-section13">
<title>13. Table of abstractors</title>
<para>The following table gives each abstractor, an English gloss for it, a Lojban gismu which is connected with it (more or less remotely: the associations between abstractors and gismu are meant more as memory hooks than for any kind of inference), the rafsi associated with it, and (on the following line) its place structure.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
nu event of fasnu nun
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
x1 is an event of (the bridi)
ka property of ckaji kam
x1 is a property of (the bridi)
ni amount of klani nil
x1 is an amount of (the bridi) measured on scale x2
jei truth-value of jetnu jez
x1 is a truth-value of (the bridi) under epistemology x2
li'i experience of lifri liz
+<!-- ^^ li'i, 265 -->
+<indexterm><primary>li'i</primary></indexterm>
x1 is an experience of (the bridi) to experiencer x2
si'o idea of sidbo siz
x1 is an idea/concept of (the bridi) in the mind of x2
du'u predication of ----- dum
x1 is the bridi (the bridi) expressed by sentence x2
su'u abstraction of sucta sus
x1 is an abstract nature of (the bridi)
za'i state of zasti zam
+<!-- ^^ za'i, 257, 258, 268; place structure, 259 -->
+<indexterm><primary>za'i</primary></indexterm>
x1 is a state of (the bridi)
zu'o activity of zukte zum
+<!-- ^^ zu'o, 257, 258, 268; place structure, 259 -->
+<indexterm><primary>zu'o</primary></indexterm>
x1 is an activity of (the bridi)
pu'u process of pruce pup
+<!-- ^^ pu'u, 257, 258, 268; place structure, 259 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pu'u</primary></indexterm>
x1 is a process of (the bridi)
mu'e point-event of mulno mub
+<!-- ^^ mu'e, 257, 258; place structure, 259 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mu'e</primary></indexterm>
x1 is a point-event/achievement of (the bridi)
</programlisting>
</section>
</chapter>
diff --git a/todocbook/12.xml b/todocbook/12.xml
index 25470fb..4c137cd 100644
--- a/todocbook/12.xml
+++ b/todocbook/12.xml
@@ -1,15 +1,31 @@
<chapter xml:id="cll_chapter12">
<title>Chapter 12 Dog House And White House: Determining lujvo Place Structures</title>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter12-section1">
<title>1. Why have lujvo?</title>
<para>The Lojban vocabulary is founded on its list of 1350-plus gismu, made up by combining word lists from various sources. These gismu are not intended to be either a complete vocabulary for the language nor a minimal list of semantic primitives. Instead, the gismu list serves as a basis for the creation of compound words, or lujvo. The intention is that (except in certain semantically broad but shallow fields such as cultures, nations, foods, plants, and animals) suitable lujvo can be devised to cover the ten million or so concepts expressible in all the world's languages taken together. Grammatically, lujvo behave just like gismu: they have place structures and function as selbri.</para>
+<!-- ^^ world's languages, 273 -->
+<indexterm><primary>world's languages</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ word lists, 273 -->
+<indexterm><primary>word lists</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ semantic primitives, 273 -->
+<indexterm><primary>semantic primitives</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ plants: use of fu'ivla for specific, 61 -->
+<indexterm><primary>plants</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ minimal list, 273 -->
+<indexterm><primary>minimal list</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ lists: use of tu'e/tu'u in, 358 -->
+<indexterm><primary>lists</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ compound words, 273 -->
+<indexterm><primary>compound words</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ basis: example, 317 -->
+<indexterm><primary>basis</primary></indexterm>
<para>There is a close relationship between lujvo and tanru. In fact, lujvo are condensed forms of tanru:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-m9zv">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e1d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section1-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti fagri festi</jbo>
<en>That is-fire waste.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -29,52 +45,66 @@
<para>Although the lujvo
<quote>fagyfesti</quote>is derived from the tanru
<quote>fagri festi</quote>, it is not equivalent in meaning to it. In particular,
<quote>fagyfesti</quote>has a distinct place structure of its own, not the same as that of
<quote>festi</quote>. (In contrast, the tanru does have the same place structure as
<quote>festi</quote>.) The lujvo needs to take account of the places of
<quote>fagri</quote>as well. When a tanru is made into a lujvo, there is no equivalent of
<quote>be ... bei ... be'o</quote>(described in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5" />) to incorporate sumti into the middle of the lujvo.</para>
<para>So why have lujvo? Primarily to reduce semantic ambiguity. On hearing a tanru, there is a burden on the listener to figure out what the tanru might mean. Adding further terms to the tanru reduces ambiguity in one sense, by providing more information; but it increases ambiguity in another sense, because there are more and more tanru joints, each with an ambiguous significance. Since lujvo, like other brivla, have a fixed place structure and a single meaning, encapsulating a commonly-used tanru into a lujvo relieves the listener of the burden of creative understanding. In addition, lujvo are typically shorter than the corresponding tanru.</para>
+<!-- ^^ creative understanding, 273 -->
+<indexterm><primary>creative understanding</primary></indexterm>
<para>There are no absolute laws fixing the place structure of a newly created lujvo. The maker must consider the place structures of all the components of the tanru and then decide which are still relevant and which can be removed. What is said in this chapter represents guidelines, presented as one possible standard, not necessarily complete, and not the only possible standard. There may well be lujvo that are built without regard for these guidelines, or in accordance with entirely different guidelines, should such alternative guidelines someday be developed. The reason for presenting any guidelines at all is so that Lojbanists have a starting point for deciding on a likely place structure - one that others seeing the same word can also arrive at by similar consideration.</para>
+<!-- ^^ alternative guidelines, 273 -->
+<indexterm><primary>alternative guidelines</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ absolute laws, 273 -->
+<indexterm><primary>absolute laws</primary></indexterm>
<para>If the tanru includes connective cmavo such as
<quote>bo</quote>,
<quote>ke</quote>,
<quote>ke'e</quote>, or
<quote>je</quote>, or conversion or abstraction cmavo such as
<quote>se</quote>or
<quote>nu</quote>, there are ways of incorporating them into the lujvo as well. Sometimes this makes the lujvo excessively long; if so, the cmavo may be dropped. This leads to the possibility that more than one tanru could produce the same lujvo. Typically, however, only one of the possible tanru is useful enough to justify making a lujvo for it.</para>
<para>The exact workings of the lujvo-making algorithm, which takes a tanru built from gismu (and possibly cmavo) and produces a lujvo from it, are described in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4" />.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter12-section2">
<title>2. The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour</title>
+<!-- ^^ necessary detour, 274 -->
+<indexterm><primary>necessary detour</primary></indexterm>
<para>The meaning of a lujvo is controlled by - but is not the same as - the meaning of the tanru from which the lujvo was constructed. The tanru corresponding to a lujvo is called its
<quote>veljvo</quote>in Lojban, and since there is no concise English equivalent, that term will be used in this chapter. Furthermore, the left (modifier) part of a tanru will be called the
<quote>seltau</quote>, and the right (modified) part the
<quote>tertau</quote>, following the usage of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5" />. For brevity, we will speak of the seltau or tertau of a lujvo, meaning of course the seltau or tertau of the veljvo of that lujvo. (If this terminology is confusing, substituting
<quote>modifier</quote>for
<quote>seltau</quote>and
<quote>modified</quote>for
<quote>tertau</quote>may help.)</para>
<para>The place structure of a tanru is always the same as the place structure of its tertau. As a result, the meaning of the tanru is a modified version of the meaning of the tertau; the tanru will typically, but not always, refer to a subset of the things referred to by the tertau.</para>
<para>The purpose of a tanru is to join concepts together without necessarily focusing on the exact meaning of the seltau. For example, in the
<citation>Iliad</citation>, the poet talks about
<quote>the wine-dark sea</quote>, in which
+<!-- ^^ wine-dark sea, 274 -->
+<indexterm><primary>wine-dark sea</primary></indexterm>
<quote>wine</quote>is a seltau relative to
<quote>dark</quote>, and the pair of words is a seltau relative to
<quote>sea</quote>. We're talking about the sea, not about wine or color. The other words are there to paint a scene in the listener's mind, in which the real action will occur, and to evoke relations to other sagas of the time similarly describing the sea. Logical inferences about wine or color will be rejected as irrelevant.</para>
+<!-- ^^ irrelevant: specifying of sumti place, 157 -->
+<indexterm><primary>irrelevant</primary></indexterm>
<para>As a simple example, consider the rather non-obvious tanru
<quote>klama zdani</quote>, or
<quote>goer-house</quote>. The gismu
+<!-- ^^ goer-house: example, 274 -->
+<indexterm><primary>goer-house</primary></indexterm>
<quote>zdani</quote>has two places:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-xcfi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e2d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section2-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>x1 is a nest/house/lair/den for inhabitant x2</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -91,69 +121,89 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The tanru
<quote>klama zdani</quote>will also have two places, namely those of
<quote>zdani</quote>. Since a
<quote>klama zdani</quote>is a type of
<quote>zdani</quote>, we can assume that all goer-houses - whatever they may be - are also houses.</para>
<para>But is knowing the places of the tertau everything that is needed to understand the meaning of a tanru? No. To see why, let us switch to a less unlikely tanru:
<quote>gerku zdani</quote>, literally
<quote>dog house</quote>. A tanru expresses a very loose relation: a
+<!-- ^^ dog house: example, 274 -->
+<indexterm><primary>dog house</primary></indexterm>
<quote>gerku zdani</quote>is a house that has something to do with some dog or dogs. What the precise relation might be is left unstated. Thus, the meaning of
<quote>lo gerku zdani</quote>can include all of the following: houses occupied by dogs, houses shaped by dogs, dogs which are also houses (e.g. houses for fleas), houses named after dogs, and so on. All that is essential is that the place structure of
+<!-- ^^ fleas, 274 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fleas</primary></indexterm>
<quote>zdani</quote>continues to apply.</para>
+<!-- ^^ continues: example, 228 -->
+<indexterm><primary>continues</primary></indexterm>
<para>For something (call it z1) to qualify as a
<quote>gerku zdani</quote>in Lojban, it's got to be a house, first of all. For it to be a house, it's got to house someone (call that z2). Furthermore, there's got to be a dog somewhere (called g1). For g1 to count as a dog in Lojban, it's got to belong to some breed as well (called g2). And finally, for z1 to be in the first place of
<quote>gerku zdani</quote>, as opposed to just
<quote>zdani</quote>, there's got to be some relationship (called r) between some place of
+<!-- ^^ some relationship: example, 409 -->
+<indexterm><primary>some relationship</primary></indexterm>
<quote>zdani</quote>and some place of
<quote>gerku</quote>. It doesn't matter which places, because if there's a relationship between some place of
<quote>zdani</quote>and any place of
<quote>gerku</quote>, then that relationship can be compounded with the relationship between the places of
<quote>gerku</quote>- namely,
<quote>gerku</quote>itself - to reach any of the other
<quote>gerku</quote>places. Thus, if the relationship turns out to be between z2 and g2, we can still state r in terms of z1 and g1:
<quote>the relationship involves the dog g1, whose breed has to do with the occupant of the house z1</quote>.</para>
<para>Doubtless to the relief of the reader, here's an illustration. We want to find out whether the White House (the one in which the U. S. President lives, that is) counts as a
<quote>gerku zdani</quote>. We go through the five variables. The White House is the z1. It houses Bill Clinton as z2, as of this writing, so it counts as a
+<!-- ^^ Bill Clinton: example, 275 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Bill Clinton</primary></indexterm>
<quote>zdani</quote>. Let's take a dog - say, Spot (g1). Spot has to have a breed; let's say it's a Saint Bernard (g2). Now, the White House counts as a
<quote>gerku zdani</quote>if there is any relationship (r) at all between the White House and Spot. (We'll choose the g1 and z1 places to relate by r; we could have chosen any other pair of places, and simply gotten a different relationship.)</para>
<para>The sky is the limit for r; it can be as complicated as
<quote>The other day, g1 (Spot) chased Socks, who is owned by Chelsea Clinton, who is the daughter of Bill Clinton, who lives in z1 (the White House)</quote>or even worse. If no such r can be found, well, you take another dog, and keep going until no more dogs can be found. Only then can we say that the White House cannot fit into the first place of
+<!-- ^^ Chelsea Clinton, 275 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Chelsea Clinton</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ Bill Clinton: example, 275 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Bill Clinton</primary></indexterm>
<quote>gerku zdani</quote>.</para>
<para>As we have seen, no less than five elements are involved in the definition of
<quote>gerku zdani</quote>: the house, the house dweller, the dog, the dog breed (everywhere a dog goes in Lojban, a dog breed follows), and the relationship between the house and the dog. Since tanru are explicitly ambiguous in Lojban, the relationship r cannot be expressed within a tanru (if it could, it wouldn't be a tanru any more!) All the other places, however, can be expressed - thus:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-tUDa">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e2d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section2-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la blabi zdani cu gerku be fa la spot. bei la sankt. berNARD. be'o</jbo>
<gloss>zdani la bil. klinton.</gloss>
<gloss>The White House is-a-dog (namely Spot of-breed Saint Bernard)</gloss>
<en>type-of-house-for Bill Clinton.</en>
+<!-- ^^ Bill Clinton: example, 275 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Bill Clinton</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Not the most elegant sentence ever written in either Lojban or English. Yet if there is any relation at all between Spot and the White House,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12-section2-example3" />is arguably true. If we concentrate on just one type of relation in interpreting the tanru
<quote>gerku zdani</quote>, then the meaning of
<quote>gerku zdani</quote>changes. So if we understand
<quote>gerku zdani</quote>as having the same meaning as the English word
<quote>doghouse</quote>, the White House would no longer be a
<quote>gerku zdani</quote>with respect to Spot, because as far as we know Spot does not actually live in the White House, and the White House is not a doghouse (derogatory terms for incumbents notwithstanding).</para>
+<!-- ^^ derogatory terms, 275 -->
+<indexterm><primary>derogatory terms</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter12-section3">
<title>3. The meaning of lujvo</title>
<para>This is a fairly long way to go to try and work out how to say
<quote>doghouse</quote>! The reader can take heart; we're nearly there. Recall that one of the components involved in fixing the meaning of a tanru - the one left deliberately vague - is the precise relation between the tertau and the seltau. Indeed, fixing this relation is tantamount to giving an interpretation to the ambiguous tanru.</para>
<para>A lujvo is defined by a single disambiguated instance of a tanru. That is to say, when we try to design the place structure of a lujvo, we don't need to try to discover the relation between the tertau and the seltau. We already know what kind of relation we're looking for; it's given by the specific need we wish to express, and it determines the place structure of the lujvo itself.</para>
+<!-- ^^ disambiguated instance, 276 -->
+<indexterm><primary>disambiguated instance</primary></indexterm>
<para>Therefore, it is generally not appropriate to simply devise lujvo and decide on place structures for them without considering one or more specific usages for the coinage. If one does not consider specifics, one will be likely to make erroneous generalizations on the relationship r.</para>
<para>The insight driving the rest of this chapter is this: while the relation expressed by a tanru can be very distant (e.g. Spot chasing Socks, above), the relationship singled out for disambiguation in a lujvo should be quite close. This is because lujvo-making, paralleling natural language compounding, picks out the most salient relationship r between a tertau place and a seltau place to be expressed in a single word. The relationship
<quote>dog chases cat owned by daughter of person living in house</quote>is too distant, and too incidental, to be likely to need expression as a single short word; the relationship
<quote>dog lives in house</quote>is not. From all the various interpretations of
<quote>gerku zdani</quote>, the person creating
<quote>gerzda</quote>should pick the most useful value of r. The most useful one is usually going to be the most obvious one, and the most obvious one is usually the closest one.</para>
<para>In fact, the relationship will almost always be so close that the predicate expressing r will be either the seltau or the tertau predicate itself. This should come as no surprise, given that a word like
<quote>zdani</quote>in Lojban is a predicate. Predicates express relations; so when you're looking for a relation to tie together
<quote>le zdani</quote>and
<quote>le gerku</quote>, the most obvious relation to pick is the very relation named by the tertau,
@@ -166,20 +216,22 @@
<quote>se zdani</quote>, turned out to be identical to the dog, the
<quote>gerku</quote>. We can proceed as follows:</para>
<para>(The notation introduced casually in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12-section2" />will be useful in the rest of this chapter. Rather than using the regular x1, x2, etc. to represent places, we'll use the first letter of the relevant gismu in place of the
<quote>x</quote>, or more than one letter where necessary to resolve ambiguities. Thus, z1 is the first place of
<quote>zdani</quote>, and g2 is the second place of
<quote>gerku</quote>.)</para>
<para>The place structure of
<quote>zdani</quote>is given as
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12-section2-example1" />, but is repeated here using the new notation:</para>
+<!-- ^^ new notation, 276 -->
+<indexterm><primary>new notation</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-95t5">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e3d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section3-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>z1 is a nest/house/lair/den of z2</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The place structure of
@@ -238,81 +290,97 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12-section14" />.</para>
<para>However, second-guessing the place structure of the lujvo is useful in guiding the process of subsequently eliminating places from the veljvo. If the Lojbanist has an idea of what the final place structure should look like, he or she should be able to pick an appropriate veljvo to begin with, in order to express the idea, and then to decide which places are relevant or not relevant to expressing that idea.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter12-section5">
<title>5. Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo</title>
<para>A common pattern, perhaps the most common pattern, of lujvo-making creates what is called a
<quote>symmetrical lujvo</quote>. A symmetrical lujvo is one based on a tanru interpretation such that the first place of the seltau is equivalent to the first place of the tertau: each component of the tanru characterizes the same object. As an illustration of this, consider the lujvo
<quote>balsoi</quote>: it is intended to mean
<quote>both great and a soldier</quote>- that is,
<quote>great soldier</quote>, which is the interpretation we would tend to give its veljvo,
+<!-- ^^ great soldier: example, 278, 282 -->
+<indexterm><primary>great soldier</primary></indexterm>
<quote>banli sonci</quote>. The underlying gismu place structures are:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-7AFc">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e5d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section5-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<quote>banli</quote>: b1 is great in property b2 by standard b3</jbo>
<en>
<quote>sonci</quote>: s1 is a soldier of army s2</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In this case the s1 place of
<quote>sonci</quote>is redundant, since it is equivalent to the b1 place of
<quote>banli</quote>. Therefore the place structure of
<quote>balsoi</quote>need not include places for both s1 and b1, as they refer to the same thing. So the place structure of
<quote>balsoi</quote>is at most</para>
+<!-- ^^ at most: contrasted with more than, at least, less than, 443; example, 443 -->
+<indexterm><primary>at most</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-UtwF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e5d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section5-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>b1=s1 is a great soldier of army s2 in property b2 by standard b3</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ great soldier: example, 278, 282 -->
+<indexterm><primary>great soldier</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Some symmetrical veljvo have further equivalent places in addition to the respective first places. Consider the lujvo
+<!-- ^^ symmetrical veljvo, 278 -->
+<indexterm><primary>symmetrical veljvo</primary></indexterm>
<quote>tinju'i</quote>,
<quote>to listen</quote>(
<quote>to hear attentively, to hear and pay attention</quote>). The place structures of the gismu
<quote>tirna</quote>and
<quote>jundi</quote>are:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-rFiE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e5d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section5-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<quote>tirna</quote>: t1 hears sound t2 against background noise t3</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ background noise, 278 -->
+<indexterm><primary>background noise</primary></indexterm>
<en>
<quote>jundi</quote>: j1 pays attention to j2</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and the place structure of the lujvo is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-EUr1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e5d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section5-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>j1=t1 listens to j2=t2 against background noise t3</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ background noise, 278 -->
+<indexterm><primary>background noise</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Why so? Because not only is the j1 place (the one who pays attention) equivalent to the t1 place (the hearer), but the j2 place (the thing paid attention to) is equivalent to the t2 place (the thing heard).</para>
<para>A substantial minority of lujvo have the property that the first place of the seltau (
<quote>gerku</quote>in this case) is equivalent to a place other than the first place of the tertau; such lujvo are said to be
<quote>asymmetrical</quote>. (There is a deliberate parallel here with the terms
<quote>asymmetrical tanru</quote>and
+<!-- ^^ asymmetrical tanru, 104; definition, 104 -->
+<indexterm><primary>asymmetrical tanru</primary></indexterm>
<quote>symmetrical tanru</quote>used in
+<!-- ^^ symmetrical tanru, 111 -->
+<indexterm><primary>symmetrical tanru</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5" />.)</para>
<para>In principle any asymmetrical lujvo could be expressed as a symmetrical lujvo. Consider
<quote>gerzda</quote>, discussed in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12-section3" />, where we learned that the g1 place was equivalent to the z2 place. In order to get the places aligned, we could convert
<quote>zdani</quote>to
<quote>se zdani</quote>(or
<quote>selzda</quote>when expressed as a lujvo). The place structure of
<quote>selzda</quote>is</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-IXoj">
<title>
@@ -333,24 +401,28 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>s1=g1 is a dog housed in nest s2 of dog breed g2</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>However, although
<quote>gerselzda</quote>is a valid lujvo, it doesn't translate
<quote>doghouse</quote>; its first place is the dog, not the doghouse. Furthermore, it is more complicated than necessary;
<quote>gerzda</quote>is simpler than
<quote>gerselzda</quote>.</para>
<para>From the reader's or listener's point of view, it may not always be obvious whether a newly met lujvo is symmetrical or asymmetrical, and if the latter, what kind of asymmetrical lujvo. If the place structure of the lujvo isn't given in a dictionary or elsewhere, then plausibility must be applied, just as in interpreting tanru.</para>
+<!-- ^^ plausibility: in abbreviated lujvo, 284 -->
+<indexterm><primary>plausibility</primary></indexterm>
<para>The lujvo
<quote>karcykla</quote>, for example, is based on
<quote>karce klama</quote>, or
<quote>car goer</quote>. The place structure of
+<!-- ^^ car goer: example, 279 -->
+<indexterm><primary>car goer</primary></indexterm>
<quote>karce</quote>is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-S7W3">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e5d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section5-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>karce: ka1 is a car carrying ka2 propelled by ka3</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -376,20 +448,24 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>kl1 goes to destination kl2 from origin kl3 via route kl4</jbo>
<en>by means of car kl5=ka1 carrying ka2 propelled by ka3.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>instead.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter12-section6">
<title>6. Dependent places</title>
<para>In order to understand which places, if any, should be completely removed from a lujvo place structure, we need to understand the concept of dependent places. One place of a brivla is said to be dependent on another if its value can be predicted from the values of one or more of the other places. For example, the g2 place of
+<!-- ^^ lujvo place structure: "ni" lujvo, 287; "nu" lujvo, 286; basis of, 277; comparative lujvo, 292; cross-dependent places, 280; dependent places, 279; dropping cross-dependent places, 280; dropping dependent places, caveat, 281; dropping dependent seltau places, 279; dropping dependent tertau places, 280; dropping first place of NU, 288; dropping KE, 285; dropping KEhE, 285; dropping redundant places, 276; effect of SE, 278; effect of SE-dropping in tertau, 284; explicated walk-through, 276; guidelines, 273; multi-place abstraction lujvo, 287; notation conventions, 276; rationale for standardization, 277; selecting tertau, 281; superlatives, 294; when first place redundant with non-first, 278; when first places redundant, 278; when first places redundant plus others, 278; with "jai" lujvo, 287 -->
+<!-- ^^ notation conventions: for Quick Tour chapter, 12 -->
+<indexterm><primary>notation conventions</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>lujvo place structure</primary></indexterm>
<quote>gerku</quote>is dependent on the g1 place. Why? Because when we know what fits in the g1 place (Spot, let us say, a well-known dog), then we know what fits in the g2 place (
<quote>St. Bernard</quote>, let us say). In other words, when the value of the g1 place has been specified, the value of the g2 place is determined by it. Conversely, since each dog has only one breed, but each breed contains many dogs, the g1 place is not dependent on the g2 place; if we know only that some dog is a St. Bernard, we cannot tell by that fact alone which dog is meant.</para>
<para>For
<quote>zdani</quote>, on the other hand, there is no dependency between the places. When we know the identity of a house-dweller, we have not determined the house, because a dweller may dwell in more than one house. By the same token, when we know the identity of a house, we do not know the identity of its dweller, for a house may contain more than one dweller.</para>
<para>The rule for eliminating places from a lujvo is that dependent places provided by the seltau are eliminated. Therefore, in
<quote>gerzda</quote>the dependent g2 place is removed from the tentative place structure given in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12-section3-example5" />, leaving the place structure:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-zMyY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e6d1" />
@@ -401,183 +477,251 @@
</example>
<para>Informally put, the reason this has happened - and it happens a lot with seltau places - is that the third place was describing not the doghouse, but the dog who lives in it. The sentence</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-PI6B">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e6d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section6-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la mon. rePOS. gerzda la spat.</jbo>
<en>Mon Repos is a doghouse of Spot.</en>
+<!-- ^^ Mon Repos: example, 280 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Mon Repos</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>really means</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-73x9">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e6d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section6-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la mon. rePOS. zdani la spat. noi gerku</jbo>
<en>Mon Repos is a house of Spot, who is a dog.</en>
+<!-- ^^ Mon Repos: example, 280 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Mon Repos</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>since that is the interpretation we have given
<quote>gerzda</quote>. But that in turn means</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-wc69">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e6d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section6-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la mon. rePOS. zdani la spat noi ke'a gerku zo'e</jbo>
<en>Mon Repos is a house of Spot, who is a dog of unspecified breed.</en>
+<!-- ^^ unspecified breed: example, 280 -->
+<indexterm><primary>unspecified breed</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ Mon Repos: example, 280 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Mon Repos</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Specifically,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-KqrV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e6d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section6-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la mon. rePOS. zdani la spat. noi ke'a gerku la sankt. berNARD.</jbo>
<en>Mon Repos is a house of Spot, who is a dog of breed St. Bernard.</en>
+<!-- ^^ Mon Repos: example, 280 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Mon Repos</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and in that case, it makes little sense to say</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-yXR0">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e6d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section6-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la mon. rePOS. gerzda la spat. noi ke'a gerku la sankt. berNARD. ku'o</jbo>
<gloss>la sankt. berNARD.</gloss>
<gloss>Mon Repos is a doghouse of Spot, who is a dog of breed St. Bernard,</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ Mon Repos: example, 280 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Mon Repos</primary></indexterm>
<en>of breed St. Bernard.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>employing the over-ample place structure of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12-section3-example5" />. The dog breed is redundantly given both in the main selbri and in the relative clause, and (intuitively speaking) is repeated in the wrong place, since the dog breed is supplementary information about the dog, and not about the doghouse.</para>
+<!-- ^^ supplementary information, 280 -->
+<indexterm><primary>supplementary information</primary></indexterm>
<para>As a further example, take
<quote>cakcinki</quote>, the lujvo for
<quote>beetle</quote>, based on the tanru
+<!-- ^^ beetle: example, 280 -->
+<indexterm><primary>beetle</primary></indexterm>
<quote>calku cinki</quote>, or
<quote>shell-insect</quote>. The gismu place structures are:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-D0qb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e6d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section6-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<quote>calku</quote>: ca1 is a shell/husk around ca2 made of ca3</jbo>
<en>
<quote>cinki</quote>: ci1 is an insect/arthropod of species ci2</en>
+<!-- ^^ arthropod, 280 -->
+<indexterm><primary>arthropod</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This example illustrates a cross-dependency between a place of one gismu and a place of the other. The ca3 place is dependent on ci1, because all insects (which fit into ci1) have shells made of chitin (which fits into ca3). Furthermore, ca1 is dependent on ci1 as well, because each insect has only a single shell. And since ca2 (the thing with the shell) is equivalent to ci1 (the insect), the place structure is</para>
+<!-- ^^ cross-dependency, 280 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cross-dependency</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-n7JB">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e6d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section6-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ci1=ca2 is a beetle of species ci2</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ beetle: example, 280 -->
+<indexterm><primary>beetle</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>with not a single place of
<quote>calku</quote>surviving independently!</para>
<para>(Note that there is nothing in this explanation that tells us just why
<quote>cakcinki</quote>means
<quote>beetle</quote>(member of Coleoptera), since all insects in their adult forms have chitin shells of some sort. The answer, which is in no way predictable, is that the shell is a prominent, highly noticeable feature of beetles in particular.)</para>
+<!-- ^^ Coleoptera, 280 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Coleoptera</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ beetles, 280 -->
+<indexterm><primary>beetles</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ beetle: example, 280 -->
+<indexterm><primary>beetle</primary></indexterm>
<para>What about the dependency of ci2 on ci1? After all, no beetle belongs to more than one species, so it would seem that the ci2 place of
+<!-- ^^ beetle: example, 280 -->
+<indexterm><primary>beetle</primary></indexterm>
<quote>cakcinki</quote>could be eliminated on the same reasoning that allowed us to eliminate the g2 place of
<quote>gerzda</quote>above. However, it is a rule that dependent places are not eliminated from a lujvo when they are derived from the tertau of its veljvo. This rule is imposed to keep the place structures of lujvo from drifting too far from the tertau place structure; if a place is necessary in the tertau, it's treated as necessary in the lujvo as well.</para>
<para>In general, the desire to remove places coming from the tertau is a sign that the veljvo selected is simply wrong. Different place structures imply different concepts, and the lujvo maker may be trying to shoehorn the wrong concept into the place structure of his or her choosing. This is obvious when someone tries to shoehorn a
+<!-- ^^ wrong concept, 281 -->
+<indexterm><primary>wrong concept</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ shoehorn, 281 -->
+<indexterm><primary>shoehorn</primary></indexterm>
<quote>klama</quote>tertau into a
<quote>litru</quote>or
<quote>cliva</quote>concept, for example: these gismu differ in their number of arguments, and suppressing places of
<quote>klama</quote>in a lujvo doesn't make any sense if the resulting modified place structure is that of
<quote>litru</quote>or
<quote>cliva</quote>.</para>
<para>Sometimes the dependency is between a single place of the tertau and the whole event described by the seltau. Such cases are discussed further in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12-section13" />.</para>
<para>Unfortunately, not all dependent places in the seltau can be safely removed: some of them are necessary to interpreting the lujvo's meaning in context. It doesn't matter much to a doghouse what breed of dog inhabits it, but it can make quite a lot of difference to the construction of a school building what kind of school is in it! Music schools need auditoriums and recital rooms, elementary schools need playgrounds, and so on: therefore, the place structure of
+<!-- ^^ school building: example, 281 -->
+<indexterm><primary>school building</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ recital rooms, 281 -->
+<indexterm><primary>recital rooms</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ playgrounds, 281 -->
+<indexterm><primary>playgrounds</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ elementary schools, 281 -->
+<indexterm><primary>elementary schools</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ auditoriums, 281 -->
+<indexterm><primary>auditoriums</primary></indexterm>
<quote>kuldi'u</quote>(from
<quote>ckule dinju</quote>, and meaning
<quote>school building</quote>) needs to be</para>
+<!-- ^^ school building: example, 281 -->
+<indexterm><primary>school building</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-u6Xz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e6d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section6-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>d1 is a building housing school c1 teaching subject c3 to audience c4</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>even though c3 and c4 are plainly dependent on c1. The other places of
<quote>ckule</quote>, the location (c2) and operators (c5), don't seem to be necessary to the concept
<quote>school building</quote>, and are dependent on c1 to boot, so they are omitted. Again, the need for case-by-case consideration of place structures is demonstrated.</para>
+<!-- ^^ school building: example, 281 -->
+<indexterm><primary>school building</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter12-section7">
<title>7. Ordering lujvo places.</title>
<para>So far, we have concentrated on selecting the places to go into the place structure of a lujvo. However, this is only half the story. In using selbri in Lojban, it is important to remember the right order of the sumti. With lujvo, the need to attend to the order of sumti becomes critical: the set of places selected should be ordered in such a way that a reader unfamiliar with the lujvo should be able to tell which place is which.</para>
<para>If we aim to make understandable lujvo, then, we should make the order of places in the place structure follow some conventions. If this does not occur, very real ambiguities can turn up. Take for example the lujvo
<quote>jdaselsku</quote>, meaning
<quote>prayer</quote>. In the sentence</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-FfWn">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e7d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section7-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>di'e jdaselsku la dong.</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ di'e, 149, 358; effect of tu'e/tu'u on, 358 -->
+<indexterm><primary>di'e</primary></indexterm>
<en>This-utterance is-a-prayer somehow-related-to-Dong.</en>
+<!-- ^^ Dong: example, 281 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Dong</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>we must be able to know if Dong is the person making the prayer, giving the meaning</para>
+<!-- ^^ Dong: example, 281 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Dong</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-b38f">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e7d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section7-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>This is a prayer by Dong</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ Dong: example, 281 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Dong</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>or is the entity being prayed to, resulting in</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-uL3V">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e7d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section7-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>This is a prayer to Dong</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ Dong: example, 281 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Dong</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>We could resolve such problems on a case-by-case basis for each lujvo (
+<!-- ^^ basis: example, 317 -->
+<indexterm><primary>basis</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12-section14" />discusses when this is actually necessary), but case-by-case resolution for run-of-the-mill lujvo makes the task of learning lujvo place structures unmanageable. People need consistent patterns to make sense of what they learn. Such patterns can be found across gismu place structures (see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12-section16" />), and are even more necessary in lujvo place structures. Case-by-case consideration is still necessary; lujvo creation is a subtle art, after all. But it is helpful to take advantage of any available regularities.</para>
+<!-- ^^ lujvo creation: interaction of KE with NAhE, 286; interaction of KE with SE, 286; use of multiple SE in, 286 -->
+<!-- ^^ multiple SE: effect of ordering, 194 -->
+<indexterm><primary>multiple SE</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>lujvo creation</primary></indexterm>
<para>We use two different ordering rules: one for symmetrical lujvo and one for asymmetrical ones. A symmetrical lujvo like
<quote>balsoi</quote>(from
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12-section5" />) has the places of its tertau followed by whatever places of the seltau survive the elimination process. For
+<!-- ^^ elimination process, 282 -->
+<indexterm><primary>elimination process</primary></indexterm>
<quote>balsoi</quote>, the surviving places of
<quote>banli</quote>are b2 and b3, leading to the place structure:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-rv1m">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e7d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section7-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>b1=s1 is a great soldier of army s2 in property b2 by standard b3</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ great soldier: example, 278, 282 -->
+<indexterm><primary>great soldier</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>just what appears in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12-section5-example1" />. In fact, all place structures shown until now have been in the correct order by the conventions of this section, though the fact has been left tacit until now.</para>
<para>The motivation for this rule is the parallelism between the lujvo bridi-schema</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-7juc">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e7d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section7-example5" />
</title>
@@ -598,60 +742,80 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where
<quote>gi'e</quote>is the Lojban word for
<quote>and</quote>when placed between two partial bridi, as explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14" />.</para>
<para>Asymmetrical lujvo like
<quote>gerzda</quote>, on the other hand, employ a different rule. The seltau places are inserted not at the end of the place structure, but rather immediately after the tertau place which is equivalent to the first place of the seltau. Consider
<quote>dalmikce</quote>, meaning
<quote>veterinarian</quote>: its veljvo is
+<!-- ^^ veterinarian: example, 282 -->
+<indexterm><primary>veterinarian</primary></indexterm>
<quote>danlu mikce</quote>, or
<quote>animal doctor</quote>. The place structures for those gismu are:</para>
+<!-- ^^ animal doctor: example, 282 -->
+<indexterm><primary>animal doctor</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-BqPj">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e7d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section7-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<quote>danlu</quote>: d1 is an animal of species d2</jbo>
<en>
<quote>mikce</quote>: m1 is a doctor to patient m2 for ailment m3 using treatment m4</en>
+<!-- ^^ ailment, 282 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ailment</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and the lujvo place structure is:</para>
+<!-- ^^ lujvo place structure: "ni" lujvo, 287; "nu" lujvo, 286; basis of, 277; comparative lujvo, 292; cross-dependent places, 280; dependent places, 279; dropping cross-dependent places, 280; dropping dependent places, caveat, 281; dropping dependent seltau places, 279; dropping dependent tertau places, 280; dropping first place of NU, 288; dropping KE, 285; dropping KEhE, 285; dropping redundant places, 276; effect of SE, 278; effect of SE-dropping in tertau, 284; explicated walk-through, 276; guidelines, 273; multi-place abstraction lujvo, 287; notation conventions, 276; rationale for standardization, 277; selecting tertau, 281; superlatives, 294; when first place redundant with non-first, 278; when first places redundant, 278; when first places redundant plus others, 278; with "jai" lujvo, 287 -->
+<!-- ^^ notation conventions: for Quick Tour chapter, 12 -->
+<indexterm><primary>notation conventions</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>lujvo place structure</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-WeBW">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e7d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section7-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>m1 is a doctor for animal m2=d1 of species d2 for ailment m3</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ailment, 282 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ailment</primary></indexterm>
<en>using treatment m4</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Since the shared place is m2=d1, the animal patient, the remaining seltau place d2 is inserted immediately after the shared place; then the remaining tertau places form the last two places of the lujvo.</para>
+<!-- ^^ animal patient, 282 -->
+<indexterm><primary>animal patient</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter12-section8">
<title>8. lujvo with more than two parts.</title>
<para>The theory we have outlined so far is an account of lujvo with two parts. But often lujvo are made containing more than two parts. An example is
<quote>bavlamdei</quote>,
<quote>tomorrow</quote>: it is composed of the rafsi for
+<!-- ^^ tomorrow: example, 282 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tomorrow</primary></indexterm>
<quote>future</quote>,
<quote>adjacent</quote>, and
<quote>day</quote>. How does the account we have given apply to lujvo like this?</para>
<para>The best way to approach such lujvo is to continue to classify them as based on binary tanru, the only difference being that the seltau or the tertau or both is itself a lujvo. So it is easiest to make sense of
<quote>bavlamdei</quote>as having two components:
<quote>bavla'i</quote>,
<quote>next</quote>, and
<quote>djedi</quote>. If we know or invent the lujvo place structure for the components, we can compose the new lujvo place structure in the usual way.</para>
+<!-- ^^ lujvo place structure: "ni" lujvo, 287; "nu" lujvo, 286; basis of, 277; comparative lujvo, 292; cross-dependent places, 280; dependent places, 279; dropping cross-dependent places, 280; dropping dependent places, caveat, 281; dropping dependent seltau places, 279; dropping dependent tertau places, 280; dropping first place of NU, 288; dropping KE, 285; dropping KEhE, 285; dropping redundant places, 276; effect of SE, 278; effect of SE-dropping in tertau, 284; explicated walk-through, 276; guidelines, 273; multi-place abstraction lujvo, 287; notation conventions, 276; rationale for standardization, 277; selecting tertau, 281; superlatives, 294; when first place redundant with non-first, 278; when first places redundant, 278; when first places redundant plus others, 278; with "jai" lujvo, 287 -->
+<!-- ^^ notation conventions: for Quick Tour chapter, 12 -->
+<indexterm><primary>notation conventions</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>lujvo place structure</primary></indexterm>
<para>In this case,
<quote>bavla'i</quote>is given the place structure</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-aCg7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e8d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section8-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>b1=l1 is next after b2=l2</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -661,101 +825,117 @@
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Lera">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e8d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section8-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>duration d1 is d2 days long (default 1) by standard d3</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>While symmetrical lujvo normally put any trailing tertau places before any seltau places, the day standard is a much less important concept than the day the tomorrow follows, in the definition of
+<!-- ^^ tomorrow: example, 282 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tomorrow</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bavlamdei</quote>. This is an example of how the guidelines presented for selecting and ordering lujvo places are just that, not laws that must be rigidly adhered to. In this case, we choose to rank places in order of relative importance. The resulting place structure is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-KEwW">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e8d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section8-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>d1=b1=l1 is a day following b2=l2, d2 days later (default 1) by standard d3</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here is another example of a multi-part lujvo:
<quote>cladakyxa'i</quote>, meaning
<quote>long-sword</quote>, a specific type of medieval weapon. The gismu place structures are:</para>
+<!-- ^^ medieval weapon, 283 -->
+<indexterm><primary>medieval weapon</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ long-sword: example, 283 -->
+<indexterm><primary>long-sword</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-XpNf">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e8d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section8-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<quote>clani</quote>: c1 is long in direction c2 by standard c3</jbo>
<gloss>
<quote>dakfu</quote>: d1 is a knife for cutting d2 with blade made of d3</gloss>
<en>
<quote>xarci</quote>: xa1 is a weapon for use against xa2 by wielder xa3</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Since
<quote>cladakyxa'i</quote>is a symmetrical lujvo based on
<quote>cladakfu xarci</quote>, and
<quote>cladakfu</quote>is itself a symmetrical lujvo, we can do the necessary analyses all at once. Plainly c1 (the long thing), d1 (the knife), and xa1 (the weapon) are all the same. Likewise, the d2 place (the thing cut) is the same as the xa2 place (the target of the weapon), given that swords are used to cut victims. Finally, the c2 place (direction of length) is always along the sword blade in a longsword, by definition, and so is dependent on c1=d1=xa1. Adding on the places of the remaining gismu in right-to-left order we get:</para>
+<!-- ^^ sword blade, 283 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sword blade</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-eAbF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e8d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section8-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xa1=d1=c1 is a long-sword for use against xa2=d2 by wielder xa3,</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ long-sword: example, 283 -->
+<indexterm><primary>long-sword</primary></indexterm>
<en>with a blade made of d3, length measured by standard c3.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>If the last place sounds unimportant to you, notice that what counts legally as a
<quote>sword</quote>, rather than just a
<quote>knife</quote>, depends on the length of the blade (the legal limit varies in different jurisdictions). This fifth place of
<quote>cladakyxa'i</quote>may not often be explicitly filled, but it is still useful on occasion. Because it is so seldom important, it is best that it be last.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter12-section9">
<title>9. Eliding SE rafsi from seltau</title>
<para>It is common to form lujvo that omit the rafsi based on cmavo of selma'o SE, as well as other cmavo rafsi. Doing so makes lujvo construction for common or useful constructions shorter. Since it puts more strain on the listener who has not heard the lujvo before, the shortness of the word should not necessarily outweigh ease in understanding, especially if the lujvo refers to a rare or unusual concept.</para>
<para>Consider as an example the lujvo
<quote>ti'ifla</quote>, from the veljvo
<quote>stidi flalu</quote>, and meaning
<quote>bill, proposed law</quote>. The gismu place structures are:</para>
+<!-- ^^ proposed law, 283 -->
+<indexterm><primary>proposed law</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-n1LH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e9d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section9-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<quote>stidi</quote>: agent st1 suggests idea/action st2 to audience st3</jbo>
<gloss>
<quote>flalu</quote>: f1 is a law specifying f2 for community f3 under conditions f4</gloss>
<en>by lawgiver f5</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This lujvo does not fit any of our existing molds: it is the second seltau place, st2, that is equivalent to one of the tertau places, namely f1. However, if we understand
<quote>ti'ifla</quote>as an abbreviation for the lujvo
<quote>selti'ifla</quote>, then we get the first places of seltau and tertau lined up. The place structure of
+<!-- ^^ lined up, 283 -->
+<indexterm><primary>lined up</primary></indexterm>
<quote>selti'i</quote>is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-j98h">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e9d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section9-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<quote>selti'i</quote>: idea/action se1 is suggested by agent se2 to audience se3</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here we can see that se1 (what is suggested) is equivalent to f1 (the law), and we get a normal symmetrical lujvo. The final place structure is:</para>
+<!-- ^^ can see: example, 244 -->
+<indexterm><primary>can see</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-S0n4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e9d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section9-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>f1=se1 is a bill specifying f2 for community f3 under conditions f4</jbo>
<en>by suggester se2 to audience/lawgivers f5=se3</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -767,34 +947,48 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>f1=st2 is a bill specifying f2 for community f3 under conditions f4</jbo>
<en>by suggester st1 to audience/lawgivers f5=st3</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where the last place (st3) is probably some sort of legislature.</para>
<para>Abbreviated lujvo like
<quote>ti'ifla</quote>are more intuitive (for the lujvo-maker) than their more explicit counterparts like
<quote>selti'ifla</quote>(as well as shorter). They don't require the coiner to sit down and work out the precise relation between the seltau and the tertau: he or she can just rattle off a rafsi pair. But should the lujvo get to the stage where a place structure needs to be worked out, then the precise relation does need to be specified. And in that case, such abbreviated lujvo form a trap in lujvo place ordering, since they obscure the most straightforward relation between the seltau and tertau. To give our lujvo-making guidelines as wide an application as possible, and to encourage analyzing the seltau-tertau relation in lujvo, lujvo like
+<!-- ^^ lujvo form: consonant cluster requirement in, 59; final letter of, 59; hierarchy of priorities for selection of, 72; number of letters in, 59; requirements for hyphen insertion in, 59; requirements for n-hyphen insertion in, 60; requirements for r-hyphen insertion in, 60; requirements for y-hyphen insertion in, 59 -->
+<!-- ^^ y-hyphen: and consonant cluster determination, 56; and stress determination, 56; use of, 56 -->
+<indexterm><primary>y-hyphen</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ r-hyphen: contrasted with n-hyphen in requirements for use, 60; use of, 56, 60 -->
+<indexterm><primary>r-hyphen</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ n-hyphen: contrasted with r-hyphen in requirements for use, 60; use of, 56, 60 -->
+<!-- ^^ r-hyphen: contrasted with n-hyphen in requirements for use, 60; use of, 56, 60 -->
+<indexterm><primary>r-hyphen</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>n-hyphen</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>lujvo form</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ti'ifla</quote>are given the place structure they would have with the appropriate SE added to the seltau.</para>
<para>Note that, with these lujvo, an interpretation requiring SE insertion is safe only if the alternatives are either implausible or unlikely to be needed as a lujvo. This may not always be the case, and Lojbanists should be aware of the risk of ambiguity.</para>
+<!-- ^^ implausible, 284 -->
+<indexterm><primary>implausible</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter12-section10">
<title>10. Eliding SE rafsi from tertau</title>
<para>Eliding SE rafsi from tertau gets us into much more trouble. To understand why, recall that lujvo, following their veljvo, describe some type of whatever their tertau describe. Thus,
<quote>posydji</quote>describes a type of
<quote>djica</quote>,
<quote>gerzda</quote>describes a type of
<quote>zdani</quote>, and so on. What is certain is that
<quote>gerzda</quote>does not describe a
<quote>se zdani</quote>- it is not a word that could be used to describe an inhabitant such as a dog.</para>
<para>Now consider how we would translate the word
<quote>blue-eyed</quote>. Let's tentatively translate this word as
+<!-- ^^ blue-eyed: example, 284 -->
+<indexterm><primary>blue-eyed</primary></indexterm>
<quote>blakanla</quote>(from
<quote>blanu kanla</quote>, meaning
<quote>blue eye</quote>). But immediately we are in trouble: we cannot say</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Kyq2">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e10d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section10-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djak. cu blakanla</jbo>
@@ -838,44 +1032,54 @@
<section xml:id="cll_chapter12-section11">
<title>11. Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo</title>
<para>People constructing lujvo usually want them to be as short as possible. To that end, they will discard any cmavo they regard as niceties. The first such cmavo to get thrown out are usually
<quote>ke</quote>and
<quote>ke'e</quote>, the cmavo used to structure and group tanru. We can usually get away with this, because the interpretation of the tertau with
<quote>ke</quote>and
<quote>ke'e</quote>missing is less plausible than that with the cmavo inserted, or because the distinction isn't really important.</para>
<para>For example, in
<quote>bakrecpa'o</quote>, meaning
<quote>beefsteak</quote>, the veljvo is</para>
+<!-- ^^ beefsteak, 285; example, 285 -->
+<indexterm><primary>beefsteak</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-TgVR">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e11d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section11-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>[ke] bakni rectu [ke'e] panlo</jbo>
<en>( bovine meat ) slice</en>
+<!-- ^^ bovine: example, 285 -->
+<indexterm><primary>bovine</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>because of the usual Lojban left-grouping rule. But there doesn't seem to be much difference between that veljvo and</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-HDBe">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e11d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section11-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>bakni ke rectu panlo [ke'e]</jbo>
<en>bovine ( meat slice )</en>
+<!-- ^^ meat slice: example, 285 -->
+<indexterm><primary>meat slice</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ bovine: example, 285 -->
+<indexterm><primary>bovine</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>On the other hand, the lujvo
<quote>zernerkla</quote>, meaning
<quote>to sneak in</quote>, almost certainly was formed from the veljvo</para>
+<!-- ^^ sneak in: example, 285 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sneak in</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-aXrm">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e11d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section11-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>zekri ke nenri klama [ke'e]</jbo>
<gloss>crime ( inside go )</gloss>
<en>to go within, criminally</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -889,45 +1093,59 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>[ke] zekri nenri [ke'e] klama</jbo>
<en>(crime inside) go</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>doesn't make much sense. (To go to the inside of a crime? To go into a place where it is criminal to be inside - an interpretation almost identical with
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12-section11-example3" />anyway?)</para>
<para>There are cases, however, where omitting a KE or KEhE rafsi can produce another lujvo, equally useful. For example,
<quote>xaskemcakcurnu</quote>means
<quote>oceanic shellfish</quote>, and has the veljvo</para>
+<!-- ^^ shellfish, 285; example, 285 -->
+<indexterm><primary>shellfish</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-0W5t">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e11d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section11-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xamsi ke calku curnu</jbo>
<en>ocean type-of (shell worm)</en>
+<!-- ^^ shell worm: example, 285 -->
+<indexterm><primary>shell worm</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(
<quote>worm</quote>in Lojban refers to any invertebrate), but
+<!-- ^^ invertebrate, 285 -->
+<indexterm><primary>invertebrate</primary></indexterm>
<quote>xasycakcurnu</quote>has the veljvo</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-HEjn">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e11d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section11-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>[ke] xamsi calku [ke'e] curnu</jbo>
<en>(ocean shell) type-of worm</en>
+<!-- ^^ ocean shell: example, 286 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ocean shell</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and might refer to the parasitic worms that infest clamshells.</para>
+<!-- ^^ parasitic worms: example, 286 -->
+<indexterm><primary>parasitic worms</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ clamshells, 286 -->
+<indexterm><primary>clamshells</primary></indexterm>
<para>Such misinterpretation is more likely than not in a lujvo starting with
+<!-- ^^ misinterpretation, 286 -->
+<indexterm><primary>misinterpretation</primary></indexterm>
<quote>sel-</quote>(from
<quote>se</quote>),
<quote>nal-</quote>(from
<quote>na'e</quote>) or
<quote>tol-</quote>(from
<quote>to'e</quote>): the scope of the rafsi will likeliest be presumed to be as narrow as possible, since all of these cmavo normally bind only to the following brivla or
<quote>ke ... ke'e</quote>group. For that reason, if we want to modify an entire lujvo by putting
<quote>se</quote>,
<quote>na'e</quote>or
<quote>to'e</quote>before it, it's better to leave the result as two words, or else to insert
@@ -959,44 +1177,52 @@
<quote>se dzukla</quote>, but we cannot directly make
<quote>se dzukla</quote>into
<quote>seldzukla</quote>, which would represent the veljvo
<quote>selcadzu klama</quote>and plausibly mean something like
<quote>to go to a walking surface</quote>. Instead, we would need
<quote>selkemdzukla</quote>, with an explicit rafsi for
<quote>ke</quote>. Similarly,
<quote>nalbrablo</quote>(from
<quote>na'e barda bloti</quote>) means
<quote>non-big boat</quote>, whereas
+<!-- ^^ big boat: example, 55 -->
+<indexterm><primary>big boat</primary></indexterm>
<quote>na'e brablo</quote>means
<quote>other than a big boat</quote>.</para>
+<!-- ^^ big boat: example, 55 -->
+<indexterm><primary>big boat</primary></indexterm>
<para>If the lujvo we want to modify with SE has a seltau already starting with a SE rafsi, we can take a shortcut. For instance,
<quote>gekmau</quote>means
<quote>happier than</quote>, while
<quote>selgekmau</quote>means
<quote>making people happier than, more enjoyable than, more of a 'se gleki' than</quote>. If something is less enjoyable than something else, we can say it is
<quote>se selgekmau</quote>.</para>
<para>But we can also say it is
<quote>selselgekmau</quote>. Two
<quote>se</quote>cmavo in a row cancel each other (
<quote>se se gleki</quote>means the same as just
<quote>gleki</quote>), so there would be no good reason to have
<quote>selsel</quote>in a lujvo with that meaning. Instead, we can feel free to interpret
<quote>selsel-</quote>as
<quote>selkemsel-</quote>. The rafsi combinations
<quote>terter-</quote>,
<quote>velvel-</quote>and
<quote>xelxel-</quote>work in the same way.</para>
<para>Other SE combinations like
<quote>selter-</quote>, although they might conceivably mean
<quote>se te</quote>, more than likely should be interpreted in the same way, namely as
+<!-- ^^ se te, 194 -->
+<indexterm><primary>se te</primary></indexterm>
<quote>se ke te</quote>, since there is no need to re-order places in the way that
<quote>se te</quote>provides. (See
+<!-- ^^ se te, 194 -->
+<indexterm><primary>se te</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9" />.)</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter12-section12">
<title>12. Abstract lujvo</title>
<para>The cmavo of NU can participate in the construction of lujvo of a particularly simple and well-patterned kind. Consider that old standard example,
<quote>klama</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-KEao">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e12d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section12-example1" />
@@ -1058,35 +1284,39 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section12-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>d1 desires the event of (s1 being a soldier of army s2) for purpose d3</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where the d2 place has disappeared altogether, being replaced by the places of the seltau. As shown in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12-section12-example5" />, the ordering follows this idea of replacement: the seltau places are inserted at the point where the omitted abstraction place exists in the tertau.</para>
<para>The lujvo
<quote>nunsoidji</quote>is quite different from the ordinary asymmetric lujvo
+<!-- ^^ asymmetric lujvo, 287 -->
+<indexterm><primary>asymmetric lujvo</primary></indexterm>
<quote>soidji</quote>, a
<quote>soldier desirer</quote>, whose place structure is just</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-2VMP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e12d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section12-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>d1 desires (a soldier of army s2) for purpose d3</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>A
<quote>nunsoidji</quote>might be someone who is about to enlist, whereas a
<quote>soidji</quote>might be a camp-follower.</para>
<para>One use of abstract lujvo is to eliminate the need for explicit
+<!-- ^^ abstract lujvo, 286; contrasted with abstract bridi, 287 -->
+<indexterm><primary>abstract lujvo</primary></indexterm>
<quote>kei</quote>in tanru:
<quote>nunkalri gasnu</quote>means much the same as
<quote>nu kalri kei gasnu</quote>, but is shorter. In addition, many English words ending in
<quote>-hood</quote>are represented with
<quote>nun-</quote>lujvo, and other words ending in
<quote>-ness</quote>or
<quote>-dom</quote>are often representable with
<quote>kam-</quote>lujvo (
<quote>kam-</quote>is the rafsi for
<quote>ka</quote>);
@@ -1118,32 +1348,44 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi jaxri'a le nu do morsi</jbo>
<en>I am-part-of-the-cause-of the event-of your dying.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In making a lujvo that contains
<quote>jax-</quote>for a selbri that contains
<quote>jai</quote>, the rule is to leave the
<quote>fai</quote>place as a
<quote>fai</quote>place of the lujvo; it does not participate in the regular lujvo place structure. (The use of
+<!-- ^^ lujvo place structure: "ni" lujvo, 287; "nu" lujvo, 286; basis of, 277; comparative lujvo, 292; cross-dependent places, 280; dependent places, 279; dropping cross-dependent places, 280; dropping dependent places, caveat, 281; dropping dependent seltau places, 279; dropping dependent tertau places, 280; dropping first place of NU, 288; dropping KE, 285; dropping KEhE, 285; dropping redundant places, 276; effect of SE, 278; effect of SE-dropping in tertau, 284; explicated walk-through, 276; guidelines, 273; multi-place abstraction lujvo, 287; notation conventions, 276; rationale for standardization, 277; selecting tertau, 281; superlatives, 294; when first place redundant with non-first, 278; when first places redundant, 278; when first places redundant plus others, 278; with "jai" lujvo, 287 -->
+<!-- ^^ notation conventions: for Quick Tour chapter, 12 -->
+<indexterm><primary>notation conventions</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>lujvo place structure</primary></indexterm>
<quote>fai</quote>is also explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11" />.)</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter12-section13">
<title>13. Implicit-abstraction lujvo</title>
+<!-- ^^ abstraction lujvo: asymmetric, 288 -->
+<indexterm><primary>abstraction lujvo</primary></indexterm>
<para>Eliding NU rafsi involves the same restrictions as eliding SE rafsi, plus additional ones. In general, NU rafsi should not be elided from the tertau, since that changes the kind of thing the lujvo is talking about from an abstraction to a concrete sumti. However, they may be elided from the seltau if no reasonable ambiguity would result.</para>
<para>A major difference, however, between SE elision and NU elision is that the former is a rather sparse process, providing a few convenient shortenings. Eliding
<quote>nu</quote>, however, is extremely important in producing a class of lujvo called
<quote>implicit-abstraction lujvo</quote>.</para>
+<!-- ^^ implicit-abstraction lujvo: definition, 289 -->
+<indexterm><primary>implicit-abstraction lujvo</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ abstraction lujvo: asymmetric, 288 -->
+<indexterm><primary>abstraction lujvo</primary></indexterm>
<para>Let us make a detailed analysis of the lujvo
<quote>nunctikezgau</quote>, meaning
<quote>to feed</quote>. (If you think this lujvo is excessively longwinded, be patient.) The veljvo of
+<!-- ^^ feed: example, 288 -->
+<indexterm><primary>feed</primary></indexterm>
<quote>nunctikezgau</quote>is
<quote>nu citka kei gasnu</quote>. The relevant place structures are:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-bSDW">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e13d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section13-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<quote>nu</quote>: n1 is an event</jbo>
@@ -1174,34 +1416,40 @@
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-izvp">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e13d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section13-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>g1 is the actor in the event n1=g2 of c1 eating c2</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>But it is also possible to omit the n1 place itself! The n1 place describes the event brought about; an event in Lojban is described as a bridi, by a selbri and its sumti; the selbri is already known (it's the seltau), and the sumti are also already known (they're in the lujvo place structure). So n1 would not give us any information we didn't already know. In fact, the n1=g2 place is dependent on c1 and c2 jointly - it does not depend on either c1 or c2 by itself. Being dependent and derived from the seltau, it is omissible. So the final place structure of
+<!-- ^^ lujvo place structure: "ni" lujvo, 287; "nu" lujvo, 286; basis of, 277; comparative lujvo, 292; cross-dependent places, 280; dependent places, 279; dropping cross-dependent places, 280; dropping dependent places, caveat, 281; dropping dependent seltau places, 279; dropping dependent tertau places, 280; dropping first place of NU, 288; dropping KE, 285; dropping KEhE, 285; dropping redundant places, 276; effect of SE, 278; effect of SE-dropping in tertau, 284; explicated walk-through, 276; guidelines, 273; multi-place abstraction lujvo, 287; notation conventions, 276; rationale for standardization, 277; selecting tertau, 281; superlatives, 294; when first place redundant with non-first, 278; when first places redundant, 278; when first places redundant plus others, 278; with "jai" lujvo, 287 -->
+<!-- ^^ notation conventions: for Quick Tour chapter, 12 -->
+<indexterm><primary>notation conventions</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>lujvo place structure</primary></indexterm>
<quote>nunctikezgau</quote>is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-9oTP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e13d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section13-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>g1 is the actor in the event of c1 eating c2</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>There is one further step that can be taken. As we have already seen with
<quote>balsoi</quote>in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12-section5" />, the interpretation of lujvo is constrained by the semantics of gismu and of their sumti places. Now, any asymmetrical lujvo with
<quote>gasnu</quote>as its tertau will involve an event abstraction either implicitly or explicitly, since that is how the g2 place of
+<!-- ^^ event abstraction(s): types, 257 -->
+<indexterm><primary>event abstraction</primary></indexterm>
<quote>gasnu</quote>is defined.</para>
<para>Therefore, if we assume that
<quote>nu</quote>is the type of abstraction one would expect to be a
<quote>se gasnu</quote>, then the rafsi
<quote>nun</quote>and
<quote>kez</quote>in
<quote>nunctikezgau</quote>are only telling us what we would already have guessed - that the seltau of a
<quote>gasnu</quote>lujvo is an event. If we drop these rafsi out, and use instead the shorter lujvo
<quote>ctigau</quote>, rejecting its symmetrical interpretation (
<quote>someone who both does and eats</quote>;
@@ -1223,20 +1471,24 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e13d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section13-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>agent g1 causes c1 to eat c2</jbo>
<en>g1 feeds c2 to c1.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This particular kind of asymmetrical lujvo, in which the seltau serves as the selbri of an abstraction which is a place of the tertau, is called an implicit-abstraction lujvo, because one deduces the presence of an abstraction which is unexpressed (implicit).</para>
+<!-- ^^ implicit-abstraction lujvo: definition, 289 -->
+<indexterm><primary>implicit-abstraction lujvo</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ abstraction lujvo: asymmetric, 288 -->
+<indexterm><primary>abstraction lujvo</primary></indexterm>
<para>To give another example: the gismu
<quote>basti</quote>, whose place structure is</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-3LIm">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e13d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section13-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>b1 replaces b2 in circumstances b3</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1252,54 +1504,72 @@
<jbo>g1 (agent) replaces b1 with b2 in circumstances b3</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where both
<quote>basti</quote>and
<quote>basygau</quote>are translated
<quote>replace</quote>in English, but represent different relations:
<quote>basti</quote>may be used with no mention of any agent doing the replacing.</para>
<para>In addition,
<quote>gasnu</quote>-based lujvo can be built from what we would consider nouns or adjectives in English. In Lojban, everything is a predicate, so adjectives, nouns and verbs are all treated in the same way. This is consistent with the use of similar causative affixes in other languages. For example, the gismu
+<!-- ^^ verbs: brivla as Lojban equivalents, 52 -->
+<indexterm><primary>verbs</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ nouns: brivla as Lojban equivalents, 52 -->
+<indexterm><primary>nouns</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ adjectives: brivla as Lojban equivalents, 52 -->
+<indexterm><primary>adjectives</primary></indexterm>
<quote>litki</quote>, meaning
<quote>liquid</quote>, with the place structure</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-tDsX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e13d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section13-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>l1 is a quantity of liquid of composition l2 under conditions l3</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>can give
<quote>likygau</quote>, meaning
<quote>to liquefy</quote>:</para>
+<!-- ^^ liquefy: example, 289 -->
+<indexterm><primary>liquefy</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-p5Bt">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e13d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section13-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>g1 (agent) causes l1 to be a quantity of liquid of composition l2</jbo>
<en>under conditions l3.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>While
<quote>likygau</quote>correctly represents
<quote>causes to be a liquid</quote>, a different lujvo based on
<quote>galfi</quote>(meaning
<quote>modify</quote>) may be more appropriate for
<quote>causes to become a liquid</quote>. On the other hand,
<quote>fetsygau</quote>is potentially confusing, because it could mean
<quote>agent in the event of something becoming female</quote>(the implicit-abstraction interpretation) or simply
<quote>female agent</quote>(the parallel interpretation), so using implicit-abstraction lujvo is always accompanied with some risk of being misunderstood.</para>
+<!-- ^^ implicit-abstraction lujvo: definition, 289 -->
+<indexterm><primary>implicit-abstraction lujvo</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ abstraction lujvo: asymmetric, 288 -->
+<indexterm><primary>abstraction lujvo</primary></indexterm>
<para>Many other Lojban gismu have places for event abstractions, and therefore are good candidates for the tertau of an implicit-abstraction lujvo. For example, lujvo based on
+<!-- ^^ implicit-abstraction lujvo: definition, 289 -->
+<indexterm><primary>implicit-abstraction lujvo</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ event abstractions, 256 -->
+<indexterm><primary>event abstractions</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ abstraction lujvo: asymmetric, 288 -->
+<indexterm><primary>abstraction lujvo</primary></indexterm>
<quote>rinka</quote>, with its place structure</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Pmz8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e13d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section13-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>event r1 causes event r2 to occur</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1316,24 +1586,30 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section13-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>event r1 causes l1 to be a quantity of liquid</jbo>
<en>of composition l2 under conditions l3</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and would be useful in translating sentences like
<quote>The heat of the sun liquefied the block of ice.</quote></para>
<para>Implicit-abstraction lujvo are a powerful means in the language of rendering quite verbose bridi into succinct and manageable concepts, and increasing the expressive power of the language.</para>
+<!-- ^^ expressive power, 290 -->
+<indexterm><primary>expressive power</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ abstraction lujvo: asymmetric, 288 -->
+<indexterm><primary>abstraction lujvo</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter12-section14">
<title>14. Anomalous lujvo</title>
<para>Some lujvo that have been coined and actually employed in Lojban writing do not follow the guidelines expressed above, either because the places that are equivalent in the seltau and the tertau are in an unusual position, or because the seltau and tertau are related in a complex way, or both. An example of the first kind is
+<!-- ^^ unusual position, 290 -->
+<indexterm><primary>unusual position</primary></indexterm>
<quote>jdaselsku</quote>, meaning
<quote>prayer</quote>, which was mentioned in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12-section7" />. The gismu places are:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-qJEQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e14d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section14-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
@@ -1388,34 +1664,42 @@
<quote>jdaselsku</quote>is a reasonable, if anomalous, lujvo.</para>
<para>However, there is a further problem with
<quote>jdaselsku</quote>, not resolvable by using
<quote>seljdasku</quote>. No veljvo involving just the two gismu
<quote>lijda</quote>and
<quote>cusku</quote>can fully express the relationship implicit in prayer. A prayer is not just anything said by the adherents of a religion; nor is it even anything said by them acting as adherents of that religion. Rather, it is what they say under the authority of that religion, or using the religion as a medium, or following the rules associated with the religion, or something of the kind. So the veljvo is somewhat elliptical.</para>
<para>As a result, both
<quote>seljdasku</quote>and
<quote>jdaselsku</quote>belong to the second class of anomalous lujvo: the veljvo doesn't really supply all that the lujvo requires.</para>
<para>Another example of this kind of anomalous lujvo, drawn from the tanru lists in
+<!-- ^^ lists: use of tu'e/tu'u in, 358 -->
+<indexterm><primary>lists</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5" />, is
<quote>lange'u</quote>, meaning
<quote>sheepdog</quote>. Clearly a sheepdog is not a dog which is a sheep (the symmetrical interpretation is wrong), nor a dog of the sheep breed (the asymmetrical interpretation is wrong). Indeed, there is simply no overlap in the places of
+<!-- ^^ sheepdog, 290; example, 290 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sheepdog</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ sheep breed, 290 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sheep breed</primary></indexterm>
<quote>lanme</quote>and
<quote>gerku</quote>at all. Rather, the lujvo refers to a dog which controls sheep flocks, a
<quote>terlanme jitro gerku</quote>, the lujvo from which is
<quote>terlantroge'u</quote>with place structure:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-TW5Q">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e14d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section14-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>g1=j1 is a dog that controls sheep flock l3=j2 made up of sheep l1</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ sheep flock: example, 291 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sheep flock</primary></indexterm>
<en>in activity j3 of dog breed g2</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>based on the gismu place structures</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-CXeL">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e14d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section14-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1430,37 +1714,45 @@
<para>Note that this lujvo is symmetrical between
<quote>lantro</quote>(sheep-controller) and
<quote>gerku</quote>, but
<quote>lantro</quote>is itself an asymmetrical lujvo. The l2 place, the breed of sheep, is removed as dependent on l1. However, the lujvo
<quote>lange'u</quote>is both shorter than
<quote>terlantroge'u</quote>and sufficiently clear to warrant its use: its place structure, however, should be the same as that of the longer lujvo, for which
<quote>lange'u</quote>can be understood as an abbreviation.</para>
<para>Another example is
<quote>xanmi'e</quote>,
<quote>to command by hand, to beckon</quote>. The component place structures are:</para>
+<!-- ^^ beckon: example, 291 -->
+<indexterm><primary>beckon</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-VjbP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e14d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section14-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<quote>xance</quote>: xa1 is the hand of xa2</jbo>
<en>
<quote>minde</quote>: m1 gives commands to m2 to cause m3 to happen</en>
+<!-- ^^ commands: quick-tour version, 22; with ko, 146 -->
+<indexterm><primary>commands</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The relation between the seltau and tertau is close enough for there to be an overlap: xa2 (the person with the hand) is the same as m1 (the one who commands). But interpreting
+<!-- ^^ commands: quick-tour version, 22; with ko, 146 -->
+<indexterm><primary>commands</primary></indexterm>
<quote>xanmi'e</quote>as a symmetrical lujvo with an elided
<quote>sel-</quote>in the seltau, as if from
<quote>se xance minde</quote>, misses the point: the real relation expressed by the lujvo is not just
<quote>one who commands and has a hand</quote>, but
+<!-- ^^ commands: quick-tour version, 22; with ko, 146 -->
+<indexterm><primary>commands</primary></indexterm>
<quote>to command using the hand</quote>. The concept of
<quote>using</quote>suggests the gismu
<quote>pilno</quote>, with place structure</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-sqQN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e14d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section14-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>p1 uses tool p2 for purpose p3</jbo>
@@ -1491,31 +1783,37 @@
<jbo>minde ke xance pilno [ke'e]</jbo>
<en>commander type-of (hand user)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which lead to the three different lujvo
<quote>xanplimi'e</quote>,
<quote>mi'erxanpli</quote>, and
<quote>minkemxanpli</quote>respectively.</para>
<para>Does this make
<quote>xanmi'e</quote>wrong? By no means. But it does mean that there is a latent component to the meaning of
+<!-- ^^ latent component, 291 -->
+<indexterm><primary>latent component</primary></indexterm>
<quote>xanmi'e</quote>, the gismu
<quote>pilno</quote>, which is not explicit in the veljvo. And it also means that, for a place structure derivation that actually makes sense, rather than being ad-hoc, the Lojbanist should probably go through a derivation for
<quote>xancypliminde</quote>or one of the other possibilities that is analogous to the analysis of
<quote>terlantroge'u</quote>above, even if he or she decides to stick with a shorter, more convenient form like
<quote>xanmi'e</quote>. In addition, of course, the possibilities of elliptical lujvo increase their potential ambiguity enormously - an unavoidable fact which should be borne in mind.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter12-section15">
<title>15. Comparatives and superlatives</title>
<para>English has the concepts of
<quote>comparative adjectives</quote>and
+<!-- ^^ adjectives: brivla as Lojban equivalents, 52 -->
+<indexterm><primary>adjectives</primary></indexterm>
<quote>superlative adjectives</quote>which can be formed from other adjectives, either by adding the suffixes
+<!-- ^^ adjectives: brivla as Lojban equivalents, 52 -->
+<indexterm><primary>adjectives</primary></indexterm>
<quote>-er</quote>and
<quote>-est</quote>or by using the words
<quote>more</quote>and
<quote>most</quote>, respectively. The Lojbanic equivalents, which can be made from any brivla, are lujvo with the tertau
<quote>zmadu</quote>,
<quote>mleca</quote>,
<quote>zenba</quote>,
<quote>jdika</quote>, and
<quote>traji</quote>. In order to make these lujvo regular and easy to make, certain special guidelines are imposed.</para>
<para>We will begin with lujvo based on
@@ -1541,74 +1839,100 @@
<anchor xml:id="c12e15d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section15-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<quote>citno</quote>: c1 is young</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The comparative concept
<quote>younger</quote>can be expressed by the lujvo
+<!-- ^^ younger: example, 292 -->
+<indexterm><primary>younger</primary></indexterm>
<quote>citmau</quote>(based on the veljvo
<quote>citno zmadu</quote>, meaning
<quote>young more-than</quote>).</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-GDt1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e15d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section15-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi citmau do lo nanca be li xa</jbo>
<gloss>I am-younger-than you by-years the-number six.</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ younger: example, 292 -->
+<indexterm><primary>younger</primary></indexterm>
<en>I am six years younger than you.</en>
+<!-- ^^ younger: example, 292 -->
+<indexterm><primary>younger</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The place structure for
<quote>citmau</quote>is</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-I3Uh">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e15d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section15-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>z1=c1 is younger than z2=c1 by amount z4</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ younger: example, 292 -->
+<indexterm><primary>younger</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Similarly, in Lojban you can say:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-tJDa">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e15d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section15-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do citme'a mi lo nanca be li xa</jbo>
<gloss>You are-less-young-than me by-years the-number six.</gloss>
<en>You are six years less young than me.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In English,
<quote>more</quote>comparatives are easier to make and use than
+<!-- ^^ comparatives: use of zmadu in forming, 58 -->
+<indexterm><primary>comparatives</primary></indexterm>
<quote>less</quote>comparatives, but in Lojban the two forms are equally easy.</para>
+<!-- ^^ comparatives: use of zmadu in forming, 58 -->
+<indexterm><primary>comparatives</primary></indexterm>
<para>Because of their much simpler place structure, lujvo ending in
<quote>-mau</quote>and
+<!-- ^^ mau, 203, 432; avoiding in favor of seme'a, 203 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mau</primary></indexterm>
<quote>-me'a</quote>are in fact used much more frequently than
+<!-- ^^ me'a, 203; avoiding in favor of semau, 203 -->
+<indexterm><primary>me'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>zmadu</quote>and
<quote>mleca</quote>themselves as selbri. It is highly unlikely for such lujvo to be construed as anything other than implicit-abstraction lujvo. But there is another type of ambiguity relevant to these lujvo, and which has to do with what is being compared.</para>
+<!-- ^^ implicit-abstraction lujvo: definition, 289 -->
+<indexterm><primary>implicit-abstraction lujvo</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ abstraction lujvo: asymmetric, 288 -->
+<indexterm><primary>abstraction lujvo</primary></indexterm>
<para>For example, does
<quote>nelcymau</quote>mean
<quote>X likes Y more than X likes Z</quote>, or
<quote>X likes Y more than Z likes Y</quote>? Does
<quote>klamau</quote>mean:
<quote>X goes to Y more than to Z</quote>,
<quote>X goes to Y more than Z does</quote>,
<quote>X goes to Y from Z more than from W</quote>, or what?</para>
<para>We answer this concern by putting regularity above any considerations of concept usefulness: by convention, the two things being compared always fit into the first place of the seltau. In that way, each of the different possible interpretations can be expressed by SE-converting the seltau, and making the required place the new first place. As a result, we get the following comparative lujvo place structures:</para>
+<!-- ^^ converting: operand to operator, 500; operator to selbri, 502; quantifier to selbri, 500; selbri to operand, 501; selbri to operator, 501; sumti to operand, 500; sumti to tanru unit, 500 -->
+<indexterm><primary>converting</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ comparative lujvo: against former state, 293; and seltau presupposition, 293; potential ambiguity in, 292; standardized meanings, 292 -->
+<!-- ^^ former state, 293 -->
+<indexterm><primary>former state</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>comparative lujvo</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-eSTr">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e15d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section15-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<quote>nelcymau</quote>: z1, more than z2, likes n2 by amount z4</jbo>
<gloss>
<quote>selnelcymau</quote>: z1, more than z2, is liked by n1 in amount z4</gloss>
@@ -1625,26 +1949,40 @@
<para>(See
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11" />for the way in which this problem is resolved when lujvo aren't used.)</para>
<para>The ordering rule places the things being compared first, and the other seltau places following. Unfortunately the z4 place, which expresses by how much one entity exceeds the other, is displaced into a lujvo place whose number is different for each lujvo. For example, while
<quote>nelcymau</quote>has z4 as its fourth place,
<quote>klamau</quote>has it as its sixth place. In any sentence where a difficulty arises, this amount-place can be redundantly tagged with
<quote>vemau</quote>(for
<quote>zmadu</quote>) or
<quote>veme'a</quote>(for
<quote>mleca</quote>) to help make the speaker's intention clear.</para>
<para>It is important to realize that such comparative lujvo do not presuppose their seltau. Just as in English, saying someone is younger than someone else doesn't imply that they're young in the first place: an octogenarian, after all, is still younger than a nonagenarian. Rather, the 80-year-old has a greater
+<!-- ^^ younger: example, 292 -->
+<indexterm><primary>younger</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ octogenarian, 293 -->
+<indexterm><primary>octogenarian</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ nonagenarian, 293 -->
+<indexterm><primary>nonagenarian</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ comparative lujvo: against former state, 293; and seltau presupposition, 293; potential ambiguity in, 292; standardized meanings, 292 -->
+<!-- ^^ former state, 293 -->
+<indexterm><primary>former state</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>comparative lujvo</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ni citno</quote>than the 90-year-old. Similarly, a 5-year-old is older than a 1-year-old, but is not considered
<quote>old</quote>by most standards.</para>
<para>There are some comparative concepts which are in which the
<quote>se zmadu</quote>is difficult to specify. Typically, these involve comparisons implicitly made with a former state of affairs, where stating a z2 place explicitly would be problematic.</para>
+<!-- ^^ former state, 293 -->
+<indexterm><primary>former state</primary></indexterm>
<para>In such cases, it is best not to use
<quote>zmadu</quote>and leave the comparison hanging, but to use instead the gismu
+<!-- ^^ comparison: claims related to based on form, 204 -->
+<indexterm><primary>comparison</primary></indexterm>
<quote>zenba</quote>, meaning
<quote>increase</quote>(and
<quote>jdika</quote>, meaning
<quote>decrease</quote>, in place of
<quote>mleca</quote>). The gismu
<quote>zenba</quote>was included in the language precisely in order to capture those notions of increase which
<quote>zmadu</quote>can't quite cope with; in addition, we don't have to waste a place in lujvo or tanru on something that we'd never fill in with a value anyway. So we can translate
<quote>I'm stronger now</quote>not as</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Uo7S">
<title>
@@ -1697,61 +2035,73 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e15d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section15-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>z1 is better than z2 for xa2 by standard xa3 in amount z4</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>We would expect the place structure of
<quote>xagrai</quote>, the superlative form, to somehow mirror that, given that comparatives and superlatives are comparable concepts, resulting in:</para>
+<!-- ^^ comparatives: use of zmadu in forming, 58 -->
+<indexterm><primary>comparatives</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Cc6J">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e15d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section15-example12" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xa1=t1 is the best of the set t4 for xa2 by standard xa3.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The t2 place in
<quote>traji</quote>, normally filled by a property abstraction, is replaced by the seltau places, and the t3 place specifying the extremum of
+<!-- ^^ property abstraction, 259; use of multiple ce'u for relationship abstraction, 260 -->
+<!-- ^^ relationship abstraction, 260 -->
+<indexterm><primary>relationship abstraction</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>property abstraction</primary></indexterm>
<quote>traji</quote>(whether the most or the least, that is) is presumed by default to be
<quote>the most</quote>.</para>
<para>But the set against which the t1 place of
<quote>traji</quote>is compared is not the t2 place (which would make the place structure of
<quote>traji</quote>fully parallel to that of
<quote>zmadu</quote>), but rather the t4 place. Nevertheless, by a special exception to the rules of place ordering, the t4 place of
<quote>traji</quote>-based lujvo becomes the second place of the lujvo. Some examples:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-A2CE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e15d13" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section15-example13" />
<anchor xml:id="c12e15d14" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section15-example14" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djudis. cu citrai lo'i lobypli</jbo>
<en>Judy is the youngest of all Lojbanists.</en>
+<!-- ^^ Judy: example, 294 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Judy</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>la .ainctain. cu balrai lo'i skegunka</jbo>
<en>Einstein was the greatest of all scientists.</en>
+<!-- ^^ Einstein: example, 294 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Einstein</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter12-section16">
<title>16. Notes on gismu place structures</title>
<para>Unlike the place structures of lujvo, the place structures of gismu were assigned in a far less systematic way through a detailed case-by-case analysis and repeated reviews with associated changes. (The gismu list is now baselined, so no further changes are contemplated.) Nevertheless, certain regularities were imposed both in the choice of places and in the ordering of places which may be helpful to the learner and the lujvo-maker, and which are therefore discussed here.</para>
<para>The choice of gismu places results from the varying outcome of four different pressures: brevity, convenience, metaphysical necessity, and regularity. (These are also to some extent the underlying factors in the lujvo place structures generated by the methods of this chapter.) The implications of each are roughly as follows:</para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Brevity tends to remove places: the fewer places a gismu has, the easier it is to learn, and the less specific it is. As mentioned in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12-section4" />, a brivla with fewer place structures is less specific, and generality is a virtue in gismu, because they must thoroughly blanket all of semantic space.</para>
+<!-- ^^ virtue: example, 309 -->
+<indexterm><primary>virtue</primary></indexterm>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Convenience tends to increase the number of places: if a concept can be expressed as a place of some existing gismu, there is no need to make another gismu, a lujvo or a fu'ivla for it.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Metaphysical necessity can either increase or decrease places: it is a pressure tending to provide the
<quote>right number</quote>of places. If something is part of the essential nature of a concept, then a place must be made for it; on the other hand, if instances of the concept need not have some property, then this pressure will tend to remove the place.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Regularity is a pressure which can also either increase or decrease places. If a gismu has a given place, then gismu which are semantically related to it are likely to have the place also.</para>
@@ -1762,22 +2112,28 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e16d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section16-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<quote>xekri</quote>: xe1 is black</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Brevity was the most important goal here, reinforced by one interpretation of metaphysical necessity. There is no mention of color standards here, as many people have pointed out; like all color gismu,
+<!-- ^^ color standards, 295 -->
+<indexterm><primary>color standards</primary></indexterm>
<quote>xekri</quote>is explicitly subjective. Objective color standards can be brought in by an appropriate BAI tag such as
+<!-- ^^ color standards, 295 -->
+<indexterm><primary>color standards</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ci'u</quote>(
+<!-- ^^ ci'u, 204 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ci'u</primary></indexterm>
<quote>in system</quote>; see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9" />) or by making a lujvo.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-cuYP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e16d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section16-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<quote>jbena</quote>: j1 is born to j2 at time j3 and location j4</jbo>
@@ -1795,37 +2151,49 @@
<anchor xml:id="c12e16d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section16-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<quote>rinka</quote>: event r1 is the cause of event r2</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The place structure of
<quote>rinka</quote>does not have a place for the agent, the one who causes, as a result of the pressure toward metaphysical necessity. A cause-effect relationship does not have to include an agent: an event (such as snow melting in the mountains) may cause another event (such as the flooding of the Nile) without any human intervention or even knowledge.</para>
+<!-- ^^ melting, 295 -->
+<indexterm><primary>melting</primary></indexterm>
<para>Indeed, there is a general tendency to omit agent places from most gismu except for a few such as
<quote>gasnu</quote>and
<quote>zukte</quote>which are then used as tertau in order to restore the agent place when needed: see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12-section13" />.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Atby">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e16d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter12-section16-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<quote>cinfo</quote>: c1 is a lion of species/breed c2</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The c2 place of
<quote>cinfo</quote>is provided as a result of the pressure toward regularity. All animal and plant gismu have such an x2 place; although there is in fact only one species of lion, and breeds of lion, though they exist, aren't all that important in talking about lions. The species/breed place must exist for such diversified species as dogs, and for general terms like
+<!-- ^^ general terms, 295 -->
+<indexterm><primary>general terms</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ diversified species, 295 -->
+<indexterm><primary>diversified species</primary></indexterm>
<quote>cinki</quote>(insect), and are provided for all other animals and plants as a matter of regularity.</para>
+<!-- ^^ plants: use of fu'ivla for specific, 61 -->
+<indexterm><primary>plants</primary></indexterm>
<para>Less can be said about gismu place structure ordering, but some regularities are apparent. The places tend to appear in decreasing order of psychological saliency or importance. There is an implication within the place structure of
<quote>klama</quote>, for example, that
<quote>lo klama</quote>(the one going) will be talked about more often, and is thus more important, than
<quote>lo se klama</quote>(the destination), which is in turn more important than
+<!-- ^^ the destination: example, 193 -->
+<indexterm><primary>the destination</primary></indexterm>
<quote>lo xe klama</quote>(the means of transport).</para>
<para>Some specific tendencies (not really rules) can also be observed. For example, when there is an agent place, it tends to be the first place. Similarly, when a destination and an origin point are mentioned, the destination is always placed just before the origin point. Places such as
+<!-- ^^ the destination: example, 193 -->
+<indexterm><primary>the destination</primary></indexterm>
<quote>under conditions</quote>and
<quote>by standard</quote>, which often go unfilled, are moved to near the end of the place structure.</para>
</section>
</chapter>
diff --git a/todocbook/13.xml b/todocbook/13.xml
index ab11fa8..74ebba2 100644
--- a/todocbook/13.xml
+++ b/todocbook/13.xml
@@ -1,117 +1,167 @@
<chapter xml:id="cll_chapter13">
<title>Chapter 13 Oooh! Arrgh! Ugh! Yecch! Attitudinal and Emotional Indicators</title>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter13-section1">
<title>1. What are attitudinal indicators?</title>
+<!-- ^^ attitudinal indicators, 297; conventions of interpretation, 311; placement of "nai" in, 311; placement of scale in, 311; quick-tour version, 24 -->
+<indexterm><primary>attitudinal indicators</primary></indexterm>
<para>This chapter explains the various words that Lojban provides for expressing attitude and related notions. In natural languages, attitudes are usually expressed by the tone of voice when speaking, and (very imperfectly) by punctuation when writing. For example, the bare words</para>
+<!-- ^^ tone of voice, 297 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tone of voice</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-EWHQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e1d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section1-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>John is coming.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>can be made, through tone of voice, to express the speaker's feeling of happiness, pity, hope, surprise, or disbelief. These fine points of tone cannot be expressed in writing. Attitudes are also expressed with various sounds which show up in print as oddly spelled words, such as the
+<!-- ^^ tone of voice, 297 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tone of voice</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ happiness: example, 161 -->
+<indexterm><primary>happiness</primary></indexterm>
<quote>Oooh!</quote>,
<quote>Arrgh!</quote>,
<quote>Ugh!</quote>, and
<quote>Yecch!</quote>in the title. These are part of the English language; people born to other languages use a different set; yet you won't find any of these words in a dictionary.</para>
<para>In Lojban, everything that can be spoken can also be written. Therefore, these tones of voice must be represented by explicit words known as
<quote>attitudinal indicators</quote>, or just
+<!-- ^^ attitudinal indicators, 297; conventions of interpretation, 311; placement of "nai" in, 311; placement of scale in, 311; quick-tour version, 24 -->
+<indexterm><primary>attitudinal indicators</primary></indexterm>
<quote>attitudinals</quote>. This rule seems awkward and clunky to English-speakers at first, but is an essential part of the Lojbanic way of doing things.</para>
<para>The simplest way to use attitudinal indicators is to place them at the beginning of a text. In that case, they express the speaker's prevailing attitude. Here are some examples, correlated with the attitudes mentioned following
+<!-- ^^ attitudinal indicators, 297; conventions of interpretation, 311; placement of "nai" in, 311; placement of scale in, 311; quick-tour version, 24 -->
+<indexterm><primary>attitudinal indicators</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section1-example1" />:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Uhz5">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e1d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section1-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e1d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section1-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e1d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section1-example4" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e1d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section1-example5" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e1d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section1-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.ui la djan klama</jbo>
<en>[Whee!] John is coming!</en>
<jbo>.uu la djan klama</jbo>
<en>[Alas!] John is coming.</en>
<jbo>.a'o la djan klama</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ a'o, 297, 302 -->
+<indexterm><primary>a'o</primary></indexterm>
<en>[Hopefully] John is coming.</en>
<jbo>.ue la djan klama</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ue, 297 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ue</primary></indexterm>
<en>[Wow!] John is coming!</en>
<jbo>.ianai la djan klama</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ianai, 297, 303, 319 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ianai</primary></indexterm>
<en>[Nonsense!] John is coming.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The primary Lojban attitudinals are all the cmavo of the form VV or V'V: one of the few cases where cmavo have been classified solely by their form. There are 39 of these cmavo: all 25 possible vowel pairs of the form V'V, the four standard diphthongs (
+<!-- ^^ vowel pairs: contrasted with diphthongs, 34; definition of, 34; grouping of, 35; involving y, 35; list of, 35; use of apostrophe in, 34 -->
+<indexterm><primary>vowel pairs</primary></indexterm>
<quote>.ai</quote>,
<quote>.au</quote>,
<quote>.ei</quote>, and
<quote>.oi</quote>), and the ten more diphthongs that are permitted only in these attitudinal indicators and in names and borrowings (
+<!-- ^^ borrowings: fu'ivla form with categorizing rafsi, 61; fu'ivla form without categorizing rafsi, 62; most common form for, 61; Stage 1, 61; Stage 2, 61; Stage 3, 61; Stage 3 contrasted with Stage 4 in ease of construction, 62; Stage 4, 62; using foreign-language name, 61; using lojbanized name, 61 -->
+<indexterm><primary>borrowings</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ attitudinal indicators, 297; conventions of interpretation, 311; placement of "nai" in, 311; placement of scale in, 311; quick-tour version, 24 -->
+<indexterm><primary>attitudinal indicators</primary></indexterm>
<quote>.ia</quote>,
<quote>.ie</quote>,
<quote>.ii</quote>,
<quote>.io</quote>,
<quote>.iu</quote>,
<quote>.ua</quote>,
<quote>.ue</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ ue, 297 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ue</primary></indexterm>
<quote>.ui</quote>,
<quote>.uo</quote>, and
<quote>.uu</quote>). Note that each of these cmavo has a period before it, marking the pause that is mandatory before every word beginning with a vowel. Attitudinals, like most of the other kinds of indicators described in this chapter, belong to selma'o UI.</para>
<para>Attitudinals can also be compound cmavo, of the types explained in Sections 4-8;
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section1-example6" />illustrates one such possibility, the compound attitudinal
<quote>.ianai</quote>. In attitudinals,
+<!-- ^^ ianai, 297, 303, 319 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ianai</primary></indexterm>
<quote>-nai</quote>indicates polar negation: the opposite of the simple attitudinal without the
<quote>-nai</quote>. Thus, as you might suppose,
<quote>.ia</quote>expresses belief, since
<quote>.ianai</quote>expresses disbelief.</para>
+<!-- ^^ ianai, 297, 303, 319 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ianai</primary></indexterm>
<para>In addition to the attitudinals, there are other classes of indicators: intensity markers, emotion categories, attitudinal modifiers, observationals, and discursives. All of them are grammatically equivalent, which is why they are treated together in this chapter.</para>
+<!-- ^^ attitudinal modifiers, 308 -->
+<indexterm><primary>attitudinal modifiers</primary></indexterm>
<para>Every indicator behaves in more or less the same way with respect to the grammar of the rest of the language. In general, one or more indicators can be inserted at the beginning of an utterance or after any word. Indicators at the beginning apply to the whole utterance; otherwise, they apply to the word that they follow. More details can be found in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section9" />.</para>
<para>Throughout this chapter, tables of indicators will be written in four columns. The first column is the cmavo itself. The second column is a corresponding English word, not necessarily a literal translation. The fourth column represents the opposite of the second column, and shows the approximate meaning of the attitudinal when suffixed with
<quote>-nai</quote>. The third column, which is sometimes omitted, indicates a neutral point between the second and fourth columns, and shows the approximate meaning of the attitudinal when it is suffixed with
<quote>-cu'i</quote>. The cmavo
+<!-- ^^ cu'i, 299, 305 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cu'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>cu'i</quote>belongs to selma'o CAI, and is explained more fully in
+<!-- ^^ cu'i, 299, 305 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cu'i</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section4" />.</para>
<para>One flaw that the English glosses are particularly subject to is that in English it is often difficult to distinguish between expressing your feelings and talking about them, particularly with the limited resource of the written word. So the gloss for
+<!-- ^^ feelings: expression of contrasted with talking about, 298 -->
+<indexterm><primary>feelings</primary></indexterm>
<quote>.ui</quote>should not really be
<quote>happiness</quote>but some sound or tone that expresses happiness. However, there aren't nearly enough of those that have unambiguous or obvious meanings in English to go around for all the many, many different emotions Lojban speakers can readily express.</para>
+<!-- ^^ happiness: example, 161 -->
+<indexterm><primary>happiness</primary></indexterm>
<para>Many indicators of CV'V form are loosely derived from specific gismu. The gismu should be thought of as a memory hook, not an equivalent of the cmavo. Such gismu are shown in this chapter between square brackets, thus: [gismu].</para>
+<!-- ^^ square brackets: use of in notation, 5 -->
+<indexterm><primary>square brackets</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter13-section2">
<title>2. Pure emotion indicators</title>
<para>Attitudinals make no claim: they are expressions of attitude, not of facts or alleged facts. As a result, attitudinals themselves have no truth value, nor do they directly affect the truth value of a bridi that they modify. However, since emotional attitudes are carried in your mind, they reflect reactions to that version of the world that the mind is thinking about; this is seldom identical with the real world. At times, we are thinking about our idealized version of the real world; at other times we are thinking about a potential world that might or might not ever exist.</para>
+<!-- ^^ real world: contrasted with hypothetical world, example, 320 -->
+<indexterm><primary>real world</primary></indexterm>
<para>Therefore, there are two groups of attitudinals in Lojban. The
<quote>pure emotion indicators</quote>express the way the speaker is feeling, without direct reference to what else is said. These indicators comprise the attitudinals which begin with
<quote>u</quote>or
<quote>o</quote>and many of those beginning with
<quote>i</quote>.</para>
<para>The cmavo beginning with
<quote>u</quote>are simple emotions, which represent the speaker's reaction to the world as it is, or as it is perceived to be.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
.ua discovery confusion
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
.u'a gain loss
.ue surprise no surprise expectation
+<!-- ^^ ue, 297 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ue</primary></indexterm>
.u'e wonder commonplace
.ui happiness unhappiness
+<!-- ^^ happiness: example, 161 -->
+<indexterm><primary>happiness</primary></indexterm>
.u'i amusement weariness
.uo completion incompleteness
.u'o courage timidity cowardice
.uu pity cruelty
.u'u repentance lack of regret innocence
+<!-- ^^ u'u, 299; contrasted with uu, 299 -->
+<indexterm><primary>u'u</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>Here are some typical uses of the
<quote>u</quote>attitudinals:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-BdxH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e2d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section2-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e2d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section2-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e2d3" />
@@ -123,79 +173,99 @@
<anchor xml:id="c13e2d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section2-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.ua mi facki fi le mi mapku</jbo>
<en>[Eureka!] I found my hat! [emphasizes the discovery of the hat]</en>
<jbo>.u'a mi facki fi le mi mapku</jbo>
<en>[Gain!] I found my hat! [emphasizes the obtaining of the hat]</en>
<jbo>.ui mi facki fi le mi mapku</jbo>
<en>[Yay!] I found my hat! [emphasizes the feeling of happiness]</en>
+<!-- ^^ happiness: example, 161 -->
+<indexterm><primary>happiness</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>.uo mi facki fi le mi mapku</jbo>
<en>[At last!] I found my hat! [emphasizes that the finding is complete]</en>
<jbo>.uu do cortu</jbo>
<en>[Pity!] You feel-pain. [expresses speaker's sympathy]</en>
+<!-- ^^ sympathy: example, 299, 314 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sympathy</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>.u'u do cortu</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ u'u, 299; contrasted with uu, 299 -->
+<indexterm><primary>u'u</primary></indexterm>
<en>[Repentance!] You feel-pain. [expresses that speaker feels guilty]</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section2-example4" />, note that the attitudinal
<quote>.uo</quote>is translated by an English non-attitudinal phrase:
+<!-- ^^ attitudinal phrase, 299 -->
+<indexterm><primary>attitudinal phrase</primary></indexterm>
<quote>At last!</quote>It is common for the English equivalents of Lojban attitudinals to be short phrases of this sort, with more or less normal grammar, but actually expressions of emotion.</para>
<para>In particular, both
<quote>.uu</quote>and
<quote>.u'u</quote>can be translated into English as
+<!-- ^^ u'u, 299; contrasted with uu, 299 -->
+<indexterm><primary>u'u</primary></indexterm>
<quote>I'm sorry</quote>; the difference between these two attitudes frequently causes confusion among English-speakers who use this phrase, leading to responses like
<quote>Why are you sorry? It's not your fault!</quote></para>
<para>It is important to realize that
<quote>.uu</quote>, and indeed all attitudinals, are meant to be used sincerely, not ironically. In English, the exclamation
<quote>Pity!</quote>is just as likely to be ironically intended, but this usage does not extend to Lojban. Lying with attitudinals is (normally) as inappropriate to Lojban discourse as any other kind of lying: perhaps worse, because misunderstood emotions can cause even greater problems than misunderstood statements.</para>
<para>The following examples display the effects of
<quote>nai</quote>and
<quote>cu'i</quote>when suffixed to an attitudinal:</para>
+<!-- ^^ cu'i, 299, 305 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cu'i</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-CsGG">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e2d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section2-example7" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e2d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section2-example8" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e2d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section2-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.ue la djan. klama</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ue, 297 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ue</primary></indexterm>
<en>[Surprise!] John comes.</en>
<jbo>.uecu'i la djan. klama</jbo>
<en>[Ho hum.] John comes.</en>
<jbo>.uenai la djan. klama</jbo>
<en>[Expected!] John comes.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section2-example9" />, John's coming has been anticipated by the speaker. In
+<!-- ^^ anticipated: example, 316 -->
+<indexterm><primary>anticipated</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section2-example7" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section2-example8" />, no such anticipation has been made, but in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section2-example8" />the lack-of-anticipation goes no further - in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section2-example7" />, it amounts to actual surprise.</para>
<para>It is not possible to firmly distinguish the pure emotion words beginning with
<quote>o</quote>or
<quote>i</quote>from those beginning with
<quote>u</quote>, but in general they represent more complex, more ambivalent, or more difficult emotions.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
.o'a pride modesty shame
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
.o'e closeness detachment distance
.oi complaint/pain doing OK pleasure
.o'i caution boldness rashness
+<!-- ^^ o'i: example, 300 -->
+<indexterm><primary>o'i</primary></indexterm>
.o'o patience mere tolerance anger
.o'u relaxation composure stress
+<!-- ^^ o'u: example, 300 -->
+<indexterm><primary>o'u</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>Here are some examples:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ch2s">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e2d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section2-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.oi la djan. klama</jbo>
<en>[Complaint!] John is coming.</en>
@@ -204,60 +274,70 @@
<para>Here the speaker is distressed or discomfited over John's coming. The word
<quote>.oi</quote>is derived from the Yiddish word
<quote>oy</quote>of similar meaning. It is the only cmavo with a Yiddish origin.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-V8eD">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e2d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section2-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.o'onai la djan. klama</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ o'onai: example, 300 -->
+<indexterm><primary>o'onai</primary></indexterm>
<en>[Anger!] John is coming!</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the speaker feels anger over John's coming.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-QCTs">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e2d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section2-example12" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.o'i la djan. klama</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ o'i: example, 300 -->
+<indexterm><primary>o'i</primary></indexterm>
<en>[Beware!] John is coming.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here there is a sense of danger in John's arrival.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-D53H">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e2d13" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section2-example13" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e2d14" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section2-example14" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.o'ecu'i la djan. klama</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ o'ecu'i: example, 300 -->
+<indexterm><primary>o'ecu'i</primary></indexterm>
<en>[Detachment!] John is coming.</en>
<jbo>.o'u la djan. klama</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ o'u: example, 300 -->
+<indexterm><primary>o'u</primary></indexterm>
<en>[Phew!] John is coming.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section2-example13" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section2-example14" />, John's arrival is no problem: in the former example, the speaker feels emotional distance from the situation; in the latter example, John's coming is actually a relief of some kind.</para>
<para>The pure emotion indicators beginning with
<quote>i</quote>are those which could not be fitted into the
<quote>u</quote>or
<quote>o</quote>groups because there was a lack of room, so they are a mixed lot.
<quote>.ia</quote>,
<quote>.i'a</quote>,
<quote>.ie</quote>, and
<quote>.i'e</quote>do not appear here, as they belong in
+<!-- ^^ i'e, 304 -->
+<indexterm><primary>i'e</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section3" />instead.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
.ii fear nervousness security
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
.i'i togetherness privacy
.io respect disrespect
.i'o appreciation envy
.iu love no love lost hatred
.i'u familiarity mystery
</programlisting>
@@ -271,25 +351,29 @@
<anchor xml:id="c13e2d17" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section2-example17" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.ii smacu</jbo>
<gloss>[Fear!] [Observative:] a-mouse</gloss>
<en>Eek! A mouse!</en>
<jbo>la djan. .iu klama</jbo>
<en>John [love!] is coming.</en>
<jbo>la djan. .ionai klama</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ionai, 301 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ionai</primary></indexterm>
<en>John [disrespect!] is coming.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section2-example15" />shows an attitude-colored observative; the attitudinal modifies the situation described by the observative, namely the mouse that is causing the emotion. Lojban-speaking toddlers, if there ever are any, will probably use sentences like
+<!-- ^^ observative: contrasted with observation evidential, 316; definition, 188 -->
+<indexterm><primary>observative</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section2-example15" />a lot.</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section2-example16" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section2-example17" />use attitudinals that follow
<quote>la djan.</quote>rather than being at the beginning of the sentence. This form means that the attitude is attached to John rather than the event of his coming; the speaker loves or disrespects John specifically. Compare:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-09oC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e2d18" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section2-example18" />
</title>
@@ -301,49 +385,67 @@
<para>where it is specifically the coming of John that inspires the feeling.</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section2-example17" />is a compact way of swearing at John: you could translate it as
<quote>That good-for-nothing John is coming.</quote></para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter13-section3">
<title>3. Propositional attitude indicators</title>
<para>As mentioned at the beginning of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section2" />, attitudinals may be divided into two groups, the pure emotion indicators explained in that section, and a contrasting group which may be called the
<quote>propositional attitude indicators</quote>. These indicators establish an internal, hypothetical world which the speaker is reacting to, distinct from the world as it really is. Thus we may be expressing our attitude towards
+<!-- ^^ hypothetical world, 301; contrasted with real world, example, 320 -->
+<!-- ^^ real world: contrasted with hypothetical world, example, 320 -->
+<indexterm><primary>real world</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>hypothetical world</primary></indexterm>
<quote>what the world would be like if ...</quote>, or more directly stating our attitude towards making the potential world a reality.</para>
<para>In general, the bridi paraphrases of pure emotions look (in English) something like
<quote>I'm going to the market, and I'm happy about it</quote>. The emotion is present with the subject of the primary claim, but is logically independent of it. Propositional attitudes, though, look more like
<quote>I intend to go to the market</quote>, where the main claim is logically subordinate to the intention: I am not claiming that I am actually going to the market, but merely that I intend to.</para>
<para>There is no sharp distinction between attitudinals beginning with
<quote>a</quote>and those beginning with
<quote>e</quote>; however, the original intent (not entirely realized due to the need to cram too many attitudes into too little space) was to make the members of the
<quote>a</quote>-series the purer, more attitudinal realizers of a potential world, while the members of the
<quote>e</quote>-series were more ambivalent or complex about the speaker's intention with regard to the predication. The relationship between the
<quote>a</quote>-series and the
<quote>e</quote>-series is similar to that between the
<quote>u</quote>-series and the
<quote>o</quote>-series, respectively. A few propositional attitude indicators overflowed into the
<quote>i</quote>-series as well.</para>
<para>In fact, the entire distinction between pure emotions and propositional attitudes is itself a bit shaky:
+<!-- ^^ propositional attitudes, 262; compared with knowledge discursives, 319 -->
+<indexterm><primary>propositional attitudes</primary></indexterm>
<quote>.u'u</quote>can be seen as a propositional attitude indicator meaning
+<!-- ^^ u'u, 299; contrasted with uu, 299 -->
+<indexterm><primary>u'u</primary></indexterm>
<quote>I regret that ...</quote>, and
<quote>.a'e</quote>(discussed below) can be seen as a pure emotion meaning
<quote>I'm awake/aware</quote>. The division of the attitudinals into pure-emotion and propositional-attitude classes in this chapter is mostly by way of explanation; it is not intended to permit firm rulings on specific points. Attitudinals are the part of Lojban most distant from the
<quote>logical language</quote>aspect.</para>
+<!-- ^^ logical language: truth functions, 333 -->
+<indexterm><primary>logical language</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ aspect: expressing, 228; natural languages compared with respect to, 228 -->
+<indexterm><primary>aspect</primary></indexterm>
<para>Here is the list of propositional attitude indicators grouped by initial letter, starting with those beginning with
<quote>a</quote>:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
.a'a attentive inattentive avoiding
+<!-- ^^ a'a, 302 -->
+<indexterm><primary>a'a</primary></indexterm>
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
.a'e alertness exhaustion
.ai intent indecision refusal
.a'i effort no real effort repose
+<!-- ^^ a'i, 302 -->
+<indexterm><primary>a'i</primary></indexterm>
.a'o hope despair
+<!-- ^^ a'o, 297, 302 -->
+<indexterm><primary>a'o</primary></indexterm>
.au desire indifference reluctance
.a'u interest no interest repulsion
</programlisting>
<para>Some examples (of a parental kind):</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ctin">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e3d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section3-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e3d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section3-example2" />
@@ -353,143 +455,187 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section3-example4" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e3d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section3-example5" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e3d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section3-example6" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e3d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section3-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.a'a do zgana le veltivni</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ a'a, 302 -->
+<indexterm><primary>a'a</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>[attentive] you observe the television-receiver.</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ television, 42 -->
+<indexterm><primary>television</primary></indexterm>
<en>I'm noticing that you are watching the TV.</en>
<jbo>.a'enai do ranji bacru</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ a'enai, 302 -->
+<indexterm><primary>a'enai</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>[exhaustion] you continuously utter.</gloss>
<en>I'm worn out by your continuous talking.</en>
+<!-- ^^ continuous: of tense intervals, 225 -->
+<indexterm><primary>continuous</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>.ai mi benji do le ckana</jbo>
<gloss>[intent] I transfer you to-the bed.</gloss>
<en>I'm putting you to bed.</en>
<jbo>.a'i mi ba gasnu le nu do cikna binxo</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ a'i, 302 -->
+<indexterm><primary>a'i</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>[effort] I [future] am-the-actor-in the event-of you awake-ly become.</gloss>
<en>It'll be hard for me to wake you up.</en>
<jbo>.a'o mi kanryze'a ca le bavlamdei</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ a'o, 297, 302 -->
+<indexterm><primary>a'o</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>[hope] I am-health-increased at-time the future-adjacent-day.</gloss>
<en>I hope I feel better tomorrow!</en>
+<!-- ^^ tomorrow: example, 282 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tomorrow</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>.au mi sipna</jbo>
<gloss>[desire] I sleep.</gloss>
<en>I want to sleep.</en>
<jbo>.a'ucu'i do pante</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ a'ucu'i, 302 -->
+<indexterm><primary>a'ucu'i</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>[no interest] you complain</gloss>
<en>I have no interest in your complaints.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(In a real-life situation, Examples 3.1-3.7 would also be decorated by various pure emotion indicators, certainly including
<quote>.oicai</quote>, but probably also
<quote>.iucai</quote>.)</para>
<para>Splitting off the attitude into an indicator allows the regular bridi grammar to do what it does best: express the relationships between concepts that are intended, desired, hoped for, or whatever. Rephrasing these examples to express the attitude as the main selbri would make for unacceptably heavyweight grammar.</para>
<para>Here are the propositional attitude indicators beginning with
<quote>e</quote>, which stand roughly in the relation to those beginning with
<quote>a</quote>as the pure-emotion indicators beginning with
<quote>o</quote>do to those beginning with
<quote>u</quote>- they are more complex or difficult:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
.e'a permission prohibition
+<!-- ^^ e'a, 303 -->
+<indexterm><primary>e'a</primary></indexterm>
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
.e'e competence incompetence
+<!-- ^^ e'e, 303 -->
+<indexterm><primary>e'e</primary></indexterm>
.ei obligation freedom
.e'i constraint independence resistance to constraint
.e'o request negative request
+<!-- ^^ e'o, 303; contrasted with pe'u, 324 -->
+<indexterm><primary>e'o</primary></indexterm>
.e'u suggestion no suggestion warning
</programlisting>
<para>More examples (after a good night's sleep):</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-CzYV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e3d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section3-example8" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e3d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section3-example9" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e3d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section3-example10" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e3d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section3-example11" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e3d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section3-example12" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.e'a do sazri le karce</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ e'a, 303 -->
+<indexterm><primary>e'a</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>[permission] You drive the car.</gloss>
<en>Sure, you can drive the car.</en>
<jbo>.e'e mi lifri tu'a do</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ e'e, 303 -->
+<indexterm><primary>e'e</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>[competence] I experience something-related-to you</gloss>
<en>I feel up to dealing with you.</en>
<jbo>.ei mi tisygau le karce ctilyvau</jbo>
<gloss>[obligation] I fill the car-type-of petroleum-container.</gloss>
<en>I should fill the car's gas tank.</en>
+<!-- ^^ tank: Sherman, example, 60 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tank</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>.e'o ko ko kurji</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ e'o, 303; contrasted with pe'u, 324 -->
+<indexterm><primary>e'o</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>[request] You-imperative of-you-imperative take-care.</gloss>
<en>Please take care of yourself!</en>
<jbo>.e'u do klama le panka</jbo>
<gloss>[suggestion] You go to-the park.</gloss>
<en>I suggest going to the park.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Finally, the propositional attitude indicators beginning with
<quote>i</quote>, which are the overflow from the other sets:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
.ia belief skepticism disbelief
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
.i'a acceptance blame
.ie agreement disagreement
.i'e approval non-approval disapproval
+<!-- ^^ i'e, 304 -->
+<indexterm><primary>i'e</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>Still more examples (much, much later):</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Furg">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e3d13" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section3-example13" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e3d14" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section3-example14" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e3d15" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section3-example15" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e3d16" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section3-example16" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.ianai do pu pensi le nu tcica mi</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ianai, 297, 303, 319 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ianai</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>[disbelief] You [past] think the event-of deceiving me.</gloss>
<en>I can't believe you thought you could fool me.</en>
<jbo>do .i'anai na xruti do le zdani</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ i'anai, 304 -->
+<indexterm><primary>i'anai</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>You [blame] did-not return you to-the house</gloss>
<en>I blame you for not coming home.</en>
<jbo>.ie mi na cusku lu'e le tcika</jbo>
<gloss>be le nu xruti</gloss>
<gloss>[agreement] I did-not express a-symbol-for the time-of-day</gloss>
<gloss>of the event-of (you return)</gloss>
<en>It's true I didn't tell you when to come back.</en>
<jbo>.i'enai do .i'e zukte</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ i'enai, 304 -->
+<indexterm><primary>i'enai</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ i'e, 304 -->
+<indexterm><primary>i'e</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>[disapproval] you [approval] act</gloss>
<en>I don't approve of what you did, but I approve of you.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section3-example16" />illustrates the use of a propositional attitude indicator,
<quote>i'e</quote>, in both the usual sense (at the beginning of the bridi) and as a pure emotion (attached to
+<!-- ^^ i'e, 304 -->
+<indexterm><primary>i'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>do</quote>). The event expressed by the main bridi is disapproved of by the speaker, but the referent of the sumti in the x1 place (namely the listener) is approved of.</para>
<para>To indicate that an attitudinal discussed in this section is not meant to indicate a propositional attitude, the simplest expedient is to split the attitudinal off into a separate sentence. Thus, a version of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section3-example8" />which actually claimed that the listener was or would be driving the car might be:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-96qq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e3d17" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section3-example17" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do sazri le karce .i .e'a</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ e'a, 303 -->
+<indexterm><primary>e'a</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>You drive the car. [Permission].</gloss>
<en>You're driving (or will drive) the car, and that's fine.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter13-section4">
<title>4. Attitudes as scales</title>
<para>In Lojban, all emotions and attitudes are scales. These scales run from some extreme value (which we'll call
<quote>positive</quote>) to an opposite extreme (which we'll call
<quote>negative</quote>). In the tables above, we have seen three points on the scale:
@@ -499,35 +645,59 @@
<quote>negative</quote>are put into quotation marks because they are loaded words when applied to emotions, and the attitudinal system reflects this loading, which is a known cultural bias. Only two of the
<quote>positive</quote>words, namely
<quote>.ii</quote>(fear) and
<quote>.oi</quote>(pain/complaint), represent emotions commonly thought of as less
<quote>virtuous</quote>in most cases than their negative counterparts. But these two were felt to be instinctive, distinct, and very powerful emotions that needed to be expressible in a monosyllable when necessary, while their counterparts are less commonly expressed.</para>
<para>(Why the overt bias? Because there are a lot of attitudinals and they will be difficult to learn as an entire set. By aligning our scales arbitrarily, we give the monosyllable
<quote>nai</quote>a useful meaning and make it easier for a novice to recognize at least the positive or negative alignment of an indicator, if not the specific word. Other choices considered were
<quote>random</quote>orientation, which would have unknown biases and be difficult to learn, and orientation based on our guesses as to which scale orientations made the most frequent usages shorter, which would be biased in favor of American perceptions of
<quote>usefulness</quote>. If bias must exist in our indicator set, it might as well be a known bias that eases learning, and in addition might as well favor a harmonious and positive world-view.)</para>
<para>In fact, though, each emotional scale has seven positions defined, three
+<!-- ^^ emotional scale, 305 -->
+<indexterm><primary>emotional scale</primary></indexterm>
<quote>positive</quote>ones (shown below on the left), three
<quote>negative</quote>ones (shown below on the right), and a neutral one indicating that no particular attitude on this scale is felt. The following chart indicates the seven positions of the scale and the associated cmavo. All of these cmavo, except
<quote>nai</quote>, are in selma'o CAI.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
cai sai ru'e cu'i nairu'e naisai naicai
+<!-- ^^ sai, 305 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sai</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ ru'e, 305 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ru'e</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ naisai, 305 -->
+<indexterm><primary>naisai</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ nairu'e, 305 -->
+<indexterm><primary>nairu'e</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ naicai, 305 -->
+<indexterm><primary>naicai</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ cu'i, 299, 305 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cu'i</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ cai, 305 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cai</primary></indexterm>
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
[carmi] [tsali] [ruble] [cumki]
</programlisting>
<para>A scalar attitude is expressed by using the attitudinal word, and then following it by the desired scalar intensity. The bias creeps in because the
+<!-- ^^ scalar attitude, 305 -->
+<indexterm><primary>scalar attitude</primary></indexterm>
<quote>negative</quote>emotions take the extra syllable
<quote>nai</quote>to indicate their negative position on the axis, and thus require a bit more effort to express.</para>
<para>Much of this system is optional. You can express an attitude without a scale indicator, if you don't want to stop and think about how strongly you feel. Indeed, for most attitudinals, we've found that either no scalar value is used, or
<quote>cai</quote>is used to indicate especially high intensity. Less often,
+<!-- ^^ cai, 305 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cai</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ru'e</quote>is used for a recognizably weak intensity, and
+<!-- ^^ ru'e, 305 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ru'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>cu'i</quote>is used in response to the attitudinal question
+<!-- ^^ cu'i, 299, 305 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cu'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>pei</quote>(see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section10" />) to indicate that the emotion is not felt.</para>
<para>The following shows the variations resulting from intensity variation:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-NNBg">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e4d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section4-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e4d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section4-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e4d3" />
@@ -537,201 +707,339 @@
<anchor xml:id="c13e4d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section4-example5" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e4d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section4-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.ei</jbo>
<gloss>I ought to</gloss>
<en>(a non-specific obligation)</en>
<jbo>.eicai</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ eicai, 305 -->
+<indexterm><primary>eicai</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I shall/must</gloss>
<en>(an intense obligation or requirement, possibly a formal one)</en>
<jbo>.eisai</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ eisai, 305 -->
+<indexterm><primary>eisai</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I should</gloss>
<en>(a strong obligation or necessity, possibly an implied but not formal requirement)</en>
+<!-- ^^ formal requirement: example, 305 -->
+<indexterm><primary>formal requirement</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>.eiru'e</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ eiru'e, 305 -->
+<indexterm><primary>eiru'e</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I might</gloss>
<en>(a weak obligation - in English often mixed with permission and desire)</en>
+<!-- ^^ mixed with: example, 354 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mixed with</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>.eicu'i</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ eicu'i, 305 -->
+<indexterm><primary>eicu'i</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>No matter</gloss>
<en>(no particular obligation)</en>
<jbo>.einai</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ einai, 305 -->
+<indexterm><primary>einai</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I need not</gloss>
<en>(a non-obligation)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>You can also utter a scale indicator without a specific emotion. This is often used in the language: in order to emphasize a point about which you feel strongly, you mark what you are saying with the scale indicator
<quote>cai</quote>. You could also indicate that you don't care using
+<!-- ^^ cai, 305 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cai</primary></indexterm>
<quote>cu'i</quote>by itself.</para>
+<!-- ^^ cu'i, 299, 305 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cu'i</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter13-section5">
<title>5. The space of emotions</title>
<para>Each of the attitude scales constitutes an axis in a multi-dimensional space. In effect, given our total so far of 39 scales, we have a 39-dimensional space. At any given time, our emotions and attitudes are represented by a point in this 39-dimensional space, with the intensity indicators serving as coordinates along each dimension. A complete attitudinal inventory, should one decide to express it, would consist of reading off each of the scale values for each of the emotions, with the vector sum serving as a distinct single point, which is our attitude.</para>
+<!-- ^^ dimension: meaning as sumti tcita, 233 -->
+<indexterm><primary>dimension</primary></indexterm>
<para>Now no one is going to ever utter a string of 100-odd attitudinals to express their emotions. If asked, we normally do not recognize more than one or two emotions at a time - usually the ones that are strongest or which most recently changed in some significant way. But the scale system provides some useful insights into a possible theory of emotion (which might be testable using Lojban), and incidentally explains how Lojbanists express compound emotions when they do recognize them.</para>
+<!-- ^^ compound emotions, 306 -->
+<indexterm><primary>compound emotions</primary></indexterm>
<para>The existence of 39 scales highlights the complexity of emotion. We also aren't bound to the 39. There are modifiers described in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section6" />that multiply the set of scales by an order of magnitude. You can also have mixed feelings on a scale, which might be expressed by
+<!-- ^^ magnitude: tense, 250 -->
+<indexterm><primary>magnitude</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ feelings: expression of contrasted with talking about, 298 -->
+<indexterm><primary>feelings</primary></indexterm>
<quote>cu'i</quote>, but could also be expressed by using both the
+<!-- ^^ cu'i, 299, 305 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cu'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>positive</quote>and
<quote>negative</quote>scale emotions at once. One expression of
<quote>fortitude</quote>might be
<quote>.ii.iinai</quote>- fear coupled with security.</para>
<para>Uttering one or more attitudinals to express an emotion reflects several things. We will tend to utter emotions in their immediate order of importance to us. We feel several emotions at once, and our expression reflects these emotions simultaneously, although their order of importance to us is also revealing - of our attitude towards our attitude, so to speak. There is little analysis necessary; for those emotions you feel, you express them; the
<quote>vector sum</quote>naturally expresses the result. This is vital to their nature as attitudinals - if you had to stop and think about them, or to worry about grammar, they wouldn't be emotions but rationalizations.</para>
<para>People have proposed that attitudinals be expressed as bridi just like everything else; but emotions aren't logical or analytical - saying
<quote>I'm awed</quote>is not the same as saying
<quote>Wow!!!</quote>. The Lojban system is intended to give the effects of an analytical system without the thought involved. Thus, you can simply feel in Lojban.</para>
<para>A nice feature of this design is that you can be simple or complex, and the system works the same way. The most immediate benefit is in learning. You only need to learn a couple of the scale words and a couple of attitude words, and you're ready to express your emotions Lojbanically. As you learn more, you can express your emotions more thoroughly and more precisely, but even a limited vocabulary offers a broad range of expression.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter13-section6">
<title>6. Emotional categories</title>
<para>The Lojban attitudinal system was designed by starting with a long list of English emotion words, far too many to fit into the 39 available VV-form cmavo. To keep the number of cmavo limited, the emotion words in the list were grouped together by common features: each group was then assigned a separate cmavo. This was like making tanru in reverse, and the result is a collection of indicators that can be combined, like tanru, to express very complex emotions. Some examples in a moment.</para>
<para>The most significant
<quote>common feature</quote>we identified was that the emotional words on the list could easily be broken down into six major groups, each of which was assigned its own cmavo:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ro'a social asocial antisocial
+<!-- ^^ ro'a, 307 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ro'a</primary></indexterm>
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
ro'e mental mindless
+<!-- ^^ ro'e, 307 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ro'e</primary></indexterm>
ro'i emotional denying emotion
+<!-- ^^ ro'i, 307 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ro'i</primary></indexterm>
ro'o physical denying physical
+<!-- ^^ ro'o, 307 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ro'o</primary></indexterm>
ro'u sexual sexual abstinence
+<!-- ^^ ro'u, 307 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ro'u</primary></indexterm>
re'e spiritual secular sacrilegious
+<!-- ^^ re'e, 307 -->
+<indexterm><primary>re'e</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>Using these, we were able to assign
<quote>o'u</quote>to mark a scale of what we might call
+<!-- ^^ o'u: example, 300 -->
+<indexterm><primary>o'u</primary></indexterm>
<quote>generalized comfort</quote>. When you are comfortable, relaxed, satisfied, you express comfort with
<quote>o'u</quote>, possibly followed by a scale indicator to indicate how comfortable you are. The six cmavo given above allow you to turn this scale into six separate ones, should you wish.</para>
+<!-- ^^ o'u: example, 300 -->
+<indexterm><primary>o'u</primary></indexterm>
<para>For example, embarrassment is a social discomfort, expressible as
+<!-- ^^ embarrassment: example, 307 -->
+<indexterm><primary>embarrassment</primary></indexterm>
<quote>.o'unairo'a</quote>. Some emotions that we label
<quote>stress</quote>in English are expressed in Lojban with
<quote>.o'unairo'i</quote>. Physical distress can be expressed with
<quote>.o'unairo'o</quote>, which makes a nice groan if you say it with feeling. Mental discomfort might be what you feel when you don't know the answer to the test question, but feel that you should. Most adults can recall some instance where we felt sexual discomfort,
+<!-- ^^ sexual discomfort: example, 307 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sexual discomfort</primary></indexterm>
<quote>o'unairo'u</quote>. Spiritual discomfort,
<quote>o'unaire'e</quote>, might be felt by a church-goer who has wandered into the wrong kind of religious building.</para>
<para>Most of the time when expressing an emotion, you won't categorize it with these words. Emotional expressions should be quickly expressible without having to think about them. However, we sometimes have mixed emotions within this set, as for example emotional discomfort coupled with physical comfort or vice versa.</para>
<para>Coupling these six words with our 39 attitude scales, each of which has a positive and negative side, already gives you far more emotional expression words than we have emotional labels in English. Thus, you'll never see a Lojban-English emotional dictionary that covers all the Lojban possibilities. Some may be useless, but others convey emotions that probably never had a word for them before, though many have felt them (
<quote>.eiro'u</quote>, for example - look it up).</para>
+<!-- ^^ eiro'u, 307 -->
+<indexterm><primary>eiro'u</primary></indexterm>
<para>You can use scale markers and
<quote>nai</quote>on these six category words, and you can also use category words without specifying the emotion. Thus,
<quote>I'm trying to concentrate</quote>could be expressed simply as
<quote>ro'e</quote>, and if you are feeling anti-social in some non-specific way,
+<!-- ^^ ro'e, 307 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ro'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ro'anai</quote>will express it.</para>
+<!-- ^^ ro'anai: example, 307 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ro'anai</primary></indexterm>
<para>There is a mnemonic device for the six emotion categories, based on moving your arms about. In the following table, your hands begin above your head and move down your body in sequence.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ro'a hands above head social
+<!-- ^^ ro'a, 307 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ro'a</primary></indexterm>
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
ro'e hands on head intellectual
+<!-- ^^ ro'e, 307 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ro'e</primary></indexterm>
ro'i hands on heart emotional
+<!-- ^^ ro'i, 307 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ro'i</primary></indexterm>
ro'o hands on belly physical
+<!-- ^^ ro'o, 307 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ro'o</primary></indexterm>
ro'u hands on groin sexual
+<!-- ^^ ro'u, 307 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ro'u</primary></indexterm>
re'e hands moving around spiritual
+<!-- ^^ re'e, 307 -->
+<indexterm><primary>re'e</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>The implicit metaphors
<quote>heart</quote>for emotional and
<quote>belly</quote>for physical are not really Lojbanic, but they work fine for English-speakers.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter13-section7">
<title>7. Attitudinal modifiers</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ga'i [galtu] hauteur equal rank meekness
+<!-- ^^ ga'i, 308 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ga'i</primary></indexterm>
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
rank lack of rank
le'o aggressive passive defensive
+<!-- ^^ le'o, 309 -->
+<indexterm><primary>le'o</primary></indexterm>
vu'e [vrude] virtue (zabna) sin (mabla)
+<!-- ^^ vu'e, 309 -->
+<indexterm><primary>vu'e</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ virtue: example, 309 -->
+<indexterm><primary>virtue</primary></indexterm>
se'i [sevzi] self-orientation other-orientation
+<!-- ^^ self-orientation: example, 308 -->
+<indexterm><primary>self-orientation</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ se'i, 309 -->
+<indexterm><primary>se'i</primary></indexterm>
ri'e [zifre] release restraint control
+<!-- ^^ ri'e, 309 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ri'e</primary></indexterm>
fu'i [frili] with help without help with opposition
+<!-- ^^ fu'i, 309 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fu'i</primary></indexterm>
easily with difficulty
be'u lack/need presence satiation
+<!-- ^^ be'u, 310 -->
+<indexterm><primary>be'u</primary></indexterm>
need satisfaction
se'a [sevzi] self-sufficiency dependency
+<!-- ^^ se'a, 310 -->
+<indexterm><primary>se'a</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>It turned out that, once we had devised the six emotion categories, we also recognized some other commonalities among emotions. These tended to fit nicely on scales of their own, but generally tend not to be thought of as separate emotions. Some of these are self-explanatory, some need to be placed in context. Some of these tend to go well with only a few of the attitudinals, others go with nearly all of them. To really understand these modifiers, try to use them in combination with one or two of the attitudinals found in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section2" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section3" />, and see what emotional pictures you can build:</para>
+<!-- ^^ pictures: captions to, 7; credits for, 6 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pictures</primary></indexterm>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>ga'i</quote>expresses the scale used to indicate condescension or polite deference; it is not respect in general, which is
+<!-- ^^ ga'i, 308 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ga'i</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ deference: example, 308 -->
+<indexterm><primary>deference</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ condescension: example, 308 -->
+<indexterm><primary>condescension</primary></indexterm>
<quote>.io</quote>. Whatever it is attached to is marked as being below (for
<quote>ga'i</quote>) or above (for
+<!-- ^^ ga'i, 308 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ga'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ga'inai</quote>) the speaker's rank or social position. Note that it is always the referent, not the speaker or listener, who is so marked: in order to mark the listener, the listener must appear in the sentence, as with
+<!-- ^^ ga'inai, 308 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ga'inai</primary></indexterm>
<quote>doi ga'inai</quote>, which can be appended to a statement addressed to a social superior.</para>
+<!-- ^^ ga'inai, 308 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ga'inai</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Ercd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e7d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section7-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ko ga'inai nenri klama le mi zdani</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ga'inai, 308 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ga'inai</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>You-imperative [low-rank!] enter-type-of come-to my house.</gloss>
<en>I would be honored if you would enter my residence.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that imperatives in Lojban need not be imperious! Corresponding examples with
+<!-- ^^ imperatives: and truth, 353; attitude, 308; English contrasted with Lojban in presence of subject of command, 147; quick-tour version, 22; with ko, 146 -->
+<indexterm><primary>imperatives</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ga'icu'i</quote>and
<quote>ga'inai</quote>:</para>
+<!-- ^^ ga'inai, 308 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ga'inai</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-FDw0">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e7d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section7-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e7d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section7-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ko ga'icu'i nenri klama le mi zdani</jbo>
<gloss>You-imperative [equal-rank!] enter-type-of come-to my house.</gloss>
<en>Come on in to my place.</en>
<jbo>ko ga'i nenri klama le mi zdani</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ga'i, 308 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ga'i</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>You-imperative [high-rank!] enter-type-of come-to my house.</gloss>
<en>You! Get inside!</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Since
<quote>ga'i</quote>expresses the relative rank of the speaker and the referent, it does not make much sense to attach it to
+<!-- ^^ ga'i, 308 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ga'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>mi</quote>, unless the speaker is using
<quote>mi</quote>to refer to a group (as in English
<quote>we</quote>), or a past or future version of himself with a different rank.</para>
<para>It is also possible to attach
<quote>ga'i</quote>to a whole bridi, in which case it expresses the speaker's superiority to the event the bridi refers to:</para>
+<!-- ^^ ga'i, 308 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ga'i</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-wgDV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e7d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section7-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ga'i le xarju pu citka</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ga'i, 308 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ga'i</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>[High-rank!] the pig [past] eats</gloss>
<en>The pig ate (which is an event beneath my notice).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>When used without being attached to any bridi,
<quote>ga'i</quote>expresses the speaker's superiority to things in general, which may represent an absolute social rank:
+<!-- ^^ ga'i, 308 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ga'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ga'icai</quote>is an appropriate opening word for an emperor's address from the throne.</para>
+<!-- ^^ ga'icai, 309 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ga'icai</primary></indexterm>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>le'o</quote>represents the scale of aggressiveness. We seldom overtly recognize that we are feeling aggressive or defensive, but perhaps in counseling sessions, a psychologist might encourage someone to express these feelings on this scale. And football teams could be urged on by their coach using
+<!-- ^^ le'o, 309 -->
+<indexterm><primary>le'o</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ feelings: expression of contrasted with talking about, 298 -->
+<indexterm><primary>feelings</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ro'ole'o</quote>.
<quote>le'o</quote>is also useful in threats as an alternative to
+<!-- ^^ le'o, 309 -->
+<indexterm><primary>le'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>o'onai</quote>, which expresses anger.</para>
+<!-- ^^ o'onai: example, 300 -->
+<indexterm><primary>o'onai</primary></indexterm>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>vu'e</quote>represents ethical virtue or its absence. An excess of almost any emotion is usually somewhat
+<!-- ^^ vu'e, 309 -->
+<indexterm><primary>vu'e</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ virtue: example, 309 -->
+<indexterm><primary>virtue</primary></indexterm>
<quote>sinful</quote>in the eyes of most ethical systems. On the other hand, we often feel virtuous about our feelings - what we call righteous indignation might be
+<!-- ^^ sinful: example, 309 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sinful</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ righteous indignation: example, 309 -->
+<indexterm><primary>righteous indignation</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ feelings: expression of contrasted with talking about, 298 -->
+<indexterm><primary>feelings</primary></indexterm>
<quote>o'onaivu'e</quote>. Note that this is distinct from lack of guilt:
<quote>.u'unai</quote>.</para>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>se'i</quote>expresses the difference between selfishness and generosity, for example (in combination with
+<!-- ^^ se'i, 309 -->
+<indexterm><primary>se'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>.au</quote>):</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-QeLV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e7d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section7-example5" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e7d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section7-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.ause'i</jbo>
@@ -741,71 +1049,99 @@
<gloss>[desire] [other]</gloss>
<en>I want you to have it!</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In both cases, the English
<quote>it</quote>is vague, reflecting the absence of a bridi.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section7-example5" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section7-example6" />are pure expressions of attitude. Analogously,
<quote>.uuse'i</quote>is self-pity, whereas
<quote>.uuse'inai</quote>is pity for someone else.</para>
+<!-- ^^ uuse'inai, 314 -->
+<indexterm><primary>uuse'inai</primary></indexterm>
<para>The modifier
<quote>ri'e</quote>indicates emotional release versus emotional control.
+<!-- ^^ ri'e, 309 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ri'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>I will not let him know how angry I am</quote>, you say to yourself before entering the room. The Lojban is much shorter:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Pwuv">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e7d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section7-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.o'onai ri'enai</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ o'onai: example, 300 -->
+<indexterm><primary>o'onai</primary></indexterm>
<en>[anger] [control]</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>On the other hand,
<quote>ri'e</quote>can be used by itself to signal an emotional outburst.</para>
+<!-- ^^ ri'e, 309 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ri'e</primary></indexterm>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>fu'i</quote>may express a reason for feeling the way we do, as opposed to a feeling in itself; but it is a reason that is more emotionally determined than most. For example, it could show the difference between the mental discomfort mentioned in
+<!-- ^^ mental discomfort: example, 307 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mental discomfort</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ fu'i, 309 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fu'i</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section6" />when it is felt on an easy test, as opposed to on a hard test. When someone gives you a back massage, you could use
<quote>.o'ufu'i</quote>to show appreciation for the assistance in your comfort.</para>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>be'u</quote>expresses, roughly speaking, whether the emotion it modifies is in response to something you don't have enough of, something you have enough of, or something you have too much of. It is more or less the attitudinal equivalent of the subjective quantifier cmavo
+<!-- ^^ be'u, 310 -->
+<indexterm><primary>be'u</primary></indexterm>
<quote>mo'a</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ mo'a, 442, 448 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mo'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>rau</quote>, and
+<!-- ^^ rau, 442, 448 -->
+<indexterm><primary>rau</primary></indexterm>
<quote>du'e</quote>(these belong to selma'o PA, and are discussed in
+<!-- ^^ du'e, 442, 448 -->
+<indexterm><primary>du'e</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18" />). For example,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-K4aV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e7d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section7-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.uiro'obe'unai</jbo>
<en>[Yay!] [physical] [Enough!]</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>might be something you say after a large meal which you enjoyed.</para>
+<!-- ^^ large meal: example, 310 -->
+<indexterm><primary>large meal</primary></indexterm>
<para>Like all modifiers,
<quote>be'u</quote>can be used alone:</para>
+<!-- ^^ be'u, 310 -->
+<indexterm><primary>be'u</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-U3zm">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e7d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section7-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le cukta be'u cu zvati ma</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ be'u, 310 -->
+<indexterm><primary>be'u</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>The book [Needed!] is at-location [what sumti?]</gloss>
<en>Where's the book? - I need it!</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Lastly, the modifier
<quote>se'a</quote>shows whether the feeling is associated with self-sufficiency or with dependence on others.</para>
+<!-- ^^ se'a, 310 -->
+<indexterm><primary>se'a</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-4S14">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e7d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section7-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.e'ese'a</jbo>
<gloss>[I can!] [self-sufficient!]</gloss>
<en>I can do it all by myself!</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -817,20 +1153,22 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section7-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.e'ese'anai</jbo>
<gloss>[I can!] [dependent]</gloss>
<en>I can do it if you help me.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>from the same child would indicate a (hopefully temporary) loss of self-confidence. It is also possible to negate the
<quote>.e'e</quote>in
+<!-- ^^ e'e, 303 -->
+<indexterm><primary>e'e</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section7-example7" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section7-example8" />, leading to:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-stdV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e7d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section7-example12" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.e'enaise'a</jbo>
<gloss>[I can't!] [self-sufficient]</gloss>
@@ -850,32 +1188,40 @@
<en>I can't do it by myself!</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Some of the emotional expressions may seem too complicated to use. They might be for most circumstances. It is likely that most combinations will never get used. But if one person uses one of these expressions, another person can understand (as unambiguously as the expresser intends) what emotion is being expressed. Most probably as the system becomes well-known and internalized by Lojban-speakers, particular attitudinal combinations will come to be standard expressions (if not cliches) of emotion.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter13-section8">
<title>8. Compound indicators</title>
<para>The grammar of indicators is quite simple; almost all facets are optional. You can combine indicators in any order, and they are still grammatical. The presumed denotation is additive; thus the whole is the sum of the parts regardless of the order expressed, although the first expressed is presumed most important to the speaker. Every possible string of UI cmavo has some meaning.</para>
<para>Within a string of indicators, there will be conventions of interpretation which amount to a kind of second-order grammar. Each of the modifier words is presumed to modify an indicator to the left, if there is one. (There is an
<quote>unspecified emotion</quote>word,
+<!-- ^^ unspecified emotion, 311 -->
+<indexterm><primary>unspecified emotion</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ge'e</quote>, reserved to ensure that if you want to express a modifier without a root emotion, it doesn't attach to and modify a previous but distinct emotional expression.)</para>
+<!-- ^^ ge'e, 311, 322 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ge'e</primary></indexterm>
<para>For example,
<quote>.ieru'e</quote>expresses a weak positive value on the scale of agreement: the speaker agrees (presumably with the listener or with something else just stated), but with the least possible degree of intensity. But
<quote>.ie ge'eru'e</quote>expresses agreement (at an unspecified level), followed by some other unstated emotion which is felt at a weak level. A rough English equivalent of
+<!-- ^^ unstated emotion, 311 -->
+<indexterm><primary>unstated emotion</primary></indexterm>
<quote>.ie ge'eru'e</quote>might be
<quote>I agree, but ...</quote>where the
<quote>but</quote>is left hanging. (Again, attitudes aren't always expressed in English by English attitudinals.)</para>
<para>A scale variable similarly modifies the previous emotion word. You put the scale word for a root emotion word before a modifier, since the latter can have its own scale word. This merely maximizes the amount of information expressible. For example,
<quote>.oinaicu'i ro'ucai</quote>expresses a feeling midway between pain (
<quote>.oi</quote>) and pleasure (
<quote>.oinai</quote>) which is intensely sexual (
<quote>ro'u</quote>) in nature.</para>
+<!-- ^^ ro'u, 307 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ro'u</primary></indexterm>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>nai</quote>is the most tightly bound modifier in the language: it always negates exactly one word - the preceding one. Of all the words used in indicator constructs,
<quote>nai</quote>is the only one with any meaning outside the indicator system. If you try to put an indicator between a non-indicator cmavo and its
<quote>nai</quote>negator, the
<quote>nai</quote>will end up negating the last word of the indicator. The result, though unambiguous, is not what you want. For example,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-9BBA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e8d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section8-example1" />
</title>
@@ -906,73 +1252,97 @@
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
attitudinal
<quote>nai</quote> intensity-word
<quote>nai</quote> modifier
<quote>nai</quote> intensity-word
<quote>nai</quote>
(possibly repeated)
</programlisting>
<para>
<quote>ge'e</quote>, the non-specific emotion word, functions as an attitudinal. If multiple attitudes are being expressed at once, then in the 2nd or greater position, either
+<!-- ^^ ge'e, 311, 322 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ge'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ge'e</quote>or a VV word must be used to prevent any modifiers from modifying the previous attitudinal.</para>
+<!-- ^^ ge'e, 311, 322 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ge'e</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter13-section9">
<title>9. The uses of indicators</title>
<para>The behavior of indicators in the
<quote>outside grammar</quote>is nearly as simple as their internal structure. Indicator groupings are identified immediately after the metalinguistic erasers
+<!-- ^^ metalinguistic erasers: within ungrammatical-Lojban quotation, 477 -->
+<indexterm><primary>metalinguistic erasers</primary></indexterm>
<quote>si</quote>,
<quote>sa</quote>, and
<quote>su</quote>and some, though not all, kinds of quotations. The details of such interactions are discussed in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19" />.</para>
<para>A group of indicators may appear anywhere that a single indicator may, except in those few situations (as in
<quote>zo</quote>quotation, explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19" />) where compound cmavo may not be used.</para>
<para>At the beginning of a text, indicators modify everything following them indefinitely: such a usage is taken as a raw emotional expression, and we normally don't turn off our emotions when we start and stop sentences. In every other place in an utterance, the indicator (or group) attaches to the word immediately to its left, and indicates that the attitude is being expressed concerning the object or concept to which the word refers.</para>
<para>If the word that an indicator (or group) attaches to is itself a cmavo which governs a grammatical structure, then the indicator construct pertains to the referent of the entire structure. There is also a mechanism, discussed in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19" />, for explicitly marking the range of words to which an indicator applies.</para>
<para>More details about the uses of indicators, and the way they interact with other specialized cmavo, are given in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19" />. It is worth mentioning that real-world interpretation is not necessarily consistent with the formal scope rules. People generally express emotions when they feel them, with only a minimum of grammatical constraint on that expression; complexities of emotional expression are seldom logically analyzable. Lojban attempts to provide a systematic reference that could possibly be ingrained to an instinctive level. However, it should always be assumed that the referent of an indicator has some uncertainty.</para>
<para>For example, in cases of multiple indicators expressed together, the combined form has some ambiguity of interpretation. It is possible to interpret the second indicator as expressing an attitude about the first, or to interpret both as expressing attitudes about the common referent. For example, in</para>
+<!-- ^^ multiple indicators, 312 -->
+<indexterm><primary>multiple indicators</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Rs6P">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e9d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section9-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu tavla do .o'onai .oi</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ o'onai: example, 300 -->
+<indexterm><primary>o'onai</primary></indexterm>
<en>I [past] talk-to you [Grrr!] [Oy!]</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>can be interpreted as expressing complaint about the anger, in which case it means
<quote>Damn, I snapped at you</quote>; or as expressing both anger and complaint about the listener, in which case it means
<quote>I told you, you pest!</quote></para>
<para>Similarly, an indicator after the final brivla of a tanru may be taken to express an attitude about the particular brivla placed there - as the rules have it - or about the entire bridi which hinges on that brivla. Remembering that indicators are supposedly direct expressions of emotion, this ambiguity is acceptable.</para>
<para>Even if the scope rules given for indicators turn out to be impractical or unintuitive for use in conversation, they are still useful in written expression. There, where you can go back and put in markers or move words around, the scope rules can be used in lieu of elaborate nuances of body language and intonation to convey the writer's intent.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter13-section10">
<title>10. Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours</title>
+<!-- ^^ empathy: example, 314 -->
+<indexterm><primary>empathy</primary></indexterm>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
pei attitude question
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
dai empathy
+<!-- ^^ empathy: example, 314 -->
+<indexterm><primary>empathy</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ dai, 314 -->
+<indexterm><primary>dai</primary></indexterm>
bu'o start emotion continue emotion end emotion
+<!-- ^^ bu'o, 314 -->
+<indexterm><primary>bu'o</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>You can ask someone how they are feeling with a normal bridi sentence, but you will get a normal bridi answer in response, one which may be true or false. Since the response to a question about emotions is no more logical than the emotion itself, this isn't appropriate.</para>
<para>The word
<quote>pei</quote>is therefore reserved for attitude questions. Asked by itself, it captures all of the denotation of English
<quote>How are you?</quote>coupled with
<quote>How do you feel?</quote>(which has a slightly different range of usage).</para>
<para>When asked in the context of discourse,
<quote>pei</quote>acts like other Lojban question words - it requests the respondent to
<quote>fill in the blank</quote>, in this case with an appropriate attitudinal describing the respondent's feeling about the referent expression. As with other questions, plausibility is polite; if you answer with an irrelevant UI cmavo, such as a discursive, you are probably making fun of the questioner. (A
+<!-- ^^ plausibility: in abbreviated lujvo, 284 -->
+<indexterm><primary>plausibility</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ irrelevant: specifying of sumti place, 157 -->
+<indexterm><primary>irrelevant</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ge'e</quote>, however, is always in order - you are not required to answer emotionally. This is not the same as
+<!-- ^^ ge'e, 311, 322 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ge'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>.i'inai</quote>, which is privacy as the reverse of conviviality.)</para>
<para>Most often, however, the asker will use
<quote>pei</quote>as a place holder for an intensity marker. (As a result,
<quote>pei</quote>is placed in selma'o CAI, although selma'o UI would have been almost as appropriate. Grammatically, there is no difference between UI and CAI.) Such usage corresponds to a whole range of idiomatic usages in natural languages:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Xi7Q">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e10d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section10-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e10d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section10-example2" />
@@ -1022,83 +1392,119 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e10d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section10-example6" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e10d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section10-example7" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e10d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section10-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>pei.o'u</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ o'u: example, 300 -->
+<indexterm><primary>o'u</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>[question] [comfort]</gloss>
<en>Are you comfortable?</en>
<jbo>pei.o'ucu'i</jbo>
<gloss>[question] [comfort] [neutral]</gloss>
<en>Are you no longer in pain?</en>
<jbo>pei.o'usai</jbo>
<gloss>[question] [comfort] [strong]</gloss>
<en>Are you again healthy?</en>
+<!-- ^^ healthy: example, 24 -->
+<indexterm><primary>healthy</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Empathy, which is not really an emotion, is expressed by the indicator
<quote>dai</quote>. (Don't confuse empathy with sympathy, which is
+<!-- ^^ sympathy: example, 299, 314 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sympathy</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ empathy: example, 314 -->
+<indexterm><primary>empathy</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ dai, 314 -->
+<indexterm><primary>dai</primary></indexterm>
<quote>.uuse'inai</quote>.) Sometimes, as when telling a story, you want to attribute emotion to someone else. You can of course make a bridi claim that so-and-so felt such-and-such an emotion, but you can also make use of the attitudinal system by adding the indicator
+<!-- ^^ uuse'inai, 314 -->
+<indexterm><primary>uuse'inai</primary></indexterm>
<quote>dai</quote>, which attributes the preceding attitudinal to someone else - exactly whom, must be determined from context. You can also use
+<!-- ^^ dai, 314 -->
+<indexterm><primary>dai</primary></indexterm>
<quote>dai</quote>conversationally when you empathize, or feel someone else's emotion as if it were your own:</para>
+<!-- ^^ dai, 314 -->
+<indexterm><primary>dai</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Ny8w">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e10d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section10-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.oiro'odai</jbo>
<gloss>[Pain!] [physical] [empathy]</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ empathy: example, 314 -->
+<indexterm><primary>empathy</primary></indexterm>
<en>Ouch, that must have hurt!</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>It is even possible to
<quote>empathize</quote>with a non-living object:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-M7Xf">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e10d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section10-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le bloti .iidai .uu pu klama le xasloi</jbo>
<gloss>The ship [fear!] [empathy] [pity!] [past] goes-to the ocean-floor.</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ empathy: example, 314 -->
+<indexterm><primary>empathy</primary></indexterm>
<en>Fearfully the ship, poor thing, sank.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>suggesting that the ship felt fear at its impending destruction, and simultaneously reporting the speaker's pity for it.</para>
+<!-- ^^ and simultaneously: example, 364 -->
+<indexterm><primary>and simultaneously</primary></indexterm>
<para>Both
<quote>pei</quote>and
<quote>dai</quote>represent exceptions to the normal rule that attitudinals reflect the speaker's attitude.</para>
+<!-- ^^ dai, 314 -->
+<indexterm><primary>dai</primary></indexterm>
<para>Finally, we often want to report how our attitudes are changing. If our attitude has not changed, we can just repeat the attitudinal. (Therefore,
<quote>.ui .ui .ui</quote>is not the same as
<quote>.uicai</quote>, but simply means that we are continuing to be happy.) If we want to report that we are beginning to feel, continuing to feel, or ceasing to feel an emotion, we can use the attitudinal contour cmavo
<quote>bu'o</quote>.</para>
+<!-- ^^ bu'o, 314 -->
+<indexterm><primary>bu'o</primary></indexterm>
<para>When attached to an attitudinal,
<quote>bu'o</quote>means that you are starting to have that attitude,
+<!-- ^^ bu'o, 314 -->
+<indexterm><primary>bu'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bu'ocu'i</quote>that you are continuing to have it, and
<quote>bu'onai</quote>that you are ceasing to have it. Some examples:</para>
+<!-- ^^ bu'onai, 314 -->
+<indexterm><primary>bu'onai</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-oJef">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e10d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section10-example11" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e10d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section10-example12" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.o'onai bu'o</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ o'onai: example, 300 -->
+<indexterm><primary>o'onai</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ bu'o, 314 -->
+<indexterm><primary>bu'o</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>[Anger!] [start emotion]</gloss>
<en>I'm getting angry!</en>
<jbo>.iu bu'onai .uinai</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ bu'onai, 314 -->
+<indexterm><primary>bu'onai</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>[Love!] [end emotion] [unhappiness!]</gloss>
<en>I don't love you any more; I'm sad.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note the difference in effect between
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section10-example12" />and:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-6EiY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e10d13" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section10-example13" />
@@ -1113,381 +1519,673 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section10-example13" />states that you have (or have had) certain emotions;
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section10-example12" />expresses those emotions directly.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter13-section11">
<title>11. Evidentials</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ja'o [jalge] I conclude
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
ca'e I define
+<!-- ^^ ca'e, 316 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ca'e</primary></indexterm>
ba'a [balvi] I expect I experience I remember
+<!-- ^^ ba'a, 316 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ba'a</primary></indexterm>
su'a [sucta] I generalize I particularize
ti'e [tirna] I hear (hearsay)
+<!-- ^^ ti'e, 316 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ti'e</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ hearsay: example, 316 -->
+<indexterm><primary>hearsay</primary></indexterm>
ka'u [kulnu] I know by cultural means
se'o [senva] I know by internal experience
za'a [zgana] I observe
+<!-- ^^ za'a, 316 -->
+<indexterm><primary>za'a</primary></indexterm>
pe'i [pensi] I opine
+<!-- ^^ pe'i, 317 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pe'i</primary></indexterm>
ru'a [sruma] I postulate
+<!-- ^^ ru'a, 317; compared with e'u, 317 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ru'a</primary></indexterm>
ju'a [jufra] I state
+<!-- ^^ ju'a, 317 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ju'a</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>Now we proceed from the attitudinal indicators and their relatives to the other, semantically unrelated, categories of indicators. The indicators known as
+<!-- ^^ attitudinal indicators, 297; conventions of interpretation, 311; placement of "nai" in, 311; placement of scale in, 311; quick-tour version, 24 -->
+<indexterm><primary>attitudinal indicators</primary></indexterm>
<quote>evidentials</quote>show how the speaker came to say the utterance; i.e. the source of the information or the idea. Lojban's list of evidentials was derived from lists describing several American Indian languages. Evidentials are also essential to the constructed language Láadan, designed by the linguist and novelist Suzette Haden Elgin. Láadan's set of indicators was drawn on extensively in developing the Lojban indicator system.</para>
+<!-- ^^ lists: use of tu'e/tu'u in, 358 -->
+<indexterm><primary>lists</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ evidentials: ba'a scale, 316; definition, 315; grammar, 315; in English, 315; indisputable bridi, 315; inspiration for, 315; ja'o contrasted with su'a, 316; ka'u contrasted with se'o, 316; placement in bridi, 315; quick-tour version, 25; rhetorical flavor, 315; scales, 315; se'o contrasted with ka'u, 316; su'a contrasted with ja'o, 316 -->
+<!-- ^^ indisputable bridi, 315 -->
+<indexterm><primary>indisputable bridi</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>evidentials</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ Elgin: Suzette Haden and evidentials, 315 -->
+<!-- ^^ evidentials: ba'a scale, 316; definition, 315; grammar, 315; in English, 315; indisputable bridi, 315; inspiration for, 315; ja'o contrasted with su'a, 316; ka'u contrasted with se'o, 316; placement in bridi, 315; quick-tour version, 25; rhetorical flavor, 315; scales, 315; se'o contrasted with ka'u, 316; su'a contrasted with ja'o, 316 -->
+<!-- ^^ indisputable bridi, 315 -->
+<indexterm><primary>indisputable bridi</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>evidentials</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>Elgin</primary></indexterm>
<para>It is important to realize, however, that evidentials are not some odd system used by some strange people who live at the other end of nowhere: although their English equivalents aren't single words, English-speakers have vivid notions of what constitutes evidence, and of the different kinds of evidence.</para>
+<!-- ^^ evidentials: ba'a scale, 316; definition, 315; grammar, 315; in English, 315; indisputable bridi, 315; inspiration for, 315; ja'o contrasted with su'a, 316; ka'u contrasted with se'o, 316; placement in bridi, 315; quick-tour version, 25; rhetorical flavor, 315; scales, 315; se'o contrasted with ka'u, 316; su'a contrasted with ja'o, 316 -->
+<!-- ^^ indisputable bridi, 315 -->
+<indexterm><primary>indisputable bridi</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>evidentials</primary></indexterm>
<para>Like the attitudinal indicators, the evidentials belong to selma'o UI, and may be treated identically for grammatical purposes. Most of them are not usually considered scalar in nature, but a few have associated scales.</para>
+<!-- ^^ evidentials: ba'a scale, 316; definition, 315; grammar, 315; in English, 315; indisputable bridi, 315; inspiration for, 315; ja'o contrasted with su'a, 316; ka'u contrasted with se'o, 316; placement in bridi, 315; quick-tour version, 25; rhetorical flavor, 315; scales, 315; se'o contrasted with ka'u, 316; su'a contrasted with ja'o, 316 -->
+<!-- ^^ indisputable bridi, 315 -->
+<indexterm><primary>indisputable bridi</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>evidentials</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ attitudinal indicators, 297; conventions of interpretation, 311; placement of "nai" in, 311; placement of scale in, 311; quick-tour version, 24 -->
+<indexterm><primary>attitudinal indicators</primary></indexterm>
<para>A bridi with an evidential in it becomes
<quote>indisputable</quote>, in the sense that the speaker is saying
<quote>how it is with him or her</quote>, which is beyond argument. Claims about one's own mental states may be true or false, but are hardly subject to other people's examination. If you say that you think, or perceive, or postulate such-and-such a predication, who can contradict you? Discourse that uses evidentials has therefore a different rhetorical flavor than discourse that does not; arguments tend to become what can be called dialogues or alternating monologues, depending on your prejudices.</para>
+<!-- ^^ evidentials: ba'a scale, 316; definition, 315; grammar, 315; in English, 315; indisputable bridi, 315; inspiration for, 315; ja'o contrasted with su'a, 316; ka'u contrasted with se'o, 316; placement in bridi, 315; quick-tour version, 25; rhetorical flavor, 315; scales, 315; se'o contrasted with ka'u, 316; su'a contrasted with ja'o, 316 -->
+<!-- ^^ indisputable bridi, 315 -->
+<indexterm><primary>indisputable bridi</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>evidentials</primary></indexterm>
<para>Evidentials are most often placed at the beginning of sentences, and are often attached to the
<quote>.i</quote>that separates sentences in connected discourse. It is in the nature of an evidential to affect the entire bridi in which it is placed: like the propositional attitude indicators, they strongly affect the claim made by the main bridi.</para>
<para>A bridi marked by
<quote>ja'o</quote>is a conclusion by the speaker based on other (stated or unstated) information or ideas. Rough English equivalents of
<quote>ja'o</quote>are
<quote>thus</quote>and
<quote>therefore</quote>.</para>
<para>A bridi marked by
<quote>ca'e</quote>is true because the speaker says so. In addition to definitions of words,
+<!-- ^^ ca'e, 316 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ca'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ca'e</quote>is also appropriate in what are called performatives, where the very act of speaking the words makes them true. An English example is
+<!-- ^^ ca'e, 316 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ca'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>I now pronounce you husband and wife</quote>, where the very act of uttering the words makes the listeners into husband and wife. A Lojban translation might be:</para>
+<!-- ^^ husband and wife: example, 316 -->
+<indexterm><primary>husband and wife</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Po4T">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e11d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section11-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ca'e le re do cu simxu speni</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ca'e, 316 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ca'e</primary></indexterm>
<en>[I define!] The two of-you are-mutual spouses.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The three scale positions of
<quote>ba'a</quote>, when attached to a bridi, indicate that it is based on the speaker's view of the real world. Thus
+<!-- ^^ real world: contrasted with hypothetical world, example, 320 -->
+<indexterm><primary>real world</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ ba'a, 316 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ba'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ba'a</quote>means that the statement represents a future event as anticipated by the speaker;
+<!-- ^^ future event: possible extension into present, 223 -->
+<indexterm><primary>future event</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ ba'a, 316 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ba'a</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ anticipated: example, 316 -->
+<indexterm><primary>anticipated</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ba'acu'i</quote>, a present event as experienced by the speaker;
+<!-- ^^ experienced: example, 316 -->
+<indexterm><primary>experienced</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ ba'acu'i, 316 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ba'acu'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ba'anai</quote>, a past event as remembered by the speaker. It is accidental that this scale runs from future to past instead of past to future.</para>
+<!-- ^^ remembered: example, 316 -->
+<indexterm><primary>remembered</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ past event: possible extension into present, 223 -->
+<indexterm><primary>past event</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ ba'anai, 316 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ba'anai</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-B87W">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e11d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section11-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ba'acu'i le tuple be mi cu se cortu</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ba'acu'i, 316 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ba'acu'i</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>[I experience!] The leg of me is-the-locus-of-pain.</gloss>
<en>My leg hurts.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>A bridi marked by
<quote>su'a</quote>is a generalization by the speaker based on other (stated or unstated) information or ideas. The difference between
<quote>su'a</quote>and
<quote>ja'o</quote>is that
<quote>ja'o</quote>suggests some sort of reasoning or deduction (not necessarily rigorous), whereas
+<!-- ^^ deduction: example, 316 -->
+<indexterm><primary>deduction</primary></indexterm>
<quote>su'a</quote>suggests some sort of induction or pattern recognition from existing examples (not necessarily rigorous).</para>
+<!-- ^^ induction: example, 316 -->
+<indexterm><primary>induction</primary></indexterm>
<para>The opposite point of the scale,
<quote>su'anai</quote>, indicates abduction, or drawing specific conclusions from general premises or patterns.</para>
+<!-- ^^ su'anai, 316 -->
+<indexterm><primary>su'anai</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ abduction: example, 316 -->
+<indexterm><primary>abduction</primary></indexterm>
<para>This cmavo can also function as a discursive (see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section12" />), in which case
<quote>su'a</quote>means
<quote>abstractly</quote>or
<quote>in general</quote>, and
<quote>su'anai</quote>means
+<!-- ^^ su'anai, 316 -->
+<indexterm><primary>su'anai</primary></indexterm>
<quote>concretely</quote>or
<quote>in particular</quote>.</para>
<para>A bridi marked by
<quote>ti'e</quote>is relayed information from some source other than the speaker. There is no necessary implication that the information was relayed via the speaker's ears; what we read in a newspaper is an equally good example of
+<!-- ^^ ti'e, 316 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ti'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ti'e</quote>, unless we have personal knowledge of the content.</para>
+<!-- ^^ ti'e, 316 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ti'e</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-jiXV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e11d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section11-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti'e la .uengas cu zergau</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ti'e, 316 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ti'e</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>[I hear!] Wenga is-a-criminal-doer.</gloss>
<en>I hear that Wenga is a crook.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>A bridi marked by
<quote>ka'u</quote>is one held to be true in the speaker's cultural context, as a matter of myth or custom, for example. Such statements should be agreed on by a community of people - you cannot just make up your own cultural context - although
+<!-- ^^ myth: example, 316 -->
+<indexterm><primary>myth</primary></indexterm>
<quote>objectivity</quote>in the sense of actual correspondence with the facts is certainly not required.</para>
<para>On the other hand,
<quote>se'o</quote>marks a bridi whose truth is asserted by the speaker as a result of an internal experience not directly available to others, such as a dream, vision, or personal revelation. In some cultures, the line between
+<!-- ^^ revelation: example, 316 -->
+<indexterm><primary>revelation</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ dream: example, 316 -->
+<indexterm><primary>dream</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ka'u</quote>and
<quote>se'o</quote>is fuzzy or even nonexistent.</para>
<para>A bridi marked by
<quote>za'a</quote>is based on perception or direct observation by the speaker. This use of
+<!-- ^^ za'a, 316 -->
+<indexterm><primary>za'a</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ observation: example, 316 -->
+<indexterm><primary>observation</primary></indexterm>
<quote>observe</quote>is not connected with the Lojban
<quote>observative</quote>, or bridi with the first sumti omitted. The latter has no explicit aspect, and could be a direct observation, a conclusion, an opinion, or other aspectual point of view.</para>
+<!-- ^^ opinion: example, 317 -->
+<indexterm><primary>opinion</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ observative: contrasted with observation evidential, 316; definition, 188 -->
+<indexterm><primary>observative</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ observation: example, 316 -->
+<indexterm><primary>observation</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ aspect: expressing, 228; natural languages compared with respect to, 228 -->
+<indexterm><primary>aspect</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-KEKa">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e11d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section11-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>za'a do tatpi</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ za'a, 316 -->
+<indexterm><primary>za'a</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>[I observe!] You are-tired.</gloss>
<en>I see you are tired.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>A bridi marked by
<quote>pe'i</quote>is the opinion of the speaker. The form
+<!-- ^^ pe'i, 317 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pe'i</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ opinion: example, 317 -->
+<indexterm><primary>opinion</primary></indexterm>
<quote>pe'ipei</quote>is common, meaning
+<!-- ^^ pe'ipei, 317 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pe'ipei</primary></indexterm>
<quote>Is this your opinion?</quote>. (Strictly, this should be
+<!-- ^^ opinion: example, 317 -->
+<indexterm><primary>opinion</primary></indexterm>
<quote>peipe'i</quote>, in accordance with the distinction explained in Examples 10.6-10.8, but since
<quote>pe'i</quote>is not really a scale, there is no real difference between the two orders.)</para>
+<!-- ^^ pe'i, 317 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pe'i</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-DcAG">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e11d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section11-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>pe'i la kartagos. .ei se daspo</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ pe'i, 317 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pe'i</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>[I opine!] Carthage [obligation] is-destroyed.</gloss>
<en>In my opinion, Carthage should be destroyed.</en>
+<!-- ^^ opinion: example, 317 -->
+<indexterm><primary>opinion</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>A bridi marked by
<quote>ru'a</quote>is an assumption made by the speaker. This is similar to one possible use of
+<!-- ^^ ru'a, 317; compared with e'u, 317 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ru'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>.e'u</quote>.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ydRN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e11d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section11-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ru'a doi livinston.</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ru'a, 317; compared with e'u, 317 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ru'a</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>Dr. Livingstone, I presume?</gloss>
<en>(A rhetorical question: Stanley knew who he was.)</en>
+<!-- ^^ rhetorical question, 322 -->
+<indexterm><primary>rhetorical question</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Finally, the evidential
<quote>ju'a</quote>is used to avoid stating a specific basis for a statement. It can also be used when the basis for the speaker's statement is not covered by any other evidential. For the most part, using
+<!-- ^^ ju'a, 317 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ju'a</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ basis: example, 317 -->
+<indexterm><primary>basis</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ju'a</quote>is equivalent to using no evidential at all, but in question form it can be useful:
+<!-- ^^ ju'a, 317 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ju'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ju'apei</quote>means
+<!-- ^^ ju'apei, 317 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ju'apei</primary></indexterm>
<quote>What is the basis for your statement?</quote>and serves as an evidential, as distinct from emotional, question.</para>
+<!-- ^^ basis: example, 317 -->
+<indexterm><primary>basis</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter13-section12">
<title>12. Discursives</title>
<para>The term
<quote>discursive</quote>is used for those members of selma'o UI that provide structure to the discourse, and which show how a given word or utterance relates to the whole discourse. To express these concepts in regular bridi would involve extra layers of nesting: rather than asserting that
<quote>I also came</quote>, we would have to say
<quote>I came; furthermore, the event of my coming is an additional instance of the relationship expressed by the previous sentence</quote>, which is intolerably clumsy. Typical English equivalents of discursives are words or phrases like
<quote>however</quote>,
<quote>summarizing</quote>,
<quote>in conclusion</quote>, and
<quote>for example</quote>.</para>
<para>Discursives are not attitudinals: they express no particular emotion. Rather, they are abbreviations for metalinguistic claims that reference the sentence or text they are found in.</para>
<para>Discursives are most often used at the beginning of sentences, often attached to the
<quote>.i</quote>that separates sentences in running discourse, but can (like all other indicators) be attached to single words when it seems necessary or useful.</para>
<para>The discursives discussed in this section are given in groups, roughly organized by function. First, the
<quote>consecutive discourse</quote>group:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ku'i [karbi] however/but/in contrast
+<!-- ^^ ku'i, 317, 353 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ku'i</primary></indexterm>
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
ji'a [jmina] additionally
+<!-- ^^ ji'a, 317 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ji'a</primary></indexterm>
si'a [simsa] similarly
+<!-- ^^ si'a, 317 -->
+<indexterm><primary>si'a</primary></indexterm>
mi'u [mintu] ditto
+<!-- ^^ mi'u, 317; contrasted with go'i, 318 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mi'u</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ mintu: contrasted with du, 163 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mintu</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ ditto: example, 318 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ditto</primary></indexterm>
po'o the only relevant case
+<!-- ^^ po'o, 317; placement in sentence, 318 -->
+<indexterm><primary>po'o</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>These five discursives are mutually exclusive, and therefore they are not usually considered as scales. The first four are used in consecutive discourse. The first,
<quote>ku'i</quote>, makes an exception to the previous argument. The second,
+<!-- ^^ ku'i, 317, 353 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ku'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ji'a</quote>, adds weight to the previous argument. The third,
+<!-- ^^ ji'a, 317 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ji'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>si'a</quote>, adds quantity to the previous argument, enumerating an additional example. The fourth,
+<!-- ^^ si'a, 317 -->
+<indexterm><primary>si'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>mi'u</quote>, adds a parallel case to the previous argument, and can also be used in tables or the like to show that something is being repeated from the previous column. It is distinct from
+<!-- ^^ mi'u, 317; contrasted with go'i, 318 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mi'u</primary></indexterm>
<quote>go'i</quote>(of selma'o GOhA, discussed in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7" />), which is a non-discursive version of
<quote>ditto</quote>that explicitly repeats the claim of the previous bridi.</para>
+<!-- ^^ ditto: example, 318 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ditto</primary></indexterm>
<para>Lastly,
<quote>po'o</quote>is used when there is no other comparable case, and thus corresponds to some of the uses of
+<!-- ^^ po'o, 317; placement in sentence, 318 -->
+<indexterm><primary>po'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>only</quote>, a word difficult to express in pure bridi form:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-42U4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e12d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section12-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e12d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section12-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e12d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section12-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e12d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section12-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi po'o darxi le mi tamne fo le nazbi</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ po'o, 317; placement in sentence, 318 -->
+<indexterm><primary>po'o</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I [only] hit my cousin at-locus the nose.</gloss>
<en>Only I (nobody else) hit my cousin on his nose.</en>
<jbo>mi darxi po'o le mi tamne fo le nazbi</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ po'o, 317; placement in sentence, 318 -->
+<indexterm><primary>po'o</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I hit [only] my cousin at-locus the nose.</gloss>
<en>I only hit my cousin on his nose (I did nothing else to him).</en>
<jbo>mi darxi le mi tamne po'o fo le nazbi</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ po'o, 317; placement in sentence, 318 -->
+<indexterm><primary>po'o</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I hit my cousin [only] at-locus the nose.</gloss>
<en>I hit only my cousin on his nose (no one else).</en>
<jbo>mi darxi le mi tamne fo le nazbi po'o</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ po'o, 317; placement in sentence, 318 -->
+<indexterm><primary>po'o</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I hit my cousin at-locus the nose [only].</gloss>
<en>I hit my cousin only on his nose (nowhere else).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that
<quote>only</quote>can go before or after what it modifies in English, but
<quote>po'o</quote>, as an indicator, always comes afterward.</para>
+<!-- ^^ po'o, 317; placement in sentence, 318 -->
+<indexterm><primary>po'o</primary></indexterm>
<para>Next, the
<quote>commentary on words</quote>group:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
va'i [valsi] in other words in the same words
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
ta'u [tanru] expanding a tanru making a tanru
+<!-- ^^ ta'u, 318 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ta'u</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>The discursives
<quote>va'i</quote>and
<quote>ta'u</quote>operate at the level of words, rather than discourse proper, or if you like, they deal with how things are said. An alternative English expression for
+<!-- ^^ ta'u, 318 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ta'u</primary></indexterm>
<quote>va'i</quote>is
<quote>rephrasing</quote>; for
<quote>va'inai</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ va'inai, 320 -->
+<indexterm><primary>va'inai</primary></indexterm>
<quote>repeating</quote>. Also compare
<quote>va'i</quote>with
<quote>ke'u</quote>, discussed below.</para>
+<!-- ^^ ke'u, 319; contrasted with va'i, 320 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ke'u</primary></indexterm>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>ta'u</quote>is a discursive unique to Lojban; it expresses the particularly Lojbanic device of tanru. Since tanru are semantically ambiguous, they are subject to misunderstanding. This ambiguity can be removed by expanding the tanru into some semantically unambiguous structure, often involving relative clauses or the introduction of additional brivla. The discursive
+<!-- ^^ ta'u, 318 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ta'u</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ta'u</quote>marks the transition from the use of a brief but possibly confusing tanru to its fuller, clearer expansion; the discursive
+<!-- ^^ ta'u, 318 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ta'u</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ta'unai</quote>marks a transition in the reverse direction.</para>
+<!-- ^^ ta'unai, 318 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ta'unai</primary></indexterm>
<para>Next, the
<quote>commentary on discourse</quote>group:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
li'a [klina] clearly obscurely
+<!-- ^^ li'a, 318 -->
+<indexterm><primary>li'a</primary></indexterm>
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
obviously
ba'u [banli] exaggeration accuracy understatement
+<!-- ^^ ba'u, 318 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ba'u</primary></indexterm>
zo'o humorously dully seriously
+<!-- ^^ zo'o, 318, 319 -->
+<indexterm><primary>zo'o</primary></indexterm>
sa'e [satci] precisely speaking loosely speaking
+<!-- ^^ sa'e, 318 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sa'e</primary></indexterm>
to'u [tordu] in brief in detail
+<!-- ^^ to'u, 318 -->
+<indexterm><primary>to'u</primary></indexterm>
do'a [dunda] generously parsimoniously
+<!-- ^^ do'a, 318 -->
+<indexterm><primary>do'a</primary></indexterm>
sa'u [sampu] simply elaborating
+<!-- ^^ sa'u, 318 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sa'u</primary></indexterm>
pa'e [pajni] justice prejudice
+<!-- ^^ pa'e, 318, 319 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pa'e</primary></indexterm>
je'u [jetnu] truly falsely
</programlisting>
<para>This group is used by the speaker to characterize the nature of the discourse, so as to prevent misunderstanding. It is well-known that listeners often fail to recognize a humorous statement and take it seriously, or miss an exaggeration, or try to read more into a statement than the speaker intends to put there. In speech, the tone of voice often provides the necessary cue, but the reader of ironic or understated or imprecise discourse is often simply clueless. As with the attitudinals, the use of these cmavo may seem fussy to new Lojbanists, but it is important to remember that
+<!-- ^^ tone of voice, 297 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tone of voice</primary></indexterm>
<quote>zo'o</quote>, for example, is the equivalent of smiling while you speak, not the equivalent of a flat declaration like
+<!-- ^^ zo'o, 318, 319 -->
+<indexterm><primary>zo'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>What I'm about to say is supposed to be funny.</quote></para>
<para>A few additional English equivalents: for
<quote>sa'enai</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ sa'enai, 319 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sa'enai</primary></indexterm>
<quote>roughly speaking</quote>or
<quote>approximately speaking</quote>; for
<quote>sa'unai</quote>,
<quote>furthermore</quote>; for
<quote>to'u</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ to'u, 318 -->
+<indexterm><primary>to'u</primary></indexterm>
<quote>in short</quote>or
<quote>skipping details</quote>; for
<quote>do'a</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ do'a, 318 -->
+<indexterm><primary>do'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>broadly construed</quote>; for
<quote>do'anai</quote>(as you might expect),
<quote>narrowly construed</quote>.</para>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>pa'e</quote>is used to claim (truly or falsely) that one is being fair or just to all parties mentioned, whereas
+<!-- ^^ pa'e, 318, 319 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pa'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>pa'enai</quote>admits (or proclaims) a bias in favor of one party.</para>
+<!-- ^^ pa'enai, 319 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pa'enai</primary></indexterm>
<para>The scale of
<quote>je'u</quote>and
<quote>je'unai</quote>is a little different from the others in the group. By default, we assume that people speak the truth - or at least, that if they are lying, they will do their best to conceal it from us. So under what circumstances would
<quote>je'unai</quote>be used, or
<quote>je'u</quote>be useful? For one thing,
<quote>je'u</quote>can be used to mark a tautology: a sentence that is a truth of logic, like
<quote>All cats are cats.</quote>Its counterpart
<quote>je'unai</quote>then serves to mark a logical contradiction. In addition,
<quote>je'unai</quote>can be used to express one kind of sarcasm or irony, where the speaker pretends to believe what he/she says, but actually wishes the listener to infer a contrary opinion. Other forms of irony can be marked with
+<!-- ^^ sarcasm: example, 319; expressing, 319 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sarcasm</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ opinion: example, 317 -->
+<indexterm><primary>opinion</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ irony: example, 319; expressing, 319 -->
+<indexterm><primary>irony</primary></indexterm>
<quote>zo'o</quote>(humor) or
+<!-- ^^ zo'o, 318, 319 -->
+<indexterm><primary>zo'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>.ianai</quote>(disbelief).</para>
+<!-- ^^ ianai, 297, 303, 319 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ianai</primary></indexterm>
<para>When used as a discursive,
<quote>su'a</quote>(see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section11" />) belongs to this group.</para>
<para>Next, the
<quote>knowledge</quote>group:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ju'o [djuno] certainly uncertain certainly not
+<!-- ^^ ju'o, 319 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ju'o</primary></indexterm>
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
la'a [lakne] probably improbably
+<!-- ^^ la'a, 319 -->
+<indexterm><primary>la'a</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>These two discursives describe the speaker's state of knowledge about the claim of the associated bridi. They are similar to the propositional attitudes of
+<!-- ^^ speaker's state of knowledge, 319 -->
+<indexterm><primary>speaker's state of knowledge</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ propositional attitudes, 262; compared with knowledge discursives, 319 -->
+<indexterm><primary>propositional attitudes</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section3" />, as they create a hypothetical world. We may be quite certain that something is true, and label our bridi with
+<!-- ^^ hypothetical world, 301; contrasted with real world, example, 320 -->
+<!-- ^^ real world: contrasted with hypothetical world, example, 320 -->
+<indexterm><primary>real world</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>hypothetical world</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ju'o</quote>; but it may be false all the same.</para>
+<!-- ^^ ju'o, 319 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ju'o</primary></indexterm>
<para>Next, the
<quote>discourse management</quote>group:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ta'o [tanjo] by the way returning to point
+<!-- ^^ ta'o, 319 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ta'o</primary></indexterm>
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
ra'u [ralju] chiefly equally incidentally
+<!-- ^^ ra'u, 319; scale of importance, 320 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ra'u</primary></indexterm>
mu'a [mupli] for example omitting end examples
+<!-- ^^ mu'a, 319 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mu'a</primary></indexterm>
examples
zu'u on the one hand on the other hand
+<!-- ^^ zu'u, 319 -->
+<indexterm><primary>zu'u</primary></indexterm>
ke'u [krefu] repeating continuing
+<!-- ^^ ke'u, 319; contrasted with va'i, 320 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ke'u</primary></indexterm>
da'i supposing in fact
+<!-- ^^ da'i, 319 -->
+<indexterm><primary>da'i</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>This final group is used to perform what may be called
<quote>managing the discourse</quote>: providing reference points to help the listener understand the flow from one sentence to the next.</para>
<para>Other English equivalents of
<quote>ta'onai</quote>are
<quote>anyway</quote>,
<quote>anyhow</quote>,
<quote>in any case</quote>,
<quote>in any event</quote>,
<quote>as I was saying</quote>, and
<quote>continuing</quote>.</para>
<para>The scale of
<quote>ra'u</quote>has to do with the importance of the point being, or about to be, expressed:
+<!-- ^^ ra'u, 319; scale of importance, 320 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ra'u</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ra'u</quote>is the most important point,
+<!-- ^^ ra'u, 319; scale of importance, 320 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ra'u</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ra'ucu'i</quote>is a point of equal importance, and
<quote>ra'unai</quote>is a lesser point. Other English equivalents of
<quote>ra'u</quote>are
+<!-- ^^ ra'u, 319; scale of importance, 320 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ra'u</primary></indexterm>
<quote>above all</quote>and
<quote>primarily</quote>.</para>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>ke'u</quote>is very similar to
+<!-- ^^ ke'u, 319; contrasted with va'i, 320 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ke'u</primary></indexterm>
<quote>va'i</quote>, although
<quote>ke'unai</quote>and
+<!-- ^^ ke'unai, 320 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ke'unai</primary></indexterm>
<quote>va'inai</quote>are quite different. Both
+<!-- ^^ va'inai, 320 -->
+<indexterm><primary>va'inai</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ke'u</quote>and
+<!-- ^^ ke'u, 319; contrasted with va'i, 320 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ke'u</primary></indexterm>
<quote>va'i</quote>indicate that the same idea is going to be expressed using different words, but the two cmavo differ in emphasis. Using
<quote>ke'u</quote>emphasizes that the content is the same; using
+<!-- ^^ ke'u, 319; contrasted with va'i, 320 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ke'u</primary></indexterm>
<quote>va'i</quote>emphasizes that the words are different. Therefore,
<quote>ke'unai</quote>shows that the content is new (and therefore the words are also);
+<!-- ^^ ke'unai, 320 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ke'unai</primary></indexterm>
<quote>va'inai</quote>shows that the words are the same (and therefore so is the content). One English equivalent of
+<!-- ^^ va'inai, 320 -->
+<indexterm><primary>va'inai</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ke'unai</quote>is
+<!-- ^^ ke'unai, 320 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ke'unai</primary></indexterm>
<quote>furthermore</quote>.</para>
<para>The discursive
<quote>da'i</quote>marks the discourse as possibly taking a non-real-world viewpoint (
+<!-- ^^ da'i, 319 -->
+<indexterm><primary>da'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>Supposing that</quote>,
<quote>By hypothesis</quote>), whereas
<quote>da'inai</quote>insists on the real-world point of view (
<quote>In fact</quote>,
<quote>In truth</quote>,
<quote>According to the facts</quote>). A common use of
<quote>da'i</quote>is to distinguish between:</para>
+<!-- ^^ da'i, 319 -->
+<indexterm><primary>da'i</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-v6BU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e12d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section12-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ganai da'i do viska le mi citno mensi gi ju'o do djuno</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ju'o, 319 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ju'o</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ da'i, 319 -->
+<indexterm><primary>da'i</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>le du'u ri pazvau</gloss>
<gloss>If you [hypothetical] see my young sister, then [certain] you know that</gloss>
<gloss>she is-pregnant.</gloss>
<en>If you were to see my younger sister, you would certainly know she is pregnant.</en>
+<!-- ^^ younger: example, 292 -->
+<indexterm><primary>younger</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Sach">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e12d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section12-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ganai da'inai do viska le mi citno mensi gi ju'o do djuno</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ju'o, 319 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ju'o</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>le du'u ri pazvau</gloss>
<gloss>If you [factual] see my young sister, then [certainty] you know that</gloss>
<gloss>she is-pregnant.</gloss>
<en>If you saw my younger sister, you would certainly know she is pregnant.</en>
+<!-- ^^ younger: example, 292 -->
+<indexterm><primary>younger</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>It is also perfectly correct to omit the discursive altogether, and leave the context to indicate which significance is meant. (Chinese always leaves this distinction to the context: the Chinese sentence</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-rxfh">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e12d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section12-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ru</jbo>
@@ -1498,27 +2196,43 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section12-example6" />.)</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter13-section13">
<title>13. Miscellaneous indicators</title>
<para>Some indicators do not fall neatly into the categories of attitudinal, evidential, or discursive. This section discusses the following miscellaneous indicators:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ki'a metalinguistic confusion
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
na'i metalinguistic negator
jo'a metalinguistic affirmer
+<!-- ^^ jo'a, 321 -->
+<indexterm><primary>jo'a</primary></indexterm>
li'o omitted text (quoted material)
+<!-- ^^ li'o, 321 -->
+<indexterm><primary>li'o</primary></indexterm>
sa'a material inserted by editor/narrator
+<!-- ^^ sa'a, 321, 481; editorial insertion of text already containing sa'a, 321; interaction with li'o, 321; interaction with sei, 321; interaction with to'i, 321 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sa'a</primary></indexterm>
xu true-false question
pau question premarker rhetorical question
+<!-- ^^ rhetorical question, 322 -->
+<indexterm><primary>rhetorical question</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ pau, 322; placement in sentence, 322 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pau</primary></indexterm>
pe'a figurative language literal language
+<!-- ^^ pe'a, 322 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pe'a</primary></indexterm>
bi'u new information old information
+<!-- ^^ bi'u, 322 -->
+<indexterm><primary>bi'u</primary></indexterm>
ge'e non-specific indicator
+<!-- ^^ ge'e, 311, 322 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ge'e</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>ki'a</quote>is one of the most common of the miscellaneous indicators. It expresses metalinguistic confusion; i.e. confusion about what has been said, as opposed to confusion not tied to the discourse (which is
<quote>.uanai</quote>). The confusion may be about the meaning of a word or of a grammatical construct, or about the referent of a sumti. One of the uses of English
<quote>which</quote>corresponds to
<quote>ki'a</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-gWFX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e13d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section13-example1" />
@@ -1526,340 +2240,500 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci le ctuca</jbo>
<gloss>.i le ki'a ctuca</gloss>
<gloss>I like the teacher</gloss>
<en>Which teacher?</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here, the second speaker does not understand the referent of the sumti
<quote>le ctuca</quote>, and so echoes back the sumti with the confusion marker.</para>
<para>The metalinguistic negation cmavo
+<!-- ^^ negation cmavo: position relative to selbri, 104 -->
+<indexterm><primary>negation cmavo</primary></indexterm>
<quote>na'i</quote>and its opposite
<quote>jo'a</quote>are explained in full in
+<!-- ^^ jo'a, 321 -->
+<indexterm><primary>jo'a</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15" />. In general,
<quote>na'i</quote>indicates that there is something wrong with a piece of discourse: either an error, or a false underlying assumption, or something else of the sort. The discourse is invalid or inappropriate due to the marked word or construct.</para>
<para>Similarly,
<quote>jo'a</quote>marks something which looks wrong but is in fact correct. These two cmavo constitute a scale, but are kept apart for two reasons:
+<!-- ^^ jo'a, 321 -->
+<indexterm><primary>jo'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>na'inai</quote>means the same as
<quote>jo'a</quote>, but would be too confusing as an affirmation;
+<!-- ^^ jo'a, 321 -->
+<indexterm><primary>jo'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>jo'anai</quote>means the same as
<quote>na'i</quote>, but is too long to serve as a convenient metalinguistic negator.</para>
+<!-- ^^ too long: example, 233; Example, 230 -->
+<indexterm><primary>too long</primary></indexterm>
<para>The next two cmavo are used to assist in quoting texts written or spoken by others. It is often the case that we wish to quote only part of a text, or to supply additional material either by way of commentary or to make a fragmentary text grammatical. The cmavo
+<!-- ^^ fragmentary text, 321 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fragmentary text</primary></indexterm>
<quote>li'o</quote>serves the former function. It indicates that words were omitted from the quotation. What remains of the quotation must be grammatical, however, as
+<!-- ^^ li'o, 321 -->
+<indexterm><primary>li'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>li'o</quote>does not serve any grammatical function. It cannot, for example, take the place of a missing selbri in a bridi, or supply the missing tail of a description sumti:
+<!-- ^^ li'o, 321 -->
+<indexterm><primary>li'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>le li'o</quote>in isolation is not grammatical.</para>
+<!-- ^^ li'o, 321 -->
+<indexterm><primary>li'o</primary></indexterm>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>sa'a</quote>indicates in a quotation that the marked word or construct was not actually expressed, but is inserted for editorial, narrative, or grammatical purposes. Strictly, even a
+<!-- ^^ sa'a, 321, 481; editorial insertion of text already containing sa'a, 321; interaction with li'o, 321; interaction with sei, 321; interaction with to'i, 321 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sa'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>li'o</quote>should appear in the form
+<!-- ^^ li'o, 321 -->
+<indexterm><primary>li'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>li'osa'a</quote>, since the
<quote>li'o</quote>was not part of the original quotation. In practice, this and other forms which are already associated with metalinguistic expressions, such as
+<!-- ^^ li'o, 321 -->
+<indexterm><primary>li'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>sei</quote>(of selma'o SEI) or
<quote>to'i</quote>(of selma'o TO) need not be marked except where confusion might result.</para>
<para>In the rare case that the quoted material already contains one or more instances of
<quote>sa'a</quote>, they can be changed to
+<!-- ^^ sa'a, 321, 481; editorial insertion of text already containing sa'a, 321; interaction with li'o, 321; interaction with sei, 321; interaction with to'i, 321 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sa'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>sa'asa'a</quote>.</para>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>xu</quote>marks truth questions, which are discussed in detail in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15" />. In general,
<quote>xu</quote>may be translated
<quote>Is it true that ... ?</quote>and questions whether the attached bridi is true. When
<quote>xu</quote>is attached to a specific word or construct, it directs the focus of the question to that word or construct.</para>
<para>Lojban question words, unlike those of English, frequently do not stand at the beginning of the question. Placing the cmavo
<quote>pau</quote>at the beginning of a bridi helps the listener realize that the bridi is a question, like the symbol at the beginning of written Spanish questions that looks like an upside-down question mark. The listener is then warned to watch for the actual question word.</para>
+<!-- ^^ pau, 322; placement in sentence, 322 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pau</primary></indexterm>
<para>Although
<quote>pau</quote>is grammatical in any location (like all indicators), it is not really useful except at or near the beginning of a bridi. Its scalar opposite,
+<!-- ^^ pau, 322; placement in sentence, 322 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pau</primary></indexterm>
<quote>paunai</quote>, signals that a bridi is not really a question despite its form. This is what we call in English a rhetorical question: an example appears in the English text near the beginning of
+<!-- ^^ rhetorical question, 322 -->
+<indexterm><primary>rhetorical question</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ paunai, 322 -->
+<indexterm><primary>paunai</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section11" />.</para>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>pe'a</quote>is the indicator of figurative speech, indicating that the previous word should be taken figuratively rather than literally:</para>
+<!-- ^^ pe'a, 322 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pe'a</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ figurative speech, 322 -->
+<indexterm><primary>figurative speech</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-rXiR">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e13d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section13-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska le blanu pe'a zdani</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ pe'a, 322 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pe'a</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I see the blue [figurative] house.</gloss>
<en>I see the
<quote>blue</quote>house.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the house is not blue in the sense of color, but in some other sense, whose meaning is entirely culturally dependent. The use of
<quote>pe'a</quote>unambiguously marks a cultural reference:
+<!-- ^^ pe'a, 322 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pe'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>blanu</quote>in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section13-example2" />could mean
<quote>sad</quote>(as in English) or something completely different.</para>
<para>The negated form,
<quote>pe'anai</quote>, indicates that what has been said is to be interpreted literally, in the usual way for Lojban; natural-language intuition is to be ignored.</para>
+<!-- ^^ pe'anai, 322 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pe'anai</primary></indexterm>
<para>Alone among the cmavo of selma'o UI,
<quote>pe'a</quote>has a rafsi, namely
+<!-- ^^ pe'a, 322 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pe'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>pev</quote>. This rafsi is used in forming figurative (culturally dependent) lujvo, whose place structure need have nothing to do with the place structure of the components. Thus
<quote>risnyjelca</quote>(heart burn) might have a place structure like:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
x1 is the heart of x2, burning in atmosphere x3 at temperature x4
</programlisting>
<para>whereas
<quote>pevrisnyjelca</quote>, explicitly marked as figurative, might have the place structure:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
x1 is indigestion/heartburn suffered by x2
+<!-- ^^ heartburn: example, 322 -->
+<indexterm><primary>heartburn</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>which obviously has nothing to do with the places of either
<quote>risna</quote>or
<quote>jelca</quote>.</para>
<para>The uses of
<quote>bi'u</quote>and
+<!-- ^^ bi'u, 322 -->
+<indexterm><primary>bi'u</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bi'unai</quote>correspond to one of the uses of the English articles
+<!-- ^^ bi'unai, 322 -->
+<indexterm><primary>bi'unai</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ articles: cmavo as Lojban equivalents, 50 -->
+<indexterm><primary>articles</primary></indexterm>
<quote>the</quote>and
<quote>a/an</quote>. An English-speaker telling a story may begin with
<quote>I saw a man who ...</quote>. Later in the story, the same man will be referred to with the phrase
<quote>the man</quote>. Lojban does not use its articles in the same way: both
+<!-- ^^ articles: cmavo as Lojban equivalents, 50 -->
+<indexterm><primary>articles</primary></indexterm>
<quote>a man</quote>and
<quote>the man</quote>would be translated
<quote>le nanmu</quote>, since the speaker has in mind a specific man. However, the first use might be marked
<quote>le bi'u nanmu</quote>, to indicate that this is a new man, not mentioned before. Later uses could correspondingly be tagged
+<!-- ^^ bi'u, 322 -->
+<indexterm><primary>bi'u</primary></indexterm>
<quote>le bi'unai nanmu</quote>.</para>
+<!-- ^^ bi'unai, 322 -->
+<indexterm><primary>bi'unai</primary></indexterm>
<para>Most of the time, the distinction between
<quote>bi'u</quote>and
+<!-- ^^ bi'u, 322 -->
+<indexterm><primary>bi'u</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bi'unai</quote>need not be made, as the listener can infer the right referent. However, if a different man were referred to still later in the story,
+<!-- ^^ bi'unai, 322 -->
+<indexterm><primary>bi'unai</primary></indexterm>
<quote>le bi'u nanmu</quote>would clearly show that this man was different from the previous one.</para>
+<!-- ^^ bi'u, 322 -->
+<indexterm><primary>bi'u</primary></indexterm>
<para>Finally, the indicator
<quote>ge'e</quote>has been discussed in
+<!-- ^^ ge'e, 311, 322 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ge'e</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section8" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section10" />. It is used to express an attitude which is not covered by the existing set, or to avoid expressing any attitude.</para>
<para>Another use for
<quote>ge'e</quote>is to explicitly avoid expressing one's feeling on a given scale; in this use, it functions like a member of selma'o CAI:
+<!-- ^^ ge'e, 311, 322 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ge'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>.iige'e</quote>means roughly
<quote>I'm not telling whether I'm afraid or not.</quote></para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
kau indirect question
+<!-- ^^ kau, 264, 323; ma kau, contrasted with la djan. kau, 264 -->
+<indexterm><primary>kau</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ indirect question, 323 -->
+<indexterm><primary>indirect question</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>This cmavo is explained in detail in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11" />. It marks the word it is attached to as the focus of an indirect question:</para>
+<!-- ^^ indirect question, 323 -->
+<indexterm><primary>indirect question</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-umCQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e13d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section13-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi djuno le du'u dakau klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I know the statement-that somebody [indirect ?] goes to-the store.</gloss>
<en>I know who goes to the store.</en>
+<!-- ^^ know who: contrasted with know that, 264; example, 264 -->
+<indexterm><primary>know who</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter13-section14">
<title>14. Vocative scales</title>
<para>
<quote>Vocatives</quote>are words used to address someone directly; they precede and mark a name used in direct address, just as
+<!-- ^^ direct address, 323 -->
+<indexterm><primary>direct address</primary></indexterm>
<quote>la</quote>(and the other members of selma'o LA) mark a name used to refer to someone. The vocatives actually are indicators - in fact, discursives - but the need to tie them to names and other descriptions of listeners requires them to be separated from selma'o UI. But like the cmavo of UI, the members of selma'o COI can be
<quote>negated</quote>with
<quote>nai</quote>to get the opposite part of the scale.</para>
<para>Because of the need for redundancy in noisy environments, the Lojban design does not compress the vocatives into a minimum number of scales. Doing so would make a non-redundant
+<!-- ^^ redundancy: effect on vocative design, 323 -->
+<indexterm><primary>redundancy</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ noisy environments: proposed lerfu words for, 429 -->
+<indexterm><primary>noisy environments</primary></indexterm>
<quote>nai</quote>too often vital to interpretation of a protocol signal, as explained later in this section.</para>
+<!-- ^^ protocol: computer communications using COI, 326; parliamentary using COI, 326; using vocatives, 326 -->
+<indexterm><primary>protocol</primary></indexterm>
<para>The grammar of vocatives is explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6" />; but in brief, a vocative may be followed by a name (without
<quote>la</quote>), a description (without
<quote>le</quote>or its relatives), a complete sumti, or nothing at all (if the addressee is obvious from the context). There is an elidable terminator,
<quote>do'u</quote>(of selma'o DOhU) which is almost never required unless no name (or other indication of the addressee) follows the vocative.</para>
+<!-- ^^ do'u, 137, 323 -->
+<indexterm><primary>do'u</primary></indexterm>
<para>Using any vocative except
<quote>mi'e</quote>(explained below) implicitly defines the meaning of the pro-sumti
<quote>do</quote>, as the whole point of vocatives is to specify the listener, or at any rate the desired listener - even if the desired listener isn't listening! We will use the terms
<quote>speaker</quote>and
<quote>listener</quote>for clarity, although in written Lojban the appropriate terms would be
<quote>writer</quote>and
<quote>reader</quote>.</para>
<para>In the following list of vocatives, the translations include the symbol X. This represents the name (or identifying description, or whatever) of the listener.</para>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>doi</quote>is the general-purpose vocative. Unlike the cmavo of selma'o COI, explained below,
<quote>doi</quote>can precede a name directly without an intervening pause. It is not considered a scale, and
<quote>doinai</quote>is not grammatical. In general,
<quote>doi</quote>needs no translation in English (we just use names by themselves without any preceding word, although in poetic styles we sometimes say
<quote>Oh X</quote>, which is equivalent to
<quote>doi</quote>). One may attach an attitudinal to
<quote>doi</quote>to express various English vocatives. For example,
<quote>doi .io</quote>means
<quote>Sir/Madam!</quote>, whereas
<quote>doi .ionai</quote>means
+<!-- ^^ ionai, 301 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ionai</primary></indexterm>
<quote>You there!</quote>.</para>
<para>All members of selma'o COI require a pause when used immediately before a name, in order to prevent the name from absorbing the COI word. This is unlike selma'o DOI and LA, which do not require pauses because the syllables of these cmavo are not permitted to be embedded in a Lojban name. When calling out to someone, this is fairly natural, anyway.
<quote>Hey! John!</quote>is thus a better translation of
<quote>ju'i .djan.</quote>than
+<!-- ^^ ju'i, 324 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ju'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>Hey John!</quote>. No pause is needed if the vocative reference is something other than a name, as in the title of the Lojban journal,
<quote>ju'i lobypli</quote>.</para>
+<!-- ^^ ju'i, 324 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ju'i</primary></indexterm>
<para>(Alternatively,
<quote>doi</quote>can be inserted between the COI cmavo and the name, making a pause unnecessary:
<quote>coi doi djan.</quote>)</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
coi greetings
</programlisting>
<para>
<quote>Hello, X</quote>;
<quote>Greetings, X</quote>; indicates a greeting to the listener.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
co'o partings
</programlisting>
<para>
<quote>Good-bye, X</quote>; indicates parting from immediate company by either the speaker or the listener.
<quote>coico'o</quote>means
<quote>greeting in passing</quote>.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ju'i [jundi] attention at ease ignore me/us
+<!-- ^^ ju'i, 324 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ju'i</primary></indexterm>
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
</programlisting>
<para>
<quote>Attention/Lo/Hark/Behold/Hey!/Listen, X</quote>; indicates an important communication that the listener should listen to.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
nu'e [nupre] promise release promise non-promise
+<!-- ^^ nu'e, 324 -->
+<indexterm><primary>nu'e</primary></indexterm>
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
</programlisting>
<para>
<quote>I promise, X</quote>; indicates a promise to the listener. In some contexts,
<quote>nu'e</quote>may be prefixed to an oath or other formal declaration.</para>
+<!-- ^^ nu'e, 324 -->
+<indexterm><primary>nu'e</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ta'a [tavla] interruption
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
</programlisting>
<para>
<quote>I interrupt, X</quote>,
<quote>I desire the floor, X</quote>; a vocative expression to (possibly) interrupt and claim the floor to make a statement or expression. This can be used for both rude and polite interruptions, although rude interruptions will probably tend not to use a vocative at all. An appropriate response to an interruption might be
<quote>re'i</quote>(or
+<!-- ^^ re'i, 325 -->
+<indexterm><primary>re'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>re'inai</quote>to ignore the interruption).</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
pe'u [cpedu] request
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
</programlisting>
<para>
<quote>Please, X</quote>; indicates a request to the listener. It is a formal, non-attitudinal, equivalent of
<quote>.e'o</quote>with a specific recipient being addressed. On the other hand,
+<!-- ^^ e'o, 303; contrasted with pe'u, 324 -->
+<indexterm><primary>e'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>.e'o</quote>may be used when there is no specific listener, but merely a
+<!-- ^^ e'o, 303; contrasted with pe'u, 324 -->
+<indexterm><primary>e'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>sense of petition floating in the air</quote>, as it were.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ki'e [ckire] appreciation disappreciation
+<!-- ^^ ki'e, 324 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ki'e</primary></indexterm>
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
gratitude ingratitude
</programlisting>
<para>
<quote>Thank you, X</quote>; indicates appreciation or gratitude toward the listener. The usual response is
<quote>je'e</quote>, but
+<!-- ^^ je'e, 324, 325; contrasted with vi'o, 325 -->
+<indexterm><primary>je'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>fi'i</quote>is appropriate on rare occasions: see the explanation of
+<!-- ^^ fi'i, 324 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fi'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>fi'i</quote>.</para>
+<!-- ^^ fi'i, 324 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fi'i</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
fi'i [friti] welcome, unwelcome,
+<!-- ^^ fi'i, 324 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fi'i</primary></indexterm>
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
offering inhospitality
</programlisting>
<para>
<quote>At your service, X</quote>;
<quote>Make yourself at home, X</quote>; offers hospitality (possibly in response to thanks, but not necessarily) to the listener. Note that
+<!-- ^^ hospitality: example, 324 -->
+<indexterm><primary>hospitality</primary></indexterm>
<quote>fi'i</quote>is
+<!-- ^^ fi'i, 324 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fi'i</primary></indexterm>
<emphasis>not</emphasis>the equivalent of American English
<quote>You're welcome</quote>as a mechanical response to
<quote>Thank you</quote>; that is
<quote>je'e</quote>, as noted below.</para>
+<!-- ^^ je'e, 324, 325; contrasted with vi'o, 325 -->
+<indexterm><primary>je'e</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
be'e [benji] request to send
+<!-- ^^ be'e, 324 -->
+<indexterm><primary>be'e</primary></indexterm>
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
</programlisting>
<para>
<quote>Request to send to X</quote>; indicates that the speaker wishes to express something, and wishes to ensure that the listener is listening. In a telephone conversation, can be used to request the desired conversant(s). A more colloquial equivalent is
+<!-- ^^ telephone conversation: hello, 324 -->
+<indexterm><primary>telephone conversation</primary></indexterm>
<quote>Hello? Can I speak to X?</quote>.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
re'i [bredi] ready to receive not ready
+<!-- ^^ re'i, 325 -->
+<indexterm><primary>re'i</primary></indexterm>
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
</programlisting>
<para>
<quote>Ready to receive, X</quote>; indicates that the speaker is attentive and awaiting communication from the listener. It can be used instead of
<quote>mi'e</quote>to respond when called to the telephone. The negative form can be used to prevent the listener from continuing to talk when the speaker is unable to pay attention: it can be translated
<quote>Hold on!</quote>or
<quote>Just a minute</quote>.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mu'o [mulno] completion of utterance more to follow
+<!-- ^^ mu'o, 325 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mu'o</primary></indexterm>
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
</programlisting>
<para>
<quote>Over, X</quote>; indicates that the speaker has completed the current utterance and is ready to hear a response from the listener. The negative form signals that the pause or non-linguistic sound which follows does not represent the end of the current utterance: more colloquially,
<quote>I'm not done talking!</quote></para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
je'e [jimpe] successful receipt unsuccessful receipt
+<!-- ^^ je'e, 324, 325; contrasted with vi'o, 325 -->
+<indexterm><primary>je'e</primary></indexterm>
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
</programlisting>
<para>
<quote>Roger, X!</quote>,
<quote>I understand</quote>; acknowledges the successful receipt of a communication from the listener. The negative form indicates failure to receive correctly, and is usually followed by
<quote>ke'o</quote>. The colloquial English equivalents of
+<!-- ^^ ke'o, 325; compared to ki'a, 325 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ke'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>je'e</quote>and
+<!-- ^^ je'e, 324, 325; contrasted with vi'o, 325 -->
+<indexterm><primary>je'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>je'enai</quote>are the grunt typically written
<quote>uh-huh</quote>and
<quote>What?/Excuse me?</quote>.
<quote>je'e</quote>is also used to mean
+<!-- ^^ je'e, 324, 325; contrasted with vi'o, 325 -->
+<indexterm><primary>je'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>You're welcome</quote>when that is a response to
<quote>Thank you</quote>.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
vi'o will comply will not comply
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
</programlisting>
<para>
<quote>Wilco, X</quote>,
<quote>I understand and will comply</quote>. Similar to
<quote>je'e</quote>but signals an intention (similar to
+<!-- ^^ je'e, 324, 325; contrasted with vi'o, 325 -->
+<indexterm><primary>je'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>.ai</quote>) to comply with the other speaker's request. This cmavo is the main way of saying
<quote>OK</quote>in Lojban, in the usual sense of
<quote>Agreed!</quote>, although
<quote>.ie</quote>carries some of the same meaning. The negative form indicates that the message was received but that you will not comply: a very colloquial version is
<quote>No way!</quote>.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ke'o [krefu] please repeat no repeat needed
+<!-- ^^ ke'o, 325; compared to ki'a, 325 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ke'o</primary></indexterm>
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
</programlisting>
<para>
<quote>What did you say, X?</quote>; a request for repetition or clarification due to unsuccessful receipt or understanding. This is the vocative equivalent of
<quote>ki'a</quote>, and is related to
<quote>je'enai</quote>. The negative form may be rendered
<quote>Okay, already; I get the point!</quote></para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
fe'o [fanmo] end of communication not done
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
</programlisting>
<para>
<quote>Over and out, X</quote>; indicates completion of statement(s) and communication directed at the identified person(s). Used to terminate a letter if a signature is not required because the sender has already been identified (as in memos). The negative form means
<quote>Wait, hold it, we're not done!</quote>and differs from
<quote>mu'onai</quote>in that it means more exchanges are to follow, rather than that the current exchange is incomplete.</para>
<para>Do not confuse
<quote>fe'o</quote>with
<quote>fa'o</quote>(selma'o FAhO) which is a mechanical, extra-grammatical signal that a text is complete. One may say
+<!-- ^^ fa'o, 416, 484; contrasted with fe'o, 325; interaction with bu, 416 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fa'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>fe'o</quote>to one participant of a multi-way conversation and then go on speaking to the others.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi'e [cmavo: mi] self-identification non-identification
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
</programlisting>
<para>
<quote>And I am X</quote>; a generalized self-vocative. Although grammatically just like the other members of selma'o COI,
<quote>mi'e</quote>is quite different semantically. In particular, rather than specifying the listener, the person whose name (or description) follows
<quote>mi'e</quote>is taken to be the speaker. Therefore, using
<quote>mi'e</quote>specifies the meaning of the pro-sumti
<quote>mi</quote>. It can be used to introduce oneself, to close letters, or to identify oneself on the telephone.</para>
+<!-- ^^ introduce oneself, 325 -->
+<indexterm><primary>introduce oneself</primary></indexterm>
<para>This cmavo is often combined with other members of COI:
<quote>fe'omi'e</quote>would be an appropriate closing at the end of a letter;
+<!-- ^^ fe'omi'e, 325 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fe'omi'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>re'imi'e</quote>would be a self-vocative used in delayed responses, as when called to the phone, or possibly in a roll-call. As long as the
+<!-- ^^ re'imi'e, 325 -->
+<indexterm><primary>re'imi'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>mi'e</quote>comes last, the following name is that of the speaker; if another COI cmavo is last, the following name is that of the listener. It is not possible to name both speaker and listener in a single vocative expression, but this fact is of no importance, because wherever one vocative expression is grammatical, any number of consecutive ones may appear.</para>
<para>The negative form denies an identity which someone else has attributed to you;
<quote>mi'enai .djan.</quote>means that you are saying you are not John.</para>
+<!-- ^^ mi'enai, 326 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mi'enai</primary></indexterm>
<para>Many of the vocatives have been listed with translations which are drawn from radio use:
<quote>roger</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ roger: example, 325 -->
+<indexterm><primary>roger</primary></indexterm>
<quote>wilco</quote>,
<quote>over and out</quote>. This form of translation does not mean that Lojban is a language of CB enthusiasts, but rather that in most natural languages these forms are so well handled by the context that only in specific domains (like speaking on the radio) do they need special words. In Lojban, dependence on the context can be dangerous, as speaker and listener may not share the right context, and so the vocatives provide a formal protocol for use when it is appropriate. Other appropriate contexts include computer communications and parliamentary procedure: in the latter context, the protocol question
+<!-- ^^ protocol: computer communications using COI, 326; parliamentary using COI, 326; using vocatives, 326 -->
+<indexterm><primary>protocol</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ta'apei</quote>would mean
+<!-- ^^ ta'apei, 326 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ta'apei</primary></indexterm>
<quote>Will the speaker yield?</quote></para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter13-section15">
<title>15. A sample dialogue</title>
<para>The following dialogue in Lojban illustrates the uses of attitudinals and protocol vocatives in conversation. The phrases enclosed in
+<!-- ^^ protocol: computer communications using COI, 326; parliamentary using COI, 326; using vocatives, 326 -->
+<indexterm><primary>protocol</primary></indexterm>
<quote>sei ... se'u</quote>indicate the speaker of each sentence.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-RFU7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e15d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section15-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e15d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section15-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e15d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter13-section15-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c13e15d4" />
@@ -1905,114 +2779,162 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la rik. .e la .alis. nerkla le kafybarja</jbo>
<gloss>Rick and Alice in-go to-the coffee-bar.</gloss>
<en>Rick and Alice go into the coffee bar.</en>
<jbo>.i sei la rik. cusku se'u ta'a ro zvati be ti mi baza speni ti .iu</jbo>
<gloss>[Comment] Rick says, [end-comment] [Interrupt] all at this-place, I [future] [medium] am-spouse-to this-one [love].</gloss>
<en>Rick said,
<quote>Sorry to break in, everybody. Pretty soon I'm getting married to my love here.</quote></en>
<jbo>.i sei la djordj. cusku se'u .a'o ko gleki doi ma</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ a'o, 297, 302 -->
+<indexterm><primary>a'o</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>[Comment] George says, [end-comment] [Hope] [You-imperative] are-happy, O [who?].</gloss>
<en>George said,
<quote>I hope you'll be happy, um, ...?</quote></en>
<jbo>.i sei la pam. cusku se'u pe'u .alis. xu mi ba terfriti le nunspenybi'o</jbo>
<gloss>[Comment] Pam says, [end-comment] [Please] Alice, [Is it true?] I [future] receive-offer-of the event-of-spouse-becoming?</gloss>
<en>Pam said,
<quote>Please, Alice, am I going to be invited to the wedding?</quote></en>
<jbo>.i sei la mark. cusku se'u coi baza speni a'o le re do lifri le ka gleki</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ a'o, 297, 302 -->
+<indexterm><primary>a'o</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>[Comment] Mark says, [end-comment] [Greetings] [future] [medium] spouse(s), [Hope] the two of-you experience the-property-of being-happy</gloss>
<en>Mark said,
<quote>Hello, spouses-to-be. I hope both of you will be very happy.</quote></en>
<jbo>.i sei la rik. cusku se'u mi'e .rik. doi terpreti</jbo>
<gloss>[Comment] Rick says, [end-comment] [I am] Rick, O questioners.</gloss>
<en>Rick said,
<quote>My name is Rick, for those of you who want to know.</quote></en>
<jbo>.i sei la .alis. cusku se'u nu'e .pam. .o'ero'i do ba zvati</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ nu'e, 324 -->
+<indexterm><primary>nu'e</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>[Comment] Alice says, [end-comment] [Promise-to] Pam, [closeness] [emotional] you [future] are-at.</gloss>
<en>Alice said,
<quote>I promise you'll be there, Pam honey.</quote></en>
<jbo>.i sei la fred. cusku se'u .uinaicairo'i mi ji'a prami la .alis. fe'o .rik.</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ji'a, 317 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ji'a</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>[Comment] Fred says, [end-comment] [Happy] [not] [emphatic] [emotional] I [additionally] love Alice. [Over and out to] Rick.</gloss>
<en>
<quote>I love Alice too,</quote>said Fred miserably.
<quote>Have a nice life, Rick.</quote></en>
<jbo>.i la fred. cliva</jbo>
<gloss>Fred leaves.</gloss>
<en>And he left.</en>
<jbo>.i sei la rik. cusku se'u fi'i ro zvati ko pinxe pa ckafi fi'o pleji mi</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ fi'i, 324 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fi'i</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>[Comment] Rick says, [end-comment] [Welcome-to] all at-place, [You-imperative] drink one coffee with-payer me.</gloss>
<en>Rick said, raising his voice,
<quote>A cup of coffee for the house, on me.</quote></en>
<jbo>.i sei la pam. cusku se'u be'e selfu</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ be'e, 324 -->
+<indexterm><primary>be'e</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>[Comment] Pam says, [end-comment] [Request to speak to] server.</gloss>
<en>Pam said,
<quote>Waiter!</quote></en>
<jbo>.i sei le selfu cu cusku se'u re'i [end-comment]</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ re'i, 325 -->
+<indexterm><primary>re'i</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>[Comment] The server says, [Ready to receive].</gloss>
<en>The waiter replied,
<quote>May I help you?</quote></en>
<jbo>.i sei la pam. cusku se'u .e'o ko selfu le traji xamgu ckafi le baza speni fi'o pleji mi</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ e'o, 303; contrasted with pe'u, 324 -->
+<indexterm><primary>e'o</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>[Comment] Pam says, [end-comment] [Petition] [You-imperative] serve the (superlatively good) coffee to-the [future] [medium] spouse with-payer me.</gloss>
<en>Pam said,
<quote>One Jamaica Blue for the lovebirds here, on my tab.</quote></en>
<jbo>.i sei le selfu cu cusku se'u vi'o</jbo>
<gloss>[Comment] The server says, [end-comment] [Will comply].</gloss>
<en>
<quote>Gotcha</quote>, said the waiter.</en>
<jbo>.i sei la rik. cusku se'u ki'e .pam.</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ki'e, 324 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ki'e</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>[Comment] Rick says, [end-comment] [Thanks O] Pam.</gloss>
<en>
<quote>Thanks, Pam</quote>, said Rick.</en>
<jbo>.i sei la pam. cusku se'u je'e</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ je'e, 324, 325; contrasted with vi'o, 325 -->
+<indexterm><primary>je'e</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>[Comment] Pam says, [end-comment] [Acknowledge].</gloss>
<en>
<quote>Sure</quote>, said Pam.</en>
<jbo>.i sei la djan. cusku se'u .y. mi .y. mutce spopa .y. le nu le speni si .y. ba speni .y. .y. su .yyyyyy. mu'o</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ mu'o, 325 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mu'o</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>[Comment] John says, [end-comment] [Uh] I [uh] very [nonexistent gismu] [uh] the event-of the spouse [erase] [uh] [future] spouse [uh] [uh] [erase all] [uh] [over]</gloss>
<en>John said,
<quote>I, er, a lotta, uh, marriage, upcoming marriage, .... Oh, forget it. Er, later.</quote></en>
<jbo>.i sei la djordj. cusku se'u ke'o .djan. zo'o</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ zo'o, 318, 319 -->
+<indexterm><primary>zo'o</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ ke'o, 325; compared to ki'a, 325 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ke'o</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>[Comment] George says, [end-comment] [Repeat O] John [humor].</gloss>
<en>
<quote>How's that again, John?</quote>said George.</en>
<jbo>.i sei la pam. cusku se'u ju'i .djordj. .e'unai le kabri bazi farlu</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ju'i, 324 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ju'i</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>[Comment] Pam says, [end-comment] [Attention] George, [Warning] the cup [future] [short] falls</gloss>
<en>
<quote>George, watch out!</quote>said Pam.
<quote>The cup's falling!</quote></en>
<jbo>.i le kabri cu je'a farlu</jbo>
<gloss>The cup indeed falls.</gloss>
<en>The cup fell.</en>
<jbo>.i sei la djan. cusku se'u e'o doi djordj. zo'o rapygau</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ zo'o, 318, 319 -->
+<indexterm><primary>zo'o</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ e'o, 303; contrasted with pe'u, 324 -->
+<indexterm><primary>e'o</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>[Comment] John says, [end-comment] [Petition] O George [humor] repeat-cause.</gloss>
<en>John said,
<quote>Try that again, George!</quote></en>
<jbo>.i sei la djordj. cusku se'u co'o ro zvati pe secau la djan. ga'i</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ga'i, 308 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ga'i</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>[Comment] George says, [end-comment] [Partings] all at-place without John [superiority]</gloss>
<en>
<quote>Goodbye to all of you,</quote>said George sneeringly,
<quote>except John.</quote></en>
<jbo>.i la djordj. cliva</jbo>
<gloss>George leaves.</gloss>
<en>George left.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter13-section16">
<title>16. Tentative conclusion</title>
<para>The exact ramifications of the indicator system in actual usage are unknown. There has never been anything like it in natural language before. The system provides great potential for emotional expression and transcription, from which significant Sapir-Whorf effects can be anticipated. When communicating across cultural boundaries, where different indicators are often used for the same emotion, accidental offense can be avoided. If we ever ran into an alien race, a culturally neutral language of emotion could be vital. (A classic example, taken from the science fiction of Larry Niven, is to imagine speaking Lojban to the carnivorous warriors called Kzinti, noting that a human smile bares the teeth, and could be seen as an intent to attack.) And for communicating emotions to computers, when we cannot identify all of the signals involved in subliminal human communication (things like body language are also cultural), a system like this is needed.</para>
+<!-- ^^ Sapir-Whorf effects: and emotional indicators, 329 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Sapir-Whorf effects</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ Kzinti: communication with, 329 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Kzinti</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ anticipated: example, 316 -->
+<indexterm><primary>anticipated</primary></indexterm>
<para>We have tried to err on the side of overkill. There are distinctions possible in this system that no one may care to make in any culture. But it was deemed more neutral to overspecify and let usage decide, than to choose a limited set and constrain emotional expression. For circumstances in which even the current indicator set is not enough, it is possible using the cmavo
<quote>sei</quote>, explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19" />, to create metalinguistic comments that act like indicators.</para>
<para>We envision an evolutionary development. At this point, the system is little more than a mental toy. Many of you who read this will try playing around with various combinations of indicators, trying to figure out what emotions they express and when the expressions might be useful. You may even find an expression for which there currently is no good English word and start using it. Why not, if it helps you express your feelings?</para>
+<!-- ^^ feelings: expression of contrasted with talking about, 298 -->
+<indexterm><primary>feelings</primary></indexterm>
<para>There will be a couple dozen of these used pretty much universally – mostly just simple attitudinals with, at most, intensity markers. These are the ones that will quickly be expressed at the subconscious level. But every Lojbanist who plays with the list will bring in a couple of new words. Poets will paint emotional pictures, and people who identify with those pictures will use the words so created for their own experiences.</para>
+<!-- ^^ pictures: captions to, 7; credits for, 6 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pictures</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ at most: contrasted with more than, at least, less than, 443; example, 443 -->
+<indexterm><primary>at most</primary></indexterm>
<para>Just as a library of tanru is built up, so will a library of attitudes be built. Unlike the tanru, though, the emotional expressions are built on some fairly nebulous root emotions - words that cannot be defined with the precision of the gismu. The emotion words of Lojban will very quickly take on a life of their own, and the outline given here will evolve into a true system of emotions.</para>
<para>There are several theories as to the nature of emotion, and they change from year to year as we learn more about ourselves. Whether or not Lojban's additive/scalar emotional model is an accurate model for human emotions, it does support the linguistic needs for expressing those emotions. Researchers may learn more about the nature of human emotions by exploring the use of the system by Lojban speakers. They also may be able to use the Lojban system as a means for more clearly recording emotions.</para>
<para>The full list of scales and attitudes will probably not be used until someone speaks the language from birth. Until then, people will use the attitudes that are important to them. In this way, we counter cultural bias - if a culture is prone to recognizing and/or expressing certain emotions more than others, its members will use only those out of the enormous set available. If a culture hides certain emotions, its members simply won't express them.</para>
<para>Perhaps native Lojban speakers will be more expressively clear about their emotions than others. Perhaps they will feel some emotions more strongly than others in ways that can be correlated with the word choices; any difference from the norms of other cultures could be significant. Psychologists have devised elaborate tests for measuring attitudes and personality; this may be the easiest area in which to detect any systematic cultural effect of the type sought to confirm Sapir-Whorf, simply because we already have tools in existence to test it. Because Lojban is unique among languages in having such extensive and expressive indicators, it is likely that a Sapir-Whorf effect will occur and will be recognized.</para>
<para>It is unlikely that we will know the true potential of a system like this one until and unless we have children raised entirely in a multi-cultural Lojban-speaking environment. We learn too many cultural habits in the realm of emotional communication
<quote>at our mother's knee</quote>. Such children will have a Lojban system that has stronger reinforcement than any typical culture system. The second generation of such children, then, could be said to be the start of a true Lojbanic culture.</para>
<para>We shouldn't need to wait that long to detect significant effects. Emotion is so basic to our lives that even a small change or improvement in emotional communication would have immediately noticeable effects. Perhaps it will be the case that the most important contribution of our
<quote>logical language</quote>will be in the non-logical realm of emotion!</para>
+<!-- ^^ logical language: truth functions, 333 -->
+<indexterm><primary>logical language</primary></indexterm>
</section>
</chapter>
diff --git a/todocbook/14.xml b/todocbook/14.xml
index 0db3f01..2e7de67 100644
--- a/todocbook/14.xml
+++ b/todocbook/14.xml
@@ -1,16 +1,22 @@
<chapter xml:id="cll_chapter14">
<title>Chapter 14 If Wishes Were Horses: The Lojban Connective System</title>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section1">
<title>1. Logical connection and truth tables</title>
+<!-- ^^ truth tables: abbreviated format, 334; for 4 fundamental Lojban truth functions, 335; list of 16 in abbreviated form, 334; notation convention, 334 -->
+<indexterm><primary>truth tables</primary></indexterm>
<para>Lojban is a logical language: the name of the language itself means
+<!-- ^^ logical language: truth functions, 333 -->
+<indexterm><primary>logical language</primary></indexterm>
<quote>logical language</quote>. The fundamentals of ordinary logic (there are variant logics, which aren't addressed in this book) include the notions of a
+<!-- ^^ logical language: truth functions, 333 -->
+<indexterm><primary>logical language</primary></indexterm>
<quote>sentence</quote>(sometimes called a
<quote>statement</quote>or
<quote>proposition</quote>), which asserts a truth or falsehood, and a small set of
<quote>truth functions</quote>, which combine two sentences to create a new sentence. The truth functions have the special characteristic that the truth value (that is, the truth or falsehood) of the results depends only on the truth value of the component sentences. For example,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-mJ6y">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e1d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section1-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -19,35 +25,41 @@
</example>
<para>is true if
<quote>John is a man</quote>is true, or if
<quote>James is a woman</quote>is true. If we know whether John is a man, and we know whether James is a woman, we know whether
<quote>John is a man or James is a woman</quote>is true, provided we know the meaning of
<quote>or</quote>. Here
<quote>John is a man</quote>and
<quote>James is a woman</quote>are the component sentences.</para>
<para>We will use the phrase
<quote>negating a sentence</quote>to mean changing its truth value. An English sentence may always be negated by prefixing
+<!-- ^^ negating a sentence: and truth value, 333 -->
+<indexterm><primary>negating a sentence</primary></indexterm>
<quote>It is false that ...</quote>, or more idiomatically by inserting
<quote>not</quote>at the right point, generally before the verb.
<quote>James is not a woman</quote>is the negation of
<quote>James is a woman</quote>, and vice versa. Recent slang can also negate a sentence by following it with the exclamation
<quote>Not!</quote></para>
<para>Words like
<quote>or</quote>are called
<quote>logical connectives</quote>, and Lojban has many of them, as befits a logical language. This chapter is mostly concerned with explaining the forms and uses of the Lojban logical connectives. There are a number of other logical connectives in English such as
+<!-- ^^ logical language: truth functions, 333 -->
+<indexterm><primary>logical language</primary></indexterm>
<quote>and</quote>,
<quote>and/or</quote>,
<quote>if</quote>,
<quote>only if</quote>,
<quote>whether or not</quote>, and others; however, not every use of these English words corresponds to a logical connective. This point will be made clear in particular cases as needed. The other English meanings are supported by different Lojban connective constructs.</para>
<para>The Lojban connectives form a system (as the title of this chapter suggests), regular and predictable, whereas natural-language connectives are rather less systematic and therefore less predictable.</para>
<para>There exist 16 possible different truth functions. A truth table is a graphical device for specifying a truth function, making it clear what the value of the truth function is for every possible value of the component sentences. Here is a truth table for
+<!-- ^^ truth table: explanation, 333 -->
+<indexterm><primary>truth table</primary></indexterm>
<quote>or</quote>:</para>
<informaltable>
<tgroup cols="3">
<colspec colnum="1" colname="col1" />
<colspec colnum="2" colname="col2" />
<colspec colnum="3" colname="col3" />
<thead>
<row>
<entry>first</entry>
<entry>second</entry>
@@ -77,36 +89,44 @@
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</informaltable>
<para>This table means that if the first sentence stated is true, and the second sentence stated is true, then the result of the truth function is also true. The same is true for every other possible combination of truth values except the one where both the first and the second sentences are false, in which case the truth value of the result is also false.</para>
<para>Suppose that
<quote>John is a man</quote>is true (and
<quote>John is not a man</quote>is false), and that
<quote>James is a woman</quote>is false (and
<quote>James is not a woman</quote>is true). Then the truth table tells us that</para>
+<!-- ^^ truth table: explanation, 333 -->
+<indexterm><primary>truth table</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<quote>John is a man, or James is not a woman</quote> (true true ) is true;
<quote>John is a man, or James is a woman</quote> (true , false) is true;
<quote>John is not a man, or James is not a woman</quote> (false, true ) is true;
<quote>John is not a man, or James is a woman</quote> (false, false) is false.
</programlisting>
<para>Note that the kind of
<quote>or</quote>used in this example can also be expressed (in formal English) with
<quote>and/or</quote>. There is a different truth table for the kind of
+<!-- ^^ truth table: explanation, 333 -->
+<indexterm><primary>truth table</primary></indexterm>
<quote>or</quote>that means
<quote>either ... or ... but not both</quote>.</para>
<para>To save space, we will write truth tables in a shorter format henceforth. Let the letters T and F stand for True and False. The rows will always be given in the order shown above: TT, TF, FT, FF for the two sentences. Then it is only necessary to give the four letters from the result column, which can be written TTTF, as can be seen by reading down the third column of the table above. So TTTF is the abbreviated truth table for the
+<!-- ^^ truth tables: abbreviated format, 334; for 4 fundamental Lojban truth functions, 335; list of 16 in abbreviated form, 334; notation convention, 334 -->
+<indexterm><primary>truth tables</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ truth table: explanation, 333 -->
+<indexterm><primary>truth table</primary></indexterm>
<quote>or</quote>truth function. Here are the 16 possible truth functions, with an English version of what it means to assert that each function is, in fact, true (
<quote>first</quote>refers to the first sentence, and
<quote>second</quote>to the second sentence):</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
TTTT (always true)
TTTF first is true and/or second is true.
TTFT first is true if second is true.
TTFF first is true whether or not second is true.
TFTT first is true only if second is true.
TFTF whether or not first is true, second is true.
@@ -116,28 +136,32 @@
FTTT first and second are not both true.
FTTF first or second is true, but not both.
FTFT whether or not first is true, second is false.
FTFF first is true, but second is false.
FFTT first is false whether or not second is true.
FFTF first is false, but second is true.
FFFT neither first nor second is true.
FFFF (always false)
</programlisting>
<para>Skeptics may work out the detailed truth tables for themselves.</para>
+<!-- ^^ truth tables: abbreviated format, 334; for 4 fundamental Lojban truth functions, 335; list of 16 in abbreviated form, 334; notation convention, 334 -->
+<indexterm><primary>truth tables</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section2">
<title>2. The Four basic vowels</title>
<para>Lojban regards four of these 16 truth functions as fundamental, and assigns them the four vowels
<phrase role="logical-vowel">A</phrase>,
<phrase role="logical-vowel">E</phrase>,
<phrase role="logical-vowel">O</phrase>, and
<phrase role="logical-vowel">U</phrase>. These letters do not represent actual cmavo or selma'o, but rather a component vowel from which actual logical-connective cmavo are built up, as explained in the next section. Here are the four vowels, their truth tables, and rough English equivalents:</para>
+<!-- ^^ truth tables: abbreviated format, 334; for 4 fundamental Lojban truth functions, 335; list of 16 in abbreviated form, 334; notation convention, 334 -->
+<indexterm><primary>truth tables</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<phrase role="logical-vowel">A</phrase> TTTF or, and/or
<phrase role="logical-vowel">E</phrase> TFFF and
<phrase role="logical-vowel">O</phrase> TFFT if and only if
<phrase role="logical-vowel">U</phrase> TTFF whether or not
</programlisting>
<para>More precisely:</para>
@@ -177,32 +201,36 @@
<phrase role="logical-vowel">E</phrase> with second sentence negated
FFTT
<phrase role="logical-vowel">U</phrase> with first sentence negated
FFTF
<phrase role="logical-vowel">E</phrase> with first sentence negated
FFFT
<phrase role="logical-vowel">E</phrase> with both sentences negated
</programlisting>
<para>Note that exchanging the sentences is only necessary with
<phrase role="logical-vowel">U</phrase>. The three other basic truth functions are commutative; that is, they mean the same thing regardless of the order of the component sentences. There are other ways of getting some of these truth tables; these just happen to be the methods usually employed.</para>
+<!-- ^^ truth tables: abbreviated format, 334; for 4 fundamental Lojban truth functions, 335; list of 16 in abbreviated form, 334; notation convention, 334 -->
+<indexterm><primary>truth tables</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section3">
<title>3. The six types of logical connectives</title>
<para>In order to remain unambiguous, Lojban cannot have only a single logical connective for each truth function. There are many places in the grammar of the language where logical connection is permitted, and each must have its appropriate set of connectives. If the connective suitable for sumti were used to connect selbri, ambiguity would result.</para>
<para>Consider the English sentence:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ptgf">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e3d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section3-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>Mary went to the window and ...</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ window: example, 336 -->
+<indexterm><primary>window</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where the last word could be followed by
<quote>the door</quote>, a noun phrase, or by
<quote>saw the horses</quote>, a sentence with subject omitted, or by
<quote>John went to the door</quote>, a full sentence, or by one of a variety of other English grammatical constructions. Lojban cannot tolerate such grammatical looseness.</para>
<para>Instead, there are a total of five different selma'o used for logical connection: A, GA, GIhA, GUhA, and JA. Each of these includes four cmavo, one based on each of the four vowels, which is always the last vowel in the cmavo. In selma'o A, the vowel is the entire cmavo.</para>
<para>Thus, in selma'o A, the cmavo for the function
<phrase role="logical-vowel">A</phrase>is
<quote>a</quote>. (Do not confuse A, which is a selma'o, with
@@ -215,27 +243,37 @@
<para>Obviously, four cmavo are not enough to express the 14 truth functions explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section1" />. Therefore, compound cmavo must be used. These compound cmavo follow a systematic pattern: each has one cmavo from the five logical connection selma'o at its heart, and may also contain one or more of the auxiliary cmavo
<quote>se</quote>,
<quote>na</quote>, or
<quote>nai</quote>. Which auxiliaries are used with which logical connection cmavo, and with what grammar and meaning, will be explained in the following sections. The uses of each of these auxiliary cmavo relates to its other uses in other parts of Lojban grammar.</para>
<para>For convenience, each of the types of compound cmavo used for logical connection is designated by a Lojban name. The name is derived by changing the final
<quote>-A</quote>of the selma'o name to
<quote>-ek</quote>; the reasons for using
<quote>-ek</quote>are buried deep in the history of the Loglan Project. Thus, compound cmavo based on selma'o A are known as eks, and those based on selma'o JA are known as jeks. (When writing in English, it is conventional to use
<quote>eks</quote>as the plural of
+<!-- ^^ plural: Lojban contrasted with English in necessity of marking, 120; Lojban equivalent of, 443; meaning of le with, 123 -->
+<indexterm><primary>plural</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ek</quote>.) When the term
<quote>logical connective</quote>is used in this chapter, it refers to one or more of these kinds of compound cmavo.</para>
<para>Why does the title of this section refer to
<quote>six types</quote>when there are only five selma'o? A jek may be preceded by
<quote>.i</quote>, the usual Lojban cmavo for connecting two sentences. The compound produced by
<quote>.i</quote>followed by a jek is known as an ijek. It is useful to think of ijeks as a sixth kind of logical connective, parallel to eks, jeks, geks, giheks, and guheks.</para>
+<!-- ^^ guheks: connecting operators, 361; syntax of, 350 -->
+<indexterm><primary>guheks</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ giheks: syntax of, 346 -->
+<indexterm><primary>giheks</primary></indexterm>
<para>There also exist giks, joiks, ijoiks, and joigiks, which are not logical connectives, but are other kinds of compound cmavo which will be introduced later.</para>
+<!-- ^^ joigiks: connection types, 361; syntax of, 361 -->
+<indexterm><primary>joigiks</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ giks: syntax of, 340 -->
+<indexterm><primary>giks</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section4">
<title>4. Logical connection of bridi</title>
<para>Now we are ready to express
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section1-example1" />in Lojban! The kind of logical connective which is placed between two Lojban bridi to connect them logically is an ijek:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-h2hN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e4d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section4-example1" />
</title>
@@ -262,27 +300,31 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. nanmu .ije la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
<en>John is-a-man and James is-a-woman.</en>
<jbo>la djan. nanmu .ijo la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
<en>John is-a-man if-and-only-if James is-a-woman.</en>
<jbo>la djan. nanmu .iju la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
<en>John is-a-man whether-or-not James is-a-woman.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>To obtain the other truth tables listed in
+<!-- ^^ truth tables: abbreviated format, 334; for 4 fundamental Lojban truth functions, 335; list of 16 in abbreviated form, 334; notation convention, 334 -->
+<indexterm><primary>truth tables</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section2" />, we need to know how to negate the two bridi which represent the component sentences. We could negate them directly by inserting
<quote>na</quote>before the selbri, but Lojban also allows us to place the negation within the connective itself.</para>
<para>To negate the first or left-hand bridi, prefix
<quote>na</quote>to the JA cmavo but after the
<quote>.i</quote>. To negate the second or right-hand bridi, suffix
<quote>-nai</quote>to the JA cmavo. In either case, the negating word is placed on the side of the connective that is closest to the bridi being negated.</para>
<para>So to express the truth table FTTF, which requires
+<!-- ^^ truth table: explanation, 333 -->
+<indexterm><primary>truth table</primary></indexterm>
<phrase role="logical-vowel">O</phrase>with either of the two bridi negated (not both), we can say either:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-A5FC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e4d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section4-example5" />
<anchor xml:id="c14e4d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section4-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. nanmu .inajo la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
@@ -332,27 +374,33 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e4d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section4-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. ninmu .ijanai la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
<en>John is a woman if James is a woman.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This can be thought of as a principle of consistency, and may be paraphrased as follows:
+<!-- ^^ principle of consistency: of logical-if statements, 337 -->
+<indexterm><primary>principle of consistency</primary></indexterm>
<quote>If a false statement is true, any statement follows from it.</quote>All uses of English
+<!-- ^^ false statement: implications of, 337 -->
+<indexterm><primary>false statement</primary></indexterm>
<quote>if</quote>must be considered very carefully when translating into Lojban to see if they really fit this Lojban mold.</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section4-example10" />, which uses the TFTT truth function, is subject to the same rules: the stated gloss of TFTT as
<quote>only if</quote>works naturally only when the right-hand bridi is false; if it is true, the left-hand bridi may be either true or false. The last gloss of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section4-example10" />illustrates the use of
<quote>if ... then</quote>as a more natural substitute for
+<!-- ^^ if ... then: compared with only if, 338; logical connectives contrasted with other translations, 339 -->
+<indexterm><primary>if ... then</primary></indexterm>
<quote>only if</quote>.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-9CCS">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e4d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section4-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. nanmu .inaja la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
<gloss>John is-not-a-man or James is-a-woman.</gloss>
<gloss>John is a man only if James is a woman.</gloss>
@@ -379,114 +427,140 @@
<quote>na</quote>would come before
<quote>se</quote>.</para>
<para>The full syntax of ijeks, therefore, is:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
.i [na] [se] JA [nai]
</programlisting>
<para>where the cmavo in brackets are optional.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section5">
<title>5. Forethought bridi connection</title>
+<!-- ^^ bridi connection: use of imperatives in, 353; use of truth questions in, 353 -->
+<!-- ^^ imperatives: and truth, 353; attitude, 308; English contrasted with Lojban in presence of subject of command, 147; quick-tour version, 22; with ko, 146 -->
+<indexterm><primary>imperatives</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>bridi connection</primary></indexterm>
<para>Many concepts in Lojban are expressible in two different ways, generally referred to as
<quote>afterthought</quote>and
<quote>forethought</quote>.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section4" />discussed what is called
<quote>afterthought bridi logical connection</quote>. The word
+<!-- ^^ bridi logical connection: compared with sumti logical connections, 340 -->
+<indexterm><primary>bridi logical connection</primary></indexterm>
<quote>afterthought</quote>is used because the connective cmavo and the second bridi were added, as it were, afterwards and without changing the form of the first bridi. This form might be used by someone who makes a statement and then wishes to add or qualify that statement after it has been completed. Thus,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-dp8V">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e5d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section5-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. nanmu</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is a complete bridi, and adding an afterthought connection to make</para>
+<!-- ^^ afterthought connection: contrasted with forethought for grammatical utterances, 352; definition, 199; of operands, 453; of operators, 453 -->
+<indexterm><primary>afterthought connection</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-7h3s">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e5d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section5-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. nanmu .ija la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
<en>John is a man or James is a woman (or both)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>provides additional information without requiring any change in the form of what has come before; changes which may not be possible or practical, especially in speaking. (The meaning, however, may be changed by the use of a negating connective.) Afterthought connectives make it possible to construct all the important truth-functional relationships in a variety of ways.</para>
<para>In forethought style the speaker decides in advance, before expressing the first bridi, that a logical connection will be expressed. Forethought and afterthought connectives are expressed with separate selma'o. The forethought logical connectives corresponding to afterthought ijeks are geks:</para>
+<!-- ^^ forethought logical connectives: within tanru, 92 -->
+<indexterm><primary>forethought logical connectives</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-mYeS">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e5d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section5-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ga la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
<en>Either John is a man or James is a woman (or both).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<quote>ga</quote>is the cmavo which represents the
<phrase role="logical-vowel">A</phrase>truth function in selma'o GA. The word
<quote>gi</quote>does not belong to GA at all, but constitutes its own selma'o: it serves only to separate the two bridi without having any content of its own. The English translation of
<quote>ga ... gi</quote>is
<quote>either ... or</quote>, but in the English form the truth function is specified both by the word
<quote>either</quote>and by the word
<quote>or</quote>: not so in Lojban.</para>
<para>Even though two bridi are being connected, geks and giks do not have any
+<!-- ^^ giks: syntax of, 340 -->
+<indexterm><primary>giks</primary></indexterm>
<quote>.i</quote>in them. The forethought construct binds up the two bridi into a single sentence as far as the grammar is concerned.</para>
<para>Some more examples of forethought bridi connection are:</para>
+<!-- ^^ forethought bridi connection: as grammatically one sentence, 339 -->
+<indexterm><primary>forethought bridi connection</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ bridi connection: use of imperatives in, 353; use of truth questions in, 353 -->
+<!-- ^^ imperatives: and truth, 353; attitude, 308; English contrasted with Lojban in presence of subject of command, 147; quick-tour version, 22; with ko, 146 -->
+<indexterm><primary>imperatives</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>bridi connection</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Saaq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e5d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section5-example4" />
<anchor xml:id="c14e5d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section5-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ge la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
<en>(It is true that) both John is a man and James is a woman.</en>
<jbo>gu la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
<en>It is true that John is a man, whether or not James is a woman.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>It is worth emphasizing that
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section5-example5" />does not assert that James is (or is not) a woman. The
<quote>gu</quote>which indicates that
<quote>la djeimyz. ninmu</quote>may be true or false is unfortunately rather remote from the bridi thus affected.</para>
<para>Perhaps the most important of the truth functions commonly expressed in forethought is TFTT, which can be paraphrased as
<quote>if ... then ...</quote>:</para>
+<!-- ^^ if ... then: compared with only if, 338; logical connectives contrasted with other translations, 339 -->
+<indexterm><primary>if ... then</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Xcg1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e5d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section5-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ganai la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
<gloss>Either John is not a man, or James is a woman.</gloss>
<en>If John is a man, then James is a woman.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note the placement of the
<quote>nai</quote>in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section5-example6" />. When added to afterthought selma'o such as JA, a following
<quote>nai</quote>negates the second bridi, to which it is adjacent. Since GA cmavo precede the first bridi, a following
<quote>nai</quote>negates the first bridi instead.</para>
<para>Why does English insist on forethought in the translation of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section5-example6" />? Possibly because it would be confusing to seemingly assert a sentence and then make it conditional (which, as the Lojban form shows, involves a negation). Truth functions which involve negating the first sentence may be confusing, even to the Lojbanic understanding, when expressed using afterthought.</para>
<para>It must be reiterated here that not every use of English
<quote>if ... then</quote>is properly translated by
+<!-- ^^ if ... then: compared with only if, 338; logical connectives contrasted with other translations, 339 -->
+<indexterm><primary>if ... then</primary></indexterm>
<quote>.inaja</quote>or
<quote>ganai ... gi</quote>; anything with implications of time needs a somewhat different Lojban translation, which will be discussed in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section18" />. Causal sentences like
<quote>If you feed the pig, then it will grow</quote>are not logical connectives of any type, but rather need a translation using
+<!-- ^^ feed: example, 288 -->
+<indexterm><primary>feed</primary></indexterm>
<quote>rinka</quote>as the selbri joining two event abstractions, thus:</para>
+<!-- ^^ event abstractions, 256 -->
+<indexterm><primary>event abstractions</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-TQP9">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e5d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section5-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nu do cidja dunda fi le xarju cu rinka le nu ri ba banro</jbo>
<en>The event-of (you food-give to the pig) causes the event-of (it will grow).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -515,20 +589,22 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section5-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>go la djan. nanmu ginai la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
<gloss>John is-a-man if-and-only-if James is-not-a-woman.</gloss>
<en>Either John is a man or James is a woman but not both.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>A compound cmavo based on
<quote>gi</quote>is called a gik; the only giks are
+<!-- ^^ giks: syntax of, 340 -->
+<indexterm><primary>giks</primary></indexterm>
<quote>gi</quote>itself and
<quote>ginai</quote>.</para>
<para>Further examples:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-GP6a">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e5d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section5-example10" />
<anchor xml:id="c14e5d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section5-example11" />
</title>
@@ -537,26 +613,34 @@
<en>John is-a-man and James is-not-a-woman.</en>
<jbo>ganai la djan. nanmu ginai la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
<en>John is-not-a-man or James is-not-a-woman.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The syntax of geks is:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
[se] GA [nai]
</programlisting>
<para>and of giks (which are not themselves connectives, but part of the machinery of forethought connection) is:</para>
+<!-- ^^ giks: syntax of, 340 -->
+<indexterm><primary>giks</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ forethought connection: contrasted with afterthought for grammatical utterances, 352; definition, 199; in abstractions, 365; in tenses, 363; observatives, 347; of operands, 453; of operators, 453 -->
+<!-- ^^ observatives: and abstractions, 255; quick-tour version, 15 -->
+<indexterm><primary>observatives</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>forethought connection</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
gi [nai]
</programlisting>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section6">
<title>6. sumti connection</title>
+<!-- ^^ sumti connection: afterthought, 340; forethought, 341 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sumti connection</primary></indexterm>
<para>Geks and ijeks are sufficient to state every possible logical connection between two bridi. However, it is often the case that two bridi to be logically connected have one or more portions in common:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Ecnq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e6d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section6-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. klama le zarci .ije la .alis. klama le zarci</jbo>
<en>John goes to the market, and Alice goes to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -597,20 +681,26 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. .o la .alis. klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>John if-and-only-if Alice goes-to the market.</gloss>
<en>John goes to the market if, and only if, Alice does.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The second line of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section6-example3" />is highly stilted English, but the first line (of which it is a literal translation) is excellent Lojban.</para>
<para>What about forethought sumti connection? As is the case for bridi connection, geks are appropriate. They are not the only selma'o of forethought logical-connectives, but are the most commonly used ones.</para>
+<!-- ^^ sumti connection: afterthought, 340; forethought, 341 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sumti connection</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ bridi connection: use of imperatives in, 353; use of truth questions in, 353 -->
+<!-- ^^ imperatives: and truth, 353; attitude, 308; English contrasted with Lojban in presence of subject of command, 147; quick-tour version, 22; with ko, 146 -->
+<indexterm><primary>imperatives</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>bridi connection</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-YEa4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e6d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section6-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ga la djan. gi la .alis. klama le zarci</jbo>
<en>Either John or Alice (or both) goes-to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -659,20 +749,22 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section7-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi dotco .ija mi ricfu .ija mi nanmu</jbo>
<en>I am-German. Or I am-rich. Or I am-a-man.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means that one or more of the component sentences is true.</para>
<para>
<phrase role="logical-vowel">O</phrase>, however, is different. Working out the truth table for</para>
+<!-- ^^ truth table: explanation, 333 -->
+<indexterm><primary>truth table</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-3zE1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e7d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section7-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi dotco .ijo mi ricfu</jbo>
<gloss>.ijo mi nanmu</gloss>
<gloss>I am-German. If-and-only-if I am-rich.</gloss>
<en>If-and-only-if I am-a-man.</en>
@@ -780,37 +872,41 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e8d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section8-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci la djan. .e la martas. .abo la meris.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Forethought connectives, however, never can be suffixed with
<quote>bo</quote>, for every use of forethought connectives clearly indicates the intended pattern of grouping.</para>
+<!-- ^^ forethought connectives: with tense, 364 -->
+<indexterm><primary>forethought connectives</primary></indexterm>
<para>What happens if
<quote>bo</quote>is used on both connectives, giving them the same high precedence, as in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section8-example3" />?</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-YJeE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e8d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section8-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci la djan. .ebo la martas. .abo la meris.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Does this wind up meaning the same as
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section7-example4" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section7-example6" />? Not at all. A second rule relating to
<quote>bo</quote>is that where several
<quote>bo</quote>-marked connectives are used in succession, the normal Lojban left-grouping rule is replaced by a right-grouping rule. As a result,
+<!-- ^^ right-grouping rule: definition of, 87 -->
+<indexterm><primary>right-grouping rule</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section8-example3" />in fact means the same as
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section8-example1" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section8-example2" />. This rule may be occasionally exploited for special effects, but is tricky to keep straight; in writing intended to be easy to understand, multiple consecutive connectives marked with
<quote>bo</quote>should be avoided.</para>
<para>The use of
<quote>bo</quote>, therefore, gets tricky in complex connections of more than three sentences. Looking back at the English translations of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section7-example7" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section7-example8" />, parentheses were used to clarify the grouping. These parentheses have their Lojban equivalents, two sets of them actually.
<quote>tu'e</quote>and
<quote>tu'u</quote>are used with ijeks, and
@@ -871,20 +967,22 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section8-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cinba do .ije do cinba mi</jbo>
<gloss>.ijanai tu'e mi prami do .ije do prami mi [tu'u]</gloss>
<gloss>I kiss you and you kiss me</gloss>
<en>if ( I love you and you love me ).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>What about parenthesized sumti connection? Consider</para>
+<!-- ^^ sumti connection: afterthought, 340; forethought, 341 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sumti connection</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-y9CC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e8d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section8-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>I walk to either the market and the house, or the school and the office.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Two pairs of parentheses, analogous to
@@ -916,50 +1014,66 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section8-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>[tu'e] mi dotco .ijo mi ricfu [tu'u]</jbo>
<gloss>.ije tu'e mi dotco .ijo mi nanmu [tu'u]</gloss>
<gloss>( I am-German if-and-only-if I am-rich )</gloss>
<en>and (I am-German if-and-only-if I am-a-man ).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The truth table, when worked out, produces T if and only if all three component sentences are true or all three are false.</para>
+<!-- ^^ truth table: explanation, 333 -->
+<indexterm><primary>truth table</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section9">
<title>9. Compound bridi</title>
<para>So far we have seen how to handle two sentences that need have no similarity at all (bridi connection) and sentences that are identical except for a difference in one sumti (sumti connection). It would seem natural to ask how to logically connect sentences that are identical except for having different selbri.</para>
+<!-- ^^ sumti connection: afterthought, 340; forethought, 341 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sumti connection</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ bridi connection: use of imperatives in, 353; use of truth questions in, 353 -->
+<!-- ^^ imperatives: and truth, 353; attitude, 308; English contrasted with Lojban in presence of subject of command, 147; quick-tour version, 22; with ko, 146 -->
+<indexterm><primary>imperatives</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>bridi connection</primary></indexterm>
<para>Surprise! Lojban provides no logical connective that is designed to handle selbri and nothing else. Instead, selbri connection is provided as part of a more general-purpose mechanism called
<quote>compound bridi</quote>. Compound bridi result from logically connecting sentences that differ in their selbri and possibly some of their sumti.</para>
+<!-- ^^ compound bridi: definition, 344; logical connection of, 344; more than one sumti in common, 345; multiple with bo, 346; multiple with ke...ke'e, 346; one sumti in common, 344; separate tail-terms for bridi-tails, 346; separate tail-terms for forethought-connected bridi-tails, 347 -->
+<indexterm><primary>compound bridi</primary></indexterm>
<para>The simplest cases result when the x1 sumti is the only common point:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-WebJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e9d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section9-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci .ije mi nelci la djan.</jbo>
<en>I go to the market, and I like John.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is equivalent in meaning to the compound bridi:</para>
+<!-- ^^ compound bridi: definition, 344; logical connection of, 344; more than one sumti in common, 345; multiple with bo, 346; multiple with ke...ke'e, 346; one sumti in common, 344; separate tail-terms for bridi-tails, 346; separate tail-terms for forethought-connected bridi-tails, 347 -->
+<indexterm><primary>compound bridi</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-9H9e">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e9d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section9-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci gi'e nelci la djan.</jbo>
<en>I go-to the market and like John.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>As
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section9-example2" />indicates, giheks are used in afterthought to create compound bridi;
+<!-- ^^ giheks: syntax of, 346 -->
+<indexterm><primary>giheks</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ compound bridi: definition, 344; logical connection of, 344; more than one sumti in common, 345; multiple with bo, 346; multiple with ke...ke'e, 346; one sumti in common, 344; separate tail-terms for bridi-tails, 346; separate tail-terms for forethought-connected bridi-tails, 347 -->
+<indexterm><primary>compound bridi</primary></indexterm>
<quote>gi'e</quote>is the gihek corresponding to
<quote>and</quote>. The actual phrases
<quote>klama le zarci</quote>and
<quote>nelci la djan.</quote>that the gihek connects are known as
<quote>bridi-tails</quote>, because they represent (in this use) the
<quote>tail end</quote>of a bridi, including the selbri and any following sumti, but excluding any sumti that precede the selbri:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-F3RE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e9d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section9-example3" />
@@ -1009,20 +1123,22 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section9-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi dunda le cukta gi'e lebna lo rupnu vau do</jbo>
<en>I (give the book) and (take some currency-units) to/from you.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The
<quote>vau</quote>(of selma'o VAU) serves to separate the bridi-tail from the tail-terms. Every bridi-tail is terminated by an elidable
<quote>vau</quote>, but only in connection with compound bridi is it ever necessary to express this
+<!-- ^^ compound bridi: definition, 344; logical connection of, 344; more than one sumti in common, 345; multiple with bo, 346; multiple with ke...ke'e, 346; one sumti in common, 344; separate tail-terms for bridi-tails, 346; separate tail-terms for forethought-connected bridi-tails, 347 -->
+<indexterm><primary>compound bridi</primary></indexterm>
<quote>vau</quote>. Thus:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-L3eN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e9d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section9-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci [vau]</jbo>
<en>I go-to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1036,32 +1152,38 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section9-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci [vau] gi'e nelci la djan. [vau] [vau]</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where the double
<quote>vau</quote>at the end of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section9-example8" />terminates both the right-hand bridi-tail and the unexpressed tail-terms.</para>
<para>A final use of giheks is to combine bridi-tails used as complete sentences, the Lojban observative:</para>
+<!-- ^^ observative: contrasted with observation evidential, 316; definition, 188 -->
+<indexterm><primary>observative</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ giheks: syntax of, 346 -->
+<indexterm><primary>giheks</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-rvUD">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e9d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section9-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>klama le zarci gi'e dzukla le briju</jbo>
<en>A goer to-the market and a walker to-the office.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Since x1 is omitted in both of the bridi underlying
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section9-example9" />, this compound bridi does not necessarily imply that the goer and the walker are the same. Only the presence of an explicit x1 (other than
+<!-- ^^ compound bridi: definition, 344; logical connection of, 344; more than one sumti in common, 345; multiple with bo, 346; multiple with ke...ke'e, 346; one sumti in common, 344; separate tail-terms for bridi-tails, 346; separate tail-terms for forethought-connected bridi-tails, 347 -->
+<indexterm><primary>compound bridi</primary></indexterm>
<quote>zo'e</quote>, which is equivalent to omission) can force the goer and the walker to be identical.</para>
<para>A strong argument for this convention is provided by analysis of the following example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-cBrg">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e9d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section9-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>klama la nu,IORK. la finyks. gi'e klama la nu,IORK. la rom.</jbo>
<en>A goer to-New York from-Phoenix and a goer to-New York from-Rome.</en>
@@ -1076,60 +1198,68 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section9-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>da klama la nu,IORK. la finyks.</jbo>
<gloss>gi'e klama la nu,IORK. la rom.</gloss>
<gloss>Something is-a-goer to-New York from-Phoenix</gloss>
<en>and is-a-goer to-New York from-Rome.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The syntax of giheks is:</para>
+<!-- ^^ giheks: syntax of, 346 -->
+<indexterm><primary>giheks</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
[na] [se] GIhA [nai]
</programlisting>
<para>which is exactly parallel to the syntax of eks.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section10">
<title>10. Multiple compound bridi</title>
+<!-- ^^ compound bridi: definition, 344; logical connection of, 344; more than one sumti in common, 345; multiple with bo, 346; multiple with ke...ke'e, 346; one sumti in common, 344; separate tail-terms for bridi-tails, 346; separate tail-terms for forethought-connected bridi-tails, 347 -->
+<indexterm><primary>compound bridi</primary></indexterm>
<para>Giheks can be combined with
<quote>bo</quote>in the same way as eks:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-DpCN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e10d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section10-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci la djan. gi'e nelci la martas. gi'abo nelci la meris.</jbo>
<en>I like John and ( like Martha or like Mary ).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is equivalent in meaning to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section8-example1" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section8-example2" />. Likewise,
<quote>ke ... ke'e</quote>grouping can be used after giheks:</para>
+<!-- ^^ giheks: syntax of, 346 -->
+<indexterm><primary>giheks</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-rH4n">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e10d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section10-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi dzukla le zarci gi'e dzukla le zdani</jbo>
<gloss>gi'a ke dzukla le ckule gi'e dzukla le briju [ke'e]</gloss>
<gloss>I walk-to the market and walk-to the house,</gloss>
<en>or walk-to the school and walk-to the office.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is the gihek version of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section8-example9" />. The same rule about using
<quote>ke ... ke'e</quote>bracketing only just after a connective applies to bridi-tails as to sumti, so the first two bridi-tails in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section10-example2" />cannot be explicitly grouped; implicit left-grouping suffices to associate them.</para>
<para>Each of the pairs of bridi-tails joined by multiple giheks can have its own set of tail-terms:</para>
+<!-- ^^ giheks: syntax of, 346 -->
+<indexterm><primary>giheks</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-1asY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e10d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section10-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi dejni lo rupnu la djan. .inaja mi dunda le cukta la djan.</jbo>
<gloss>.ijabo mi lebna le cukta la djan.</gloss>
<gloss>[If] I owe some currency-units to John, then I give the book to John</gloss>
<en>or I take the book from John.</en>
@@ -1176,20 +1306,22 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section10-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ge klama le zarci gi nelci la djan.</jbo>
<en>I both go to the market and like John.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is equivalent in meaning to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section9-example2" />.</para>
<para>Of course, either of the connected sentences may contain giheks:</para>
+<!-- ^^ giheks: syntax of, 346 -->
+<indexterm><primary>giheks</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-mInd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e10d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section10-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ge klama le zarci gi'e dzukla le zdani gi nelci la djan.</jbo>
<en>I both ( go to the market and walk to the house ) and like John.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1211,20 +1343,22 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e10d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section10-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ge dunda le cukta gi lebna lo rupnu vau do</jbo>
<en>I both ( give the book ) and ( take some currency-units ) to/from you.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here is a pair of gek-connected observatives, a forethought equivalent of
+<!-- ^^ observatives: and abstractions, 255; quick-tour version, 15 -->
+<indexterm><primary>observatives</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section9-example9" />:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-C5Wc">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e10d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section10-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ge klama le zarci gi dzukla le briju</jbo>
<en>Both a goer to-the market and a walker to-the office.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1238,103 +1372,127 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi gonai le zarci cu klama gi le bisli cu dansu</jbo>
<gloss>I either-but-not-both to-the office go or on-the ice dance.</gloss>
<en>I either go to the office or dance on the ice (but not both).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section11">
<title>11. Termset logical connection</title>
<para>So far we have seen sentences that differ in all components, and require bridi connection; sentences that differ in one sumti only, and permit sumti connection; and sentences that differ in the selbri and possibly one or more sumti, and permit bridi-tail connection. Termset logical connectives are employed for sentences that differ in more than one sumti but not in the selbri, such as:</para>
+<!-- ^^ sumti connection: afterthought, 340; forethought, 341 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sumti connection</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ bridi connection: use of imperatives in, 353; use of truth questions in, 353 -->
+<!-- ^^ imperatives: and truth, 353; attitude, 308; English contrasted with Lojban in presence of subject of command, 147; quick-tour version, 22; with ko, 146 -->
+<indexterm><primary>imperatives</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>bridi connection</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-G02C">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e11d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section11-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>I go to the market from the office and to the house from the school.</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ to the market from the office, 348 -->
+<indexterm><primary>to the market from the office</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The Lojban version of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section11-example1" />requires two termsets joined by a logical connective. A
<quote>term</quote>is either a sumti or a sumti preceded by a tense or modal tag such as
<quote>pu</quote>or
<quote>bai</quote>. Afterthought termsets are formed by linking terms together by inserting the cmavo
<quote>ce'e</quote>(of selma'o CEhE) between each of them. Furthermore, the logical connective (which is a jek) must be prefixed by the cmavo
<quote>pe'e</quote>(of selma'o PEhE). (We could refer to the combination of
+<!-- ^^ pe'e, 347 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pe'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>pe'e</quote>and a jek as a
+<!-- ^^ pe'e, 347 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pe'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>pehejek</quote>, I suppose.)</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-UVPj">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e11d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section11-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci ce'e le briju pe'e je</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ pe'e, 347 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pe'e</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>le zdani ce'e le ckule</gloss>
<gloss>I go to-the market [plus] from-the office [joint] and</gloss>
<en>to-the house [plus] from-the school.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The literal translation uses
<quote>[plus]</quote>to indicate the termset connective, and
<quote>[joint]</quote>to indicate the position of the logical connective joint. As usual, there is an equivalent bridi-connection form:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Bp2v">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e11d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section11-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci le briju .ije mi klama le zdani le ckule</jbo>
<en>I go to-the market from-the office, and I go to-the house from-the school.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which illustrates that the two bridi differ in the x2 and x3 places only.</para>
<para>What happens if the two joined sets of terms are of unequal length? Expanding to bridi connection will always make clear which term goes in which place of which bridi. It can happen that a sumti may fall in the x2 place of one bridi and the x3 place of another:</para>
+<!-- ^^ bridi connection: use of imperatives in, 353; use of truth questions in, 353 -->
+<!-- ^^ imperatives: and truth, 353; attitude, 308; English contrasted with Lojban in presence of subject of command, 147; quick-tour version, 22; with ko, 146 -->
+<indexterm><primary>imperatives</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>bridi connection</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-yYsr">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e11d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section11-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pe'e ja do ce'e le zarci cu klama le briju</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ pe'e, 347 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pe'e</primary></indexterm>
<en>I [joint] or you to-the market [plus] go to/from-the office.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>can be clearly understood by expansion to:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-NIuS">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e11d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section11-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le briju .ija do le zarci cu klama le briju</jbo>
<en>I go to-the office, or you to-the market go from-the office.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>So
<quote>le briju</quote>is your origin but my destination, and thus falls in the x2 and x3 places of
<quote>klama</quote>simultaneously! This is legal because even though there is only one selbri,
<quote>klama</quote>, there are two distinct bridi expressed here. In addition,
<quote>mi</quote>in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section11-example4" />is serving as a termset containing only one term. An analogous paradox applies to compound bridi with tail-terms and unequal numbers of sumti within the connected bridi-tails:</para>
+<!-- ^^ compound bridi: definition, 344; logical connection of, 344; more than one sumti in common, 345; multiple with bo, 346; multiple with ke...ke'e, 346; one sumti in common, 344; separate tail-terms for bridi-tails, 346; separate tail-terms for forethought-connected bridi-tails, 347 -->
+<indexterm><primary>compound bridi</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-zsiy">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e11d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section11-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci gi'e dzukla vau le briju</jbo>
<en>I ( go to-the market and walk ) to/from-the office.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means that I go to the market from the office, and I walk to the office;
+<!-- ^^ to the market from the office, 348 -->
+<indexterm><primary>to the market from the office</primary></indexterm>
<quote>le briju</quote>is the x3 place of
<quote>klama</quote>and the x2 place of
<quote>dzukla</quote>.</para>
<para>Forethought termsets also exist, and use
<quote>nu'i</quote>of selma'o NUhI to signal the beginning and
<quote>nu'u</quote>of selma'o NUhU (an elidable terminator) to signal the end. Nothing is inserted between the individual terms: they simply sit side-by-side. To make a logical connection in a forethought termset, use a gek, with the gek just after the
<quote>nu'i</quote>, and an extra
<quote>nu'u</quote>just before the gik:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-KeLv">
<title>
@@ -1356,20 +1514,22 @@
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section12">
<title>12. Logical connection within tanru</title>
<para>As noted at the beginning of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section9" />, there is no logical connective in Lojban that joins selbri and nothing but selbri. However, it is possible to have logical connectives within a selbri, forming a kind of tanru that involves a logical connection. Consider the simple tanru
<quote>blanu zdani</quote>, blue house. Now anything that is a blue ball, in the most ordinary understanding of the phrase at least, is both blue and a ball. And indeed, instead of
<quote>blanu bolci</quote>, Lojbanists can say
<quote>blanu je bolci</quote>, using a jek connective within the tanru. (We saw jeks used in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section11" />also, but there they were always prefixed by
<quote>pe'e</quote>; in this section they are used alone.) Here is a pair of examples:</para>
+<!-- ^^ pe'e, 347 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pe'e</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-IxBH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e12d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section12-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c14e12d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section12-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti blanu zdani</jbo>
<en>This is-a-blue type-of house.</en>
@@ -1408,52 +1568,64 @@
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-HqYS">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e12d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section12-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti blanu .ije ti zdani</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>the rule of expansion into separate bridi simply does not always work for tanru connection. Supposing Alice to be a person who lives in blue houses, then</para>
+<!-- ^^ tanru connection: connotation of non-logical, 354 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tanru connection</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-DG5K">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e12d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section12-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .alis. cu blanu je zdani prenu</jbo>
<en>Alice is-a ( blue and house ) type-of-person.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>would be true, because tanru grouping with a jek has higher precedence than unmarked tanru grouping, but:</para>
+<!-- ^^ tanru grouping: complex, 87; effect of tanru inversion on, 96; guheks compared with jeks, 350; three-part, 85; with bo, 87; with ke, 88; with ke and bo, 88 -->
+<!-- ^^ tanru inversion, 95; definition, 95; effect on tanru grouping, 96; in complex tanru, 96; multiple, 96; rule for removing, 96; where allowed, 96 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tanru inversion</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>tanru grouping</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-eh2i">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e12d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section12-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .alis. cu blanu prenu .ije la .alis. cu zdani prenu</jbo>
<en>Alice is-a blue person, and Alice is-a house person.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is probably false, because the blueness is associated with the house, not with Alice, even leaving aside the question of what it means to say
<quote>Alice is a blue person</quote>. (Perhaps she belongs to the Blue team, or is wearing blue clothes.) The semantic ambiguity of tanru make such logical manipulations impossible.</para>
+<!-- ^^ ambiguity of tanru, 85 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ambiguity of tanru</primary></indexterm>
<para>It suffices to note here, then, a few purely grammatical points about tanru logical connection.
+<!-- ^^ tanru logical connection: contrasted with sumti logical connection, 350 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tanru logical connection</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bo</quote>may be appended to jeks as to eks, with the same rules:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-RNMY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e12d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section12-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la teris. cu ricfu je nakni jabo fetsi</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ jabo, 91 -->
+<indexterm><primary>jabo</primary></indexterm>
<en>Terry is rich and ( male or female ).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The components of tanru may be grouped with
<quote>ke</quote>both before and after a logical connective:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-JdID">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e12d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section12-example9" />
</title>
@@ -1463,36 +1635,54 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where the first
<quote>ke ... ke'e</quote>pair may be omitted altogether by the rule of left-grouping, but is optionally permitted. In any case, the last instance of
<quote>ke'e</quote>may be elided.</para>
<para>The syntax of jeks is:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
[na] [se] JA [nai]
</programlisting>
<para>parallel to eks and giheks.</para>
+<!-- ^^ giheks: syntax of, 346 -->
+<indexterm><primary>giheks</primary></indexterm>
<para>Forethought tanru connection does not use geks, but uses guheks instead. Guheks have exactly the same form as geks:</para>
+<!-- ^^ tanru connection: connotation of non-logical, 354 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tanru connection</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ guheks: connecting operators, 361; syntax of, 350 -->
+<indexterm><primary>guheks</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
[se] GUhA [nai]
</programlisting>
<para>Using guheks in tanru connection (rather than geks) resolves what would otherwise be an unacceptable ambiguity between bridi-tail and tanru connection:</para>
+<!-- ^^ tanru connection: connotation of non-logical, 354 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tanru connection</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ guheks: connecting operators, 361; syntax of, 350 -->
+<indexterm><primary>guheks</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-mjog">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e12d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section12-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .alis. gu'e ricfu gi fetsi</jbo>
<en>Alice is both rich and female.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that giks are used with guheks in exactly the same way they are used with geks. Like jeks, guheks bind more closely than unmarked tanru grouping does:</para>
+<!-- ^^ tanru grouping: complex, 87; effect of tanru inversion on, 96; guheks compared with jeks, 350; three-part, 85; with bo, 87; with ke, 88; with ke and bo, 88 -->
+<!-- ^^ tanru inversion, 95; definition, 95; effect on tanru grouping, 96; in complex tanru, 96; multiple, 96; rule for removing, 96; where allowed, 96 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tanru inversion</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>tanru grouping</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ guheks: connecting operators, 361; syntax of, 350 -->
+<indexterm><primary>guheks</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ giks: syntax of, 340 -->
+<indexterm><primary>giks</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Gyrc">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e12d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section12-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .alis. gu'e blanu gi zdani prenu</jbo>
<en>Alice is-a-(both blue and a-house) type-of-person.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1532,20 +1722,22 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>But
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section12-example14" />means that you see one thing which is both a man and a woman simultaneously! A
<quote>nanmu je ninmu</quote>is a manwoman, a presumably non-existent creature who is both a
<quote>nanmu</quote>and a
<quote>ninmu</quote>.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section13">
<title>13. Truth questions and connective questions</title>
+<!-- ^^ connective questions: answering, 352; compared with other languages, 353; non-logical, 359 -->
+<indexterm><primary>connective questions</primary></indexterm>
<para>So far we have addressed only sentences which are statements. Lojban, like all human languages, needs also to deal with sentences which are questions. There are many ways of asking questions in Lojban, but some of these (like questions about quantity, tense, and emotion) are discussed in other chapters.</para>
<para>The simplest kind of question is of the type
<quote>Is it true that ...</quote>where some statement follows. This type is called a
<quote>truth question</quote>, and can be represented in English by
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section13-example1" />:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-bMjE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section13-example1" />
</title>
@@ -1572,40 +1764,44 @@
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section13-example1" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section13-example2" />are equivalent in meaning.</para>
<para>A truth question can be answered
<quote>yes</quote>or
<quote>no</quote>, depending on the truth or falsity, respectively, of the underlying statement. The standard way of saying
<quote>yes</quote>in Lojban is
<quote>go'i</quote>and of saying
<quote>no</quote>is
<quote>nago'i</quote>. (The reasons for this rule are explained in
+<!-- ^^ nago'i: quick-tour version, 24 -->
+<indexterm><primary>nago'i</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7" />.) In answer to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section13-example2" />, the possible answers are:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-XSmq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section13-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>go'i</jbo>
<en>Fido is a dog.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-WI3P">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section13-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>nago'i</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ nago'i: quick-tour version, 24 -->
+<indexterm><primary>nago'i</primary></indexterm>
<en>Fido is not a dog.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Some English questions seemingly have the same form as the truth questions so far discussed. Consider</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-mftC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section13-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1632,42 +1828,56 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section13-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xu la faidon. gerku gi'onai mlatu</jbo>
<en>Is-it-true-that Fido is-a-dog or is-a-cat (but not both)?</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Given that Fido really is either a dog or a cat, the appropriate answer would be
<quote>go'i</quote>; if Fido were a fish, the appropriate answer would be
<quote>nago'i</quote>.</para>
+<!-- ^^ nago'i: quick-tour version, 24 -->
+<indexterm><primary>nago'i</primary></indexterm>
<para>But that is not what an English-speaker who utters
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section13-example5" />is asking! The true significance of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section13-example5" />is that the speaker desires to know the truth value of either of the two underlying bridi (it is presupposed that only one is true).</para>
<para>Lojban has an elegant mechanism for rendering this kind of question which is very unlike that used in English. Instead of asking about the truth value of the connected bridi, Lojban users ask about the truth function which connects them. This is done by using a special question cmavo: there is one of these for each of the logical connective selma'o, as shown by the following table:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ge'i</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ ge'i, 352 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ge'i</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>GA</selmaho>
<description>forethought connective question</description>
+<!-- ^^ forethought connective(s): as ungrammatical utterance, 352; contrasted with afterthought connective, 338 -->
+<indexterm><primary>forethought connective</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>gi'i</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ gi'i, 352 -->
+<indexterm><primary>gi'i</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>GIhA</selmaho>
<description>bridi-tail connective question</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>gu'i</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ gu'i, 352 -->
+<indexterm><primary>gu'i</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>GUhA</selmaho>
<description>tanru forethought connective question</description>
+<!-- ^^ forethought connective(s): as ungrammatical utterance, 352; contrasted with afterthought connective, 338 -->
+<indexterm><primary>forethought connective</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>je'i</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ je'i, 352 -->
+<indexterm><primary>je'i</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>JA</selmaho>
<description>tanru connective question</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ji</cmavo>
<selmaho>A</selmaho>
<description>sumti connective question</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>(This list unfortunately departs from the pretty regularity of the other cmavo for logical connection. The two-syllable selma'o, GIhA and GUhA, make use of the cmavo ending in
@@ -1676,20 +1886,22 @@
<quote>.i</quote>were not available, and different cmavo had to be chosen. This table must simply be memorized, like most other non-connective cmavo assignments.)</para>
<para>One correct translation of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section13-example5" />employs a question gihek:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-G1Xs">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section13-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .alis gerku gi'i mlatu</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ gi'i, 352 -->
+<indexterm><primary>gi'i</primary></indexterm>
<en>Alice is-a-dog [truth function?] is-a-cat?</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here are some plausible answers:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ehWd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section13-example9" />
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section13-example10" />
@@ -1708,48 +1920,60 @@
<jbo>nagi'o</jbo>
<gloss>gi'onai</gloss>
<en>Alice is a dog or is a cat but not both (I'm not saying which).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section13-example12" />is correct but uncooperative.</para>
<para>As usual, Lojban questions are answered by filling in the blank left by the question. Here the blank is a logical connective, and therefore it is grammatical in Lojban to utter a bare logical connective without anything for it to connect.</para>
<para>The answer
<quote>gi'e</quote>, meaning that Alice is a dog and is a cat, is impossible in the real world, but for:</para>
+<!-- ^^ real world: contrasted with hypothetical world, example, 320 -->
+<indexterm><primary>real world</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-xtIf">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d13" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section13-example13" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do djica tu'a loi ckafi</jbo>
<gloss>ji loi tcati</gloss>
<gloss>You desire something-about a-mass-of coffee</gloss>
<gloss>[truth function?] a-mass-of tea?</gloss>
<en>Do you want coffee or tea?</en>
+<!-- ^^ coffee or tea: example, 352 -->
+<indexterm><primary>coffee or tea</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>the answer
<quote>.e</quote>, meaning that I want both, is perfectly plausible, if not necessarily polite.</para>
<para>The forethought questions
<quote>ge'i</quote>and
+<!-- ^^ ge'i, 352 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ge'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>gu'i</quote>are used like the others, but ambiguity forbids the use of isolated forethought connectives as answers - they sound like the start of forethought-connected bridi. So although
+<!-- ^^ gu'i, 352 -->
+<indexterm><primary>gu'i</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ forethought connectives: with tense, 364 -->
+<indexterm><primary>forethought connectives</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section13-example14" />is the forethought version of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section13-example13" />:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-286J">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d14" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section13-example14" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do djica tu'a</jbo>
<gloss>ge'i loi ckafi</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ ge'i, 352 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ge'i</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>gi loi tcati</gloss>
<gloss>You desire something-about</gloss>
<gloss>[truth function?] a-mass-of coffee</gloss>
<en>[or] a-mass-of tea?</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>the answer must be in afterthought form.</para>
<para>There are natural languages, notably Chinese, which employ the Lojbanic form of connective question. The Chinese sentence</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-HyVv">
<title>
@@ -1762,56 +1986,68 @@
</example>
<para>means
<quote>Do you walk or run?</quote>, and is exactly parallel to the Lojban:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-3jIq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d16" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section13-example16" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do cadzu gi'i bajra</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ gi'i, 352 -->
+<indexterm><primary>gi'i</primary></indexterm>
<en>You walk [or?] run?</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>However, Chinese does not use logical connectives in the reply to such a question, so the resemblance, though striking, is superficial.</para>
<para>Truth questions may be used in bridi connection. This form of sentence is perfectly legitimate, and can be interpreted by using the convention that a truth question is true if the answer is
+<!-- ^^ bridi connection: use of imperatives in, 353; use of truth questions in, 353 -->
+<!-- ^^ imperatives: and truth, 353; attitude, 308; English contrasted with Lojban in presence of subject of command, 147; quick-tour version, 22; with ko, 146 -->
+<indexterm><primary>imperatives</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>bridi connection</primary></indexterm>
<quote>yes</quote>and false if the answer is
<quote>no</quote>. Analogously, an imperative sentence (involving the special pro-sumti
<quote>ko</quote>, which means
<quote>you</quote>but marks the sentence as a command) is true if the command is obeyed, and false otherwise. A request of Abraham Lincoln's may be translated thus:</para>
+<!-- ^^ Abraham Lincoln: example, 353 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Abraham Lincoln</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-BPv0">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d17" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section13-example17" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ganai ti ckafi gi ko bevri loi tcati mi</jbo>
<gloss>.ije ganai ti tcati gi ko bevri loi ckafi mi</gloss>
<gloss>If this is-coffee then [you!] bring a-mass-of tea to-me,</gloss>
<gloss>and if this is-tea then [you!] bring a-mass-of coffee to-me.</gloss>
<en>If this is coffee, bring me tea; but if this is tea, bring me coffee.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In logical terms, however,
<quote>but</quote>is the same as
<quote>and</quote>; the difference is that the sentence after a
<quote>but</quote>is felt to be in tension or opposition to the sentence before it. Lojban represents this distinction by adding the discursive cmavo
<quote>ku'i</quote>(of selma'o UI), which is explained in
+<!-- ^^ ku'i, 317, 353 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ku'i</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13" />, to the logical
<quote>.ije</quote>.)</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section14">
<title>14. Non-logical connectives</title>
<para>Way back in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section1" />, the point was made that not every use of English
<quote>and</quote>,
<quote>if ... then</quote>, and so on represents a Lojban logical connective. In particular, consider the
+<!-- ^^ if ... then: compared with only if, 338; logical connectives contrasted with other translations, 339 -->
+<indexterm><primary>if ... then</primary></indexterm>
<quote>and</quote>of:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-x6JW">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section14-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>John and Alice carried the piano.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1829,24 +2065,28 @@
<quote>mass</quote>. John and Alice are joined together into a mass, John-and-Alice, and it is this mass which carried the piano, not either of them separately. The cmavo
<quote>joi</quote>(of selma'o JOI) is used to join two or more components into a mass:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-pC5x">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section14-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. joi la .alis. cu bevri le pipno</jbo>
<en>John massed-with Alice carry the piano.</en>
+<!-- ^^ carry the piano: example, 361 -->
+<indexterm><primary>carry the piano</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section14-example3" />covers the case mentioned, where John and Alice divide the labor; it also could mean that John did all the hauling and Alice did the supervising. This possibility arises because the properties of a mass are the properties of its components, which can lead to apparent contradictions: if John is small and Alice is large, then John-and-Alice is both small and large. Masses are also discussed in
+<!-- ^^ supervising: as a contribution to mass action, 354 -->
+<indexterm><primary>supervising</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6" />.</para>
<para>Grammatically,
<quote>joi</quote>can appear between two sumti (like an ek) or between two tanru components (like a jek). This flexibility must be paid for in the form of occasional terminators that cannot be elided:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-NN93">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section14-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu ku joi le ninmu [ku] cu klama le zarci</jbo>
@@ -1856,126 +2096,180 @@
<para>The cmavo
<quote>ku</quote>is the elidable terminator for
<quote>le</quote>, which can almost always be elided, but not in this case. If the first
<quote>ku</quote>were elided here, Lojban's parsing rules would see
<quote>le nanmu joi</quote>and assume that another tanru component is to follow; since the second
<quote>le</quote>cannot be part of a tanru, a parsing error results. No such problem can occur with logical connectives, because an ek signals a following sumti and a jek a following tanru component unambiguously.</para>
<para>Single or compound cmavo involving members of selma'o JOI are called joiks, by analogy with the names for logical connectives. It is not grammatical to use joiks to connect bridi-tails.</para>
<para>In tanru,
<quote>joi</quote>has the connotation
<quote>mixed with</quote>, as in the following example:</para>
+<!-- ^^ mixed with: example, 354 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mixed with</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Xxp2">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section14-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti blanu joi xunre bolci</jbo>
<gloss>This is-a-(blue mixed-with red) ball.</gloss>
<en>This is a blue and red ball.</en>
+<!-- ^^ blue and red: example, 354 -->
+<indexterm><primary>blue and red</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the ball is neither wholly blue nor wholly red, but partly blue and partly red. Its blue/redness is a mass property. (Just how blue something has to be to count as
<quote>wholly blue</quote>is an unsettled question, though. A
<quote>blanu zdani</quote>may be so even though not every part of it is blue.)</para>
<para>There are several other cmavo in selma'o JOI which can be used in the same grammatical constructions. Not all of them are well-defined as yet in all contexts. All have clear definitions as sumti connectives; those definitions are shown in the following table:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
A joi B the mass with components A and B
A ce B the set with elements A and B
A ce'o B the sequence with elements A and B in order
+<!-- ^^ ce'o, 354, 362 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ce'o</primary></indexterm>
A sece'o B the sequence with elements B and A in order
+<!-- ^^ sece'o, 354 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sece'o</primary></indexterm>
A jo'u B A and B considered jointly
+<!-- ^^ jo'u, 354, 355; contrasted with ce, 355; contrasted with ce'o, 355; contrasted with joi, 355; result of connection with, 355 -->
+<indexterm><primary>jo'u</primary></indexterm>
A fa'u B A and B respectively
A sefa'u B B and A respectively
+<!-- ^^ sefa'u, 354 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sefa'u</primary></indexterm>
A jo'e B the union of sets A and B
+<!-- ^^ union of sets: compared with or, 357 -->
+<indexterm><primary>union of sets</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ union: of sets, 356 -->
+<indexterm><primary>union</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ jo'e, 354, 356 -->
+<indexterm><primary>jo'e</primary></indexterm>
A ku'a B the intersection of sets A and B
+<!-- ^^ ku'a, 354, 356 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ku'a</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ intersection of sets: compared with and, 357 -->
+<indexterm><primary>intersection of sets</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ intersection: of sets, 356 -->
+<indexterm><primary>intersection</primary></indexterm>
A pi'u B the cross product of sets A and B
+<!-- ^^ pi'u, 246, 354, 356; contrasted with .e, 357; use in connecting tenses, 246 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pi'u</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ cross product: with tenses, 246 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cross product</primary></indexterm>
A sepi'u B the cross product of sets B and A
+<!-- ^^ sepi'u, 354 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sepi'u</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ cross product: with tenses, 246 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cross product</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>se</quote>is grammatical before any JOI cmavo, but only useful with those that have inherent order. Here are some examples of joiks:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-cwG8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section14-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cuxna la .alis. la frank. ce la .alis. ce la djeimyz.</jbo>
<gloss>I choose Alice from Frank and-member Alice and-member James.</gloss>
<en>I choose Alice from among Frank, Alice, and James.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The x3 place of
<quote>cuxna</quote>is a set from which the choice is being made. A set is an abstract object which is determined by specifying its members. Unlike those of a mass, the properties of a set are unrelated to its members' properties: the set of all rats is large (since many rats exist), but the rats themselves are small. This chapter does not attempt to explain set theory (the mathematical study of sets) in detail: explaining propositional logic is quite enough for one chapter!</para>
+<!-- ^^ set of all rats: example, 447 -->
+<indexterm><primary>set of all rats</primary></indexterm>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section14-example6" />we specify that set by listing the members with
<quote>ce</quote>joining them.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Emw0">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section14-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti liste mi ce'o do ce'o la djan.</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ce'o, 354, 362 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ce'o</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>This is-a-list-of me and-sequence you and-sequence John.</gloss>
<en>This is a list of you, me, and John.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The x2 place of
<quote>liste</quote>is a sequence of the things which are mentioned in the list. (It is worth pointing out that
<quote>lo liste</quote>means a physical object such as a grocery list: a purely abstract list is
<quote>lo porsi</quote>, a sequence.) Here the three sumti connected by
<quote>ce'o</quote>are in a definite order, not just lumped together in a set or a mass.</para>
+<!-- ^^ ce'o, 354, 362 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ce'o</primary></indexterm>
<para>So
<quote>joi</quote>,
<quote>ce</quote>, and
<quote>ce'o</quote>are parallel, in that the sumti connected are taken to be individuals, and the result is something else: a mass, a set, or a sequence respectively. The cmavo
+<!-- ^^ ce'o, 354, 362 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ce'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>jo'u</quote>serves as a fourth element in this pattern: the sumti connected are individuals, and the result is still individuals - but inseparably so. The normal Lojban way of saying that James and George are brothers is:</para>
+<!-- ^^ jo'u, 354, 355; contrasted with ce, 355; contrasted with ce'o, 355; contrasted with joi, 355; result of connection with, 355 -->
+<indexterm><primary>jo'u</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ brothers: example, 355 -->
+<indexterm><primary>brothers</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-sy2V">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section14-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djeimyz. bruna la djordj.</jbo>
<en>James is-the-brother-of George.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>possibly adding a discursive element meaning
<quote>and vice versa</quote>. However,
<quote>James and George are brothers</quote>cannot be correctly translated as:</para>
+<!-- ^^ brothers: example, 355 -->
+<indexterm><primary>brothers</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-1PHN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section14-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djeimyz. .e la djordj. bruna</jbo>
<en>James and George is-a-brother.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>since that expands to two bridi and means that James is a brother and so is George, but not necessarily of each other. If the
<quote>.e</quote>is changed to
<quote>jo'u</quote>, however, the meaning of
+<!-- ^^ jo'u, 354, 355; contrasted with ce, 355; contrasted with ce'o, 355; contrasted with joi, 355; result of connection with, 355 -->
+<indexterm><primary>jo'u</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section14-example8" />is preserved:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-gnwy">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section14-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djeimyz. jo'u la djordj. cu remei bruna</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ jo'u, 354, 355; contrasted with ce, 355; contrasted with ce'o, 355; contrasted with joi, 355; result of connection with, 355 -->
+<indexterm><primary>jo'u</primary></indexterm>
<en>James in-common-with George are-a-twosome type-of-brothers.</en>
+<!-- ^^ brothers: example, 355 -->
+<indexterm><primary>brothers</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The tanru
<quote>remei bruna</quote>is not strictly necessary in this sentence, but is used to make clear that we are not saying that James and George are both brothers of some third person not specified. Alternatively, we could turn the tanru around: the x1 place of
+<!-- ^^ brothers: example, 355 -->
+<indexterm><primary>brothers</primary></indexterm>
<quote>remei</quote>is a mass with two components, leading to:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-t0FJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section14-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djeimyz. joi la djordj. cu bruna remei</jbo>
<en>James massed-with George are-a-brother type-of-twosome.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -2027,58 +2321,90 @@
<para>which represents quite a different state of affairs from
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section14-example12" />. The meaning of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section14-example12" />can also be conveyed by a termset:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-nER7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d15" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section14-example15" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djeimyz. ce'e la meris. pe'e .e la djordj. ce'e la martas. prami</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ pe'e, 347 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pe'e</primary></indexterm>
<en>James [plus] Mary [joint] and George [plus] Martha loves.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>at the expense of re-ordering the list of names so as to make the pairs explicit. This option is not available when one of the lists is only described rather than enumerated:</para>
+<!-- ^^ lists: use of tu'e/tu'u in, 358 -->
+<indexterm><primary>lists</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-1r61">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d16" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section14-example16" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djeimyz. fa'u la djordj. prami re mensi</jbo>
<en>James and-respectively George love two sisters.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which conveys that James loves one sister and George the other, though we are not able to tell which of the sisters is which.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section15">
<title>15. More about non-logical connectives</title>
<para>The final three JOI cmavo,
<quote>jo'e</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ jo'e, 354, 356 -->
+<indexterm><primary>jo'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ku'a</quote>, and
+<!-- ^^ ku'a, 354, 356 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ku'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>pi'u</quote>, are probably only useful when talking explicitly about sets. They represent three standard set operators usually called
+<!-- ^^ pi'u, 246, 354, 356; contrasted with .e, 357; use in connecting tenses, 246 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pi'u</primary></indexterm>
<quote>union</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ union: of sets, 356 -->
+<indexterm><primary>union</primary></indexterm>
<quote>intersection</quote>, and
+<!-- ^^ intersection: of sets, 356 -->
+<indexterm><primary>intersection</primary></indexterm>
<quote>cross product</quote>(also known as
+<!-- ^^ cross product: with tenses, 246 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cross product</primary></indexterm>
<quote>Cartesian product</quote>). The union of two sets is a set containing all the members that are in either set; the intersection of two sets is a set containing all the members that are in both sets. The cross product of two sets is the set of all possible ordered pairs, where each ordered pair contains a single element from the first set followed by a single element from the second. This may seem very abstract; hopefully, the following examples will help:</para>
+<!-- ^^ union: of sets, 356 -->
+<indexterm><primary>union</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ intersection: of sets, 356 -->
+<indexterm><primary>intersection</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ cross product: with tenses, 246 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cross product</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ Cartesian product: with tenses, 246 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Cartesian product</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-jdb5">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e15d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section15-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c14e15d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section15-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo'i ricfu ku jo'e lo'i dotco cu barda</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ jo'e, 354, 356 -->
+<indexterm><primary>jo'e</primary></indexterm>
<en>The-set-of rich-things union the-set-of German-things is large.</en>
+<!-- ^^ union: of sets, 356 -->
+<indexterm><primary>union</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>lo'i ricfu ku ku'a lo'i dotco cu cmalu</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ku'a, 354, 356 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ku'a</primary></indexterm>
<en>The set-of rich-things intersection the-set-of German-things is small.</en>
+<!-- ^^ intersection: of sets, 356 -->
+<indexterm><primary>intersection</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>There is a parallelism between logic and set theory that makes
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section15-example1" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section15-example2" />equivalent respectively to:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-azCQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e15d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section15-example3" />
</title>
@@ -2100,22 +2426,26 @@
</example>
<para>The following example uses
<quote>se remei</quote>, which is a set (not a mass) of two elements:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-D9gz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e15d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section15-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djeimyz. ce[bo] la djordj. pi'u la meris. cebo la martas.</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ pi'u, 246, 354, 356; contrasted with .e, 357; use in connecting tenses, 246 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pi'u</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>cu prami se remei</gloss>
<gloss>James and-set George cross-product Mary and-set Martha</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ cross-product: contrasted with and, 357; of sets, 356 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cross-product</primary></indexterm>
<en>are-lover type-of-pairs.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means that each of the pairs James/Mary, George/Mary, James/Martha, and George/Martha love each other. Therefore it is similar in meaning to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section14-example13" />; however, that example speaks only of the men loving the women, not vice versa.</para>
<para>Joiks may be combined with
<quote>bo</quote>or with
<quote>ke</quote>in the same way as eks and jeks; this allows grouping of non-logical connections between sumti and tanru units, in complete parallelism with logical connections:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-mwpo">
<title>
@@ -2124,95 +2454,119 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi joibo do ce la djan. joibo la djein.</jbo>
<gloss>cu gunma se remei</gloss>
<gloss>(I massed-with you) and (John massed-with Jane)</gloss>
<en>are-a-mass type-of-two-set</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>asserts that there is a set of two items each of which is a mass.</para>
<para>Non-logical connection is permitted at the joint of a termset; this is useful for associating more than one sumti or tagged sumti with each side of the non-logical connection. The place structure of
+<!-- ^^ non-logical connection: and elidability of terminators, 354; in mathematical expressions, 361; in tanru, distinguishing from connection of sumti, 354; of individuals into mass, 355; of individuals into set, 355; of modals, 208; of operands, 455; of operators, 455; of sumti, distinguishing from connection in tanru, 354; of termsets, 357 -->
+<indexterm><primary>non-logical connection</primary></indexterm>
<quote>casnu</quote>is:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
casnu: the mass x1 discusses/talks about x2
</programlisting>
<para>so the x1 place must be occupied by a mass (for reasons not explained here); however, different components of the mass may discuss in different languages. To associate each participant with his or her language, we can say:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-sdba">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e15d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section15-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ce'e bau la lojban.</jbo>
<gloss>pe'e joi do ce'e bau la gliban. nu'u casnu</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ pe'e, 347 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pe'e</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>( I [plus] in-language Lojban</gloss>
<en>massed-with you [plus] in-language English ) discuss.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Like all non-logical connectives, the usage shown in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section15-example7" />cannot be mechanically converted into a non-logical connective placed at another location in the bridi. The forethought equivalent of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section15-example7" />is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-DgXI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e15d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section15-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>nu'i joigi mi bau la lojban gi do bau la gliban. nu'u casnu</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Non-logical forethought termsets are also useful when the things to be non-logically connected are sumti preceded with tense or modal (BAI) tags:</para>
+<!-- ^^ forethought termsets: logical connection of, 348 -->
+<indexterm><primary>forethought termsets</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-wVSG">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e15d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section15-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. fa'u la frank. cusku nu'i bau la lojban.</jbo>
<gloss>nu'u fa'u bai tu'a la djordj. [nu'u]</gloss>
<gloss>John respectively-with Frank express [start termset] in-language Lojban</gloss>
<gloss>[joint] respectively-with under-compulsion-by George.</gloss>
<en>John and Frank speak in Lojban and under George's compulsion, respectively.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section15-example9" />associates speaking in Lojban with John, and speaking under George's compulsion with Frank. We do not know what language Frank uses, or whether John speaks under anyone's compulsion.</para>
+<!-- ^^ anyone: contrasted with everyone in assumption of existence, 399 -->
+<indexterm><primary>anyone</primary></indexterm>
<para>Joiks may be prefixed with
<quote>.i</quote>to produce ijoiks, which serve to non-logically connect sentences. The ijoik
+<!-- ^^ ijoik: as name for compound cmavo, 336; definition, 358 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ijoik</primary></indexterm>
<quote>.ice'o</quote>indicates that the event of the second bridi follows that of the first bridi in some way other than a time relationship (which is handled with a tense):</para>
+<!-- ^^ ice'o: contrasted with .ibabo, 358 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ice'o</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-27xU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e15d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section15-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ba gasnu la'edi'e</jbo>
<gloss>.i tu'e kanji lo ni cteki</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ kanji: contrasted with alphabets and syllabaries, 420; representing based on romaji spelling, 420; representing based on strokes, 420 -->
+<!-- ^^ syllabaries: lerfu word representation, 420 -->
+<indexterm><primary>syllabaries</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ romaji: as a basis for kanji characters in Lojban lerfu words, 420 -->
+<indexterm><primary>romaji</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>kanji</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>.ice'o lumci le karce</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ ice'o: contrasted with .ibabo, 358 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ice'o</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>.ice'o dzukansa le gerku tu'u</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ ice'o: contrasted with .ibabo, 358 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ice'o</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I [future] do the-referent-of-the-following:</gloss>
<gloss>( Compute the quantity of taxes.</gloss>
<gloss>And-then wash the car.</gloss>
<gloss>And-then walkingly-accompany the dog. )</gloss>
<gloss>List of things to do:</gloss>
<gloss>Figure taxes.</gloss>
<gloss>Wash car.</gloss>
<en>Walk dog.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section15-example10" />represents a list of things to be done in priority order. The order is important, hence the need for a sequence connective, but does not necessarily represent a time order (the dog may end up getting walked first). Note the use of
<quote>tu'e</quote>and
<quote>tu'u</quote>as general brackets around the whole list. This is related to, but distinct from, their use in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section8" />, because there is no logical connective between the introductory phrase
<quote>mi ba gasnu la'edi'e</quote>and the rest. The brackets effectively show how large an utterance the word
<quote>di'e</quote>, which means
+<!-- ^^ di'e, 149, 358; effect of tu'e/tu'u on, 358 -->
+<indexterm><primary>di'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>the following utterance</quote>, refers to.</para>
<para>Similarly,
<quote>.ijoi</quote>is used to connect sentences that represent the components of a joint event such as a joint cause: the Lojban equivalent of
<quote>Fran hit her head and fell out of the boat, so that she drowned</quote>would join the events
<quote>Fran hit her head</quote>and
<quote>Fran fell out of the boat</quote>with
<quote>.ijoi</quote>.</para>
<para>The following
<quote>nai</quote>, if present, does not negate either of the things to be connected, but instead specifies that some other connection (logical or non-logical) is applicable: it is a scalar negation:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-mMdb">
@@ -2220,69 +2574,87 @@
<anchor xml:id="c14e15d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section15-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi jo'unai do cu remei</jbo>
<en>I in-common-with [not!] you are-a-twosome</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The result of
<quote>mi jo'u do</quote>would be two individuals, not a mass, therefore
+<!-- ^^ jo'u, 354, 355; contrasted with ce, 355; contrasted with ce'o, 355; contrasted with joi, 355; result of connection with, 355 -->
+<indexterm><primary>jo'u</primary></indexterm>
<quote>jo'u</quote>is not applicable;
+<!-- ^^ jo'u, 354, 355; contrasted with ce, 355; contrasted with ce'o, 355; contrasted with joi, 355; result of connection with, 355 -->
+<indexterm><primary>jo'u</primary></indexterm>
<quote>joi</quote>would be the correct connective.</para>
<para>There is no joik question cmavo as such; however, joiks and ijoiks may be uttered in isolation in response to a logical connective question, as in the following exchange:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-9wAR">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e15d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section15-example12" />
<anchor xml:id="c14e15d13" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section15-example13" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do djica tu'a</jbo>
<gloss>loi ckafi ji loi tcati</gloss>
<gloss>You desire something-about</gloss>
<gloss>a-mass-of coffee [what connective?] a-mass-of tea?</gloss>
<en>Do you want coffee or tea?</en>
+<!-- ^^ coffee or tea: example, 352 -->
+<indexterm><primary>coffee or tea</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>joi</jbo>
<gloss>Mixed-mass-and.</gloss>
<en>Both as a mass (i.e, mixed together).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Ugh. (Or in Lojban: .a'unaisairo'o.)</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section16">
<title>16. Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection</title>
+<!-- ^^ non-logical connection: and elidability of terminators, 354; in mathematical expressions, 361; in tanru, distinguishing from connection of sumti, 354; of individuals into mass, 355; of individuals into set, 355; of modals, 208; of operands, 455; of operators, 455; of sumti, distinguishing from connection in tanru, 354; of termsets, 357 -->
+<indexterm><primary>non-logical connection</primary></indexterm>
<para>In addition to the non-logical connectives of selma'o JOI explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section14" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section15" />, there are three other connectives which can appear in joiks:
<quote>bi'i</quote>,
<quote>bi'o</quote>, and
<quote>mi'i</quote>, all of selma'o BIhI. The first two cmavo are used to specify intervals: abstract objects defined by two endpoints. The cmavo
+<!-- ^^ mi'i, 359, 455 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mi'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bi'i</quote>is correct if the endpoints are independent of order, whereas
<quote>bi'o</quote>or
<quote>sebi'o</quote>are used when order matters.</para>
+<!-- ^^ sebi'o, 359 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sebi'o</primary></indexterm>
<para>An example of
<quote>bi'i</quote>in sumti connection:</para>
+<!-- ^^ sumti connection: afterthought, 340; forethought, 341 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sumti connection</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-sHhA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e16d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section16-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ca sanli la drezdn. bi'i la frankfurt.</jbo>
<gloss>I [present] stand-on-surface Dresden [interval] Frankfurt.</gloss>
<en>I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt.</en>
+<!-- ^^ between Dresden and Frankfurt: example, 359, 360, 361 -->
+<indexterm><primary>between Dresden and Frankfurt</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section16-example1" />, it is all the same whether I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt or between Frankfurt and Dresden, so
+<!-- ^^ between Dresden and Frankfurt: example, 359, 360, 361 -->
+<indexterm><primary>between Dresden and Frankfurt</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bi'i</quote>is the appropriate interval connective. The sumti
<quote>la drezdn. bi'i la frankfurt.</quote>falls into the x2 place of
<quote>sanli</quote>, which is the surface I stand on; the interval specifies that surface by its limits. (Obviously, I am not standing on the whole of the interval; the x2 place of
<quote>sanli</quote>specifies a surface which is typically larger in extent than just the size of the stander's feet.)</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-rYv4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e16d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section16-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -2297,34 +2669,42 @@
<quote>la recac.</quote>; otherwise we have an 11-hour (or 23-hour) interval rather than a one-hour interval. In this use of an interval, the whole interval is probably intended, or at least most of it.</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section16-example2" />is equivalent to:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-qqIr">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e16d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section16-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cadzu ca la recac. sebi'o la pacac.</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ sebi'o, 359 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sebi'o</primary></indexterm>
<en>I walk simultaneous-with Second-hour [reverse] [ordered] First-hour.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>English cannot readily express
<quote>sebi'o</quote>, but its meaning can be understood by reversing the two sumti.</para>
+<!-- ^^ sebi'o, 359 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sebi'o</primary></indexterm>
<para>The third cmavo of selma'o BIhI, namely
<quote>mi'i</quote>, expresses an interval seen from a different viewpoint: not a pair of endpoints, but a center point and a distance. For example:</para>
+<!-- ^^ mi'i, 359, 455 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mi'i</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-wm5E">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e16d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section16-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le jbama pu daspo la .uacintyn. mi'i lo minli be li muno</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ mi'i, 359, 455 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mi'i</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>The bomb [past] destroys Washington [center] what-is measured-in-miles by 50.</gloss>
<en>The bomb destroyed Washington and fifty miles around.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here we have an interval whose center is Washington and whose distance, or radius, is fifty miles.</para>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section16-example1" />, is it possible that I am standing in Dresden (or Frankfurt) itself? Yes. The connectives of selma'o BIhI are ambiguous about whether the endpoints themselves are included in or excluded from the interval. Two auxiliary cmavo
<quote>ga'o</quote>and
<quote>ke'i</quote>(of cmavo GAhO) are used to indicate the status of the endpoints:
<quote>ga'o</quote>means that the endpoint is included,
@@ -2337,112 +2717,136 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section16-example6" />
<anchor xml:id="c14e16d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section16-example7" />
<anchor xml:id="c14e16d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section16-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ca sanli la drezdn. ga'o bi'i ga'o la frankfurt.</jbo>
<gloss>I [present] stand Dresden [inclusive] [interval] [inclusive] Frankfurt.</gloss>
<en>I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt, inclusive of both.</en>
+<!-- ^^ between Dresden and Frankfurt: example, 359, 360, 361 -->
+<indexterm><primary>between Dresden and Frankfurt</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>mi ca sanli la drezdn. ga'o bi'i ke'i la frankfurt.</jbo>
<gloss>I [present] stand Dresden [inclusive] [interval] [exclusive] Frankfurt.</gloss>
<en>I am standing between Dresden (inclusive) and Frankfurt (exclusive).</en>
<jbo>mi ca sanli la drezdn. ke'i bi'i ga'o la frankfurt.</jbo>
<gloss>I [present] stand Dresden [exclusive] [interval] [inclusive] Frankfurt.</gloss>
<en>I am standing between Dresden (exclusive) and Frankfurt (inclusive).</en>
<jbo>mi ca sanli la drezdn. ke'i bi'i ke'i la frankfurt.</jbo>
<gloss>I [present] stand Dresden [exclusive] [interval] [exclusive] Frankfurt.</gloss>
<en>I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt, exclusive of both.</en>
+<!-- ^^ between Dresden and Frankfurt: example, 359, 360, 361 -->
+<indexterm><primary>between Dresden and Frankfurt</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>As these examples should make clear, the GAhO cmavo that applies to a given endpoint is the one that stands physically adjacent to it: the left-hand endpoint is referred to by the first GAhO, and the right-hand endpoint by the second GAhO. It is ungrammatical to have just one GAhO.</para>
<para>(Etymologically,
<quote>ga'o</quote>is derived from
<quote>ganlo</quote>, which means
<quote>closed</quote>, and
<quote>ke'i</quote>from
<quote>kalri</quote>, which means
<quote>open</quote>. In mathematics, inclusive intervals are referred to as closed intervals, and exclusive intervals as open ones.)</para>
<para>BIhI joiks are grammatical anywhere that other joiks are, including in tanru connection and (as ijoiks) between sentences. No meanings have been found for these uses.</para>
+<!-- ^^ tanru connection: connotation of non-logical, 354 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tanru connection</primary></indexterm>
<para>Negated intervals, marked with a
<quote>-nai</quote>following the BIhI cmavo, indicate an interval that includes everything but what is between the endpoints (with respect to some understood scale):</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-39EI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e16d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section16-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do dicra .e'a mi ca la daucac. bi'onai la gaicac.</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ e'a, 303 -->
+<indexterm><primary>e'a</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>You disturb (allowed) me at 10 not-from ... to 12</gloss>
<en>You can contact me except from 10 to 12.</en>
+<!-- ^^ except from 10 to 12: example, 360 -->
+<indexterm><primary>except from 10 to 12</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The complete syntax of joiks is:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
[se] JOI [nai]
[se] BIhI [nai]
GAhO [se] BIhI [nai] GAhO
</programlisting>
<para>Notice that the colloquial English translations of
<quote>bi'i</quote>and
<quote>bi'o</quote>have forethought form:
<quote>between ... and</quote>for
<quote>bi'i</quote>, and
<quote>from ... to</quote>for
<quote>bi'o</quote>. In Lojban too, non-logical connectives can be expressed in forethought. Rather than using a separate selma'o, the forethought logical connectives are constructed from the afterthought ones by suffixing
+<!-- ^^ forethought logical connectives: within tanru, 92 -->
+<indexterm><primary>forethought logical connectives</primary></indexterm>
<quote>gi</quote>. Such a compound cmavo is not unnaturally called a
<quote>joigik</quote>; the syntax of joigiks is any of:</para>
+<!-- ^^ joigiks: connection types, 361; syntax of, 361 -->
+<indexterm><primary>joigiks</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ joigik: as name for compound cmavo, 336; definition, 361 -->
+<indexterm><primary>joigik</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
[se] JOI [nai] GI
[se] BIhI [nai] GI
GAhO [se] BIhI [nai] GAhO GI
</programlisting>
<para>Joigiks may be used to non-logically connect bridi, sumti, and bridi-tails; and also in termsets.</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section14-example3" />in forethought becomes:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-iBpP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e16d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section16-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>joigi la djan. gi la .alis. bevri le pipno</jbo>
<en>[Together] John and Alice carry the piano.</en>
+<!-- ^^ carry the piano: example, 361 -->
+<indexterm><primary>carry the piano</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The first
<quote>gi</quote>is part of the joigik; the second
+<!-- ^^ joigik: as name for compound cmavo, 336; definition, 361 -->
+<indexterm><primary>joigik</primary></indexterm>
<quote>gi</quote>is the regular gik that separates the two things being connected in all forethought forms.</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section16-example6" />can be expressed in forethought as:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-u51K">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e16d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section16-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ca sanli ke'i bi'i ga'o gi la drezdn. gi la frankfurt.</jbo>
<gloss>I [present] stand [exclusive] between [inclusive] Dresden and Frankfurt.</gloss>
<en>I am standing between Dresden (exclusive) and Frankfurt (inclusive).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In forethought, unfortunately, the GAhOs become physically separated from the endpoints, but the same rule applies: the first GAhO refers to the first endpoint.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section17">
<title>17. Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso</title>
<para>Lojban has a separate grammar embedded within the main grammar for representing mathematical expressions (or mekso in Lojban) such as
+<!-- ^^ mathematical expressions: connectives in, 361; implicit quantifier for, 142; tensed connection in, 364 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mathematical expressions</primary></indexterm>
<quote>2 + 2</quote>. Mathematical expressions are explained fully in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18" />. The basic components of mekso are operands, like
<quote>2</quote>, and operators, like
<quote>+</quote>. Both of these may be either logically or non-logically connected.</para>
<para>Operands are connected in afterthought with eks and in forethought with geks, just like sumti. Operators, on the other hand, are connected in afterthought with jeks and in forethought with guheks, just like tanru components. (However, jeks and joiks with
+<!-- ^^ guheks: connecting operators, 361; syntax of, 350 -->
+<indexterm><primary>guheks</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bo</quote>are not allowed for operators.) This parallelism is no accident.</para>
<para>In addition, eks with
<quote>bo</quote>and with
<quote>ke ... ke'e</quote>are allowed for grouping logically connected operands, and
<quote>ke ... ke'e</quote>is allowed for grouping logically connected operators, although there is no analogue of tanru among the operators.</para>
<para>Only a few examples of each kind of mekso connection will be given. Despite the large number of rules required to support this feature, it is of relatively minor importance in either the mekso or the logical-connective scheme of things. These examples are drawn from
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18" />, and contain many mekso features not explained in this chapter.</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section17-example1" />exhibits afterthought logical connection between operands:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-gMU4">
@@ -2450,20 +2854,24 @@
<anchor xml:id="c14e17d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section17-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>vei ci .a vo [ve'o] prenu cu klama le zarci</jbo>
<en>( Three or four ) people go-to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section17-example2" />is equivalent in meaning, but uses forethought connection:</para>
+<!-- ^^ forethought connection: contrasted with afterthought for grammatical utterances, 352; definition, 199; in abstractions, 365; in tenses, 363; observatives, 347; of operands, 453; of operators, 453 -->
+<!-- ^^ observatives: and abstractions, 255; quick-tour version, 15 -->
+<indexterm><primary>observatives</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>forethought connection</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ftNY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e17d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section17-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>vei ga ci gi vo [ve'o] prenu cu klama le zarci</jbo>
<en>( Either 3 or 4 ) people go-to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -2492,42 +2900,54 @@
<anchor xml:id="c14e17d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section17-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li re ge su'i gi pi'i re du li vo</jbo>
<gloss>The-number two both plus and times two equals the-number four.</gloss>
<en>Both 2 + 2 = 4 and 2 x 2 = 4.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Non-logical connection with joiks or joigiks is also permitted between operands and between operators. One use for this construct is to connect operands with
+<!-- ^^ joigiks: connection types, 361; syntax of, 361 -->
+<indexterm><primary>joigiks</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bi'i</quote>to create mathematical intervals:</para>
+<!-- ^^ mathematical intervals, 362 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mathematical intervals</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-z2oF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e17d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section17-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li no ga'o bi'i ke'i pa</jbo>
<gloss>the-number zero (inclusive) from-to (exclusive) one</gloss>
<gloss>[0,1)</gloss>
<en>the numbers from zero to one, including zero but not including one</en>
+<!-- ^^ zero to one: example, 362 -->
+<indexterm><primary>zero to one</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>You can also combine two operands with
<quote>ce'o</quote>, the sequence connective of selma'o JOI, to make a compound subscript:</para>
+<!-- ^^ compound subscript, 362, 455 -->
+<indexterm><primary>compound subscript</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ ce'o, 354, 362 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ce'o</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-8rEL">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e17d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section17-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xy. boi xi vei by. ce'o dy. [ve'o]</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ce'o, 354, 362 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ce'o</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>
<quote>x</quote>sub (
<quote>b</quote>sequence
<quote>d</quote>)</gloss>
<en>x</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that the
<quote>boi</quote>in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section17-example6" />is not elidable, because the
@@ -2535,20 +2955,24 @@
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section18">
<title>18. Tenses, modals, and logical connection</title>
<para>The tense and modal systems of Lojban interact with the logical connective system. No one chapter can explain all of these simultaneously, so each chapter must present its own view of the area of interaction with emphasis on its own concepts and terminology. In the examples of this chapter, the many tenses of various selma'o as well as the modals of selma'o BAI are represented by the simple time cmavo
<quote>pu</quote>,
<quote>ca</quote>, and
<quote>ba</quote>(of selma'o PU) representing the past, the present, and the future respectively. Preceding a selbri, these cmavo state the time when the bridi was, is, or will be true (analogous to English verb tenses); preceding a sumti, they state that the event of the main bridi is before, simultaneous with, or after the event given by the sumti (which is generally a
<quote>le nu</quote>abstraction; see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11" />).</para>
<para>The two types of interaction between tenses and logical connectives are logically connected tenses and tensed logical connections. The former are fairly simple. Jeks may be used between tense cmavo to specify two connected bridi that differ only in tense:</para>
+<!-- ^^ logically connected tenses: definition, 363; expansion to sentences, 245; with JA, 245 -->
+<indexterm><primary>logically connected tenses</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ connected tenses: negation of compared with negation in connective, 245 -->
+<indexterm><primary>connected tenses</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-g6iT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e18d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section18-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .artr. pu nolraitru</jbo>
<gloss>.ije la .artr. ba nolraitru</gloss>
<gloss>Arthur [past] is-a-noblest-governor.</gloss>
<gloss>And Arthur [future] is-a-noblest-governor.</gloss>
@@ -2572,26 +2996,34 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section18-example2" />are equivalent in meaning; neither says anything about whether Arthur is king now.</para>
<para>Non-logical connection with joiks is also possible between tenses:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Mcsi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e18d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section18-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu bi'o ba vasxu</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] from ... to [future] breathe.</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ breathe: example, 363 -->
+<indexterm><primary>breathe</primary></indexterm>
<en>I breathe from a past time until a future time.</en>
+<!-- ^^ breathe: example, 363 -->
+<indexterm><primary>breathe</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The full tense system makes more interesting tense intervals expressible, such as
+<!-- ^^ tense system: and space location, 215 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tense system</primary></indexterm>
<quote>from a medium time ago until a long time from now</quote>.</para>
<para>No forethought connections between tenses are permitted by the grammar, nor is there any way to override the default left-grouping rule; these limitations are imposed to keep the tense grammar simpler. Whatever can be said with tenses or modals can be said with subordinate bridi stating the time, place, or mode explicitly, so it is reasonable to try to remove at least some complications.</para>
+<!-- ^^ forethought connections: modal compared with tense in semantics, 249 -->
+<indexterm><primary>forethought connections</primary></indexterm>
<para>Tensed logical connections are both more complex and more important than logical connections between tenses. Consider the English sentence:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-efav">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e18d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section18-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>I went to the market, and I bought food.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -2614,29 +3046,37 @@
<quote>ba</quote>is inserted between
<quote>.ije</quote>and
<quote>bo</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-BPG1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e18d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section18-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu klama le zarci .ijebabo mi pu tervecnu lo cidja</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ijebabo, 363 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ijebabo</primary></indexterm>
<en>I [past] go-to the market. And [later] I [past] buy items-of food.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the
<quote>pu</quote>cmavo in the two bridi-tails express the time of both actions with respect to the speaker: in the past. The
<quote>ba</quote>relates the two items to one another: the second item is later than the first item. The grammar does not permit omitting the
<quote>bo</quote>; if it were omitted, the
<quote>ba</quote>and the second
<quote>pu</quote>would run together to form a compound tense
+<!-- ^^ compound tense: compared with multiple tenses in sentence, 234; compared with tense in scope of sticky tense, 234; definition, 218; Lojban contrasted with English in order of specification, 218 -->
+<!-- ^^ tense in scope of sticky tense: compared with compound tense, 234 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tense in scope of sticky tense</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ multiple tenses: effect of order in sentence, 235 -->
+<indexterm><primary>multiple tenses</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>compound tense</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bapu</quote>applying to the second bridi-tail only.</para>
<para>Adding tense or modal information to a logical connective is permitted only in the following situations:</para>
<para>Between an ek (or joik) and
<quote>bo</quote>, as in:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-129L">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e18d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section18-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -2678,33 +3118,39 @@
<anchor xml:id="c14e18d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section18-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi dzukla le zarci gi'ecake cusku zo'e la djan. [ke'e]</jbo>
<gloss>I walk-to the market and [simultaneous] express something to-John.</gloss>
<en>I walk to the market and at the same time talk to John.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Between an ijek (or ijoik) and
+<!-- ^^ ijoik: as name for compound cmavo, 336; definition, 358 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ijoik</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bo</quote>, as in:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-AhnP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e18d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section18-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska pa nanmu .ijebabo mi viska pa ninmu</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ijebabo, 363 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ijebabo</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I see a man. And [later] I see a woman.</gloss>
<en>I see a man, and then I see a woman.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Between an ijek (or ijoik) and
+<!-- ^^ ijoik: as name for compound cmavo, 336; definition, 358 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ijoik</primary></indexterm>
<quote>tu'e</quote>, as in:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-GBgP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e18d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section18-example12" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska pa nanmu .ijebatu'e mi viska pa ninmu [tu'u]</jbo>
<gloss>I see a man. And [later] I see a woman.</gloss>
<en>I see a man, and then I see a woman.</en>
@@ -2743,52 +3189,62 @@
<anchor xml:id="c14e18d14" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section18-example14" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>vei ci .ebabo vo [ve'o] tadni cu zvati le kumfa</jbo>
<gloss>( 3 and [future] 4 ) students are-at the room.</gloss>
<en>Three and, later, four students were in the room.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is a simple example. There is a special grammatical rule for use when a tense applies to both of the selbri in a forethought bridi-tail connection: the entire forethought construction can just be preceded by a tense. For example:</para>
+<!-- ^^ forethought bridi-tail connection: special rule for tense, 365 -->
+<indexterm><primary>forethought bridi-tail connection</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-DxuA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e18d15" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section18-example15" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu ge klama le zarci gi tervecnu lo cidja</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ pu ge, 365 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pu ge</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I [past] both go-to the market and buy some food</gloss>
<en>I went to the market and bought some food.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section18-example15" />is similar to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section18-example5" />. There is no time relationship specified between the going and the buying; both are simply set in the past.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section19">
<title>19. Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions</title>
<para>Last and (as a matter of fact) least: a logical connective is allowed between abstraction markers of selma'o NU. As usual, the connection can be expanded to a bridi connection between two bridi which differ only in abstraction marker. Jeks are the appropriate connective.
+<!-- ^^ bridi connection: use of imperatives in, 353; use of truth questions in, 353 -->
+<!-- ^^ imperatives: and truth, 353; attitude, 308; English contrasted with Lojban in presence of subject of command, 147; quick-tour version, 22; with ko, 146 -->
+<indexterm><primary>imperatives</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>bridi connection</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section19-example1" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section19-example2" />are equivalent in meaning:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-C7PL">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e19d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section19-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c14e19d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section19-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ka la frank. ciska cu xlali .ije le ni la frank. ciska cu xlali</jbo>
<en>The quality-of Frank's writing is bad, and the quantity of Frank's writing is bad.</en>
<jbo>le ka je ni la frank. ciska cu xlali</jbo>
<en>The quality and quantity of Frank's writing is bad.</en>
+<!-- ^^ quality and quantity: example, 365 -->
+<indexterm><primary>quality and quantity</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>As with tenses and modals, there is no forethought and no way to override the left-grouping rule.</para>
<para>Logical connectives and abstraction are related in another way as well, though. Since an abstraction contains a bridi, the bridi may have a logical connection inside it. Is it legitimate to split the outer bridi into two, joined by the logical connection? Absolutely not. For example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-f1uT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e19d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter14-section19-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -3044,67 +3500,77 @@
<para>Note: Ijeks are exactly the same as the corresponding jeks, except for the prefixed
<quote>.i</quote>.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section22">
<title>22. Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives</title>
<para>The full set of rules for inserting
<quote>na</quote>,
<quote>se</quote>, and
<quote>nai</quote>into any connective is:</para>
<para>Afterthought logical connectives (eks, jeks, giheks, ijeks):</para>
+<!-- ^^ giheks: syntax of, 346 -->
+<indexterm><primary>giheks</primary></indexterm>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Negate first construct: Place
<quote>na</quote>before the connective cmavo (but after the
<quote>.i</quote>of an ijek).</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Negate second construct: Place
<quote>nai</quote>after the connective cmavo.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Exchange constructs: Place
<quote>se</quote>before the connective cmavo (after
<quote>na</quote>if any).</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
<para>Forethought logical connectives (geks, guheks):</para>
+<!-- ^^ guheks: connecting operators, 361; syntax of, 350 -->
+<indexterm><primary>guheks</primary></indexterm>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Negate first construct: Place
<quote>nai</quote>after the connective cmavo.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Negate second construct: Place
<quote>nai</quote>after the
<quote>gi</quote>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Exchange constructs: Place
<quote>se</quote>before the connective cmavo.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
<para>Non-logical connectives (joiks, joigiks):</para>
+<!-- ^^ joigiks: connection types, 361; syntax of, 361 -->
+<indexterm><primary>joigiks</primary></indexterm>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Negate connection: Place
<quote>nai</quote>after the connective cmavo (but before the
<quote>gi</quote>of a joigik).</para>
+<!-- ^^ joigik: as name for compound cmavo, 336; definition, 361 -->
+<indexterm><primary>joigik</primary></indexterm>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Exchange constructs: Place
<quote>se</quote>before the connective cmavo.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter14-section23">
<title>23. Locations of other tables</title>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section1" />: a table explaining the meaning of each truth function in English.</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section2" />: a table relating the truth functions to the four basic vowels.</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section13" />: a table of the connective question cmavo.</para>
+<!-- ^^ connective question cmavo: departure from regularity of, 352 -->
+<indexterm><primary>connective question cmavo</primary></indexterm>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section14" />: a table of the meanings of JOI cmavo when used to connect sumti.</para>
</section>
</chapter>
diff --git a/todocbook/15.xml b/todocbook/15.xml
index 5b2016a..1e4b1d9 100644
--- a/todocbook/15.xml
+++ b/todocbook/15.xml
@@ -1,19 +1,21 @@
<chapter xml:id="cll_chapter15">
<title>Chapter 15
<quote>No</quote>Problems: On Lojban Negation</title>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter15-section1">
<title>1. Introductory</title>
<para>The grammatical expression of negation is a critical part of Lojban's claim to being logical. The problem of negation, simply put, is to come up with a complete definition of the word
<quote>not</quote>. For Lojban's unambiguous grammar, this means further that meanings of
<quote>not</quote>with different grammatical effect must be different words, and even different grammatical structures.</para>
<para>Logical assertions are implicitly required in a logical language; thus, an apparatus for expressing them is built into Lojban's logical connectives and other structures.</para>
+<!-- ^^ logical language: truth functions, 333 -->
+<indexterm><primary>logical language</primary></indexterm>
<para>In natural languages, especially those of Indo-European grammar, we have sentences composed of two parts which are typically called
<quote>subject</quote>and
<quote>predicate</quote>. In the statement</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-vrXe">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e1d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section1-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>John goes to the store</jbo>
@@ -105,20 +107,22 @@
<para>In the natural languages, we would be inclined to say that both of these statements are false, since there is no King of Mexico.</para>
<para>The rest of this chapter is designed to explain the Lojban model of negation.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter15-section2">
<title>2. bridi negation</title>
<para>In discussing Lojban negation, we will call the form of logical negation that simply denies the truth of a statement
<quote>bridi negation</quote>. Using bridi negation, we can say the equivalent of
<quote>I haven't stopped beating my wife</quote>without implying that I ever started, nor even that I have a wife, meaning simply
<quote>It isn't true that I have stopped beating my wife.</quote>Since Lojban uses bridi as smaller components of complex sentences, bridi negation is permitted in these components as well at the sentence level.</para>
<para>For the bridi negation of a sentence to be true, the sentence being negated must be false. A major use of bridi negation is in making a negative response to a yes/no question; such responses are usually contradictory, denying the truth of the entire sentence. A negative answer to</para>
+<!-- ^^ negative answer: quick-tour version, 24 -->
+<indexterm><primary>negative answer</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-sCNE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section2-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>Did you go to the store?</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is taken as a negation of the entire sentence, equivalent to</para>
@@ -155,20 +159,22 @@
<jbo>mi na klama le zarci</jbo>
<en>I [false] go-to the store.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that we have used a special convention to show in the English that a bridi negation is present. We would like to use the word
<quote>not</quote>, because this highlights the naturalness of putting the negation marker just before the selbri, and makes the form easier to learn. But there is a major difference between Lojban's bridi negation with
<quote>na</quote>and natural language negation with
<quote>not</quote>. In English, the word
<quote>not</quote>can apply to a single word, to a phrase, to an English predicate, or to the entire sentence. In addition,
<quote>not</quote>may indicate either contradictory negation or another form of negation, depending on the sentence. Lojban's internal bridi negation, on the other hand, always applies to an entire bridi, and is always a contradictory negation; that is, it contradicts the claim of the whole bridi.</para>
+<!-- ^^ internal bridi negation: compared to external bridi negation, 401; definition, 401 -->
+<indexterm><primary>internal bridi negation</primary></indexterm>
<para>Because of the ambiguity of English
<quote>not</quote>, we will use
<quote>[false]</quote>in the translation of Lojban examples to remind the reader that we are expressing a contradictory negation. Here are more examples of bridi negation:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-6ax5">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section2-example5" />
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section2-example6" />
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d7" />
@@ -177,23 +183,29 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi [cu] na ca klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [false] now am-a-go-er to the market.</gloss>
<en>I am not going to the market now.</en>
<jbo>lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu na krecau</jbo>
<gloss>The-actual present noblest-governor of the French country [false] is-hair-without.</gloss>
<en>The current king of France isn't bald.</en>
<jbo>ti na barda prenu co melbi mi</jbo>
<gloss>This [false] is a big-person of-type (beautiful to me).</gloss>
<en>This isn't a big person who is beautiful to me.</en>
+<!-- ^^ big person: example, 169 -->
+<indexterm><primary>big person</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Although there is this fundamental difference between Lojban's internal bridi negation and English negation, we note that in many cases, especially when there are no existential or quantified variables (the cmavo
+<!-- ^^ internal bridi negation: compared to external bridi negation, 401; definition, 401 -->
+<indexterm><primary>internal bridi negation</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ existential: mixed claim with universal, 394 -->
+<indexterm><primary>existential</primary></indexterm>
<quote>da</quote>,
<quote>de</quote>, and
<quote>di</quote>of selma'o KOhA, explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16" />) in the bridi, you can indeed translate Lojban
<quote>na</quote>as
<quote>not</quote>(or
<quote>isn't</quote>or
<quote>doesn't</quote>, as appropriate).</para>
<para>The most important rule about bridi negation is that if a bridi is true, its negation is false, and vice versa.</para>
<para>In Lojban, there are several structures that implicitly contain bridi, so that Lojban sentences may contain more than one occurrence of
@@ -207,20 +219,22 @@
<jbo>mi na gleki le nu</jbo>
<gloss>na klama le nu dansu</gloss>
<gloss>I [false] am-happy-about the event-of</gloss>
<gloss>([false] going-to the event-of dancing).</gloss>
<gloss>It is not the case that I am happy about it not being</gloss>
<gloss>the case that I am going to the dance.</gloss>
<en>I am not happy about not going to the dance.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In the previous example, we used internal negations in abstraction bridi; bridi negation may also be found in descriptions within sumti. For example:</para>
+<!-- ^^ abstraction bridi: contrasted with component non-abstraction bridi in meaning, 98; effect on claim of bridi, 198 -->
+<indexterm><primary>abstraction bridi</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-N65f">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section2-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci le na melbi</jbo>
<gloss>I am fond of the-one-described-as ([false] beautiful).</gloss>
<en>I am fond of the one who isn't beautiful.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -232,33 +246,39 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section2-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci lo na ca nolraitru be le frasygu'e</jbo>
<gloss>I am-fond-of one-who-is ([false] the current king of the French-country).</gloss>
<en>I am fond of one who isn't the current king of France.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The claim of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section2-example10" />could apply to anyone except a person who is fond of no one at all, since the relation within the description is false for everyone. You cannot readily express these situations in colloquial English.</para>
+<!-- ^^ anyone: contrasted with everyone in assumption of existence, 399 -->
+<indexterm><primary>anyone</primary></indexterm>
<para>Negation with
<quote>na</quote>applies to an entire bridi, and not to just part of a selbri. Therefore, you won't likely have reason to put
<quote>na</quote>inside a tanru. In fact, the grammar currently does not allow you to do so (except in a lujvo and in elaborate constructs involving GUhA, the forethought connector for selbri). Any situation where you might want to do so can be expressed in a less-compressed non-tanru form. This grammatical restriction helps ensure that bridi negation is kept separate from other forms of negation.</para>
+<!-- ^^ connector: for relative clauses, 508 -->
+<indexterm><primary>connector</primary></indexterm>
<para>The grammar of
<quote>na</quote>allows multiple adjacent negations, which cancel out, as in normal logic:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-RJKu">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section2-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti na na barda prenu co melbi mi</jbo>
<en>This [false] [false] is-a-big person that is (beautiful to me).</en>
+<!-- ^^ big person: example, 169 -->
+<indexterm><primary>big person</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which is the same as:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-2UpW">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section2-example12" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti barda prenu co melbi mi</jbo>
@@ -267,45 +287,51 @@
</example>
<para>When a selbri is tagged with a tense or a modal, negation with
<quote>na</quote>is permitted in two positions: before or after the tag. No semantic difference between these forms has yet been defined, but this is not finally determined, since the interactions between tenses/modals and bridi negation have not been fully explored. In particular, it remains to be seen whether sentences using less familiar tenses, such as:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-fgmv">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d13" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section2-example13" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi [cu] ta'e klama le zarci</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ta'e, 226, 324 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ta'e</primary></indexterm>
<en>I habitually go to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>mean the same thing with
<quote>na</quote>before the
<quote>ta'e</quote>, as when the negation occurs afterwards; we'll let future, Lojban-speaking, logicians decide on how they relate to each other.</para>
+<!-- ^^ ta'e, 226, 324 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ta'e</primary></indexterm>
<para>A final caution on translating English negations into Lojban: if you translate the English literally, you'll get the wrong one. With English causal statements, and other statements with auxiliary clauses, this problem is more likely.</para>
<para>Thus, if you translate the English:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-hEa7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d14" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section2-example14" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>I do not go to the market because the car is broken.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>as:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-q8su">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d15" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section2-example15" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na klama le zarci ki'u lenu le karce cu spofu</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ki'u, 197 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ki'u</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I [false] go-to the market because the car is broken.</gloss>
<en>It is false that:
<quote>I go to the market because the car is broken.</quote></en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>you end up negating too much.</para>
<para>Such mistranslations result from the ambiguity of English compounded by the messiness of natural language negation. A correct translation of the normal interpretation of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section2-example14" />is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-R3GU">
<title>
@@ -315,21 +341,25 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lenu mi na klama le zarci cu se krinu</jbo>
<gloss>lenu le karce cu spofu</gloss>
<gloss>The event-of (my [false] going-to the market) is justified by</gloss>
<gloss>the event-of (the car being broken).</gloss>
<en>My not going to the market is because the car is broken.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section2-example16" />, the negation is clearly confined to the event abstraction in the x1 sumti, and does not extend to the whole sentence. The English could also have been expressed by two separate sentences joined by a causal connective (which we'll not go into here).</para>
+<!-- ^^ event abstraction(s): types, 257 -->
+<indexterm><primary>event abstraction</primary></indexterm>
<para>The problem is not confined to obvious causals. In the English:</para>
+<!-- ^^ causals: claiming the relation contrasted with claiming cause and/or effect and/or relation, 198; gismu, 197; modal, 197 -->
+<indexterm><primary>causals</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-MGvB">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d17" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section2-example17" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>I was not conscripted into the Army with the help of my uncle the Senator.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>we do not intend the uncle's help to be part of the negation. We must thus move the negation into an event clause or use two separate sentences. The event-clause version would look like:</para>
@@ -385,20 +415,22 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e3d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section3-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>Is the chair green?</jbo>
<en>No, it is in the kitchen.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>we are unsettled because the response seems to be a non-sequitur. But since it might be true and it is a statement about the chair, one can't say it is entirely irrelevant!</para>
+<!-- ^^ irrelevant: specifying of sumti place, 157 -->
+<indexterm><primary>irrelevant</primary></indexterm>
<para>What is going on in these statements is something called
<quote>scalar negation</quote>. As the name suggests, scalar negation presumes an implied scale. A negation of this type not only states that one scalar value is false, but implies that another value on the scale must be true. This can easily lead to complications. The following exchange seems reasonably natural (a little suspension of disbelief in such inane conversation will help):</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-s5DJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e3d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section3-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>That isn't a blue house.</jbo>
<en>Right! That is a green house.</en>
@@ -530,20 +562,22 @@
<description>Awful</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>Some scales are more binary than the examples we diagrammed. Thus we have
<quote>not necessary</quote>or
<quote>unnecessary</quote>being the polar opposite of necessary. Another scale, especially relevant to Lojban, is interpreted based on situations modified by one's philosophy:
<quote>not true</quote>may be equated with
<quote>false</quote>in a bi-valued truth-functional logic, while in tri-valued logic an intermediate between
<quote>true</quote>and
<quote>false</quote>is permitted, and in fuzzy logic a continuous scale exists from true to false. The meaning of
+<!-- ^^ continuous: of tense intervals, 225 -->
+<indexterm><primary>continuous</primary></indexterm>
<quote>not true</quote>requires a knowledge of which variety of truth scale is being considered.</para>
<para>We will define the most general form of scalar negation as indicating only that the particular point or value in the scale or range is not valid and that some other (unspecified) point on the scale is correct. This is the intent expressed in most contexts by
<quote>not mild</quote>, for example.</para>
<para>Using this paradigm, contradictory negation is less restrictive than scalar negation - it says that the point or value stated is incorrect (false), and makes no statement about the truth of any other point or value, whether or not on the scale.</para>
<para>In English, scalar negation semantically includes phrases such as
<quote>other than</quote>,
<quote>reverse of</quote>, or
<quote>opposite from</quote>expressions and their equivalents. More commonly, scalar negation is expressed in English by the prefixes
<quote>non-</quote>,
<quote>un-</quote>,
@@ -568,20 +602,28 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section4-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci</jbo>
<en>I go to the market.</en>
<jbo>mi na'e klama le zarci</jbo>
<en>I non-go to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Comparing these two, we see that the negation operator being used in
+<!-- ^^ negation operator: contrasted with negative sign, 438; contrasted with subtraction operator, 438 -->
+<!-- ^^ subtraction operator: contrasted with negation operator, 438; contrasted with negative sign, 434 -->
+<indexterm><primary>subtraction operator</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ negative sign: contrasted with negation operator, 438; contrasted with subtraction operator, 434 -->
+<!-- ^^ subtraction operator: contrasted with negation operator, 438; contrasted with negative sign, 434 -->
+<indexterm><primary>subtraction operator</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>negative sign</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>negation operator</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section4-example2" />is
<quote>na'e</quote>. But what exactly does
<quote>na'e</quote>negate? Does the negation include only the gismu
<quote>klama</quote>, which is the entire selbri in this case, or does it include the
<quote>le zarci</quote>as well? In Lojban, the answer is unambiguously
<quote>only the gismu</quote>. The cmavo
<quote>na'e</quote>always applies only to what follows it.</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section4-example2" />looks as if it were parallel to:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-tqX1">
@@ -621,20 +663,22 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na'e cadzu klama le zarci</jbo>
<en>I (other-than-walkingly)-go-to the market.</en>
<jbo>mi cadzu na'e klama le zarci</jbo>
<en>I walkingly-(other-than-go-to) the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>These negations show the default scope of
<quote>na'e</quote>is close-binding on an individual brivla in a tanru.
+<!-- ^^ close-binding, 490 -->
+<indexterm><primary>close-binding</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section4-example5" />says that I am going to the market, but in some kind of a non-walking manner. (As with most tanru, there are a few other possible interpretations, but we'll assume this one - see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5" />for a discussion of tanru meaning).</para>
<para>In neither
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section4-example5" />nor
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section4-example6" />does the
<quote>na'e</quote>negate the entire selbri. While both sentences contain negations that deny a particular relationship between the sumti, they also have a component which makes a positive claim about such a relationship. This is clearer in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section4-example5" />, which says that I am going, but in a non-walking manner. In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section4-example6" />, we have claimed that the relationship between me and the market in some way involves walking, but is not one of
<quote>going to</quote>(perhaps we are walking around the market, or walking-in-place while at the market).</para>
<para>The
@@ -713,20 +757,22 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section4-example10" />is more restricted in scope; i.e. less of the sentence is negated with respect to x1 (
<quote>mi</quote>).</para>
<para>Logical scope being an important factor in Lojban's claims to be unambiguous, let us indicate the relative precedence of
<quote>na'e</quote>as an operator. Grouping with
<quote>ke</quote>and
<quote>ke'e</quote>, of course, has an overt scope, which is its advantage.
<quote>na'e</quote>is very close binding to its brivla. Internal binding of tanru, with
<quote>bo</quote>, is not as tightly bound as
<quote>na'e</quote>.
<quote>co</quote>, the tanru inversion operator has a scope that is longer than all other tanru constructs.</para>
+<!-- ^^ tanru inversion, 95; definition, 95; effect on tanru grouping, 96; in complex tanru, 96; multiple, 96; rule for removing, 96; where allowed, 96 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tanru inversion</primary></indexterm>
<para>In short,
<quote>na'e</quote>and
<quote>na'eke</quote>define a type of negation, which is shorter in scope than bridi negation, and which affects all or part of a selbri. The result of
<quote>na'e</quote>negation remains an assertion of some specific truth and not merely a denial of another claim.</para>
<para>The similarity becomes striking when it is noticed that the rafsi
<quote>-nal-</quote>, representing
<quote>na'e</quote>when a tanru is condensed into a lujvo, forms an exact parallel to the English usage of
<quote>non-</quote>. Turning a series of related negations into lujvo gives:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-2buq">
<title>
@@ -737,20 +783,22 @@
<jbo>na'e klama becomes nalkla</jbo>
<gloss>na'e cadzu klama becomes naldzukla</gloss>
<gloss>na'e sutra cadzu klama becomes nalsu'adzukla</gloss>
<en>nake sutra cadzu ke'e klama becomes nalsu'adzuke'ekla</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note:
<quote>-kem-</quote>is the rafsi for
<quote>ke</quote>, but it is omitted in the final lujvo as superfluous -
<quote>ke'e</quote>is its own rafsi, and its inclusion in the lujvo implies a
+<!-- ^^ inclusion: property of sets, 125 -->
+<indexterm><primary>inclusion</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ke</quote>after the
<quote>-nal-</quote>, since it needs to close something; only a
<quote>ke</quote>immediately after the negation would make the
<quote>ke'e</quote>meaningful in the tanru expressed in this lujvo.</para>
<para>In a lujvo, it is probably clearest to translate
<quote>-nal-</quote>as
<quote>non-</quote>, to match the English combining forms, except when the
<quote>na'e</quote>has single word scope and English uses
<quote>un-</quote>or
<quote>im-</quote>to negate that single word. Translation style should determine the use of
@@ -812,20 +860,30 @@
<gloss>An-actual currently noblest-governor of the French country is-non-hair-without.</gloss>
<en>The current King of France is a non-bald-one.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section4-example16" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section4-example17" />express the predicate negation forms using a negation word (
<quote>na'e</quote>) or rafsi (
<quote>-nal-</quote>); yet they make positive assertions about the current King of France; ie., that he is other-than-bald or non-bald. This follows from the close binding of
<quote>na'e</quote>to the brivla. The lujvo form makes this overt by absorbing the negative marker into the word.</para>
+<!-- ^^ lujvo form: consonant cluster requirement in, 59; final letter of, 59; hierarchy of priorities for selection of, 72; number of letters in, 59; requirements for hyphen insertion in, 59; requirements for n-hyphen insertion in, 60; requirements for r-hyphen insertion in, 60; requirements for y-hyphen insertion in, 59 -->
+<!-- ^^ y-hyphen: and consonant cluster determination, 56; and stress determination, 56; use of, 56 -->
+<indexterm><primary>y-hyphen</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ r-hyphen: contrasted with n-hyphen in requirements for use, 60; use of, 56, 60 -->
+<indexterm><primary>r-hyphen</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ n-hyphen: contrasted with r-hyphen in requirements for use, 60; use of, 56, 60 -->
+<!-- ^^ r-hyphen: contrasted with n-hyphen in requirements for use, 60; use of, 56, 60 -->
+<indexterm><primary>r-hyphen</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>n-hyphen</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>lujvo form</primary></indexterm>
<para>Since there is no current King of France, it is false to say that he is bald, or non-bald, or to make any other affirmative claim about him. Any sentence about the current King of France containing only a selbri negation is as false as the sentence without the negation. No amount of selbri negations have any effect on the truth value of the sentence, which is invariably
<quote>false</quote>, since no affirmative statement about the current King of France can be true. On the other hand, bridi negation does produce a truth:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Bwdy">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d18" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section4-example18" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu na krecau</jbo>
<gloss>An-actual current noblest-governor of the French Country [false] is-hair-without.</gloss>
@@ -875,31 +933,35 @@
<en>The chair is of a non-(red)-color (as perceived by something under some conditions).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>We might also have reduced the pragmatic ambiguity by making the two trailing sumti values explicit (the
<quote>as perceived by</quote>and
<quote>under conditions</quote>places have been added to the place structure of
<quote>xunre</quote>). But assume we have a really stubborn listener (an artificially semi-intelligent computer?) who will find a way to misinterpret
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section5-example3" />even with three specific sumti provided.</para>
<para>In this case, we use a sumti tagged with the sumti tcita
<quote>ci'u</quote>, which translates roughly as
+<!-- ^^ ci'u, 204 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ci'u</primary></indexterm>
<quote>on a scale of X</quote>, where
<quote>X</quote>is the sumti. For maximal clarity, the tagged sumti can be bound into the negated selbri with
<quote>be</quote>. To clarify
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section5-example3" />, we might say:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-a8S1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e5d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section5-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le stizu cu na'e xunre be ci'u loka skari</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ci'u, 204 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ci'u</primary></indexterm>
<en>The chair is a non-(red on-a-scale-of-colorness)-thing.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>We can alternately use the sumti tcita
<quote>teci'e</quote>, based on
<quote>ciste</quote>, which translates roughly as
<quote>of a system of components X</quote>, for universes of discourse; in this case, we would express
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section5-example3" />as:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-I0eV">
<title>
@@ -941,20 +1003,22 @@
<quote>na'e</quote>is not the only member of selma'o NAhE. If we want to express a scalar negation which is a polar opposite, we use the cmavo
<quote>to'e</quote>, which is grammatically equivalent to
<quote>na'e</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-RuvP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e5d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section5-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le stizu cu to'e xunre be ci'u loka skari</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ci'u, 204 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ci'u</primary></indexterm>
<en>The chair is a (opposite-of red) on-scale a-property-of color-ness.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Likewise, the midpoint of a scale can be expressed with the cmavo
<quote>no'e</quote>, also grammatically equivalent to
<quote>na'e</quote>. Here are some parallel examples of
<quote>na'e</quote>,
<quote>no'e</quote>, and
<quote>to'e</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-iqTj">
@@ -995,58 +1059,70 @@
<quote>nalmle</quote>,
<quote>normle</quote>, and
<quote>tolmle</quote>respectively.</para>
<para>This large variety of scalar negations is provided because different scales have different properties. Some scales are open-ended in both directions: there is no
<quote>ultimately ugly</quote>or
<quote>ultimately beautiful</quote>. Other scales, like temperature, are open at one end and closed at the other: there is a minimum temperature (so-called
<quote>absolute zero</quote>) but no maximum temperature. Still other scales are closed at both ends.</para>
<para>Correspondingly, some selbri have no obvious
<quote>to'e</quote>- what is the opposite of a dog? - while others have more than one, and need
<quote>ci'u</quote>to specify which opposite is meant.</para>
+<!-- ^^ ci'u, 204 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ci'u</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter15-section6">
<title>6. sumti negation</title>
<para>There are two ways of negating sumti in Lojban. We have the choice of quantifying the sumti with zero, or of applying the sumti-negator
<quote>na'ebo</quote>before the sumti. It turns out that a zero quantification serves for contradictory negation. As the cmavo we use implies,
+<!-- ^^ na'ebo, 135 -->
+<indexterm><primary>na'ebo</primary></indexterm>
<quote>na'ebo</quote>forms a scalar negation.</para>
+<!-- ^^ na'ebo, 135 -->
+<indexterm><primary>na'ebo</primary></indexterm>
<para>Let us show examples of each.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-PL1E">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e6d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section6-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>no lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu krecau</jbo>
<gloss>Zero of those who are currently noblest-governors of the French country are-hair-without.</gloss>
<en>No current king of France is bald.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Is
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section6-example1" />true? Yes, because it merely claims that of the current Kings of France, however many there may be, none are bald, which is plainly true, since there are no such current Kings of France.</para>
<para>Now let us look at the same sentence using
<quote>na'ebo</quote>negation:</para>
+<!-- ^^ na'ebo, 135 -->
+<indexterm><primary>na'ebo</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-LebJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e6d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section6-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>na'ebo lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu krecau</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ na'ebo, 135 -->
+<indexterm><primary>na'ebo</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>[Something] other-than-(the-current-noblest-governor of the French country) is-hair-without.</gloss>
<en>Something other than the current King of France is bald.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section6-example2" />is true provided that something reasonably describable as
<quote>other than a current King of France</quote>, such as the King of Saudi Arabia, or a former King of France, is in fact bald.</para>
<para>In place of
<quote>na'ebo</quote>, you may also use
+<!-- ^^ na'ebo, 135 -->
+<indexterm><primary>na'ebo</primary></indexterm>
<quote>no'ebo</quote>and
<quote>to'ebo</quote>, to be more specific about the sumti which would be appropriate in place of the stated sumti. Good examples are hard to come by, but here's a valiant try:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-S4AU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e6d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section6-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama to'ebo la bastn.</jbo>
<gloss>I go to the-opposite-of Boston.</gloss>
@@ -1118,27 +1194,37 @@
<quote>not once</quote>, which is an emphatic way of saying
<quote>never</quote>- that is, exactly zero times.</para>
<para>In indicators and attitudinals of selma'o UI or CAI,
<quote>nai</quote>denotes a polar negation. As discussed in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13" />, most indicators have an implicit scale, and
<quote>nai</quote>changes the indicator to refer to the opposite end of the scale. Thus
<quote>.uinai</quote>expresses unhappiness, and
<quote>.ienai</quote>expresses disagreement (not ambivalence, which is expressed with the neutral or undecided intensity as
<quote>.iecu'i</quote>).</para>
<para>Vocative cmavo of selma'o COI are considered a kind of indicator, but one which identifies the listener. Semantically, we could dispense with about half of the COI selma'o words based on the scalar paradigm. For example,
+<!-- ^^ COI selma'o, 136, 146, 183, 323, 492; effect on pause before name, 323; effect on referent of do, 146; effect on referent of mi, 146; ordering multiple with mi'e, 325; terminator for, 492 -->
+<!-- ^^ pause before name: effect of doi, 323; effect of vocatives of COI, 323 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pause before name</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>COI selma'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>co'o</quote>could be expressed as
<quote>coinai</quote>. However, this is not generally done.</para>
<para>Most of the COI cmavo are used in what are commonly called protocol situations. These protocols are used, for example, in radio conversations, which often take place in a noisy environment. The negatives of protocol words tend to convey diametrically opposite communications situations (as might be expected). Therefore, only one protocol vocative is dependent on
+<!-- ^^ protocol: computer communications using COI, 326; parliamentary using COI, 326; using vocatives, 326 -->
+<indexterm><primary>protocol</primary></indexterm>
<quote>nai</quote>: negative acknowledgement, which is
<quote>je'enai</quote>(
<quote>I didn't get that</quote>).</para>
<para>Unlike the attitudinal indicators, which tend to be unimportant in noisy situations, the protocol vocatives become more important. So if, in a noisy environment, a protocol listener makes out only
+<!-- ^^ protocol: computer communications using COI, 326; parliamentary using COI, 326; using vocatives, 326 -->
+<indexterm><primary>protocol</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ attitudinal indicators, 297; conventions of interpretation, 311; placement of "nai" in, 311; placement of scale in, 311; quick-tour version, 24 -->
+<indexterm><primary>attitudinal indicators</primary></indexterm>
<quote>nai</quote>, he or she can presume it is a negative acknowledgement and repeat transmission or otherwise respond accordingly.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13" />provides more detail on this topic.</para>
<para>The abstractors of selma'o NU follow the pattern of the tenses and modals. NU allows negative abstractions, especially in compound abstractions connected by logical connectives:
<quote>su'ujeninai</quote>, which corresponds to
<quote>su'u jenai ni</quote>just as
<quote>punai je ca</quote>corresponds to
<quote>pu naje ca</quote>. It is not clear how much use logically connected abstractors will be: see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13" />.</para>
<para>A
<quote>nai</quote>attached to a non-logical connective (of selma'o JOI or BIhI) is a scalar negation, and says that the bridi is false under the specified mixture, but that another connective is applicable. Non-logical connectives are discussed in
@@ -1155,20 +1241,22 @@
<anchor xml:id="c15e8d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section8-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xu la djan. pu klama la paris. .e la rom.</jbo>
<en>Is it true that: (John previously went-to [both] Paris and Rome.)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>You can now use each of the several kinds of negation we've discussed in answer to this (presuming the same question and context for each answer).</para>
<para>The straightforward negative answer is grammatically equivalent to the expanded sentence with the
+<!-- ^^ negative answer: quick-tour version, 24 -->
+<indexterm><primary>negative answer</primary></indexterm>
<quote>na</quote>immediately after the
<quote>cu</quote>(and before any tense/modal):</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-DMAd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e8d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section8-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>na go'i</jbo>
<gloss>[false] [repeat previous]</gloss>
@@ -1321,20 +1409,22 @@
<jbo>na go'i</jbo>
<en>[false] [repeat previous]</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>as a response to a negative question like
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section9-example2" />, Lojban designers had to choose between two equally plausible interpretations with opposite effects. Does
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section9-example4" />create a double negative in the sentence by adding a new
<quote>na</quote>to the one already there (forming a double negative and hence a positive statement), or does the
<quote>na</quote>replace the previous one, leaving the sentence unchanged?</para>
<para>It was decided that substitution, the latter alternative, is the preferable choice, since it is then clear whether we intend a positive or a negative sentence without performing any manipulations. This is the way English usually works, but not all languages work this way - Russian, Japanese, and Navajo all interpret a negative reply to a negative question as positive.</para>
+<!-- ^^ Navajo: example, 64 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Navajo</primary></indexterm>
<para>The positive assertion cmavo of selma'o NA, which is "ja'a", can also replace the
<quote>na</quote>in the context, giving:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-iUfV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e9d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section9-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ja'a go'i</jbo>
<en>(John truly-(previously went-to) [both] Paris and Rome.)</en>
@@ -1373,25 +1463,29 @@
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-QsJ9">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section10-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>I have not stopped beating my wife.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>If I never started such a heinous activity, then this sentence is neither true nor false. Such a negation simply says that something is wrong with the non-negated statement. Generally, we then use either tone of voice or else a correction to express a preferred true claim:
+<!-- ^^ tone of voice, 297 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tone of voice</primary></indexterm>
<quote>I never have beaten my wife.</quote></para>
<para>Negations which follow such a pattern are called
<quote>metalinguistic negations</quote>. In natural languages, the mark of metalinguistic negation is that an indication of a correct statement always, or almost always, follows the negation. Tone of voice or emphasis may be further used to clarify the error.</para>
<para>Negations of every sort must be expressible in Lojban; errors are inherent to human thought, and are not excluded from the language. When such negations are metalinguistic, we must separate them from logical claims about the truth or falsity of the statement, as well as from scalar negations which may not easily express (or imply) the preferred claim. Because Lojban allows concepts to be so freely combined in tanru, limits on what is plausible or not plausible tend to be harder to determine.</para>
<para>Mimicking the muddled nature of natural language negation would destroy this separation. Since Lojban does not use tone of voice, we need other means to metalinguistically indicate what is wrong with a statement. When the statement is entirely inappropriate, we need to be able to express metalinguistic negation in a more non-specific fashion.</para>
+<!-- ^^ tone of voice, 297 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tone of voice</primary></indexterm>
<para>Here is a list of some different kinds of metalinguistic negation with English-language examples:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Ivxi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section10-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section10-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section10-example4" />
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d5" />
@@ -1416,20 +1510,22 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section10-example14" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>I have not</jbo>
<jbo>beating my wife</jbo>
<en>(I never started - failure of presupposition).</en>
<jbo>5 is not blue</jbo>
<en>(color does not apply to abstract concepts - failure of category).</en>
<jbo>The current King of France is not bald.</jbo>
<en>(there is no current King of France - existential failure)</en>
+<!-- ^^ existential: mixed claim with universal, 394 -->
+<indexterm><primary>existential</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>I do not have THREE children.</jbo>
<en>(I have two - simple undue quantity)</en>
<jbo>I have not held THREE jobs previously, but four.</jbo>
<gloss>(inaccurate quantity; the difference from the previous example is that</gloss>
<en>someone who has held four jobs has also held three jobs)</en>
<jbo>It is not good, but bad.</jbo>
<gloss>(undue quantity negation indicating that the value on a</gloss>
<en>scale for measuring the predicate is incorrect)</en>
<jbo>She is not PRETTY; she is beautiful.</jbo>
<en>(undue quantity transferred to a non-numeric scale)</en>
@@ -1455,65 +1551,81 @@
<quote>false</quote>don't really apply.</para>
<para>Because one can metalinguistically negate a true statement intending a non-contradictory correction (say, a spelling error); we need a way (or ways) to metalinguistically negate a statement which is independent of our logical negation schemes using
<quote>na</quote>,
<quote>na'e</quote>and kin. The cmavo
<quote>na'i</quote>is assigned this function. If it is present in a statement, it indicates metalinguistically that something in the statement is incorrect. This metalinguistic negation must override any evaluation of the logic of the statement. It is equally allowed in both positive and negative statements.</para>
<para>Since
<quote>na'i</quote>is not a logical operator, multiple occurrences of
<quote>na'i</quote>need not be assumed to cancel each other. Indeed, we can use the position of
<quote>na'i</quote>to indicate metalinguistically what is incorrect, preparatory to correcting it in a later sentence; for this reason, we give
<quote>na'i</quote>the grammar of UI. The inclusion of
+<!-- ^^ inclusion: property of sets, 125 -->
+<indexterm><primary>inclusion</primary></indexterm>
<quote>na'i</quote>anywhere in a sentence makes it a non-assertion, and suggests one or more pitfalls in assigning a truth value.</para>
<para>Let us briefly indicate how the above-mentioned metalinguistic errors can be identified. Other metalinguistic problems can then be marked by devising analogies to these examples:</para>
<para>Existential failure can be marked by attaching
<quote>na'i</quote>to the descriptor
<quote>lo</quote>or the
<quote>poi</quote>in a
<quote>da poi</quote>-form sumti. (See Chapter 6 and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16" />for details on these constructions.) Remember that if a
<quote>le</quote>sumti seems to refer to a non-existent referent, you may not understand what the speaker has in mind - the appropriate response is then
<quote>ki'a</quote>, asking for clarification.</para>
<para>Presupposition failure can be marked directly if the presupposition is overt; if not, one can insert a
<quote>mock presupposition</quote>to question with the sumti tcita (selma'o BAI) word
<quote>ji'u</quote>;
<quote>ji'uku</quote>thus explicitly refers to an unexpressed assumption, and
<quote>ji'una'iku</quote>metalinguistically says that something is wrong with that assumption. (See
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10" />.)</para>
<para>Scale errors and category errors can be similarly expressed with selma'o BAI.
<quote>le'a</quote>has meaning
<quote>of category/class/type X</quote>,
<quote>ci'u</quote>has meaning
+<!-- ^^ ci'u, 204 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ci'u</primary></indexterm>
<quote>on scale X</quote>, and
<quote>ci'e</quote>, based on
<quote>ciste</quote>, can be used to talk about universes of discourse defined either as systems or sets of components, as shown in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section8" />.
<quote>kai</quote>and
<quote>la'u</quote>also exist in BAI for discussing other quality and quantity errors.</para>
+<!-- ^^ quality and quantity: example, 365 -->
+<indexterm><primary>quality and quantity</primary></indexterm>
<para>We have to make particular note of potential problems in the areas of undue quantity and incorrect scale/category. Assertions about the relationships between gismu are among the basic substance of the language. It is thus invalid to logically require that if something is blue, that it is colored, or if it is not-blue, then it is some other color. In Lojban,
<quote>blanu</quote>(
<quote>blue</quote>) is not explicitly defined as a
<quote>skari</quote>(
<quote>color</quote>). Similarly, it is not implicit that the opposite of
<quote>good</quote>is
<quote>bad</quote>.</para>
<para>This mutual independence of gismu is only an ideal. Pragmatically, people will categorize things based on their world-views. We will write dictionary definitions that will relate gismu, unfortunately including some of these world-view assumptions. Lojbanists should try to minimize these assumptions, but this seems a likely area where logical rules will break down (or where Sapir-Whorf effects will be made evident). In terms of negation, however, it is vital that we clearly preserve the capability of denying a presumably obvious scale or category assumption.</para>
+<!-- ^^ Sapir-Whorf effects: and emotional indicators, 329 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Sapir-Whorf effects</primary></indexterm>
<para>Solecisms, grammatical and spelling errors will be marked by marking the offending word or phrase with
<quote>na'i</quote>(in the manner of any selma'o UI cmavo). In this sense,
<quote>na'i</quote>becomes equivalent to the English metalinguistic marker
<quote>[sic]</quote>. Purists may choose to use ZOI or LOhU/LEhU quotes or
<quote>sa'a</quote>-marked corrections to avoid repeating a truly unparsable passage, especially if a computer is to analyze the speech/text. See
+<!-- ^^ sa'a, 321, 481; editorial insertion of text already containing sa'a, 321; interaction with li'o, 321; interaction with sei, 321; interaction with to'i, 321 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sa'a</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19" />for explanations of these usages.</para>
<para>In summary, metalinguistic negation will typically take the form of referring to a previous statement and marking it with one or more
<quote>na'i</quote>to indicate what metalinguistic errors have been made, and then repeating the statement with corrections. References to previous statements may be full repetitions, or may use members of selma'o GOhA.
<quote>na'i</quote>at the beginning of a statement merely says that something is inappropriate about the statement, without specificity.</para>
+<!-- ^^ specificity: expressing with po, 173 -->
+<indexterm><primary>specificity</primary></indexterm>
<para>In normal use, metalinguistic negation requires that a corrected statement follow the negated statement. In Lojban, however, it is possible to completely and unambiguously specify metalinguistic errors without correcting them. It will eventually be seen whether an uncorrected metalinguistic negation remains an acceptable form in Lojban. In such a statement, metalinguistic expression would involve an ellipsis not unlike that of tenseless expression.</para>
+<!-- ^^ ellipsis: quick-tour version, 14 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ellipsis</primary></indexterm>
<para>Note that metalinguistic negation gives us another kind of legitimate negative answer to a
+<!-- ^^ negative answer: quick-tour version, 24 -->
+<indexterm><primary>negative answer</primary></indexterm>
<quote>xu</quote>question (see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section8" />).
<quote>na'i</quote>will be used when something about the questioned statement is inappropriate, such as in questions like
<quote>Have you stopped beating your wife?</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-SfSU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d15" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section10-example15" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1542,21 +1654,25 @@
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d18" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section10-example18" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>go'i ji'una'iku</jbo>
<en>Some presupposition is wrong with the previous bridi.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Finally, one may metalinguistically affirm a bridi with
<quote>jo'a</quote>, another cmavo of selma'o UI. A common use for
+<!-- ^^ jo'a, 321 -->
+<indexterm><primary>jo'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>jo'a</quote>might be to affirm that a particular construction, though unusual or counterintuitive, is in fact correct; another usage would be to disagree with - by overriding - a respondent's metalinguistic negation.</para>
+<!-- ^^ jo'a, 321 -->
+<indexterm><primary>jo'a</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter15-section11">
<title>11. Summary - Are All Possible Questions About Negation Now Answered?</title>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-MdRP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e11d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter15-section11-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>na go'i .ije na'e go'i .ije na'i go'i</jbo>
diff --git a/todocbook/16.xml b/todocbook/16.xml
index 9174308..f862da6 100644
--- a/todocbook/16.xml
+++ b/todocbook/16.xml
@@ -71,24 +71,28 @@
<quote>... nobody walks much faster than I do</quote>(i.e., I walk faster, or as fast as, almost everyone), which the King then again misunderstands. Both the King and the Messenger are correct according to their respective understandings of the ambiguous word
<quote>nobody/Nobody</quote>.</para>
<para>There are Lojban words or phrases corresponding to the problematic English words
<quote>somebody</quote>,
<quote>nobody</quote>,
<quote>anybody</quote>,
<quote>everybody</quote>(and their counterparts
<quote>some/no/any/everyone</quote>and
<quote>some/no/any/everything</quote>), but they obey rules which can often be surprising to English-speakers. The dialogue above simply cannot be translated into Lojban without distortion: the name
<quote>Nobody</quote>would have to be represented by a Lojban name, which would spoil the perfection of the wordplay. As a matter of fact, this is the desired result: a logical language should not allow two conversationalists to affirm
+<!-- ^^ logical language: truth functions, 333 -->
+<indexterm><primary>logical language</primary></indexterm>
<quote>Nobody walks slower than the Messenger</quote>and
<quote>Nobody walks faster than the Messenger</quote>and both be telling the truth. (Unless, of course, nobody but the Messenger walks at all, or everyone walks at exactly the same speed.)</para>
<para>This chapter will explore the Lojban mechanisms that allow the correct and consistent construction of sentences like those in the dialogue. There are no new grammatical constructs explained in this chapter; instead, it discusses the way in which existing facilities that allow Lojban-speakers to resolve problems like the above, using the concepts of modern logic. However, we will not approach the matter from the viewpoint of logicians, although readers who know something of logic will discover familiar notions in Lojban guise.</para>
<para>Although Lojban is called a logical language, not every feature of it is
+<!-- ^^ logical language: truth functions, 333 -->
+<indexterm><primary>logical language</primary></indexterm>
<quote>logical</quote>. In particular, the use of
<quote>le</quote>is incompatible with logical reasoning based on the description selbri, because that selbri may not truthfully apply: you cannot conclude from my statement that</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-4J5Y">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e1d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section1-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska le nanmu</jbo>
<gloss>I see the-one-I-refer-to-as-the man.</gloss>
@@ -137,20 +141,24 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section2-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>da zo'u da viska mi</jbo>
<en>There-is-an-X such-that X sees me.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section2-example3" />does not presuppose that the listener knows who sees the speaker, but simply tells the listener that there is someone who sees the speaker. Statements of this kind are called
<quote>existential claims</quote>. (Formally, the one doing the seeing is not restricted to being a person; it could be an animal or - in principle - an inanimate object. We will see in
+<!-- ^^ existential claims: definition, 392; restricting, 394 -->
+<indexterm><primary>existential claims</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ existential: mixed claim with universal, 394 -->
+<indexterm><primary>existential</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section4" />how to represent such restrictions.)</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section2-example3" />has a two-part structure: there is the part
<quote>da zo'u</quote>, called the prenex, and the part
<quote>da viska mi</quote>, the main bridi. Almost any Lojban bridi can be preceded by a prenex, which syntactically is any number of sumti followed by the cmavo
<quote>zo'u</quote>(of selma'o ZOhU). For the moment, the sumti will consist of one or more of the cmavo
<quote>da</quote>,
<quote>de</quote>, and
<quote>di</quote>(of selma'o KOhA), glossed in the literal translations as
<quote>X</quote>,
@@ -180,28 +188,32 @@
<quote>somebody</quote>here rather than
<quote>something</quote>for naturalness; lovers and beloveds are usually persons, though the Lojban does not say so.)</para>
<para>It is perfectly all right for the variables to appear more than once in the main bridi:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-wBYE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e2d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section2-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>da zo'u da prami da</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ da prami da: contrasted with da prami de, 393 -->
+<indexterm><primary>da prami da</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>There-is-an-X such that X loves X</gloss>
<en>Somebody loves himself/herself.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>What
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section2-example5" />claims is fundamentally different from what
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section2-example4" />claims, because
<quote>da prami da</quote>is not structurally the same as
+<!-- ^^ da prami da: contrasted with da prami de, 393 -->
+<indexterm><primary>da prami da</primary></indexterm>
<quote>da prami de</quote>. However,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-3QV5">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e2d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section2-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>de zo'u de prami de</jbo>
<en>There-is-a-Y such that Y loves Y</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -225,40 +237,44 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8" />.)</para>
<para>It is very peculiar, however, even if technically grammatical, for the variable not to appear in the main bridi at all:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-mE4m">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e2d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section2-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>da zo'u la ralf. gerku</jbo>
<en>There is something such that Ralph is a dog.</en>
+<!-- ^^ Ralph: example, 393 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Ralph</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>has a variable bound in a prenex whose relevance to the claim of the following bridi is completely unspecified.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter16-section3">
<title>3. Universal claims</title>
<para>What happens if we substitute
<quote>everything</quote>for
<quote>something</quote>in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section2-example1" />? We get:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-UwYG">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e3d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section3-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>Everything sees me.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Of course, this example is false, because there are many things which do not see the speaker. It is not easy to find simple truthful examples of so-called universal claims (those which are about everything), so bear with us for a while. (Indeed, some Lojbanists tend to avoid universal claims even in other languages, since they are so rarely true in Lojban.)</para>
+<!-- ^^ universal claims: dangers of using, 396; explanation, 393; restricting, 394, 395 -->
+<indexterm><primary>universal claims</primary></indexterm>
<para>The Lojban translation of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section3-example1" />is</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-nraD">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e3d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section3-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro da zo'u da viska mi</jbo>
<en>For-every X : X sees me.</en>
@@ -287,20 +303,22 @@
<para>Again, X and Y can represent the same thing, so
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section3-example3" />does not mean
<quote>Everything loves everything else.</quote>Furthermore, because the claim is universal, it is about every thing, not merely every person, so we cannot use
<quote>everyone</quote>or
<quote>everybody</quote>in the translation.</para>
<para>Note that
<quote>ro</quote>appears before both
<quote>da</quote>and
<quote>de</quote>. If
<quote>ro</quote>is omitted before either variable, we get a mixed claim, partly existential like those of
+<!-- ^^ existential: mixed claim with universal, 394 -->
+<indexterm><primary>existential</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section2" />, partly universal.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-VLPI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e3d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section3-example4" />
<anchor xml:id="c16e3d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section3-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro da de zo'u da viska de</jbo>
@@ -309,29 +327,35 @@
<jbo>da ro de zo'u da viska de</jbo>
<gloss>There-is-an-X such-that-for-every-Y : X sees Y.</gloss>
<en>Something sees everything.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section3-example4" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section3-example5" />mean completely different things.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section3-example4" />says that for everything, there is something which it sees, not necessarily the same thing seen for every seer.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section3-example5" />, on the other hand, says that there is a particular thing which can see everything that there is (including itself). Both of these are fairly silly, but they are different kinds of silliness.</para>
+<!-- ^^ can see: example, 244 -->
+<indexterm><primary>can see</primary></indexterm>
<para>There are various possible translations of universal claims in English: sometimes we use
+<!-- ^^ universal claims: dangers of using, 396; explanation, 393; restricting, 394, 395 -->
+<indexterm><primary>universal claims</primary></indexterm>
<quote>anybody/anything</quote>rather than
<quote>everybody/everything</quote>. Often it makes no difference which of these is used: when it does make a difference, it is a rather subtle one which is explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section8" />.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter16-section4">
<title>4. Restricted claims:
<quote>da poi</quote></title>
<para>The universal claims of
+<!-- ^^ universal claims: dangers of using, 396; explanation, 393; restricting, 394, 395 -->
+<indexterm><primary>universal claims</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section3" />are not only false but absurd: there is really very little to be said that is both true and non-trivial about every object whatsoever. Furthermore, we have been glossing over the distinction between
<quote>everything</quote>and
<quote>everybody</quote>and the other pairs ending in
<quote>-thing</quote>and
<quote>-body</quote>. It is time to bring up the most useful feature of Lojban variables: the ability to restrict their ranges.</para>
<para>In Lojban, a variable
<quote>da</quote>,
<quote>de</quote>, or
<quote>di</quote>may be followed by a
<quote>poi</quote>relative clause in order to restrict the range of things that the variable describes. Relative clauses are described in detail in
@@ -389,42 +413,54 @@
<para>and</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-njh0">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e4d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section4-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro da poi gerku zo'u da vasxu</jbo>
<gloss>For-every X which is-a-dog : X breathes.</gloss>
<gloss>Every dog breathes.</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ dog breathes, 395 -->
+<indexterm><primary>dog breathes</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>Each dog breathes.</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ dog breathes, 395 -->
+<indexterm><primary>dog breathes</primary></indexterm>
<en>All dogs breathe.</en>
+<!-- ^^ breathe: example, 363 -->
+<indexterm><primary>breathe</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section4-example3" />is a silly falsehood, but
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section4-example4" />is an important truth (at least if applied in a timeless or potential sense: see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10" />). Note the various colloquial translations
<quote>every dog</quote>,
<quote>each dog</quote>, and
<quote>all dogs</quote>. They all come to the same thing in Lojban, since what is true of every dog is true of all dogs.
<quote>All dogs</quote>is treated as an English plural and the others as singular, but Lojban makes no distinction.</para>
+<!-- ^^ plural: Lojban contrasted with English in necessity of marking, 120; Lojban equivalent of, 443; meaning of le with, 123 -->
+<indexterm><primary>plural</primary></indexterm>
<para>If we make an existential claim about dogs rather than a universal one, we get:</para>
+<!-- ^^ existential: mixed claim with universal, 394 -->
+<indexterm><primary>existential</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-4BTd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e4d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section4-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>da poi gerku zo'u da vasxu</jbo>
<gloss>There-is-an-X which is-a-dog : X breathes.</gloss>
<en>Some dog breathes.</en>
+<!-- ^^ dog breathes, 395 -->
+<indexterm><primary>dog breathes</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter16-section5">
<title>5. Dropping the prenex</title>
<para>It isn't really necessary for every Lojban bridi involving variables to have a prenex on the front. In fact, none of the examples we've seen so far required prenexes at all! The rule for dropping the prenex is simple: if the variables appear in the same order within the bridi as they did in the prenex, then the prenex is superfluous. However, any
<quote>ro</quote>or
<quote>poi</quote>appearing in the prenex must be transferred to the first occurrence of the variable in the main part of the bridi. Thus,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section2-example3" />becomes just:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-9zAo">
@@ -442,20 +478,22 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section4-example4" />becomes:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-na9C">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e5d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section5-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro da poi gerku cu vasxu</jbo>
<gloss>For-every X which is-a-dog, it-breathes.</gloss>
<en>Every dog breathes.</en>
+<!-- ^^ dog breathes, 395 -->
+<indexterm><primary>dog breathes</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>You might well suppose, then, that the purpose of the prenex is to allow the variables in it to appear in a different order than the bridi order, and that would be correct. Consider</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Cfnb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e5d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section5-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro da poi prenu ku'o de poi gerku ku'o zo'u de batci da</jbo>
@@ -488,20 +526,26 @@
<gloss>There-is-a-Y which is-a-dog which-bites every X which is-a-person</gloss>
<en>Some dog bites everyone.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which has the structure of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section3-example5" />: it says that there is a dog (call him Fido) who bites, has bitten, or will bite every person that has ever existed! We can safely rule out Fido's existence, and say that
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section5-example5" />is false, while agreeing to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section5-example3" />.</para>
<para>Even so,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section5-example3" />is most probably false, since some people never experience dogbite. Examples like 5.3 and 4.4 (might there be some dogs which never have breathed, because they died as embryos?) indicate the danger in Lojban of universal claims even when restricted. In English we are prone to say that
+<!-- ^^ universal claims: dangers of using, 396; explanation, 393; restricting, 394, 395 -->
+<indexterm><primary>universal claims</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ English we: contrasted with Lojban pro-sumti for we, 146 -->
+<!-- ^^ pro-sumti for we: contrasted with English we, 146 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pro-sumti for we</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>English we</primary></indexterm>
<quote>Everyone says</quote>or that
<quote>Everybody does</quote>or that
<quote>Everything is</quote>when in fact there are obvious counterexamples which we are ignoring for the sake of making a rhetorical point. Such statements are plain falsehoods in Lojban, unless saved by a context (such as tense) which implicitly restricts them.</para>
<para>How can we express
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section5-example3" />in Lojban without a prenex? Since it is the order in which variables appear that matters, we can say:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-y90e">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e5d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section5-example6" />
</title>
@@ -512,20 +556,24 @@
</example>
<para>using the conversion operator
<quote>se</quote>(explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5" />) to change the selbri
<quote>batci</quote>(
<quote>bites</quote>) into
<quote>se batci</quote>(
<quote>is bitten by</quote>). The translation given in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section5-example4" />uses the corresponding strategy in English, since English does not have prenexes (except in strained
<quote>logician's English</quote>). This implies that a sentence with both a universal and an existential variable can't be freely converted with
+<!-- ^^ existential variable: in abstraction contrasted with in main bridi, 400; in main bridi contrasted with in abstraction, 400 -->
+<indexterm><primary>existential variable</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ existential: mixed claim with universal, 394 -->
+<indexterm><primary>existential</primary></indexterm>
<quote>se</quote>; one must be careful to preserve the order of the variables.</para>
<para>If a variable occurs more than once, then any
<quote>ro</quote>or
<quote>poi</quote>decorations are moved only to the first occurrence of the variable when the prenex is dropped. For example,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-4nqt">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e5d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section5-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -549,21 +597,25 @@
</example>
<para>As the examples in this section show, dropping the prenex makes for terseness of expression often even greater than that of English (Lojban is meant to be an unambiguous language, not necessarily a terse or verbose one), provided the rules are observed.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter16-section6">
<title>6. Variables with generalized quantifiers</title>
<para>So far, we have seen variables with either nothing in front, or with the cmavo
<quote>ro</quote>in front. Now
<quote>ro</quote>is a Lojban number, and means
<quote>all</quote>; thus
<quote>ro prenu</quote>means
+<!-- ^^ ro prenu, 398 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ro prenu</primary></indexterm>
<quote>all persons</quote>, just as
+<!-- ^^ all persons: example, 398 -->
+<indexterm><primary>all persons</primary></indexterm>
<quote>re prenu</quote>means
<quote>two persons</quote>. In fact, unadorned
<quote>da</quote>is also taken to have an implicit number in front of it, namely
<quote>su'o</quote>, which means
<quote>at least one</quote>. Why is this? Consider
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section2-example3" />again, this time with an explicit
<quote>su'o</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-TI8K">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e6d1" />
@@ -571,20 +623,22 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>su'o da zo'u da viska mi</jbo>
<gloss>For-at-least-one X : X sees me.</gloss>
<en>Something sees me.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>From this version of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section2-example3" />, we understand the speaker's claim to be that of all the things that there are, at least one of them sees him or her. The corresponding universal claim,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section3-example2" />, says that of all the things that exist, every one of them can see the speaker.</para>
+<!-- ^^ can see: example, 244 -->
+<indexterm><primary>can see</primary></indexterm>
<para>Any other number can be used instead of
<quote>ro</quote>or
<quote>su'o</quote>to precede a variable. Then we get claims like:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-3C69">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e6d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section6-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>re da zo'u da viska mi</jbo>
@@ -633,25 +687,35 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>su'ore da viska mi</jbo>
<en>At-least-two Xes see me.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>respectively, subject to the rules prescribed in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section5" />.</para>
<para>Now we can explain the constructions
<quote>ro prenu</quote>for
+<!-- ^^ ro prenu, 398 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ro prenu</primary></indexterm>
<quote>all persons</quote>and
+<!-- ^^ all persons: example, 398 -->
+<indexterm><primary>all persons</primary></indexterm>
<quote>re prenu</quote>for
<quote>two persons</quote>which were casually mentioned at the beginning of this Section. In fact,
<quote>ro prenu</quote>, a so-called
+<!-- ^^ ro prenu, 398 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ro prenu</primary></indexterm>
<quote>indefinite description</quote>, is shorthand for
+<!-- ^^ indefinite description: as needing explicit outer quantifier, 132; as prohibiting explicit inner quantifier, 132; compared with restricted variable, 398; definition, 132, 398 -->
+<!-- ^^ restricted variable: compared with indefinite description, 398 -->
+<indexterm><primary>restricted variable</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>indefinite description</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ro DA poi prenu</quote>, where
<quote>DA</quote>represents a fictitious variable that hasn't been used yet and will not be used in future. (Even if all three of
<quote>da</quote>,
<quote>de</quote>, and
<quote>di</quote>have been used up, it does not matter, for there are ways of getting more variables, discussed in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section14" />.) So in fact</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Kr4S">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e6d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section6-example6" />
@@ -711,32 +775,38 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section7-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ci da poi gerku cu batci re de poi nanmu</jbo>
<en>Three Xes which are-dogs bite two Ys which are-men.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(Note that we need separate variables
<quote>da</quote>and
<quote>de</quote>, because of the rule that says each indefinite description gets a variable never used before or since.)</para>
+<!-- ^^ indefinite description: as needing explicit outer quantifier, 132; as prohibiting explicit inner quantifier, 132; compared with restricted variable, 398; definition, 132, 398 -->
+<!-- ^^ restricted variable: compared with indefinite description, 398 -->
+<indexterm><primary>restricted variable</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>indefinite description</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Iuj2">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e7d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section7-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ci da poi gerku ku'o re de poi nanmu zo'u da batci de</jbo>
<en>For-three Xes which are-dogs, for-two Ys which are-men : X bites Y.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here we see that indeed each of the dogs is said to bite two men, and it might be different men each time; a total of six biting events altogether.</para>
<para>How then are we to express the other interpretation, in which just two men are involved? We cannot just reverse the order of variables in the prenex to</para>
+<!-- ^^ order of variables: in moving to prenex, 398 -->
+<indexterm><primary>order of variables</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-4Qxe">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e7d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section7-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>re de poi nanmu ku'o ci da poi gerku zo'u da batci de</jbo>
<en>For-two Ys which are-men, for-three Xes which are-dogs, X bites Y</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -810,43 +880,59 @@
<gloss>All X such-that-it goes-to the store walks-on the field.</gloss>
<en>Everyone who goes to the store walks across the field.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>But there is a subtle difference between
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section8-example1" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section8-example2" />.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section8-example2" />tells us that, in fact, there are people who go to the store, and that they walk across the field. A sumti of the type
<quote>ro da poi klama</quote>requires that there are things which
<quote>klama</quote>: Lojban universal claims always imply the corresponding existential claims as well.
+<!-- ^^ universal claims: dangers of using, 396; explanation, 393; restricting, 394, 395 -->
+<indexterm><primary>universal claims</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ existential claims: definition, 392; restricting, 394 -->
+<indexterm><primary>existential claims</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ existential: mixed claim with universal, 394 -->
+<indexterm><primary>existential</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section8-example1" />, on the other hand, does not require that there are any people who go to the store: it simply states, conditionally, that if there is anyone who goes to the store, he or she walks across the field as well. This conditional form mirrors the true Lojban translation of
+<!-- ^^ anyone who goes: walks, example, 399 -->
+<indexterm><primary>anyone who goes</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ anyone: contrasted with everyone in assumption of existence, 399 -->
+<indexterm><primary>anyone</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section8-example1" />:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-BwU7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e8d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section8-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro da zo'u ganai da klama le zarci gi cadzu le foldi</jbo>
<en>For-every X: if X is-a-goer-to the store then X is-a-walker-on the field.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Although
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section8-example3" />is a universal claim as well, its universality only implies that there are objects of some sort or another in the universe of discourse. Because the claim is conditional, nothing is implied about the existence of goers-to-the-store or of walkers-on-the-field, merely that any entity which is one is also the other.</para>
<para>There is another use of
<quote>any</quote>in English that is not universal but existential. Consider</para>
+<!-- ^^ existential: mixed claim with universal, 394 -->
+<indexterm><primary>existential</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-7Eu9">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e8d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section8-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>I need any box that is bigger than this one.</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ need any box, 400 -->
+<indexterm><primary>need any box</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ any box, 400 -->
+<indexterm><primary>any box</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section8-example4" />does not at all mean that I need every box bigger than this one, for indeed I do not; I require only one box. But the naive translation</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-KHya">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e8d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section8-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -903,20 +989,22 @@
<gloss>mi nitcu le nu mi ponse da</gloss>
<gloss>There-is-an-X which is-a-box and is-bigger-than this-one such-that :</gloss>
<en>I need the event-of my possessing X.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>But what are the implications of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section8-example7" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section8-example9" />? The main difference is that in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section8-example9" />, the
<quote>da</quote>is said to exist in the real world of the outer bridi; but in
+<!-- ^^ real world: contrasted with hypothetical world, example, 320 -->
+<indexterm><primary>real world</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section8-example7" />, the existence is only within the inner bridi, which is a mere event that need not necessarily come to pass. So
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section8-example9" />means</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-xC32">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e8d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section8-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>There's a box, bigger than this one, that I need</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -927,20 +1015,22 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section8-example1" />. So uses of
<quote>any</quote>that aren't universal end up being reflected by variables bound in the prenex of a subordinate bridi.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter16-section9">
<title>9. Negation boundaries</title>
<para>This section, as well as
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section10" />through
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section12" />, are in effect a continuation of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15" />, introducing features of Lojban negation that require an understanding of prenexes and variables. In the examples below,
<quote>there is a Y</quote>and the like must be understood as
+<!-- ^^ there is a Y: expression, notation convention, 401 -->
+<indexterm><primary>there is a Y</primary></indexterm>
<quote>there is at least one Y, possibly more</quote>.</para>
<para>As explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15" />, the negation of a bridi is usually accomplished by inserting
<quote>na</quote>at the beginning of the selbri:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-hBRH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e9d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section9-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -954,21 +1044,27 @@
<quote>naku</quote>in the prenex, which is identified and compounded by the lexer before looking at the sentence grammar. In Lojban grammar,
<quote>naku</quote>is then treated like a sumti. In a prenex,
<quote>naku</quote>means precisely the same thing as the logician's
<quote>it is not the case that</quote>in a similar English context. (Outside of a prenex,
<quote>naku</quote>is also grammatically treated as a single entity - the equivalent of a sumti - but does not have this exact meaning; we'll discuss these other situations in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section11" />.)</para>
<para>To represent a bridi negation using a prenex, remove the
<quote>na</quote>from before the selbri and place
<quote>naku</quote>at the left end of the prenex. This form is called
<quote>external bridi negation</quote>, as opposed to
+<!-- ^^ external bridi negation: compared to internal bridi negation, 401; definition, 401 -->
+<!-- ^^ internal bridi negation: compared to external bridi negation, 401; definition, 401 -->
+<indexterm><primary>internal bridi negation</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>external bridi negation</primary></indexterm>
<quote>internal bridi negation</quote>using
+<!-- ^^ internal bridi negation: compared to external bridi negation, 401; definition, 401 -->
+<indexterm><primary>internal bridi negation</primary></indexterm>
<quote>na</quote>. The prenex version of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section9-example1" />is</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-IH8J">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e9d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section9-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>naku zo'u la djan. klama</jbo>
<gloss>It is not the case that: John comes.</gloss>
@@ -1004,20 +1100,22 @@
</example>
<para>The relative position of negation and quantification terms within a prenex has a drastic effect on meaning. Starting without a negation, we can have:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-21Y5">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e9d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section9-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>roda su'ode zo'u da prami de</jbo>
<gloss>For every X, there is a Y, such that X loves Y.</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ there is a Y: expression, notation convention, 401 -->
+<indexterm><primary>there is a Y</primary></indexterm>
<en>Everybody loves at least one thing (each, not necessarily the same thing).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>or:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Tj99">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e9d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section9-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1028,54 +1126,60 @@
</example>
<para>The simplest form of bridi negation to interpret is one where the negation term is at the beginning of the prenex:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-1LqV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e9d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section9-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>naku roda su'ode zo'u da prami de</jbo>
<gloss>It is false that: for every X, there is a Y, such that: X loves Y.</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ there is a Y: expression, notation convention, 401 -->
+<indexterm><primary>there is a Y</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>It is false that: everybody loves at least one thing.</gloss>
<en>(At least) someone doesn't love anything.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>the negation of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section9-example5" />, and</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-u1jY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e9d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section9-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>naku su'ode roda zo'u da prami de</jbo>
<gloss>It is false that: there is a Y such that for each X, X loves Y.</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ there is a Y: expression, notation convention, 401 -->
+<indexterm><primary>there is a Y</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>It is false that: there is at least one thing that is loved by everybody.</gloss>
<en>There isn't any one thing that everybody loves.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>the negation of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section9-example6" />.</para>
<para>The rules of formal logic require that, to move a negation boundary within a prenex, you must
<quote>invert any quantifier</quote>that the negation boundary passes across. Inverting a quantifier means that any
<quote>ro</quote>(all) is changed to
<quote>su'o</quote>(at least one) and vice versa. Thus,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section9-example7" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section9-example8" />can be restated as, respectively:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-cJLQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e9d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section9-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>su'oda naku su'ode zo'u da prami de</jbo>
<gloss>For some X, it is false that: there is a Y such that: X loves Y.</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ there is a Y: expression, notation convention, 401 -->
+<indexterm><primary>there is a Y</primary></indexterm>
<en>There is somebody who doesn't love anything.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-hBXT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e9d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section9-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1115,71 +1219,99 @@
<quote>no</quote>(meaning
<quote>zero of</quote>) also involves a negation boundary. To transform a bridi containing a variable quantified with
<quote>no</quote>, we must first expand it. Consider</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-qCph">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e9d13" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section9-example13" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>noda rode zo'u da prami de</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ noda: expanding to naku su'oda, 403 -->
+<indexterm><primary>noda</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>There is no X, for every Y, such that X loves Y.</gloss>
<en>Nobody loves everything.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which is negated by:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-fpeW">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e9d14" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section9-example14" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>naku noda rode zo'u da prami de</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ noda: expanding to naku su'oda, 403 -->
+<indexterm><primary>noda</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>It is false that: there is no X that, for every Y, X loves Y.</gloss>
<en>It is false that there is nobody who loves everything.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>We can simplify
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section9-example14" />by transforming the prenex. To move the negation phrase within the prenex, we must first expand the
<quote>no</quote>quantifier. Thus
<quote>for no x</quote>means the same thing as
<quote>it is false for some x</quote>, and the corresponding Lojban
<quote>noda</quote>can be replaced by
+<!-- ^^ noda: expanding to naku su'oda, 403 -->
+<indexterm><primary>noda</primary></indexterm>
<quote>naku su'oda</quote>. Making this substitution, we get:</para>
+<!-- ^^ naku su'oda: as expansion of noda, 403 -->
+<!-- ^^ noda: expanding to naku su'oda, 403 -->
+<indexterm><primary>noda</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>naku su'oda</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-xTie">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e9d15" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section9-example15" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>naku naku su'oda rode zo'u da prami de</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ naku su'oda: as expansion of noda, 403 -->
+<!-- ^^ noda: expanding to naku su'oda, 403 -->
+<indexterm><primary>noda</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>naku su'oda</primary></indexterm>
<en>It is false that it is false that: for an X, for every Y: X loves Y.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Adjacent pairs of negation boundaries in the prenex can be dropped, so this means the same as:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-y7NU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e9d16" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section9-example16" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>su'oda rode zo'u da prami de</jbo>
<gloss>There is an X such that, for every Y, X loves Y.</gloss>
<en>At least one person loves everything.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which is clearly the desired contradiction of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section9-example13" />.</para>
<para>The interactions between quantifiers and negation mean that you cannot eliminate double negatives that are not adjacent. You must first move the negation phrases so that they are adjacent, inverting any quantifiers they cross, and then the double negative can be eliminated.</para>
+<!-- ^^ interactions between quantifiers and negation: effect, 403 -->
+<indexterm><primary>interactions between quantifiers and negation</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ double negatives: effect of interactions between quantifiers and negation on, 403 -->
+<!-- ^^ interactions between quantifiers and negation: effect, 403 -->
+<indexterm><primary>interactions between quantifiers and negation</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>double negatives</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter16-section10">
<title>10. bridi negation and logical connectives</title>
+<!-- ^^ negation and logical connectives: caveat for logic chapter discussions, 403 -->
+<indexterm><primary>negation and logical connectives</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ bridi negation and logical connectives, 403 -->
+<!-- ^^ negation and logical connectives: caveat for logic chapter discussions, 403 -->
+<indexterm><primary>negation and logical connectives</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>bridi negation and logical connectives</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ negation and logical connectives: caveat for logic chapter discussions, 403 -->
+<indexterm><primary>negation and logical connectives</primary></indexterm>
<para>A complete discussion of logical connectives appears in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14" />. What is said here is intentionally quite incomplete and makes several oversimplifications.</para>
<para>A logical connective is a cmavo or compound cmavo. In this chapter, we will make use of the logical connectives
<quote>and</quote>and
<quote>or</quote>(where
<quote>or</quote>really means
<quote>and/or</quote>,
<quote>either or both</quote>). The following simplified recipes explain how to make some logical connectives:</para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
@@ -1199,20 +1331,22 @@
<quote>.a</quote>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>To logically connect two Lojban bridi with
<quote>or</quote>, replace the regular separator cmavo
<quote>.i</quote>with the compound cmavo
<quote>.ija</quote>.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
<para>More complex logical connectives also exist; in particular, one may place
+<!-- ^^ complex logical connectives: grouping with bo, 343; grouping with parenthesis, 343 -->
+<indexterm><primary>complex logical connectives</primary></indexterm>
<quote>na</quote>before
<quote>.e</quote>or
<quote>.a</quote>, or between
<quote>.i</quote>and
<quote>je</quote>or
<quote>ja</quote>; likewise, one may place
<quote>nai</quote>at the end of a connective. Both
<quote>na</quote>and
<quote>nai</quote>have negative effects on the sumti or bridi being connected. Specifically,
<quote>na</quote>negates the first or left-hand sumti or bridi, and
@@ -1275,33 +1409,37 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>roda zo'u mi prami da .ije naku zo'u do prami da</jbo>
<en>For each thing: I love it, and it is false that you love (the same) it.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>By the rules of predicate logic, the
<quote>ro</quote>quantifier on
<quote>da</quote>has scope over both sentences. That is, once you've picked a value for
<quote>da</quote>for the first sentence, it stays the same for both sentences. (The
<quote>da</quote>continues with the same fixed value until a new paragraph or a new prenex resets the meaning.)</para>
+<!-- ^^ continues: example, 228 -->
+<indexterm><primary>continues</primary></indexterm>
<para>Thus the following example has the indicated translation:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-yCA1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e10d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section10-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>su'oda zo'u mi prami da .ije naku zo'u do prami da</jbo>
<gloss>For at least one thing: I love that thing. And it is false that: you love that (same) thing.</gloss>
<en>There is something that I love that you don't.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>If you remember only two rules for prenex manipulation of negations, you won't go wrong:</para>
+<!-- ^^ prenex manipulation: exporting na from left of prenex, 405; importing na from selbri, 405; moving naku past bound variable, 405; rules, 405 -->
+<indexterm><primary>prenex manipulation</primary></indexterm>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Within a prenex, whenever you move
<quote>naku</quote>past a bound variable (da, de, di, etc.), you must invert the quantifier.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>A
<quote>na</quote>before the selbri is always transformed into a
<quote>naku</quote>at the left-hand end of the prenex, and vice versa.</para>
</listitem>
@@ -1422,51 +1560,59 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>su'o verba naku klama su'o ckule</jbo>
<en>Some children don't go-to some school.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>but in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section11-example9" />, the bound variables
<quote>da</quote>and
<quote>de</quote>have been hidden.</para>
<para>It is trivial to export an internal bridi negation expressed with
+<!-- ^^ internal bridi negation: compared to external bridi negation, 401; definition, 401 -->
+<indexterm><primary>internal bridi negation</primary></indexterm>
<quote>na</quote>to the prenex, as we saw in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section9" />; you just move it to the left end of the prenex. In comparison, it is non-trivial to export a
+<!-- ^^ comparison: claims related to based on form, 204 -->
+<indexterm><primary>comparison</primary></indexterm>
<quote>naku</quote>to the prenex because of the quantifiers. The rules for exporting
<quote>naku</quote>require that you export all of the quantified variables (implicit or explicit) along with
<quote>naku</quote>, and you must export them from left to right, in the same order that they appear in the sentence. Thus
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section11-example4" />goes into prenex form as:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-3f22">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e11d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section11-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>su'oda poi verba ku'o naku</jbo>
<gloss>su'ode poi ckule zo'u da klama de</gloss>
<gloss>For some X which is a child, it is not the case that</gloss>
<en>there is a Y which is a school such that: X goes to Y.</en>
+<!-- ^^ there is a Y: expression, notation convention, 401 -->
+<indexterm><primary>there is a Y</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>We can now move the
<quote>naku</quote>to the left end of the prenex, getting a contradictory negation that can be expressed with
<quote>na</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-gPvc">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e11d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section11-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>naku roda poi verba</jbo>
<gloss>su'ode poi ckule zo'u da klama de</gloss>
<gloss>It is not the case that for all X's which are children,</gloss>
<en>there is a Y which is a school such that: X goes to Y.</en>
+<!-- ^^ there is a Y: expression, notation convention, 401 -->
+<indexterm><primary>there is a Y</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>from which we can restore the quantified variables to the sentence, giving:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Awc0">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e11d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section11-example12" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>naku zo'u roda poi verba cu klama su'ode poi ckule</jbo>
@@ -1491,20 +1637,22 @@
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-d8h3">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e11d14" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section11-example14" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>roda poi verba</jbo>
<gloss>su'ode poi ckule zo'u de na se klama da</gloss>
<gloss>It is not the case that for all X's which are children,</gloss>
<en>there is a Y which is a school such that: Y is gone to by X.</en>
+<!-- ^^ there is a Y: expression, notation convention, 401 -->
+<indexterm><primary>there is a Y</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>While you can't freely convert with
<quote>se</quote>when you have two quantified variables in a sentence, you can still freely move sumti to either side of the selbri, as long as the order isn't changed. If you use
<quote>na</quote>negation in such a sentence, nothing special need be done. If you use
<quote>naku</quote>negation, then quantified variables that cross the negation boundary must be inverted.</para>
<para>Clearly, if all of Lojban negation was built on
<quote>naku</quote>negation instead of
<quote>na</quote>negation, logical manipulation in Lojban would be as difficult as in natural languages. In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section12" />, for example, we'll discuss DeMorgan's Law, which must be used whenever a sumti with a logical connection is moved across a negation boundary.</para>
@@ -1545,58 +1693,72 @@
<quote>not p whether-or-not q</quote>and
<quote>not p whether-or-not not q</quote>. In any Lojban sentence having one of the basic connectives, you can substitute in either direction from these identities. (These basic connectives are explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14" />.)</para>
<para>The effects of DeMorgan's Law on the logical connectives made by modifying the basic connectives with
<quote>nai</quote>,
<quote>na</quote>and
<quote>se</quote>can be derived directly from these rules; modify the basic connective for DeMorgan's Law by substituting from the above identities, and then, apply each
<quote>nai</quote>,
<quote>na</quote>and
<quote>se</quote>modifier of the original connectives. Cancel any double negatives that result.</para>
+<!-- ^^ double negatives: effect of interactions between quantifiers and negation on, 403 -->
+<!-- ^^ interactions between quantifiers and negation: effect, 403 -->
+<indexterm><primary>interactions between quantifiers and negation</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>double negatives</primary></indexterm>
<para>When do we apply DeMorgan's Law? Whenever we wish to
<quote>distribute</quote>a negation over a logical connective; and, for internal
<quote>naku</quote>negation, whenever a logical connective moves in to, or out of, the scope of a negation - when it crosses a negation boundary.</para>
<para>Let us apply DeMorgan's Law to some sample sentences. These sentences make use of forethought logical connectives, which are explained in
+<!-- ^^ forethought logical connectives: within tanru, 92 -->
+<indexterm><primary>forethought logical connectives</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14" />. It suffices to know that
<quote>ga</quote>and
<quote>gi</quote>, used before each of a pair of sumti or bridi, mean
<quote>either</quote>and
<quote>or</quote>respectively, and that
<quote>ge</quote>and
<quote>gi</quote>used similarly mean
<quote>both</quote>and
<quote>and</quote>. Furthermore,
<quote>ga</quote>,
<quote>ge</quote>, and
<quote>gi</quote>can all be suffixed with
<quote>nai</quote>to negate the bridi or sumti that follows.</para>
<para>We have defined
<quote>na</quote>and
<quote>naku zo'u</quote>as, respectively, internal and external bridi negation. These forms being identical, the negation boundary always remains at the left end of the prenex. Thus, exporting or importing negation between external and internal bridi negation forms never requires DeMorgan's Law to be applied.
+<!-- ^^ internal bridi negation: compared to external bridi negation, 401; definition, 401 -->
+<indexterm><primary>internal bridi negation</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ external bridi negation: compared to internal bridi negation, 401; definition, 401 -->
+<!-- ^^ internal bridi negation: compared to external bridi negation, 401; definition, 401 -->
+<indexterm><primary>internal bridi negation</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>external bridi negation</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section12-example1" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section12-example2" />are exactly equivalent:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Erjj">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e12d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section12-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c16e12d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section12-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. na klama ga la paris. gi la rom.</jbo>
<en>John [false] goes-to either Paris or Rome.</en>
<jbo>naku zo'u la djan. klama ga la paris. gi la rom.</jbo>
<en>It-is-false that: John goes-to either Paris or Rome.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>It is not an acceptable logical manipulation to move a negator from the bridi level to one or more sumti. However,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section12-example1" />and related examples are not sumti negations, but rather expand to form two logically connected sentences. In such a situation, DeMorgan's Law must be applied. For instance,
+<!-- ^^ logically connected sentences: and DeMorgan's Law, 408 -->
+<indexterm><primary>logically connected sentences</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section12-example2" />expands to:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-KMct">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e12d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section12-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ge la djan. la paris. na klama</jbo>
<gloss>gi la djan. la rom. na klama</gloss>
<gloss>[It is true that] both John, to-Paris, [false] goes,</gloss>
@@ -1604,20 +1766,22 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The
<quote>ga</quote>and
<quote>gi</quote>, meaning
<quote>either-or</quote>, have become
<quote>ge</quote>and
<quote>gi</quote>, meaning
<quote>both-and</quote>, as a consequence of moving the negators into the individual bridi.</para>
<para>Here is another example of DeMorgan's Law in action, involving bridi-tail logical connection (explained in
+<!-- ^^ bridi-tail logical connection: and DeMorgan's Law, 408 -->
+<indexterm><primary>bridi-tail logical connection</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14" />):</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-NgLH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e12d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section12-example4" />
<anchor xml:id="c16e12d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section12-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djein. le zarci na ge dzukla gi bajrykla</jbo>
@@ -1703,47 +1867,69 @@
<jbo>la djan. naku klama ge la paris. gi la rom.</jbo>
<en>John doesn't go-to both Paris and Rome.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>That
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section12-example10" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section12-example11" />mean the same should become evident by studying the English. It is a good exercise to work through the Lojban and prove that they are the same.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter16-section13">
<title>13. selbri variables</title>
+<!-- ^^ selbri variables: form when not in prenex, 410; prenex form as indefinite description, 409; quantified, 410 -->
+<indexterm><primary>selbri variables</primary></indexterm>
<para>In addition to the variables
<quote>da</quote>,
<quote>de</quote>, and
<quote>di</quote>that we have seen so far, which function as sumti and belong to selma'o KOhA, there are three corresponding variables
<quote>bu'a</quote>,
<quote>bu'e</quote>, and
+<!-- ^^ bu'e, 409 -->
+<indexterm><primary>bu'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bu'i</quote>which function as selbri and belong to selma'o GOhA. These new variables allow existential or universal claims which are about the relationships between objects rather than the objects themselves. We will start with the usual silly examples; the literal translation will represent
+<!-- ^^ universal claims: dangers of using, 396; explanation, 393; restricting, 394, 395 -->
+<indexterm><primary>universal claims</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ existential: mixed claim with universal, 394 -->
+<indexterm><primary>existential</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ bu'i, 409 -->
+<indexterm><primary>bu'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bu'a</quote>,
<quote>bu'e</quote>and
+<!-- ^^ bu'e, 409 -->
+<indexterm><primary>bu'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bu'i</quote>with F, G, and H respectively.</para>
+<!-- ^^ bu'i, 409 -->
+<indexterm><primary>bu'i</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-gEWB">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e13d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section13-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>su'o bu'a zo'u la djim. bu'a la djan.</jbo>
<gloss>For-at-least-one relationship-F : Jim stands-in-relationship-F to-John.</gloss>
<en>There's some relationship between Jim and John.</en>
+<!-- ^^ some relationship: example, 409 -->
+<indexterm><primary>some relationship</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The translations of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section13-example1" />show how unidiomatic selbri variables are in English; Lojban sentences like
+<!-- ^^ selbri variables: form when not in prenex, 410; prenex form as indefinite description, 409; quantified, 410 -->
+<indexterm><primary>selbri variables</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section13-example1" />need to be totally reworded in English. Furthermore, when a selbri variable appears in the prenex, it is necessary to precede it with a quantifier such as
<quote>su'o</quote>; it is ungrammatical to just say
<quote>bu'a zo'u</quote>. This rule is necessary because only sumti can appear in the prenex, and
<quote>su'o bu'a</quote>is technically a sumti - in fact, it is an indefinite description like
+<!-- ^^ indefinite description: as needing explicit outer quantifier, 132; as prohibiting explicit inner quantifier, 132; compared with restricted variable, 398; definition, 132, 398 -->
+<!-- ^^ restricted variable: compared with indefinite description, 398 -->
+<indexterm><primary>restricted variable</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>indefinite description</primary></indexterm>
<quote>re nanmu</quote>, since
<quote>bu'a</quote>is grammatically equivalent to a brivla like
<quote>nanmu</quote>. However, indefinite descriptions involving the bu'a-series cannot be imported from the prenex.</para>
<para>When the prenex is omitted, the preceding number has to be omitted too:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-XxgT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e13d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section13-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1760,21 +1946,25 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro bu'a zo'u la djim. bu'a la djan.</jbo>
<gloss>For-every relationship-F : Jim stands-in-relationship-F to-John.</gloss>
<en>Every relationship exists between Jim and John.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section13-example1" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section13-example2" />are almost certainly true: Jim and John might be brothers, or might live in the same city, or at least have the property of being jointly human.
+<!-- ^^ brothers: example, 355 -->
+<indexterm><primary>brothers</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section13-example3" />is palpably false, however; if Jim and John were related by every possible relationship, then they would have to be both brothers and father-and-son, which is impossible.</para>
+<!-- ^^ brothers: example, 355 -->
+<indexterm><primary>brothers</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter16-section14">
<title>14. A few notes on variables</title>
<para>A variable may have a quantifier placed in front of it even though it has already been quantified explicitly or implicitly by a previous appearance, as in:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-x0FP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e14d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section14-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1796,23 +1986,29 @@
<quote>.i</quote>terminates the scope of the prenex. Informally, however, variables may persist for a while even after an
<quote>.i</quote>, as if it were an
<quote>.ije</quote>. Prenexes that precede embedded bridi such as relative clauses and abstractions extend only to the end of the clause, as explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section8" />. A prenex preceding
<quote>tu'e ... tu'u</quote>long-scope brackets persists until the
<quote>tu'u</quote>, which may be many sentences or even paragraphs later.</para>
<para>If the variables
<quote>da</quote>,
<quote>de</quote>, and
<quote>di</quote>(or the selbri variables
+<!-- ^^ selbri variables: form when not in prenex, 410; prenex form as indefinite description, 409; quantified, 410 -->
+<indexterm><primary>selbri variables</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bu'a</quote>,
<quote>bu'e</quote>, and
+<!-- ^^ bu'e, 409 -->
+<indexterm><primary>bu'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bu'i</quote>) are insufficient in number for handling a particular problem, the Lojban approach is to add a subscript to any of them. Each possible different combination of a subscript and a variable cmavo counts as a distinct variable in Lojban. Subscripts are explained in full in
+<!-- ^^ bu'i, 409 -->
+<indexterm><primary>bu'i</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19" />, but in general consist of the cmavo
<quote>xi</quote>(of selma'o XI) followed by a number, one or more lerfu words forming a single string, or a general mathematical expression enclosed in parentheses.</para>
<para>A quantifier can be prefixed to a variable that has already been bound either in a prenex or earlier in the bridi, thus:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-6gyb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e14d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter16-section14-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ci da poi prenu cu se ralju pa da</jbo>
@@ -1823,12 +2019,14 @@
<para>The
<quote>pa da</quote>in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section14-example2" />does not specify the number of things to which
<quote>da</quote>refers, as the preceding
<quote>ci da</quote>does. Instead, it selects one of them for use in this sumti only. The number of referents of
<quote>da</quote>remains three, but a single one (there is no way of knowing which one) is selected to be the leader.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter16-section15">
<title>15. Conclusion</title>
<para>This chapter is incomplete. There are many more aspects of logic that I neither fully understand nor feel competent to explain, neither in abstract nor in their Lojban realization. Lojban was designed to be a language that makes predicate logic speakable, and achieving that goal completely will need to wait for someone who understands both logic and Lojban better than I do. I can only hope to have pointed out the areas that are well-understood (and by implication, those that are not).</para>
+<!-- ^^ logic and Lojban: more aspects, 411 -->
+<indexterm><primary>logic and Lojban</primary></indexterm>
</section>
</chapter>
diff --git a/todocbook/17.xml b/todocbook/17.xml
index 818a965..ab6b904 100644
--- a/todocbook/17.xml
+++ b/todocbook/17.xml
@@ -1,41 +1,51 @@
<chapter xml:id="cll_chapter17">
<title>Chapter 17 As Easy As A-B-C? The Lojban Letteral System And Its Uses</title>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section1">
<title>1. What's a letteral, anyway?</title>
<para>James Cooke Brown, the founder of the Loglan Project, coined the word
+<!-- ^^ Brown: James Cooke, 6; James Cooke, and "letteral", 413 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Brown</primary></indexterm>
<quote>letteral</quote>(by analogy with
<quote>numeral</quote>) to mean a letter of the alphabet, such as
<quote>f</quote>or
<quote>z</quote>. A typical example of its use might be</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-tvHm">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e1d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section1-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>There are fourteen occurrences of the letteral
<quote>e</quote>in this sentence.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(Don't forget the one within quotation marks.) Using the word
<quote>letteral</quote>avoids confusion with
<quote>letter</quote>, the kind you write to someone. Not surprisingly, there is a Lojban gismu for
<quote>letteral</quote>, namely
<quote>lerfu</quote>, and this word will be used in the rest of this chapter.</para>
<para>Lojban uses the Latin alphabet, just as English does, right? Then why is there a need for a chapter like this? After all, everyone who can read it already knows the alphabet. The answer is twofold:</para>
+<!-- ^^ Latin alphabet, 29; language shift word for, 417 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Latin alphabet</primary></indexterm>
<para>First, in English there are a set of words that correspond to and represent the English lerfu. These words are rarely written down in English and have no standard spellings, but if you pronounce the English alphabet to yourself you will hear them: ay, bee, cee, dee ... . They are used in spelling out words and in pronouncing most acronyms. The Lojban equivalents of these words are standardized and must be documented somehow.</para>
+<!-- ^^ spelling out words: Lojban contrasted with English, 414 -->
+<indexterm><primary>spelling out words</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ acronyms: as lerfu strings using "me", 424; using names based on lerfu words, 423 -->
+<indexterm><primary>acronyms</primary></indexterm>
<para>Second, English has names only for the lerfu used in writing English. (There are also English names for Greek and Hebrew lerfu: English-speakers usually refer to the Greek lerfu conventionally spelled
<quote>phi</quote>as
<quote>fye</quote>, whereas
<quote>fee</quote>would more nearly represent the name used by Greek-speakers. Still, not all English-speakers know these English names.) Lojban, in order to be culturally neutral, needs a more comprehensive system that can handle, at least potentially, all of the world's alphabets and other writing systems.</para>
<para>Letterals have several uses in Lojban: in forming acronyms and abbreviations, as mathematical symbols, and as pro-sumti - the equivalent of English pronouns.</para>
+<!-- ^^ acronyms: as lerfu strings using "me", 424; using names based on lerfu words, 423 -->
+<indexterm><primary>acronyms</primary></indexterm>
<para>In earlier writings about Lojban, there has been a tendency to use the word
<quote>lerfu</quote>for both the letterals themselves and for the Lojban words which represent them. In this chapter, that tendency will be ruthlessly suppressed, and the term
<quote>lerfu word</quote>will invariably be used for the latter. The Lojban equivalent would be
<quote>lerfu valsi</quote>or
<quote>lervla</quote>.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section2">
<title>2. A to Z in Lojban, plus one</title>
<para>The first requirement of a system of lerfu words for any language is that they must represent the lerfu used to write the language. The lerfu words for English are a motley crew: the relationship between
<quote>doubleyou</quote>and
@@ -55,20 +65,22 @@
<para>to get a lerfu word for a consonant, add
<quote>y</quote>;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>the lerfu word for
<quote>'</quote>is
<quote>.y'y</quote>.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
<para>Therefore, the following table represents the basic Lojban alphabet:</para>
+<!-- ^^ Lojban alphabet, 29 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Lojban alphabet</primary></indexterm>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>' a b c</cmavo>
<selmaho>d</selmaho>
<description>e</description>
</cmavo-entry>.y'y. .abu by. cy. dy. .ebu
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>f g i j</cmavo>
<selmaho>k</selmaho>
<description>l</description>
@@ -96,20 +108,26 @@
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ty. .ubu vy.</cmavo>
<selmaho>xy.</selmaho>
<description>.ybu zy.</description>
</cmavo-entry></cmavo-list>
<para>There are several things to note about this table. The consonant lerfu words are a single syllable, whereas the vowel and
<quote>'</quote>lerfu words are two syllables and must be preceded by pause (since they all begin with a vowel). Another fact, not evident from the table but important nonetheless, is that
<quote>by</quote>and its like are single cmavo of selma'o BY, as is
<quote>.y'y</quote>. The vowel lerfu words, on the other hand, are compound cmavo, made from a single vowel cmavo plus the cmavo
<quote>bu</quote>(which belongs to its own selma'o, BU). All of the vowel cmavo have other meanings in Lojban (logical connectives, sentence separator, hesitation noise), but those meanings are irrelevant when
+<!-- ^^ sentence separator, 495 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sentence separator</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ irrelevant: specifying of sumti place, 157 -->
+<indexterm><primary>irrelevant</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ hesitation, 484, 507 -->
+<indexterm><primary>hesitation</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bu</quote>follows.</para>
<para>Here are some illustrations of common Lojban words spelled out using the alphabet above:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-DMIQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e2d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section2-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c17e2d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section2-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -130,20 +148,22 @@
</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Spelling out words is less useful in Lojban than in English, for two reasons: Lojban spelling is phonemic, so there can be no real dispute about how a word is spelled; and the Lojban lerfu words sound more alike than the English ones do, since they are made up systematically. The English words
<quote>fail</quote>and
<quote>vale</quote>sound similar, but just hearing the first lerfu word of either, namely
<quote>eff</quote>or
<quote>vee</quote>, is enough to discriminate easily between them - and even if the first lerfu word were somehow confused, neither
<quote>vail</quote>nor
<quote>fale</quote>is a word of ordinary English, so the rest of the spelling determines which word is meant. Still, the capability of spelling out words does exist in Lojban.</para>
+<!-- ^^ spelling out words: Lojban contrasted with English, 414 -->
+<indexterm><primary>spelling out words</primary></indexterm>
<para>Note that the lerfu words ending in
<quote>y</quote>were written (in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17-section2-example1" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17-section2-example2" />) with pauses after them. It is not strictly necessary to pause after such lerfu words, but failure to do so can in some cases lead to ambiguities:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-6dMS">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e2d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section2-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -167,97 +187,139 @@
<en>Something unspecified is without a doctor.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>A safe guideline is to pause after any cmavo ending in
<quote>y</quote>unless the next word is also a cmavo ending in
<quote>y</quote>. The safest and easiest guideline is to pause after all of them.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section3">
<title>3. Upper and lower cases</title>
<para>Lojban doesn't use lower-case (small) letters and upper-case (capital) letters in the same way that English does; sentences do not begin with an upper-case letter, nor do names. However, upper-case letters are used in Lojban to mark irregular stress within names, thus:</para>
+<!-- ^^ upper-case letters: English usage contrasted with Lojban, 415; Lojban usage contrasted with English, 415 -->
+<indexterm><primary>upper-case letters</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ upper-case: lerfu word for, 415 -->
+<indexterm><primary>upper-case</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ lower-case: lerfu word for, 415 -->
+<indexterm><primary>lower-case</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Fam2">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e3d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section3-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.iVAN.</jbo>
<en>the name
<quote>Ivan</quote>in Russian/Slavic pronunciation.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>It would require far too many cmavo to assign one for each upper-case and one for each lower-case lerfu, so instead we have two special cmavo
+<!-- ^^ upper-case: lerfu word for, 415 -->
+<indexterm><primary>upper-case</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ lower-case: lerfu word for, 415 -->
+<indexterm><primary>lower-case</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ga'e</quote>and
+<!-- ^^ ga'e, 415 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ga'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>to'a</quote>representing upper case and lower case respectively. They belong to the same selma'o as the basic lerfu words, namely BY, and they may be freely interspersed with them.</para>
+<!-- ^^ to'a, 415 -->
+<indexterm><primary>to'a</primary></indexterm>
<para>The effect of
<quote>ga'e</quote>is to change the interpretation of all lerfu words following it to be the upper-case version of the lerfu. An occurrence of
+<!-- ^^ upper-case: lerfu word for, 415 -->
+<indexterm><primary>upper-case</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ ga'e, 415 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ga'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>to'a</quote>causes the interpretation to revert to lower case. Thus,
+<!-- ^^ to'a, 415 -->
+<indexterm><primary>to'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ga'e .abu</quote>means not
+<!-- ^^ ga'e, 415 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ga'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>a</quote>but
<quote>A</quote>, and Ivan's name may be spelled out thus:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-q6pw">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e3d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section3-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.ibu ga'e vy. .abu ny. to'a</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ to'a, 415 -->
+<indexterm><primary>to'a</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ ga'e, 415 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ga'e</primary></indexterm>
<en>i [upper] V A N [lower]</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The cmavo and compound cmavo of this type will be called
<quote>shift words</quote>.</para>
<para>How long does a shift word last? Theoretically, until the next shift word that contradicts it or until the end of text. In practice, it is common to presume that a shift word is only in effect until the next word other than a lerfu word is found.</para>
<para>It is often convenient to shift just a single letter to upper case. The cmavo
<quote>tau</quote>, of selma'o LAU, is useful for the purpose. A LAU cmavo must always be immediately followed by a BY cmavo or its equivalent: the combination is grammatically equivalent to a single BY. (See
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17-section14" />for details.)</para>
<para>A likely use of
<quote>tau</quote>is in the internationally standardized symbols for the chemical elements. Each element is represented using either a single upper-case lerfu or one upper-case lerfu followed by one lower-case lerfu:</para>
+<!-- ^^ upper-case: lerfu word for, 415 -->
+<indexterm><primary>upper-case</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ lower-case: lerfu word for, 415 -->
+<indexterm><primary>lower-case</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ chemical elements: use of single-letter shift for, 415 -->
+<!-- ^^ single-letter shift: as toggle, 415 -->
+<indexterm><primary>single-letter shift</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ letter shift, 498 -->
+<indexterm><primary>letter shift</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>chemical elements</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Xyp6">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e3d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section3-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c17e3d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section3-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>tau sy.</jbo>
<gloss>[single shift] S</gloss>
<en>S (chemical symbol for sulfur)</en>
<jbo>tau sy. .ibu</jbo>
<gloss>[single shift] S i</gloss>
<en>Si (chemical symbol for silicon)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>If a shift to upper-case is in effect when
+<!-- ^^ upper-case: lerfu word for, 415 -->
+<indexterm><primary>upper-case</primary></indexterm>
<quote>tau</quote>appears, it shifts the next lerfu word only to lower case, reversing its usual effect.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section4">
<title>4. The universal
<quote>bu</quote></title>
<para>So far we have seen
<quote>bu</quote>only as a suffix to vowel cmavo to produce vowel lerfu words. Originally, this was the only use of
<quote>bu</quote>. In developing the lerfu word system, however, it proved to be useful to allow
<quote>bu</quote>to be attached to any word whatsoever, in order to allow arbitrary extensions of the basic lerfu word set.</para>
<para>Formally,
<quote>bu</quote>may be attached to any single Lojban word. Compound cmavo do not count as words for this purpose. The special cmavo
<quote>ba'e</quote>,
<quote>za'e</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ za'e, 69, 416, 480; interaction with bu, 416; use to avoid lujvo misunderstandings, 69 -->
+<indexterm><primary>za'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>zei</quote>,
<quote>zo</quote>,
<quote>zoi</quote>,
<quote>la'o</quote>,
<quote>lo'u</quote>,
<quote>si</quote>,
<quote>sa</quote>,
<quote>su</quote>, and
<quote>fa'o</quote>may not have
+<!-- ^^ fa'o, 416, 484; contrasted with fe'o, 325; interaction with bu, 416 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fa'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bu</quote>attached, because they are interpreted before
<quote>bu</quote>detection is done; in particular,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-WvFu">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e4d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section4-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>zo bu</jbo>
<en>the word
@@ -266,244 +328,428 @@
</example>
<para>is needed when discussing
<quote>bu</quote>in Lojban. It is also illegal to attach
<quote>bu</quote>to itself, but more than one
<quote>bu</quote>may be attached to a word; thus
<quote>.abubu</quote>is legal, if ugly. (Its meaning is not defined, but it is presumably different from
<quote>.abu</quote>.) It does not matter if the word is a cmavo, a cmene, or a brivla. All such words suffixed by
<quote>bu</quote>are treated grammatically as if they were cmavo belonging to selma'o BY. However, if the word is a cmene it is always necessary to precede and follow it by a pause, because otherwise the cmene may absorb preceding or following words.</para>
<para>The ability to attach
<quote>bu</quote>to words has been used primarily to make names for various logograms and other unusual characters. For example, the Lojban name for the
+<!-- ^^ unusual characters: words for, 416 -->
+<indexterm><primary>unusual characters</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ logograms: words for, 416 -->
+<indexterm><primary>logograms</primary></indexterm>
<quote>happy face</quote>is
+<!-- ^^ happy face: example, 416 -->
+<indexterm><primary>happy face</primary></indexterm>
<quote>.uibu</quote>, based on the attitudinal
<quote>.ui</quote>that means
<quote>happiness</quote>. Likewise, the
+<!-- ^^ happiness: example, 161 -->
+<indexterm><primary>happiness</primary></indexterm>
<quote>smiley face</quote>, written
+<!-- ^^ smiley face: example, 416; word for, 416 -->
+<indexterm><primary>smiley face</primary></indexterm>
<quote>:-)</quote>and used on computer networks to indicate humor, is called
<quote>zo'obu</quote>The existence of these names does not mean that you should insert
<quote>.uibu</quote>into running Lojban text to indicate that you are happy, or
<quote>zo'obu</quote>when something is funny; instead, use the appropriate attitudinal directly.</para>
<para>Likewise,
<quote>joibu</quote>represents the ampersand character,
+<!-- ^^ ampersand character: word for, 416 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ampersand character</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ ampersand: example, 416 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ampersand</primary></indexterm>
<quote>&</quote>, based on the cmavo
<quote>joi</quote>meaning
<quote>mixed and</quote>. Many more such lerfu words will probably be invented in future.</para>
<para>The
<quote>.</quote>and
<quote>,</quote>characters used in Lojbanic writing to represent pause and syllable break respectively have been assigned the lerfu words
+<!-- ^^ syllable break: contrasted with pause, 32; representation in Lojban, 32; symbol for, 416; word for, 416 -->
+<indexterm><primary>syllable break</primary></indexterm>
<quote>denpa bu</quote>(literally,
<quote>pause bu</quote>) and
<quote>slaka bu</quote>(literally,
<quote>syllable bu</quote>). The written space is mandatory here, because
<quote>denpa</quote>and
<quote>slaka</quote>are normal gismu with normal stress:
<quote>denpabu</quote>would be a fu'ivla (word borrowed from another language into Lojban) stressed
<quote>denPAbu</quote>. No pause is required between
<quote>denpa</quote>(or
<quote>slaka</quote>) and
<quote>bu</quote>, though.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section5">
<title>5. Alien alphabets</title>
<para>As stated in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17-section1" />, Lojban's goal of cultural neutrality demands a standard set of lerfu words for the lerfu of as many other writing systems as possible. When we meet these lerfu in written text (particularly, though not exclusively, mathematical text), we need a standard Lojbanic way to pronounce them.</para>
<para>There are certainly hundreds of alphabets and other writing systems in use around the world, and it is probably an unachievable goal to create a single system which can express all of them, but if perfection is not demanded, a usable system can be created from the raw material which Lojban provides.</para>
<para>One possibility would be to use the lerfu word associated with the language itself, Lojbanized and with
<quote>bu</quote>added. Indeed, an isolated Greek
<quote>alpha</quote>in running Lojban text is probably most easily handled by calling it
+<!-- ^^ alpha: example, 416 -->
+<indexterm><primary>alpha</primary></indexterm>
<quote>.alfas. bu</quote>. Here the Greek lerfu word has been made into a Lojbanized name by adding
<quote>s</quote>and then into a Lojban lerfu word by adding
<quote>bu</quote>. Note that the pause after
<quote>.alfas.</quote>is still needed.</para>
<para>Likewise, the easiest way to handle the Latin letters
<quote>h</quote>,
<quote>q</quote>, and
<quote>w</quote>that are not used in Lojban is by a consonant lerfu word with
<quote>bu</quote>attached. The following assignments have been made:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
.y'y.bu h
ky.bu q
vy.bu w
</programlisting>
<para>As an example, the English word
<quote>quack</quote>would be spelled in Lojban thus:</para>
+<!-- ^^ quack: example, 417 -->
+<indexterm><primary>quack</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-0oAR">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e5d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section5-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ky.bu .ubu .abu cy. ky.</jbo>
<en>
<quote>q</quote>
<quote>u</quote>
<quote>a</quote>
<quote>c</quote>
<quote>k</quote>
</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that the fact that the letter
<quote>c</quote>in this word has nothing to do with the sound of the Lojban letter
<quote>c</quote>is irrelevant; we are spelling an English word and English rules control the choice of letters, but we are speaking Lojban and Lojban rules control the pronunciations of those letters.</para>
+<!-- ^^ irrelevant: specifying of sumti place, 157 -->
+<indexterm><primary>irrelevant</primary></indexterm>
<para>A few more possibilities for Latin-alphabet letters used in languages other than English:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ty.bu þ (thorn)
dy.bu ð (edh)
</programlisting>
<para>However, this system is not ideal for all purposes. For one thing, it is verbose. The native lerfu words are often quite long, and with
<quote>bu</quote>added they become even longer: the worst-case Greek lerfu word would be
<quote>.Omikron. bu</quote>, with four syllables and two mandatory pauses. In addition, alphabets that are used by many languages have separate sets of lerfu words for each language, and which set is Lojban to choose?</para>
<para>The alternative plan, therefore, is to use a shift word similar to those introduced in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17-section3" />. After the appearance of such a shift word, the regular lerfu words are re-interpreted to represent the lerfu of the alphabet now in use. After a shift to the Greek alphabet, for example, the lerfu word
+<!-- ^^ Greek alphabet: language shift word for, 417; proposed lerfu words for, 426 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Greek alphabet</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ty</quote>would represent not Latin
<quote>t</quote>but Greek
<quote>tau</quote>. Why
<quote>tau</quote>? Because it is, in some sense, the closest counterpart of
<quote>t</quote>within the Greek lerfu system. In principle it would be all right to map
<quote>ty.</quote>to
<quote>phi</quote>or even
<quote>omega</quote>, but such an arbitrary relationship would be extremely hard to remember.</para>
<para>Where no obvious closest counterpart exists, some more or less arbitrary choice must be made. Some alien lerfu may simply not have any shifted equivalent, forcing the speaker to fall back on a
<quote>bu</quote>form. Since a
<quote>bu</quote>form may mean different things in different alphabets, it is safest to employ a shift word even when
<quote>bu</quote>forms are in use.</para>
<para>Shifts for several alphabets have been assigned cmavo of selma'o BY:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
lo'a Latin/Roman/Lojban alphabet
+<!-- ^^ Lojban alphabet, 29 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Lojban alphabet</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ lo'a: contrasted with na'a, 418 -->
+<!-- ^^ na'a, 418; contrasted with lo'a, 418 -->
+<indexterm><primary>na'a</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>lo'a</primary></indexterm>
ge'o Greek alphabet
+<!-- ^^ Greek alphabet: language shift word for, 417; proposed lerfu words for, 426 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Greek alphabet</primary></indexterm>
je'o Hebrew alphabet
+<!-- ^^ Hebrew alphabet: language shift word for, 417; proposed lerfu words for, 428 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Hebrew alphabet</primary></indexterm>
jo'o Arabic alphabet
+<!-- ^^ Arabic alphabet: language shift word for, 417 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Arabic alphabet</primary></indexterm>
ru'o Cyrillic alphabet
+<!-- ^^ Cyrillic alphabet: language shift word for, 417; proposed lerfu words for, 427 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Cyrillic alphabet</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>zai</quote>(of selma'o LAU) is used to create shift words to still other alphabets. The BY word which must follow any LAU cmavo would typically be a name representing the alphabet with
+<!-- ^^ zai, 418 -->
+<indexterm><primary>zai</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bu</quote>suffixed:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-LmzW">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e5d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section5-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c17e5d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section5-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c17e5d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section5-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>zai .devanagar. bu</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ zai, 418 -->
+<indexterm><primary>zai</primary></indexterm>
<en>Devanagari (Hindi) alphabet</en>
+<!-- ^^ Devanagari: example, 418 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Devanagari</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>zai .katakan. bu</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ zai, 418 -->
+<indexterm><primary>zai</primary></indexterm>
<en>Japanese katakana syllabary</en>
+<!-- ^^ katakana: example, 418 -->
+<indexterm><primary>katakana</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ Japanese katakana: example, 418 -->
+<!-- ^^ katakana: example, 418 -->
+<indexterm><primary>katakana</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>Japanese katakana</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ katakana: example, 418 -->
+<indexterm><primary>katakana</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>zai .xiragan. bu</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ zai, 418 -->
+<indexterm><primary>zai</primary></indexterm>
<en>Japanese hiragana syllabary</en>
+<!-- ^^ Japanese hiragana: example, 418 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Japanese hiragana</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ hiragana: contrasted with kanji, 420; example, 418 -->
+<!-- ^^ kanji: contrasted with alphabets and syllabaries, 420; representing based on romaji spelling, 420; representing based on strokes, 420 -->
+<!-- ^^ syllabaries: lerfu word representation, 420 -->
+<indexterm><primary>syllabaries</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ romaji: as a basis for kanji characters in Lojban lerfu words, 420 -->
+<indexterm><primary>romaji</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>kanji</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>hiragana</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Unlike the cmavo above, these shift words have not been standardized and probably will not be until someone actually has a need for them. (Note the
<quote>.</quote>characters marking leading and following pauses.)</para>
<para>In addition, there may be multiple visible representations within a single alphabet for a given letter: roman vs. italics, handwriting vs. print, Bodoni vs. Helvetica. These traditional
+<!-- ^^ handwriting: example, 418 -->
+<indexterm><primary>handwriting</primary></indexterm>
<quote>font and face</quote>distinctions are also represented by shift words, indicated with the cmavo
+<!-- ^^ font: example, 418; specifying for letters, 418 -->
+<indexterm><primary>font</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ce'a</quote>(of selma'o LAU) and a following BY word:</para>
+<!-- ^^ ce'a, 418 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ce'a</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-LWH6">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e5d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section5-example5" />
<anchor xml:id="c17e5d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section5-example6" />
<anchor xml:id="c17e5d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section5-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ce'a .xelveticas. bu</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ce'a, 418 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ce'a</primary></indexterm>
<en>Helvetica font</en>
+<!-- ^^ Helvetica font: example, 418 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Helvetica font</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ font: example, 418; specifying for letters, 418 -->
+<indexterm><primary>font</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>ce'a .xancisk. bu</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ce'a, 418 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ce'a</primary></indexterm>
<en>handwriting</en>
+<!-- ^^ handwriting: example, 418 -->
+<indexterm><primary>handwriting</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>ce'a .pavrel. bu</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ce'a, 418 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ce'a</primary></indexterm>
<en>12-point font size</en>
+<!-- ^^ font: example, 418; specifying for letters, 418 -->
+<indexterm><primary>font</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>na'a</quote>(of selma'o BY) is a universal shift-word cancel: it returns the interpretation of lerfu words to the default of lower-case Lojban with no specific font. It is more general than
+<!-- ^^ na'a, 418; contrasted with lo'a, 418 -->
+<indexterm><primary>na'a</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ lower-case: lerfu word for, 415 -->
+<indexterm><primary>lower-case</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ font: example, 418; specifying for letters, 418 -->
+<indexterm><primary>font</primary></indexterm>
<quote>lo'a</quote>, which changes the alphabet only, potentially leaving font and case shifts in place.</para>
+<!-- ^^ lo'a: contrasted with na'a, 418 -->
+<!-- ^^ na'a, 418; contrasted with lo'a, 418 -->
+<indexterm><primary>na'a</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>lo'a</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ font: example, 418; specifying for letters, 418 -->
+<indexterm><primary>font</primary></indexterm>
<para>Several sections at the end of this chapter contain tables of proposed lerfu word assignments for various languages.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section6">
<title>6. Accent marks and compound lerfu words</title>
<para>Many languages that make use of the Latin alphabet add special marks to some of the lerfu they use. French, for example, uses three accent marks above vowels, called (in English)
+<!-- ^^ Latin alphabet, 29; language shift word for, 417 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Latin alphabet</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ accent marks: proposed lerfu words for, 429 -->
+<indexterm><primary>accent marks</primary></indexterm>
<quote>acute</quote>,
<quote>grave</quote>, and
<quote>circumflex</quote>. Likewise, German uses a mark called
+<!-- ^^ circumflex: a diacritical mark, 418 -->
+<indexterm><primary>circumflex</primary></indexterm>
<quote>umlaut</quote>; a mark which looks the same is also used in French, but with a different name and meaning.</para>
+<!-- ^^ umlaut: a diacritical mark, 418; proposed lerfu word for, 429 -->
+<indexterm><primary>umlaut</primary></indexterm>
<para>These marks may be considered lerfu, and each has a corresponding lerfu word in Lojban. So far, no problem. But the marks appear over lerfu, whereas the words must be spoken (or written) either before or after the lerfu word representing the basic lerfu. Typewriters (for mechanical reasons) and the computer programs that emulate them usually require their users to type the accent mark before the basic lerfu, whereas in speech the accent mark is often pronounced afterwards (for example, in German
+<!-- ^^ accent mark: a diacritical mark, 418; example, 419 -->
+<indexterm><primary>accent mark</primary></indexterm>
<quote>a umlaut</quote>is preferred to
+<!-- ^^ umlaut: a diacritical mark, 418; proposed lerfu word for, 429 -->
+<indexterm><primary>umlaut</primary></indexterm>
<quote>umlaut a</quote>).</para>
+<!-- ^^ umlaut: a diacritical mark, 418; proposed lerfu word for, 429 -->
+<indexterm><primary>umlaut</primary></indexterm>
<para>Lojban cannot settle this question by fiat. Either it must be left up to default interpretation depending on the language in question, or the lerfu-word compounding cmavo
<quote>tei</quote>(of selma'o TEI) and
<quote>foi</quote>(of selma'o FOI) must be used. These cmavo are always used in pairs; any number of lerfu words may appear between them, and the whole is treated as a single compound lerfu word. The French word
<quote>été</quote>, with acute accent marks on both
+<!-- ^^ accent marks: proposed lerfu words for, 429 -->
+<indexterm><primary>accent marks</primary></indexterm>
<quote>e</quote>lerfu, could be spelled as:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-NQgb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e6d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section6-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>tei .ebu .akut. bu foi ty. tei .akut. bu .ebu foi</jbo>
<en>(
<quote>e</quote>acute )
<quote>t</quote>( acute
<quote>e</quote>)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and it does not matter whether
<quote>akut. bu</quote>appears before or after
<quote>.ebu</quote>; the
<quote>tei ... foi</quote>grouping guarantees that the acute accent is associated with the correct lerfu. Of course, the level of precision represented by
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17-section6-example1" />would rarely be required: it might be needed by a Lojban-speaker when spelling out a French word for exact transcription by another Lojban-speaker who did not know French.</para>
<para>This system breaks down in languages which use more than one accent mark on a single lerfu; some other convention must be used for showing which accent marks are written where in that case. The obvious convention is to represent the mark nearest the basic lerfu by the lerfu word closest to the word representing the basic lerfu. Any remaining ambiguities must be resolved by further conventions not yet established.</para>
+<!-- ^^ accent marks: proposed lerfu words for, 429 -->
+<indexterm><primary>accent marks</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ accent mark: a diacritical mark, 418; example, 419 -->
+<indexterm><primary>accent mark</primary></indexterm>
<para>Some languages, like Swedish and Finnish, consider certain accented lerfu to be completely distinct from their unaccented equivalents, but Lojban does not make a formal distinction, since the printed characters look the same whether they are reckoned as separate letters or not. In addition, some languages consider certain 2-letter combinations (like
<quote>ll</quote>and
<quote>ch</quote>in Spanish) to be letters; this may be represented by enclosing the combination in
<quote>tei ... foi</quote>.</para>
<para>In addition, when discussing a specific language, it is permissible to make up new lerfu words, as long as they are either explained locally or well understood from context: thus Spanish
<quote>ll</quote>or Croatian
<quote>lj</quote>could be called
<quote>libu</quote>, but that usage would not necessarily be universally understood.</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17-section19" />contains a table of proposed lerfu words for some common accent marks.</para>
+<!-- ^^ accent marks: proposed lerfu words for, 429 -->
+<indexterm><primary>accent marks</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section7">
<title>7. Punctuation marks</title>
<para>Lojban does not have punctuation marks as such: the denpa bu and the slaka bu are really a part of the alphabet. Other languages, however, use punctuation marks extensively. As yet, Lojban does not have any words for these punctuation marks, but a mechanism exists for devising them: the cmavo
+<!-- ^^ punctuation marks: cmavo as Lojban equivalents, 50 -->
+<indexterm><primary>punctuation marks</primary></indexterm>
<quote>lau</quote>of selma'o LAU.
+<!-- ^^ lau, 419; effect on following lerfu word, 419 -->
+<indexterm><primary>lau</primary></indexterm>
<quote>lau</quote>must always be followed by a BY word; the interpretation of the BY word is changed from a lerfu to a punctuation mark. Typically, this BY word would be a name or brivla with a
+<!-- ^^ lau, 419; effect on following lerfu word, 419 -->
+<indexterm><primary>lau</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bu</quote>suffix.</para>
<para>Why is
<quote>lau</quote>necessary at all? Why not just use a
+<!-- ^^ lau, 419; effect on following lerfu word, 419 -->
+<indexterm><primary>lau</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bu</quote>-marked word and announce that it is always to be interpreted as a punctuation mark? Primarily to avoid ambiguity. The
<quote>bu</quote>mechanism is extremely open-ended, and it is easy for Lojban users to make up
<quote>bu</quote>words without bothering to explain what they mean. Using the
<quote>lau</quote>cmavo flags at least the most important of such nonce lerfu words as having a special function: punctuation. (Exactly the same argument applies to the use of
+<!-- ^^ lau, 419; effect on following lerfu word, 419 -->
+<indexterm><primary>lau</primary></indexterm>
<quote>zai</quote>to signal an alphabet shift or
+<!-- ^^ zai, 418 -->
+<indexterm><primary>zai</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ce'a</quote>to signal a font shift.)</para>
+<!-- ^^ font: example, 418; specifying for letters, 418 -->
+<indexterm><primary>font</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ ce'a, 418 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ce'a</primary></indexterm>
<para>Since different alphabets require different punctuation marks, the interpretation of a
+<!-- ^^ punctuation marks: cmavo as Lojban equivalents, 50 -->
+<indexterm><primary>punctuation marks</primary></indexterm>
<quote>lau</quote>-marked lerfu word is affected by the current alphabet shift and the current font shift.</para>
+<!-- ^^ lau, 419; effect on following lerfu word, 419 -->
+<indexterm><primary>lau</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ font: example, 418; specifying for letters, 418 -->
+<indexterm><primary>font</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section8">
<title>8. What about Chinese characters?</title>
+<!-- ^^ Chinese characters: contrasted with alphabets and syllabaries, 420; representing based on pinyin spelling, 420; representing based on strokes, 420 -->
+<!-- ^^ syllabaries: lerfu word representation, 420 -->
+<indexterm><primary>syllabaries</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ pinyin: as a basis for Chinese characters in Lojban lerfu words, 420 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pinyin</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>Chinese characters</primary></indexterm>
<para>Chinese characters (
+<!-- ^^ Chinese characters: contrasted with alphabets and syllabaries, 420; representing based on pinyin spelling, 420; representing based on strokes, 420 -->
+<!-- ^^ syllabaries: lerfu word representation, 420 -->
+<indexterm><primary>syllabaries</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ pinyin: as a basis for Chinese characters in Lojban lerfu words, 420 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pinyin</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>Chinese characters</primary></indexterm>
<quote>han
<superscript>4</superscript>zi
<superscript>4</superscript></quote>in Chinese,
<quote>kanji</quote>in Japanese) represent an entirely different approach to writing from alphabets or syllabaries. (A syllabary, such as Japanese hiragana or Amharic writing, has one lerfu for each syllable of the spoken language.) Very roughly, Chinese characters represent single elements of meaning; also very roughly, they represent single syllables of spoken Chinese. There is in principle no limit to the number of Chinese characters that can exist, and many thousands are in regular use.</para>
+<!-- ^^ syllabaries: lerfu word representation, 420 -->
+<indexterm><primary>syllabaries</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ kanji: contrasted with alphabets and syllabaries, 420; representing based on romaji spelling, 420; representing based on strokes, 420 -->
+<!-- ^^ syllabaries: lerfu word representation, 420 -->
+<indexterm><primary>syllabaries</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ romaji: as a basis for kanji characters in Lojban lerfu words, 420 -->
+<indexterm><primary>romaji</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>kanji</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ Japanese hiragana: example, 418 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Japanese hiragana</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ hiragana: contrasted with kanji, 420; example, 418 -->
+<!-- ^^ kanji: contrasted with alphabets and syllabaries, 420; representing based on romaji spelling, 420; representing based on strokes, 420 -->
+<!-- ^^ syllabaries: lerfu word representation, 420 -->
+<indexterm><primary>syllabaries</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ romaji: as a basis for kanji characters in Lojban lerfu words, 420 -->
+<indexterm><primary>romaji</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>kanji</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>hiragana</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ Chinese characters: contrasted with alphabets and syllabaries, 420; representing based on pinyin spelling, 420; representing based on strokes, 420 -->
+<!-- ^^ syllabaries: lerfu word representation, 420 -->
+<indexterm><primary>syllabaries</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ pinyin: as a basis for Chinese characters in Lojban lerfu words, 420 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pinyin</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>Chinese characters</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ Amharic writing, 420 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Amharic writing</primary></indexterm>
<para>It is hopeless for Lojban, with its limited lerfu and shift words, to create an alphabet which will match this diversity. However, there are various possible ways around the problem.</para>
<para>First, both Chinese and Japanese have standard Latin-alphabet representations, known as
<quote>pinyin</quote>for Chinese and
+<!-- ^^ pinyin: as a basis for Chinese characters in Lojban lerfu words, 420 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pinyin</primary></indexterm>
<quote>romaji</quote>for Japanese, and these can be used. Thus, the word
+<!-- ^^ romaji: as a basis for kanji characters in Lojban lerfu words, 420 -->
+<indexterm><primary>romaji</primary></indexterm>
<quote>han
<superscript>4</superscript>zi
<superscript>4</superscript></quote>is conventionally written with two characters, but it may be spelled out as:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-fBfe">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e8d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section8-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.y'y.bu .abu ny. vo zy. .ibu vo</jbo>
@@ -511,23 +757,29 @@
<quote>h</quote>
<quote>a</quote>
<quote>n</quote>4
<quote>z</quote>
<quote>i</quote>4</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>vo</quote>is the Lojban digit
<quote>4</quote>. It is grammatical to intersperse digits (of selma'o PA) into a string of lerfu words; as long as the first cmavo is a lerfu word, the whole will be interpreted as a string of lerfu words. In Chinese, the digits can be used to represent tones. Pinyin is more usually written using accent marks, the mechanism for which was explained in
+<!-- ^^ accent marks: proposed lerfu words for, 429 -->
+<indexterm><primary>accent marks</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17-section6" />.</para>
<para>The Japanese company named
<quote>Mitsubishi</quote>in English is spelled the same way in romaji, and could be spelled out in Lojban thus:</para>
+<!-- ^^ romaji: as a basis for kanji characters in Lojban lerfu words, 420 -->
+<indexterm><primary>romaji</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ Mitsubishi: example, 420 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Mitsubishi</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-pLUV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e8d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section8-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>my. .ibu ty. sy. .ubu by. .ibu sy. .y'y.bu .ibu</jbo>
<en>
<quote>m</quote>
<quote>i</quote>
@@ -536,47 +788,59 @@
<quote>u</quote>
<quote>b</quote>
<quote>i</quote>
<quote>s</quote>
<quote>h</quote>
<quote>i</quote>
</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Alternatively, a really ambitious Lojbanist could assign lerfu words to the individual strokes used to write Chinese characters (there are about seven or eight of them if you are a flexible human being, or about 40 if you are a rigid computer program), and then represent each character with a
+<!-- ^^ Chinese characters: contrasted with alphabets and syllabaries, 420; representing based on pinyin spelling, 420; representing based on strokes, 420 -->
+<!-- ^^ syllabaries: lerfu word representation, 420 -->
+<indexterm><primary>syllabaries</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ pinyin: as a basis for Chinese characters in Lojban lerfu words, 420 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pinyin</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>Chinese characters</primary></indexterm>
<quote>tei</quote>, the stroke lerfu words in the order of writing (which is standardized for each character), and a
<quote>foi</quote>. No one has as yet attempted this project.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section9">
<title>9. lerfu words as pro-sumti</title>
<para>So far, lerfu words have only appeared in Lojban text when spelling out words. There are several other grammatical uses of lerfu words within Lojban. In each case, a single lerfu word or more than one may be used. Therefore, the term
+<!-- ^^ spelling out words: Lojban contrasted with English, 414 -->
+<indexterm><primary>spelling out words</primary></indexterm>
<quote>lerfu string</quote>is introduced: it is short for
<quote>sequence of one or more lerfu words</quote>.</para>
<para>A lerfu string may be used as a pro-sumti (a sumti which refers to some previous sumti), just like the pro-sumti
<quote>ko'a</quote>,
<quote>ko'e</quote>, and so on:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-2wo8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e9d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section9-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.abu prami by.</jbo>
<en>A loves B</en>
+<!-- ^^ A loves B: example, 421 -->
+<indexterm><primary>A loves B</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17-section9-example1" />,
<quote>.abu</quote>and
<quote>by.</quote>represent specific sumti, but which sumti they represent must be inferred from context.</para>
<para>Alternatively, lerfu strings may be assigned by
<quote>goi</quote>, the regular pro-sumti assignment cmavo:</para>
+<!-- ^^ pro-sumti assignment: explicit cancellation of with da'o, 162; no'i effect on, 162; stability of, 162 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pro-sumti assignment</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-i7Ny">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e9d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section9-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le gerku goi gy. cu xekri .i gy. klama le zdani</jbo>
<en>The dog, or G, is black. G goes to the house.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -598,66 +862,80 @@
<para>Here is an example using two names and longer lerfu strings:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-uAAF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e9d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section9-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la stivn. mark. djonz. merko .i la .aleksandr. paliitc. kuzNIETsyf. rusko</jbo>
<gloss>.i symyjy. tavla .abupyky. bau la lojban.</gloss>
<gloss>Steven Mark Jones is-American. Alexander Pavlovitch Kuznetsov is-Russian.</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ Steven Mark Jones: example, 421 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Steven Mark Jones</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ Alexander Pavlovitch Kuznetsov: example, 421 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Alexander Pavlovitch Kuznetsov</primary></indexterm>
<en>SMJ talks-to APK in Lojban.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Perhaps Alexander's name should be given as
<quote>ru'o.abupyky</quote>instead.</para>
<para>What about</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-gJFz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e9d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section9-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.abu dunda by. cy.</jbo>
<en>A gives B C</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Does this mean that A gives B to C? No.
+<!-- ^^ A gives B to C: example, 421 -->
+<indexterm><primary>A gives B to C</primary></indexterm>
<quote>by. cy.</quote>is a single lerfu string, although written as two words, and represents a single pro-sumti. The true interpretation is that A gives BC to someone unspecified. To solve this problem, we need to introduce the elidable terminator
+<!-- ^^ A gives BC: example, 421 -->
+<indexterm><primary>A gives BC</primary></indexterm>
<quote>boi</quote>(of selma'o BOI). This cmavo is used to terminate lerfu strings and also strings of numerals; it is required when two of these appear in a row, as here. (The other reason to use
<quote>boi</quote>is to attach a free modifier - subscript, parenthesis, or what have you - to a lerfu string.) The correct version is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Hdwz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e9d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section9-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.abu [boi] dunda by. boi cy. [boi]</jbo>
<en>A gives B to C</en>
+<!-- ^^ A gives B to C: example, 421 -->
+<indexterm><primary>A gives B to C</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where the two occurrences of
<quote>boi</quote>in brackets are elidable, but the remaining occurrence is not. Likewise:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-L9op">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e9d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section9-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xy. boi ro [boi] prenu cu prami</jbo>
<gloss>X all persons loves.</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ all persons: example, 398 -->
+<indexterm><primary>all persons</primary></indexterm>
<en>X loves everybody.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>requires the first
<quote>boi</quote>to separate the lerfu string
<quote>xy.</quote>from the digit string
+<!-- ^^ digit string: definition of, 458 -->
+<indexterm><primary>digit string</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ro</quote>.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section10">
<title>10. References to lerfu</title>
<para>The rules of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17-section9" />make it impossible to use unmarked lerfu words to refer to lerfu themselves. In the sentence:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-CYny">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e10d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section10-example1" />
@@ -733,20 +1011,22 @@
</example>
<para>which is not the case; rather, the thing symbolized by the word
<quote>.abu</quote>is a letteral. In Lojban, that would be:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Da4r">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e10d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section10-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la'e lu .abu li'u cu lerfu</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ la'e lu: compared with me'o, 422 -->
+<indexterm><primary>la'e lu</primary></indexterm>
<en>The-referent-of [quote] .abu [unquote] is-a-letteral.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which is correct.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section11">
<title>11. Mathematical uses of lerfu strings</title>
<para>This chapter is not about Lojban mathematics, which is explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18" />, so the mathematical uses of lerfu strings will be listed and exemplified but not explained.</para>
<itemizedlist>
@@ -761,31 +1041,35 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li .abu du li by. su'i cy.</jbo>
<gloss>the-number a equals the-number b plus c</gloss>
<en>a = b + c</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>A lerfu string as function name (preceded by
+<!-- ^^ function name: lerfu string as, 423 -->
+<indexterm><primary>function name</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ma'o</quote>of selma'o MAhO):</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-H0SM">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e11d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section11-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li .y.bu du li ma'o fy. boi xy.</jbo>
<gloss>the-number y equals the number the-function f of x</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ function f of x: example, 423 -->
+<indexterm><primary>function f of x</primary></indexterm>
<en>y = f(x)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note the
<quote>boi</quote>here to separate the lerfu strings
<quote>fy</quote>and
<quote>xy</quote>.</para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>A lerfu string as selbri (followed by a cmavo of selma'o MOI):</para>
@@ -793,35 +1077,41 @@
</itemizedlist>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-X4KM">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e11d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section11-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le vi ratcu ny.moi le'i mi ratcu</jbo>
<gloss>the here rat is-nth-of the-set-of my rats</gloss>
<en>This rat is my Nth rat.</en>
+<!-- ^^ Nth rat: example, 423, 448 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Nth rat</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>A lerfu string as utterance ordinal (followed by a cmavo of selma'o MAI):</para>
+<!-- ^^ utterance ordinal: lerfu string as, 423 -->
+<indexterm><primary>utterance ordinal</primary></indexterm>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Jw40">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e11d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section11-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ny.mai</jbo>
<en>Nthly</en>
+<!-- ^^ Nthly: example, 423 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Nthly</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>A lerfu string as subscript (preceded by
<quote>xi</quote>of selma'o XI):</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-oTgS">
<title>
@@ -849,101 +1139,167 @@
<en>(
<quote>n</quote>) persons</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The parentheses are required because
<quote>ny. lo prenu</quote>would be two separate sumti,
<quote>ny.</quote>and
<quote>lo prenu</quote>. In general, any mathematical expression other than a simple number must be in parentheses when used as a quantifier; the right parenthesis mark, the cmavo
<quote>ve'o</quote>, can usually be elided.</para>
<para>All the examples above have exhibited single lerfu words rather than lerfu strings, in accordance with the conventions of ordinary mathematics. A longer lerfu string would still be treated as a single variable or function name: in Lojban,
+<!-- ^^ function name: lerfu string as, 423 -->
+<indexterm><primary>function name</primary></indexterm>
<quote>.abu by. cy.</quote>is not the multiplication
+<!-- ^^ multiplication: explicit expression of, 437; implicit expression of, 437 -->
+<indexterm><primary>multiplication</primary></indexterm>
<quote>a × b × c</quote>but is the variable
<quote>abc</quote>. (Of course, a local convention could be employed that made the value of a variable like
<quote>abc</quote>, with a multi-lerfu-word name, equal to the values of the variables
<quote>a</quote>,
<quote>b</quote>, and
<quote>c</quote>multiplied together.)</para>
<para>There is a special rule about shift words in mathematical text: shifts within mathematical expressions do not affect lerfu words appearing outside mathematical expressions, and vice versa.</para>
+<!-- ^^ mathematical expressions: connectives in, 361; implicit quantifier for, 142; tensed connection in, 364 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mathematical expressions</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section12">
<title>12. Acronyms</title>
<para>An acronym is a name constructed of lerfu. English examples are
+<!-- ^^ acronym: definition, 423 -->
+<indexterm><primary>acronym</primary></indexterm>
<quote>DNA</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ DNA: example, 424 -->
+<indexterm><primary>DNA</primary></indexterm>
<quote>NATO</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ NATO: example, 424 -->
+<indexterm><primary>NATO</primary></indexterm>
<quote>CIA</quote>. In English, some of these are spelled out (like
+<!-- ^^ CIA: example, 424 -->
+<indexterm><primary>CIA</primary></indexterm>
<quote>DNA</quote>and
+<!-- ^^ DNA: example, 424 -->
+<indexterm><primary>DNA</primary></indexterm>
<quote>CIA</quote>) and others are pronounced more or less as if they were ordinary English words (like
+<!-- ^^ CIA: example, 424 -->
+<indexterm><primary>CIA</primary></indexterm>
<quote>NATO</quote>). Some acronyms fluctuate between the two pronunciations:
+<!-- ^^ NATO: example, 424 -->
+<indexterm><primary>NATO</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ acronyms: as lerfu strings using "me", 424; using names based on lerfu words, 423 -->
+<indexterm><primary>acronyms</primary></indexterm>
<quote>SQL</quote>may be
+<!-- ^^ SQL: example, 424 -->
+<indexterm><primary>SQL</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ess cue ell</quote>or
<quote>sequel</quote>.</para>
<para>In Lojban, a name can be almost any sequence of sounds that ends in a consonant and is followed by a pause. The easiest way to Lojbanize acronym names is to glue the lerfu words together, using
+<!-- ^^ acronym: definition, 423 -->
+<indexterm><primary>acronym</primary></indexterm>
<quote>'</quote>wherever two vowels would come together (pauses are illegal in names) and adding a final consonant:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-736i">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e12d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section12-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la dyny'abub. .i la ny'abuty'obub.</jbo>
<gloss>.i la cy'ibu'abub. .i la sykybulyl.</gloss>
<gloss>.i la .ibubymym. .i la ny'ybucyc.</gloss>
<gloss>DNA. NATO.</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ NATO: example, 424 -->
+<indexterm><primary>NATO</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ DNA: example, 424 -->
+<indexterm><primary>DNA</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>CIA. SQL.</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ SQL: example, 424 -->
+<indexterm><primary>SQL</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ CIA: example, 424 -->
+<indexterm><primary>CIA</primary></indexterm>
<en>IBM. NYC.</en>
+<!-- ^^ NYC: example, 424 -->
+<indexterm><primary>NYC</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ IBM: example, 424 -->
+<indexterm><primary>IBM</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>There is no fixed convention for assigning the final consonant. In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17-section12-example1" />, the last consonant of the lerfu string has been replicated into final position.</para>
<para>Some compression can be done by leaving out
<quote>bu</quote>after vowel lerfu words (except for
<quote>.y.bu</quote>, wherein the
<quote>bu</quote>cannot be omitted without ambiguity). Compression is moderately important because it's hard to say long names without introducing an involuntary (and illegal) pause:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-0sin">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e12d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section12-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la dyny'am. .i la ny'aty'om.</jbo>
<gloss>.i la cy'i'am. .i la sykybulym.</gloss>
<gloss>.i la .ibymym. .i la ny'ybucym.</gloss>
<gloss>DNA. NATO.</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ NATO: example, 424 -->
+<indexterm><primary>NATO</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ DNA: example, 424 -->
+<indexterm><primary>DNA</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>CIA. SQL.</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ SQL: example, 424 -->
+<indexterm><primary>SQL</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ CIA: example, 424 -->
+<indexterm><primary>CIA</primary></indexterm>
<en>IBM. NYC.</en>
+<!-- ^^ NYC: example, 424 -->
+<indexterm><primary>NYC</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ IBM: example, 424 -->
+<indexterm><primary>IBM</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17-section12-example2" />, the final consonant
<quote>m</quote>stands for
<quote>merko</quote>, indicating the source culture of these acronyms.</para>
+<!-- ^^ acronyms: as lerfu strings using "me", 424; using names based on lerfu words, 423 -->
+<indexterm><primary>acronyms</primary></indexterm>
<para>Another approach, which some may find easier to say and which is compatible with older versions of the language that did not have a
<quote>'</quote>character, is to use the consonant
<quote>z</quote>instead of
<quote>'</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Js6m">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e12d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section12-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la dynyzaz. .i la nyzatyzoz.</jbo>
<gloss>.i la cyzizaz. .i la sykybulyz.</gloss>
<gloss>.i la .ibymyz. .i la nyzybucyz.</gloss>
<gloss>DNA. NATO.</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ NATO: example, 424 -->
+<indexterm><primary>NATO</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ DNA: example, 424 -->
+<indexterm><primary>DNA</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>CIA. SQL.</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ SQL: example, 424 -->
+<indexterm><primary>SQL</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ CIA: example, 424 -->
+<indexterm><primary>CIA</primary></indexterm>
<en>IBM. NYC.</en>
+<!-- ^^ NYC: example, 424 -->
+<indexterm><primary>NYC</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ IBM: example, 424 -->
+<indexterm><primary>IBM</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>One more alternative to these lengthy names is to use the lerfu string itself prefixed with
<quote>me</quote>, the cmavo that makes sumti into selbri:</para>
+<!-- ^^ sumti into selbri, 98 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sumti into selbri</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-iMRB">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e12d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section12-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la me dy ny. .abu</jbo>
<en>that-named what-pertains-to
<quote>d</quote>
<quote>n</quote>
@@ -963,130 +1319,190 @@
<quote>Bear</quote>writes.</gloss>
<en>Bear is a writer.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17-section12-example5" />does not of course refer to a bear (
<quote>le cribe</quote>or
<quote>lo cribe</quote>) but to something else, probably a person, named
<quote>Bear</quote>. Similarly,
<quote>me dy ny. .abu</quote>is a predicate which can be used as a name, producing a kind of acronym which can have pauses between the individual lerfu words.</para>
+<!-- ^^ acronym: definition, 423 -->
+<indexterm><primary>acronym</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section13">
<title>13. Computerized character codes</title>
+<!-- ^^ character codes: definition, 425 -->
+<indexterm><primary>character codes</primary></indexterm>
<para>Since the first application of computers to non-numerical information, character sets have existed, mapping numbers (called
<quote>character codes</quote>) into selected lerfu, digits, and punctuation marks (collectively called
+<!-- ^^ punctuation marks: cmavo as Lojban equivalents, 50 -->
+<indexterm><primary>punctuation marks</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ character codes: definition, 425 -->
+<indexterm><primary>character codes</primary></indexterm>
<quote>characters</quote>). Historically, these character sets have only covered the English alphabet and a few selected punctuation marks. International efforts have now created Unicode, a unified character set that can represent essentially all the characters in essentially all the world's writing systems. Lojban can take advantage of these encoding schemes by using the cmavo
+<!-- ^^ Unicode, 425 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Unicode</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ punctuation marks: cmavo as Lojban equivalents, 50 -->
+<indexterm><primary>punctuation marks</primary></indexterm>
<quote>se'e</quote>(of selma'o BY). This cmavo is conventionally followed by digit cmavo of selma'o PA representing the character code, and the whole string indicates a single character in some computerized character set:</para>
+<!-- ^^ se'e, 425; and number base convention, 425 -->
+<indexterm><primary>se'e</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-r2jv">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e13d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section13-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>me'o se'ecixa cu lerfu la .asycy'i'is.</jbo>
<gloss>loi merko rupnu</gloss>
<gloss>The-expression [code] 36 is-a-letteral in-set ASCII</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ ASCII: application to lerfu words, 425 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ASCII</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>for-the-mass-of American currency-units.</gloss>
<gloss>The character code 36 in ASCII represents American dollars.</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ ASCII: application to lerfu words, 425 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ASCII</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ American dollars: example, 425 -->
+<indexterm><primary>American dollars</primary></indexterm>
<en>
<quote>$</quote>represents American dollars.</en>
+<!-- ^^ American dollars: example, 425 -->
+<indexterm><primary>American dollars</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Understanding
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17-section13-example1" />depends on knowing the value in the ASCII character set (one of the simplest and oldest) of the
+<!-- ^^ ASCII: application to lerfu words, 425 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ASCII</primary></indexterm>
<quote>$</quote>character. Therefore, the
<quote>se'e</quote>convention is only intelligible to those who know the underlying character set. For precisely specifying a particular character, however, it has the advantages of unambiguity and (relative) cultural neutrality, and therefore Lojban provides a means for those with access to descriptions of such character sets to take advantage of them.</para>
+<!-- ^^ se'e, 425; and number base convention, 425 -->
+<indexterm><primary>se'e</primary></indexterm>
<para>As another example, the Unicode character set (also known as ISO 10646) represents the international symbol of peace, an inverted trident in a circle, using the base-16 value 262E. In a suitable context, a Lojbanist may say:</para>
+<!-- ^^ Unicode, 425 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Unicode</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-MXET">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e13d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter17-section13-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>me'o se'erexarerei sinxa le ka panpi</jbo>
<en>the-expression [code] 262E is-a-sign-of the quality-of being-at-peace</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>When a
<quote>se'e</quote>string appears in running discourse, some metalinguistic convention must specify whether the number is base 10 or some other base, and which character set is in use.</para>
+<!-- ^^ se'e, 425; and number base convention, 425 -->
+<indexterm><primary>se'e</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section14">
<title>14. List of all auxiliary lerfu-word cmavo</title>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>bu</cmavo>
<selmaho>BU</selmaho>
<description>makes previous word into a lerfu word</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ga'e</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ ga'e, 415 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ga'e</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>BY</selmaho>
<description>upper case shift</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>to'a</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ to'a, 415 -->
+<indexterm><primary>to'a</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>BY</selmaho>
<description>lower case shift</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>tau</cmavo>
<selmaho>LAU</selmaho>
<description>case-shift next lerfu word only</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>lo'a</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ lo'a: contrasted with na'a, 418 -->
+<!-- ^^ na'a, 418; contrasted with lo'a, 418 -->
+<indexterm><primary>na'a</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>lo'a</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>BY</selmaho>
<description>Latin/Lojban alphabet shift</description>
+<!-- ^^ Lojban alphabet, 29 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Lojban alphabet</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ge'o</cmavo>
<selmaho>BY</selmaho>
<description>Greek alphabet shift</description>
+<!-- ^^ Greek alphabet: language shift word for, 417; proposed lerfu words for, 426 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Greek alphabet</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>je'o</cmavo>
<selmaho>BY</selmaho>
<description>Hebrew alphabet shift</description>
+<!-- ^^ Hebrew alphabet: language shift word for, 417; proposed lerfu words for, 428 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Hebrew alphabet</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>jo'o</cmavo>
<selmaho>BY</selmaho>
<description>Arabic alphabet shift</description>
+<!-- ^^ Arabic alphabet: language shift word for, 417 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Arabic alphabet</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ru'o</cmavo>
<selmaho>BY</selmaho>
<description>Cyrillic alphabet shift</description>
+<!-- ^^ Cyrillic alphabet: language shift word for, 417; proposed lerfu words for, 427 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Cyrillic alphabet</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>se'e</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ se'e, 425; and number base convention, 425 -->
+<indexterm><primary>se'e</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>BY</selmaho>
<description>following digits are a character code</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>na'a</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ na'a, 418; contrasted with lo'a, 418 -->
+<indexterm><primary>na'a</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>BY</selmaho>
<description>cancel all shifts</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>zai</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ zai, 418 -->
+<indexterm><primary>zai</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>LAU</selmaho>
<description>following lerfu word specifies alphabet</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ce'a</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ ce'a, 418 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ce'a</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>LAU</selmaho>
<description>following lerfu word specifies font</description>
+<!-- ^^ font: example, 418; specifying for letters, 418 -->
+<indexterm><primary>font</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>lau</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ lau, 419; effect on following lerfu word, 419 -->
+<indexterm><primary>lau</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>LAU</selmaho>
<description>following lerfu word is punctuation</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>tei</cmavo>
<selmaho>TEI</selmaho>
<description>start compound lerfu word</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>foi</cmavo>
@@ -1096,28 +1512,34 @@
</cmavo-list>
<para>Note that LAU cmavo must be followed by a BY cmavo or the equivalent, where
<quote>equivalent</quote>means: either any Lojban word followed by
<quote>bu</quote>, another LAU cmavo (and its required sequel), or a
<quote>tei ... foi</quote>compound cmavo.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section15">
<title>15. Proposed lerfu words - introduction</title>
<para>The following sections contain tables of proposed lerfu words for some of the standard alphabets supported by the Lojban lerfu system. The first column of each list is the lerfu (actually, a Latin-alphabet name sufficient to identify it). The second column is the proposed name-based lerfu word, and the third column is the proposed lerfu word in the system based on using the cmavo of selma'o BY with a shift word.</para>
<para>These tables are not meant to be authoritative (several authorities within the Lojban community have niggled over them extensively, disagreeing with each other and sometimes with themselves). They provide a working basis until actual usage is available, rather than a final resolution of lerfu word problems. Probably the system presented here will evolve somewhat before settling down into a final, conventional form.</para>
+<!-- ^^ basis: example, 317 -->
+<indexterm><primary>basis</primary></indexterm>
<para>For Latin-alphabet lerfu words, see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17-section2" />(for Lojban) and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17-section5" />(for non-Lojban Latin-alphabet lerfu).</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section16">
<title>16. Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet</title>
+<!-- ^^ Greek alphabet: language shift word for, 417; proposed lerfu words for, 426 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Greek alphabet</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
alpha .alfas. bu .abu
+<!-- ^^ alpha: example, 416 -->
+<indexterm><primary>alpha</primary></indexterm>
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
beta .betas. bu by
gamma .gamas. bu gy
delta .deltas. bu dy
epsilon .Epsilon. bu .ebu
zeta .zetas. bu zy
eta .etas. bu .e'ebu
theta .tetas. bu ty. bu
iota .iotas. bu .ibu
kappa .kapas. bu ky
@@ -1134,20 +1556,22 @@
phi .fis. bu py. bu
chi .xis. bu ky. bu
psi .psis. bu psis. bu
omega .omegas. bu .o'obu
rough .dasei,as. bu .y'y
smooth .psiles. bu xutla bu
</programlisting>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section17">
<title>17. Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet</title>
+<!-- ^^ Cyrillic alphabet: language shift word for, 417; proposed lerfu words for, 427 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Cyrillic alphabet</primary></indexterm>
<para>The second column in this listing is based on the historical names of the letters in Old Church Slavonic. Only those letters used in Russian are shown; other languages require more letters which can be devised as needed.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
a .azys. bu .abu
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
b .bukys. bu by
v .vedis. bu vy
g .glagolis. bu gy
d .dobros. bu dy
e .iestys. bu .ebu
zh .jivet. bu jy
@@ -1173,29 +1597,33 @@
hard sign .ier. bu jdari bu
yeri .ierys. bu .y.bu
soft sign .ieriys. bu ranti bu
reversed e .ecarn. bu .ecarn. bu
yu .ius. bu .iubu
ya .ias. bu .iabu
</programlisting>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section18">
<title>18. Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet</title>
+<!-- ^^ Hebrew alphabet: language shift word for, 417; proposed lerfu words for, 428 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Hebrew alphabet</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
aleph .alef. bu .alef. bu
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
bet .bet. bu by
gimel .gimel. bu gy
daled .daled. bu dy
he .xex. bu .y'y
vav .vav. bu vy
zayin .zai,in. bu zy
+<!-- ^^ zai, 418 -->
+<indexterm><primary>zai</primary></indexterm>
khet .xet. bu xy. bu
tet .tet. bu ty. bu
yud .iud. bu .iud. bu
kaf .kaf. bu ky
lamed .LYmed. bu ly
mem .mem. bu my
nun .nun. bu ny
samekh .samex. bu samex. bu
ayin .ai,in. bu .ai,in bu
pe .pex. bu py
@@ -1212,50 +1640,76 @@
qubbutz .kubuts. bu .ubu
qamatz .kamats. bu .abu
patach .patax. bu .a'abu
sheva .cyVAS. bu .y.bu
kholem .xolem. bu .obu
shuruq .curuk. bu .u'ubu
</programlisting>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section19">
<title>19. Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters</title>
+<!-- ^^ multiple letters: proposed lerfu words for, 429 -->
+<indexterm><primary>multiple letters</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ accent marks: proposed lerfu words for, 429 -->
+<indexterm><primary>accent marks</primary></indexterm>
<para>This list is intended to be suggestive, not complete: there are lerfu such as Polish
<quote>dark</quote>l and Maltese h-bar that do not yet have symbols.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
acute .akut. bu
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
or .pritygal. bu [pritu galtu]
grave .grav. bu
or .zulgal. bu [zunle galtu]
circumflex .cirkumfleks. bu
+<!-- ^^ circumflex: a diacritical mark, 418 -->
+<indexterm><primary>circumflex</primary></indexterm>
or .midgal. bu [midju galtu]
tilde .tildes. bu
+<!-- ^^ tilde: a diacritical mark, 418; proposed lerfu word for, 429 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tilde</primary></indexterm>
macron .makron. bu
+<!-- ^^ macron: proposed lerfu word for, 429 -->
+<indexterm><primary>macron</primary></indexterm>
breve .brevis. bu
over-dot .gapmoc. bu [gapru mokca]
+<!-- ^^ over-dot: proposed lerfu word for, 429 -->
+<indexterm><primary>over-dot</primary></indexterm>
umlaut/trema .relmoc. bu [re mokca]
+<!-- ^^ umlaut: a diacritical mark, 418; proposed lerfu word for, 429 -->
+<indexterm><primary>umlaut</primary></indexterm>
over-ring .gapyjin. bu [gapru djine]
+<!-- ^^ over-ring: proposed lerfu word for, 429 -->
+<indexterm><primary>over-ring</primary></indexterm>
cedilla .seDIlys. bu
+<!-- ^^ cedilla: a diacritical mark, 418; proposed lerfu word for, 429 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cedilla</primary></indexterm>
double-acute .re'akut. bu [re akut.]
ogonek .ogoniek. bu
hacek .xatcek. bu
ligatured fi tei fy. ibu foi
+<!-- ^^ ligatured fi: proposed lerfu word for, 429 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ligatured fi</primary></indexterm>
Danish/Latin ae tei .abu .ebu foi
Dutch ij tei .ibu jy. foi
+<!-- ^^ Dutch ij: proposed lerfu word for, 429 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Dutch ij</primary></indexterm>
German es-zed tei sy. zy. foi
</programlisting>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter17-section20">
<title>20. Proposed lerfu words for radio communication</title>
+<!-- ^^ radio communication: proposed lerfu words for, 429 -->
+<indexterm><primary>radio communication</primary></indexterm>
<para>There is a set of English words which are used, by international agreement, as lerfu words (for the English alphabet) over the radio, or in noisy situations where the utmost clarity is required. Formally they are known as the
<quote>ICAO Phonetic Alphabet</quote>, and are used even in non-English-speaking countries.</para>
+<!-- ^^ ICAO Phonetic Alphabet: proposed lerfu words for, 429 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ICAO Phonetic Alphabet</primary></indexterm>
<para>This table presents the standard English spellings and proposed Lojban versions. The Lojbanizations are not straightforward renderings of the English sounds, but make some concessions both to the English spellings of the words and to the Lojban pronunciations of the lerfu (thus
<quote>carlis. bu</quote>, not
<quote>tcarlis. bu</quote>).</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
Alfa .alfas. bu
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
Bravo .bravos. bu
Charlie .carlis. bu
Delta .deltas. bu
Echo .ekos. bu
@@ -1271,15 +1725,17 @@
Oscar .oskar. bu
Papa .paPAS. bu
Quebec .keBEK. bu
Romeo .romios. bu
Sierra .sieras. bu
Tango .tangos. bu
Uniform .Uniform. bu
Victor .viktas. bu
Whiskey .uiskis. bu
X-ray .eksreis. bu
+<!-- ^^ X-ray: example, 60 -->
+<indexterm><primary>X-ray</primary></indexterm>
Yankee .iankis. bu
Zulu .zulus. bu
</programlisting>
</section>
</chapter>
diff --git a/todocbook/18.xml b/todocbook/18.xml
index 7aa2c85..c25e26c 100644
--- a/todocbook/18.xml
+++ b/todocbook/18.xml
@@ -12,35 +12,47 @@
<para>providing a vocabulary of commonly used mathematical terms which can readily be expanded to include newly coined words using the full resources of Lojban;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>permitting the formulation, both in writing and in speech, of unambiguous mathematical text;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>encompassing all forms of quantified expression found in natural languages, as well as encouraging greater precision in ordinary language situations than natural languages allow.</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
<para>Goal 1 requires that mekso not be constrained to a single notation such as Polish notation or reverse Polish notation, but make provision for all forms, with the most commonly used forms the most easily used.</para>
+<!-- ^^ reverse Polish notation: and mekso goals, 431; definition, 452; indicator, 494; marker, 452; number of operands, 453; operands of, 453; parentheses in operands of, 453; terminator, 452; use of parentheses in, 452; with too few operands, 453; with too many operands, 453 -->
+<indexterm><primary>reverse Polish notation</primary></indexterm>
<para>Goal 2 requires the provision of several conversion mechanisms, so that the boundary between mekso and full Lojban can be crossed from either side at many points.</para>
<para>Goal 3 is the most subtle. Written mathematical expression is culturally unambiguous, in the sense that mathematicians in all parts of the world understand the same written texts to have the same meanings. However, international mathematical notation does not prescribe unique forms. For example, the expression</para>
+<!-- ^^ mathematical notation: and omitted operators, 431; and operator precedence, 436; forethought (see also Polish), 438; infix, 435; infix shortcomings, 438; international uniqueness of, 431 -->
+<!-- ^^ operator precedence: and mathematical notation, 436; effect of pragmatic convention, 436; generalized explicit specification, 437; in Lojban default, 436; plans for future, 458; rationale for default left-grouping, 436; scope modification with bi'e, 437; specifying by parenthesis, 437 -->
+<indexterm><primary>operator precedence</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>mathematical notation</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-dGcT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e1d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section1-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>3x + 2y</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>contains omitted multiplication operators, but there are other possible interpretations for the strings
+<!-- ^^ multiplication: explicit expression of, 437; implicit expression of, 437 -->
+<indexterm><primary>multiplication</primary></indexterm>
<quote>3x</quote>and
<quote>2y</quote>than as mathematical multiplication. Therefore, the Lojban verbal (spoken and written) form of
+<!-- ^^ multiplication: explicit expression of, 437; implicit expression of, 437 -->
+<indexterm><primary>multiplication</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section1-example1" />must not omit the multiplication operators.</para>
+<!-- ^^ multiplication: explicit expression of, 437; implicit expression of, 437 -->
+<indexterm><primary>multiplication</primary></indexterm>
<para>The remainder of this chapter explains (in as much detail as is currently possible) the mekso system. This chapter is by intention complete as regards mekso components, but only suggestive about uses of those components - as of now, there has been no really comprehensive use made of mekso facilities, and many matters must await the test of usage to be fully clarified.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter18-section2">
<title>2. Lojban numbers</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>pa</cmavo>
<selmaho>PA</selmaho>
<description>1</description>
@@ -95,20 +107,22 @@
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-LmPr">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e2d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section2-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>pa re ci</jbo>
<gloss>one two three</gloss>
<gloss>123 ignore</gloss>
<en>one hundred and twenty three</en>
+<!-- ^^ hundred: expressing as number, 432 -->
+<indexterm><primary>hundred</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-TNjj">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e2d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section2-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>pa no</jbo>
<gloss>one zero</gloss>
@@ -119,201 +133,279 @@
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-gjzw">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e2d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section2-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>pa re ci vo mu xa ze bi so no</jbo>
<gloss>one two three four five six seven eight nine zero</gloss>
<gloss>1234567890</gloss>
<en>one billion, two hundred and thirty-four million, five hundred and sixty-seven thousand, eight hundred and ninety.</en>
+<!-- ^^ hundred: expressing as number, 432 -->
+<indexterm><primary>hundred</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Therefore, there are no separate cmavo for
<quote>ten</quote>,
<quote>hundred</quote>, etc.</para>
+<!-- ^^ hundred: expressing as number, 432 -->
+<indexterm><primary>hundred</primary></indexterm>
<para>There is a pattern to the digit cmavo (except for
<quote>no</quote>, 0) which is worth explaining. The cmavo from 1 to 5 end in the vowels
<quote>a</quote>,
<quote>e</quote>,
<quote>i</quote>,
<quote>o</quote>,
<quote>u</quote>respectively; and the cmavo from 6 to 9 likewise end in the vowels
<quote>a</quote>,
<quote>e</quote>,
<quote>i</quote>, and
<quote>o</quote>respectively. None of the digit cmavo begin with the same consonant, to make them easy to tell apart in noisy environments.</para>
+<!-- ^^ noisy environments: proposed lerfu words for, 429 -->
+<indexterm><primary>noisy environments</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter18-section3">
<title>3. Signs and numerical punctuation</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ma'u PA positive sign
+<!-- ^^ positive sign: contrasted with addition operator, 436 -->
+<indexterm><primary>positive sign</primary></indexterm>
ni'u PA negative sign
+<!-- ^^ negative sign: contrasted with negation operator, 438; contrasted with subtraction operator, 434 -->
+<!-- ^^ subtraction operator: contrasted with negation operator, 438; contrasted with negative sign, 434 -->
+<indexterm><primary>subtraction operator</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>negative sign</primary></indexterm>
pi PA decimal point
+<!-- ^^ decimal point: as numerical punctuation, 433; effect of different notations, 433; in bases other than 10, 444 -->
+<indexterm><primary>decimal point</primary></indexterm>
fi'u PA fraction slash
+<!-- ^^ fi'u, 433 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fi'u</primary></indexterm>
ra'e PA repeating decimal
+<!-- ^^ ra'e, 433 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ra'e</primary></indexterm>
ce'i PA percent sign
+<!-- ^^ percent: as numerical punctuation, 433 -->
+<indexterm><primary>percent</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ ce'i, 433 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ce'i</primary></indexterm>
ki'o PA comma between digits
+<!-- ^^ ki'o, 433 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ki'o</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>A number can be given an explicit sign by the use of
<quote>ma'u</quote>and
<quote>ni'u</quote>, which are the positive and negative signs as distinct from the addition, subtraction, and negation operators. For example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-6A5H">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e3d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section3-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ni'u pa</jbo>
<gloss>negative-sign 1</gloss>
<en>-1</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Grammatically, the signs are part of the number to which they are attached. It is also possible to use
<quote>ma'u</quote>and
<quote>ni'u</quote>by themselves as numbers; the meaning of these numbers is explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section8" />.</para>
<para>Various numerical punctuation marks are likewise expressed by cmavo, as illustrated in the following examples:</para>
+<!-- ^^ punctuation marks: cmavo as Lojban equivalents, 50 -->
+<indexterm><primary>punctuation marks</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Ust4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e3d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section3-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ci pi pa vo pa mu</jbo>
<gloss>three point one four one five</gloss>
<en>3.1415</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(In some cultures, a comma is used instead of a period in the symbolic version of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section3-example2" />;
<quote>pi</quote>is still the Lojban representation for the decimal point.)</para>
+<!-- ^^ decimal point: as numerical punctuation, 433; effect of different notations, 433; in bases other than 10, 444 -->
+<indexterm><primary>decimal point</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-AeRL">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e3d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section3-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>re fi'u ze</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ fi'u, 433 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fi'u</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>two fraction seven</gloss>
<en>2/7</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section3-example3" />is the name of the number two-sevenths; it is not the same as
<quote>the result of 2 divided by 7</quote>in Lojban, although numerically these two are equal. If the denominator of the fraction is present but the numerator is not, the numerator is taken to be 1, thus expressing the reciprocal of the following number:</para>
+<!-- ^^ reciprocal: expression of mathematical, 433 -->
+<indexterm><primary>reciprocal</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-zR7K">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e3d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section3-example4" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e3d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section3-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>fi'u ze</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ fi'u, 433 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fi'u</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>fraction seven</gloss>
<en>1/7</en>
<jbo>pi ci mu ra'e pa vo re bi mu ze</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ra'e, 433 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ra'e</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>point three five repeating one four two eight five seven</gloss>
<en>.35142857142857...</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that the
<quote>ra'e</quote>marks unambiguously where the repeating portion
+<!-- ^^ ra'e, 433 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ra'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>142857</quote>begins.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-H60c">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e3d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section3-example6" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e3d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section3-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ci mu ce'i</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ce'i, 433 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ce'i</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>three five percent</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ percent: as numerical punctuation, 433 -->
+<indexterm><primary>percent</primary></indexterm>
<en>35%</en>
<jbo>pa ki'o re ci vo ki'o mu xa ze</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ki'o, 433 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ki'o</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>one comma two three four comma five six seven</gloss>
<en>1,234,567</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(In some cultures, spaces are used in the symbolic representation of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section3-example7" />;
<quote>ki'o</quote>is still the Lojban representation.)</para>
+<!-- ^^ ki'o, 433 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ki'o</primary></indexterm>
<para>It is also possible to have less than three digits between successive
<quote>ki'o</quote>s, in which case zeros are assumed to have been elided:</para>
+<!-- ^^ ki'o, 433 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ki'o</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-TTBx">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e3d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section3-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>pa ki'o re ci ki'o vo</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ki'o, 433 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ki'o</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>one comma two three comma four</gloss>
<en>1,023,004</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In the same way,
<quote>ki'o</quote>can be used after
+<!-- ^^ ki'o, 433 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ki'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>pi</quote>to divide fractions into groups of three:</para>
+<!-- ^^ fractions: expressing with numerical punctuation, 433; numerator default, 433 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fractions</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-S28N">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e3d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section3-example9" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e3d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section3-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>pi ki'o re re</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ki'o, 433 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ki'o</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>point comma two two</gloss>
<en>.022</en>
<jbo>pi pa ki'o pa re ki'o pa</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ki'o, 433 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ki'o</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>point one comma one two comma one</gloss>
<en>.001012001</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter18-section4">
<title>4. Special numbers</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ci'i PA infinity
+<!-- ^^ infinity: example, 434 -->
+<indexterm><primary>infinity</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ ci'i, 434 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ci'i</primary></indexterm>
ka'o PA imaginary i, sqrt(-1)
+<!-- ^^ ka'o, 434; as special number compared with as numerical punctuation, 434 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ka'o</primary></indexterm>
pai PA
<phrase role="IPA">π</phrase>, pi (approx 3.14159...)
te'o PA exponential e (approx 2.71828...)
fi'u PA golden ratio,
+<!-- ^^ fi'u, 433 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fi'u</primary></indexterm>
<phrase role="IPA">Φ</phrase>, phi, (1 + sqrt(5))/2 (approx. 1.61803...)
</programlisting>
<para>The last cmavo is the same as the fraction sign cmavo: a fraction sign with neither numerator nor denominator represents the golden ratio.</para>
<para>Numbers can have any of these digit, punctuation, and special-number cmavo of Sections 2, 3, and 4 in any combination:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c18e4d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section4-example1" />4.1) ma'u ci'i
+<!-- ^^ ci'i, 434 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ci'i</primary></indexterm>
+
<phrase role="IPA">∞</phrase>
<anchor xml:id="c18e4d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section4-example2" />4.2) ci ka'o re
+<!-- ^^ ka'o, 434; as special number compared with as numerical punctuation, 434 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ka'o</primary></indexterm>
3i2 (a complex number equivalent to
<quote>3 + 2i</quote>)
</programlisting>
<para>Note that
<quote>ka'o</quote>is both a special number (meaning
+<!-- ^^ ka'o, 434; as special number compared with as numerical punctuation, 434 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ka'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>i</quote>) and a number punctuation mark (separating the real and the imaginary parts of a complex number).</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c18e4d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section4-example3" />4.3) ci'i no
+<!-- ^^ ci'i, 434 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ci'i</primary></indexterm>
infinity zero
+<!-- ^^ infinity: example, 434 -->
+<indexterm><primary>infinity</primary></indexterm>
<phrase role="IPA">ℵ</phrase>
<subscript>0</subscript> (a transfinite cardinal)
+<!-- ^^ transfinite cardinal: example, 434 -->
+<indexterm><primary>transfinite cardinal</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>The special numbers
<quote>pai</quote>and
<quote>te'o</quote>are mathematically important, which is why they are given their own cmavo:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c18e4d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section4-example4" />4.4) pai
pi,
<phrase role="IPA">π</phrase>
<anchor xml:id="c18e4d5" />
@@ -339,27 +431,31 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section4-example7" />is not
<quote>1 minus 2</quote>, which is represented by a different cmavo sequence altogether. It is a single number which has not been assigned a meaning. There are many such numbers which have no well-defined meaning; they may be used for experimental purposes or for future expansion of the Lojban number system.</para>
<para>It is possible, of course, that some of these
<quote>oddities</quote>do have a meaningful use in some restricted area of mathematics. A mathematician appropriating these structures for specialized use needs to consider whether some other branch of mathematics would use the structure differently.</para>
<para>More information on numbers may be found in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section8" />to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section12" />.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter18-section5">
<title>5. Simple infix expressions and equations</title>
+<!-- ^^ infix expressions: in operands being used in Polish notation, 439 -->
+<indexterm><primary>infix expressions</primary></indexterm>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
du GOhA equals
su'i VUhU plus
vu'u VUhU minus
pi'i VUhU times
te'a VUhU raised to the power
+<!-- ^^ te'a, 437 -->
+<indexterm><primary>te'a</primary></indexterm>
ny. BY letter
<quote>n</quote>
vei VEI left parenthesis
ve'o VEhO right parenthesis
</programlisting>
<para>Let us begin at the beginning: one plus one equals two. In Lojban, that sentence translates to:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-CUeK">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e5d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section5-example1" />
@@ -372,66 +468,78 @@
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section5-example1" />, a mekso sentence, is a regular Lojban bridi that exploits mekso features.
<quote>du</quote>is the predicate meaning
<quote>x1 is mathematically equal to x2</quote>. It is a cmavo for conciseness, but it has the same grammatical uses as any brivla. Outside mathematical contexts,
<quote>du</quote>means
<quote>x1 is identical with x2</quote>or
<quote>x1 is the same object as x2</quote>.</para>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>li</quote>is the number article. It is required whenever a sentence talks about numbers as numbers, as opposed to using numbers to quantify things. For example:</para>
+<!-- ^^ number article: explanation of use, 435 -->
+<indexterm><primary>number article</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ article, 498; number, 435 -->
+<indexterm><primary>article</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-nSU9">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e5d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section5-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ci prenu</jbo>
<en>the three persons</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>requires no
<quote>li</quote>article, because the
+<!-- ^^ article, 498; number, 435 -->
+<indexterm><primary>article</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ci</quote>is being used to specify the number of
<quote>prenu</quote>. However, the sentence</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-BNFi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e5d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section5-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>levi sfani cu grake li ci</jbo>
<gloss>This fly masses-in-grams the-number three.</gloss>
<en>This fly has a mass of 3 grams.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>requires
<quote>li</quote>because
<quote>ci</quote>is being used as a sumti. Note that this is the way in which measurements are stated in Lojban: all the predicates for units of length, mass, temperature, and so on have the measured object as the first place and a number as the second place. Using
+<!-- ^^ measurements: expressing, 435 -->
+<indexterm><primary>measurements</primary></indexterm>
<quote>li</quote>for
<quote>le</quote>in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section5-example2" />would produce</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-gJe1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e5d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section5-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li ci prenu</jbo>
<en>The-number 3 is-a-person.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which is grammatical but nonsensical: numbers are not persons.</para>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>su'i</quote>belongs to selma'o VUhU, which is composed of mathematical operators, and means
+<!-- ^^ mathematical operators, 436 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mathematical operators</primary></indexterm>
<quote>addition</quote>. As mentioned before, it is distinct from
<quote>ma'u</quote>which means the positive sign as an indication of a positive number:</para>
+<!-- ^^ positive sign: contrasted with addition operator, 436 -->
+<indexterm><primary>positive sign</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-4gsp">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e5d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section5-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li ma'u pa su'i ni'u pa du li no</jbo>
<gloss>The-number positive-sign one plus negative-sign one equals the-number zero.</gloss>
<en>+1 + -1 = 0</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -446,122 +554,158 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li mu su'i pa du li ci su'i ci</jbo>
<gloss>The-number five plus one equals the-number three plus three.</gloss>
<en>5 + 1 = 3 + 3</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Why don't we say
<quote>li mu su'i li pa</quote>rather than just
<quote>li mu su'i pa</quote>? The answer is that VUhU operators connect mekso operands (numbers, in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section5-example6" />), not general sumti.
+<!-- ^^ general sumti: contrasted with operands, 436 -->
+<indexterm><primary>general sumti</primary></indexterm>
<quote>li</quote>is used to make the entire mekso into a sumti, which then plays the roles applicable to other sumti: in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section5-example6" />, filling the places of a bridi</para>
<para>By default, Lojban mathematics is like simple calculator mathematics: there is no notion of
+<!-- ^^ calculator mathematics: as default in Lojban, 436 -->
+<indexterm><primary>calculator mathematics</primary></indexterm>
<quote>operator precedence</quote>. Consider the following example, where
+<!-- ^^ operator precedence: and mathematical notation, 436; effect of pragmatic convention, 436; generalized explicit specification, 437; in Lojban default, 436; plans for future, 458; rationale for default left-grouping, 436; scope modification with bi'e, 437; specifying by parenthesis, 437 -->
+<indexterm><primary>operator precedence</primary></indexterm>
<quote>pi'i</quote>means
<quote>times</quote>, the multiplication operator:</para>
+<!-- ^^ multiplication: explicit expression of, 437; implicit expression of, 437 -->
+<indexterm><primary>multiplication</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-7a2Q">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e5d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section5-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li ci su'i vo pi'i mu du li reci</jbo>
<gloss>The-number three plus four times five equals the-number two-three.</gloss>
<en>3 + 4 × 5 = 23</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Is the Lojban version of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section5-example7" />true? No!
<quote>3 + 4 × 5</quote>is indeed 23, because the usual conventions of mathematics state that multiplication takes precedence over addition; that is, the multiplication
+<!-- ^^ multiplication: explicit expression of, 437; implicit expression of, 437 -->
+<indexterm><primary>multiplication</primary></indexterm>
<quote>4 × 5</quote>is done first, giving 20, and only then the addition
<quote>3 + 20</quote>. But VUhU operators by default are done left to right, like other Lojban grouping, and so a truthful bridi would be:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-XUQh">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e5d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section5-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li ci su'i vo pi'i mu du li cimu</jbo>
<gloss>The-number three plus four times five equals the-number three-five.</gloss>
<en>3 + 4 × 5 = 35</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here we calculate 3 + 4 first, giving 7, and then calculate 7 × 5 second, leading to the result 35. While possessing the advantage of simplicity, this result violates the design goal of matching the standards of mathematics. What can be done?</para>
<para>There are three solutions, all of which will probably be used to some degree. The first solution is to ignore the problem. People will say
<quote>li ci su'i vo pi'i mu</quote>and mean 23 by it, because the notion that multiplication takes precedence over addition is too deeply ingrained to be eradicated by Lojban parsing, which totally ignores semantics. This convention essentially allows semantics to dominate syntax in this one area.</para>
+<!-- ^^ multiplication: explicit expression of, 437; implicit expression of, 437 -->
+<indexterm><primary>multiplication</primary></indexterm>
<para>(Why not hard-wire the precedences into the grammar, as is done in computer programming languages? Essentially because there are too many operators, known and unknown, with levels of precedence that vary according to usage. The programming language 'C' has 13 levels of precedence, and its list of operators is not even extensible. For Lojban this approach is just not practical. In addition, hard-wired precedence could not be overridden in mathematical systems such as spreadsheets where the conventions are different.)</para>
<para>The second solution is to use explicit means to specify the precedence of operators. This approach is fully general, but clumsy, and will be explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section20" />.</para>
<para>The third solution is simple but not very general. When an operator is prefixed with the cmavo
<quote>bi'e</quote>(of selma'o BIhE), it becomes automatically of higher precedence than other operators not so prefixed. Thus,</para>
+<!-- ^^ bi'e, 437; effect on following operator, 437 -->
+<indexterm><primary>bi'e</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-LIUa">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e5d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section5-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li ci su'i vo bi'e pi'i mu du li reci</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ bi'e, 437; effect on following operator, 437 -->
+<indexterm><primary>bi'e</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>The-number three plus four-times-five equals the-number two-three.</gloss>
<en>3 + 4 × 5 = 23</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is a truthful Lojban bridi. If more than one operator has a
<quote>bi'e</quote>prefix, grouping is from the right; multiple
+<!-- ^^ bi'e, 437; effect on following operator, 437 -->
+<indexterm><primary>bi'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bi'e</quote>prefixes on a single operator are not allowed.</para>
+<!-- ^^ bi'e, 437; effect on following operator, 437 -->
+<indexterm><primary>bi'e</primary></indexterm>
<para>In addition, of course, Lojban has the mathematical parentheses
<quote>vei</quote>and
<quote>ve'o</quote>, which can be used just like their written equivalents
<quote>(</quote>and
<quote>)</quote>to group expressions in any way desired:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-wfFV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e5d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section5-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li vei ny. su'i pa ve'o pi'i vei ny. su'i pa [ve'o] du</jbo>
<gloss>li ny. [bi'e] te'a re su'i re bi'e pi'i ny. su'i pa</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ te'a, 437 -->
+<indexterm><primary>te'a</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ bi'e, 437; effect on following operator, 437 -->
+<indexterm><primary>bi'e</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>The-number (
<quote>n</quote>plus one) times (
<quote>n</quote>plus one)</gloss>
<gloss>equals the-number n-power-two plus two-times-
<quote>n</quote>plus 1.</gloss>
<en>(n + 1)(n + 1) = n</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>There are several new usages in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section5-example10" />:
<quote>te'a</quote>means
+<!-- ^^ te'a, 437 -->
+<indexterm><primary>te'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>raised to the power</quote>, and we also see the use of the lerfu word
<quote>ny</quote>, representing the letter
<quote>n</quote>. In mekso, letters stand for just what they do in ordinary mathematics: variables. The parser will accept a string of lerfu words (called a
<quote>lerfu string</quote>) as the equivalent of a single lerfu word, in agreement with computer-science conventions;
<quote>abc</quote>is a single variable, not the equivalent of
<quote>a × b × c</quote>. (Of course, a local convention could state that the value of a variable like
<quote>abc</quote>, with a multi-lerfu name, was equal to the values of the variables
<quote>a</quote>,
<quote>b</quote>, and
<quote>c</quote>multiplied together.)</para>
<para>The explicit operator
<quote>pi'i</quote>is required in the Lojban verbal form whereas multiplication is implicit in the symbolic form. Note that
+<!-- ^^ multiplication: explicit expression of, 437; implicit expression of, 437 -->
+<indexterm><primary>multiplication</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ve'o</quote>(the right parenthesis) is an elidable terminator: the first use of it in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section5-example10" />is required, but the second use (marked by square brackets) could be elided. Additionally, the first
+<!-- ^^ square brackets: use of in notation, 5 -->
+<indexterm><primary>square brackets</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bi'e</quote>(also marked by square brackets) is not necessary to get the proper grouping, but it is included here for symmetry with the other one.</para>
+<!-- ^^ square brackets: use of in notation, 5 -->
+<indexterm><primary>square brackets</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ bi'e, 437; effect on following operator, 437 -->
+<indexterm><primary>bi'e</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter18-section6">
<title>6. Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
boi BOI numeral/lerfu string terminator
va'a VUhU negation/additive inverse
pe'o PEhO forethought flag
+<!-- ^^ pe'o, 439 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pe'o</primary></indexterm>
ku'e KUhE forethought terminator
py. BY letter
<quote>p</quote>
xy. BY letter
<quote>x</quote>
zy. BY letter
<quote>z</quote>
ma'o MAhO convert operand to operator
fy. BY letter
<quote>f</quote>
@@ -603,83 +747,111 @@
<quote>n</quote>) plus
<quote>z</quote>equals the-number
<quote>x</quote>.</gloss>
<en>p + -n + z = x</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where we know that
<quote>va'a</quote>is a forethought operator because there is no operand preceding it.</para>
<para>
<quote>va'a</quote>is the numerical negation operator, of selma'o VUhU. In contrast,
+<!-- ^^ negation operator: contrasted with negative sign, 438; contrasted with subtraction operator, 438 -->
+<!-- ^^ subtraction operator: contrasted with negation operator, 438; contrasted with negative sign, 434 -->
+<indexterm><primary>subtraction operator</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ negative sign: contrasted with negation operator, 438; contrasted with subtraction operator, 434 -->
+<!-- ^^ subtraction operator: contrasted with negation operator, 438; contrasted with negative sign, 434 -->
+<indexterm><primary>subtraction operator</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>negative sign</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>negation operator</primary></indexterm>
<quote>vu'u</quote>is not used for numerical negation, but only for subtraction, as it always has two or more operands. Do not confuse
<quote>va'a</quote>and
<quote>vu'u</quote>, which are operators, with
<quote>ni'u</quote>, which is part of a number.</para>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section6-example2" />, the operator
<quote>va'a</quote>and the terminator
<quote>ku'e</quote>serve in effect as parentheses. (The regular parentheses
<quote>vei</quote>and
<quote>ve'o</quote>are NOT used for this purpose.) If the
<quote>ku'e</quote>were omitted, the
<quote>su'i zy</quote>would be swallowed up by the
<quote>va'a</quote>forethought operator, which would then appear to have two operands,
<quote>ny</quote>and
<quote>su'i zy.</quote>, where the latter is also a forethought expression.</para>
<para>Forethought mekso is also useful for matching standard functional notation. How do we represent
+<!-- ^^ functional notation: standard, 438 -->
+<indexterm><primary>functional notation</primary></indexterm>
<quote>z = f(x)</quote>? The answer is:</para>
+<!-- ^^ z = f(x): example, 438 -->
+<indexterm><primary>z = f</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-VybU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e6d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section6-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li zy du li ma'o fy.boi xy.</jbo>
<gloss>The-number z equals the-number the-operator f x.</gloss>
<en>z = f(x)</en>
+<!-- ^^ z = f(x): example, 438 -->
+<indexterm><primary>z = f</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Again, no parentheses are used. The construct
<quote>ma'o fy.boi</quote>is the equivalent of an operator, and appears in forethought here (although it could also be used as a regular infix operator). In mathematics, letters sometimes mean functions and sometimes mean variables, with only the context to tell which. Lojban chooses to accept the variable interpretation as the default, and uses the special flag
<quote>ma'o</quote>to mark a lerfu string as an operator. The cmavo
<quote>xy.</quote>and
<quote>zy.</quote>are variables, but
<quote>fy.</quote>is an operator (a function) because
<quote>ma'o</quote>marks it as such. The
<quote>boi</quote>is required because otherwise the
<quote>xy.</quote>would look like part of the operator name. (The use of
<quote>ma'o</quote>can be generalized from lerfu strings to any mekso operand: see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section21" />.)</para>
<para>When using forethought mekso, the optional marker
<quote>pe'o</quote>may be placed in front of the operator. This usage can help avoid confusion by providing clearly marked
+<!-- ^^ pe'o, 439 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pe'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>pe'o</quote>and
+<!-- ^^ pe'o, 439 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pe'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ku'e</quote>pairs to delimit the operand list.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section6-example1" />to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section6-example3" />, respectively, with explicit
<quote>pe'o</quote>and
+<!-- ^^ pe'o, 439 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pe'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ku'e</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-CDR6">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e6d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section6-example4" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e6d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section6-example5" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e6d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section6-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li pe'o su'i paboi reboi ciboi ku'e du li xa</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ pe'o, 439 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pe'o</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>li py. su'i pe'o va'a ny. ku'e su'i zy du li xy.</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ pe'o, 439 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pe'o</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>li zy du li pe'o ma'o fy.boi xy. ku'e</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ pe'o, 439 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pe'o</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note: When using forethought mekso, be sure that the operands really are operands: they cannot contain regular infix expressions unless parenthesized with
+<!-- ^^ infix expressions: in operands being used in Polish notation, 439 -->
+<indexterm><primary>infix expressions</primary></indexterm>
<quote>vei</quote>and
<quote>ve'o</quote>. An earlier version of the complex
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section17-example6" />came to grief because I forgot this rule.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter18-section7">
<title>7. Other useful selbri for mekso bridi</title>
<para>So far our examples have been isolated mekso (it is legal to have a bare mekso as a sentence in Lojban) and equation bridi involving
<quote>du</quote>. What about inequalities such as
<quote>x < 5</quote>? The answer is to use a bridi with an appropriate selbri, thus:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-s4TW">
@@ -690,54 +862,70 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li xy. mleca li mu</jbo>
<en>The-number x is-less-than the-number 5.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here is a partial list of selbri useful in mathematical bridi:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
du x1 is identical to x2, x3, x4, ...
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
dunli x1 is equal/congruent to x2 in/on property/quality/dimension/quantity x3
+<!-- ^^ dunli: contrasted with du, 163, 439 -->
+<indexterm><primary>dunli</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ dimension: meaning as sumti tcita, 233 -->
+<indexterm><primary>dimension</primary></indexterm>
mleca x1 is less than x2
zmadu x1 is greater than x2
dubjavme'a x1 is less than or equal to x2 [du ja mleca, equal or less]
dubjavmau x1 is greater than or equal to x2 [du ja zmadu, equal or greater]
tamdu'i x1 is similar to x2 [tarmi dunli, shape-equal]
+<!-- ^^ dunli: contrasted with du, 163, 439 -->
+<indexterm><primary>dunli</primary></indexterm>
turdu'i x1 is isomorphic to x2 [stura dunli, structure-equal]
+<!-- ^^ dunli: contrasted with du, 163, 439 -->
+<indexterm><primary>dunli</primary></indexterm>
cmima x1 is a member of set x2
gripau x1 is a subset of set x2 [girzu pagbu, set-part]
na'ujbi x1 is approximately equal to x2 [namcu jibni, number-near]
terci'e x1 is a component with function x2 of system x3
</programlisting>
<para>Note the difference between
<quote>dunli</quote>and
+<!-- ^^ dunli: contrasted with du, 163, 439 -->
+<indexterm><primary>dunli</primary></indexterm>
<quote>du</quote>;
<quote>dunli</quote>has a third place that specifies the kind of equality that is meant.
+<!-- ^^ dunli: contrasted with du, 163, 439 -->
+<indexterm><primary>dunli</primary></indexterm>
<quote>du</quote>refers to actual identity, and can have any number of places:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-PTmF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e7d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section7-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>py. du xy.boi zy.</jbo>
<gloss>
<quote>p</quote>is-identical-to
<quote>x</quote>
<quote>z</quote></gloss>
<en>p = x = z</en>
+<!-- ^^ p = x = z: example, 439 -->
+<indexterm><primary>p = x = z</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Lojban bridi can have only one predicate, so the
<quote>du</quote>is not repeated.</para>
<para>Any of these selbri may usefully be prefixed with
<quote>na</quote>, the contradictory negation cmavo, to indicate that the relation is false:</para>
+<!-- ^^ negation cmavo: position relative to selbri, 104 -->
+<indexterm><primary>negation cmavo</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-WuRn">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e7d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section7-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li re su'i re na du li mu</jbo>
<gloss>the-number 2 + 2 is-not equal-to the-number 5.</gloss>
<en>2 + 2 ≠ 5</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -748,65 +936,83 @@
<title>8. Indefinite numbers</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ro</cmavo>
<selmaho>PA</selmaho>
<description>all</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>so'a</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ so'a, 440 -->
+<indexterm><primary>so'a</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>PA</selmaho>
<description>almost all</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>so'e</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ so'e, 440; meaning of, 441 -->
+<indexterm><primary>so'e</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>PA</selmaho>
<description>most</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>so'i</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ so'i, 440 -->
+<indexterm><primary>so'i</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>PA</selmaho>
<description>many</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>so'o</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ so'o, 440 -->
+<indexterm><primary>so'o</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>PA</selmaho>
<description>several</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>so'u</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ so'u, 440 -->
+<indexterm><primary>so'u</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>PA</selmaho>
<description>a few</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>no'o</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ no'o, 441 -->
+<indexterm><primary>no'o</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>PA</selmaho>
<description>the typical number of</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>da'a</cmavo>
<selmaho>PA</selmaho>
<description>all but (one) of</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>rau</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ rau, 442, 448 -->
+<indexterm><primary>rau</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>PA</selmaho>
<description>enough</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>du'e</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ du'e, 442, 448 -->
+<indexterm><primary>du'e</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>PA</selmaho>
<description>too many</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>mo'a</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ mo'a, 442, 448 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mo'a</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>PA</selmaho>
<description>too few</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>Not all the cmavo of PA represent numbers in the usual mathematical sense. For example, the cmavo
<quote>ro</quote>means
<quote>all</quote>or
<quote>each</quote>. This number does not have a definite value in the abstract:
<quote>li ro</quote>is undefined. But when used to count or quantify something, the parallel between
<quote>ro</quote>and
@@ -815,148 +1021,200 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section8-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section8-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi catlu pa prenu</jbo>
<en>I look-at one person</en>
<jbo>mi catlu ro prenu</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ro prenu, 398 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ro prenu</primary></indexterm>
<en>I look-at all persons</en>
+<!-- ^^ all persons: example, 398 -->
+<indexterm><primary>all persons</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section8-example1" />might be true, whereas
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section8-example2" />is almost certainly false.</para>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>so'a</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ so'a, 440 -->
+<indexterm><primary>so'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>so'e</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ so'e, 440; meaning of, 441 -->
+<indexterm><primary>so'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>so'i</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ so'i, 440 -->
+<indexterm><primary>so'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>so'o</quote>, and
+<!-- ^^ so'o, 440 -->
+<indexterm><primary>so'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>so'u</quote>represent a set of indefinite numbers less than
+<!-- ^^ so'u, 440 -->
+<indexterm><primary>so'u</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ indefinite numbers, 440; combined with definite, 442; effect of pi on, 441 -->
+<indexterm><primary>indefinite numbers</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ro</quote>. As you go down an alphabetical list, the magnitude decreases:</para>
+<!-- ^^ magnitude: tense, 250 -->
+<indexterm><primary>magnitude</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-r4N1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section8-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section8-example4" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section8-example5" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section8-example6" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section8-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi catlu so'a prenu</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ so'a, 440 -->
+<indexterm><primary>so'a</primary></indexterm>
<en>I look-at almost-all persons</en>
+<!-- ^^ all persons: example, 398 -->
+<indexterm><primary>all persons</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>mi catlu so'e prenu</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ so'e, 440; meaning of, 441 -->
+<indexterm><primary>so'e</primary></indexterm>
<en>I look-at most persons</en>
+<!-- ^^ at most: contrasted with more than, at least, less than, 443; example, 443 -->
+<indexterm><primary>at most</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>mi catlu so'i prenu</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ so'i, 440 -->
+<indexterm><primary>so'i</primary></indexterm>
<en>I look-at many persons</en>
<jbo>mi catlu so'o prenu</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ so'o, 440 -->
+<indexterm><primary>so'o</primary></indexterm>
<en>I look-at several persons</en>
<jbo>mi catlu so'u prenu</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ so'u, 440 -->
+<indexterm><primary>so'u</primary></indexterm>
<en>I look-at a-few persons</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The English equivalents are only rough: the cmavo provide space for up to five indefinite numbers between
+<!-- ^^ indefinite numbers, 440; combined with definite, 442; effect of pi on, 441 -->
+<indexterm><primary>indefinite numbers</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ro</quote>and
<quote>no</quote>, with a built-in ordering. In particular,
<quote>so'e</quote>does not mean
+<!-- ^^ so'e, 440; meaning of, 441 -->
+<indexterm><primary>so'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>most</quote>in the sense of
<quote>a majority</quote>or
<quote>more than half</quote>.</para>
<para>Each of these numbers, plus
<quote>ro</quote>, may be prefixed with
<quote>pi</quote>(the decimal point) in order to make a fractional form which represents part of a whole rather than some elements of a totality.
+<!-- ^^ decimal point: as numerical punctuation, 433; effect of different notations, 433; in bases other than 10, 444 -->
+<indexterm><primary>decimal point</primary></indexterm>
<quote>piro</quote>therefore means
<quote>the whole of</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-dwJI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section8-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi citka piro lei nanba</jbo>
<en>I eat the-whole-of the-mass-of bread</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Similarly,
<quote>piso'a</quote>means
<quote>almost the whole of</quote>; and so on down to
<quote>piso'u</quote>,
<quote>a tiny part of</quote>. These numbers are particularly appropriate with masses, which are usually measured rather than counted, as
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section8-example8" />shows.</para>
<para>In addition to these cmavo, there is
<quote>no'o</quote>, meaning
+<!-- ^^ no'o, 441 -->
+<indexterm><primary>no'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>the typical value</quote>, and
+<!-- ^^ typical value: contrasted with elliptical value for sumti, 157; contrasted with mathematical average, 441 -->
+<indexterm><primary>typical value</primary></indexterm>
<quote>pino'o</quote>, meaning
<quote>the typical portion</quote>: Sometimes
<quote>no'o</quote>can be translated
+<!-- ^^ no'o, 441 -->
+<indexterm><primary>no'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>the average value</quote>, but the average in question is not, in general, a mathematical mean, median, or mode; these would be more appropriately represented by operators.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-UuBR">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section8-example9" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section8-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi catlu no'o prenu</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ no'o, 441 -->
+<indexterm><primary>no'o</primary></indexterm>
<en>I look-at a-typical-number-of persons</en>
<jbo>mi citka pino'o lei nanba</jbo>
<en>I eat a-typical-amount-of the-mass-of bread.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<quote>da'a</quote>is a related cmavo meaning
<quote>all but</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-iat6">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section8-example11" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section8-example12" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi catlu da'a re prenu</jbo>
<en>I look-at all-but two persons</en>
<jbo>mi catlu da'a so'u prenu</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ so'u, 440 -->
+<indexterm><primary>so'u</primary></indexterm>
<en>I look-at all-but a-few persons</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section8-example12" />is similar in meaning to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section8-example3" />.</para>
<para>If no number follows
<quote>da'a</quote>, then
<quote>pa</quote>is assumed;
<quote>da'a</quote>by itself means
<quote>all but one</quote>, or in ordinal contexts
<quote>all but the last</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-3z2U">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d13" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section8-example13" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro ratcu ka'e citka da'a ratcu</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ka'e, 243 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ka'e</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>All rats can eat all-but-one rats.</gloss>
<en>All rats can eat all other rats.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(The use of
<quote>da'a</quote>means that
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section8-example13" />does not require that all rats can eat themselves, but does allow it. Each rat has one rat it cannot eat, but that one might be some rat other than itself. Context often dictates that
+<!-- ^^ eat themselves: example, 442 -->
+<indexterm><primary>eat themselves</primary></indexterm>
<quote>itself</quote>is, indeed, the
<quote>other</quote>rat.)</para>
<para>As mentioned in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section3" />,
<quote>ma'u</quote>and
<quote>ni'u</quote>are also legal numbers, and they mean
<quote>some positive number</quote>and
<quote>some negative number</quote>respectively.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-UKjr">
<title>
@@ -974,84 +1232,120 @@
<en>the-number 3 − 4 = some-negative-number</en>
<jbo>mi ponse ma'u rupnu</jbo>
<en>I possess a-positive-number-of currency-units.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>All of the numbers discussed so far are objective, even if indefinite. If there are exactly six superpowers (
<quote>rairgugde</quote>,
<quote>superlative-states</quote>) in the world, then
<quote>ro rairgugde</quote>means the same as
<quote>xa rairgugde</quote>. It is often useful, however, to express subjective indefinite values. The cmavo
+<!-- ^^ indefinite values: subjective, 442 -->
+<indexterm><primary>indefinite values</primary></indexterm>
<quote>rau</quote>(enough),
+<!-- ^^ rau, 442, 448 -->
+<indexterm><primary>rau</primary></indexterm>
<quote>du'e</quote>(too many), and
+<!-- ^^ du'e, 442, 448 -->
+<indexterm><primary>du'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>mo'a</quote>(too few) are then appropriate:</para>
+<!-- ^^ mo'a, 442, 448 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mo'a</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-TIiE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d17" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section8-example17" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ponse rau rupnu</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ rau, 442, 448 -->
+<indexterm><primary>rau</primary></indexterm>
<en>I possess enough currency-units.</en>
+<!-- ^^ enough currency: example, 442 -->
+<indexterm><primary>enough currency</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Like the
<quote>so'a</quote>-series,
+<!-- ^^ so'a, 440 -->
+<indexterm><primary>so'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>rau</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ rau, 442, 448 -->
+<indexterm><primary>rau</primary></indexterm>
<quote>du'e</quote>, and
+<!-- ^^ du'e, 442, 448 -->
+<indexterm><primary>du'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>mo'a</quote>can be preceded by
+<!-- ^^ mo'a, 442, 448 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mo'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>pi</quote>; for example,
<quote>pirau</quote>means
<quote>a sufficient part of.</quote></para>
<para>Another possibility is that of combining definite and indefinite numbers into a single number. This usage implies that the two kinds of numbers have the same value in the given context:</para>
+<!-- ^^ indefinite numbers, 440; combined with definite, 442; effect of pi on, 441 -->
+<indexterm><primary>indefinite numbers</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-u5Xo">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d18" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section8-example18" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d19" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section8-example19" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska le rore gerku</jbo>
<gloss>I saw the all-of/two dogs.</gloss>
<en>I saw both dogs.</en>
+<!-- ^^ both dogs: example, 442 -->
+<indexterm><primary>both dogs</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>mi speni so'ici prenu</jbo>
<gloss>I am-married-to many/three persons.</gloss>
<en>I am married to three persons (which is
<quote>many</quote>in the circumstances).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section8-example19" />assumes a mostly monogamous culture by stating that three is
<quote>many</quote>.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter18-section9">
<title>9. Approximation and inexact numbers</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ji'i PA approximately
su'e PA at most
+<!-- ^^ su'e, 443; with elided number, 443 -->
+<indexterm><primary>su'e</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ at most: contrasted with more than, at least, less than, 443; example, 443 -->
+<indexterm><primary>at most</primary></indexterm>
su'o PA at least
me'i PA less than
+<!-- ^^ me'i, 443; with elided number, 443 -->
+<indexterm><primary>me'i</primary></indexterm>
za'u PA more than
+<!-- ^^ za'u, 443; with elided number, 443 -->
+<indexterm><primary>za'u</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>ji'i</quote>(of selma'o PA) is used in several ways to indicate approximate or rounded numbers. If it appears at the beginning of a number, the whole number is approximate:</para>
+<!-- ^^ rounded numbers: expressing, 443 -->
+<indexterm><primary>rounded numbers</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-YLcy">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e9d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section9-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ji'i vo no</jbo>
<gloss>approximation four zero</gloss>
<en>approximately 40</en>
+<!-- ^^ approximately 40: example, 443 -->
+<indexterm><primary>approximately 40</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>If
<quote>ji'i</quote>appears in the middle of a number, all the digits following it are approximate:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-BANC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e9d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section9-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1059,105 +1353,131 @@
<gloss>four zero approximation five zero</gloss>
<en>roughly 4050 (where the
<quote>four thousand</quote>is exact, but the
<quote>fifty</quote>is approximate)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>If
<quote>ji'i</quote>appears at the end of a number, it indicates that the number has been rounded. In addition, it can then be followed by a sign cmavo (
<quote>ma'u</quote>or
<quote>ni'u</quote>), which indicate truncation towards positive or negative infinity respectively.</para>
+<!-- ^^ infinity: example, 434 -->
+<indexterm><primary>infinity</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-85C3">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e9d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section9-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e9d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section9-example4" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e9d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section9-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>re pi ze re ji'i</jbo>
<gloss>two point seven two approximation</gloss>
<en>2.72 (rounded)</en>
<jbo>re pi ze re ji'i ma'u</jbo>
<gloss>two point seven two approximation positive-sign</gloss>
<en>2.72 (rounded up)</en>
+<!-- ^^ rounded up: example, 443 -->
+<indexterm><primary>rounded up</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>re pi ze pa ji'i ni'u</jbo>
<gloss>two point seven one approximation negative-sign</gloss>
<en>2.71 (rounded down)</en>
+<!-- ^^ rounded down: example, 443 -->
+<indexterm><primary>rounded down</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section9-example3" />through
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section9-example5" />are all approximations to
<quote>te'o</quote>(exponential e).
<quote>ji'i</quote>can also appear by itself, in which case it means
<quote>approximately the typical value in this context</quote>.</para>
+<!-- ^^ typical value: contrasted with elliptical value for sumti, 157; contrasted with mathematical average, 441 -->
+<indexterm><primary>typical value</primary></indexterm>
<para>The four cmavo
<quote>su'e</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ su'e, 443; with elided number, 443 -->
+<indexterm><primary>su'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>su'o</quote>,
<quote>me'i</quote>, and
+<!-- ^^ me'i, 443; with elided number, 443 -->
+<indexterm><primary>me'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>za'u</quote>, also of selma'o PA, express inexact numbers with upper or lower bounds:</para>
+<!-- ^^ za'u, 443; with elided number, 443 -->
+<indexterm><primary>za'u</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-KzdI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e9d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section9-example6" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e9d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section9-example7" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e9d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section9-example8" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e9d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section9-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi catlu su'e re prenu</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ su'e, 443; with elided number, 443 -->
+<indexterm><primary>su'e</primary></indexterm>
<en>I look-at at-most two persons</en>
<jbo>mi catlu su'o re prenu</jbo>
<en>I look-at at-least two persons</en>
<jbo>mi catlu me'i re prenu</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ me'i, 443; with elided number, 443 -->
+<indexterm><primary>me'i</primary></indexterm>
<en>I look-at less-than two persons</en>
<jbo>mi catlu za'u re prenu</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ za'u, 443; with elided number, 443 -->
+<indexterm><primary>za'u</primary></indexterm>
<en>I look-at more-than two persons</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Each of these is a subtly different claim:
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section9-example7" />is true of two or any greater number, whereas
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section9-example9" />requires three persons or more. Likewise,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section9-example6" />refers to zero, one, or two;
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section9-example8" />to zero or one. (Of course, when the context allows numbers other than non-negative integers,
<quote>me'i re</quote>can be any number less than 2, and likewise with the other cases.) The exact quantifier,
+<!-- ^^ me'i, 443; with elided number, 443 -->
+<indexterm><primary>me'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>exactly 2, neither more nor less</quote>is just
<quote>re</quote>. Note that
<quote>su'ore</quote>is the exact Lojban equivalent of English plurals.</para>
<para>If no number follows one of these cmavo,
<quote>pa</quote>is understood: therefore,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-brir">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e9d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section9-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi catlu su'o prenu</jbo>
<en>I look-at at-least [one] person</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is a meaningful claim.</para>
<para>Like the numbers in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section8" />, all of these cmavo may be preceded by
<quote>pi</quote>to make the corresponding quantifiers for part of a whole. For example,
<quote>pisu'o</quote>means
+<!-- ^^ pisu'o: explanation of meaning, 130 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pisu'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>at least some part of</quote>. The quantifiers
<quote>ro</quote>,
<quote>su'o</quote>,
<quote>piro</quote>, and
<quote>pisu'o</quote>are particularly important in Lojban, as they are implicitly used in the descriptions introduced by the cmavo of selma'o LA and LE, as explained in
+<!-- ^^ pisu'o: explanation of meaning, 130 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pisu'o</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6" />. Descriptions in general are outside the scope of this chapter.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter18-section10">
<title>10. Non-decimal and compound bases</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ju'u</cmavo>
<selmaho>VUhU</selmaho>
<description>to the base</description>
@@ -1189,20 +1509,24 @@
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>vai</cmavo>
<selmaho>PA</selmaho>
<description>hex digit F = 15</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>pi'e</cmavo>
<selmaho>PA</selmaho>
<description>compound base point</description>
+<!-- ^^ compound base: definition, 445; expressing digits in, 445; separator for, 445 -->
+<indexterm><primary>compound base</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ base point: in bases other than 10, 444 -->
+<indexterm><primary>base point</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>In normal contexts, Lojban assumes that all numbers are expressed in the decimal (base 10) system. However, other bases are possible, and may be appropriate in particular circumstances.</para>
<para>To specify a number in a particular base, the VUhU operator
<quote>ju'u</quote>is suitable:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Iw8u">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e10d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section10-example1" />
</title>
@@ -1217,46 +1541,56 @@
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-iYLw">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e10d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section10-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e10d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section10-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li daufeigai ju'u paxa du li rezevobi</jbo>
<en>The-number ABC base 16 equals the-number 2748.</en>
+<!-- ^^ ABC base 16: example, 444 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ABC base 16</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>li jaureivai ju'u paxa du li cimuxaze</jbo>
<en>The-number DEF base 16 equals the-number 3567.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note the pattern in the cmavo: the diphthongs
<quote>au</quote>,
<quote>ei</quote>,
<quote>ai</quote>are used twice in the same order. The digits for A to D use consonants different from those used in the decimal digit cmavo; E and F unfortunately overlap 2 and 4 - there was simply not enough available cmavo space to make a full differentiation possible. The cmavo are also in alphabetical order.</para>
<para>The base point
+<!-- ^^ base point: in bases other than 10, 444 -->
+<indexterm><primary>base point</primary></indexterm>
<quote>pi</quote>is used in non-decimal bases just as in base 10:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-gCo4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e10d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section10-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li vai pi bi ju'u paxa du li pamu pi mu</jbo>
<en>The-number F.8 base 16 equals the-number 15.5.</en>
+<!-- ^^ F.8 base 16: example, 444 -->
+<indexterm><primary>F.8 base 16</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Since
<quote>ju'u</quote>is an operator of selma'o VUhU, it is grammatical to use any operand as the left argument. Semantically, however, it is undefined to use anything but a numeral string on the left. The reason for making
<quote>ju'u</quote>an operator is to allow reference to a base which is not a constant.</para>
<para>There are some numerical values that require a
<quote>base</quote>that varies from digit to digit. For example, times represented in hours, minutes, and seconds have, in effect, three
+<!-- ^^ hours:minutes:seconds: example, 445 -->
+<indexterm><primary>hours</primary></indexterm>
<quote>digits</quote>: the first is base 24, the second and third are base 60. To express such numbers, the compound base separator
+<!-- ^^ compound base: definition, 445; expressing digits in, 445; separator for, 445 -->
+<indexterm><primary>compound base</primary></indexterm>
<quote>pi'e</quote>is used:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-17HR">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e10d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section10-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ci pi'e rere pi'e vono</jbo>
<en>3:22:40</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1270,22 +1604,26 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li ci pi'e rere pi'e vono su'i pi'e ci pi'e cici du li ci pi'e rexa pi'e paci</jbo>
<gloss>The-number 3:22:40 plus :3:33 equals the-number 3:26:13.</gloss>
<en>3:22:40 + 0:3:33 = 3:26:13</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Of course, only context tells you that the first part of the numbers in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section10-example5" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section10-example6" />is hours, the second minutes, and the third seconds.</para>
+<!-- ^^ hours:minutes:seconds: example, 445 -->
+<indexterm><primary>hours</primary></indexterm>
<para>The same mechanism using
<quote>pi'e</quote>can be used to express numbers which have a base larger than 16. For example, base-20 Mayan mathematics might use digits from
+<!-- ^^ Mayan mathematics: as a system with base larger than 16, 445 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Mayan mathematics</primary></indexterm>
<quote>no</quote>to
<quote>paso</quote>, each separated by
<quote>pi'e</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Nx5T">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e10d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section10-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li pa pi'e re pi'e ci ju'u reno du li vovoci</jbo>
@@ -1311,20 +1649,22 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>pa pi'e no ju'u reno</jbo>
<en>1;0 base 20</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which is equal to twenty.</para>
<para>Both
<quote>pi</quote>and
<quote>pi'e</quote>can be used to express large-base fractions:</para>
+<!-- ^^ fractions: expressing with numerical punctuation, 433; numerator default, 433 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fractions</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-26Li">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e10d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section10-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li pa pi'e vo pi ze ju'u reno du li re vo pi ci mu</jbo>
<en>The-number 1;4.7 base 20 equals the-number 24.35.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1343,73 +1683,99 @@
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter18-section11">
<title>11. Special mekso selbri</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>mei</cmavo>
<selmaho>MOI</selmaho>
<description>cardinal selbri</description>
+<!-- ^^ cardinal selbri: definition, 446; place structure, 446; place structure effect from subjective numbers, 448 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cardinal selbri</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>moi</cmavo>
<selmaho>MOI</selmaho>
<description>ordinal selbri</description>
+<!-- ^^ ordinal selbri: definition, 447; place structure, 447; place structure effect from subjective numbers, 448 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ordinal selbri</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>si'e</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ si'e, 447 -->
+<indexterm><primary>si'e</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>MOI</selmaho>
<description>portion selbri</description>
+<!-- ^^ portion selbri: definition, 447; place structure, 447; place structure effect from subjective numbers, 448 -->
+<indexterm><primary>portion selbri</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>cu'o</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ cu'o, 447 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cu'o</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>MOI</selmaho>
<description>probability selbri</description>
+<!-- ^^ probability selbri: definition, 447; place structure, 447; place structure effect from subjective numbers, 448; values, 447 -->
+<indexterm><primary>probability selbri</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>va'e</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ va'e, 447 -->
+<indexterm><primary>va'e</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>MOI</selmaho>
<description>scale selbri</description>
+<!-- ^^ scale selbri: definition, 447; place structure, 447; place structure effect from subjective numbers, 448 -->
+<indexterm><primary>scale selbri</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>me</cmavo>
<selmaho>ME</selmaho>
<description>make sumti into selbri</description>
+<!-- ^^ sumti into selbri, 98 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sumti into selbri</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>me'u</cmavo>
<selmaho>MEhU</selmaho>
<description>terminator for ME</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>Lojban possesses a special category of selbri which are based on mekso. The simplest kind of such selbri are made by suffixing a member of selma'o MOI to a number. There are five members of MOI, each of which serves to create number-based selbri with specific place structures.</para>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>mei</quote>creates cardinal selbri. The basic place structure is:</para>
+<!-- ^^ cardinal selbri: definition, 446; place structure, 446; place structure effect from subjective numbers, 448 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cardinal selbri</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
x1 is a mass formed from the set x2 of n members, one or more of which is/are x3
</programlisting>
<para>A cardinal selbri interrelates a set with a given number of members, the mass formed from that set, and the individuals which make the set up. The mass argument is placed first as a matter of convenience, not logical necessity.</para>
+<!-- ^^ cardinal selbri: definition, 446; place structure, 446; place structure effect from subjective numbers, 448 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cardinal selbri</primary></indexterm>
<para>Some examples:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ujSA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e11d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section11-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lei mi ratcu cu cimei</jbo>
<gloss>Those-I-describe-as-the-mass-of my rats are-a-threesome.</gloss>
<gloss>My rats are three.</gloss>
<en>I have three rats.</en>
+<!-- ^^ three rats: example, 446 -->
+<indexterm><primary>three rats</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here, the mass of my rats is said to have three components; that is, I have three rats.</para>
+<!-- ^^ three rats: example, 446 -->
+<indexterm><primary>three rats</primary></indexterm>
<para>Another example, with one element this time:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-1Pen">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e11d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section11-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi poi pamei cu cusku dei</jbo>
<en>I who am-an-individual express this-sentence.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1427,150 +1793,198 @@
</programlisting>
<para>An example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-GJsg">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e11d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section11-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lei ratcu poi zvati le panka cu so'umei fo lo'i ratcu</jbo>
<gloss>The-mass-of rats which are-in the park are a-fewsome with-respect-to the-set-of rats.</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ fewsome: example, 446 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fewsome</primary></indexterm>
<en>The rats in the park are a small number of all the rats there are.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section11-example3" />, the x2 and x3 places are vacant, and the x4 place is filled by
<quote>lo'i ratcu</quote>, which (because no quantifiers are explicitly given) means
<quote>the whole of the set of all those things which are rats</quote>, or simply
<quote>the set of all rats.</quote></para>
+<!-- ^^ set of all rats: example, 447 -->
+<indexterm><primary>set of all rats</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-n52D">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e11d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section11-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le'i ratcu poi zvati le panka cu se so'imei</jbo>
<gloss>The-set-of rats which-are in the park is-a manysome.</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ manysome: example, 447 -->
+<indexterm><primary>manysome</primary></indexterm>
<en>There are many rats in the park.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section11-example4" />, the conversion cmavo
<quote>se</quote>swaps the x1 and the x2 places, so that the new x1 is the set. The x4 set is unspecified, so the implication is that the rats are
<quote>many</quote>with respect to some unspecified comparison set.</para>
+<!-- ^^ comparison: claims related to based on form, 204 -->
+<indexterm><primary>comparison</primary></indexterm>
<para>More explanations about the interrelationship of sets, masses, and individuals can be found in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6" />.</para>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>moi</quote>creates ordinal selbri. The place structure is:</para>
+<!-- ^^ ordinal selbri: definition, 447; place structure, 447; place structure effect from subjective numbers, 448 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ordinal selbri</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
x1 is the (n)th member of set x2 when ordered by rule x3
</programlisting>
<para>Some examples:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-G3J1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e11d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section11-example5" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e11d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section11-example6" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e11d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section11-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti pamoi le'i mi ratcu</jbo>
<gloss>This-one is the first-of the rats associated-with me.</gloss>
<en>This is my first rat.</en>
+<!-- ^^ first rat: example, 447 -->
+<indexterm><primary>first rat</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>ta romoi le'i mi ratcu</jbo>
<gloss>That is-the-allth-of the rats associated-with me.</gloss>
<en>That is my last rat.</en>
<jbo>mi raumoi le velskina porsi</jbo>
<gloss>I am-enough-th-in the movie-audience sequence</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ enough-th: example, 447 -->
+<indexterm><primary>enough-th</primary></indexterm>
<en>I am enough-th in the movie line.</en>
+<!-- ^^ enough-th: example, 447 -->
+<indexterm><primary>enough-th</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section11-example7" />means, in the appropriate context, that my position in line is sufficiently far to the front that I will get a seat for the movie.</para>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>si'e</quote>creates portion selbri. The place structure is:</para>
+<!-- ^^ si'e, 447 -->
+<indexterm><primary>si'e</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ portion selbri: definition, 447; place structure, 447; place structure effect from subjective numbers, 448 -->
+<indexterm><primary>portion selbri</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
x1 is an (n)th portion of mass x2
</programlisting>
<para>Some examples:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-i8r4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e11d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section11-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>levi sanmi cu fi'ucisi'e lei mi djedi cidja</jbo>
<gloss>This-here meal is-a-slash-three-portion-of my day-food.</gloss>
<en>This meal is one-third of my daily food.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>cu'o</quote>creates probability selbri. The place structure is:</para>
+<!-- ^^ probability selbri: definition, 447; place structure, 447; place structure effect from subjective numbers, 448; values, 447 -->
+<indexterm><primary>probability selbri</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ cu'o, 447 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cu'o</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
event x1 has probability (n) of occurring under conditions x2
</programlisting>
<para>The number must be between 0 and 1 inclusive. For example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-9sf6">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e11d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section11-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nu lo sicni cu sedja'o cu pimucu'o</jbo>
<en>The event of a coin being a head-displayer has probability .5.</en>
+<!-- ^^ probability .5: example, 447 -->
+<indexterm><primary>probability .5</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>va'e</quote>creates a scale selbri. The place structure is:</para>
+<!-- ^^ va'e, 447 -->
+<indexterm><primary>va'e</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ scale selbri: definition, 447; place structure, 447; place structure effect from subjective numbers, 448 -->
+<indexterm><primary>scale selbri</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
x1 is at scale position (n) on the scale x2
</programlisting>
<para>If the scale is granular rather than continuous, a form like
+<!-- ^^ continuous: of tense intervals, 225 -->
+<indexterm><primary>continuous</primary></indexterm>
<quote>cifi'uxa</quote>(3/6) may be used; in this case, 3/6 is not the same as 1/2, because the third position on a scale of six positions is not the same as the first position on a scale of two positions. Here is an example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-XiTd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e11d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section11-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le vi rozgu cu sofi'upanova'e xunre</jbo>
<gloss>This rose is 9/10-scale red.</gloss>
<gloss>This rose is 9 out of 10 on the scale of redness.</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ scale of redness: example, 448 -->
+<indexterm><primary>scale of redness</primary></indexterm>
<en>This rose is very red.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>When the quantifier preceding any MOI cmavo includes the subjective numbers
<quote>rau</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ rau, 442, 448 -->
+<indexterm><primary>rau</primary></indexterm>
<quote>du'e</quote>, or
+<!-- ^^ du'e, 442, 448 -->
+<indexterm><primary>du'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>mo'a</quote>(enough, too many, too few) then an additional place is added for
+<!-- ^^ mo'a, 442, 448 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mo'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>by standard</quote>. For example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-aGLh">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e11d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section11-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lei ratcu poi zvati le panka cu du'emei fo mi</jbo>
<gloss>The-mass-of rats which-are in the park are too-many by-standard me.</gloss>
<en>There are too many rats in the park for me.</en>
+<!-- ^^ too many rats: example, 448 -->
+<indexterm><primary>too many rats</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The extra place (which for
<quote>-mei</quote>is the x4 place labeled by
<quote>fo</quote>) is provided rather than using a BAI tag such as
<quote>ma'i</quote>because a specification of the standard for judgment is essential to the meaning of subjective words like
+<!-- ^^ ma'i, 224 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ma'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>enough</quote>.</para>
<para>This place is not normally explicit when using one of the subjective numbers directly as a number. Therefore,
<quote>du'e ratcu</quote>means
+<!-- ^^ du'e, 442, 448 -->
+<indexterm><primary>du'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>too many rats</quote>without specifying any standard.</para>
+<!-- ^^ too many rats: example, 448 -->
+<indexterm><primary>too many rats</primary></indexterm>
<para>It is also grammatical to substitute a lerfu string for a number:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-cyLo">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e11d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section11-example12" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta ny.moi le'i mi ratcu</jbo>
<gloss>That is-nth-of the-set-of my rats.</gloss>
<en>That is my nth rat.</en>
@@ -1603,97 +2017,117 @@
<para>It is perfectly possible to use non-numerical sumti after
<quote>me</quote>and before a member of MOI, producing strange results indeed:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-enCe">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e11d14" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section11-example14" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nu mi nolraitru</jbo>
<gloss>cu me le'e snime bolci be vi la xel. cu'o</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ cu'o, 447 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cu'o</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>The event-of me being-a-nobly-superlative-ruler</gloss>
<gloss>has-the-stereotypical snow type-of-ball at Hell probability.</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ stereotypical: as not derogatory in Lojban, 126; compared with typical, 126 -->
+<indexterm><primary>stereotypical</primary></indexterm>
<en>I have a snowball's chance in Hell of being king.</en>
+<!-- ^^ snowball's chance: example, 448 -->
+<indexterm><primary>snowball's chance</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note: the elidable terminator
<quote>boi</quote>is not used between a number and a member of MOI. As a result, the
<quote>me'u</quote>in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section11-example13" />could also be replaced by a
<quote>boi</quote>, which would serve the same function of preventing the
<quote>pa</quote>and
<quote>moi</quote>from joining into a compound.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter18-section12">
<title>12. Number questions</title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>xo</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ xo, 449 -->
+<indexterm><primary>xo</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>PA</selmaho>
<description>number question</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>xo</quote>, a member of selma'o PA, is used to ask questions whose answers are numbers. Like most Lojban question words, it fills the blank where the answer should go. (See
+<!-- ^^ xo, 449 -->
+<indexterm><primary>xo</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19" />for more on Lojban questions.)</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-BJGv">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e12d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section12-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e12d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section12-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li re su'i re du li xo</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ xo, 449 -->
+<indexterm><primary>xo</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>The-number 2 plus 2 equals the-number what?</gloss>
<en>What is 2 + 2?</en>
<jbo>le xomoi prenu cu darxi do</jbo>
<gloss>The what-number-th person hit you?</gloss>
<en>Which person [as in a police lineup] hit you?</en>
+<!-- ^^ police lineup, 449 -->
+<indexterm><primary>police lineup</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<quote>xo</quote>can also be combined with other digits to ask questions whose answers are already partly specified. This ability could be very useful in writing tests of elementary arithmetical knowledge:</para>
+<!-- ^^ xo, 449 -->
+<indexterm><primary>xo</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-hSee">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e12d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section12-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li remu pi'i xa du li paxono</jbo>
<en>The-number 25 times 6 equals the-number 1?0</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>to which the correct reply would be
<quote>mu</quote>, or 5. The ability to utter bare numbers as grammatical Lojban sentences is primarily intended for giving answers to
<quote>xo</quote>questions. (Another use, obviously, is for counting off physical objects one by one.)</para>
+<!-- ^^ xo, 449 -->
+<indexterm><primary>xo</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter18-section13">
<title>13. Subscripts</title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>xi</cmavo>
<selmaho>XI</selmaho>
<description>subscript</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>Subscripting is a general Lojban feature, not used only in mekso; there are many things that can logically be subscripted, and grammatically a subscript is a free modifier, usable almost anywhere. In particular, of course, mekso variables (lerfu strings) can be subscripted:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-MT0a">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e13d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section13-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li xy.boixici du li xy.boixipa su'i xy.boixire</jbo>
<gloss>The-number x-sub-3 equals the-number x-sub-1 plus x-sub-2.</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ x-sub-3, 449 -->
+<indexterm><primary>x-sub-3</primary></indexterm>
<en>x</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Subscripts always begin with the flag
<quote>xi</quote>(of selma'o XI).
<quote>xi</quote>may be followed by a number, a lerfu string, or a general mekso expression in parentheses:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Dqzy">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e13d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section13-example2" />
@@ -1707,20 +2141,22 @@
<en>x</en>
<jbo>xy.boixiny.</jbo>
<en>x</en>
<jbo>xy.boixi vei ny. su'i pa [ve'o]</jbo>
<en>x</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that subscripts attached directly to lerfu words (variables) generally need a
<quote>boi</quote>terminating the variable. Free modifiers, of which subscripts are one variety, generally require the explicit presence of an otherwise elidable terminator.</para>
<para>There is no standard way of handling superscripts (other than those used as exponents) or for subscripts or superscripts that come before the main expression. If necessary, further cmavo could be assigned to selma'o XI for these purposes.</para>
+<!-- ^^ superscripts, 450 -->
+<indexterm><primary>superscripts</primary></indexterm>
<para>The elidable terminator for a subscript is that for a general number or lerfu string, namely
<quote>boi</quote>. By convention, a subscript following another subscript is taken to be a sub-subscript:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-FddL">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e13d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section13-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xy.boi xi by.boi xi vo</jbo>
<en>x</en>
@@ -1730,51 +2166,79 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section17-example10" />for the standard method of specifying multiple subscripts on a single object.</para>
<para>More information on the uses of subscripts may be found in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19" />.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter18-section14">
<title>14. Infix operators revisited</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>tu'o</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ tu'o, 450, 453; for infix operations with too few operands, 450 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tu'o</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>PA</selmaho>
<description>null operand</description>
+<!-- ^^ null operand: for infix operations with too few operands, 450 -->
+<indexterm><primary>null operand</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ge'a</cmavo>
<selmaho>VUhU</selmaho>
<description>null operator</description>
+<!-- ^^ null operator: for infix operations with too many operands, 451 -->
+<indexterm><primary>null operator</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>gei</cmavo>
<selmaho>VUhU</selmaho>
<description>exponential notation</description>
+<!-- ^^ exponential notation: with base other than 10, 451; with gei, 450 -->
+<indexterm><primary>exponential notation</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>The infix operators presented so far have always had exactly two operands, and for more or fewer operands forethought notation has been required. However, it is possible to use an operator in infix style even though it has more or fewer than two operands, through the use of a pair of tricks: the null operand
+<!-- ^^ null operand: for infix operations with too few operands, 450 -->
+<indexterm><primary>null operand</primary></indexterm>
<quote>tu'o</quote>and the null operator
+<!-- ^^ tu'o, 450, 453; for infix operations with too few operands, 450 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tu'o</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ null operator: for infix operations with too many operands, 451 -->
+<indexterm><primary>null operator</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ge'a</quote>. The first is suitable when there are too few operands, the second when there are too many. For example, suppose we wanted to express the numerical negation operator
+<!-- ^^ negation operator: contrasted with negative sign, 438; contrasted with subtraction operator, 438 -->
+<!-- ^^ subtraction operator: contrasted with negation operator, 438; contrasted with negative sign, 434 -->
+<indexterm><primary>subtraction operator</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ negative sign: contrasted with negation operator, 438; contrasted with subtraction operator, 434 -->
+<!-- ^^ subtraction operator: contrasted with negation operator, 438; contrasted with negative sign, 434 -->
+<indexterm><primary>subtraction operator</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>negative sign</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>negation operator</primary></indexterm>
<quote>va'a</quote>in infix form. We would use:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-8Uh9">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e14d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section14-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li tu'o va'a ny. du li no vu'u ny.</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ tu'o va'a, 453 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tu'o va'a</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ tu'o, 450, 453; for infix operations with too few operands, 450 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tu'o</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>The-number (null) additive-inverse n equals the-number zero minus n.</gloss>
<en>-n = 0 − n</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The
<quote>tu'o</quote>fulfills the grammatical requirement for a left operand for the infix use of
+<!-- ^^ tu'o, 450, 453; for infix operations with too few operands, 450 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tu'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>va'a</quote>, even though semantically none is needed or wanted.</para>
<para>Finding a suitable example of
<quote>ge'a</quote>requires exhibiting a ternary operator, and ternary operators are not common. The operator
<quote>gei</quote>, however, has both a binary and a ternary use. As a binary operator, it provides a terse representation of scientific (also called
<quote>exponential</quote>) notation. The first operand of
<quote>gei</quote>is the exponent, and the second operand is the mantissa or fraction:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-VjtV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e14d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section14-example2" />
@@ -1797,20 +2261,22 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>gei reno</jbo>
<gloss>(scientific) two-zero</gloss>
<en>10</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note, however, that although 10 is far and away the most common exponent base, it is not the only possible one. The third operand of
<quote>gei</quote>, therefore, is the base, with 10 as the default value. Most computers internally store so-called
<quote>floating-point</quote>numbers using 2 as the exponent base. (This has nothing to do with the fact that computers also represent all integers in base 2; the IBM 360 series used an exponent base of 16 for floating point, although each component of the number was expressed in base 2.) Here is a computer floating-point number with a value of 40:</para>
+<!-- ^^ IBM: example, 424 -->
+<indexterm><primary>IBM</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-7nMz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e14d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section14-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>papano bi'eju'u re gei pipanopano bi'eju'u re ge'a re</jbo>
<gloss>(one-one-zero base 2) scientific (point-one-zero-one-zero base 2) with-base 2</gloss>
<en>.1010</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1825,231 +2291,317 @@
<selmaho>JOhI</selmaho>
<description>start vector</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>te'u</cmavo>
<selmaho>TEhU</selmaho>
<description>end vector</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>pi'a</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ pi'a, 452 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pi'a</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>VUhU</selmaho>
<description>matrix row combiner</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>sa'i</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ sa'i, 452 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sa'i</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>VUhU</selmaho>
<description>matrix column combiner</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>A mathematical vector is a list of numbers, and a mathematical matrix is a table of numbers. Lojban considers matrices to be built up out of vectors, which are in turn built up out of operands.</para>
<para>
<quote>jo'i</quote>, the only cmavo of selma'o JOhI, is the vector indicator: it has a syntax reminiscent of a forethought operator, but has very high precedence. The components must be simple operands rather than full expressions (unless parenthesized). A vector can have any number of components;
+<!-- ^^ vector indicator, 451; terminator for, 451 -->
+<indexterm><primary>vector indicator</primary></indexterm>
<quote>te'u</quote>is the elidable terminator. An example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-IVDJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e15d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section15-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li jo'i paboi reboi te'u su'i jo'i ciboi voboi du</jbo>
<gloss>li jo'i voboi xaboi</gloss>
<gloss>The-number array (one, two) plus array (three, four) equals</gloss>
<gloss>the-number array (four, six).</gloss>
<en>(1,2) + (3,4) = (4,6)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Vectors can be combined into matrices using either
<quote>pi'a</quote>, the matrix row operator, or
+<!-- ^^ pi'a, 452 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pi'a</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ matrix row operator, 452 -->
+<indexterm><primary>matrix row operator</primary></indexterm>
<quote>sa'i</quote>, the matrix column operator. The first combines vectors representing rows of the matrix, and the second combines vectors representing columns of the matrix. Both of them allow any number of arguments: additional arguments are tacked on with the null operator
+<!-- ^^ sa'i, 452 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sa'i</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ null operator: for infix operations with too many operands, 451 -->
+<indexterm><primary>null operator</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ matrix column operator, 452 -->
+<indexterm><primary>matrix column operator</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ge'a</quote>.</para>
<para>Therefore, the
<quote>magic square</quote>matrix</para>
+<!-- ^^ magic square: example, 452 -->
+<indexterm><primary>magic square</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
8 1 6
3 5 7
4 9 2
</programlisting>
<para>can be represented either as:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-zbJP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e15d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section15-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>jo'i biboi paboi xa pi'a jo'i ciboi muboi ze ge'a jo'i voboi soboi re</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ pi'a, 452 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pi'a</primary></indexterm>
<en>the-vector (8 1 6) matrix-row the-vector (3 5 7), the-vector (4 9 2)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>or as</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-06dx">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e15d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section15-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>jo'i biboi ciboi vo sa'i jo'i paboi muboi so ge'a jo'i xaboi zeboi re</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ sa'i, 452 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sa'i</primary></indexterm>
<en>the-vector (8 3 4) matrix-column the-vector (1 5 9), the-vector (6 7 2)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The regular mekso operators can be applied to vectors and to matrices, since grammatically both of these are expressions. It is usually necessary to parenthesize matrices when used with operators in order to avoid incorrect groupings. There are no VUhU operators for the matrix operators of inner or outer products, but appropriate operators can be created using a suitable symbolic lerfu word or string prefixed by
<quote>ma'o</quote>.</para>
<para>Matrices of more than two dimensions can be built up using either
<quote>pi'a</quote>or
+<!-- ^^ pi'a, 452 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pi'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>sa'i</quote>with an appropriate subscript numbering the dimension. When subscripted, there is no difference between
+<!-- ^^ sa'i, 452 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sa'i</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ dimension: meaning as sumti tcita, 233 -->
+<indexterm><primary>dimension</primary></indexterm>
<quote>pi'a</quote>and
+<!-- ^^ pi'a, 452 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pi'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>sa'i</quote>.</para>
+<!-- ^^ sa'i, 452 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sa'i</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter18-section16">
<title>16. Reverse Polish notation</title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>fu'a</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ fu'a, 452 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fu'a</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>FUhA</selmaho>
<description>reverse Polish flag</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>So far, the Lojban notational conventions have mapped fairly familiar kinds of mathematical discourse. The use of forethought operators may have seemed odd when applied to
<quote>+</quote>, but when applied to
<quote>f</quote>they appear as the usual functional notation. Now comes a sharp break. Reverse Polish (RP) notation represents something completely different; even mathematicians don't use it much. (The only common uses of RP, in fact, are in some kinds of calculators and in the implementation of some programming languages.)</para>
+<!-- ^^ functional notation: standard, 438 -->
+<indexterm><primary>functional notation</primary></indexterm>
<para>In RP notation, the operator follows the operands. (Polish notation, where the operator precedes its operands, is another name for forethought mekso of the kind explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section6" />.) The number of operands per operator is always fixed. No parentheses are required or permitted. In Lojban, RP notation is always explicitly marked by a
<quote>fu'a</quote>at the beginning of the expression; there is no terminator. Here is a simple example:</para>
+<!-- ^^ fu'a, 452 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fu'a</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-V4xe">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e16d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section16-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li fu'a reboi ci su'i du li mu</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ fu'a, 452 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fu'a</primary></indexterm>
<en>the-number (RP!) two, three, plus equals the-number five.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The operands are
<quote>re</quote>and
<quote>ci</quote>; the operator is
<quote>su'i</quote>.</para>
<para>Here is a more complex example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-PSpq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e16d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section16-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li fu'a reboi ci pi'i voboi mu pi'i su'i du li rexa</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ fu'a, 452 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fu'a</primary></indexterm>
<en>the-number (RP!) (two, three, times), (four, five, times), plus equals the-number two-six</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the operands of the first
<quote>pi'i</quote>are
<quote>re</quote>and
<quote>ci</quote>; the operands of the second
<quote>pi'i</quote>are
<quote>vo</quote>and
<quote>mu</quote>(with
<quote>boi</quote>inserted where needed), and the operands of the
<quote>su'i</quote>are
<quote>reboi ci pi'i</quote>, or 6, and
<quote>voboi mu pi'i</quote>, or 20. As you can see, it is easy to get lost in the world of reverse Polish notation; on the other hand, it is especially easy for a mechanical listener (who has a deep mental stack and doesn't get lost) to comprehend.</para>
+<!-- ^^ reverse Polish notation: and mekso goals, 431; definition, 452; indicator, 494; marker, 452; number of operands, 453; operands of, 453; parentheses in operands of, 453; terminator, 452; use of parentheses in, 452; with too few operands, 453; with too many operands, 453 -->
+<indexterm><primary>reverse Polish notation</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ can see: example, 244 -->
+<indexterm><primary>can see</primary></indexterm>
<para>The operands of an RP operator can be any legal mekso operand, including parenthesized mekso that can contain any valid syntax, whether more RP or something more conventional.</para>
<para>In Lojban, RP operators are always parsed with exactly two operands. What about operators which require only one operand, or more than two operands? The null operand
+<!-- ^^ null operand: for infix operations with too few operands, 450 -->
+<indexterm><primary>null operand</primary></indexterm>
<quote>tu'o</quote>and the null operator
+<!-- ^^ tu'o, 450, 453; for infix operations with too few operands, 450 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tu'o</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ null operator: for infix operations with too many operands, 451 -->
+<indexterm><primary>null operator</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ge'a</quote>provide a simple solution. A one-operand operator like
<quote>va'a</quote>always appears in a reverse Polish context as
<quote>tu'o va'a</quote>. The
+<!-- ^^ tu'o va'a, 453 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tu'o va'a</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ tu'o, 450, 453; for infix operations with too few operands, 450 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tu'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>tu'o</quote>provides the second operand, which is semantically ignored but grammatically necessary. Likewise, the three-operand version of
+<!-- ^^ tu'o, 450, 453; for infix operations with too few operands, 450 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tu'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>gei</quote>appears in reverse Polish as
<quote>ge'a gei</quote>, where the
+<!-- ^^ ge'a gei, 453 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ge'a gei</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ge'a</quote>effectively merges the 2nd and 3rd operands into a single operand. Here are some examples:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-LsTC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e16d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section16-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e16d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section16-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li fu'a ciboi muboi vu'u du</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ fu'a, 452 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fu'a</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>li fu'a reboi tu'o va'a</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ tu'o va'a, 453 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tu'o va'a</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ tu'o, 450, 453; for infix operations with too few operands, 450 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tu'o</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ fu'a, 452 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fu'a</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>The-number (RP!) (three, five, minus) equals</gloss>
<gloss>the-number (RP!) two, null, negative-of.</gloss>
<en>3 − 5 = -2</en>
<jbo>li cinoki'oki'o du</jbo>
<gloss>li fu'a biboi ciboi panoboi ge'a gei</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ ge'a gei, 453 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ge'a gei</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ fu'a, 452 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fu'a</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>The-number 30-comma-comma equals</gloss>
<gloss>the-number (RP!) 8, (3, 10, null-op), exponential-notation.</gloss>
<en>30,000,000 = 3 × 10</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter18-section17">
<title>17. Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
.abu BY letter
<quote>a</quote>
by BY letter
<quote>b</quote>
cy BY letter
<quote>c</quote>
fe'a VUhU nth root of (default square root)
lo'o LOhO terminator for LI
+<!-- ^^ lo'o, 454; effect of logical connective on elidability of, 454 -->
+<indexterm><primary>lo'o</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>As befits a logical language, Lojban has extensive provision for logical connectives within both operators and operands. Full details on logical and non-logical connectives are provided in
+<!-- ^^ logical language: truth functions, 333 -->
+<indexterm><primary>logical language</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14" />. Operands are connected in afterthought with selma'o A and in forethought with selma'o GA, just like sumti. Operators are connected in afterthought with selma'o JA and in forethought with selma'o GUhA, just like tanru components. This parallelism is no accident.</para>
<para>In addition, A+BO and A+KE constructs are allowed for grouping logically connected operands, and
<quote>ke ... ke'e</quote>is allowed for grouping logically connected operators, although there are no analogues of tanru among the operators.</para>
<para>Despite the large number of rules required to support this feature, it is of relatively minor importance in the mekso scheme of things.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section17-example1" />exhibits afterthought logical connection between operands:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-e9Xi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e17d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section17-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>vei ci .a vo ve'o prenu cu klama le zarci</jbo>
<en>( Three or four ) people go-to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section17-example2" />is equivalent in meaning, but uses forethought connection:</para>
+<!-- ^^ forethought connection: contrasted with afterthought for grammatical utterances, 352; definition, 199; in abstractions, 365; in tenses, 363; observatives, 347; of operands, 453; of operators, 453 -->
+<!-- ^^ observatives: and abstractions, 255; quick-tour version, 15 -->
+<indexterm><primary>observatives</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>forethought connection</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-eiTM">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e17d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section17-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>vei ga ci gi vo ve'o prenu cu klama le zarci</jbo>
<en>( Either 3 or 4 ) people go-to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that the mekso here are being used as quantifiers. Lojban requires that any mekso other than a simple number be enclosed in parentheses when used as a quantifier. This rule prevents ambiguities that do not exist when using
<quote>li</quote>.</para>
<para>By the way,
<quote>li</quote>has an elidable terminator,
<quote>lo'o</quote>, which is needed when a
+<!-- ^^ lo'o, 454; effect of logical connective on elidability of, 454 -->
+<indexterm><primary>lo'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>li</quote>sumti is followed by a logical connective that could seem to be within the mekso. For example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-LXtp">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e17d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section17-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li re su'i re du</jbo>
<gloss>li vo lo'o .onai lo nalseldjuno namcu</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ lo'o, 454; effect of logical connective on elidability of, 454 -->
+<indexterm><primary>lo'o</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>The-number two plus two equals</gloss>
<en>the-number four or else a non-known number.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Omitting the
<quote>lo'o</quote>would cause the parser to assume that another operand followed the
+<!-- ^^ lo'o, 454; effect of logical connective on elidability of, 454 -->
+<indexterm><primary>lo'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>.onai</quote>and reject
<quote>lo</quote>as an invalid operand.</para>
<para>Simple examples of logical connection between operators are hard to come by. A contrived example is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-YoFg">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e17d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section17-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li re su'i je pi'i re du li vo</jbo>
@@ -2069,20 +2621,22 @@
<gloss>du li vo</gloss>
<gloss>the-number two both plus and times two</gloss>
<gloss>equals the-number four.</gloss>
<en>Both 2 + 2 = 4 and 2 × 2 = 4.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here is a classic example of operand logical connection:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c18e17d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section17-example6" />17.6) go li .abu bi'epi'i vei xy. te'a re ve'o su'i by. bi'epi'i xy.
+<!-- ^^ te'a, 437 -->
+<indexterm><primary>te'a</primary></indexterm>
su'i cy. du li no
gi li xy. du li vei va'a by. ku'e su'i ja vu'u
fe'a vei by. bi'ete'a re vu'u vo bi'epi'i .abu bi'epi'i cy. ve'o [ku'e] ve'o
fe'i re bi'epi'i .abu
If-and-only-if the-number
<quote>a</quote>-times-(
<quote>x</quote> power two ) plus
<quote>b</quote>-times-
<quote>x</quote>
plus
@@ -2099,171 +2653,223 @@
then x = -b ±
<phrase role="IPA">√</phrase>
<!--sqrt-->(b
<superscript>2</superscript> − 4ac)
<!-- fraction bar -->
2a
</programlisting>
<para>Note the mixture of styles in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section17-example6" />: the negation of b and the square root are represented by forethought and most of the operator precedence by prefixed
+<!-- ^^ operator precedence: and mathematical notation, 436; effect of pragmatic convention, 436; generalized explicit specification, 437; in Lojban default, 436; plans for future, 458; rationale for default left-grouping, 436; scope modification with bi'e, 437; specifying by parenthesis, 437 -->
+<indexterm><primary>operator precedence</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bi'e</quote>, but explicit parentheses had to be added to group the numerator properly. In addition, the square root parentheses cannot be removed here in favor of simple
+<!-- ^^ bi'e, 437; effect on following operator, 437 -->
+<indexterm><primary>bi'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>fe'a</quote>and
<quote>ku'e</quote>bracketing, because infix operators are present in the operand. Getting
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section17-example6" />to parse perfectly using the current parser took several tries: a more relaxed style would dispense with most of the
<quote>bi'e</quote>cmavo and just let the standard precedence rules be understood.</para>
+<!-- ^^ bi'e, 437; effect on following operator, 437 -->
+<indexterm><primary>bi'e</primary></indexterm>
<para>Non-logical connection with JOI and BIhI is also permitted between operands and between operators. One use for this construct is to connect operands with
<quote>bi'o</quote>to create intervals:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Bzf6">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e17d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section17-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li no ga'o bi'o ke'i pa</jbo>
<gloss>the-number zero (inclusive) from-to (exclusive) one</gloss>
<gloss>[0,1)</gloss>
<en>the numbers from zero to one, including zero but not including one</en>
+<!-- ^^ zero to one: example, 362 -->
+<indexterm><primary>zero to one</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Intervals defined by a midpoint and range rather than beginning and end points can be expressed by
<quote>mi'i</quote>:</para>
+<!-- ^^ mi'i, 359, 455 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mi'i</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-LvBT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e17d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section17-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li pimu ga'o mi'i ke'i pimu</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ mi'i, 359, 455 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mi'i</primary></indexterm>
<en>the-number 0.5 ± 0.5</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which expresses the same interval as
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section17-example7" />. Note that the
<quote>ga'o</quote>and
<quote>ke'i</quote>still refer to the endpoints, although these are now implied rather than expressed. Another way of expressing the same thing:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-CEvD">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e17d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section17-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li pimu su'i ni'upimu bi'o ma'upimu</jbo>
<en>the-number 0.5 plus [-0.5 from-to +0.5]</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here we have the sum of a number and an interval, which produces another interval centered on the number. As
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section17-example9" />shows, non-logical (or logical) connection of operands has higher precedence than any mekso operator.</para>
+<!-- ^^ connection of operands: grouping, 454; precedence over operator, 455 -->
+<indexterm><primary>connection of operands</primary></indexterm>
<para>You can also combine two operands with
<quote>ce'o</quote>, the sequence connective of selma'o JOI, to make a compound subscript:</para>
+<!-- ^^ compound subscript, 362, 455 -->
+<indexterm><primary>compound subscript</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ ce'o, 354, 362 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ce'o</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-eMsd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e17d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section17-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xy. xi vei by. ce'o dy. [ve'o]</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ce'o, 354, 362 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ce'o</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>
<quote>x</quote>sub (
<quote>b</quote>sequence
<quote>d</quote>)</gloss>
<en>x</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter18-section18">
<title>18. Using Lojban resources within mekso</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>na'u</cmavo>
<selmaho>NAhU</selmaho>
<description>selbri to operator</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ni'e</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ ni'e, 456; terminator for, 456 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ni'e</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>NIhE</selmaho>
<description>selbri to operand</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>mo'e</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ mo'e, 456; terminator for, 456 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mo'e</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>MOhE</selmaho>
<description>sumti to operand</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>te'u</cmavo>
<selmaho>TEhU</selmaho>
<description>terminator for all three</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>One of the mekso design goals requires the ability to make use of Lojban's vocabulary resources within mekso to extend the built-in cmavo for operands and operators. There are three relevant constructs: all three share the elidable terminator
<quote>te'u</quote>(which is also used to terminate vectors marked with
<quote>jo'i</quote>)</para>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>na'u</quote>makes a selbri into an operator. In general, the first place of the selbri specifies the result of the operator, and the other unfilled places specify the operands:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c18e18d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section18-example1" />18.1) li na'u tanjo te'u vei pai fe'i re [ve'o] du li ci'i
+<!-- ^^ ci'i, 434 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ci'i</primary></indexterm>
The-number the-operator tangent (
<phrase role="IPA">π</phrase> / 2 ) = the-number infinity.
+<!-- ^^ infinity: example, 434 -->
+<indexterm><primary>infinity</primary></indexterm>
tan(
<phrase role="IPA">π</phrase>/2) =
<phrase role="IPA">∞</phrase>
</programlisting>
<para>
<quote>tanjo</quote>is the gismu for
<quote>x1 is the tangent of x2</quote>, and the
<quote>na'u</quote>here makes it into an operator which is then used in forethought</para>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>ni'e</quote>makes a selbri into an operand. The x1 place of the selbri generally represents a number, and therefore is often a
+<!-- ^^ ni'e, 456; terminator for, 456 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ni'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ni</quote>abstraction, since
<quote>ni</quote>abstractions represent numbers. The
<quote>ni'e</quote>makes that number available as a mekso operand. A common application is to make equations relating pure dimensions:</para>
+<!-- ^^ ni'e, 456; terminator for, 456 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ni'e</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-wCJQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e18d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section18-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li ni'e ni clani [te'u] pi'i ni'e ni ganra [te'u] pi'i</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ni'e, 456; terminator for, 456 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ni'e</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>ni'e ni condi te'u du li ni'e ni canlu</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ ni'e, 456; terminator for, 456 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ni'e</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>The-number quantity-of length times quantity-of width times</gloss>
<gloss>quantity-of depth equals the-number quantity-of volume.</gloss>
<en>Length × Width × Depth = Volume</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>mo'e</quote>operates similarly to
+<!-- ^^ mo'e, 456; terminator for, 456 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mo'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ni'e</quote>, but makes a sumti (rather than a selbri) into an operand. This construction is useful in stating equations involving dimensioned numbers:</para>
+<!-- ^^ ni'e, 456; terminator for, 456 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ni'e</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ dimensioned numbers: expressing, 456 -->
+<indexterm><primary>dimensioned numbers</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ETmX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e18d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section18-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li mo'e re ratcu su'i mo'e re ractu du li mo'e vo danlu</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ mo'e, 456; terminator for, 456 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mo'e</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>The-number two rats plus two rabbits equals the-number four animals.</gloss>
<en>2 rats + 2 rabbits = 4 animals.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Another use is in constructing Lojbanic versions of so-called
<quote>folk quantifiers</quote>, such as
+<!-- ^^ folk quantifiers: expressing, 456 -->
+<indexterm><primary>folk quantifiers</primary></indexterm>
<quote>a pride of lions</quote>:</para>
+<!-- ^^ pride of lions: example, 456 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pride of lions</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-D4y4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e18d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section18-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska vei mo'e lo'e lanzu ve'o cinfo</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ mo'e, 456; terminator for, 456 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mo'e</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I see ( the-typical family )-number-of lions.</gloss>
<en>I see a pride of lions.</en>
+<!-- ^^ pride of lions: example, 456 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pride of lions</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter18-section19">
<title>19. Other uses of mekso</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>me'o</cmavo>
<selmaho>LI</selmaho>
@@ -2271,28 +2877,34 @@
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>nu'a</cmavo>
<selmaho>NUhA</selmaho>
<description>operator to selbri</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>mai</cmavo>
<selmaho>MAI</selmaho>
<description>utterance ordinal</description>
+<!-- ^^ utterance ordinal: lerfu string as, 423 -->
+<indexterm><primary>utterance ordinal</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>mo'o</cmavo>
<selmaho>MAI</selmaho>
<description>higher order utterance ordinal</description>
+<!-- ^^ utterance ordinal: lerfu string as, 423 -->
+<indexterm><primary>utterance ordinal</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>roi</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ roi, 226, 458 -->
+<indexterm><primary>roi</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>ROI</selmaho>
<description>quantified tense</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>So far we have seen mekso used as sumti (with
<quote>li</quote>), as quantifiers (often parenthesized), and in MOI and ME-MOI selbri. There are a few other minor uses of mekso within Lojban.</para>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>me'o</quote>has the same grammatical use as
<quote>li</quote>but slightly different semantics.
<quote>li</quote>means
@@ -2388,78 +3000,102 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section19-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li re na'u nu'a su'i re du li vo</jbo>
<en>The-number two (the-operator the-selbri plus) two equals the-number four.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where the
<quote>na'u nu'a</quote>cancels out, leaving a truthful bridi</para>
<para>Numerical free modifiers, corresponding to English
+<!-- ^^ free modifiers: effects on elidability of terminators, 450 -->
+<indexterm><primary>free modifiers</primary></indexterm>
<quote>firstly</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ firstly: example, 458 -->
+<indexterm><primary>firstly</primary></indexterm>
<quote>secondly</quote>, and so on, can be created by suffixing a member of selma'o MAI to a digit string or a lerfu string. (Digit strings are compound cmavo beginning with a cmavo of selma'o PA, and containing only cmavo of PA or BY; lerfu strings begin with a cmavo of selma'o BY, and likewise contain only PA or BY cmavo.) Here are some examples:</para>
+<!-- ^^ digit string: definition of, 458 -->
+<indexterm><primary>digit string</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-WiIQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e19d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section19-example7" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e19d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section19-example8" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e19d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section19-example9" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e19d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section19-example10" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e19d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section19-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>pamai</jbo>
<en>firstly</en>
+<!-- ^^ firstly: example, 458 -->
+<indexterm><primary>firstly</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>remai</jbo>
<en>secondly</en>
<jbo>romai</jbo>
<gloss>all-ly</gloss>
<en>lastly</en>
<jbo>ny.mai</jbo>
<en>nth-ly</en>
<jbo>pasomo'o</jbo>
<en>nineteenthly (higher order)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The difference between
<quote>mai</quote>and
<quote>mo'o</quote>is that
<quote>mo'o</quote>enumerates larger subdivisions of a text. Each
<quote>mo'o</quote>subdivision can then be divided into pieces and internally numbered with
<quote>mai</quote>. If this chapter were translated into Lojban, each section would be numbered with
<quote>mo'o</quote>. (See
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19" />for more on these words.)</para>
<para>A numerical tense can be created by suffixing a digit string with
+<!-- ^^ digit string: definition of, 458 -->
+<indexterm><primary>digit string</primary></indexterm>
<quote>roi</quote>. This usage generates tenses corresponding to English
+<!-- ^^ roi, 226, 458 -->
+<indexterm><primary>roi</primary></indexterm>
<quote>once</quote>,
<quote>twice</quote>, and so on. This topic belongs to a detailed discussion of Lojban tenses, and is explained further in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10" />.</para>
<para>Note: the elidable terminator
<quote>boi</quote>is not used between a number and a member of MAI or ROI.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter18-section20">
<title>20. Explicit operator precedence</title>
+<!-- ^^ operator precedence: and mathematical notation, 436; effect of pragmatic convention, 436; generalized explicit specification, 437; in Lojban default, 436; plans for future, 458; rationale for default left-grouping, 436; scope modification with bi'e, 437; specifying by parenthesis, 437 -->
+<indexterm><primary>operator precedence</primary></indexterm>
<para>As mentioned earlier, Lojban does provide a way for the precedences of operators to be explicitly declared, although current parsers do not understand these declarations.</para>
<para>The declaration is made in the form of a metalinguistic comment using
+<!-- ^^ metalinguistic comment: with embedded discursive, 481 -->
+<indexterm><primary>metalinguistic comment</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ti'o</quote>, a member of selma'o SEI.
+<!-- ^^ ti'o, 458 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ti'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>sei</quote>, the other member of SEI, is used to insert metalinguistic comments on a bridi which give information about the discourse which the bridi comprises. The format of a
<quote>ti'o</quote>declaration has not been formally established, but presumably would take the form of mentioning a mekso operator and then giving it either an absolute numerical precedence on some pre-established scale, or else specifying relative precedences between new operators and existing operators.</para>
+<!-- ^^ ti'o, 458 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ti'o</primary></indexterm>
<para>In future, we hope to create an improved machine parser that can understand declarations of the precedences of simple operators belonging to selma'o VUhU. Originally, all operators would have the same precedence. Declarations would have the effect of raising the specified cmavo of VUhU to higher precedence levels. Complex operators formed with
<quote>na'u</quote>,
<quote>ni'e</quote>, or
+<!-- ^^ ni'e, 456; terminator for, 456 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ni'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ma'o</quote>would remain at the standard low precedence; declarations with respect to them are for future implementation efforts. It is probable that such a parser would have a set of
<quote>commonly assumed precedences</quote>built into it (selectable by a special
<quote>ti'o</quote>declaration) that would match mathematical intuition: times higher than plus, and so on.</para>
+<!-- ^^ ti'o, 458 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ti'o</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter18-section21">
<title>21. Miscellany</title>
<para>A few other points:</para>
<para>
<quote>se</quote>can be used to convert an operator as if it were a selbri, so that its arguments are exchanged. For example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-NwYJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e21d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section21-example1" />
@@ -2477,36 +3113,40 @@
<anchor xml:id="c18e21d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section21-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c18e21d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section21-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li ci na'e su'i vo du li pare</jbo>
<en>The-number 3 non-plus 4 equals the-number 12.</en>
<jbo>li ci to'e vu'u re du li mu</jbo>
<en>The-number 3 opposite-of-minus 2 equals the-number 5.</en>
+<!-- ^^ opposite-of-minus: example, 459 -->
+<indexterm><primary>opposite-of-minus</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The sense in which
<quote>plus</quote>is the opposite of
<quote>minus</quote>is not a mathematical but rather a linguistic one; negated operators are defined only loosely.</para>
<para>
<quote>la'e</quote>and
<quote>lu'e</quote>can be used on operands with the usual semantics to get the referent of or a symbol for an operand. Likewise, a member of selma'o NAhE followed by
<quote>bo</quote>serves to scalar-negate an operand, implying that some other operand would make the bridi true:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-3het">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e21d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section21-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li re su'i re du li na'ebo mu</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ na'ebo, 135 -->
+<indexterm><primary>na'ebo</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>The-number 2 plus 2 equals the-number non-5.</gloss>
<en>2 + 2 = something other than 5.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The digits 0-9 have rafsi, and therefore can be used in making lujvo. Additionally, all the rafsi have CVC form and can stand alone or together as names:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-hvGK">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e21d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section21-example5" />
</title>
@@ -2525,61 +3165,95 @@
<anchor xml:id="c18e21d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section21-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la zemei poi gunta la tebes. pu nanmu</jbo>
<en>Those-named-the Sevensome who attack Thebes [past] are-men.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Certain other members of PA also have assigned rafsi:
<quote>so'a</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ so'a, 440 -->
+<indexterm><primary>so'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>so'e</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ so'e, 440; meaning of, 441 -->
+<indexterm><primary>so'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>so'i</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ so'i, 440 -->
+<indexterm><primary>so'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>so'o</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ so'o, 440 -->
+<indexterm><primary>so'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>so'u</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ so'u, 440 -->
+<indexterm><primary>so'u</primary></indexterm>
<quote>da'a</quote>,
<quote>ro</quote>,
<quote>su'e</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ su'e, 443; with elided number, 443 -->
+<indexterm><primary>su'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>su'o</quote>,
<quote>pi</quote>, and
<quote>ce'i</quote>. Furthermore, although the cmavo
+<!-- ^^ ce'i, 433 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ce'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>fi'u</quote>does not have a rafsi as such, it is closely related to the gismu
+<!-- ^^ fi'u, 433 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fi'u</primary></indexterm>
<quote>frinu</quote>, meaning
<quote>fraction</quote>; therefore, in a context of numeric rafsi, you can use any of the rafsi for
<quote>frinu</quote>to indicate a fraction slash.</para>
<para>A similar convention is used for the cmavo
<quote>cu'o</quote>of selma'o MOI, which is closely related to
+<!-- ^^ cu'o, 447 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cu'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>cunso</quote>(probability); use a rafsi for
<quote>cunso</quote>in order to create lujvo based on
<quote>cu'o</quote>. The cmavo
+<!-- ^^ cu'o, 447 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cu'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>mei</quote>and
<quote>moi</quote>of MOI have their own rafsi, two each in fact:
<quote>mem</quote>/
<quote>mei</quote>and
<quote>mom</quote>/
<quote>moi</quote>respectively.</para>
<para>The grammar of mekso as described so far imposes a rigid distinction between operators and operands. Some flavors of mathematics (lambda calculus, algebra of functions) blur this distinction, and Lojban must have a method of doing the same. An operator can be changed into an operand with
+<!-- ^^ lambda calculus: operator and operand distinction in, 460 -->
+<indexterm><primary>lambda calculus</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ algebra of functions: operator and operand distinction in, 460 -->
+<indexterm><primary>algebra of functions</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ni'enu'a</quote>, which transforms the operator into a matching selbri and then the selbri into an operand.</para>
+<!-- ^^ ni'enu'a, 460 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ni'enu'a</primary></indexterm>
<para>To change an operand into an operator, we use the cmavo
<quote>ma'o</quote>, already introduced as a means of changing a lerfu string such as
<quote>fy.</quote>into an operator. In fact,
<quote>ma'o</quote>can be followed by any mekso operand, using the elidable terminator
<quote>te'u</quote>if necessary.</para>
<para>There is a potential semantic ambiguity in
<quote>ma'o fy. [te'u]</quote>if
<quote>fy.</quote>is already in use as a variable: it comes to mean
<quote>the function whose value is always ‘f'</quote>. However, mathematicians do not normally use the same lerfu words or strings as both functions and variables, so this case should not arise in practice.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter18-section22">
<title>22. Four score and seven: a mekso problem</title>
+<!-- ^^ Four score and seven: example, 460 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Four score and seven</primary></indexterm>
<para>Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address begins with the words
+<!-- ^^ Gettysburg Address: example, 460 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Gettysburg Address</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ Abraham Lincoln: example, 353 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Abraham Lincoln</primary></indexterm>
<quote>Four score and seven years ago</quote>. This section exhibits several different ways of saying the number
+<!-- ^^ Four score and seven: example, 460 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Four score and seven</primary></indexterm>
<quote>four score and seven</quote>. (A
<quote>score</quote>, for those not familiar with the term, is 20; it is analogous to a
<quote>dozen</quote>for 12.) The trivial way:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-DzMH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e22d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section22-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li bize</jbo>
@@ -2605,33 +3279,41 @@
<quote>Score</quote>is not a word for 20 in the same way that
<quote>ten</quote>is a word for 10: it contains the implication of 20 objects. The original may be taken as short for
<quote>Four score years and seven years ago</quote>. Thinking of a score as a twentysome rather than as 20 leads to:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-iwba">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e22d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section22-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li mo'e voboi renomei te'u su'i ze</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ mo'e, 456; terminator for, 456 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mo'e</primary></indexterm>
<en>the-number-of four twentysomes plus seven</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section22-example3" />,
<quote>voboi renomei</quote>is a sumti signifying four things each of which are groups of twenty; the
<quote>mo'e</quote>and
+<!-- ^^ mo'e, 456; terminator for, 456 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mo'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>te'u</quote>then make this sumti into a number in order to allow it to be the operand of
<quote>su'i</quote>.</para>
<para>Another approach is to think of
<quote>score</quote>as setting a representation base. There are remnants of base-20 arithmetic in some languages, notably French, in which 87 is
+<!-- ^^ base-20 arithmetic: remnants of, 461 -->
+<indexterm><primary>base-20 arithmetic</primary></indexterm>
<quote>quatre-vingt-sept</quote>, literally
<quote>four-twenties-seven</quote>. (This fact makes the Gettysburg Address hard to translate into French!) If
+<!-- ^^ Gettysburg Address: example, 460 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Gettysburg Address</primary></indexterm>
<quote>score</quote>is the representation base, then we have:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-2C3I">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e22d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter18-section22-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li vo pi'e ze ju'u reno</jbo>
<gloss>four ; seven base 20</gloss>
<en>47</en>
@@ -2646,25 +3328,33 @@
<section xml:id="cll_chapter18-section23">
<title>23. mekso selma'o summary</title>
<para>Except as noted, each selma'o has only one cmavo.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
BOI elidable terminator for numerals and lerfu strings
BY lerfu for variables and functions (see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17" />)
FUhA reverse-Polish flag
GOhA includes
<quote>du</quote> (mathematical equality) and other non-mekso cmavo
+<!-- ^^ mathematical equality: expressing, 435 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mathematical equality</primary></indexterm>
JOhI array flag
KUhE elidable terminator for forethought mekso
LI mekso articles (li and me'o)
+<!-- ^^ articles: cmavo as Lojban equivalents, 50 -->
+<indexterm><primary>articles</primary></indexterm>
MAhO make operand into operator
MOI creates mekso selbri (moi, mei, si'e, and cu'o, see
+<!-- ^^ si'e, 447 -->
+<indexterm><primary>si'e</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ cu'o, 447 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cu'o</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section11" />)
MOhE make sumti into operand
NAhU make selbri into operator
NIhE make selbri into operand
NUhA make operator into selbri
PA numbers (see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section25" />)
PEhO optional forethought mekso marker
TEhU elidable terminator for NAhU, NIhE, MOhE, MAhO, and JOhI
VEI left parenthesis
@@ -2679,38 +3369,52 @@
<para>The operand structures specify what various operands (labeled a, b, c, ...) mean. The implied context is forethought, since only forethought operators can have a variable number of operands; however, the same rules apply to infix and RP uses of VUhU.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
su'i plus (((a + b) + c) + ...)
pi'i times (((a × b) × c) × ...)
vu'u minus (((a − b) − c) − ...)
fe'i divided by (((a / b) / c) / ...)
ju'u number base numeral string
<quote>a</quote> interpreted in the base b
pa'i ratio the ratio of a to b, a:b
fa'i reciprocal of/multiplicative inverse 1 /
+<!-- ^^ reciprocal: expression of mathematical, 433 -->
+<indexterm><primary>reciprocal</primary></indexterm>
<emphasis>a</emphasis>
gei scientific notation b × (c [default 10] to the
+<!-- ^^ scientific notation: rationale for order of places, 451; with gei, 450 -->
+<indexterm><primary>scientific notation</primary></indexterm>
<emphasis>a</emphasis> power)
ge'a null operator (no operands)
+<!-- ^^ null operator: for infix operations with too many operands, 451 -->
+<indexterm><primary>null operator</primary></indexterm>
de'o logarithm log
<emphasis>a</emphasis> to base
<emphasis>b</emphasis> (default 10 or
<emphasis>e</emphasis> as appropriate)
te'a to the power/exponential
+<!-- ^^ te'a, 437 -->
+<indexterm><primary>te'a</primary></indexterm>
<emphasis>a</emphasis> to the
<emphasis>b</emphasis> power
fe'a nth root of/inverse power b
<superscript>th</superscript> root of a (default square root: b = 2)
cu'a absolute value/norm | a |
ne'o factorial a!
pi'a matrix row vector combiner (all operands are row vectors)
+<!-- ^^ pi'a, 452 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pi'a</primary></indexterm>
sa'i matrix column vector combiner (all operands are column vectors)
+<!-- ^^ sa'i, 452 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sa'i</primary></indexterm>
ri'o integral integral of a with respect to b over range c
+<!-- ^^ integral: architectural concept, example, 64; mathematical concept, example, 64 -->
+<indexterm><primary>integral</primary></indexterm>
sa'o derivative derivative of a with respect to b of degree c (default 1)
fu'u non-specific operator (variable)
si'i sigma (Σ) summation summation of a using variable b over range c
va'a negation of/additive inverse -a
re'a matrix transpose/dual a
<superscript>*</superscript>
</programlisting>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter18-section25">
<title>25. Complete table of PA cmavo: digits, punctuation, and other numbers.</title>
@@ -2727,96 +3431,150 @@
<para>Hexadecimal digits:
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
dau, fei, gai, jau, rei, vai
A/10, B/11, C/12, D/13, E/14, F/15
</programlisting></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Special numbers:
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
pai, ka'o, te'o, ci'i
+<!-- ^^ ka'o, 434; as special number compared with as numerical punctuation, 434 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ka'o</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ ci'i, 434 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ci'i</primary></indexterm>
<phrase role="IPA">π</phrase>, imaginary i, exponential e, infinity (
+<!-- ^^ infinity: example, 434 -->
+<indexterm><primary>infinity</primary></indexterm>
<phrase role="IPA">∞</phrase>)
</programlisting></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Number punctuation:
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
pi, ce'i, fi'u
+<!-- ^^ fi'u, 433 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fi'u</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ ce'i, 433 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ce'i</primary></indexterm>
decimal point, percentage, fraction (not division)
+<!-- ^^ decimal point: as numerical punctuation, 433; effect of different notations, 433; in bases other than 10, 444 -->
+<indexterm><primary>decimal point</primary></indexterm>
rafsi: piz, cez, fi'u (from frinu; see
+<!-- ^^ fi'u, 433 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fi'u</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section20" />)
pi'e, ma'u, ni'u
mixed-base point, plus sign (not addition), minus sign (not subtraction)
+<!-- ^^ base point: in bases other than 10, 444 -->
+<indexterm><primary>base point</primary></indexterm>
ki'o, ra'e
+<!-- ^^ ra'e, 433 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ra'e</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ ki'o, 433 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ki'o</primary></indexterm>
thousands comma, repeating-decimal indicator
ji'i, ka'o
+<!-- ^^ ka'o, 434; as special number compared with as numerical punctuation, 434 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ka'o</primary></indexterm>
approximation sign, complex number separator
</programlisting></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Indefinite numbers:
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ro, so'a, so'e, so'i, so'o,</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ so'o, 440 -->
+<indexterm><primary>so'o</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ so'i, 440 -->
+<indexterm><primary>so'i</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ so'e, 440; meaning of, 441 -->
+<indexterm><primary>so'e</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ so'a, 440 -->
+<indexterm><primary>so'a</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>so'u,</selmaho>
+<!-- ^^ so'u, 440 -->
+<indexterm><primary>so'u</primary></indexterm>
<description>da'a</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>all, almost all, most, many, several,</cmavo>
<selmaho>few,</selmaho>
<description>all but</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>rafsi: rol, soj, sor or so'i, sos,</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ so'i, 440 -->
+<indexterm><primary>so'i</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>sot,</selmaho>
<description>daz</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Subjective numbers:
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>rau,</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ rau, 442, 448 -->
+<indexterm><primary>rau</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>du'e,</selmaho>
+<!-- ^^ du'e, 442, 448 -->
+<indexterm><primary>du'e</primary></indexterm>
<description>mo'a</description>
+<!-- ^^ mo'a, 442, 448 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mo'a</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>enough, too many, too few</cmavo-list></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Miscellaneous:
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
xo, tu'o
+<!-- ^^ xo, 449 -->
+<indexterm><primary>xo</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ tu'o, 450, 453; for infix operations with too few operands, 450 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tu'o</primary></indexterm>
number question, null operand
+<!-- ^^ null operand: for infix operations with too few operands, 450 -->
+<indexterm><primary>null operand</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting></para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter18-section26">
<title>26. Table of MOI cmavo, with associated rafsi and place structures</title>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mei x1 is a mass formed from a set x2 of n members, one or more of
which is/are x3, [measured relative to the set x4/by standard x4]
rafsi: mem, mei
moi x1 is the (n)th member of set x2 when ordered by rule x3
[by standard x4]
rafsi: mom, moi
si'e x1 is an (n)th portion of mass x2 [by standard x3]
+<!-- ^^ si'e, 447 -->
+<indexterm><primary>si'e</primary></indexterm>
rafsi: none
cu'o event x1 has probability (n) of occurring under conditions x2
+<!-- ^^ cu'o, 447 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cu'o</primary></indexterm>
[by standard x3]
rafsi: cu'o (borrowed from cunso; see
+<!-- ^^ cu'o, 447 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cu'o</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section20" />)
va'e x1 is at scale position (n) on the scale x2
+<!-- ^^ va'e, 447 -->
+<indexterm><primary>va'e</primary></indexterm>
[by standard x3]
rafsi: none
</programlisting>
</section>
</chapter>
diff --git a/todocbook/19.xml b/todocbook/19.xml
index 81a2107..7da9dbc 100644
--- a/todocbook/19.xml
+++ b/todocbook/19.xml
@@ -6,38 +6,44 @@
<para>This chapter is also not very self-contained. It makes passing reference to a great many concepts which are explained in full only in other chapters. The alternative would be a chapter on text structure which was as complex as all the other chapters put together. Lojban is a unified language, and it is not possible to understand any part of it (in full) before understanding every part of it (to some degree).</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter19-section2">
<title>2. Sentences: I</title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>.i</cmavo>
<selmaho>I</selmaho>
<description>sentence separator</description>
+<!-- ^^ sentence separator, 495 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sentence separator</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>Since Lojban is audio-visually isomorphic, there needs to be a spoken and written way of signaling the end of a sentence and the start of the following one. In written English, a period serves this purpose; in spoken English, a tone contour (rising or falling) usually does the job, or sometimes a long pause. Lojban uses a single separator: the cmavo
+<!-- ^^ audio-visually isomorphic, 465 -->
+<indexterm><primary>audio-visually isomorphic</primary></indexterm>
<quote>.i</quote>(of selma'o I):</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-XKAG">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e2d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section2-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci .i do cadzu le bisli</jbo>
<en>I go to-the store. You walk on-the ice.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The word
<quote>separator</quote>should be noted.
<quote>.i</quote>is not normally used after the last sentence nor before the first one, although both positions are technically grammatical.
<quote>.i</quote>signals a new sentence on the same topic, not necessarily by the same speaker. The relationship between the sentences is left vague, except in stories, where the relationship usually is temporal, and the following sentence states something that happened after the previous sentence.</para>
+<!-- ^^ stories: flow of time in, 236 -->
+<indexterm><primary>stories</primary></indexterm>
<para>Note that although the first letter of an English sentence is capitalized, the cmavo
<quote>.i</quote>is never capitalized. In writing, it is appropriate to place extra space before
<quote>.i</quote>to make it stand out better for the reader. In some styles of Lojban writing, every
<quote>.i</quote>is placed at the beginning of a line, possibly leaving space at the end of the previous line.</para>
<para>An
<quote>.i</quote>cmavo may or may not be used when the speaker of the following sentence is different from the speaker of the preceding sentence, depending on whether the sentences are felt to be connected or not.</para>
<para>An
<quote>.i</quote>cmavo can be compounded with a logical or non-logical connective (a jek or joik), a modal or tense connective, or both: these constructs are explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9" />,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10" />, and
@@ -68,62 +74,84 @@
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ni'o</cmavo>
<selmaho>NIhO</selmaho>
<description>new topic</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>no'i</cmavo>
<selmaho>NIhO</selmaho>
<description>old topic</description>
+<!-- ^^ old topic, 466 -->
+<indexterm><primary>old topic</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>da'o</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ da'o, 162, 466; for cancellation of pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignment, 162; syntax of, 162 -->
+<indexterm><primary>da'o</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>DAhO</selmaho>
<description>cancel cmavo assignments</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>The paragraph is a concept used in writing systems for two purposes: to indicate changes of topic, and to break up the hard-to-read appearance of large blocks of text on the page. The former function is represented in both spoken and written Lojban by the cmavo
<quote>ni'o</quote>and
<quote>no'i</quote>, both of selma'o NIhO. Of these two,
<quote>ni'o</quote>is the more common. By convention, written Lojban is broken into paragraphs just before any
<quote>ni'o</quote>or
<quote>no'i</quote>, but a very long passage on a single topic might be paragraphed before an
<quote>.i</quote>. On the other hand, it is conventional in English to start a new paragraph in dialogue when a new speaker starts, but this convention is not commonly observed in Lojban dialogues. Of course, none of these conventions affect meaning in any way.</para>
<para>A
<quote>ni'o</quote>can take the place of an
<quote>.i</quote>as a sentence separator, and in addition signals a new topic or paragraph. Grammatically, any number of
+<!-- ^^ sentence separator, 495 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sentence separator</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ni'o</quote>cmavo can appear consecutively and are equivalent to a single one; semantically, a greater number of
<quote>ni'o</quote>cmavo indicates a larger-scale change of topic. This feature allows complexly structured text, with topics, subtopics, and sub-subtopics, to be represented clearly and unambiguously in both spoken and written Lojban. However, some conventional differences do exist between
<quote>ni'o</quote>in writing and in conversation.</para>
<para>In written text, a single
<quote>ni'o</quote>is a mere discursive indicator of a new subject, whereas
+<!-- ^^ discursive indicator, 466 -->
+<indexterm><primary>discursive indicator</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ni'oni'o</quote>marks a change in the context. In this situation,
<quote>ni'oni'o</quote>implicitly cancels the definitions of all pro-sumti of selma'o KOhA as well as pro-bridi of selma'o GOhA. (Explicit cancelling is expressed by the cmavo
<quote>da'o</quote>of selma'o DAhO, which has the free grammar of an indicator – it can appear almost anywhere.) The use of
+<!-- ^^ da'o, 162, 466; for cancellation of pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignment, 162; syntax of, 162 -->
+<indexterm><primary>da'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ni'oni'o</quote>does not affect indicators (of selma'o UI) or tense references, but
<quote>ni'oni'oni'o</quote>, indicating a drastic change of topic, would serve to reset both indicators and tenses. (See
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section8" />for a discussion of indicator scope.)</para>
+<!-- ^^ indicator scope, 466 -->
+<indexterm><primary>indicator scope</primary></indexterm>
<para>In spoken text, which is inherently less structured, these levels are reduced by one, with
<quote>ni'o</quote>indicating a change in context sufficient to cancel pro-sumti and pro-bridi assignment. On the other hand, in a book, or in stories within stories such as
+<!-- ^^ stories: flow of time in, 236 -->
+<indexterm><primary>stories</primary></indexterm>
<quote>The Arabian Nights</quote>, further levels may be expressed by extending the
+<!-- ^^ Arabian Nights: as multi-level narrative, 467 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Arabian Nights</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ni'o</quote>string as needed. Normally, a written text will begin with the number of
<quote>ni'o</quote>cmavo needed to signal the largest scale division which the text contains.
<quote>ni'o</quote>strings may be subscripted to label each context of discourse: see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section6" />.</para>
<para>
<quote>no'i</quote>is similar in effect to
<quote>ni'o</quote>, but indicates the resumption of a previous topic. In speech, it is analogous to (but much shorter than) such English discursive phrases as
+<!-- ^^ previous topic, 467 -->
+<indexterm><primary>previous topic</primary></indexterm>
<quote>But getting back to the point ...</quote>. By default, the topic resumed is that in effect before the last
<quote>ni'o</quote>. When subtopics are nested within topics, then
<quote>no'i</quote>would resume the previous subtopic and
+<!-- ^^ resume: contrasted with begin, 229 -->
+<indexterm><primary>resume</primary></indexterm>
<quote>no'ino'i</quote>the previous topic. Note that
+<!-- ^^ previous topic, 467 -->
+<indexterm><primary>previous topic</primary></indexterm>
<quote>no'i</quote>also resumes tense and pro-sumti assignments dropped at the previous
<quote>ni'o</quote>.</para>
<para>If a
<quote>ni'o</quote>is subscripted, then a
<quote>no'i</quote>with the same subscript is assumed to be a continuation of it. A
<quote>no'i</quote>may also have a negative subscript, which would specify counting backwards a number of paragraphs and resuming the topic found thereby.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter19-section4">
<title>4. Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU</title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
@@ -151,44 +179,52 @@
<anchor xml:id="c19e4d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section4-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>zhe</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The wide space in the first two versions of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section4-example2" />separate the topic (
<quote>this news</quote>) from the comment (
+<!-- ^^ news: example, 467 -->
+<indexterm><primary>news</primary></indexterm>
<quote>I know already</quote>).</para>
<para>Lojban uses the cmavo
<quote>zo'u</quote>(of selma'o ZOhU) to separate topic (a sumti) from comment (a bridi):</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-p4ww">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e4d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section4-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nuzba zo'u mi ba'o djuno</jbo>
<en>The news : I [perfective] know.</en>
+<!-- ^^ news: example, 467 -->
+<indexterm><primary>news</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section4-example3" />is the literal Lojban translation of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section4-example2" />. Of course, the topic-comment structure can be changed to a straightforward bridi structure:</para>
+<!-- ^^ topic-comment: description, 467 -->
+<indexterm><primary>topic-comment</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-V2B4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e4d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section4-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ba'o djuno le nuzba</jbo>
<en>I [perfective] know the news.</en>
+<!-- ^^ news: example, 467 -->
+<indexterm><primary>news</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section4-example4" />means the same as
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section4-example3" />, and it is simpler. However, often the position of the topic in the place structure of the selbri within the comment is vague:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-tpcK">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e4d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section4-example5" />
</title>
@@ -204,20 +240,24 @@
<anchor xml:id="c19e4d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section4-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>yu</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which is vague in exactly the same way.</para>
<para>Grammatically, it is possible to have more than one sumti before
<quote>zo'u</quote>. This is not normally useful in topic-comment sentences, but is necessary in the other use of
+<!-- ^^ topic-comment sentences, 467 -->
+<indexterm><primary>topic-comment sentences</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ topic-comment: description, 467 -->
+<indexterm><primary>topic-comment</primary></indexterm>
<quote>zo'u</quote>: to separate a quantifying section from a bridi containing quantified variables. This usage belongs to a discussion of quantifier logic in Lojban (see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16" />), but an example would be:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-6yRx">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e4d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section4-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>roda poi prenu ku'o su'ode zo'u de patfu da</jbo>
<gloss>For-all X which-are-persons, there-exists-a-Y such-that Y is the father of X.</gloss>
@@ -278,20 +318,24 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e4d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section4-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do ponse loi jdini .inaja do djica tu'a ri</jbo>
<en>You possess money only-if you desire something-about it.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>namely, the possession of money. But topic-comment sentences like
+<!-- ^^ topic-comment sentences, 467 -->
+<indexterm><primary>topic-comment sentences</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ topic-comment: description, 467 -->
+<indexterm><primary>topic-comment</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section4-example9" />are inherently vague, and this difference between
<quote>ponse</quote>(which expects a physical object in x2) and
<quote>djica</quote>is ignored. See
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section9-example3" />for another topic/comment sentence.</para>
<para>The subject of an English sentence is often the topic as well, but in Lojban the sumti in the x1 place is not necessarily the topic, especially if it is the normal (unconverted) x1 for the selbri. Thus Lojban sentences don't necessarily have a
<quote>subject</quote>in the English sense.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter19-section5">
<title>5. Questions and answers</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
@@ -306,65 +350,83 @@
<selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
<description>sumti question</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>mo</cmavo>
<selmaho>GOhA</selmaho>
<description>bridi question</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>xo</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ xo, 449 -->
+<indexterm><primary>xo</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>PA</selmaho>
<description>number question</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ji</cmavo>
<selmaho>A</selmaho>
<description>sumti connective question</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ge'i</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ ge'i, 352 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ge'i</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>GA</selmaho>
<description>forethought connective question</description>
+<!-- ^^ forethought connective(s): as ungrammatical utterance, 352; contrasted with afterthought connective, 338 -->
+<indexterm><primary>forethought connective</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>gi'i</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ gi'i, 352 -->
+<indexterm><primary>gi'i</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>GIhA</selmaho>
<description>bridi-tail connective question</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>gu'i</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ gu'i, 352 -->
+<indexterm><primary>gu'i</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>GUhA</selmaho>
<description>tanru forethought connective question</description>
+<!-- ^^ forethought connective(s): as ungrammatical utterance, 352; contrasted with afterthought connective, 338 -->
+<indexterm><primary>forethought connective</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>je'i</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ je'i, 352 -->
+<indexterm><primary>je'i</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>JA</selmaho>
<description>tanru connective question</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>pei</cmavo>
<selmaho>UI</selmaho>
<description>attitude question</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>fi'a</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ fi'a, 191; effect on subsequent untagged sumti, 192 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fi'a</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>FA</selmaho>
<description>place structure question</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>cu'e</cmavo>
<selmaho>CUhE</selmaho>
<description>tense/modal question</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>pau</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ pau, 322; placement in sentence, 322 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pau</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>UI</selmaho>
<description>question premarker</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>Lojban questions are not at all like English questions. There are two basic types: truth questions, of the form
<quote>Is it true that ...</quote>, and fill-in-the-blank questions. Truth questions are marked by preceding the bridi, or following any part of it specifically questioned, with the cmavo
<quote>xu</quote>(of selma'o UI):</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-2t28">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e5d1" />
@@ -399,20 +461,22 @@
<anchor xml:id="c19e5d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section5-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do klama ma</jbo>
<gloss>You go-to [what sumti?]</gloss>
<en>Where are you going?</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The answer is a simple sumti:</para>
+<!-- ^^ simple sumti, 119 -->
+<indexterm><primary>simple sumti</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-WUvX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e5d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section5-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le zarci</jbo>
<en>The store.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -456,21 +520,25 @@
</example>
<para>An answer might be</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-yGYX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e5d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section5-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. la marcas. le zarci le briju</jbo>
<gloss>John, Marsha, the store, the office.</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ Marsha: example, 470 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Marsha</primary></indexterm>
<en>John and Marsha go to the store and the office, respectively.</en>
+<!-- ^^ Marsha: example, 470 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Marsha</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(Note: A mechanical substitution of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section5-example8" />into
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section5-example7" />produces an ungrammatical result, because
<quote>* ... le zarci fa'u le briju</quote>is ungrammatical Lojban: the first
<quote>le zarci</quote>has to be closed with its proper terminator
<quote>ku</quote>, for reasons explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14" />. This effect is not important: Lojban behaves as if all elided terminators have been supplied in both question and answer before inserting the latter into the former. The exchange is grammatical if question and answer are each separately grammatical.)</para>
<para>Questions to be answered with a selbri are expressed with
@@ -480,61 +548,81 @@
<anchor xml:id="c19e5d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section5-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la lojban. mo</jbo>
<gloss>Lojban [what selbri?]</gloss>
<en>What is Lojban?</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the answerer is to supply some predicate which is true of Lojban. Such questions are extremely open-ended, due to the enormous range of possible predicate answers. The answer might be just a selbri, or might be a full bridi, in which case the sumti in the answer override those provided by the questioner. To limit the range of a
+<!-- ^^ predicate answers, 470 -->
+<indexterm><primary>predicate answers</primary></indexterm>
<quote>mo</quote>question, make it part of a tanru.</para>
<para>Questions about numbers are expressed with
<quote>xo</quote>of selma'o PA:</para>
+<!-- ^^ xo, 449 -->
+<indexterm><primary>xo</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-pdeh">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e5d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section5-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do viska xo prenu</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ xo, 449 -->
+<indexterm><primary>xo</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>You saw [what number?] persons.</gloss>
<en>How many people did you see?</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The answer would be a simple number, another kind of non-bridi utterance:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-zjVx">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e5d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section5-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>vomu</jbo>
<en>Forty-five.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Fill-in-the-blank questions may also be asked about: logical connectives (using cmavo
<quote>ji</quote>of A,
<quote>ge'i</quote>of GA,
+<!-- ^^ ge'i, 352 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ge'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>gi'i</quote>of GIhA,
+<!-- ^^ gi'i, 352 -->
+<indexterm><primary>gi'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>gu'i</quote>of GUhA, or
+<!-- ^^ gu'i, 352 -->
+<indexterm><primary>gu'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>je'i</quote>of JA, and receiving an ek, gihek, ijek, or ijoik as an answer) - see
+<!-- ^^ je'i, 352 -->
+<indexterm><primary>je'i</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ ijoik: as name for compound cmavo, 336; definition, 358 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ijoik</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14" />; attitudes (using
<quote>pei</quote>of UI, and receiving an attitudinal as an answer) - see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13" />; place structures (using
<quote>fi'a</quote>of FA, and receiving a cmavo of FA as an answer) - see
+<!-- ^^ fi'a, 191; effect on subsequent untagged sumti, 192 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fi'a</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9" />; tenses and modals (using
<quote>cu'e</quote>of CUhE, and receiving any tense or BAI cmavo as an answer) - see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10" />.</para>
<para>Questions can be marked by placing
<quote>pau</quote>(of selma'o UI) before the question bridi. See
+<!-- ^^ pau, 322; placement in sentence, 322 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pau</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13" />for details.</para>
<para>The full list of non-bridi utterances suitable as answers to questions is:</para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>any number of sumti (with elidable terminator
<quote>vau</quote>, see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6" />)</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>an ek or gihek (logical connectives, see
@@ -553,29 +641,33 @@
<listitem>
<para>a relative clause (to modify some previously expressed sumti, see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8" />)</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>a prenex/topic (to modify some previously expressed bridi, see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16" />)</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>linked arguments (beginning with
+<!-- ^^ linked arguments, 471 -->
+<indexterm><primary>linked arguments</primary></indexterm>
<quote>be</quote>or
<quote>bei</quote>and attached to some previously expressed selbri, often in a description,see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5" />)</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
<para>At the beginning of a text, the following non-bridi are also permitted:</para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>one or more names (to indicate direct address without
+<!-- ^^ direct address, 323 -->
+<indexterm><primary>direct address</primary></indexterm>
<quote>doi</quote>, see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6" />)</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>indicators (to express a prevailing attitude, see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13" />)</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
<quote>nai</quote>(to vaguely negate something or other, see
@@ -590,31 +682,35 @@
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>xi</cmavo>
<selmaho>XI</selmaho>
<description>subscript</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>xi</quote>(of selma'o XI) indicates that a subscript (a number, a lerfu string, or a parenthesized mekso) follows. Subscripts can be attached to almost any construction and are placed following the construction (or its terminator word, which is generally required). They are useful either to extend the finite cmavo list to infinite length, or to make more refined distinctions than the standard cmavo list permits. The remainder of this section mentions some places where subscripts might naturally be used.</para>
<para>Lojban gismu have at most five places:</para>
+<!-- ^^ at most: contrasted with more than, at least, less than, 443; example, 443 -->
+<indexterm><primary>at most</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-GuYz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e6d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section6-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cu klama le zarci le zdani le dargu le karce</jbo>
<en>I go to-the market from-the house via-the road using-the car.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Consequently, selma'o SE (which operates on a selbri to change the order of its places) and selma'o FA (which provides place number tags for individual sumti) have only enough members to handle up to five places. Conversion of
+<!-- ^^ place number: specifying, 493 -->
+<indexterm><primary>place number</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section6-example1" />, using
<quote>xe</quote>to swap the x1 and x5 places, would produce:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-QPGC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e6d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section6-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le karce cu xe klama le zarci le zdani le dargu mi</jbo>
<en>The car is-a-transportation-means to-the market from-the house via-the road for-me.</en>
@@ -637,50 +733,56 @@
<quote>nunkla</quote>, formed by applying the abstraction operator
<quote>nu</quote>to
<quote>klama</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-sMPn">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e6d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section6-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la'edi'u cu nunkla</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ la'edi'u, 149; contrasted with di'u, 149; quick-tour version, 21 -->
+<indexterm><primary>la'edi'u</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>mi le zarci le zdani le dargu le karce</gloss>
<gloss>The-referent-of-the-previous-sentence is-an-event-of-going</gloss>
<en>by-me to-the market from-the house via-the road using-the car.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section6-example4" />shows that
<quote>nunkla</quote>has six places: the five places of
<quote>klama</quote>plus a new one (placed first) for the event itself. Performing transformations similar to that of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section6-example2" />requires an additional conversion cmavo that exchanges the x1 and x6 places. The solution is to use any cmavo of SE with a subscript "6" (see Chapter 19):</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-zGhw">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e6d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section6-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le karce cu sexixa nunkla mi</jbo>
<gloss>le zarci le zdani le dargu la'edi'u</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ la'edi'u, 149; contrasted with di'u, 149; quick-tour version, 21 -->
+<indexterm><primary>la'edi'u</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>The car is-a-transportation-means-in-the-event-of-going by-me</gloss>
<en>to-the market via-the road which-is-referred-to-by-the-last-sentence.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Likewise, a sixth place tag can be created by using any cmavo of FA with a subscript:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-EW1n">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e6d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section6-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>fu le dargu fo le zdani fe mi fa la'edi'u</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ la'edi'u, 149; contrasted with di'u, 149; quick-tour version, 21 -->
+<indexterm><primary>la'edi'u</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>fi le zarci faxixa le karce cu nunkla</gloss>
<gloss>Via the road, from the house, by me, the-referent-of-the-last-sentence,</gloss>
<en>to the market, using the car, is-an-event-of-going.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section6-example4" />to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section6-example6" />also all mean the same thing, and each is derived straightforwardly from any of the others, despite the tortured nature of the English glosses. In addition, any other member of SE or FA could be substituted into
<quote>sexixa</quote>and
<quote>faxixa</quote>without change of meaning:
@@ -723,35 +825,39 @@
<quote>brodu</quote>.</para>
<para>Subscripts on lerfu words are used in the standard mathematical way to extend the number of variables:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-wez6">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e6d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section6-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li xy.boixipa du li xy.boixire su'i xy.boixici</jbo>
<gloss>The-number x-sub-1 equals the-number x-sub-2 plus x-sub-3</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ x-sub-3, 449 -->
+<indexterm><primary>x-sub-3</primary></indexterm>
<en>x</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and can be used to extend the number of pro-sumti as well, since lerfu strings outside mathematical contexts are grammatically and semantically equivalent to pro-sumti of the ko'a-series. (In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section6-example9" />, note the required terminator
<quote>boi</quote>after each
<quote>xy.</quote>cmavo; this terminator allows the subscript to be attached without ambiguity.)</para>
<para>Names, which are similar to pro-sumti, can also be subscripted to distinguish two individuals with the same name:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-tW4J">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e6d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section6-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. xipa cusku lu mi'enai do li'u la djan. xire</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ mi'enai, 326 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mi'enai</primary></indexterm>
<en>John</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Subscripts on tenses allow talking about more than one time or place that is described by the same general cmavo. For example,
<quote>puxipa</quote>could refer to one point in the past, and
<quote>puxire</quote>a second point (earlier or later).</para>
<para>You can place a subscript on the word
<quote>ja'a</quote>, the bridi affirmative of selma'o NA, to express so-called fuzzy truths. The usual machinery for fuzzy logic (statements whose truth value is not merely
<quote>true</quote>or
<quote>false</quote>, but is expressed by a number in the range 0 to 1) in Lojban is the abstractor
@@ -780,82 +886,110 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Finally, as mentioned in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section2" />,
<quote>ni'o</quote>and
<quote>no'i</quote>cmavo with matching subscripts mark the start and the continuation of a given topic respectively. Different topics can be assigned to different subscripts.</para>
<para>Other uses of subscripts will doubtless be devised in future.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter19-section7">
<title>7. Utterance ordinals: MAI</title>
+<!-- ^^ ordinals: utterance, 474 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ordinals</primary></indexterm>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>mai</cmavo>
<selmaho>MAI</selmaho>
<description>utterance ordinal, -thly</description>
+<!-- ^^ utterance ordinal: lerfu string as, 423 -->
+<indexterm><primary>utterance ordinal</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>mo'o</cmavo>
<selmaho>MAI</selmaho>
<description>higher order utterance ordinal</description>
+<!-- ^^ utterance ordinal: lerfu string as, 423 -->
+<indexterm><primary>utterance ordinal</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>Numerical free modifiers, corresponding to English
+<!-- ^^ free modifiers: effects on elidability of terminators, 450 -->
+<indexterm><primary>free modifiers</primary></indexterm>
<quote>firstly</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ firstly: example, 458 -->
+<indexterm><primary>firstly</primary></indexterm>
<quote>secondly</quote>, and so on, can be created by suffixing
<quote>mai</quote>or
<quote>mo'o</quote>of selma'o MAI to a number or a lerfu string. Here are some examples:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ymMz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e7d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section7-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama pamai le zarci .e remai le zdani</jbo>
<en>I go-to (firstly) the store and (secondly) the house.</en>
+<!-- ^^ firstly: example, 458 -->
+<indexterm><primary>firstly</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This does not imply that I go to the store before I go to the house: that meaning requires a tense. The sumti are simply numbered for convenience of reference. Like other free modifiers, the utterance ordinals can be inserted almost anywhere in a sentence without affecting its grammar or its meaning.</para>
+<!-- ^^ ordinals: utterance, 474 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ordinals</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ free modifiers: effects on elidability of terminators, 450 -->
+<indexterm><primary>free modifiers</primary></indexterm>
<para>Any of the Lojban numbers can be used with MAI:
<quote>romai</quote>, for example, means
<quote>all-thly</quote>or
<quote>lastly</quote>. Likewise, if you are enumerating a long list and have forgotten which number is wanted next, you can say
<quote>ny.mai</quote>, or
<quote>Nthly</quote>.</para>
+<!-- ^^ Nthly: example, 423 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Nthly</primary></indexterm>
<para>The difference between
<quote>mai</quote>and
<quote>mo'o</quote>is that
<quote>mo'o</quote>enumerates larger subdivisions of a text;
<quote>mai</quote>was designed for lists of numbered items, whereas
+<!-- ^^ lists: use of tu'e/tu'u in, 358 -->
+<indexterm><primary>lists</primary></indexterm>
<quote>mo'o</quote>was intended to subdivide structured works. If this chapter were translated into Lojban, it might number each section with
<quote>mo'o</quote>: this section would then be introduced with
<quote>zemo'o</quote>, or
<quote>Section 7.</quote></para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter19-section8">
<title>8. Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>fu'e</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ fu'e, 475 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fu'e</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>FUhE</selmaho>
<description>open attitudinal scope</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>fu'o</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ fu'o, 475 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fu'o</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>FUhO</selmaho>
<description>close attitudinal scope</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>Lojban has a complex system of
<quote>attitudinals</quote>, words which indicate the speaker's attitude to what is being said. The attitudinals include indicators of emotion, intensity markers, discursives (which show the structure of discourse), and evidentials (which indicate
+<!-- ^^ evidentials: ba'a scale, 316; definition, 315; grammar, 315; in English, 315; indisputable bridi, 315; inspiration for, 315; ja'o contrasted with su'a, 316; ka'u contrasted with se'o, 316; placement in bridi, 315; quick-tour version, 25; rhetorical flavor, 315; scales, 315; se'o contrasted with ka'u, 316; su'a contrasted with ja'o, 316 -->
+<!-- ^^ indisputable bridi, 315 -->
+<indexterm><primary>indisputable bridi</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>evidentials</primary></indexterm>
<quote>how the speaker knows</quote>). Most of these words belong to selma'o UI; the intensity markers belong to selma'o CAI for historical reasons, but the two selma'o are grammatically identical. The individual cmavo of UI and CAI are discussed in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13" />; only the rules for applying them in discourse are presented here.</para>
<para>Normally, an attitudinal applies to the preceding word only. However, if the preceding word is a structural cmavo which begins or ends a whole construction, then that whole construction is affected by the attitudinal:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-WCHe">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e8d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section8-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c19e8d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section8-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c19e8d3" />
@@ -891,30 +1025,42 @@
<en>I believe I see a blue house.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>or to an explicit
<quote>vau</quote>placed at the end of a bridi.</para>
<para>Likewise, an attitudinal meant to cover a whole paragraph can be attached to
<quote>ni'o</quote>or
<quote>no'i</quote>. An attitudinal at the beginning of a text applies to the whole text.</para>
<para>However, sometimes it is necessary to be more specific about the range of one or more attitudinals, particularly if the range crosses the boundaries of standard Lojban syntactic constructions. The cmavo
<quote>fu'e</quote>(of selma'o FUhE) and
+<!-- ^^ fu'e, 475 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fu'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>fu'o</quote>(of selma'o FUhO) provide explicit scope markers. Placing
+<!-- ^^ fu'o, 475 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fu'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>fu'e</quote>in front of an attitudinal disconnects it from what precedes it, and instead says that it applies to all following words until further notice. The notice is given by
+<!-- ^^ fu'e, 475 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fu'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>fu'o</quote>, which can appear anywhere and cancels all in-force attitudinals. For example:</para>
+<!-- ^^ fu'o, 475 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fu'o</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-0vML">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e8d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section8-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska le fu'e .ia blanu zdani fu'o ponse</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ fu'o, 475 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fu'o</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ fu'e, 475 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fu'e</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I see the [start] [belief] blue house [end] possessor</gloss>
<en>I see the owner of what I believe to be a blue house.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here, only the
<quote>blanu zdani</quote>portion of the three-part tanru
<quote>blanu zdani ponse</quote>is marked as a belief of the speaker. Naturally, the attitudinal scope markers do not affect the rules for interpreting multi-part tanru:
<quote>blanu zdani</quote>groups first because tanru group from left to right unless overridden with
<quote>ke</quote>or
<quote>bo</quote>.</para>
@@ -956,20 +1102,22 @@
<jbo>mi pu cusku lu mi'e djan [li'u]</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] express [quote] I-am John [unquote]</gloss>
<en>I said,
<quote>I'm John</quote>.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>But in fact there are four different flavors of quotation in the language, involving six cmavo of six different selma'o. This being the case, quotation deserves some elaboration.</para>
<para>The simplest kind of quotation, exhibited in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section9-example1" />, uses the cmavo
<quote>lu</quote>(of selma'o LU) as the opening quotation mark, and the cmavo
+<!-- ^^ opening quotation, 476 -->
+<indexterm><primary>opening quotation</primary></indexterm>
<quote>li'u</quote>(of selma'o LIhU) as the closing quotation mark. The text between
<quote>lu</quote>and
<quote>li'u</quote>must be a valid, parseable Lojban text. If the quotation is ungrammatical, so is the surrounding expression. The cmavo
<quote>li'u</quote>is technically an elidable terminator, but it's almost never possible to elide it except at the end of text.</para>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>lo'u</quote>(of selma'o LOhU) and
<quote>le'u</quote>(of selma'o LEhU) are used to surround a quotation that is not necessarily grammatical Lojban. However, the text must consist of morphologically correct Lojban words (as defined in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4" />), so that the
<quote>le'u</quote>can be picked out reliably. The words need not be meaningful, but they must be recognizable as cmavo, brivla, or cmene. Quotation with
<quote>lo'u</quote>is essential to quoting ungrammatical Lojban for teaching in the language, the equivalent of the * that is used in English to mark such errors:</para>
@@ -978,38 +1126,42 @@
<anchor xml:id="c19e9d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section9-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo'u mi du do du la djan. le'u na tergerna la lojban.</jbo>
<en>[quote] mi du do du la djan. [unquote] is-not a-grammatical-structure in Lojban.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section9-example2" />is grammatical even though the embedded quotation is not. Similarly,
+<!-- ^^ embedded quotation, 476 -->
+<indexterm><primary>embedded quotation</primary></indexterm>
<quote>lo'u</quote>quotation can quote fragments of a text which themselves do not constitute grammatical utterances:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-EXeq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e9d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section9-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lu le mlatu cu viska le finpe li'u zo'u lo'u viska le le'u</jbo>
<gloss>cu selbasti .ei lo'u viska lo le'u</gloss>
<gloss>[quote] le mlatu cu viska le finpe [unquote] : [quote] viska le [unquote]</gloss>
<gloss>is-replaced-by [obligation!] [quote] viska lo [unquote].</gloss>
<en>In the sentence
<quote>le mlatu viska le finpe</quote>,
<quote>viska le</quote>should be replaced by
<quote>viska lo</quote>.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note the topic-comment formulation (
+<!-- ^^ topic-comment: description, 467 -->
+<indexterm><primary>topic-comment</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section4" />) and the indicator applying to the selbri only (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section8" />). Neither
<quote>viska le</quote>nor
<quote>viska lo</quote>is a valid Lojban utterance, and both require
<quote>lo'u</quote>quotation.</para>
<para>Additionally, pro-sumti or pro-bridi in the quoting sentence can refer to words appearing in the quoted sentence when
<quote>lu ... li'u</quote>is used, but not when
<quote>lo'u ... le'u</quote>is used:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-x8XL">
<title>
@@ -1041,23 +1193,27 @@
<gloss>However, the-last-mentioned is-alive.</gloss>
<en>Charlie says
<quote>le ninmu cu morsi</quote>, but he is alive.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section9-example5" />,
<quote>ri</quote>cannot refer to the referent of the alleged sumti
<quote>le ninmu</quote>, because
<quote>le ninmu cu morsi</quote>is a mere uninterpreted sequence of Lojban words. Instead,
+<!-- ^^ uninterpreted sequence, 477 -->
+<indexterm><primary>uninterpreted sequence</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ri</quote>ends up referring to the referent of the sumti
<quote>la tcarlis.</quote>, and so it is Charlie who is alive.</para>
<para>The metalinguistic erasers
+<!-- ^^ metalinguistic erasers: within ungrammatical-Lojban quotation, 477 -->
+<indexterm><primary>metalinguistic erasers</primary></indexterm>
<quote>si</quote>,
<quote>sa</quote>, and
<quote>su</quote>, discussed in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section13" />, do not operate in text between
<quote>lo'u</quote>and
<quote>le'u</quote>. Since the first
<quote>le'u</quote>terminates a
<quote>lo'u</quote>quotation, it is not directly possible to have a
<quote>lo'u</quote>quotation within another
<quote>lo'u</quote>quotation. However, it is possible for a
@@ -1073,65 +1229,81 @@
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>zo</cmavo>
<selmaho>ZO</selmaho>
<description>quote single word</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>zoi</cmavo>
<selmaho>ZOI</selmaho>
<description>non-Lojban quotation</description>
+<!-- ^^ non-Lojban quotation, 141 -->
+<indexterm><primary>non-Lojban quotation</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>la'o</cmavo>
<selmaho>ZOI</selmaho>
<description>non-Lojban name</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>zo</quote>(of selma'o ZO) is a strong quotation mark for the single following word, which can be any Lojban word whatsoever. Among other uses,
+<!-- ^^ strong quotation, 477 -->
+<indexterm><primary>strong quotation</primary></indexterm>
<quote>zo</quote>allows a metalinguistic word to be referenced without having it act on the surrounding text. The word must be a morphologically legal (but not necessarily meaningful) single Lojban word; compound cmavo are not permitted. For example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-qxjF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e10d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section10-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>zo si cu lojbo valsi</jbo>
<en>
<quote>si</quote>is a Lojbanic word.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Since
<quote>zo</quote>acts on a single word only, there is no corresponding terminator. Brevity, then, is a great advantage of
<quote>zo</quote>, since the terminators for other kinds of quotation are rarely or never elidable.</para>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>zoi</quote>(of selma'o ZOI) is a quotation mark for quoting non-Lojban text. Its syntax is
+<!-- ^^ non-Lojban text: rules for pause with, 69 -->
+<indexterm><primary>non-Lojban text</primary></indexterm>
<quote>zoi X. text .X</quote>, where X is a Lojban word (called the delimiting word) which is separated from the quoted text by pauses, and which is not found in the written text or spoken phoneme stream. It is common, but not required, to use the lerfu word (of selma'o BY) which corresponds to the Lojban name of the language being quoted:</para>
+<!-- ^^ phoneme stream, 477 -->
+<indexterm><primary>phoneme stream</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-wYzm">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e10d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section10-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>zoi gy. John is a man .gy. cu glico jufra</jbo>
<en>
<quote>John is a man</quote>is an English sentence.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where
<quote>gy</quote>stands for
<quote>glico</quote>. Other popular choices of delimiting words are
<quote>.kuot.</quote>, a Lojban name which sounds like the English word
<quote>quote</quote>, and the word
<quote>zoi</quote>itself. Another possibility is a Lojban word suggesting the topic of the quotation.</para>
<para>Within written text, the Lojban written word used as a delimiting word may not appear, whereas within spoken text, the sound of the delimiting word may not be uttered. This leads to occasional breakdowns of audio-visual isomorphism:
+<!-- ^^ isomorphism: audio-visual, 29 -->
+<indexterm><primary>isomorphism</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ audio-visual isomorphism, 29 -->
+<!-- ^^ isomorphism: audio-visual, 29 -->
+<indexterm><primary>isomorphism</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>audio-visual isomorphism</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ isomorphism: audio-visual, 29 -->
+<indexterm><primary>isomorphism</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section10-example3" />is fine in speech but ungrammatical as written, whereas
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section10-example4" />is correct when written but ungrammatical in speech.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-xfAM">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e10d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section10-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c19e10d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section10-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1230,49 +1402,63 @@
<quote>zo</quote>by a pause, thus:
<quote>zo .bab.</quote>. The reason for this extra pause is that all Lojban names must be separated by pause from any preceding word other than
<quote>la</quote>,
<quote>lai</quote>,
<quote>la'i</quote>(all of selma'o LA) and
<quote>doi</quote>(of selma'o DOI). There are numerous other cmavo that may precede a name: of these,
<quote>zo</quote>is one of the most common.)</para>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>la'o</quote>also belongs to selma'o ZOI, and is mentioned here for completeness, although it does not signal the beginning of a quotation. Instead,
<quote>la'o</quote>serves to mark non-Lojban names, especially the Linnaean binomial names (such as
+<!-- ^^ Linnaean, 479 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Linnaean</primary></indexterm>
<quote>Homo sapiens</quote>) which are the internationally standardized names for species of animals and plants. Internationally known names which can more easily be recognized by spelling rather than pronunciation, such as
+<!-- ^^ plants: use of fu'ivla for specific, 61 -->
+<indexterm><primary>plants</primary></indexterm>
<quote>Goethe</quote>, can also appear in Lojban text with
+<!-- ^^ Goethe, 479 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Goethe</primary></indexterm>
<quote>la'o</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Sn3u">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e10d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section10-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la'o dy. Goethe .dy. cu me la'o ly. Homo sapiens .ly.</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ Goethe, 479 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Goethe</primary></indexterm>
<en>Goethe is a Homo sapiens.</en>
+<!-- ^^ Goethe, 479 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Goethe</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Using
<quote>la'o</quote>for all names rather than Lojbanizing, however, makes for very cumbersome text. A rough equivalent of
+<!-- ^^ cumbersome text, 479 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cumbersome text</primary></indexterm>
<quote>la'o</quote>might be
<quote>la me zoi</quote>.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter19-section11">
<title>11. Contrastive emphasis: BAhE</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ba'e</cmavo>
<selmaho>BAhE</selmaho>
<description>emphasize next word</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>za'e</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ za'e, 69, 416, 480; interaction with bu, 416; use to avoid lujvo misunderstandings, 69 -->
+<indexterm><primary>za'e</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>BAhE</selmaho>
<description>next word is nonce</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>English often uses strong stress on a word to single it out for contrastive emphasis, thus</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-iW4P">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e11d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section11-example1" />
</title>
@@ -1330,54 +1516,70 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section11-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska ba'e la djordj.</jbo>
<gloss>I saw [emphasis] the-one-named
<quote>George</quote>.</gloss>
<en>I saw</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Marking a word with a cmavo of BAhE does not change the word's grammar in any way. Any word in a bridi can receive contrastive emphasis marking:</para>
+<!-- ^^ emphasis marking, 479 -->
+<indexterm><primary>emphasis marking</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-SVz2">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e11d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section11-example6" />
<anchor xml:id="c19e11d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section11-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ba'e mi viska la djordj.</jbo>
<en>I, no one else, saw George.</en>
<jbo>mi ba'e viska la djordj.</jbo>
<en>I saw (not heard or smelled) George.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Emphasis on one of the structural components of a Lojban bridi can also be achieved by rearranging it into an order that is not the speaker's or writer's usual order. Any sumti moved out of place, or the selbri when moved out of place, is emphatic to some degree.</para>
<para>For completeness, the cmavo
<quote>za'e</quote>should be mentioned, also of selma'o BAhE. It marks a word as possibly irregular, non-standard, or nonce (created for the occasion):</para>
+<!-- ^^ za'e, 69, 416, 480; interaction with bu, 416; use to avoid lujvo misunderstandings, 69 -->
+<indexterm><primary>za'e</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-XtRW">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e11d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section11-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama la za'e. .albeinias</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ za'e, 69, 416, 480; interaction with bu, 416; use to avoid lujvo misunderstandings, 69 -->
+<indexterm><primary>za'e</primary></indexterm>
<en>I go-to so-called Albania</en>
+<!-- ^^ Albania: example, 480 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Albania</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>marks a Lojbanization of an English name, where a more appropriate standard form might be something like
+<!-- ^^ appropriate standard, 480 -->
+<indexterm><primary>appropriate standard</primary></indexterm>
<quote>la ctiipyris.</quote>, reflecting the country's name in Albanian.</para>
<para>Before a lujvo or fu'ivla,
<quote>za'e</quote>indicates that the word has been made up on the spot and may be used in a sense that is not found in the unabridged dictionary (when we have an unabridged dictionary!).</para>
+<!-- ^^ za'e, 69, 416, 480; interaction with bu, 416; use to avoid lujvo misunderstandings, 69 -->
+<indexterm><primary>za'e</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ unabridged dictionary, 480 -->
+<indexterm><primary>unabridged dictionary</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter19-section12">
<title>12. Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI</title>
+<!-- ^^ metalinguistic commentary, 480 -->
+<indexterm><primary>metalinguistic commentary</primary></indexterm>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>to</cmavo>
<selmaho>TO</selmaho>
<description>open parenthesis</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>to'i</cmavo>
<selmaho>TO</selmaho>
@@ -1409,59 +1611,77 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section12-example1" />implicitly redefines
<quote>do</quote>within the parentheses: the listener is changed by
<quote>doi frank.</quote>When the context sentence resumes, however, the old listener, Lisa, is automatically restored.</para>
<para>There is another cmavo of selma'o TO:
<quote>to'i</quote>. The difference between
<quote>to</quote>and
<quote>to'i</quote>is the difference between parentheses and square brackets in English prose. Remarks within
+<!-- ^^ square brackets: use of in notation, 5 -->
+<indexterm><primary>square brackets</primary></indexterm>
<quote>to ... toi</quote>cmavo are implicitly by the same speaker, whereas remarks within
<quote>to'i ... toi</quote>are implicitly by someone else, perhaps an editor:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-hXIi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e12d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section12-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la frank. cusku lu mi prami do to'isa'a do du la djein. toi li'u</jbo>
<en>Frank expresses
<quote>I love you [you = Jane]</quote></en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The
<quote>sa'a</quote>suffix is a discursive cmavo (of selma'o UI) meaning
+<!-- ^^ sa'a, 321, 481; editorial insertion of text already containing sa'a, 321; interaction with li'o, 321; interaction with sei, 321; interaction with to'i, 321 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sa'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>editorial insertion</quote>, and indicating that the marked word or construct (in this case, the entire bracketed remark) is not part of the quotation. It is required whenever the
+<!-- ^^ editorial insertion, 481; of text already containing sa'a, 321; with sa'a, 321 -->
+<!-- ^^ sa'a, 321, 481; editorial insertion of text already containing sa'a, 321; interaction with li'o, 321; interaction with sei, 321; interaction with to'i, 321 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sa'a</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>editorial insertion</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ bracketed remark, 481 -->
+<indexterm><primary>bracketed remark</primary></indexterm>
<quote>to'i ... toi</quote>remark is physically within quotation marks, at least when speaking to literal-minded listeners; the convention may be relaxed if no actual confusion results.</para>
<para>Note: The parser believes that parentheses are attached to the previous word or construct, because it treats them as syntactic equivalents of subscripts and other such so-called
<quote>free modifiers</quote>. Semantically, however, parenthetical remarks are not necessarily attached either to what precedes them or what follows them.</para>
+<!-- ^^ free modifiers: effects on elidability of terminators, 450 -->
+<indexterm><primary>free modifiers</primary></indexterm>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>sei</quote>(of selma'o SEI) begins an embedded discursive bridi. Comments added with
+<!-- ^^ embedded discursive, 481 -->
+<indexterm><primary>embedded discursive</primary></indexterm>
<quote>sei</quote>are called
<quote>metalinguistic</quote>, because they are comments about the discourse itself rather than about the subject matter of the discourse. This sense of the term
<quote>metalinguistic</quote>is used throughout this chapter, and is not to be confused with the sense
<quote>language for expressing other languages</quote>.</para>
<para>When marked with
<quote>sei</quote>, a metalinguistic utterance can be embedded in another utterance as a discursive. In this way, discursives which do not have cmavo assigned in selma'o UI can be expressed:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-jA1T">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e12d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section12-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la frank. prami sei la frank. gleki la djein.</jbo>
<en>Frank loves (Frank is happy) Jane.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Using the happiness attitudinal,
+<!-- ^^ happiness: example, 161 -->
+<indexterm><primary>happiness</primary></indexterm>
<quote>.ui</quote>, would imply that the speaker was happy. Instead, the speaker attributes happiness to Frank. It would probably be safe to elide the one who is happy, and say:</para>
+<!-- ^^ happiness: example, 161 -->
+<indexterm><primary>happiness</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-vago">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e12d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section12-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la frank. prami sei gleki la djein.</jbo>
<en>Frank loves (he is happy) Jane.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1470,56 +1690,66 @@
<quote>be</quote>and
<quote>bei</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-sz7v">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e12d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section12-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la frank. prami sei gleki be fa la suzn. la djein.</jbo>
<en>Frank loves (Susan is happy) Jane.</en>
+<!-- ^^ Susan: example, 481 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Susan</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This restriction allows the terminator cmavo
<quote>se'u</quote>to almost always be elided.</para>
<para>Since a discursive utterance is working at a
<quote>higher</quote>level of abstraction than a non-discursive utterance, a non-discursive utterance cannot refer to a discursive utterance. Specifically, the various back-counting, reciprocal, and reflexive constructs in selma'o KOhA ignore the utterances at
+<!-- ^^ reciprocal: expression of mathematical, 433 -->
+<indexterm><primary>reciprocal</primary></indexterm>
<quote>higher</quote>metalinguistic levels in determining their referent. It is possible, and sometimes necessary, to refer to lower metalinguistic levels. For example, the English
+<!-- ^^ metalinguistic levels, 481 -->
+<indexterm><primary>metalinguistic levels</primary></indexterm>
<quote>he said</quote>in a conversation is metalinguistic. For this purpose, quotations are considered to be at a lower metalinguistic level than the surrounding context (a quoted text cannot refer to the statements of the one who quotes it), whereas parenthetical remarks are considered to be at a higher level than the context.</para>
<para>Lojban works differently from English in that the
<quote>he said</quote>can be marked instead of the quotation. In Lojban, you can say:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-DY0u">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e12d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section12-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. cusku lu mi klama le zarci li'u</jbo>
<en>John expresses
<quote>I go to-the store</quote>.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which literally claims that John uttered the quoted text. If the central claim is that John made the utterance, as is likely in conversation, this style is the most sensible. However, in written text which quotes a conversation, you don't want the
<quote>he said</quote>or
<quote>she said</quote>to be considered part of the conversation. If unmarked, it could mess up the anaphora counting. Instead, you can use:</para>
+<!-- ^^ anaphora: definition, 152; pro-bridi go'i-series as, 152; pro-sumti ri-series as, 152; pro-sumti vo'a-series as, 158 -->
+<indexterm><primary>anaphora</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-b7Fi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e12d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section12-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lu mi klama le zarci seisa'a la djan. cusku be dei li'u</jbo>
<gloss>
<quote>I go to-the store (John expresses this-sentence)</quote>
</gloss>
<en>
<quote>I go to the store</quote>, said John.</en>
+<!-- ^^ said John: example, 481 -->
+<indexterm><primary>said John</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>And of course other orders are possible:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-fHRb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e12d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section12-example8" />
<anchor xml:id="c19e12d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section12-example9" />
</title>
@@ -1528,23 +1758,27 @@
<en>John said,
<quote>I go to the store</quote>.</en>
<jbo>lu mi klama seisa'a la djan cusku le zarci</jbo>
<en>
<quote>I go</quote>, John said,
<quote>to the store</quote>.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note the
<quote>sa'a</quote>following each
+<!-- ^^ sa'a, 321, 481; editorial insertion of text already containing sa'a, 321; interaction with li'o, 321; interaction with sei, 321; interaction with to'i, 321 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sa'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>sei</quote>, marking the
<quote>sei</quote>and its attached bridi as an editorial insert, not part of the quotation. In a more relaxed style, these
<quote>sa'a</quote>cmavo would probably be dropped.</para>
+<!-- ^^ sa'a, 321, 481; editorial insertion of text already containing sa'a, 321; interaction with li'o, 321; interaction with sei, 321; interaction with to'i, 321 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sa'a</primary></indexterm>
<para>The elidable terminator for
<quote>sei</quote>is
<quote>se'u</quote>(of selma'o SEhU); it is rarely needed, except to separate a selbri within the
<quote>sei</quote>comment from an immediately following selbri (or component) outside the comment.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter19-section13">
<title>13. Erasure: SI, SA, SU</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
@@ -1645,20 +1879,22 @@
<quote>gy</quote>[unquote], er, er, er, er,
<quote>John</quote>.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section13-example5" />, the first
<quote>fy</quote>is taken to be the delimiting word. The next word must be different from the delimiting word, and
<quote>gy.</quote>, the Lojban name for the letter
<quote>g</quote>, was chosen arbitrarily. Then the delimiting word must be repeated. For purposes of
<quote>si</quote>erasure, the entire quoted text is taken to be a word, so four words have been uttered, and four more
+<!-- ^^ erasure, 482; discourse, 504; multiple word, 483; names, 482; phrase, 503; quotes, 483; sentence, 503; total, 484; word, 482, 504; zo, 482 -->
+<indexterm><primary>erasure</primary></indexterm>
<quote>si</quote>cmavo are needed to erase them altogether. Similarly, a stray
<quote>lo'u</quote>quotation mark must be erased with
<quote>fy. le'u si si si</quote>, by completing the quotation and then erasing it all with three
<quote>si</quote>cmavo.</para>
<para>What if less than the entire
<quote>zo</quote>or
<quote>zoi</quote>construct is erased? The result is something which has a loose
<quote>zo</quote>or
<quote>zoi</quote>in it, without its expected sequels, and which is incurably ungrammatical. Thus, to erase just the word quoted by
<quote>zo</quote>, it turns out to be necessary to erase the
@@ -1673,39 +1909,49 @@
<en>I am-named-by the-word
<quote>John</quote>, er, er, the-word
<quote>George</quote>.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The parser will reject
<quote>zo .djan. si .djordj.</quote>, because in that context
<quote>djordj.</quote>is a name (of selma'o CMENE) rather than a quoted word.</para>
<para>Note: The current machine parser does not implement
<quote>si</quote>erasure.</para>
+<!-- ^^ erasure, 482; discourse, 504; multiple word, 483; names, 482; phrase, 503; quotes, 483; sentence, 503; total, 484; word, 482, 504; zo, 482 -->
+<indexterm><primary>erasure</primary></indexterm>
<para>As the above examples plainly show, precise erasures with
+<!-- ^^ precise erasures, 483 -->
+<indexterm><primary>precise erasures</primary></indexterm>
<quote>si</quote>can be extremely hard to get right. Therefore, the cmavo
<quote>sa</quote>(of selma'o SA) is provided for erasing more than one word. The cmavo following
<quote>sa</quote>should be the starting marker of some grammatical construct. The effect of the
+<!-- ^^ starting marker, 483 -->
+<indexterm><primary>starting marker</primary></indexterm>
<quote>sa</quote>is to erase back to and including the last starting marker of the same kind. For example:</para>
+<!-- ^^ starting marker, 483 -->
+<indexterm><primary>starting marker</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-YdX7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e13d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section13-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska le sa .i mi cusku zo .djan.</jbo>
<en>I see the ... I say the-word
<quote>John</quote>.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Since the word following
<quote>sa</quote>is
<quote>.i</quote>, the sentence separator, its effect is to erase the preceding sentence. So
+<!-- ^^ sentence separator, 495 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sentence separator</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section13-example7" />is equivalent to:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-JJmn">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e13d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter19-section13-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cusku zo .djan.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1722,64 +1968,94 @@
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section13-example9" />,
<quote>le blanu zdan.</quote>is ungrammatical, but clearly reflects the speaker's original intention to say
<quote>le blanu zdani</quote>. However, the
<quote>zdani</quote>was cut off before the end and changed into a name. The entire ungrammatical
<quote>le</quote>construct is erased and replaced by
<quote>le xekri zdani</quote>.</para>
<para>Note: The current machine parser does not implement
<quote>sa</quote>erasure. Getting
+<!-- ^^ erasure, 482; discourse, 504; multiple word, 483; names, 482; phrase, 503; quotes, 483; sentence, 503; total, 484; word, 482, 504; zo, 482 -->
+<indexterm><primary>erasure</primary></indexterm>
<quote>sa</quote>right is even more difficult (for a computer) than getting
<quote>si</quote>right, as the behavior of
<quote>si</quote>is defined in terms of words rather than in terms of grammatical constructs (possibly incorrect ones) and words are conceptually simpler entities. On the other hand,
<quote>sa</quote>is generally easier for human beings, because the rules for using it correctly are less finicky.</para>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>su</quote>(of selma'o SU) is yet another metalinguistic operator that erases the entire text. However, if the text involves multiple speakers, then
+<!-- ^^ multiple speakers, 484 -->
+<indexterm><primary>multiple speakers</primary></indexterm>
<quote>su</quote>will only erase the remarks made by the one who said it, unless that speaker has said nothing. Therefore
<quote>susu</quote>is needed to eradicate a whole discussion in conversation.</para>
<para>Note: The current machine parser does not implement either
<quote>su</quote>or
<quote>susu</quote>erasure.</para>
+<!-- ^^ erasure, 482; discourse, 504; multiple word, 483; names, 482; phrase, 503; quotes, 483; sentence, 503; total, 484; word, 482, 504; zo, 482 -->
+<indexterm><primary>erasure</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter19-section14">
<title>14. Hesitation: Y</title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>.y.</cmavo>
<selmaho>Y</selmaho>
<description>hesitation noise</description>
+<!-- ^^ hesitation, 484, 507 -->
+<indexterm><primary>hesitation</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>Speakers often need to hesitate to think of what to say next or for some extra-linguistic reason. There are two ways to hesitate in Lojban: to pause between words (that is, to say nothing) or to use the cmavo
<quote>.y.</quote>(of selma'o Y). This resembles in sound the English hesitation noise written
+<!-- ^^ hesitation, 484, 507 -->
+<indexterm><primary>hesitation</primary></indexterm>
<quote>uh</quote>(or
<quote>er</quote>), but differs from it in the requirement for pauses before and after. Unlike a long pause, it cannot be mistaken for having nothing more to say: it holds the floor for the speaker. Since vowel length is not significant in Lojban, the
<quote>y</quote>sound can be dragged out for as long as necessary. Furthermore, the sound can be repeated, provided the required pauses are respected.</para>
<para>Since the hesitation sound in English is outside the formal language, English-speakers may question the need for a formal cmavo. Speakers of other languages, however, often hesitate by saying (or, if necessary, repeating) a word (
+<!-- ^^ hesitation sound, 484 -->
+<indexterm><primary>hesitation sound</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ hesitation, 484, 507 -->
+<indexterm><primary>hesitation</primary></indexterm>
<quote>este</quote>in some dialects of Spanish, roughly meaning
<quote>that is</quote>), and Lojban's audio-visual isomorphism requires a written representation of all meaningful spoken behavior. Of course,
+<!-- ^^ isomorphism: audio-visual, 29 -->
+<indexterm><primary>isomorphism</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ audio-visual isomorphism, 29 -->
+<!-- ^^ isomorphism: audio-visual, 29 -->
+<indexterm><primary>isomorphism</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>audio-visual isomorphism</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ isomorphism: audio-visual, 29 -->
+<indexterm><primary>isomorphism</primary></indexterm>
<quote>.y.</quote>has no grammatical significance: it can appear anywhere at all in a Lojban sentence except in the middle of a word.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter19-section15">
<title>15. No more to say: FAhO</title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>fa'o</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ fa'o, 416, 484; contrasted with fe'o, 325; interaction with bu, 416 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fa'o</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>FAhO</selmaho>
<description>end of text</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>fa'o</quote>(of selma'o FAhO) is the usually omitted marker for the end of a text; it can be used in computer interaction to indicate the end of input or output, or for explicitly giving up the floor during a discussion. It is outside the regular grammar, and the machine parser takes it as an unconditional signal to stop parsing unless it is quoted with
+<!-- ^^ unconditional signal, 484 -->
+<indexterm><primary>unconditional signal</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ fa'o, 416, 484; contrasted with fe'o, 325; interaction with bu, 416 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fa'o</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ computer interaction, 484 -->
+<indexterm><primary>computer interaction</primary></indexterm>
<quote>zo</quote>or with
<quote>lo'u ... le'u</quote>. In particular, it is not used at the end of subordinate texts quoted with
<quote>lu ... li'u</quote>or parenthesized with
<quote>to ... toi</quote>.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter19-section16">
<title>16. List of cmavo interactions</title>
<para>The following list gives the cmavo and selma'o that are recognized by the earliest stages of the parser, and specifies exactly which of them interact with which others. All of the cmavo are at least mentioned in this chapter. The cmavo are written in lower case, and the selma'o in UPPER CASE.</para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
@@ -1817,97 +2093,115 @@
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
<quote>zei</quote>combines the preceding and the following word into a lujvo, but does not affect
<quote>zo</quote>,
<quote>si</quote>,
<quote>sa</quote>,
<quote>su</quote>,
<quote>lo'u</quote>, ZOI cmavo,
<quote>fa'o</quote>, and
+<!-- ^^ fa'o, 416, 484; contrasted with fe'o, 325; interaction with bu, 416 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fa'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>zei</quote>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>BAhE cmavo mark the following word, unless it is
<quote>si</quote>,
<quote>sa</quote>, or
<quote>su</quote>, or unless it is preceded by
<quote>zo</quote>. Multiple BAhE cmavo may be used in succession.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
<quote>bu</quote>makes the preceding word into a lerfu word, except for
<quote>zo</quote>,
<quote>si</quote>,
<quote>sa</quote>,
<quote>su</quote>,
<quote>lo'u</quote>, ZOI cmavo,
<quote>fa'o</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ fa'o, 416, 484; contrasted with fe'o, 325; interaction with bu, 416 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fa'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>zei</quote>, BAhE cmavo, and
<quote>bu</quote>. Multiple
<quote>bu</quote>cmavo may be used in succession.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>UI and CAI cmavo mark the previous word, except for
<quote>zo</quote>,
<quote>si</quote>,
<quote>sa</quote>,
<quote>su</quote>,
<quote>lo'u</quote>, ZOI,
<quote>fa'o</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ fa'o, 416, 484; contrasted with fe'o, 325; interaction with bu, 416 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fa'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>zei</quote>, BAhE cmavo, and
<quote>bu</quote>. Multiple UI cmavo may be used in succession. A following
<quote>nai</quote>is made part of the UI.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
<quote>.y.</quote>,
<quote>da'o</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ da'o, 162, 466; for cancellation of pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignment, 162; syntax of, 162 -->
+<indexterm><primary>da'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>fu'e</quote>, and
+<!-- ^^ fu'e, 475 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fu'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>fu'o</quote>are the same as UI, but do not absorb a following
+<!-- ^^ fu'o, 475 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fu'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>nai</quote>.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter19-section17">
<title>17. List of Elidable Terminators</title>
<para>The following list shows all the elidable terminators of Lojban. The first column is the terminator, the second column is the selma'o that starts the corresponding construction, and the third column states what kinds of grammatical constructs are terminated. Each terminator is the only cmavo of its selma'o, which naturally has the same name as the cmavo.</para>
+<!-- ^^ elidable terminators: list, 486 -->
+<indexterm><primary>elidable terminators</primary></indexterm>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>be'o</cmavo>
<selmaho>BE</selmaho>
<description>sumti attached to a tanru unit</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>boi</cmavo>
<selmaho>PA/BY</selmaho>
<description>number or lerfu string</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>do'u</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ do'u, 137, 323 -->
+<indexterm><primary>do'u</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>COI/DOI</selmaho>
<description>vocative phrases</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>fe'u</cmavo>
<selmaho>FIhO</selmaho>
<description>ad-hoc modal tags</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ge'u</cmavo>
<selmaho>GOI</selmaho>
<description>relative phrases</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>kei</cmavo>
<selmaho>NU</selmaho>
<description>abstraction bridi</description>
+<!-- ^^ abstraction bridi: contrasted with component non-abstraction bridi in meaning, 98; effect on claim of bridi, 198 -->
+<indexterm><primary>abstraction bridi</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ke'e</cmavo>
<selmaho>KE</selmaho>
<description>groups of various kinds</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ku</cmavo>
<selmaho>LE/LA</selmaho>
<description>description sumti</description>
@@ -1922,61 +2216,75 @@
<selmaho>NOI</selmaho>
<description>relative clauses</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>li'u</cmavo>
<selmaho>LU</selmaho>
<description>quotations</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>lo'o</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ lo'o, 454; effect of logical connective on elidability of, 454 -->
+<indexterm><primary>lo'o</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>LI</selmaho>
<description>number sumti</description>
+<!-- ^^ number sumti: syntax of, 141; with li, 141; with li contrasted with me'o, 142; with me'o, 142; with me'o contrasted with li, 142 -->
+<indexterm><primary>number sumti</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>lu'u</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ lu'u, 133, 267; as elidable terminator for qualified sumti, 133 -->
+<indexterm><primary>lu'u</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>LAhE/NAhE+BO</selmaho>
+<!-- ^^ NAhE+BO: terminator for, 499 -->
+<indexterm><primary>NAhE+BO</primary></indexterm>
<description>sumti qualifiers</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>me'u</cmavo>
<selmaho>ME</selmaho>
<description>tanru units formed from sumti</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>nu'u</cmavo>
<selmaho>NUhI</selmaho>
<description>forethought termsets</description>
+<!-- ^^ forethought termsets: logical connection of, 348 -->
+<indexterm><primary>forethought termsets</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>se'u</cmavo>
<selmaho>SEI/SOI</selmaho>
<description>metalinguistic insertions</description>
+<!-- ^^ metalinguistic insertions: marker for, 504 -->
+<indexterm><primary>metalinguistic insertions</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>te'u</cmavo>
<selmaho>various</selmaho>
<description>mekso conversion constructs</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>toi</cmavo>
<selmaho>TO</selmaho>
<description>parenthetical remarks</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>tu'u</cmavo>
<selmaho>TUhE</selmaho>
<description>multiple sentences or paragraphs</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>vau</cmavo>
<selmaho>(none)</selmaho>
<description>simple bridi or bridi-tails</description>
+<!-- ^^ simple bridi: terminator for, 506 -->
+<indexterm><primary>simple bridi</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ve'o</cmavo>
<selmaho>VEI</selmaho>
<description>mekso parentheses</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
</section>
</chapter>
diff --git a/todocbook/2.xml b/todocbook/2.xml
index cff8c80..b508181 100644
--- a/todocbook/2.xml
+++ b/todocbook/2.xml
@@ -1,38 +1,50 @@
<chapter xml:id="cll_chapter2">
<title>Chapter 2 A Quick Tour of Lojban Grammar, With Diagrams</title>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter2-section1">
<title>1. The concept of the bridi</title>
<para>This chapter gives diagrammed examples of basic Lojban sentence structures. The most general pattern is covered first, followed by successive variations on the basic components of the Lojban sentence. There are many more capabilities not covered in this chapter, but covered in detail in later chapters, so this chapter is a
<quote>quick tour</quote>of the material later covered more slowly throughout the book. It also introduces most of the Lojban words used to discuss Lojban grammar.</para>
<para>Let us consider John and Sam and three statements about them:</para>
+<!-- ^^ John and Sam: example, 11 -->
+<indexterm><primary>John and Sam</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-RT6i">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e1d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section1-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c2e1d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section1-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c2e1d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section1-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>John is the father of Sam.</jbo>
<jbo>John hits Sam.</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ hits: example, 11 -->
+<indexterm><primary>hits</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>John is taller than Sam.</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ taller: example, 11 -->
+<indexterm><primary>taller</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>These examples all describe relationships between John and Sam. However, in English, we use the noun
+<!-- ^^ John and Sam: example, 11 -->
+<indexterm><primary>John and Sam</primary></indexterm>
<quote>father</quote>to describe a static relationship in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter2-section1-example1" />, the verb
<quote>hits</quote>to describe an active relationship in
+<!-- ^^ hits: example, 11 -->
+<indexterm><primary>hits</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter2-section1-example2" />, and the adjective
<quote>taller</quote>to describe an attributive relationship in
+<!-- ^^ taller: example, 11 -->
+<indexterm><primary>taller</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter2-section1-example3" />. In Lojban we make no such grammatical distinctions; these three sentences, when expressed in Lojban, are structurally identical. The same part of speech is used to represent the relationship. In formal logic this whole structure is called a
<quote>predication</quote>; in Lojban it is called a
<quote>bridi</quote>, and the central part of speech is the
<quote>selbri</quote>. Logicians refer to the things thus related as
<quote>arguments</quote>, while Lojbanists call them
<quote>sumti</quote>. These Lojban terms will be used for the rest of the book.</para>
<mediaobject>
<imageobject>
<imagedata fileref="file:///epicuser/AISolutions/graphics/AIWorkbench/diagram.png" width="291px" />
</imageobject>
@@ -166,39 +178,43 @@
<quote>i</quote>pronounced like English
<quote>y</quote>(for example,
<quote>io</quote>is pronounced
<quote>yo</quote>) or else with a
<quote>u</quote>pronounced like English
<quote>w</quote>(for example,
<quote>ua</quote>is pronounced
<quote>wa</quote>).</para>
<para>Lojban also has three
<quote>semi-letters</quote>: the period, the comma and the apostrophe. The period represents a glottal stop or a pause; it is a required stoppage of the flow of air in the speech stream. The apostrophe sounds just like the English letter
+<!-- ^^ glottal stop: as pause in Lojban, 31 -->
+<indexterm><primary>glottal stop</primary></indexterm>
<quote>h</quote>. Unlike a regular consonant, it is not found at the beginning or end of a word, nor is it found adjacent to a consonant; it is only found between two vowels. The comma has no sound associated with it, and is used to separate syllables that might ordinarily run together. It is not used in this chapter.</para>
<para>Stress falls on the next to the last syllable of all words, unless that vowel is
<quote>y</quote>, which is never stressed; in such words the third-to-last syllable is stressed. If a word only has one syllable, then that syllable is not stressed.</para>
<para>All Lojban words are pronounced as they are spelled: there are no silent letters.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter2-section3">
<title>3. Words that can act as sumti</title>
<para>Here is a short table of single words used as sumti. This table provides examples only, not the entire set of such words, which may be found in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7" />.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi I/me, we/us
do you
ti this, these
ta that, those
tu that far away, those far away
zo'e unspecified value (used when a sumti is
unimportant or obvious)
</programlisting>
<para>Lojban sumti are not specific as to number (singular or plural), nor gender (masculine/feminine/neutral). Such distinctions can be optionally added by methods that are beyond the scope of this chapter.</para>
+<!-- ^^ plural: Lojban contrasted with English in necessity of marking, 120; Lojban equivalent of, 443; meaning of le with, 123 -->
+<indexterm><primary>plural</primary></indexterm>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>ti</quote>,
<quote>ta</quote>, and
<quote>tu</quote>refer to whatever the speaker is pointing at, and should not be used to refer to things that cannot in principle be pointed at.</para>
<para>Names may also be used as sumti, provided they are preceded with the word
<quote>la</quote>:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
la meris. the one/ones named Mary
la djan. the one/ones named John
</programlisting>
@@ -212,23 +228,27 @@
vecnu x1 (seller) sells x2 (goods) to x3 (buyer) for x4 (price)
tavla x1 (talker) talks to x2 (audience) about x3 (topic) in language x4
sutra x1 (agent) is fast at doing x2 (action)
blari'o x1 (object/light source) is blue-green
melbi x1 (object/idea) is beautiful to x2 (observer) by standard x3
cutci x1 is a shoe/boot for x2 (foot) made of x3 (material)
bajra x1 runs on x2 (surface) using x3 (limbs) in manner x4 (gait)
klama x1 goes/comes to x2 (destination) from x3 (origin point) via x4 (route) using
x5 (means of transportation)
pluka x1 pleases/is pleasing to x2 (experiencer) under conditions x3
+<!-- ^^ pleases, 20 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pleases</primary></indexterm>
gerku x1 is a dog of breed x2
kurji x1 takes care of x2
kanro x1 is healthy by standard x2
+<!-- ^^ healthy: example, 24 -->
+<indexterm><primary>healthy</primary></indexterm>
stali x1 stays/remains with x2
zarci x1 is a market/store/shop selling x2 (products) operated by x3 (storekeeper)
</programlisting>
<para>Each selbri (relation) has a specific rule that defines the role of each sumti in the bridi, based on its position. In the table above, that order was expressed by labeling the sumti positions as x1, x2, x3, x4, and x5.</para>
<para>Like the table in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter2-section3" />, this table is far from complete: in fact, no complete table can exist, because Lojban allows new words to be created (in specified ways) whenever a speaker or writer finds the existing supply of words inadequate. This notion is a basic difference between Lojban (and some other languages such as German and Chinese) and English; in English, most people are very leery of using words that
<quote>aren't in the dictionary</quote>. Lojbanists are encouraged to invent new words; doing so is a major way of participating in the development of the language.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4" />explains how to make new words, and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12" />explains how to give them appropriate meanings.</para>
</section>
@@ -247,37 +267,43 @@
</example>
<para>where the
<quote>x</quote>es with following numbers represent the various arguments that could be inserted at the given positions in the English sentence. For example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-3bc3">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e5d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section5-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>John talks to Sam about engineering in Lojban.</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ engineering: example, 14 -->
+<indexterm><primary>engineering</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>has
<quote>John</quote>in the x1 place,
<quote>Sam</quote>in the x2 place,
<quote>engineering</quote>in the x3 place, and
+<!-- ^^ engineering: example, 14 -->
+<indexterm><primary>engineering</primary></indexterm>
<quote>Lojban</quote>in the x4 place, and could be paraphrased:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-pVMH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e5d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section5-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>Talking is going on,</jbo>
<gloss>with speaker John</gloss>
<gloss>and listener Sam</gloss>
<gloss>and subject matter engineering</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ engineering: example, 14 -->
+<indexterm><primary>engineering</primary></indexterm>
<en>and language Lojban.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The Lojban bridi corresponding to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter2-section5-example1" />will have the form</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c2e5d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section5-example4" />5.4)
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">x1</foreignphrase> [cu]
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="selbri">tavla</foreignphrase>
@@ -313,40 +339,44 @@
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">zo'e</foreignphrase>
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">tu</foreignphrase>
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">ti</foreignphrase>
I talk to someone about that thing yonder in this language.
</programlisting>
<para>(
<xref linkend="cll_chapter2-section5-example7" />is a bit unusual, as there is no easy way to point to a language; one might point to a copy of this book, and hope the meaning gets across!)</para>
<para>When there are one or more occurrences of the cmavo
<quote>zo'e</quote>at the end of a bridi, they may be omitted, a process called
<quote>ellipsis</quote>.
+<!-- ^^ ellipsis: quick-tour version, 14 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ellipsis</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter2-section5-example5" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter2-section5-example6" />may be expressed thus:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c2e5d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section5-example8" />5.8)
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">mi</foreignphrase>
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="selbri">tavla</foreignphrase>
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">do</foreignphrase>
I talk to you (about something in some language).
<anchor xml:id="c2e5d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section5-example9" />5.9)
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">do</foreignphrase>
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="selbri">tavla</foreignphrase>
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">mi</foreignphrase>
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">ta</foreignphrase>
You talk to me about that thing (in some language).
</programlisting>
<para>Note that
<xref linkend="cll_chapter2-section5-example7" />is not subject to ellipsis by this direct method, as the
+<!-- ^^ ellipsis: quick-tour version, 14 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ellipsis</primary></indexterm>
<quote>zo'e</quote>in it is not at the end of the bridi.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter2-section6">
<title>6. Variant bridi structure</title>
<para>Consider the sentence</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c2e6d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section6-example1" />6.1)
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">mi</foreignphrase> [cu]
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="selbri">vecnu</foreignphrase>
@@ -402,24 +432,32 @@
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c2e6d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section6-example5" />6.5)
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">________</foreignphrase> [cu]
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="selbri">melbi</foreignphrase>
unspecified-x1 is-beautiful (to someone by some standard)
Beautiful!
It's beautiful!
</programlisting>
<para>Omitting the x1 adds emphasis to the selbri relation, which has become first in the sentence. This kind of sentence is termed an observative, because it is often used when someone first observes or takes note of the relationship, and wishes to quickly communicate it to someone else. Commonly understood English observatives include
+<!-- ^^ observatives: and abstractions, 255; quick-tour version, 15 -->
+<indexterm><primary>observatives</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ observative: contrasted with observation evidential, 316; definition, 188 -->
+<indexterm><primary>observative</primary></indexterm>
<quote>Smoke!</quote>upon seeing smoke or smelling the odor, or
<quote>Car!</quote>to a person crossing the street who might be in danger. Any Lojban selbri can be used as an observative if no sumti appear before the selbri.</para>
+<!-- ^^ observative: contrasted with observation evidential, 316; definition, 188 -->
+<indexterm><primary>observative</primary></indexterm>
<para>The word
<quote>cu</quote>does not occur in an observative;
+<!-- ^^ observative: contrasted with observation evidential, 316; definition, 188 -->
+<indexterm><primary>observative</primary></indexterm>
<quote>cu</quote>is a separator, and there must be a sumti before the selbri that needs to be kept separate for
<quote>cu</quote>to be used. With no sumti preceding the selbri,
<quote>cu</quote>is not permitted. Short words like
<quote>cu</quote>which serve grammatical functions are called
<quote>cmavo</quote>in Lojban.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter2-section7">
<title>7. Varying the order of sumti</title>
<para>For one reason or another you may want to change the order, placing one particular sumti at the front of the bridi. The cmavo
<quote>se</quote>, when placed before the last word of the selbri, will switch the meanings of the first and second sumti places. So</para>
@@ -469,28 +507,34 @@
<quote>xe</quote>switch the first and fourth sumti places, and the first and fifth sumti places, respectively. These changes in the order of places are known as
<quote>conversions</quote>, and the
<quote>se</quote>,
<quote>te</quote>,
<quote>ve</quote>, and
<quote>xe</quote>cmavo are said to convert the selbri.</para>
<para>More than one of these operators may be used on a given selbri at one time, and in such a case they are evaluated from left to right. However, in practice they are used one at a time, as there are better tools for complex manipulation of the sumti places. See
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5" />for details.</para>
<para>The effect is similar to what in English is called the
<quote>passive voice</quote>. In Lojban, the converted selbri has a new place structure that is renumbered to reflect the place reversal, thus having effects when such a conversion is used in combination with other constructs such as
+<!-- ^^ passive voice, 16 -->
+<indexterm><primary>passive voice</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ converted selbri: as different selbri from unconverted, 192; as resetting standard order, 193; compared with selbri with FA in meaning, 193; contrasted with other similar selbri, 193; contrasted with selbri with FA in structure, 193; definition, 192; forming with SE, 192; in descriptions, 193; place structure of, 192; retention of basic meaning in, 193; to access non-first place in description, 193 -->
+<indexterm><primary>converted selbri</primary></indexterm>
<quote>le selbri [ku]</quote>(see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter2-section10" />).</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter2-section8">
<title>8. The basic structure of longer utterances</title>
<para>People don't always say just one sentence. Lojban has a specific structure for talk or writing that is longer than one sentence. The entirety of a given speech event or written text is called an utterance. The sentences (usually, but not always, bridi) in an utterance are separated by the cmavo
<quote>ni'o</quote>and
<quote>.i</quote>. These correspond to a brief pause (or nothing at all) in spoken English, and the various punctuation marks like period, question mark, and exclamation mark in written English. These separators prevent the sumti at the beginning of the next sentence from being mistaken for a trailing sumti of the previous sentence.</para>
+<!-- ^^ punctuation marks: cmavo as Lojban equivalents, 50 -->
+<indexterm><primary>punctuation marks</primary></indexterm>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>ni'o</quote>separates paragraphs (covering different topics of discussion). In a long text or utterance, the topical structure of the text may be indicated by multiple
<quote>ni'o</quote>s, with perhaps
<quote>ni'oni'oni'o</quote>used to indicate a chapter,
<quote>ni'oni'o</quote>to indicate a section, and a single
<quote>ni'o</quote>to indicate a subtopic corresponding to a single English paragraph.</para>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>.i</quote>separates sentences. It is sometimes compounded with words that modify the exact meaning (the semantics) of the sentence in the context of the utterance. (The cmavo
<quote>xu</quote>, discussed in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter2-section15" />, is one such word - it turns the sentence from a statement to a question about truth.) When more than one person is talking, a new speaker will usually omit the
@@ -539,30 +583,34 @@
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-7KPn">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e9d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section9-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>s1 is a fast-talker type of shoe worn by s2 of material s3</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>That is, it is a shoe that is worn by a fast talker rather than a shoe that is fast and is also worn by a talker.</para>
+<!-- ^^ fast talker: example, 17 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fast talker</primary></indexterm>
<para>Note especially the use of
<quote>type-of</quote>as a mechanism for connecting the English translations of the two or more gismu; this convention helps the learner understand each tanru in its context. Creative interpretations are also possible, however:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-jE94">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e9d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section9-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>bajra cutci</jbo>
<en>runner shoe</en>
+<!-- ^^ runner shoe: example, 17 -->
+<indexterm><primary>runner shoe</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>most probably refers to shoes suitable for runners, but might be interpreted in some imaginative instances as
<quote>shoes that run (by themselves?)</quote>. In general, however, the meaning of a tanru is determined by the literal meaning of its components, and not by any connotations or figurative meanings. Thus</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-HcV5">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e9d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section9-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -572,37 +620,45 @@
</example>
<para>would not necessarily imply any trickery or deception, unlike the English idiom, and a</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-8umU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e9d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section9-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>jikca toldi</jbo>
<en>social butterfly</en>
+<!-- ^^ social butterfly: example, 18 -->
+<indexterm><primary>social butterfly</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ butterfly: social, example, 18 -->
+<indexterm><primary>butterfly</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>must always be an insect with large brightly-colored wings, of the family
<emphasis>Lepidoptera</emphasis>.</para>
+<!-- ^^ Lepidoptera: example, 18 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Lepidoptera</primary></indexterm>
<para>The place structure of a tanru is always that of the final component of the tanru. Thus, the following has the place structure of
<quote>klama</quote>:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c2e9d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section9-example8" />9.8)
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">mi</foreignphrase> [cu]
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="selbri">sutra klama</foreignphrase>
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">la meris.</foreignphrase>
I quickly-go to Mary.
</programlisting>
<para>With the conversion
<quote>se klama</quote>as the final component of the tanru, the place structure of the entire selbri is that of
<quote>se klama</quote>: the x1 place is the destination, and the x2 place is the one who goes:</para>
+<!-- ^^ the destination: example, 193 -->
+<indexterm><primary>the destination</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c2e9d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section9-example9" />9.9)
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">mi</foreignphrase> [cu]
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="selbri">sutra se klama</foreignphrase>
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">la meris.</foreignphrase>
I quickly am-gone-to by Mary.
</programlisting>
<para>The following example shows that there is more to conversion than merely switching places, though:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
@@ -610,20 +666,22 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section9-example10" />9.10)
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">la tam.</foreignphrase> [cu]
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="selbri">melbi tavla</foreignphrase>
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">la meris.</foreignphrase>
Tom beautifully-talks to Mary.
Tom is a beautiful-talker to Mary.
</programlisting>
<para>has the place structure of
<quote>tavla</quote>, but note the two distinct interpretations.</para>
<para>Now, using conversion, we can modify the place structure order:</para>
+<!-- ^^ place structure order: effect of FA on, 190 -->
+<indexterm><primary>place structure order</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c2e9d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section9-example11" />9.11)
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">la meris.</foreignphrase> [cu]
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="selbri">melbi se tavla</foreignphrase>
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">la tam.</foreignphrase>
Mary is beautifully-talked-to by Tom.
Mary is a beautiful-audience for Tom.
</programlisting>
<para>and we see that the modification has been changed so as to focus on Mary's role in the bridi relationship, leading to a different set of possible interpretations.</para>
@@ -670,20 +728,22 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>I talk to you about the talker</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where
<quote>the talker</quote>is presumably someone other than me, though not necessarily.</para>
<para>Similarly
<quote>le sutra tavla ku</quote>is
<quote>the fast talker</quote>, and
+<!-- ^^ fast talker: example, 17 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fast talker</primary></indexterm>
<quote>le sutra te tavla ku</quote>is
<quote>the fast subject of talk</quote>or
<quote>the subject of fast talk</quote>. Which of these related meanings is understood will depend on the context in which the expression is used. The most plausible interpretation within the context will generally be assumed by a listener to be the intended one.</para>
<para>In many cases the word
<quote>ku</quote>may be omitted. In particular, it is never necessary in a description at the end of a sentence, so:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c2e10d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section10-example3" />10.3)
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">mi</foreignphrase>
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="selbri">tavla</foreignphrase>
@@ -691,30 +751,34 @@
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">le tavla</foreignphrase>
I talk-to you about-the talker
</programlisting>
<para>means exactly the same thing as
<xref linkend="cll_chapter2-section10-example1" />.</para>
<para>There is a problem when we want to say
<quote>The fast one is talking.</quote>The
<quote>obvious</quote>translation
<quote>le sutra tavla</quote>turns out to mean
<quote>the fast talker</quote>, and has no selbri at all. To solve this problem we can use the word
+<!-- ^^ fast talker: example, 17 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fast talker</primary></indexterm>
<quote>cu</quote>, which so far has always been optional, in front of the selbri.</para>
<para>The word
<quote>cu</quote>has no meaning, and exists only to mark the beginning of the selbri within the bridi, separating it from a previous sumti. It comes before any other part of the selbri, including other cmavo like
<quote>se</quote>or
<quote>te</quote>. Thus:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c2e10d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section10-example4" />10.4)
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">le sutra tavla</foreignphrase>
The fast talker
+<!-- ^^ fast talker: example, 17 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fast talker</primary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c2e10d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section10-example5" />10.5)
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">le sutra</foreignphrase> cu
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="selbri">tavla</foreignphrase>
The fast one is talking.
<anchor xml:id="c2e10d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section10-example6" />10.6)
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">le sutra se tavla</foreignphrase>
@@ -745,20 +809,22 @@
<quote>blari'o</quote>, a selbri whose first sumti is something blue-green.</para>
<para>It is safe to omit both occurrences of
<quote>ku</quote>in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter2-section10-example8" />, and it is also safe to omit the
<quote>cu</quote>.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter2-section11">
<title>11. Examples of brivla</title>
<para>The simplest form of selbri is an individual word. A word which may by itself express a selbri relation is called a
<quote>brivla</quote>. The three types of brivla are gismu (root words), lujvo (compounds), and fu'ivla (borrowings from other languages). All have identical grammatical uses. So far, most of our selbri have been gismu or tanru built from gismu.</para>
+<!-- ^^ borrowings: fu'ivla form with categorizing rafsi, 61; fu'ivla form without categorizing rafsi, 62; most common form for, 61; Stage 1, 61; Stage 2, 61; Stage 3, 61; Stage 3 contrasted with Stage 4 in ease of construction, 62; Stage 4, 62; using foreign-language name, 61; using lojbanized name, 61 -->
+<indexterm><primary>borrowings</primary></indexterm>
<para>gismu:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c2e11d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section11-example1" />11.1)
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">mi</foreignphrase> [cu]
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="selbri">klama</foreignphrase>
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">ti</foreignphrase>
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">zo'e</foreignphrase>
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">zo'e</foreignphrase>
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">ta</foreignphrase>
@@ -773,76 +839,92 @@
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="selbri">blari'o</foreignphrase>
That is-blue-green.
</programlisting>
<para>fu'ivla:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c2e11d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section11-example3" />11.3)
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">ti</foreignphrase> [cu]
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="selbri">djarspageti</foreignphrase>
This is-spaghetti.
+<!-- ^^ spaghetti, 61; example, 63 -->
+<indexterm><primary>spaghetti</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>Some cmavo may also serve as selbri, acting as variables that stand for another selbri. The most commonly used of these is
<quote>go'i</quote>, which represents the main bridi of the previous Lojban sentence, with any new sumti or other sentence features being expressed replacing the previously expressed ones. Thus, in this context:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c2e11d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section11-example4" />11.4)
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">ta</foreignphrase> [cu]
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="selbri">go'i</foreignphrase>
That too/same-as-last selbri.
That (is spaghetti), too.
+<!-- ^^ spaghetti, 61; example, 63 -->
+<indexterm><primary>spaghetti</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter2-section12">
<title>12. The sumti
<quote>di'u</quote>and
<quote>la'e di'u</quote></title>
<para>In English, I might say
<quote>The dog is beautiful</quote>, and you might reply
<quote>This pleases me.</quote>How do you know what
+<!-- ^^ pleases, 20 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pleases</primary></indexterm>
<quote>this</quote>refers to? Lojban uses different expressions to convey the possible meanings of the English:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c2e12d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section12-example1" />12.1)
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">le gerku [ku]</foreignphrase> cu
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="selbri">melbi</foreignphrase>
The dog is beautiful.
</programlisting>
<para>The following three sentences all might translate as
<quote>This pleases me.</quote></para>
+<!-- ^^ pleases, 20 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pleases</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c2e12d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section12-example2" />12.2)
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">ti</foreignphrase> [cu]
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="selbri">pluka</foreignphrase>
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">mi</foreignphrase>
This (the dog) pleases me.
+<!-- ^^ pleases, 20 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pleases</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c2e12d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section12-example3" />12.3)
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">di'u</foreignphrase> [cu]
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="selbri">pluka</foreignphrase>
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">mi</foreignphrase>
This (the last sentence) pleases me (perhaps because it is grammatical or sounds nice).
+<!-- ^^ pleases, 20 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pleases</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c2e12d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section12-example4" />12.4)
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">la'e di'u</foreignphrase> [cu]
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="selbri">pluka</foreignphrase>
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">mi</foreignphrase>
This (the meaning of the last sentence; i.e. that the dog is beautiful) pleases me.
+<!-- ^^ pleases, 20 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pleases</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter2-section12-example4" />uses one sumti to point to or refer to another by inference. It is common to write
<quote>la'edi'u</quote>as a single word; it is used more often than
+<!-- ^^ la'edi'u, 149; contrasted with di'u, 149; quick-tour version, 21 -->
+<indexterm><primary>la'edi'u</primary></indexterm>
<quote>di'u</quote>by itself.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter2-section13">
<title>13. Possession</title>
<para>
<quote>Possession</quote>refers to the concept of specifying an object by saying who it belongs to (or with). A full explanation of Lojban possession is given in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8" />. A simple means of expressing possession, however, is to place a sumti representing the possessor of an object within the description sumti that refers to the object: specifically, between the
<quote>le</quote>and the selbri of the description:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c2e13d1" />
@@ -853,40 +935,46 @@
My dog is fast.
</programlisting>
<para>In Lojban, possession doesn't necessarily mean ownership: one may
<quote>possess</quote>a chair simply by sitting on it, even though it actually belongs to someone else. English uses possession casually in the same way, but also uses it to refer to actual ownership or even more intimate relationships:
<quote>my arm</quote>doesn't mean
<quote>some arm I own</quote>but rather
<quote>the arm that is part of my body</quote>. Lojban has methods of specifying all these different kinds of possession precisely and easily.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter2-section14">
<title>14. Vocatives and commands</title>
+<!-- ^^ commands: quick-tour version, 22; with ko, 146 -->
+<indexterm><primary>commands</primary></indexterm>
<para>You may call someone's attention to the fact that you are addressing them by using
<quote>doi</quote>followed by their name. The sentence</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ahVb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e14d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section14-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>doi djan.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means
<quote>Oh, John, I'm talking to you</quote>. It also has the effect of setting the value of
<quote>do</quote>;
<quote>do</quote>now refers to
<quote>John</quote>until it is changed in some way in the conversation. Note that
<xref linkend="cll_chapter2-section14-example1" />is not a bridi, but it is a legitimate Lojban sentence nevertheless; it is known as a
<quote>vocative phrase</quote>.</para>
+<!-- ^^ vocative phrase: as a free modifier, 135; effect of position on meaning, 137; elidable terminator for, 137; explicit quantifiers prohibited on, 136; forms of, 136; implicit descriptor on, 136; implicit quantifiers on, 136; purpose of, 136; relative clauses on, 184; with complete sumti, 136; with sumti without descriptor, 136 -->
+<indexterm><primary>vocative phrase</primary></indexterm>
<para>Other cmavo can be used instead of
<quote>doi</quote>in a vocative phrase, with a different significance. For example, the cmavo
+<!-- ^^ vocative phrase: as a free modifier, 135; effect of position on meaning, 137; elidable terminator for, 137; explicit quantifiers prohibited on, 136; forms of, 136; implicit descriptor on, 136; implicit quantifiers on, 136; purpose of, 136; relative clauses on, 184; with complete sumti, 136; with sumti without descriptor, 136 -->
+<indexterm><primary>vocative phrase</primary></indexterm>
<quote>coi</quote>means
<quote>hello</quote>and
<quote>co'o</quote>means
<quote>good-bye</quote>. Either word may stand alone, they may follow one another, or either may be followed by a pause and a name. (Vocative phrases with
<quote>doi</quote>do not need a pause before the name.)</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-5PHw">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e14d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section14-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c2e14d3" />
@@ -921,20 +1009,22 @@
<quote>Talk!</quote>Other examples:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c2e14d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section14-example6" />14.6)
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">ko</foreignphrase>
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="selbri">sutra</foreignphrase>
Be fast!
</programlisting>
<para>The
<quote>ko</quote>need not be in the x1 place, but rather can occur anywhere a sumti is allowed, leading to possible Lojban commands that are very unlike English commands:</para>
+<!-- ^^ commands: quick-tour version, 22; with ko, 146 -->
+<indexterm><primary>commands</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c2e14d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section14-example7" />14.7)
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">mi</foreignphrase>
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="selbri">tavla</foreignphrase>
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">ko</foreignphrase>
Be talked to by me
Let me talk to you.
</programlisting>
<para>The cmavo
@@ -956,20 +1046,24 @@
</programlisting>
<para>both mean
<quote>You take care of you</quote>and
<quote>Be taken care of by you</quote>, or to put it colloquially,
<quote>Take care of yourself</quote>.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter2-section15">
<title>15. Questions</title>
<para>There are many kinds of questions in Lojban: full explanations appear in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19" />and in various other chapters throughout the book. In this chapter, we will introduce three kinds: sumti questions, selbri questions, and yes/no questions.</para>
+<!-- ^^ sumti questions: quick-tour version, 22 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sumti questions</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ selbri questions: quick-tour version, 23 -->
+<indexterm><primary>selbri questions</primary></indexterm>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>ma</quote>is used to create a sumti question: it indicates that the speaker wishes to know the sumti which should be placed at the location of the
<quote>ma</quote>to make the bridi true. It can be translated as
<quote>Who?</quote>or
<quote>What?</quote>in most cases, but also serves for
<quote>When?</quote>,
<quote>Where?</quote>, and
<quote>Why?</quote>when used in sumti places that express time, location, or cause. For example:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c2e15d1" />
@@ -1004,20 +1098,22 @@
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c2e15d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section15-example4" />15.4)
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">ma</foreignphrase> [cu]
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="selbri">tavla</foreignphrase>
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">ma</foreignphrase>
What/Who talks to what/whom?
</programlisting>
<para>The two separate
<quote>ma</quote>positions ask two separate questions, and can therefore be answered with different values in each sumti place.</para>
+<!-- ^^ separate questions: quick-tour version, 23 -->
+<indexterm><primary>separate questions</primary></indexterm>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>mo</quote>is the selbri analogue of
<quote>ma</quote>. It asks the respondent to provide a selbri that would be a true relation if inserted in place of the
<quote>mo</quote>:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c2e15d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section15-example5" />15.5)
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">do</foreignphrase> [cu]
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="selbri">mo</foreignphrase>
You are-what/do-what?
@@ -1080,75 +1176,93 @@
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">mi</foreignphrase>
Is-it-true-that you are-talking to-me?
</programlisting>
<para>is the Lojban translation of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter2-section15-example8" />.</para>
<para>The answer
<quote>Yes</quote>may be given by simply restating the bridi without the
<quote>xu</quote>question word. Lojban has a shorthand for doing this with the word
<quote>go'i</quote>, mentioned in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter2-section11" />. Instead of a negative answer, the bridi may be restated in such a way as to make it true. If this can be done by substituting sumti, it may be done with
+<!-- ^^ negative answer: quick-tour version, 24 -->
+<indexterm><primary>negative answer</primary></indexterm>
<quote>go'i</quote>as well. For example:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c2e15d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section15-example11" />15.11) xu
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">do</foreignphrase>
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="selbri">kanro</foreignphrase>
Are you healthy?
+<!-- ^^ healthy: example, 24 -->
+<indexterm><primary>healthy</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>can be answered with</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c2e15d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section15-example12" />15.12)
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">mi</foreignphrase>
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="selbri">kanro</foreignphrase>
I am healthy.
+<!-- ^^ healthy: example, 24 -->
+<indexterm><primary>healthy</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>or</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c2e15d13" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section15-example13" />15.13)
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="selbri">go'i</foreignphrase>
I am healthy.
+<!-- ^^ healthy: example, 24 -->
+<indexterm><primary>healthy</primary></indexterm>
(Note that
<quote>do</quote> to the questioner is
<quote>mi</quote> to the respondent.)
</programlisting>
<para>or</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c2e15d14" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section15-example14" />15.14)
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">le tavla</foreignphrase> cu
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="selbri">kanro</foreignphrase>
The talker is healthy.
+<!-- ^^ healthy: example, 24 -->
+<indexterm><primary>healthy</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>or</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c2e15d15" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section15-example15" />15.15)
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">le tavla</foreignphrase> cu
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="selbri">go'i</foreignphrase>
The talker is healthy.
+<!-- ^^ healthy: example, 24 -->
+<indexterm><primary>healthy</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>A general negative answer may be given by
+<!-- ^^ negative answer: quick-tour version, 24 -->
+<indexterm><primary>negative answer</primary></indexterm>
<quote>na go'i</quote>.
<quote>na</quote>may be placed before any selbri (but after the
<quote>cu</quote>). It is equivalent to stating
<quote>It is not true that ...</quote>before the bridi. It does not imply that anything else is true or untrue, only that that specific bridi is not true. More details on negative statements are available in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15" />.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter2-section16">
<title>16. Indicators</title>
<para>Different cultures express emotions and attitudes with a variety of intonations and gestures that are not usually included in written language. Some of these are available in some languages as interjections (i.e. Aha!, Oh no!, Ouch!, Aahh!, etc.), but they vary greatly from culture to culture.</para>
+<!-- ^^ interjections: quick-tour version, 24 -->
+<indexterm><primary>interjections</primary></indexterm>
<para>Lojban has a group of cmavo known as
<quote>attitudinal indicators</quote>which specifically covers this type of commentary on spoken statements. They are both written and spoken, but require no specific intonation or gestures. Grammatically they are very simple: one or more attitudinals at the beginning of a bridi apply to the entire bridi; anywhere else in the bridi they apply to the word immediately to the left. For example:</para>
+<!-- ^^ attitudinal indicators, 297; conventions of interpretation, 311; placement of "nai" in, 311; placement of scale in, 311; quick-tour version, 24 -->
+<indexterm><primary>attitudinal indicators</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c2e16d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section16-example1" />16.1) .ie
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">mi</foreignphrase> [cu]
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="selbri">klama</foreignphrase>
Agreement! I go.
Yep! I'll go.
<anchor xml:id="c2e16d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section16-example2" />16.2) .ei
@@ -1159,65 +1273,87 @@
<anchor xml:id="c2e16d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section16-example3" />16.3)
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">mi</foreignphrase> [cu]
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="selbri">klama</foreignphrase>
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">le melbi .ui [ku]</foreignphrase>
I go to the beautiful-thing (and I am happy because it is the beautiful
thing I'm going to).
</programlisting>
<para>Not all indicators indicate attitudes. Discursives, another group of cmavo with the same grammatical rules as attitudinal indicators, allow free expression of certain kinds of commentary about the main utterances. Using discursives allows a clear separation of these so-called
+<!-- ^^ attitudinal indicators, 297; conventions of interpretation, 311; placement of "nai" in, 311; placement of scale in, 311; quick-tour version, 24 -->
+<indexterm><primary>attitudinal indicators</primary></indexterm>
<quote>metalinguistic</quote>features from the underlying statements and logical structure. By comparison, the English words
+<!-- ^^ comparison: claims related to based on form, 204 -->
+<indexterm><primary>comparison</primary></indexterm>
<quote>but</quote>and
<quote>also</quote>, which discursively indicate contrast or an added weight of example, are logically equivalent to
<quote>and</quote>, which does not have a discursive content. The average English-speaker does not think about, and may not even realize, the paradoxical idea that
<quote>but</quote>basically means
<quote>and</quote>.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c2e16d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section16-example4" />16.4)
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">mi</foreignphrase> [cu]
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="selbri">klama</foreignphrase> .i
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">do</foreignphrase> [cu]
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="selbri">stali</foreignphrase>
I go. You stay.
<anchor xml:id="c2e16d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section16-example5" />16.5)
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">mi</foreignphrase> [cu]
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="selbri">klama</foreignphrase> .i ji'a
+<!-- ^^ ji'a, 317 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ji'a</primary></indexterm>
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">do</foreignphrase> [cu]
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="selbri">stali</foreignphrase>
I go. In addition, you stay. (added weight)
<anchor xml:id="c2e16d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section16-example6" />16.6)
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">mi</foreignphrase> [cu]
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="selbri">klama</foreignphrase> .i ku'i
+<!-- ^^ ku'i, 317, 353 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ku'i</primary></indexterm>
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">do</foreignphrase> [cu]
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="selbri">stali</foreignphrase>
I go. However, you stay. (contrast)
</programlisting>
<para>Another group of indicators are called
<quote>evidentials</quote>. Evidentials show the speaker's relationship to the statement, specifically how the speaker came to make the statement. These include
+<!-- ^^ evidentials: ba'a scale, 316; definition, 315; grammar, 315; in English, 315; indisputable bridi, 315; inspiration for, 315; ja'o contrasted with su'a, 316; ka'u contrasted with se'o, 316; placement in bridi, 315; quick-tour version, 25; rhetorical flavor, 315; scales, 315; se'o contrasted with ka'u, 316; su'a contrasted with ja'o, 316 -->
+<!-- ^^ indisputable bridi, 315 -->
+<indexterm><primary>indisputable bridi</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>evidentials</primary></indexterm>
<quote>za'a</quote>(I directly observe the relationship),
+<!-- ^^ za'a, 316 -->
+<indexterm><primary>za'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>pe'i</quote>(I believe that the relationship holds),
+<!-- ^^ pe'i, 317 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pe'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ru'a</quote>(I postulate the relationship), and others. Many American Indian languages use this kind of words.</para>
+<!-- ^^ ru'a, 317; compared with e'u, 317 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ru'a</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c2e16d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section16-example7" />16.7) pe'i
+<!-- ^^ pe'i, 317 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pe'i</primary></indexterm>
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">do</foreignphrase> [cu]
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="selbri">melbi</foreignphrase>
I opine! You are beautiful.
<anchor xml:id="c2e16d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section16-example8" />16.8) za'a
+<!-- ^^ za'a, 316 -->
+<indexterm><primary>za'a</primary></indexterm>
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">do</foreignphrase> [cu]
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="selbri">melbi</foreignphrase>
I directly observe! You are beautiful.
</programlisting>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter2-section17">
<title>17. Tenses</title>
<para>In English, every verb is tagged for the grammatical category called tense: past, present, or future. The sentence</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-xIVa">
<title>
@@ -1267,20 +1403,22 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section17-example5" />17.5)
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">la djan.</foreignphrase>
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="selbri">ca klama</foreignphrase>
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">le zarci</foreignphrase>
John [present] goes to-the store
</programlisting>
<para>necessarily refers to the present, because of the tag
<quote>ca</quote>. Tags used in this way always appear at the very beginning of the selbri, just after the
<quote>cu</quote>, and they may make a
<quote>cu</quote>unnecessary, since tags cannot be absorbed into tanru. Such tags serve as an equivalent to English tenses and adverbs. In Lojban, tense information is completely optional. If unspecified, the appropriate tense is picked up from context.</para>
+<!-- ^^ adverbs: brivla as Lojban equivalents, 52 -->
+<indexterm><primary>adverbs</primary></indexterm>
<para>Lojban also extends the notion of
<quote>tense</quote>to refer not only to time but to space. The following example uses the tag
<quote>vu</quote>to specify that the event it describes happens far away from the speaker:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c2e17d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section17-example6" />17.6)
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">do</foreignphrase>
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="selbri">vu vecnu</foreignphrase>
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">zo'e</foreignphrase>
You yonder sell something-unspecified.
@@ -1290,20 +1428,22 @@
<anchor xml:id="c2e17d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section17-example7" />17.7)
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">le pu bajra [ku]</foreignphrase> cu
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="selbri">tavla</foreignphrase>
The earlier/former/past runner talked/talks.
</programlisting>
<para>(Since Lojban tense is optional, we don't know when he or she talks.)</para>
<para>Tensed sumti with space tags correspond roughly to the English use of
<quote>this</quote>or
<quote>that</quote>as adjectives, as in the following example, which uses the tag
+<!-- ^^ adjectives: brivla as Lojban equivalents, 52 -->
+<indexterm><primary>adjectives</primary></indexterm>
<quote>vi</quote>meaning
<quote>nearby</quote>:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c2e17d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section17-example8" />17.8)
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">le vi bajra [ku]</foreignphrase> cu
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="selbri">tavla</foreignphrase>
The nearby runner talks.
This runner talks.
</programlisting>
@@ -1320,54 +1460,64 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter2-section17-example9" />17.9)
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="sumti">le vi tavla [ku]</foreignphrase> cu
<foreignphrase xml:lang="jbo" role="selbri">ba klama</foreignphrase>
The here talker [future] goes.
The talker who is here will go.
This talker will go.
</programlisting>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter2-section18">
<title>18. Lojban grammatical terms</title>
+<!-- ^^ grammatical terms: quick-tour version, 26 -->
+<indexterm><primary>grammatical terms</primary></indexterm>
<para>Here is a review of the Lojban grammatical terms used in this chapter, plus some others used throughout this book. Only terms that are themselves Lojban words are included: there are of course many expressions like
+<!-- ^^ grammatical terms: quick-tour version, 26 -->
+<indexterm><primary>grammatical terms</primary></indexterm>
<quote>indicator</quote>in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16" />that are not explained here. See the Index for further help with these.</para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry>
<term>bridi:</term>
<listitem>
<para>predication; the basic unit of Lojban expression; the main kind of Lojban sentence; a claim that some objects stand in some relationship, or that some single object has some property.</para>
+<!-- ^^ some relationship: example, 409 -->
+<indexterm><primary>some relationship</primary></indexterm>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>sumti:</term>
<listitem>
<para>argument; words identifying something which stands in a specified relationship to something else, or which has a specified property. See
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6" />.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>selbri:</term>
<listitem>
<para>logical predicate; the core of a bridi; the word or words specifying the relationship between the objects referred to by the sumti. See
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5" />.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>cmavo:</term>
<listitem>
<para>one of the Lojban parts of speech; a short word; a structural word; a word used for its grammatical function.</para>
+<!-- ^^ parts of speech, 50 -->
+<indexterm><primary>parts of speech</primary></indexterm>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>brivla:</term>
<listitem>
<para>one of the Lojban parts of speech; a content word; a predicate word; can function as a selbri; is a gismu, a lujvo, or a fu'ivla. See
+<!-- ^^ parts of speech, 50 -->
+<indexterm><primary>parts of speech</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4" />.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>gismu:</term>
<listitem>
<para>a root word; a kind of brivla; has associated rafsi. See
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4" />.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
@@ -1376,20 +1526,22 @@
<listitem>
<para>a compound word; a kind of brivla; may or may not appear in a dictionary; does not have associated rafsi. See
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12" />.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>fu'ivla:</term>
<listitem>
<para>a borrowed word; a kind of brivla; may or may not appear in a dictionary; copied in a modified form from some non-Lojban language; usually refers to some aspect of culture or the natural world; does not have associated rafsi. See
+<!-- ^^ aspect: expressing, 228; natural languages compared with respect to, 228 -->
+<indexterm><primary>aspect</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4" />.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>rafsi:</term>
<listitem>
<para>a word fragment; one or more is associated with each gismu; can be assembled according to rules in order to make lujvo; not a valid word by itself. See
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4" />.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
diff --git a/todocbook/20.xml b/todocbook/20.xml
index 2f04302..d515964 100644
--- a/todocbook/20.xml
+++ b/todocbook/20.xml
@@ -1,19 +1,21 @@
<chapter xml:id="cll_chapter20">
<title>Chapter 20 A Catalogue of selma'o</title>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter20-sectionindex.html">
<title />
<!--
<h6>$Revision: 4.3 $<br />
mkhtml: 1.1</h6>
-->
<para>The following paragraphs list all the selma'o of Lojban, with a brief explanation of what each one is about, and reference to the chapter number where each is explained more fully. As usual, all selma'o names are given in capital letters (with “h” serving as the capital of “'”) and are the names of a representative cmavo, often the most important or the first in alphabetical order. One example is given of each selma'o: for selma'o which have several uses, the most common use is shown.</para>
+<!-- ^^ capital letters: use in Lojban, 415; use of, 29 -->
+<indexterm><primary>capital letters</primary></indexterm>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="A" />selma'o A (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section6" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Specifies a logical connection (e.g. “and”, “or”, “if”), usually between sumti.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
la djan. .a la djein. klama le zarci
John and/or Jane goes to the store.
</programlisting>
<para>Also used to create vowel lerfu words when followed with “bu”.</para>
<bridgehead>
@@ -21,77 +23,93 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section6" />)</bridgehead>
<para>May be prefixed to a sumti to specify an additional place, not otherwise present in the place structure of the selbri, and derived from a single place of some other selbri.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi tavla bau la lojban.
I speak in-language Lojban.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="BAhE" />selma'o BAhE (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section11" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Emphasizes the next single word, or marks it as a nonce word (one invented for the occasion).</para>
+<!-- ^^ nonce word: marking, 489 -->
+<indexterm><primary>nonce word</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
la ba'e .djordj. klama le zarci
<emphasis>George</emphasis> goes to the store.
It is George who goes to the store.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="BE" />selma'o BE (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section7" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Attaches sumti which fill the place structure of a single unit making up a tanru. Unless otherwise indicated, the sumti fill the x2, x3, and successive places in that order.
<xref linkend="BE" />is most useful in descriptions formed with
<xref linkend="LE" />. See
<xref linkend="BEI" />,
<xref linkend="BEhO" />.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi klama be ta troci
I am-a-(goer to-that) type-of-trier.
I try to go to that place.
+<!-- ^^ try to go: example, 95 -->
+<indexterm><primary>try to go</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="BEI" />selma'o BEI (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section7" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Separates multiple sumti attached by
<xref linkend="BE" />to a tanru unit.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi klama be le zarci bei le zdani be'o troci
I am-a-(goer to-the store from-the home) type-of-trier.
I try to go from the home to the market.
+<!-- ^^ try to go: example, 95 -->
+<indexterm><primary>try to go</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="BEhO" />selma'o BEhO (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section7" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Elidable terminator for
<xref linkend="BE" />. Terminates sumti that are attached to a tanru unit.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi klama be le zarci be'o troci
I am-a-(goer to-the market) type-of-trier.
I try to go to the market.
+<!-- ^^ try to go: example, 95 -->
+<indexterm><primary>try to go</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="BIhE" />selma'o BIhE (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section5" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Prefixed to a mathematical operator to mark it as higher priority than other mathematical operators, binding its operands more closely.</para>
+<!-- ^^ mathematical operators, 436 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mathematical operators</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
li ci bi'e pi'u vo su'i mu du li paze
+<!-- ^^ pi'u, 246, 354, 356; contrasted with .e, 357; use in connecting tenses, 246 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pi'u</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ bi'e, 437; effect on following operator, 437 -->
+<indexterm><primary>bi'e</primary></indexterm>
The-number 3 [priority] times 4 plus 5 equals the-number 17.
3 × 4 + 5 = 17
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="BIhI" />selma'o BIhI (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section16" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Joins sumti or tanru units (as well as some other things) to form intervals. See
<xref linkend="GAhO" />.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi ca sanli la drezdn. bi'i la frankfurt.
I [present] stand-on-surface Dresden [interval] Frankfurt.
I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt.
+<!-- ^^ between Dresden and Frankfurt: example, 359, 360, 361 -->
+<indexterm><primary>between Dresden and Frankfurt</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="BO" />selma'o BO (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section3" />,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section6" />,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section17" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Joins tanru units, binding them together closely. Also used to bind logically or non-logically connected phrases, sentences, etc.
<xref linkend="BO" />is always high precedence and right-grouping.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ta cmalu nixli bo ckule
@@ -113,87 +131,115 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17-section4" />)</bridgehead>
<para>A suffix which can be attached to any word, typically a word representing a letter of the alphabet or else a name, to make a word for a symbol or a different letter of the alphabet. In particular, attached to single-vowel cmavo to make words for vowel letters.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
.abu .ebu .ibu .obu .ubu .ybu
a, e, i, o, u, y.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="BY" />selma'o BY (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17-section2" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Words representing the letters of the Lojban alphabet, plus various shift words which alter the interpretation of other letter words. Terminated by BOI.</para>
+<!-- ^^ Lojban alphabet, 29 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Lojban alphabet</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
.abu tavla .by le la .ibymym. skami
A talks-to B about-the of-IBM computers.
+<!-- ^^ IBM: example, 424 -->
+<indexterm><primary>IBM</primary></indexterm>
A talks to B about IBM computers.
+<!-- ^^ IBM: example, 424 -->
+<indexterm><primary>IBM</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="CAI" />selma'o CAI (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section4" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Indicates the intensity of an emotion: maximum, strong, weak, or not at all. Typically follows another particle which specifies the emotion.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
.ei cai mi klama le zarci
+<!-- ^^ cai, 305 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cai</primary></indexterm>
[Obligation!] [Intense!] I go-to the market.
I must go to the market.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="CAhA" />selma'o CAhA (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section19" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Specifies whether a bridi refers to an actual fact, a potential (achieved or not), or merely an innate capability.</para>
+<!-- ^^ innate capability: expressing explicitly, 243; expressing implicitly, 243 -->
+<indexterm><primary>innate capability</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ro datka ka'e flulimna
+<!-- ^^ ka'e, 243 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ka'e</primary></indexterm>
All ducks [capability] are-float-swimmers.
All ducks have the capability of swimming by floating.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="CEI" />selma'o CEI (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section5" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Assigns a selbri definition to one of the five pro-bridi gismu: “broda”, “brode”, “brodi”, “brodo”, or “brodu”, for later use.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ti slasi je mlatu bo cidja lante gacri cei broda
+<!-- ^^ cei, 151, 154, 162; for broda-series pro-bridi assignment, 151 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cei</primary></indexterm>
.i le crino broda cu barda .i le xunre broda cu cmalu
This is a plastic cat-food can cover, or thingy.
+<!-- ^^ thingy: example, 151 -->
+<indexterm><primary>thingy</primary></indexterm>
The green thingy is large. The red thingy is small.
+<!-- ^^ thingy: example, 151 -->
+<indexterm><primary>thingy</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="CEhE" />selma'o CEhE (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section11" />,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section7" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Joins multiple terms into a termset. Termsets are used to associate several terms for logical connectives, for equal quantifier scope, or for special constructs in tenses.</para>
+<!-- ^^ quantifier scope: in multiple connected sentences, 404 -->
+<indexterm><primary>quantifier scope</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi ce'e do pe'e je la djan. ce'e la djeimyz. cu pendo
+<!-- ^^ pe'e, 347 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pe'e</primary></indexterm>
I [,] you [joint] and John [,] James are-friends-of.
I am a friend of you, and John is a friend of James.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="CO" />selma'o CO (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section8" />)</bridgehead>
<para>When inserted between the components of a tanru, inverts it, so that the following tanru unit modifies the previous one.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi troci co klama le zarci le zdani
I am-a-trier of-type (goer to-the market from-the house).
I try to go to the market from the house.
+<!-- ^^ try to go: example, 95 -->
+<indexterm><primary>try to go</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="COI" />selma'o COI (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section11" />,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section14" />)</bridgehead>
<para>When prefixed to a name, description, or sumti, produces a vocative: a phrase which indicates who is being spoken to (or who is speaking). Vocatives are used in conversational protocols, including greeting, farewell, and radio communication. Terminated by
+<!-- ^^ radio communication: proposed lerfu words for, 429 -->
+<indexterm><primary>radio communication</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="DOhU" />. See
<xref linkend="DOI" />.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
coi .djan.
Greetings, John.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="CU" />selma'o CU (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section2" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Separates the selbri of a bridi from any sumti which precede it. Never strictly necessary, but often useful to eliminate various elidable terminators.</para>
+<!-- ^^ elidable terminators: list, 486 -->
+<indexterm><primary>elidable terminators</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
le gerku cu klama le zarci
The dog goes to-the store.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="CUhE" />selma'o CUhE (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section24" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Forms a question which asks when, where, or in what mode the rest of the bridi is true. See
<xref linkend="PU" />,
<xref linkend="CAhA" />,
@@ -207,35 +253,39 @@
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="DAhO" />selma'o DAhO (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section13" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Cancels the assigned significance of all sumti cmavo (of selma'o
<xref linkend="KOhA" />) and bridi cmavo (of selma'o
<xref linkend="GOhA" />).</para>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="DOI" />selma'o DOI (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section14" />)</bridgehead>
<para>The non-specific vocative indicator. May be used with or without
+<!-- ^^ vocative indicator, 492 -->
+<indexterm><primary>vocative indicator</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="COI" />. No pause is required between “doi” and a following name. See
<xref linkend="DOhU" />.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
doi frank. mi tavla do
O Frank, I speak-to you.
Frank, I’m talking to you.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="DOhU" />selma'o DOhU (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13-section14" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Elidable terminator for
<xref linkend="COI" />or
<xref linkend="DOI" />. Signals the end of a vocative.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
coi do'u
+<!-- ^^ do'u, 137, 323 -->
+<indexterm><primary>do'u</primary></indexterm>
Greetings [terminator]
Greetings, O unspecified one!
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="FA" />selma'o FA (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section3" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Prefix for a sumti, indicating which numbered place in the place structure the sumti belongs in; overrides word order.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
fa mi cu klama fi la .atlantas. fe la bastn. fo le dargu fu le karce
x1= I go x3= Atlanta x2= Boston x4= the road x5= the car.
@@ -259,20 +309,22 @@
<para>A mechanical signal, outside the grammar, indicating that there is no more text. Useful in talking to computers.</para>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="FEhE" />selma'o FEhE (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section11" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Indicates that the following interval modifier (using
<xref linkend="TAhE" />,
<xref linkend="ROI" />, or
<xref linkend="ZAhO" />) refers to space rather than time.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ko vi'i fe'e di'i sombo le gurni
+<!-- ^^ di'i, 226 -->
+<indexterm><primary>di'i</primary></indexterm>
You-imperative [1-dimensional] [space] [regularly] sow the grain.
Sow the grain in a line and evenly!
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="FEhU" />selma'o FEhU (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section5" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Elidable terminator for
<xref linkend="FIhO" />. Indicates the end of an ad hoc modal tag: the tagged sumti immediately follows.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi viska do fi'o kanla [fe'u] le zunle
@@ -297,80 +349,98 @@
<xref linkend="TEI" />. Not an elidable terminator.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
tei .ebu .akut. bu foi
( “e” “acute” )
the letter “e” with an acute accent
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="FUhA" />selma'o FUhA (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section16" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Indicates that the following mathematical expression is to be interpreted as reverse Polish (RP), a mode in which mathematical operators follow their operands.</para>
+<!-- ^^ mathematical operators, 436 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mathematical operators</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
li fu'a reboi re[boi] su'i du li vo
+<!-- ^^ fu'a, 452 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fu'a</primary></indexterm>
the-number [RP!] two, two, plus equals the-number four
2 + 2 = 4
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="FUhE" />selma'o FUhE (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section8" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Indicates that the following indicator(s) of selma'o
<xref linkend="UI" />affect not the preceding word, as usual, but rather all following words until a
<xref linkend="FUhO" />.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi viska le fu'e .ia blanu zdani fu'o ponse
+<!-- ^^ fu'o, 475 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fu'o</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ fu'e, 475 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fu'e</primary></indexterm>
I see the [start] [belief] blue house [end] possessor
I see the owner of a blue house, or what I believe to be one.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="FUhO" />selma'o FUhO (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section8" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Cancels all indicators of selma'o
<xref linkend="UI" />which are in effect.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi viska le fu'e .ia blanu zdani fu'o ponse
+<!-- ^^ fu'o, 475 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fu'o</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ fu'e, 475 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fu'e</primary></indexterm>
I see the [start] [belief] blue house [end] possessor.
I see the owner of what I believe to be a blue house.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="GA" />selma'o GA (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section5" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Indicates the beginning of two logically connected sumti, bridi-tails, or various other things. Logical connections include “both ... and”, “either ... or”, “if ... then”, and so on. See
+<!-- ^^ if ... then: compared with only if, 338; logical connectives contrasted with other translations, 339 -->
+<indexterm><primary>if ... then</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="GI" />.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ga la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu
Either John is a man or James is a woman (or both).
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="GAhO" />selma'o GAhO (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section16" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Specifies whether an interval specified by
<xref linkend="BIhI" />includes or excludes its endpoints. Used in pairs before and after the
<xref linkend="BIhI" />cmavo, to specify the nature of both the left- and the right-hand endpoints.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi ca sanli la drezdn. ga'o bi'i ga'o la frankfurt.
I [present] stand Dresden [inclusive] [interval] [inclusive] Frankfurt.
I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt, inclusive of both.
+<!-- ^^ between Dresden and Frankfurt: example, 359, 360, 361 -->
+<indexterm><primary>between Dresden and Frankfurt</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="GEhU" />selma'o GEhU (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section3" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Elidable terminator for
<xref linkend="GOI" />. Marks the end of a relative phrase. See
<xref linkend="KUhO" />.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
la djan. goi ko'a ge'u blanu
John (referred to as it-1) is-blue.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="GI" />selma'o GI (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section5" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Separates two logically or non-logically connected sumti, tanru units, bridi-tails, or other things, when the prefix is a forethought connective involving
+<!-- ^^ forethought connective(s): as ungrammatical utterance, 352; contrasted with afterthought connective, 338 -->
+<indexterm><primary>forethought connective</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="GA" />,
<xref linkend="GUhA" />, or
<xref linkend="JOI" />.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ge la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu
(It is true that) both John is a man and James is a woman.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="GIhA" />selma'o GIhA (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section3" />)</bridgehead>
@@ -433,25 +503,31 @@
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi jai gau galfi le bitmu skari
I am-the-actor-in modifying the wall color.
I act so as to modify the wall color.
I change the color of the wall.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="JOI" />selma'o JOI (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section14" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Specifies a non-logical connection (e.g. together-with-as-mass, -set, or -sequence) between two sumti, tanru units, or various other things. When immediately followed by
+<!-- ^^ non-logical connection: and elidability of terminators, 354; in mathematical expressions, 361; in tanru, distinguishing from connection of sumti, 354; of individuals into mass, 355; of individuals into set, 355; of modals, 208; of operands, 455; of operators, 455; of sumti, distinguishing from connection in tanru, 354; of termsets, 357 -->
+<indexterm><primary>non-logical connection</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="GI" />, provides forethought non-logical connection analogous to
+<!-- ^^ non-logical connection: and elidability of terminators, 354; in mathematical expressions, 361; in tanru, distinguishing from connection of sumti, 354; of individuals into mass, 355; of individuals into set, 355; of modals, 208; of operands, 455; of operators, 455; of sumti, distinguishing from connection in tanru, 354; of termsets, 357 -->
+<indexterm><primary>non-logical connection</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="GA" />.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
la djan. joi la .alis. cu bevri le pipno
John massed-with Alice carry the piano.
+<!-- ^^ carry the piano: example, 361 -->
+<indexterm><primary>carry the piano</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="JOhI" />selma'o JOhI (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section15" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Indicates that the following mathematical operands (a list terminated by
<xref linkend="TEhU" />) form a mathematical vector (one-dimensional array).</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
li jo'i paboi reboi te'u su'i jo'i ciboi voboi du
li jo'i voboi xaboi
The-number array( one, two ) plus array( three, four) equals
@@ -472,20 +548,22 @@
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ta ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ckule
That is-a-( pretty little ) girl school.
That is a school for girls who are pretty in their littleness.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="KEI" />selma'o KEI (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11-section1" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Elidable terminator for
<xref linkend="NU" />. Marks the end of an abstraction bridi.</para>
+<!-- ^^ abstraction bridi: contrasted with component non-abstraction bridi in meaning, 98; effect on claim of bridi, 198 -->
+<indexterm><primary>abstraction bridi</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
la djan. cu nu sonci kei djica
John is-an-(event-of being-a-soldier) type-of desirer.
John wants to be a soldier.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="KEhE" />selma'o KEhE (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section5" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Elidable terminator for
<xref linkend="KE" />. Marks the end of a grouping.</para>
@@ -521,45 +599,51 @@
The person, to-the house, goes.
The person goes to the house.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="KUhE" />selma'o KUhE (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section6" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Elidable terminator for
<xref linkend="PEhO" />: indicates the end of a forethought mathematical expression (one in which the operator precedes the operands).</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
li pe'o su'i reboi reboi re[boi] ku'e du li xa
+<!-- ^^ pe'o, 439 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pe'o</primary></indexterm>
The number [forethought] the-sum-of two two two [end] equals the-number six.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="KUhO" />selma'o KUhO (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section1" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Elidable terminator for
<xref linkend="NOI" />. Indicates the end of a relative clause.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
le zdani poi blanu ku'o barda
The house which is-blue is-big.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="LA" />selma'o LA (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section2" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Descriptors which change name words (or selbri) into sumti which identify people or things by name. Similar to
+<!-- ^^ name words: recognition of, 137 -->
+<indexterm><primary>name words</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="LE" />. May be terminated with
<xref linkend="KU" />if followed by a description selbri.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
la kikeros. du la tulis.
Cicero is Tully.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="LAU" />selma'o LAU (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17-section14" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Combines with the following alphabetic letter to represent a single marker: change from lower to upper case, change of font, punctuation, etc.)</para>
+<!-- ^^ font: example, 418; specifying for letters, 418 -->
+<indexterm><primary>font</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
tau sy. .ibu
[single-shift] “s” “i”
Si (chemical symbol for silicon)
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="LAhE" />selma'o LAhE (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section10" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Qualifiers which, when prefixed to a sumti, change it into another sumti with related meaning. Qualifiers can also consist of a cmavo from selma'o
<xref linkend="NAhE" />plus
@@ -587,43 +671,49 @@
<xref linkend="LOhU" />. Not an elidable terminator.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
lo'u mi du do du mi le'u cu na lojbo drani
[quote] mi du do du mi [unquote] is-not Lojbanically correct.
“mi du do du mi” is not correct Lojban.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="LI" />selma'o LI (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section5" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Descriptors which change numbers or other mathematical expressions into sumti which specify numbers or numerical expressions. Terminated by
+<!-- ^^ mathematical expressions: connectives in, 361; implicit quantifier for, 142; tensed connection in, 364 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mathematical expressions</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="LOhO" />.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
li re su'u re na du li vo su'i vo
The-number 2 minus 2 not equals the-number 4 plus 4.
2 - 2 ≠ 4 + 4
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="LIhU" />selma'o LIhU (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section9" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Elidable terminator for
<xref linkend="LU" />. Indicates the end of a text quotation.</para>
+<!-- ^^ text quotation: as internally grammatical, 141; syntax of, 141 -->
+<indexterm><primary>text quotation</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi cusku lu mi klama le zarci li'u
I express [quote] I go-to the market [end quote].
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="LOhO" />selma'o LOhO (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section17" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Elidable terminator for
<xref linkend="LI" />. Indicates the end of a mathematical expression used in a
<xref linkend="LI" />description.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
li vo lo'o li ci lo'o cu zmadu
+<!-- ^^ lo'o, 454; effect of logical connective on elidability of, 454 -->
+<indexterm><primary>lo'o</primary></indexterm>
The-number 4 [end number], the number 3 [end number], is greater.
4 > 3
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="LOhU" />selma'o LOhU (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section9" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Indicates the beginning of a quotation (a sumti) which is grammatical as long as the quoted material consists of Lojban words, whether they form a text or not. Terminated by
<xref linkend="LEhU" />.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
do cusku lo'u mi du do du ko'a le'u
@@ -641,20 +731,24 @@
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="LUhU" />selma'o LUhU (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section10" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Elidable terminator for
<xref linkend="LAhE" />and
<xref linkend="NAhE" />+
<xref linkend="BO" />. Indicates the end of a qualified sumti.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi viska la'e lu barda gerku li'u lu'u
+<!-- ^^ lu'u, 133, 267; as elidable terminator for qualified sumti, 133 -->
+<indexterm><primary>lu'u</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ la'e lu: compared with me'o, 422 -->
+<indexterm><primary>la'e lu</primary></indexterm>
I see the-referent-of [quote] big dog [end quote] [end ref]
I saw “Big Dog” [not the words, but a book or movie].
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="MAI" />selma'o MAI (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section19" />,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section1" />)</bridgehead>
<para>When suffixed to a number or string of letter words, produces a free modifier which serves as an index number within a text.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
pamai mi pu klama le zarci
@@ -695,40 +789,48 @@
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="MOI" />selma'o MOI (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section11" />,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section18" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Suffixes added to numbers or other quantifiers to make various numerically-based selbri.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
la djan. joi la frank. cu bruna remei
John in-a-mass-with Frank are-a-brother-type-of twosome.
John and Frank are two brothers.
+<!-- ^^ two brothers: example, 98 -->
+<indexterm><primary>two brothers</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ brothers: example, 355 -->
+<indexterm><primary>brothers</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="MOhE" />selma'o MOhE (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section18" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Produces a mathematical operand from a sumti; used to make dimensioned units. Terminated by
<xref linkend="TEhU" />.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
li mo'e re ratcu su'i mo'e re ractu du li mo'e vo danlu
+<!-- ^^ mo'e, 456; terminator for, 456 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mo'e</primary></indexterm>
The-number two rats plus two rabbits equals the-number four animals.
2 rats + 2 rabbits = 4 animals.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="MOhI" />selma'o MOhI (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section8" />)</bridgehead>
<para>A tense flag indicating movement in space, in a direction specified by a following
<xref linkend="FAhA" />cmavo.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
le verba mo'i ri'u cadzu le bisli
The child [movement] [right] walks-on the ice.
The child walks toward my right on the ice.
+<!-- ^^ toward my right: example, 224 -->
+<indexterm><primary>toward my right</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="NA" />selma'o NA (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section3" />,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15-section7" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Contradictory negators, asserting that a whole bridi is false (or true).</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi na klama le zarci
It is not true that I go to the market.
</programlisting>
@@ -750,33 +852,41 @@
That is a house which is other than blue.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="NAhU" />selma'o NAhU (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section18" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Creates a mathematical operator from a selbri. Terminated by
<xref linkend="TEhU" />. See
<xref linkend="VUhU" />.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
li na'u tanjo te'u vei pai fe'i re [ve'o] du li ci'i
+<!-- ^^ ci'i, 434 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ci'i</primary></indexterm>
The-number the-operator tangent (
<phrase role="IPA">π</phrase> / 2 ) = the-number infinity.
+<!-- ^^ infinity: example, 434 -->
+<indexterm><primary>infinity</primary></indexterm>
tan(
<phrase role="IPA">π</phrase>/2) = ∞
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="NIhE" />selma'o NIhE (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section18" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Creates a mathematical operand from a selbri, usually a “ni” abstraction. Terminated by
<xref linkend="TEhU" />.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
li ni'e ni clani [te'u] pi'i ni'e ni ganra [te'u] pi'i
+<!-- ^^ ni'e, 456; terminator for, 456 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ni'e</primary></indexterm>
ni'e ni condi te'u du li ni'e ni canlu
+<!-- ^^ ni'e, 456; terminator for, 456 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ni'e</primary></indexterm>
The-number quantity-of length times quantity-of width times
quantity-of depth equals the-number quantity-of volume.
Length × Width × Depth = Volume
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="NIhO" />selma'o NIhO (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section3" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Marks the beginning of a new paragraph, and indicates whether it contains old or new subject matter.</para>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="NOI" />selma'o NOI (
@@ -832,57 +942,69 @@
<xref linkend="BOI" />.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi speni re ninmu
I am-married-to two women.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="PEhE" />selma'o PEhE (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section11" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Precedes a logical or non-logical connective that joins two termsets. Termsets (see
<xref linkend="CEhE" />) are used to associate several terms for logical connectives, for equal quantifier scope, or for special constructs in tenses.</para>
+<!-- ^^ quantifier scope: in multiple connected sentences, 404 -->
+<indexterm><primary>quantifier scope</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi ce'e do pe'e je la djan. ce'e la djeimyz. cu pendo
+<!-- ^^ pe'e, 347 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pe'e</primary></indexterm>
I [,] you [joint] and John [,] James are-friends-of.
I am a friend of you, and John is a friend of James.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="PEhO" />selma'o PEhO (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section6" />)</bridgehead>
<para>An optional signal of forethought mathematical operators, which precede their operands. Terminated by
+<!-- ^^ mathematical operators, 436 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mathematical operators</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="KUhE" />.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
li vo du li pe'o su'i reboi re
+<!-- ^^ pe'o, 439 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pe'o</primary></indexterm>
The-number four equals the-number [forethought] sum-of two two.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="PU" />selma'o PU (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section4" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Specifies simple time directions (future, past, or neither).</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi pu klama le zarci
I [past] go-to the market.
I went to the market.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="RAhO" />selma'o RAhO (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section6" />)</bridgehead>
<para>The pro-bridi update flag: changes the meaning of sumti implicitly attached to a pro-bridi (see
+<!-- ^^ pro-bridi update: flag for, 503 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pro-bridi update</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="GOhA" />) to fit the current context rather than the original context.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
A: mi ba lumci le mi karce
B: mi go'i
A: I [future] wash my car.
B: I do-the-same-thing (i.e. wash A’s car).
A: mi ba lumci le mi karce
B: mi go'i ra'o
+<!-- ^^ go'i ra'o: contrasted with go'i, 156 -->
+<indexterm><primary>go'i ra'o</primary></indexterm>
A: I [future] wash my car.
B: I do-the-corresponding-thing (i.e. wash B’s car).
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="ROI" />selma'o ROI (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section9" />)</bridgehead>
<para>When suffixed to a number, makes an extensional tense (e.g. once, twice, many times).</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi reroi klama le zarci
@@ -903,62 +1025,72 @@
<para>Converts a selbri, rearranging the order of places by exchanging the x1 place with a specified numbered place.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
le zarci cu se klama mi
The market is-gone-to by me.
</programlisting>
<para>Also used in constructing connective and modal compound cmavo.</para>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="SEI" />selma'o SEI (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section12" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Marks the beginning of metalinguistic insertions which comment on the main bridi. Terminated by
+<!-- ^^ metalinguistic insertions: marker for, 504 -->
+<indexterm><primary>metalinguistic insertions</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="SEhU" />.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
la frank. prami sei gleki [se'u] la djein.
Frank loves (he is happy) Jane.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="SEhU" />selma'o SEhU (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section12" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Elidable terminator for
<xref linkend="SEI" />and
<xref linkend="SOI" />. Ends metalinguistic insertions.</para>
+<!-- ^^ metalinguistic insertions: marker for, 504 -->
+<indexterm><primary>metalinguistic insertions</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
la frank. prami sei gleki se'u la djein.
Frank loves (he is happy) Jane.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="SI" />selma'o SI (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section13" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Erases the previous single word.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi si do klama le zarci
I, er, you go to-the market.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="SOI" />selma'o SOI (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section8" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Marks reciprocity between two sumti (like “vice versa” in English).</para>
+<!-- ^^ reciprocity: expressing with soi, 159; expressing with vo'a-series pro-sumti and soi, 159; marking, 504 -->
+<!-- ^^ vo'a-series pro-sumti: use in expressing reciprocity with soi, 159 -->
+<indexterm><primary>vo'a-series pro-sumti</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>reciprocity</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi prami do soi mi
I love you [reciprocally] me.
I love you and vice versa.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="SU" />selma'o SU (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section13" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Closes and erases the entire previous discourse.</para>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="TAhE" />selma'o TAhE (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section9" />)</bridgehead>
<para>A tense modifier specifying frequencies within an interval of time or space (regularly, habitually, etc.).</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
le verba ta'e klama le ckule
+<!-- ^^ ta'e, 226, 324 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ta'e</primary></indexterm>
The child habitually goes to-the school.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="TEI" />selma'o TEI (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17-section6" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Signals the beginning of a compound letter word, which acts grammatically like a single letter. Compound letter words end with the non-elidable selma'o
<xref linkend="FOI" />.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
tei .ebu .akut. bu foi
( “e” “acute” )
@@ -1030,61 +1162,75 @@
<para>A tense indicating distance in space (near, far, or neither).</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
le nanmu va batci le gerku
The man [medium distance] bites the dog.
Over there the man is biting the dog.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="VAU" />selma'o VAU (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14-section9" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Elidable terminator for a simple bridi, or for each bridi-tail of a
+<!-- ^^ simple bridi: terminator for, 506 -->
+<indexterm><primary>simple bridi</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="GIhA" />logical connection.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi dunda le cukta [vau] gi'e lebna lo rupnu vau do [vau]
I (give the book) and (take some currency-units) to/from you.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="VEI" />selma'o VEI (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18-section5" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Left mathematical parenthesis: groups mathematical operations. Terminated by
+<!-- ^^ mathematical parenthesis: left, 506 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mathematical parenthesis</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="VEhO" />.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
li vei ny. su'i pa ve'o pi'i vei ny. su'i pa [ve'o] du
li ny. [bo] te'a re su'i re bo pi'i ny. su'i pa
+<!-- ^^ te'a, 437 -->
+<indexterm><primary>te'a</primary></indexterm>
The-number (“n” plus one) times (“n” plus one) equals
the-number n-power-two plus two-times-“n” plus 1.
(n + 1)(n + 1) = n
<superscript>2</superscript> + 2n + 1
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="VEhA" />selma'o VEhA (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section5" />)</bridgehead>
<para>A tense indicating the size of an interval in space (long, medium, or short).</para>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="VEhO" />selma'o VEhO (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section5" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Elidable terminator for
<xref linkend="VEI" />: right mathematical parenthesis.</para>
+<!-- ^^ mathematical parenthesis: left, 506 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mathematical parenthesis</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
li vei ny. su'i pa ve'o pi'i vei ny. su'i pa [ve'o] du
li ny. [bo] te'a re su'i re bo pi'i ny. su'i pa
+<!-- ^^ te'a, 437 -->
+<indexterm><primary>te'a</primary></indexterm>
The-number (“n” plus one) times (“n” plus one) equals
the-number n-power-two plus two-times-“n” plus 1.
(n + 1)(n + 1) = n
<superscript>2</superscript> + 2n + 1
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="VIhA" />selma'o VIhA (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section7" />)</bridgehead>
<para>A tense indicating dimensionality in space (line, plane, volume, or space-time interval).</para>
+<!-- ^^ dimensionality: of walking, 224; order with size in spatial tense intervals, 224; spatial, 506 -->
+<indexterm><primary>dimensionality</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
le verba ve'a vi'a cadzu le bisli
+<!-- ^^ vi'a, 224 -->
+<indexterm><primary>vi'a</primary></indexterm>
The child [medium space interval] [2-dimensional] walks-on the ice.
In a medium-sized area, the child walks on the ice.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="VUhO" />selma'o VUhO (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section8" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Attaches relative clauses or phrases to a whole (possibly connected) sumti, rather than simply to the leftmost portion of the sumti.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
la frank. ce la djordj. vu'o noi gidva cu zvati le kumfa
Frank [in-set-with] George, which are-guides, are-in the room.
@@ -1107,41 +1253,47 @@
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
xy. xi re
x sub 2
x
<subscript>2</subscript>
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="Y" />selma'o Y (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section14" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Hesitation noise: content-free, but holds the floor or continues the conversation. It is different from silence in that silence may be interpreted as having nothing more to say.</para>
+<!-- ^^ continues: example, 228 -->
+<indexterm><primary>continues</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
doi .y. .y. .djan
O, uh, uh, John!
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="ZAhO" />selma'o ZAhO (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section10" />)</bridgehead>
<para>A tense modifier specifying the contour of an event (e.g. beginning, ending, continuing).</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi pu'o damba
I [inchoative] fight.
I’m on the verge of fighting.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="ZEI" />selma'o ZEI (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4-section6" />)</bridgehead>
<para>A morphological glue word, which joins the two words it stands between into the equivalent of a lujvo.</para>
+<!-- ^^ morphological glue, 507 -->
+<indexterm><primary>morphological glue</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ta xy. zei kantu kacma
That is-an-(X - ray) camera.
That is an X-ray camera.
+<!-- ^^ X-ray: example, 60 -->
+<indexterm><primary>X-ray</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="ZEhA" />selma'o ZEhA (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10-section5" />)</bridgehead>
<para>A tense indicating the size of an interval in time (long, medium, or short).</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi puze'a citka
I [past] [short interval] eat.
I ate for a little while.
</programlisting>
@@ -1161,31 +1313,37 @@
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi ponse pa gerku ku poi blabi zi'e noi mi prami ke'a
I own one dog such-that it-is-white and such-that-incidentally I love it.
I own a dog that is white and which, incidentally, I love.
I own a white dog, which I love.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="ZO" />selma'o ZO (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section10" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Single-word quotation: quotes the following single Lojban word.</para>
+<!-- ^^ word quotation: as morphologically valid, 141; internal grammar of, 141 -->
+<indexterm><primary>word quotation</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
zo si cu lojbo valsi
The-word “si” is-a-Lojbanic word.
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="ZOI" />selma'o ZOI (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section10" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Non-Lojban quotation: quotes any text using a delimiting word (which can be any single Lojban word) placed before and after the text. The delimiting word must not appear in the text, and must be separated from the text by pauses.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
zoi kuot. Socrates is mortal .kuot. cu glico jufra
+<!-- ^^ Socrates: example, 198 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Socrates</primary></indexterm>
The-text “Socrates is mortal” is-an-English sentence.
+<!-- ^^ Socrates: example, 198 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Socrates</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<bridgehead>
<anchor xml:id="ZOhU" />selma'o ZOhU (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16-section2" />,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19-section4" />)</bridgehead>
<para>Separates a logical prenex from a bridi or group of sentences to which it applies. Also separates a topic from a comment in topic/comment sentences.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
su'o da poi remna ro da poi finpe zo'u da prami de
For-at-least-one X which is-a-man, for-all Ys which are-fish : X loves Y
There is a man who loves all fish.
diff --git a/todocbook/21.xml b/todocbook/21.xml
index f261cd6..d422ebc 100644
--- a/todocbook/21.xml
+++ b/todocbook/21.xml
@@ -1,24 +1,32 @@
<chapter xml:id="cll_chapter21">
<title>Chapter 21 Formal Grammars</title>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter21-section1">
<title>1. YACC Grammar of Lojban</title>
<para>The following two listings constitute the formal grammar of Lojban. The first version is written in the YACC language, which is used to describe parsers, and has been used to create a parser for Lojban texts. This parser is available from the Logical Language Group. The second listing is in Extended Backus-Naur Form (EBNF) and represents the same grammar in a more human-readable form. (In case of discrepancies, the YACC version is official.) There is a cross-reference listing for each format that shows, for each selma'o and rule, which rules refer to it.</para>
+<!-- ^^ formal grammar, 511 -->
+<indexterm><primary>formal grammar</primary></indexterm>
<para>/* /*Lojban Machine Grammar, Final Baseline The Lojban Machine Grammardocument is explicitly dedicated to the public domain by its author,The Logical Language Group, Inc.</para>
<para>grammar.300 */</para>
<para>/* The Lojban machine parsing algorithm is a multi-step process. The YACC machine grammar presented here is an amalgam of those steps, concatenated so as to allow YACC to verify the syntactic ambiguity of the grammar. YACC is used to generate a parser for a portion of the grammar, which is LALR1 (the type of grammar that YACC is designed to identify and process successfully), but most of the rest of the grammar must be parsed using some language-coded processing.</para>
+<!-- ^^ machine grammar, 511 -->
+<indexterm><primary>machine grammar</primary></indexterm>
<bridgehead>Step 1 - Lexing</bridgehead>
<para>From phonemes, stress, and pause, it is possible to resolve Lojban unambiguously into a stream of words. Any machine processing of speech will have to have some way to deal with ’non-Lojban’ failures of fluent speech, of course. The resolved words can be expressed as a text file using Lojban’s phonetic spelling rules.</para>
<para>The following steps assume that there is the possibility of non-Lojban text within the Lojban text (delimited appropriately). Such non-Lojban text may not be reducible from speech phonetically. However, step 2 allows the filtering of a phonetically transcribed text stream, to recognize such portions of non-Lojban text where properly delimited, without interference with the parsing algorithm.</para>
+<!-- ^^ non-Lojban text: rules for pause with, 69 -->
+<indexterm><primary>non-Lojban text</primary></indexterm>
<bridgehead>Step 2 - Filtering</bridgehead>
<para>From start to end, performing the following filtering and lexing tasks using the given order of precedence in case of conflict:</para>
<para>a. If the Lojban word “zoi” (selma'o ZOI) is identified, take the following Lojban word (which should be end delimited with a pause for separation from the following non-Lojban text) as an opening delimiter. Treat all text following that delimiter, until that delimiter recurs
+<!-- ^^ non-Lojban text: rules for pause with, 69 -->
+<indexterm><primary>non-Lojban text</primary></indexterm>
<emphasis>after a pause</emphasis>, as grammatically a single token (labelled ’
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-699" />’ in this grammar). There is no need for processing within this text except as necessary to find the closing delimiter.</para>
<para>b. If the Lojban word “zo” (selma'o ZO) is identified, treat the following Lojban word as a token labelled ’
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-698" />’, instead of lexing it by its normal grammatical function.</para>
<para>c. If the Lojban word “lo'u” (selma'o LOhU) is identified, search for the closing delimiter “le'u” (selma'o LEhU), ignoring any such closing delimiters absorbed by the previous two steps. The text between the delimiters should be treated as the single token ’
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-697" />’.</para>
<para>d. Categorize all remaining words into their Lojban selma'o category, including the various delimiters mentioned in the previous steps. In all steps after step 2, only the selma'o token type is significant for each word.</para>
<para>e. If the word “si” (selma'o SI) is identified, erase it and the previous word (or token, if the previous text has been condensed into a single token by one of the above rules).</para>
<para>f. If the word “sa” (selma'o SA) is identified, erase it and all preceding text as far back as necessary to make what follows attach to what precedes. (This rule is hard to formalize and may receive further definition later.)</para>
<para>g. If the word ’su’ (selma'o SU) is identified, erase it and all preceding text back to and including the first preceding token word which is in one of the selma'o: NIhO, LU, TUhE, and TO. However, if speaker identification is available, a SU shall only erase to the beginning of a speaker’s discourse, unless it occurs at the beginning of a speaker’s discourse. (Thus, if the speaker has said something, two adjacent uses of “su” are required to erase the entire conversation.</para>
@@ -26,23 +34,27 @@
<para>If the text contains a FAhO, treat that as the end-of-text and ignore everything that follows it.</para>
<bridgehead>Step 4 - Absorption of Grammar-Free Tokens</bridgehead>
<para>In a new pass, perform the following absorptions (absorption means that the token is removed from the grammar for processing in following steps, and optionally reinserted, grouped with the absorbing token after parsing is completed).</para>
<para>a. Token sequences of the form any - (ZEI - any) ..., where there may be any number of ZEIs, are merged into a single token of selma'o BRIVLA.</para>
<para>b. Absorb all selma'o BAhE tokens into the following token. If they occur at the end of text, leave them alone (they are errors).</para>
<para>c. Absorb all selma'o BU tokens into the previous token. Relabel the previous token as selma'o BY.</para>
<para>d. If selma'o NAI occurs immediately following any of tokens UI or CAI, absorb the NAI into the previous token.</para>
<para>e. Absorb all members of selma'o DAhO, FUhO, FUhE, UI, Y, and CAI into the previous token. All of these null grammar tokens are permitted following any word of the grammar, without interfering with that word’s grammatical function, or causing any effect on the grammatical interpretation of any other token in the text. Indicators at the beginning of text are explicitly handled by the grammar.</para>
<bridgehead>Step 5 - Insertion of Lexer Lexemes</bridgehead>
<para>Lojban is not in itself LALR1. There are words whose grammatical function is determined by following tokens. As a result, parsing of the YACC grammar must take place in two steps. In the first step, certain strings of tokens with defined grammars are identified, and either</para>
+<!-- ^^ YACC grammar, 511 -->
+<indexterm><primary>YACC grammar</primary></indexterm>
<para>a. are replaced by a single specified ’lexer token’ for step 6, or</para>
<para>b. the lexer token is inserted in front of the token string to identify it uniquely.</para>
<para>The YACC grammar included herein is written to make YACC generation of a step 6 parser easy regardless of whether a. or b. is used. The strings of tokens to be labelled with lexer tokens are found in rule terminals labelled with numbers between 900 and 1099. These rules are defined with the lexer tokens inserted, with the result that it can be verified that the language is LALR1 under option b. after steps 1 through 4 have been performed. Alternatively, if option a. is to be used, these rules are commented out, and the rule terminals labelled from 800 to 900 refer to the lexer tokens
+<!-- ^^ YACC grammar, 511 -->
+<indexterm><primary>YACC grammar</primary></indexterm>
<emphasis>without</emphasis>the strings of defining tokens. Two sets of lexer tokens are defined in the token set so as to be compatible with either option.</para>
<para>In this step, the strings must be labelled with the appropriate lexer tokens. Order of inserting lexer tokens
<emphasis>IS</emphasis>significant, since some shorter strings that would be marked with a lexer token may be found inside longer strings. If the tokens are inserted before or in place of the shorter strings, the longer strings cannot be identified.</para>
<para>If option a. is chosen, the following order of insertion works correctly (it is not the only possible order): A, C, D, B, U, E, H, I, J, K, M, N, G, O, V, W, F, P, R, T, S, Y, L, Q. This ensures that the longest rules will be processed first; a PA+MAI will not be seen as a PA with a dangling MAI at the end, for example.</para>
<bridgehead>Step 6 - YACC Parsing</bridgehead>
<para>YACC should now be able to parse the Lojban text in accordance with the rule terminals labelled from 1 to 899 under option 5a, or 1 to 1099 under option 5b. Comment out the rules beyond 900 if option 5a is used, and comment out the 700-series of lexer-tokens, while restoring the series of lexer tokens numbered from 900 up.</para>
<para>*/</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
%token
<anchor xml:id="y501" />
@@ -73,50 +85,58 @@
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #509" xml:id="cll_yacc-509" />BRIVLA_509 /* any brivla */
%token
<anchor xml:id="y511" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #511" xml:id="cll_yacc-511" />BU_511 /* turns any word into a BY lerfu word */
%token
<anchor xml:id="y513" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #513" xml:id="cll_yacc-513" />BY_513 /* individual lerfu words */
%token
<anchor xml:id="y514" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #514" xml:id="cll_yacc-514" />CAhA_514 /* specifies actuality/potentiality of tense */
+<!-- ^^ actuality: expressing in past/future, 244; Lojban contrasted with English in implying, 243; marking, 491 -->
+<indexterm><primary>actuality</primary></indexterm>
%token
<anchor xml:id="y515" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #515" xml:id="cll_yacc-515" />CAI_515 /* afterthought intensity marker */
%token
<anchor xml:id="y516" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #516" xml:id="cll_yacc-516" />CEI_516 /* pro-bridi assignment operator */
%token
<anchor xml:id="y517" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #517" xml:id="cll_yacc-517" />CEhE_517 /* afterthought term list connective */
%token
<anchor xml:id="y518" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #518" xml:id="cll_yacc-518" />CMENE_518 /* names; require consonant end, then pause no
LA or DOI selma'o embedded, pause before if
+<!-- ^^ DOI selma'o, 136, 183, 323, 492; quick-tour version, 21; terminator for, 492 -->
+<indexterm><primary>DOI selma'o</primary></indexterm>
vowel initial and preceded by a vowel */
%token
<anchor xml:id="y519" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #519" xml:id="cll_yacc-519" />CO_519 /* tanru inversion */
+<!-- ^^ tanru inversion, 95; definition, 95; effect on tanru grouping, 96; in complex tanru, 96; multiple, 96; rule for removing, 96; where allowed, 96 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tanru inversion</primary></indexterm>
%token
<anchor xml:id="y520" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #520" xml:id="cll_yacc-520" />COI_520 /* vocative marker permitted inside names; must
always be followed by pause or DOI */
%token
<anchor xml:id="y521" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #521" xml:id="cll_yacc-521" />CU_521 /* separator between head sumti and selbri */
%token
<anchor xml:id="y522" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #522" xml:id="cll_yacc-522" />CUhE_522 /* tense/modal question */
%token
<anchor xml:id="y524" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #524" xml:id="cll_yacc-524" />DAhO_524 /* cancel anaphora/cataphora assignments */
+<!-- ^^ anaphora: definition, 152; pro-bridi go'i-series as, 152; pro-sumti ri-series as, 152; pro-sumti vo'a-series as, 158 -->
+<indexterm><primary>anaphora</primary></indexterm>
%token
<anchor xml:id="y525" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #525" xml:id="cll_yacc-525" />DOI_525 /* vocative marker */
%token
<anchor xml:id="y526" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #526" xml:id="cll_yacc-526" />DOhU_526 /* terminator for DOI-marked vocatives */
%token
<anchor xml:id="y527" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #527" xml:id="cll_yacc-527" />FA_527 /* modifier head generic case tag */
%token
@@ -125,35 +145,41 @@
%token
<anchor xml:id="y529" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #529" xml:id="cll_yacc-529" />FAhO_529 /* normally elided ’done pause’ to indicate end
of utterance string */
%token
<anchor xml:id="y530" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #530" xml:id="cll_yacc-530" />FEhE_530 /* space interval mod flag */
%token
<anchor xml:id="y531" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #531" xml:id="cll_yacc-531" />FEhU_531 /* ends bridi to modal conversion */
+<!-- ^^ modal conversion: access to original first place with fai, 206; grammar of, 206; place structure of, 206; with no modal specified, 206 -->
+<indexterm><primary>modal conversion</primary></indexterm>
%token
<anchor xml:id="y532" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #532" xml:id="cll_yacc-532" />FIhO_532 /* marks bridi to modal conversion */
+<!-- ^^ modal conversion: access to original first place with fai, 206; grammar of, 206; place structure of, 206; with no modal specified, 206 -->
+<indexterm><primary>modal conversion</primary></indexterm>
%token
<anchor xml:id="y533" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #533" xml:id="cll_yacc-533" />FOI_533 /* end compound lerfu */
%token
<anchor xml:id="y535" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #535" xml:id="cll_yacc-535" />FUhE_535 /* open long scope for indicator */
%token
<anchor xml:id="y536" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #536" xml:id="cll_yacc-536" />FUhO_536 /* close long scope for indicator */
%token
<anchor xml:id="y537" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #537" xml:id="cll_yacc-537" />GA_537 /* geks; forethought logical connectives */
+<!-- ^^ forethought logical connectives: within tanru, 92 -->
+<indexterm><primary>forethought logical connectives</primary></indexterm>
%token
<anchor xml:id="y538" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #538" xml:id="cll_yacc-538" />GEhU_538 /* marker ending GOI relative clauses */
%token
<anchor xml:id="y539" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #539" xml:id="cll_yacc-539" />GI_539 /* forethought medial marker */
%token
<anchor xml:id="y541" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #541" xml:id="cll_yacc-541" />GIhA_541 /* logical connectives for bridi-tails */
%token
@@ -167,38 +193,42 @@
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #544" xml:id="cll_yacc-544" />GUhA_544 /* GEK for tanru units, corresponds to JEKs */
%token
<anchor xml:id="y545" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #545" xml:id="cll_yacc-545" />I_545 /* sentence link */
%token
<anchor xml:id="y546" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #546" xml:id="cll_yacc-546" />JA_546 /* jeks; logical connectives within tanru */
%token
<anchor xml:id="y547" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #547" xml:id="cll_yacc-547" />JAI_547 /* modal conversion flag */
+<!-- ^^ modal conversion: access to original first place with fai, 206; grammar of, 206; place structure of, 206; with no modal specified, 206 -->
+<indexterm><primary>modal conversion</primary></indexterm>
%token
<anchor xml:id="y548" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #548" xml:id="cll_yacc-548" />JOI_548 /* non-logical connectives */
%token
<anchor xml:id="y550" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #550" xml:id="cll_yacc-550" />KEhE_550 /* right terminator for KE groups */
%token
<anchor xml:id="y551" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #551" xml:id="cll_yacc-551" />KE_551 /* left long scope marker */
%token
<anchor xml:id="y552" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #552" xml:id="cll_yacc-552" />KEI_552 /* right terminator, NU abstractions */
%token
<anchor xml:id="y554" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #554" xml:id="cll_yacc-554" />KI_554 /* multiple utterance scope for tenses */
%token
<anchor xml:id="y555" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #555" xml:id="cll_yacc-555" />KOhA_555 /* sumti anaphora */
+<!-- ^^ anaphora: definition, 152; pro-bridi go'i-series as, 152; pro-sumti ri-series as, 152; pro-sumti vo'a-series as, 158 -->
+<indexterm><primary>anaphora</primary></indexterm>
%token
<anchor xml:id="y556" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #556" xml:id="cll_yacc-556" />KU_556 /* right terminator for descriptions, etc. */
%token
<anchor xml:id="y557" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #557" xml:id="cll_yacc-557" />KUhO_557 /* right terminator, NOI relative clauses */
%token
<anchor xml:id="y558" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #558" xml:id="cll_yacc-558" />LA_558 /* name descriptors */
%token
@@ -288,26 +318,30 @@
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #597" xml:id="cll_yacc-597" />SEI_597 /* metalinguistic bridi insert marker */
%token
<anchor xml:id="y598" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #598" xml:id="cll_yacc-598" />SEhU_598 /* metalinguistic bridi end marker */
%token
<anchor xml:id="y601" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #601" xml:id="cll_yacc-601" />SI_601 /* metalinguistic single word eraser */
%token
<anchor xml:id="y602" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #602" xml:id="cll_yacc-602" />SOI_602 /* reciprocal sumti marker */
+<!-- ^^ reciprocal: expression of mathematical, 433 -->
+<indexterm><primary>reciprocal</primary></indexterm>
%token
<anchor xml:id="y603" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #603" xml:id="cll_yacc-603" />SU_603 /* metalinguistic eraser of the entire text */
%token
<anchor xml:id="y604" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #604" xml:id="cll_yacc-604" />TAhE_604 /* tense interval properties */
+<!-- ^^ interval properties: meaning as sumti tcita, 233; strings of, 246 -->
+<indexterm><primary>interval properties</primary></indexterm>
%token
<anchor xml:id="y605" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #605" xml:id="cll_yacc-605" />TEI_605 /* start compound lerfu */
%token
<anchor xml:id="y606" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #606" xml:id="cll_yacc-606" />TO_606 /* left discursive parenthesis */
%token
<anchor xml:id="y607" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #607" xml:id="cll_yacc-607" />TOI_607 /* right discursive parenthesis */
%token
@@ -318,42 +352,52 @@
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #611" xml:id="cll_yacc-611" />TUhU_611 /* multiple utterance end scope mark */
%token
<anchor xml:id="y612" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #612" xml:id="cll_yacc-612" />UI_612 /* attitudinals, observationals, discursives */
%token
<anchor xml:id="y613" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #613" xml:id="cll_yacc-613" />VA_613 /* distance in space-time */
%token
<anchor xml:id="y614" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #614" xml:id="cll_yacc-614" />VAU_614 /* end simple bridi or bridi-tail */
+<!-- ^^ simple bridi: terminator for, 506 -->
+<indexterm><primary>simple bridi</primary></indexterm>
%token
<anchor xml:id="y615" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #615" xml:id="cll_yacc-615" />VEhA_615 /* space-time interval size */
+<!-- ^^ interval size: as context-dependent, 222; meaning as sumti tcita, 233; spatial, 506; time, 507; unspecified, 223; vague, 223 -->
+<indexterm><primary>interval size</primary></indexterm>
%token
<anchor xml:id="y616" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #616" xml:id="cll_yacc-616" />VIhA_616 /* space-time dimensionality marker */
+<!-- ^^ dimensionality: of walking, 224; order with size in spatial tense intervals, 224; spatial, 506 -->
+<indexterm><primary>dimensionality</primary></indexterm>
%token
<anchor xml:id="y617" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #617" xml:id="cll_yacc-617" />VUhO_617 /* glue between logically connected sumti
and relative clauses */
%token
<anchor xml:id="y618" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #618" xml:id="cll_yacc-618" />XI_618 /* subscripting operator */
%token
<anchor xml:id="y619" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #619" xml:id="cll_yacc-619" />Y_619 /* hesitation */
+<!-- ^^ hesitation, 484, 507 -->
+<indexterm><primary>hesitation</primary></indexterm>
%token
<anchor xml:id="y621" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #621" xml:id="cll_yacc-621" />ZAhO_621 /* event properties - inchoative, etc. */
%token
<anchor xml:id="y622" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #622" xml:id="cll_yacc-622" />ZEhA_622 /* time interval size tense */
+<!-- ^^ interval size: as context-dependent, 222; meaning as sumti tcita, 233; spatial, 506; time, 507; unspecified, 223; vague, 223 -->
+<indexterm><primary>interval size</primary></indexterm>
%token
<anchor xml:id="y623" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #623" xml:id="cll_yacc-623" />ZEI_623 /* lujvo glue */
%token
<anchor xml:id="y624" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #624" xml:id="cll_yacc-624" />ZI_624 /* time distance tense */
%token
<anchor xml:id="y625" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #625" xml:id="cll_yacc-625" />ZIhE_625 /* conjoins relative clauses */
%token
@@ -371,29 +415,35 @@
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #650" xml:id="cll_yacc-650" />BIhE_650 /* prefix for high-priority MEX operator */
%token
<anchor xml:id="y651" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #651" xml:id="cll_yacc-651" />BOI_651 /* number or lerfu-string terminator */
%token
<anchor xml:id="y655" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #655" xml:id="cll_yacc-655" />FUhA_655 /* reverse Polish flag */
%token
<anchor xml:id="y656" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #656" xml:id="cll_yacc-656" />GAhO_656 /* open/closed interval markers for BIhI */
+<!-- ^^ closed interval, 360; expressed with mi'i, 455 -->
+<!-- ^^ mi'i, 359, 455 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mi'i</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>closed interval</primary></indexterm>
%token
<anchor xml:id="y657" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #657" xml:id="cll_yacc-657" />JOhI_657 /* flags an array operand */
%token
<anchor xml:id="y658" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #658" xml:id="cll_yacc-658" />KUhE_658 /* MEX forethought delimiter */
%token
<anchor xml:id="y661" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #661" xml:id="cll_yacc-661" />MAI_661 /* change numbers to utterance ordinals */
+<!-- ^^ ordinals: utterance, 474 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ordinals</primary></indexterm>
%token
<anchor xml:id="y662" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #662" xml:id="cll_yacc-662" />MAhO_662 /* change MEX expressions to MEX operators */
%token
<anchor xml:id="y663" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #663" xml:id="cll_yacc-663" />MOI_663 /* change number to selbri */
%token
<anchor xml:id="y664" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #664" xml:id="cll_yacc-664" />MOhE_664 /* change sumti to operand, inverse of LI */
%token
@@ -436,20 +486,22 @@
/* The following tokens are the actual lexer tokens. The _900 series
tokens are duplicates that allow limited testing of lexer rules in the
context of the total grammar. They are used in the actual parser, where
the 900 series rules are found in the lexer. */
%token lexer_
<anchor xml:id="y701" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #701" xml:id="cll_yacc-701" />A_701 /* flags a MAI utterance ordinal */
+<!-- ^^ utterance ordinal: lerfu string as, 423 -->
+<indexterm><primary>utterance ordinal</primary></indexterm>
%token lexer_
<anchor xml:id="y702" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #702" xml:id="cll_yacc-702" />B_702 /* flags an EK unless EK_BO, EK_KE */
%token lexer_
<anchor xml:id="y703" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #703" xml:id="cll_yacc-703" />C_703 /* flags an EK_BO */
%token lexer_
<anchor xml:id="y704" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #704" xml:id="cll_yacc-704" />D_704 /* flags an EK_KE */
%token lexer_
@@ -830,20 +882,22 @@ the 900 series rules are found in the lexer. */
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #36" xml:id="cll_yacc-36" />parenthetical_36 :
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-606" />
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-0" />
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-468" />
;
<anchor xml:id="y40" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #40" xml:id="cll_yacc-40" />sentence_40 :
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-50" /> /* bare observative or mo answer */
+<!-- ^^ observative: contrasted with observation evidential, 316; definition, 188 -->
+<indexterm><primary>observative</primary></indexterm>
|
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-80" />
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-451" />
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-50" />
|
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-80" />
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-50" />
;
<anchor xml:id="y41" />
@@ -1039,35 +1093,45 @@ the 900 series rules are found in the lexer. */
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-94" />
;
<anchor xml:id="y95" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #95" xml:id="cll_yacc-95" />sumti_E_95 :
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-96" />
|
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-96" />
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-121" />
/* indefinite sumti */
+<!-- ^^ indefinite sumti: as implicit quantification, 406; compared to sumti with lo, 399; meaning when multiple in sentence, 398; multiple in sentence, 398 -->
+<!-- ^^ sumti with lo: compared to indefinite sumti, 399 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sumti with lo</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>indefinite sumti</primary></indexterm>
|
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-300" />
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-130" />
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-450" />
|
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-300" />
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-130" />
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-450" />
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-121" />
;
<anchor xml:id="y96" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #96" xml:id="cll_yacc-96" />sumti_F_96 :
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-97" />
/* outer-quantified sumti */
+<!-- ^^ quantified sumti: different types contrasted for scope for distribution, 399; relative clause scope with, 178 -->
+<!-- ^^ relative clause scope: extending to preceding sumti with vu'o, 182; with quantified relativized sumti, 178 -->
+<!-- ^^ relativized sumti: definition, 169; in relative clauses within relative clauses, 184 -->
+<indexterm><primary>relativized sumti</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>relative clause scope</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>quantified sumti</primary></indexterm>
|
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-300" />
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-97" />
;
<anchor xml:id="y97" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #97" xml:id="cll_yacc-97" />sumti_G_97 :
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-483" />
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-90" />
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-463" />
@@ -1106,20 +1170,26 @@ the 900 series rules are found in the lexer. */
|
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-488" />
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-111" />
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-450" />
;
<anchor xml:id="y111" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #111" xml:id="cll_yacc-111" />sumti_tail_111 :
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-112" />
/* inner-quantified sumti relative clause */
+<!-- ^^ quantified sumti: different types contrasted for scope for distribution, 399; relative clause scope with, 178 -->
+<!-- ^^ relative clause scope: extending to preceding sumti with vu'o, 182; with quantified relativized sumti, 178 -->
+<!-- ^^ relativized sumti: definition, 169; in relative clauses within relative clauses, 184 -->
+<indexterm><primary>relativized sumti</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>relative clause scope</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>quantified sumti</primary></indexterm>
|
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-121" />
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-112" />
/* pseudo-possessive
(an abbreviated inner restriction);
note that sumti cannot be quantified */
|
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-97" />
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-112" />
/* pseudo-possessive with outer restriction */
@@ -1346,37 +1416,43 @@ the 900 series rules are found in the lexer. */
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-471" />
;
/* Entry point for MEX used after LI; no parens needed, but LI now has an
elidable terminator. (This allows us to express the difference between
“the expression a + b” and “the expression (a + b)” ) */
/* This rule supports left-grouping infix expressions and reverse Polish
+<!-- ^^ infix expressions: in operands being used in Polish notation, 439 -->
+<indexterm><primary>infix expressions</primary></indexterm>
expressions. To handle infix monadic, use a null operand; to handle
+<!-- ^^ null operand: for infix operations with too few operands, 450 -->
+<indexterm><primary>null operand</primary></indexterm>
infix with more than two operands (whatever that means) use an extra
operator or an array operand. */
<anchor xml:id="y310" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #310" xml:id="cll_yacc-310" />MEX_310 :
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-311" />
|
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-310" />
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-370" />
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-311" />
|
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-441" />
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-330" />
;
/* Support for right-grouping (short scope) infix expressions with BIhE. */
+<!-- ^^ infix expressions: in operands being used in Polish notation, 439 -->
+<indexterm><primary>infix expressions</primary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="y311" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #311" xml:id="cll_yacc-311" />MEX_A_311 :
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-312" />
|
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-312" />
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-439" />
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-370" />
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-311" />
;
@@ -1402,21 +1478,25 @@ the 900 series rules are found in the lexer. */
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #313" xml:id="cll_yacc-313" />MEX_C_313 :
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-312" />
|
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-313" />
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-312" />
;
/* Reverse Polish expressions always have exactly two operands.
To handle one operand, use a null operand;
+<!-- ^^ null operand: for infix operations with too few operands, 450 -->
+<indexterm><primary>null operand</primary></indexterm>
to handle more than two operands, use a null operator. */
+<!-- ^^ null operator: for infix operations with too many operands, 451 -->
+<indexterm><primary>null operator</primary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="y330" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #330" xml:id="cll_yacc-330" />rp_expression_330 :
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-332" />
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-332" />
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-370" />
;
<anchor xml:id="y332" />
@@ -1860,20 +1940,22 @@ the 900 series rules are found in the lexer. */
this purpose, we will cheat on the use of ZO in such a quote (since this
is ungrammatical text, it is a sign ignored by the parser). Use ZO to
mark any nested quotation LOhU. The preparser then will absorb it by
the ZO rule, before testing for LOhU. This is obviously not the
standard usage for ZO, which would otherwise cause the result to be a
sumti. But, since the result will be part of an unparsed string anyway,
it doesn’t matter. */
/* It may be seen that any of the ZO/ZOI/LOhU trio of quotation markers
may contain the powerful metalinguistic erasers. Since these quotations
+<!-- ^^ metalinguistic erasers: within ungrammatical-Lojban quotation, 477 -->
+<indexterm><primary>metalinguistic erasers</primary></indexterm>
are not parsed internally, these operators are ignored within the quote.
To erase a ZO, then, two SI’s are needed after giving a quoted word of
any type. ZOI takes four SI’s, with the ENTIRE BODY OF THE QUOTE
treated as a single ’word’ since it is one selma'o. Thus one for the
quote body, two for the single word delimiters, and one for the ZOI. In
LOhU, the entire body is treated as a single word, so three SI’s can
erase it. */
/* All rule terminator names with ’gap’ in them are potentially
elidable, where such elision does not cause an ambiguity. This is
@@ -2579,20 +2661,22 @@ the 900 series rules are found in the lexer. */
;
<anchor xml:id="y824" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #824" xml:id="cll_yacc-824" />PA_MOI_824 :
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-1025" />
;
/* The following rules are used only in lexer processing. They have been
tested for ambiguity at various levels in the YACC grammar, but are in
+<!-- ^^ YACC grammar, 511 -->
+<indexterm><primary>YACC grammar</primary></indexterm>
the recursive descent lexer in the current parser. The lexer inserts
the lexer tokens before the processed strings, but leaves the original
tokens. */
<anchor xml:id="y905" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #905" xml:id="cll_yacc-905" />lexer_A_905 :
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-701" />
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-906" />
;
@@ -2967,20 +3051,22 @@ the 900 series rules are found in the lexer. */
<anchor xml:id="y978" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #978" xml:id="cll_yacc-978" />tense_B_978 :
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-979" />
|
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-514" />
|
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-979" />
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-514" />
;
/* specifies actuality/potentiality of the bridi */
+<!-- ^^ actuality: expressing in past/future, 244; Lojban contrasted with English in implying, 243; marking, 491 -->
+<indexterm><primary>actuality</primary></indexterm>
/* puca'a = actually was */
/* baca'a = actually will be */
/* bapu'i = can and will have */
/* banu'o = can, but won’t have yet */
/* canu'ojebapu'i = can, hasn’t yet, but will */
<anchor xml:id="y979" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #979" xml:id="cll_yacc-979" />tense_C_979 :
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-1030" />
@@ -3321,24 +3407,32 @@ the 900 series rules are found in the lexer. */
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-1050" />
;
<anchor xml:id="y1050" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #1050" xml:id="cll_yacc-1050" />space_int_props_A_1050 :
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-530" />
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-1051" />
;
/* This terminal gives an interval size in space-time (VEhA), and possibly a
+<!-- ^^ interval size: as context-dependent, 222; meaning as sumti tcita, 233; spatial, 506; time, 507; unspecified, 223; vague, 223 -->
+<indexterm><primary>interval size</primary></indexterm>
dimensionality of the interval. The dimensionality may also be used
+<!-- ^^ dimensionality: of walking, 224; order with size in spatial tense intervals, 224; spatial, 506 -->
+<indexterm><primary>dimensionality</primary></indexterm>
with the interval size left unspecified. When this terminal is used for the
+<!-- ^^ interval size: as context-dependent, 222; meaning as sumti tcita, 233; spatial, 506; time, 507; unspecified, 223; vague, 223 -->
+<indexterm><primary>interval size</primary></indexterm>
spacetime origin, then barring any overriding VIhA, a VIhA here defines
the dimensionality of the space-time being discussed. */
+<!-- ^^ dimensionality: of walking, 224; order with size in spatial tense intervals, 224; spatial, 506 -->
+<indexterm><primary>dimensionality</primary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="y1051" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #1051" xml:id="cll_yacc-1051" />interval_property_1051 :
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-961" />
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-594" />
|
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-961" />
@@ -3352,24 +3446,32 @@ the 900 series rules are found in the lexer. */
|
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-621" />
|
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-621" />
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-581" />
;
/* extensional/intensional interval parameters */
/* These may be appended to any defined interval, or may stand in place of
either time or space tenses. If no other tense is present, this terminal
+<!-- ^^ space tenses: quick-tour version, 26 -->
+<indexterm><primary>space tenses</primary></indexterm>
stands for the time-space interval parameter with an unspecified interval.*/
/* roroi = always and everywhere */
+<!-- ^^ always and everywhere: example, 231 -->
+<indexterm><primary>always and everywhere</primary></indexterm>
/* roroiku'avi = always here (ku'a = intersection) */
+<!-- ^^ ku'a, 354, 356 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ku'a</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ intersection: of sets, 356 -->
+<indexterm><primary>intersection</primary></indexterm>
/* puroroi = always in the past
/* paroi = once upon a time (somewhere) */
/* paroiku'avi = once upon a time here */
/* The following are “Lexer-only rules”, covered by steps 1-4 described
at the beginning. The grammar of these constructs is nonexistent,
except possibly in cases where they interact with each other. Even
there, however, the effects are semantic rather than grammatical. Where
it is believed possible that conflicts could exist, the grammar of these
@@ -3380,20 +3482,22 @@ the 900 series rules are found in the lexer. */
they can’t.) Constructs in this category include quotes and indicators
as defined above. (The above grammar handles utterance scope
(free_modifier) and clause scope (gap) applications of the latter,
however, and indicators should be allowed to be absorbed into almost any
word without changing its grammar.
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-601" />,
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-595" />, and
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-603" /> are metalinguistic erasers.
+<!-- ^^ metalinguistic erasers: within ungrammatical-Lojban quotation, 477 -->
+<indexterm><primary>metalinguistic erasers</primary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="y1100" />
<anchor xreflabel="YACC rule #1100" xml:id="cll_yacc-1100" />token_1100 :
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-698" />
|
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-503" />
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-698" />
|
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-699" />
|
@@ -6903,20 +7007,22 @@ the 900 series rules are found in the lexer. */
</variablelist>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter21-section2">
<title>2. EBNF Grammar of Lojban</title>
<para>Lojban Machine Grammar, EBNF Version, Final Baseline</para>
<para>This EBNF document is explicitly dedicated to the public domain by its author, The Logical Language Group, Inc. Contact that organization at: 2904 Beau Lane, Fairfax VA 22031 USA 703-385-0273 (intl: +1 703 385 0273)</para>
<para>Explanation of notation: All rules have the form:</para>
<para>name
<subscript>number</subscript>= bnf-expression</para>
<para>which means that the grammatical construct “name” is defined by “bnf-expression”. The number cross-references this grammar with the rule numbers in the YACC grammar. The names are the same as those in the YACC grammar, except that subrules are labeled with A, B, C, ... in the YACC grammar and with 1, 2, 3, ... in this grammar. In addition, rule 971 is “simple_tag” in the YACC grammar but “stag” in this grammar, because of its frequent appearance.</para>
+<!-- ^^ YACC grammar, 511 -->
+<indexterm><primary>YACC grammar</primary></indexterm>
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Names in lower case are grammatical constructs.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Names in UPPER CASE are selma'o (lexeme) names, and are terminals.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Concatenation is expressed by juxtaposition with no operator symbol.</para>
</listitem>
@@ -7344,20 +7450,22 @@ the 900 series rules are found in the lexer. */
<anchor xml:id="b136" />
<anchor xreflabel="BNF rule #136" xml:id="cll_bnf-136" />
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-136" /></para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>selbri-6
<subscript>136</subscript>=</term>
<listitem>
<para>tanru-unit [BO # selbri-6] | [NAhE #] guhek selbri gik selbri-6
+<!-- ^^ guhek: definition, 350 -->
+<indexterm><primary>guhek</primary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="b150" />
<anchor xreflabel="BNF rule #150" xml:id="cll_bnf-150" />
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-150" /></para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>tanru-unit
<subscript>150</subscript>=</term>
<listitem>
<para>tanru-unit-1 [CEI # tanru-unit-1] ...
@@ -7474,20 +7582,22 @@ the 900 series rules are found in the lexer. */
<anchor xml:id="b371" />
<anchor xreflabel="BNF rule #371" xml:id="cll_bnf-371" />
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-371" /></para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>operator-1
<subscript>371</subscript>=</term>
<listitem>
<para>operator-2 | guhek operator-1 gik operator-2 | operator-2 (jek | joik) [stag] BO # operator-1
+<!-- ^^ guhek: definition, 350 -->
+<indexterm><primary>guhek</primary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="b372" />
<anchor xreflabel="BNF rule #372" xml:id="cll_bnf-372" />
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-372" /></para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>operator-2
<subscript>372</subscript>=</term>
<listitem>
<para>mex-operator | KE # operator /KEhE#/
@@ -7651,20 +7761,22 @@ the 900 series rules are found in the lexer. */
<subscript>807</subscript>=</term>
<listitem>
<para>[SE] GA [NAI] # | joik GI # | stag gik
<anchor xml:id="b808" />
<anchor xreflabel="BNF rule #808" xml:id="cll_bnf-808" />
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-808" /></para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>guhek
+<!-- ^^ guhek: definition, 350 -->
+<indexterm><primary>guhek</primary></indexterm>
<subscript>808</subscript>=</term>
<listitem>
<para>[SE] GUhA [NAI] #
<anchor xml:id="b816" />
<anchor xreflabel="BNF rule #816" xml:id="cll_bnf-816" />
<xref linkend="cll_yacc-816" /></para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>gik
diff --git a/todocbook/3.xml b/todocbook/3.xml
index 77751ad..a841678 100644
--- a/todocbook/3.xml
+++ b/todocbook/3.xml
@@ -1,41 +1,69 @@
<chapter xml:id="cll_chapter3">
<title>Chapter 3 The Hills Are Alive With The Sounds Of Lojban</title>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter3-section1">
<title>1. Orthography</title>
<para>Lojban is designed so that any properly spoken Lojban utterance can be uniquely transcribed in writing, and any properly written Lojban can be spoken so as to be uniquely reproduced by another person. As a consequence, the standard Lojban orthography must assign to each distinct sound, or phoneme, a unique letter or symbol. Each letter or symbol has only one sound or, more accurately, a limited range of sounds that are permitted pronunciations for that phoneme. Some symbols indicate stress (speech emphasis) and pause, which are also essential to Lojban word recognition. In addition, everything that is represented in other languages by punctuation (when written) or by tone of voice (when spoken) is represented in Lojban by words. These two properties together are known technically as
+<!-- ^^ tone of voice, 297 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tone of voice</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ orthography: non-standard, 45; relation to pronunciation, 29 -->
+<indexterm><primary>orthography</primary></indexterm>
<quote>audio-visual isomorphism</quote>.</para>
+<!-- ^^ isomorphism: audio-visual, 29 -->
+<indexterm><primary>isomorphism</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ audio-visual isomorphism, 29 -->
+<!-- ^^ isomorphism: audio-visual, 29 -->
+<indexterm><primary>isomorphism</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>audio-visual isomorphism</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ isomorphism: audio-visual, 29 -->
+<indexterm><primary>isomorphism</primary></indexterm>
<para>Lojban uses a variant of the Latin (Roman) alphabet, consisting of the following letters and symbols:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
' , . a b c d e f g i j k l m n o p r s t u v x y z
</programlisting>
<para>omitting the letters
<quote>h</quote>,
<quote>q</quote>, and
<quote>w</quote>.</para>
<para>The alphabetic order given above is that of the ASCII coded character set, widely used in computers. By making Lojban alphabetical order the same as ASCII, computerized sorting and searching of Lojban text is facilitated.</para>
+<!-- ^^ ASCII: application to lerfu words, 425 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ASCII</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ alphabetic order, 29 -->
+<indexterm><primary>alphabetic order</primary></indexterm>
<para>Capital letters are used only to represent non-standard stress, which can appear only in the representation of Lojbanized names. Thus the English name
<quote>Josephine</quote>, as normally pronounced, is Lojbanized as
<quote>DJOsefin.</quote>, pronounced
<phrase role="IPA">['dʒosɛfinʔ]</phrase>. (See
<xref linkend="cll_chapter3-section2" />for an explanation of the symbols within square brackets.) Technically, it is sufficient to capitalize the vowel letter, in this case
+<!-- ^^ square brackets: use of in notation, 5 -->
+<indexterm><primary>square brackets</primary></indexterm>
<quote>O</quote>, but it is easier on the reader to capitalize the whole syllable.</para>
<para>Without the capitalization, the ordinary rules of Lojban stress would cause the
+<!-- ^^ capitalization: for unusual stress in names, 66; use in names, 66; use of, 66 -->
+<indexterm><primary>capitalization</primary></indexterm>
<quote>se</quote>syllable to be stressed. Lojbanized names are meant to represent the pronunciation of names from other languages with as little distortion as may be; as such, they are exempt from many of the regular rules of Lojban phonology, as will appear in the rest of this chapter.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter3-section2">
<title>2. Basic Phonetics</title>
<para>Lojban pronunciations are defined using the International Phonetic Alphabet, or IPA, a standard method of transcribing pronunciations. By convention, IPA transcriptions are always within square brackets: for example, the word
+<!-- ^^ square brackets: use of in notation, 5 -->
+<indexterm><primary>square brackets</primary></indexterm>
<quote>cat</quote>is pronounced (in General American pronunciation)
+<!-- ^^ General American, 42 -->
+<indexterm><primary>General American</primary></indexterm>
<phrase role="IPA">[kæt]</phrase>.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter3-section10" />contains a brief explanation of the IPA characters used in this chapter, with their nearest analogues in English, and will be especially useful to those not familiar with the technical terms used in describing speech sounds.</para>
+<!-- ^^ technical terms, 5 -->
+<indexterm><primary>technical terms</primary></indexterm>
<para>The standard pronunciations and permitted variants of the Lojban letters are listed in the table below. The descriptions have deliberately been made a bit ambiguous to cover variations in pronunciation by speakers of different native languages and dialects. In all cases except
+<!-- ^^ Lojban letters: IPA for pronouncing, 30; list with IPA pronunciation, 30 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Lojban letters</primary></indexterm>
<quote>r</quote>the first IPA symbol shown represents the preferred pronunciation; for
<quote>r</quote>, all of the variations (and any other rhotic sound) are equally acceptable.</para>
<informaltable>
<tgroup cols="4">
<colspec colnum="1" colname="col1" />
<colspec colnum="2" colname="col2" />
<colspec colnum="3" colname="col3" />
<colspec colnum="4" colname="col4" />
<thead>
<row>
@@ -238,20 +266,22 @@
<quote>o</quote>and
<quote>u</quote>are rounded and the others are not, as in English, but this is not a requirement; some people round
<quote>y</quote>as well. Lojban consonants can be aspirated or unaspirated. Palatalizing of consonants, as found in Russian and other languages, is not generally acceptable in pronunciation, though a following
<quote>i</quote>may cause it.</para>
<para>The sounds represented by the letters
<quote>c</quote>,
<quote>g</quote>,
<quote>j</quote>,
<quote>s</quote>, and
<quote>x</quote>require special attention for speakers of English, either because they are ambiguous in the orthography of English (
+<!-- ^^ orthography: non-standard, 45; relation to pronunciation, 29 -->
+<indexterm><primary>orthography</primary></indexterm>
<quote>c</quote>,
<quote>g</quote>,
<quote>s</quote>), or because they are strikingly different in Lojban (
<quote>c</quote>,
<quote>j</quote>,
<quote>x</quote>). The English
<quote>c</quote>represents three different sounds,
<phrase role="IPA">[k]</phrase>in
<quote>cat</quote>and
<phrase role="IPA">[s]</phrase>in
@@ -288,30 +318,40 @@
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter3-section3">
<title>3. The Special Lojban Characters</title>
<para>The apostrophe, period, and comma need special attention. They are all used as indicators of a division between syllables, but each has a different pronunciation, and each is used for different reasons:</para>
<para>The apostrophe represents a phoneme similar to a short, breathy English
<quote>h</quote>, (IPA
<phrase role="IPA">[h]</phrase>). The letter
<quote>h</quote>is not used to represent this sound for two reasons: primarily in order to simplify explanations of the morphology, but also because the sound is very common, and the apostrophe is a visually lightweight representation of it. The apostrophe sound is a consonant in nature, but is not treated as either a consonant or a vowel for purposes of Lojban morphology (word-formation), which is explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4" />. In addition, the apostrophe visually parallels the comma and the period, which are also used (in different ways) to separate syllables.</para>
<para>The apostrophe is included in Lojban only to enable a smooth transition between vowels, while joining the vowels within a single word. In fact, one way to think of the apostrophe is as representing an unvoiced vowel glide.</para>
+<!-- ^^ unvoiced vowel glide: apostrophe as, 31 -->
+<indexterm><primary>unvoiced vowel glide</primary></indexterm>
<para>As a permitted variant, any unvoiced fricative other than those already used in Lojban may be used to render the apostrophe: IPA
<phrase role="IPA">[θ]</phrase>is one possibility. The convenience of the listener should be regarded as paramount in deciding to use a substitute for
<phrase role="IPA">[h]</phrase>.</para>
<para>The period represents a mandatory pause, with no specified length; a glottal stop (IPA
+<!-- ^^ glottal stop: as pause in Lojban, 31 -->
+<indexterm><primary>glottal stop</primary></indexterm>
<phrase role="IPA">[ʔ]</phrase>) is considered a pause of shortest length. A pause (or glottal stop) may appear between any two words, and in certain cases - explained in detail in
+<!-- ^^ glottal stop: as pause in Lojban, 31 -->
+<indexterm><primary>glottal stop</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4" />- must occur. In particular, a word beginning with a vowel is always preceded by a pause, and a word ending in a consonant is always followed by a pause.</para>
<para>Technically, the period is an optional reminder to the reader of a mandatory pause that is dictated by the rules of the language; because these rules are unambiguous, a missing period can be inferred from otherwise correct text. Periods are included only as an aid to the reader.</para>
<para>A period also may be found apparently embedded in a word. When this occurs, such a written string is not one word but two, written together to indicate that the writer intends a unitary meaning for the compound. It is not really necessary to use a space between words if a period appears.</para>
<para>The comma is used to indicate a syllable break within a word, generally one that is not obvious to the reader. Such a comma is written to separate syllables, but indicates that there must be no pause between them, in contrast to the period. Between two vowels, a comma indicates that some type of glide may be necessary to avoid a pause that would split the two syllables into separate words. It is always legal to use the apostrophe (IPA
+<!-- ^^ syllable break: contrasted with pause, 32; representation in Lojban, 32; symbol for, 416; word for, 416 -->
+<indexterm><primary>syllable break</primary></indexterm>
<phrase role="IPA">[h]</phrase>) sound in pronouncing a comma. However, a comma cannot be pronounced as a pause or glottal stop between the two letters separated by the comma, because that pronunciation would split the word into two words.</para>
+<!-- ^^ glottal stop: as pause in Lojban, 31 -->
+<indexterm><primary>glottal stop</primary></indexterm>
<para>Otherwise, a comma is usually only used to clarify the presence of syllabic
<quote>l</quote>,
<quote>m</quote>,
<quote>n</quote>, or
<quote>r</quote>(discussed later). Commas are never required: no two Lojban words differ solely because of the presence or placement of a comma.</para>
<para>Here is a somewhat artificial example of the difference in pronunciation between periods, commas and apostrophes. In the English song about Old MacDonald's Farm, the vowel string which is written as
<quote>ee-i-ee-i-o</quote>in English could be Lojbanized with periods as:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c3e3d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter3-section3-example1" />3.1) .i.ai.i.ai.o
@@ -322,20 +362,22 @@
<para>However, this would sound clipped, staccato, and unmusical compared to the English. Furthermore, although
<xref linkend="cll_chapter3-section3-example1" />is a string of meaningful Lojban words, as a sentence it makes very little sense. (Note the use of periods embedded within the written word.)</para>
<para>If commas were used instead of periods, we could represent the English string as a Lojbanized name, ending in a consonant:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c3e3d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter3-section3-example2" />3.2) .i,ai,i,ai,on.
<phrase role="IPA">[ʔi jaj ji jaj jonʔ]</phrase>
</programlisting>
<para>The commas represent new syllable breaks, but prohibit the use of pauses or glottal stop. The pronunciation shown is just one possibility, but closely parallels the intended English pronunciation.</para>
+<!-- ^^ glottal stop: as pause in Lojban, 31 -->
+<indexterm><primary>glottal stop</primary></indexterm>
<para>However, the use of commas in this way is risky to unambiguous interpretation, since the glides might be heard by some listeners as diphthongs, producing something like</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-dQfn">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c3e3d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter3-section3-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.i,iai,ii,iai,ion.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -358,20 +400,22 @@
<phrase role="IPA">[j]</phrase>) glide, that either precedes (an on-glide) or follows (an off-glide) the main vowel. Diphthongs always constitute a single syllable.</para>
<para>For Lojban purposes, a vowel sound is a relatively long speech-sound that forms the nucleus of a syllable. Consonant sounds are relatively brief and normally require an accompanying vowel sound in order to be audible. Consonants may occur at the beginning or end of a syllable, around the vowel, and there may be several consonants in a cluster in either position. Each separate vowel sound constitutes a distinct syllable; consonant sounds do not affect the determination of syllables.</para>
<para>The six Lojban vowels are
<quote>a</quote>,
<quote>e</quote>,
<quote>i</quote>,
<quote>o</quote>,
<quote>u</quote>, and
<quote>y</quote>. The first five vowels appear freely in all kinds of Lojban words. The vowel
<quote>y</quote>has a limited distribution: it appears only in Lojbanized names, in the Lojban names of the letters of the alphabet, as a glue vowel in compound words, and standing alone as a space-filler word (like English
+<!-- ^^ compound words, 273 -->
+<indexterm><primary>compound words</primary></indexterm>
<quote>uh</quote>or
<quote>er</quote>).</para>
<para>The Lojban diphthongs are shown in the table below. (Variant pronunciations have been omitted, but are much as one would expect based on the variant pronunciations of the separate vowel letters:
<quote>ai</quote>may be pronounced
<phrase role="IPA">[ɑj]</phrase>, for example.)</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
Letters IPA Description
ai
<phrase role="IPA">[aj]</phrase> an open vowel with palatal off-glide
@@ -389,90 +433,136 @@
ii
<phrase role="IPA">[ji]</phrase> a front close vowel with palatal on-glide
io
<phrase role="IPA">[jo]</phrase> a back mid vowel with palatal on-glide
iu
<phrase role="IPA">[ju]</phrase> a back close vowel with palatal on-glide
ua
<phrase role="IPA">[wa]</phrase> an open vowel with labial on-glide
ue
+<!-- ^^ ue, 297 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ue</primary></indexterm>
<phrase role="IPA">[wɛ]</phrase> a front mid vowel with labial on-glide
ui
<phrase role="IPA">[wi]</phrase> a front close vowel with labial on-glide
uo
<phrase role="IPA">[wo]</phrase> a back mid vowel with labial on-glide
uu
<phrase role="IPA">[wu]</phrase> a back close vowel with labial on-glide
iy
<phrase role="IPA">[jə]</phrase> a central mid vowel with palatal on-glide
uy
<phrase role="IPA">[wə]</phrase> a central mid vowel with labial on-glide
</programlisting>
<para>(Approximate English equivalents of most of these diphthongs exist: see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter3-section11" />for examples.)</para>
<para>The first four diphthongs above (
<quote>ai</quote>,
<quote>ei</quote>,
<quote>oi</quote>, and
<quote>au</quote>, the ones with off-glides) are freely used in most types of Lojban words; the ten following ones are used only as stand-alone words and in Lojbanized names and borrowings; and the last two (
+<!-- ^^ borrowings: fu'ivla form with categorizing rafsi, 61; fu'ivla form without categorizing rafsi, 62; most common form for, 61; Stage 1, 61; Stage 2, 61; Stage 3, 61; Stage 3 contrasted with Stage 4 in ease of construction, 62; Stage 4, 62; using foreign-language name, 61; using lojbanized name, 61 -->
+<indexterm><primary>borrowings</primary></indexterm>
<quote>iy</quote>and
<quote>uy</quote>) are used only in Lojbanized names.</para>
<para>The syllabic consonants of Lojban,
+<!-- ^^ syllabic consonants, 34; effect on stress, 34; final in word, 34 -->
+<indexterm><primary>syllabic consonants</primary></indexterm>
<phrase role="IPA">[l̩]</phrase>,
<phrase role="IPA">[m̩]</phrase>,
<phrase role="IPA">[n̩]</phrase>, and
<phrase role="IPA">[r̩]</phrase>, are variants of the non-syllabic
<phrase role="IPA">[l]</phrase>,
<phrase role="IPA">[m]</phrase>,
<phrase role="IPA">[n]</phrase>, and
<phrase role="IPA">[r]</phrase>respectively. They normally have only a limited distribution, appearing in Lojban names and borrowings, although in principle any
+<!-- ^^ borrowings: fu'ivla form with categorizing rafsi, 61; fu'ivla form without categorizing rafsi, 62; most common form for, 61; Stage 1, 61; Stage 2, 61; Stage 3, 61; Stage 3 contrasted with Stage 4 in ease of construction, 62; Stage 4, 62; using foreign-language name, 61; using lojbanized name, 61 -->
+<indexterm><primary>borrowings</primary></indexterm>
<quote>l</quote>,
<quote>m</quote>,
<quote>n</quote>, or
<quote>r</quote>may be pronounced syllabically. If a syllabic consonant appears next to a
+<!-- ^^ syllabic consonant: effect on stress, 65 -->
+<indexterm><primary>syllabic consonant</primary></indexterm>
<quote>l</quote>,
<quote>m</quote>,
<quote>n</quote>, or
<quote>r</quote>that is not syllabic, it may not be clear which is which:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c3e4d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter3-section4-example1" />4.1) brlgan.
<phrase role="IPA">[br̩l gan]</phrase>
or
<phrase role="IPA">[brl̩ gan]</phrase>
</programlisting>
<para>is a hypothetical Lojbanized name with more than one valid pronunciation; however it is pronounced, it remains the same word.</para>
<para>Syllabic consonants are treated as consonants rather than vowels from the standpoint of Lojban morphology. Thus Lojbanized names, which are generally required to end in a consonant, are allowed to end with a syllabic consonant. An example is
+<!-- ^^ syllabic consonant: effect on stress, 65 -->
+<indexterm><primary>syllabic consonant</primary></indexterm>
<quote>rl.</quote>, which is an approximation of the English name
<quote>Earl</quote>, and has two syllabic consonants.</para>
+<!-- ^^ syllabic consonants, 34; effect on stress, 34; final in word, 34 -->
+<indexterm><primary>syllabic consonants</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ Earl: example, 34 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Earl</primary></indexterm>
<para>Syllables with syllabic consonants and no vowel are never stressed or counted when determining which syllables to stress (see
+<!-- ^^ syllabic consonants, 34; effect on stress, 34; final in word, 34 -->
+<indexterm><primary>syllabic consonants</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter3-section9" />).</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter3-section5">
<title>5. Vowel Pairs</title>
<para>Lojban vowels also occur in pairs, where each vowel sound is in a separate syllable. These two vowel sounds are connected (and separated) by an apostrophe. Lojban vowel pairs should be pronounced continuously with the
+<!-- ^^ vowel pairs: contrasted with diphthongs, 34; definition of, 34; grouping of, 35; involving y, 35; list of, 35; use of apostrophe in, 34 -->
+<indexterm><primary>vowel pairs</primary></indexterm>
<phrase role="IPA">[h]</phrase>sound between (and not by a glottal stop or pause, which would split the two vowels into separate words).</para>
+<!-- ^^ glottal stop: as pause in Lojban, 31 -->
+<indexterm><primary>glottal stop</primary></indexterm>
<para>All vowel combinations are permitted in two-syllable pairs with the apostrophe separating them; this includes those which constitute diphthongs when the apostrophe is not included.</para>
<para>The Lojban vowel pairs are:</para>
+<!-- ^^ vowel pairs: contrasted with diphthongs, 34; definition of, 34; grouping of, 35; involving y, 35; list of, 35; use of apostrophe in, 34 -->
+<indexterm><primary>vowel pairs</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
a'a a'e a'i a'o a'u a'y
+<!-- ^^ a'o, 297, 302 -->
+<indexterm><primary>a'o</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ a'i, 302 -->
+<indexterm><primary>a'i</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ a'a, 302 -->
+<indexterm><primary>a'a</primary></indexterm>
e'a e'e e'i e'o e'u e'y
+<!-- ^^ e'o, 303; contrasted with pe'u, 324 -->
+<indexterm><primary>e'o</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ e'e, 303 -->
+<indexterm><primary>e'e</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ e'a, 303 -->
+<indexterm><primary>e'a</primary></indexterm>
i'a i'e i'i i'o i'u i'y
+<!-- ^^ i'e, 304 -->
+<indexterm><primary>i'e</primary></indexterm>
o'a o'e o'i o'o o'u o'y
+<!-- ^^ o'u: example, 300 -->
+<indexterm><primary>o'u</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ o'i: example, 300 -->
+<indexterm><primary>o'i</primary></indexterm>
u'a u'e u'i u'o u'u u'y
+<!-- ^^ u'u, 299; contrasted with uu, 299 -->
+<indexterm><primary>u'u</primary></indexterm>
y'a y'e y'i y'o y'u y'y
</programlisting>
<para>Vowel pairs involving
<quote>y</quote>appear only in Lojbanized names. They could appear in cmavo (structure words), but only
+<!-- ^^ structure words, 50 -->
+<indexterm><primary>structure words</primary></indexterm>
<quote>.y'y.</quote>is so used - it is the Lojban name of the apostrophe letter (see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17" />).</para>
<para>When more than two vowels occur together in Lojban, the normal pronunciation pairs vowels from the left into syllables, as in the Lojbanized name:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-RxtI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c3e5d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter3-section5-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>meiin.</jbo>
@@ -497,20 +587,22 @@
<quote>ii</quote>. In rough English representation,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter3-section5-example1" />is
<quote>May Een</quote>, whereas
<xref linkend="cll_chapter3-section5-example2" />is
<quote>Meh Yeen</quote>.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter3-section6">
<title>6. Consonant Clusters</title>
<para>A consonant sound is a relatively brief speech-sound that precedes or follows a vowel sound in a syllable; its presence either preceding or following does not add to the count of syllables, nor is a consonant required in either position for any syllable. Lojban has seventeen consonants: for the purposes of this section, the apostrophe is not counted as a consonant.</para>
<para>An important distinction dividing Lojban consonants is that of voicing. The following table shows the unvoiced consonants and the corresponding voiced ones:</para>
+<!-- ^^ unvoiced consonants: contrasted with voiced in allowable consonant pairs, 37 -->
+<indexterm><primary>unvoiced consonants</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
UNVOICED VOICED
p b
t d
k g
f v
c j
s z
x -
</programlisting>
@@ -518,25 +610,29 @@
<quote>x</quote>has no voiced counterpart in Lojban. The remaining consonants,
<quote>l</quote>,
<quote>m</quote>,
<quote>n</quote>, and
<quote>r</quote>, are typically pronounced with voice, but can be pronounced unvoiced.</para>
<para>Consonant sounds occur in languages as single consonants, or as doubled, or as clustered combinations. Single consonant sounds are isolated by word boundaries or by intervening vowel sounds from other consonant sounds. Doubled consonant sounds are either lengthened like
<phrase role="IPA">[s]</phrase>in English
<quote>hiss</quote>, or repeated like
<phrase role="IPA">[k]</phrase>in English
<quote>backcourt</quote>. Consonant clusters consist of two or more single or doubled consonant sounds in a group, each of which is different from its immediate neighbor. In Lojban, doubled consonants are excluded altogether, and clusters are limited to two or three members, except in Lojbanized names.</para>
+<!-- ^^ doubled consonants: contrasted with consonant clusters, 35; contrasted with single consonants, 35 -->
+<indexterm><primary>doubled consonants</primary></indexterm>
<para>Consonants can occur in three positions in words: initial (at the beginning), medial (in the middle), and final (at the end). In many languages, the sound of a consonant varies depending upon its position in the word. In Lojban, as much as possible, the sound of a consonant is unrelated to its position. In particular, the common American English trait of changing a
<quote>t</quote>between vowels into a
<quote>d</quote>or even an alveolar tap (IPA
<phrase role="IPA">[ɾ]</phrase>) is unacceptable in Lojban.</para>
<para>Lojban imposes no restrictions on the appearance of single consonants in any valid consonant position; however, no consonant (including syllabic consonants) occurs final in a word except in Lojbanized names.</para>
+<!-- ^^ syllabic consonants, 34; effect on stress, 34; final in word, 34 -->
+<indexterm><primary>syllabic consonants</primary></indexterm>
<para>Pairs of consonants can also appear freely, with the following restrictions:</para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry>
<term>1)</term>
<listitem>
<para>It is forbidden for both consonants to be the same, as this would violate the rule against double consonants.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
<variablelist>
@@ -588,22 +684,28 @@
James
</programlisting>
<para>The regular English pronunciation of
<quote>James</quote>, which is
<phrase role="IPA">[dʒɛjmz]</phrase>, would Lojbanize as
<quote>djeimz.</quote>, which contains a forbidden consonant pair.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter3-section7">
<title>7. Initial Consonant Pairs</title>
<para>The set of consonant pairs that may appear at the beginning of a word (excluding Lojbanized names) is far more restricted than the fairly large group of permissible consonant pairs described in
+<!-- ^^ consonant pairs: in brivla, 53; initial, 36; letter y within, 53; restrictions on, 36 -->
+<indexterm><primary>consonant pairs</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter3-section6" />. Even so, it is more than English allows, although hopefully not more than English-speakers (and others) can learn to pronounce.</para>
<para>There are just 48 such permissible initial consonant pairs, as follows:</para>
+<!-- ^^ initial consonant pairs: list of, 37 -->
+<indexterm><primary>initial consonant pairs</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ consonant pairs: in brivla, 53; initial, 36; letter y within, 53; restrictions on, 36 -->
+<indexterm><primary>consonant pairs</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
bl br
cf ck cl cm cn cp cr ct
dj dr dz
fl fr
gl gr
jb jd jg jm jv
kl kr
ml mr
pl pr
@@ -638,24 +740,38 @@
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>The triples
<quote>ndj</quote>,
<quote>ndz</quote>,
<quote>ntc</quote>, and
<quote>nts</quote>are forbidden.</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
<para>Lojbanized names can begin or end with any permissible consonant pair, not just the 48 initial consonant pairs listed above, and can have consonant triples in any location, as long as the pairs making up those triples are permissible. In addition, names can contain consonant clusters with more than three consonants, again requiring that each pair within the cluster is valid.</para>
+<!-- ^^ initial consonant pairs: list of, 37 -->
+<indexterm><primary>initial consonant pairs</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ consonant triples, 37; restrictions on, 37 -->
+<indexterm><primary>consonant triples</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ consonant pairs: in brivla, 53; initial, 36; letter y within, 53; restrictions on, 36 -->
+<indexterm><primary>consonant pairs</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ consonant clusters: buffering of, 38; contrasted with doubled consonants, 35; contrasted with single consonants, 35; definition of, 35; more than three consonants in, 37 -->
+<!-- ^^ doubled consonants: contrasted with consonant clusters, 35; contrasted with single consonants, 35 -->
+<indexterm><primary>doubled consonants</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>consonant clusters</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter3-section8">
<title>8. Buffering Of Consonant Clusters</title>
<para>Many languages do not have consonant clusters at all, and even those languages that do have them often allow only a subset of the full Lojban set. As a result, the Lojban design allows the use of a buffer sound between consonant combinations which a speaker finds unpronounceable. This sound may be any non-Lojbanic vowel which is clearly separable by the listener from the Lojban vowels. Some possibilities are IPA
+<!-- ^^ consonant clusters: buffering of, 38; contrasted with doubled consonants, 35; contrasted with single consonants, 35; definition of, 35; more than three consonants in, 37 -->
+<!-- ^^ doubled consonants: contrasted with consonant clusters, 35; contrasted with single consonants, 35 -->
+<indexterm><primary>doubled consonants</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>consonant clusters</primary></indexterm>
<phrase role="IPA">[ɪ]</phrase>,
<phrase role="IPA">[ɨ]</phrase>,
<phrase role="IPA">[ʊ]</phrase>, or even
<phrase role="IPA">[ʏ]</phrase>, but there probably is no universally acceptable buffer sound. When using a consonant buffer, the sound should be made as short as possible. Two examples showing such buffering (we will use
<phrase role="IPA">[ɪ]</phrase>in this chapter) are:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c3e8d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter3-section8-example1" />8.1) vrusi
<phrase role="IPA">[ˈvru si]</phrase>
@@ -664,20 +780,22 @@
</programlisting>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c3e8d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter3-section8-example2" />8.2) .AMsterdam.
<phrase role="IPA">[ʔam ster damʔ]</phrase>
or
<phrase role="IPA">[ˈʔa mɪ sɪ tɛ rɪ da mɪʔ]</phrase>
</programlisting>
<para>When a buffer vowel is used, it splits each buffered consonant into its own syllable. However, the buffering syllables are never stressed, and are not counted in determining stress. They are, in effect, not really syllables to a Lojban listener, and thus their impact is ignored.</para>
+<!-- ^^ buffer vowel, 38; and stress, 38; shortening of, 39 -->
+<indexterm><primary>buffer vowel</primary></indexterm>
<para>Here are more examples of unbuffered and buffered pronunciations:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c3e8d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter3-section8-example3" />8.3) klama
<phrase role="IPA">[ˈkla ma]</phrase>
<phrase role="IPA">[kɪ ˈla ma]</phrase>
<anchor xml:id="c3e8d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter3-section8-example4" />8.4) xapcke
@@ -700,66 +818,86 @@
<quote>y</quote>, which is pronounced
<phrase role="IPA">[ə]</phrase>, with the buffer, which has a variety of possible pronunciations and is never written. Consider the contrast between</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c3e8d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter3-section8-example6" />8.6) bongynanba
<phrase role="IPA">[boŋ gə ˈnan ba]</phrase>
</programlisting>
<para>an unlikely Lojban compound word meaning
<quote>bone bread</quote>(note the use of
+<!-- ^^ bone bread: example, 38 -->
+<indexterm><primary>bone bread</primary></indexterm>
<phrase role="IPA">[ŋ]</phrase>as a representative of
<quote>n</quote>before
<quote>g</quote>) and</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c3e8d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter3-section8-example7" />8.7) bongnanba
<phrase role="IPA">[boŋ ˈgnan ba]</phrase>
</programlisting>
<para>a possible borrowing from another language (Lojban borrowings can only take a limited form). If
+<!-- ^^ borrowings: fu'ivla form with categorizing rafsi, 61; fu'ivla form without categorizing rafsi, 62; most common form for, 61; Stage 1, 61; Stage 2, 61; Stage 3, 61; Stage 3 contrasted with Stage 4 in ease of construction, 62; Stage 4, 62; using foreign-language name, 61; using lojbanized name, 61 -->
+<indexterm><primary>borrowings</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ borrowing: four stages of, 61 -->
+<indexterm><primary>borrowing</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter3-section8-example7" />were pronounced with buffering, as</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c3e8d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter3-section8-example8" />8.8)
<phrase role="IPA">[boŋ gɪ ˈnan ba]</phrase>
</programlisting>
<para>it would be very similar to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter3-section8-example6" />. Only a clear distinction between
<quote>y</quote>and any buffering vowel would keep the two words distinct.</para>
<para>Since buffering is done for the benefit of the speaker in order to aid pronounceability, there is no guarantee that the listener will not mistake a buffer vowel for one of the six regular Lojban vowels. The buffer vowel should be as laxly pronounced as possible, as central as possible, and as short as possible. Furthermore, it is worthwhile for speakers who use buffers to pronounce their regular vowels a bit longer than usual, to avoid confusion with buffer vowels. The speakers of many languages will have trouble correctly hearing any of the suggested buffer vowels otherwise. By this guideline,
+<!-- ^^ buffer vowel, 38; and stress, 38; shortening of, 39 -->
+<indexterm><primary>buffer vowel</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter3-section8-example8" />would be pronounced</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c3e8d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter3-section8-example9" />8.9)
<phrase role="IPA">[boːŋ gɪ ˈnaːn baː]</phrase>
</programlisting>
<para>with lengthened vowels.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter3-section9">
<title>9. Syllabication And Stress</title>
<para>A Lojban word has one syllable for each of its vowels, diphthongs, and syllabic consonants (referred to simply as
+<!-- ^^ syllabic consonants, 34; effect on stress, 34; final in word, 34 -->
+<indexterm><primary>syllabic consonants</primary></indexterm>
<quote>vowels</quote>for the purposes of this section.) Syllabication rules determine which of the consonants separating two vowels belong to the preceding vowel and which to the following vowel. These rules are conventional only; the phonetic facts of the matter about how utterances are syllabified in any language are always very complex.</para>
<para>A single consonant always belongs to the following vowel. A consonant pair is normally divided between the two vowels; however, if the pair constitute a valid initial consonant pair, they are normally both assigned to the following vowel. A consonant triple is divided between the first and second consonants. Apostrophes and commas, of course, also represent syllable breaks. Syllabic consonants usually appear alone in their syllables.</para>
<para>It is permissible to vary from these rules in Lojbanized names. For example, there are no definitive rules for the syllabication of names with consonant clusters longer than three consonants. The comma is used to indicate variant syllabication or to explicitly mark normal syllabication.</para>
+<!-- ^^ syllabication: and names, 39; definition of, 39; examples of, 39; rules for, 39; variants of, 41 -->
+<indexterm><primary>syllabication</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ consonant clusters: buffering of, 38; contrasted with doubled consonants, 35; contrasted with single consonants, 35; definition of, 35; more than three consonants in, 37 -->
+<!-- ^^ doubled consonants: contrasted with consonant clusters, 35; contrasted with single consonants, 35 -->
+<indexterm><primary>doubled consonants</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>consonant clusters</primary></indexterm>
<para>Here are some examples of Lojban syllabication:</para>
+<!-- ^^ syllabication: and names, 39; definition of, 39; examples of, 39; rules for, 39; variants of, 41 -->
+<indexterm><primary>syllabication</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-C9tX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c3e9d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter3-section9-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>pujenaicajeba</jbo>
<en>pu,je,nai,ca,je,ba</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This word has no consonant pairs and is therefore syllabified before each medial consonant.</para>
+<!-- ^^ consonant pairs: in brivla, 53; initial, 36; letter y within, 53; restrictions on, 36 -->
+<indexterm><primary>consonant pairs</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-WfXq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c3e9d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter3-section9-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ninmu</jbo>
<en>nin,mu</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -777,20 +915,22 @@
<para>This word is split at a consonant triple, between the first two consonants of the triple.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-WHAV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c3e9d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter3-section9-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>sairgoi</jbo>
<gloss>sair,goi</gloss>
<en>sai,r,goi</en>
+<!-- ^^ sai, 305 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sai</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This word contains the consonant pair
<quote>rg</quote>; the
<quote>r</quote>may be pronounced syllabically or not.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-nK5r">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c3e9d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter3-section9-example5" />
</title>
@@ -799,32 +939,48 @@
<gloss>klez,ba</gloss>
<en>kle,zba</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This word contains the permissible initial pair
<quote>zb</quote>, and so may be syllabicated either between
<quote>z</quote>and
<quote>b</quote>or before
<quote>zb</quote>.</para>
<para>Stress is a relatively louder pronunciation of one syllable in a word or group of words. Since every syllable has a vowel sound (or diphthong or syllabic consonant) as its nucleus, and the stress is on the vowel sound itself, the terms
+<!-- ^^ syllabic consonant: effect on stress, 65 -->
+<indexterm><primary>syllabic consonant</primary></indexterm>
<quote>stressed syllable</quote>and
+<!-- ^^ stressed syllable: compared with stressed vowel, 40 -->
+<!-- ^^ stressed vowel: compared with stressed syllable, 40 -->
+<indexterm><primary>stressed vowel</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>stressed syllable</primary></indexterm>
<quote>stressed vowel</quote>are largely interchangeable concepts.</para>
+<!-- ^^ stressed vowel: compared with stressed syllable, 40 -->
+<indexterm><primary>stressed vowel</primary></indexterm>
<para>Most Lojban words are stressed on the next-to-the-last, or penultimate, syllable. In counting syllables, however, syllables whose vowel is
<quote>y</quote>or which contain a syllabic consonant (
+<!-- ^^ syllabic consonant: effect on stress, 65 -->
+<indexterm><primary>syllabic consonant</primary></indexterm>
<quote>l</quote>,
<quote>m</quote>,
<quote>n</quote>, or
<quote>r</quote>) are never counted. (The Lojban term for penultimate stress is
<quote>da'amoi terbasna</quote>.) Similarly, syllables created solely by adding a buffer vowel, such as
+<!-- ^^ buffer vowel, 38; and stress, 38; shortening of, 39 -->
+<indexterm><primary>buffer vowel</primary></indexterm>
<phrase role="IPA">[ɪ]</phrase>, are not counted.</para>
<para>There are actually three levels of stress - primary, secondary, and weak. Weak stress is the lowest level, so it really means no stress at all. Weak stress is required for syllables containing
<quote>y</quote>, a syllabic consonant, or a buffer vowel.</para>
+<!-- ^^ syllabic consonant: effect on stress, 65 -->
+<indexterm><primary>syllabic consonant</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ buffer vowel, 38; and stress, 38; shortening of, 39 -->
+<indexterm><primary>buffer vowel</primary></indexterm>
<para>Primary stress is required on the penultimate syllable of Lojban content words (called
<quote>brivla</quote>). Lojbanized names may be stressed on any syllable, but if a syllable other than the penultimate is stressed, the syllable (or at least its vowel) must be capitalized in writing. Lojban structural words (called
<quote>cmavo</quote>) may be stressed on any syllable or none at all. However, primary stress may not be used in a syllable just preceding a brivla, unless a pause divides them; otherwise, the two words may run together.</para>
<para>Secondary stress is the optional and non-distinctive emphasis used for other syllables besides those required to have either weak or primary stress. There are few rules governing secondary stress, which typically will follow a speaker's native language habits or preferences. Secondary stress can be used for contrast, or for emphasis of a point. Secondary stress can be emphasized at any level up to primary stress, although the speaker must not allow a false primary stress in brivla, since errors in word resolution could result.</para>
<para>The following are Lojban words with stress explicitly shown:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-cxzt">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c3e9d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter3-section9-example6" />
</title>
@@ -842,46 +998,52 @@
<anchor xml:id="c3e9d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter3-section9-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.armstrong.</jbo>
<en>.ARM,strong.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This is a Lojbanized version of the name
<quote>Armstrong</quote>. The final
+<!-- ^^ Armstrong: example, 40 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Armstrong</primary></indexterm>
<quote>g</quote>must be explicitly pronounced. With full buffering, the name would be pronounced:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c3e9d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter3-section9-example8" />9.8)
<phrase role="IPA">[ˈʔa rɪ mɪ sɪ tɪ ro nɪ gɪʔ]</phrase>
</programlisting>
<para>However, there is no need to insert a buffer in every possible place just because it is inserted in one place: partial buffering is also acceptable. In every case, however, the stress remains in the same place: on the first syllable.</para>
<para>The English pronunciation of
<quote>Armstrong</quote>, as spelled in English, is not correct by Lojban standards; the letters
+<!-- ^^ Armstrong: example, 40 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Armstrong</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ng</quote>in English represent a velar nasal (IPA
<phrase role="IPA">[ŋ]</phrase>) which is a single consonant. In Lojban,
<quote>ng</quote>represents two separate consonants that must both be pronounced; you may not use
<phrase role="IPA">[ŋ]</phrase>to pronounce Lojban
<quote>ng</quote>, although
<phrase role="IPA">[ŋg]</phrase>is acceptable. English speakers are likely to have to pronounce the ending with a buffer, as one of the following:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
<anchor xml:id="c3e9d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter3-section9-example9" />9.9)
<phrase role="IPA">[ˈʔarm stron gɪʔ]</phrase>
or
<phrase role="IPA">[ˈʔarm stroŋ gɪʔ]</phrase>
or even
<phrase role="IPA">[ˈʔarm stro nɪgʔ]</phrase>
</programlisting>
<para>The normal English pronunciation of the name
<quote>Armstrong</quote>could be Lojbanized as:</para>
+<!-- ^^ Armstrong: example, 40 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Armstrong</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-vY2y">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c3e9d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter3-section9-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.ARMstron.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>since Lojban
@@ -951,20 +1113,26 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>If the cmavo
<quote>no</quote>in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter3-section9-example15" />were to be stressed, the phrase would sound exactly like the given pronunciation of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter3-section9-example14" />, which is unacceptable in Lojban: a single pronunciation cannot represent both.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter3-section10">
<title>10. IPA For English Speakers</title>
<para>There are many dialects of English, thus making it difficult to define the standardized symbols of the IPA in terms useful to every reader. All the symbols used in this chapter are repeated here, in more or less alphabetical order, with examples drawn from General American. In addition, some attention is given to the Received Pronunciation of (British) English. These two dialects are referred to as GA and RP respectively. Speakers of other dialects should consult a book on phonetics or their local television sets.</para>
+<!-- ^^ television, 42 -->
+<indexterm><primary>television</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ Received Pronunciation, 42 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Received Pronunciation</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ General American, 42 -->
+<indexterm><primary>General American</primary></indexterm>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry>
<term>[ˈ]</term>
<listitem>
<para>An IPA indicator of primary stress; the syllable which follows
<phrase role="IPA">[ˈ]</phrase>receives primary stress.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>[ʔ]</term>
@@ -1123,28 +1291,32 @@
<para>The preferred pronunciation of Lojban
<quote>i</quote>. Essentially like the English vowel of
<quote>pizza</quote>or
<quote>machine</quote>, although the English vowel is sometimes pronounced with an off-glide, which should not be present in Lojban.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>[ɪ]</term>
<listitem>
<para>A possible Lojban buffer vowel. The
+<!-- ^^ buffer vowel, 38; and stress, 38; shortening of, 39 -->
+<indexterm><primary>buffer vowel</primary></indexterm>
<quote>i</quote>of English
<quote>bit</quote>.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>[ɨ]</term>
<listitem>
<para>A possible Lojban buffer vowel. The
+<!-- ^^ buffer vowel, 38; and stress, 38; shortening of, 39 -->
+<indexterm><primary>buffer vowel</primary></indexterm>
<quote>u</quote>of
<quote>just</quote>in some varieties of GA, those which make the word sound more or less like
<quote>jist</quote>. Also Russian
<quote>y</quote>as in
<quote>byt'</quote>(to be); like a schwa
<phrase role="IPA">[ə]</phrase>, but higher in the mouth.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>[j]</term>
@@ -1419,20 +1591,22 @@
<quote>might</quote>and
<quote>night</quote>. The German
<quote>Ach-Laut</quote>. To pronounce
<phrase role="IPA">[x]</phrase>, force air through your throat without vibrating your vocal chords; there should be lots of scrape.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>[ʏ]</term>
<listitem>
<para>A possible Lojban buffer vowel. Not an English sound: the
+<!-- ^^ buffer vowel, 38; and stress, 38; shortening of, 39 -->
+<indexterm><primary>buffer vowel</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ü</quote>of German
<quote>hübsch</quote>.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>[z]</term>
<listitem>
<para>The preferred pronunciation of Lojban
<quote>z</quote>. As in English
<quote>zoo</quote>,
@@ -1483,41 +1657,49 @@
<quote>ye</quote>
io
<quote>yodel</quote> (in GA only)
iu
<quote>unicorn</quote> or
<quote>few</quote>
ua
<quote>suave</quote>
ue
+<!-- ^^ ue, 297 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ue</primary></indexterm>
<quote>wet</quote>
ui
<quote>we</quote>
uo
<quote>woe</quote> (in GA only)
uu
<quote>woo</quote>
iy
<quote>million</quote> (the
<quote>io</quote> part, that is)
uy
<quote>was</quote> (when unstressed)
</programlisting>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter3-section12">
<title>12. Oddball Orthographies</title>
<para>The following notes describe ways in which Lojban has been written or could be written that differ from the standard orthography explained in the rest of this chapter. Nobody needs to read this section except people with an interest in the obscure. Technicalities are used without explanation or further apology.</para>
+<!-- ^^ orthography: non-standard, 45; relation to pronunciation, 29 -->
+<indexterm><primary>orthography</primary></indexterm>
<para>There exists an alternative orthography for Lojban, which is designed to be as compatible as possible (but no more so) with the orthography used in pre-Lojban versions of Loglan. The consonants undergo no change, except that
+<!-- ^^ orthography: non-standard, 45; relation to pronunciation, 29 -->
+<indexterm><primary>orthography</primary></indexterm>
<quote>x</quote>is replaced by
<quote>h</quote>. The individual vowels likewise remain unchanged. However, the vowel pairs and diphthongs are changed as follows:</para>
+<!-- ^^ vowel pairs: contrasted with diphthongs, 34; definition of, 34; grouping of, 35; involving y, 35; list of, 35; use of apostrophe in, 34 -->
+<indexterm><primary>vowel pairs</primary></indexterm>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>
<quote>ai</quote>,
<quote>ei</quote>,
<quote>oi</quote>,
<quote>au</quote>become
<quote>ai</quote>,
<quote>ei</quote>,
<quote>oi</quote>,
@@ -1526,62 +1708,82 @@
<listitem>
<para>
<quote>ia</quote>through
<quote>iu</quote>and
<quote>ua</quote>through
<quote>uu</quote>remain unchanged.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
<quote>a'i</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ a'i, 302 -->
+<indexterm><primary>a'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>e'i</quote>,
<quote>o'i</quote>and
+<!-- ^^ o'i: example, 300 -->
+<indexterm><primary>o'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>a'o</quote>become
+<!-- ^^ a'o, 297, 302 -->
+<indexterm><primary>a'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>a,i</quote>,
<quote>e,i</quote>,
<quote>o,i</quote>and
<quote>a,o</quote>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
<quote>i'a</quote>through
<quote>i'u</quote>and
<quote>u'a</quote>through
<quote>u'u</quote>are changed to
+<!-- ^^ u'u, 299; contrasted with uu, 299 -->
+<indexterm><primary>u'u</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ia</quote>through
<quote>iu</quote>and
<quote>ua</quote>through
<quote>uu</quote>in lujvo and cmavo other than attitudinals, but become
<quote>i,a</quote>through
<quote>i,u</quote>and
<quote>u,a</quote>through
<quote>u,u</quote>in names, fu'ivla, and attitudinal cmavo.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>All other vowel pairs simply drop the apostrophe.</para>
+<!-- ^^ vowel pairs: contrasted with diphthongs, 34; definition of, 34; grouping of, 35; involving y, 35; list of, 35; use of apostrophe in, 34 -->
+<indexterm><primary>vowel pairs</primary></indexterm>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
<para>The result of these rules is to eliminate the apostrophe altogether, replacing it with comma where necessary, and otherwise with nothing. In addition, names and the cmavo
<quote>.i</quote>are capitalized, and irregular stress is marked with an apostrophe (now no longer used for a sound) following the stressed syllable.</para>
+<!-- ^^ stressed syllable: compared with stressed vowel, 40 -->
+<!-- ^^ stressed vowel: compared with stressed syllable, 40 -->
+<indexterm><primary>stressed vowel</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>stressed syllable</primary></indexterm>
<para>Three points must be emphasized about this alternative orthography:</para>
+<!-- ^^ orthography: non-standard, 45; relation to pronunciation, 29 -->
+<indexterm><primary>orthography</primary></indexterm>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>It is not standard, and has not been used.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>It does not represent any changes to the standard Lojban phonology; it is simply a representation of the same phonology using a different written form.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>It was designed to aid in a planned rapprochement between the Logical Language Group and The Loglan Institute, a group headed by James Cooke Brown. The rapprochement never took place.</para>
+<!-- ^^ Brown: James Cooke, 6; James Cooke, and "letteral", 413 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Brown</primary></indexterm>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
<para>There also exists a Cyrillic orthography for Lojban which was designed when the introductory Lojban brochure was translated into Russian. It uses the
+<!-- ^^ orthography: non-standard, 45; relation to pronunciation, 29 -->
+<indexterm><primary>orthography</primary></indexterm>
<quote>а</quote>,
<quote>б</quote>,
<quote>в</quote>,
<quote>г</quote>,
<quote>д</quote>,
<quote>е</quote>,
<quote>ж</quote>,
<quote>з</quote>,
<quote>и</quote>,
<quote>к</quote>,
@@ -1592,22 +1794,32 @@
<quote>п</quote>,
<quote>р</quote>,
<quote>с</quote>,
<quote>т</quote>,
<quote>у</quote>,
<quote>ф</quote>,
<quote>х</quote>, and
<quote>ш</quote>in the obvious ways. The Latin letter
<quote>y</quote>is mapped onto the hard sign
<quote>ъ</quote>, as in Bulgarian. The apostrophe, comma, and period are unchanged. Diphthongs are written as vowel pairs, as in the Roman representation.</para>
+<!-- ^^ vowel pairs: contrasted with diphthongs, 34; definition of, 34; grouping of, 35; involving y, 35; list of, 35; use of apostrophe in, 34 -->
+<indexterm><primary>vowel pairs</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ Bulgarian: example, 64 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Bulgarian</primary></indexterm>
<para>Finally, an orthography using the Tengwar of Féanor, a fictional orthography invented by J. R. R. Tolkien and described in the Appendixes to
+<!-- ^^ Tolkien: and non-standard Lojban orthography, 46 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Tolkien</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ orthography: non-standard, 45; relation to pronunciation, 29 -->
+<indexterm><primary>orthography</primary></indexterm>
<citation>The Lord Of The Rings</citation>, has been devised for Lojban. The following mapping, which closely resembles that used for Westron, will be meaningful only to those who have read those appendixes. In brief, the tincotéma and parmatéma are used in the conventional ways; the calmatéma represents palatal consonants, and the quessetéma represents velar consonants.</para>
+<!-- ^^ Lord: example, 66 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Lord</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
t tinco p parma
- calma k quesse
d ando b umbar
- anga g ungwe
- thule f formen
c harma x hwesta
- anto v ampa
j anca - unque
n numen m malta
diff --git a/todocbook/4.xml b/todocbook/4.xml
index 525f0e0..41fe4ca 100644
--- a/todocbook/4.xml
+++ b/todocbook/4.xml
@@ -1,23 +1,29 @@
<chapter xml:id="cll_chapter4">
<title>Chapter 4 The Shape Of Words To Come: Lojban Morphology</title>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter4-section1">
<title>1. Introductory</title>
<para>Morphology is the part of grammar that deals with the form of words. Lojban's morphology is fairly simple compared to that of many languages, because Lojban words don't change form depending on how they are used. English has only a small number of such changes compared to languages like Russian, but it does have changes like
<quote>boys</quote>as the plural of
+<!-- ^^ plural: Lojban contrasted with English in necessity of marking, 120; Lojban equivalent of, 443; meaning of le with, 123 -->
+<indexterm><primary>plural</primary></indexterm>
<quote>boy</quote>, or
<quote>walked</quote>as the past-tense form of
<quote>walk</quote>. To make plurals or past tenses in Lojban, you add separate words to the sentence that express the number of boys, or the time when the walking was going on.</para>
<para>However, Lojban does have what is called
<quote>derivational morphology</quote>: the capability of building new words from old words. In addition, the form of words tells us something about their grammatical uses, and sometimes about the means by which they entered the language. Lojban has very orderly rules for the formation of words of various types, both the words that already exist and new words yet to be created by speakers and writers.</para>
+<!-- ^^ derivational morphology: definition, 49 -->
+<indexterm><primary>derivational morphology</primary></indexterm>
<para>A stream of Lojban sounds can be uniquely broken up into its component words according to specific rules. These so-called
<quote>morphology rules</quote>are summarized in this chapter. (However, a detailed algorithm for breaking sounds into words has not yet been fully debugged, and so is not presented in this book.) First, here are some conventions used to talk about groups of Lojban letters, including vowels and consonants.</para>
+<!-- ^^ Lojban letters: IPA for pronouncing, 30; list with IPA pronunciation, 30 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Lojban letters</primary></indexterm>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry>
<term>1)</term>
<listitem>
<para>V represents any single Lojban vowel except
<quote>y</quote>; that is, it represents
<quote>a</quote>,
<quote>e</quote>,
<quote>i</quote>,
<quote>o</quote>, or
@@ -27,42 +33,62 @@
<varlistentry>
<term>2)</term>
<listitem>
<para>VV represents either a diphthong, one of the following:
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ai ei oi au
</programlisting>or a two-syllable vowel pair with an apostrophe separating the vowels, one of the following:
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>a'a a'e a'i</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ a'i, 302 -->
+<indexterm><primary>a'i</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ a'a, 302 -->
+<indexterm><primary>a'a</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>a'o</selmaho>
+<!-- ^^ a'o, 297, 302 -->
+<indexterm><primary>a'o</primary></indexterm>
<description>a'u</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>e'a e'e e'i</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ e'e, 303 -->
+<indexterm><primary>e'e</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ e'a, 303 -->
+<indexterm><primary>e'a</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>e'o</selmaho>
+<!-- ^^ e'o, 303; contrasted with pe'u, 324 -->
+<indexterm><primary>e'o</primary></indexterm>
<description>e'u</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>i'a i'e i'i</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ i'e, 304 -->
+<indexterm><primary>i'e</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>i'o</selmaho>
<description>i'u</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>o'a o'e o'i</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ o'i: example, 300 -->
+<indexterm><primary>o'i</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>o'o</selmaho>
<description>o'u</description>
+<!-- ^^ o'u: example, 300 -->
+<indexterm><primary>o'u</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>u'a u'e u'i</cmavo>
<selmaho>u'o</selmaho>
<description>u'u</description>
+<!-- ^^ u'u, 299; contrasted with uu, 299 -->
+<indexterm><primary>u'u</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list></para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>3)</term>
<listitem>
<para>C represents a single Lojban consonant, not including the apostrophe, one of
<quote>b</quote>,
<quote>c</quote>,
@@ -84,20 +110,24 @@
<quote>l</quote>,
<quote>m</quote>,
<quote>n</quote>, and
<quote>r</quote>always count as consonants for the purposes of this chapter.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>4)</term>
<listitem>
<para>CC represents two adjacent consonants of type C which constitute one of the 48 permissible initial consonant pairs:
+<!-- ^^ initial consonant pairs: list of, 37 -->
+<indexterm><primary>initial consonant pairs</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ consonant pairs: in brivla, 53; initial, 36; letter y within, 53; restrictions on, 36 -->
+<indexterm><primary>consonant pairs</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
bl br
cf ck cl cm cn cp cr ct
dj dr dz
fl fr
gl gr
jb jd jg jm jv
kl kr
ml mr
pl pr
@@ -106,113 +136,149 @@
vl vr
xl xr
zb zd zg zm zv
</programlisting></para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>5)</term>
<listitem>
<para>C/C represents two adjacent consonants which constitute one of the permissible consonant pairs (not necessarily a permissible initial consonant pair). The permissible consonant pairs are explained in
+<!-- ^^ consonant pairs: in brivla, 53; initial, 36; letter y within, 53; restrictions on, 36 -->
+<indexterm><primary>consonant pairs</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter3" />. In brief, any consonant pair is permissible unless it: contains two identical letters, contains both a voiced (excluding
<quote>r</quote>,
<quote>l</quote>,
<quote>m</quote>,
<quote>n</quote>) and an unvoiced consonant, or is one of certain specified forbidden pairs.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>6)</term>
<listitem>
<para>C/CC represents a consonant triple. The first two consonants must constitute a permissible consonant pair; the last two consonants must constitute a permissible initial consonant pair.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
<para>Lojban has three basic word classes - parts of speech - in contrast to the eight that are traditional in English. These three classes are called cmavo, brivla, and cmene. Each of these classes has uniquely identifying properties - an arrangement of letters that allows the word to be uniquely and unambiguously recognized as a separate word in a string of Lojban, upon either reading or hearing, and as belonging to a specific word-class.</para>
+<!-- ^^ word classes, 50 -->
+<indexterm><primary>word classes</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ parts of speech, 50 -->
+<indexterm><primary>parts of speech</primary></indexterm>
<para>They are also functionally different: cmavo are the structure words, corresponding to English words like
+<!-- ^^ structure words, 50 -->
+<indexterm><primary>structure words</primary></indexterm>
<quote>and</quote>,
<quote>if</quote>,
<quote>the</quote>and
<quote>to</quote>; brivla are the content words, corresponding to English words like
<quote>come</quote>,
<quote>red</quote>,
<quote>doctor</quote>, and
<quote>freely</quote>; cmene are proper names, corresponding to English
<quote>James</quote>,
<quote>Afghanistan</quote>, and
<quote>Pope John Paul II</quote>.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter4-section2">
<title>2. cmavo</title>
<para>The first group of Lojban words discussed in this chapter are the cmavo. They are the structure words that hold the Lojban language together. They often have no semantic meaning in themselves, though they may affect the semantics of brivla to which they are attached. The cmavo include the equivalent of English articles, conjunctions, prepositions, numbers, and punctuation marks. There are over a hundred subcategories of cmavo, known as
+<!-- ^^ structure words, 50 -->
+<indexterm><primary>structure words</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ punctuation marks: cmavo as Lojban equivalents, 50 -->
+<indexterm><primary>punctuation marks</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ prepositions: cmavo as Lojban equivalents, 50 -->
+<indexterm><primary>prepositions</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ hundred: expressing as number, 432 -->
+<indexterm><primary>hundred</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ conjunctions: cmavo as Lojban equivalents, 50 -->
+<indexterm><primary>conjunctions</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ articles: cmavo as Lojban equivalents, 50 -->
+<indexterm><primary>articles</primary></indexterm>
<quote>selma'o</quote>, each having a specifically defined grammatical usage. The various selma'o are discussed throughout
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5" />to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19" />and summarized in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter20" />.</para>
<para>Standard cmavo occur in four forms defined by their word structure. Here are some examples of the various forms:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>V-form .a .e .i</cmavo>
<selmaho>.o</selmaho>
<description>.u</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>CV-form ba ce di</cmavo>
<selmaho>fo</selmaho>
<description>gu</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>VV-form .au .ei</cmavo>
<selmaho>.ia</selmaho>
<description>.o'u .u'e</description>
+<!-- ^^ o'u: example, 300 -->
+<indexterm><primary>o'u</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>CVV-form ki'a pei mi'o</cmavo>
<selmaho>coi</selmaho>
<description>cu'u</description>
+<!-- ^^ cu'u, 203 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cu'u</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>In addition, there is the cmavo
<quote>.y.</quote>(remember that
<quote>y</quote>is not a V), which must have pauses before and after it.</para>
<para>A simple cmavo thus has the property of having only one or two vowels, or of having a single consonant followed by one or two vowels. Words consisting of three or more vowels in a row, or a single consonant followed by three or more vowels, are also of cmavo form, but are reserved for experimental use: a few examples are
+<!-- ^^ cmavo form: contrasted with brivla form, 53 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cmavo form</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ku'a'e</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ ku'a, 354, 356 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ku'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>sau'e</quote>, and
<quote>bai'ai</quote>. All CVV cmavo beginning with the letter
<quote>x</quote>are also reserved for experimental use. In general, though, the form of a cmavo tells you little or nothing about its grammatical use.</para>
<para>
<quote>Experimental use</quote>means that the language designers will not assign any standard meaning or usage to these words, and words and usages coined by Lojban speakers will not appear in official dictionaries for the indefinite future. Experimental-use words provide an escape hatch for adding grammatical mechanisms (as opposed to semantic concepts) the need for which was not foreseen.</para>
<para>The cmavo of VV-form include not only the diphthongs and vowel pairs listed in
+<!-- ^^ vowel pairs: contrasted with diphthongs, 34; definition of, 34; grouping of, 35; involving y, 35; list of, 35; use of apostrophe in, 34 -->
+<indexterm><primary>vowel pairs</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4-section1" />, but also the following ten additional diphthongs:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>.ia .ie .ii</cmavo>
<selmaho>.io</selmaho>
<description>.iu</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>.ua .ue .ui</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ ue, 297 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ue</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>.uo</selmaho>
<description>.uu</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>In addition, cmavo can have the form
<quote>Cy</quote>, a consonant followed by the letter
<quote>y</quote>. These cmavo represent letters of the Lojban alphabet, and are discussed in detail in
+<!-- ^^ Lojban alphabet, 29 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Lojban alphabet</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17" />.</para>
<para>Compound cmavo are sequences of cmavo attached together to form a single written word. A compound cmavo is always identical in meaning and in grammatical use to the separated sequence of simple cmavo from which it is composed. These words are written in compound form merely to save visual space, and to ease the reader's burden in identifying when the component cmavo are acting together.</para>
<para>Compound cmavo, while not visually short like their components, can be readily identified by two characteristics:</para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry>
<term>1)</term>
<listitem>
<para>They have no consonant pairs or clusters, and</para>
+<!-- ^^ consonant pairs: in brivla, 53; initial, 36; letter y within, 53; restrictions on, 36 -->
+<indexterm><primary>consonant pairs</primary></indexterm>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>2)</term>
<listitem>
<para>They end in a vowel.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
<para>For example:</para>
@@ -221,36 +287,44 @@
<anchor xml:id="c4e2d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section2-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e2d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section2-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e2d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section2-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.iseci'i</jbo>
<en>.i se ci'i</en>
+<!-- ^^ ci'i, 434 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ci'i</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>punaijecanai</jbo>
<en>pu nai je ca nai</en>
<jbo>ki'e.u'e</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ki'e, 324 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ki'e</primary></indexterm>
<en>ki'e .u'e</en>
+<!-- ^^ ki'e, 324 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ki'e</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>.u'e</quote>begins with a vowel, and like all words beginning with a vowel, requires a pause (represented by
<quote>.</quote>) before it. This pause cannot be omitted simply because the cmavo is incorporated into a compound cmavo. On the other hand,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-FDhH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e2d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section2-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ki'e'u'e</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ki'e, 324 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ki'e</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is a single cmavo reserved for experimental purposes: it has four vowels.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-CtnR">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e2d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section2-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>cy.ibu.abu</jbo>
@@ -262,25 +336,29 @@
<quote>cy.</quote>merges with the pause before
<quote>.ibu</quote>.</para>
<para>There is no particular stress required in cmavo or their compounds. Some conventions do exist that are not mandatory. For two-syllable cmavo, for example, stress is typically placed on the first vowel; an example is</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-pdGY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e2d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section2-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.e'o ko ko kurji</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ e'o, 303; contrasted with pe'u, 324 -->
+<indexterm><primary>e'o</primary></indexterm>
<en>.E'o ko ko KURji</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This convention results in a consistent rhythm to the language, since brivla are required to have penultimate stress; some find this esthetically pleasing.</para>
<para>If the final syllable of one word is stressed, and the first syllable of the next word is stressed, you must insert a pause or glottal stop between the two stressed syllables. Thus</para>
+<!-- ^^ glottal stop: as pause in Lojban, 31 -->
+<indexterm><primary>glottal stop</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-uqDz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e2d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section2-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le re nanmu</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>can be optionally pronounced</para>
@@ -291,20 +369,24 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le RE. NANmu</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>since there are no rules forcing stress on either of the first two words; the stress on
<quote>re</quote>, though, demands that a pause separate
<quote>re</quote>from the following syllable
<quote>nan</quote>to ensure that the stress on
<quote>nan</quote>is properly heard as a stressed syllable. The alternative pronunciation</para>
+<!-- ^^ stressed syllable: compared with stressed vowel, 40 -->
+<!-- ^^ stressed vowel: compared with stressed syllable, 40 -->
+<indexterm><primary>stressed vowel</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>stressed syllable</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-bLbf">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e2d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section2-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>LE re NANmu</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is also valid; this would apply secondary stress (used for purposes of emphasis, contrast or sentence rhythm) to
@@ -322,23 +404,35 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le re NANmu</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This would probably be the most common usage.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter4-section3">
<title>3. brivla</title>
<para>Predicate words, called
<quote>brivla</quote>, are at the core of Lojban. They carry most of the semantic information in the language. They serve as the equivalent of English nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, all in a single part of speech.</para>
+<!-- ^^ verbs: brivla as Lojban equivalents, 52 -->
+<indexterm><primary>verbs</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ nouns: brivla as Lojban equivalents, 52 -->
+<indexterm><primary>nouns</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ adverbs: brivla as Lojban equivalents, 52 -->
+<indexterm><primary>adverbs</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ adjectives: brivla as Lojban equivalents, 52 -->
+<indexterm><primary>adjectives</primary></indexterm>
<para>Every brivla belongs to one of three major subtypes. These subtypes are defined by the form, or morphology, of the word - all words of a particular structure can be assigned by sight or sound to a particular type (cmavo, brivla, or cmene) and subtype. Knowing the type and subtype then gives you, the reader or listener, significant clues to the meaning and the origin of the word, even if you have never heard the word before.</para>
+<!-- ^^ have never: example, 227 -->
+<indexterm><primary>have never</primary></indexterm>
<para>The same principle allows you, when speaking or writing, to invent new brivla for new concepts
<quote>on the fly</quote>; yet it offers people that you are trying to communicate with a good chance to figure out your meaning. In this way, Lojban has a flexible vocabulary which can be expanded indefinitely.</para>
+<!-- ^^ flexible vocabulary, 53 -->
+<indexterm><primary>flexible vocabulary</primary></indexterm>
<para>All brivla have the following properties:</para>
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para>always end in a vowel;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>always contain a consonant pair in the first five letters, where
<quote>y</quote>and apostrophe are not counted as letters for this purpose. (See
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4-section6" />.)</para>
</listitem>
@@ -354,37 +448,43 @@
<quote>sc</quote>in the first five non-
<quote>y</quote>letters even though the
<quote>sc</quote>actually appears in the form of
<quote>syc</quote>. Similarly, the word
<quote>ro'inre'o</quote>contains
<quote>nr</quote>in the first five letters because the apostrophes are not counted for this purpose.</para>
<para>The three subtypes of brivla are:</para>
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para>gismu, the Lojban primitive roots from which all other brivla are built;</para>
+<!-- ^^ primitive roots: gismu as, 53 -->
+<indexterm><primary>primitive roots</primary></indexterm>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>lujvo, the compounds of two or more gismu; and</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>fu'ivla (literally
<quote>copy-word</quote>), the specialized words that are not Lojban primitives or natural compounds, and are therefore borrowed from other languages.</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter4-section4">
<title>4. gismu</title>
<para>The gismu, or Lojban root words, are those brivla representing concepts most basic to the language. The gismu were chosen for various reasons: some represent concepts that are very familiar and basic; some represent concepts that are frequently used in other languages; some were added because they would be helpful in constructing more complex words; some because they represent fundamental Lojban concepts (like
<quote>cmavo</quote>and
<quote>gismu</quote>themselves).</para>
<para>The gismu do not represent any sort of systematic partitioning of semantic space. Some gismu may be superfluous, or appear for historical reasons: the gismu list was being collected for almost 35 years and was only weeded out once. Instead, the intention is that the gismu blanket semantic space: they make it possible to talk about the entire range of human concerns.</para>
<para>There are about 1350 gismu. In learning Lojban, you need only to learn most of these gismu and their combining forms (known as
+<!-- ^^ learning Lojban: magnitude of task, 53 -->
+<!-- ^^ magnitude: tense, 250 -->
+<indexterm><primary>magnitude</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>learning Lojban</primary></indexterm>
<quote>rafsi</quote>) as well as perhaps 200 major cmavo, and you will be able to communicate effectively in the language. This may sound like a lot, but it is a small number compared to the vocabulary needed for similar communications in other languages.</para>
<para>All gismu have very strong form restrictions. Using the conventions defined in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4-section1" />, all gismu are of the forms CVC/CV or CCVCV. They must meet the rules for all brivla given in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4-section3" />; furthermore, they:</para>
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para>always have five letters;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>always start with a consonant and end with a single vowel;</para>
@@ -404,20 +504,22 @@
<quote>brodi</quote>,
<quote>brodo</quote>, and
<quote>brodu</quote>, no two gismu differ only in the final vowel. Furthermore, the set of gismu was specifically designed to reduce the likelihood that two similar sounding gismu could be confused. For example, because
<quote>gismu</quote>is in the set of gismu,
<quote>kismu</quote>,
<quote>xismu</quote>,
<quote>gicmu</quote>,
<quote>gizmu</quote>, and
<quote>gisnu</quote>cannot be.</para>
<para>Almost all Lojban gismu are constructed from pieces of words drawn from other languages, specifically Chinese, English, Hindi, Spanish, Russian, and Arabic, the six most widely spoken natural languages. For a given concept, words in the six languages that represent that concept were written in Lojban phonetics. Then a gismu was selected to maximize the recognizability of the Lojban word for speakers of the six languages by weighting the inclusion of the sounds drawn from each language by the number of speakers of that language. See
+<!-- ^^ inclusion: property of sets, 125 -->
+<indexterm><primary>inclusion</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4-section14" />for a full explanation of the algorithm.</para>
<para>Here are a few examples of gismu, with rough English equivalents (not definitions):</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Bt49">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e4d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section4-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e4d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section4-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e4d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section4-example3" />
@@ -451,53 +553,65 @@
<en>woman</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>A small number of gismu were formed differently; see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4-section15" />for a list.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter4-section5">
<title>5. lujvo</title>
<para>When specifying a concept that is not found among the gismu (or, more specifically, when the relevant gismu seems too general in meaning), a Lojbanist generally attempts to express the concept as a tanru. Lojban tanru are an elaboration of the concept of
<quote>metaphor</quote>used in English. In Lojban, any brivla can be used to modify another brivla. The first of the pair modifies the second. This modification is usually restrictive - the modifying brivla reduces the broader sense of the modified brivla to form a more narrow, concrete, or specific concept. Modifying brivla may thus be seen as acting like English adverbs or adjectives. For example,</para>
+<!-- ^^ adverbs: brivla as Lojban equivalents, 52 -->
+<indexterm><primary>adverbs</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ adjectives: brivla as Lojban equivalents, 52 -->
+<indexterm><primary>adjectives</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-xhQP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e5d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section5-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>skami pilno</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is the tanru which expresses the concept of
<quote>computer user</quote>.</para>
<para>The simplest Lojban tanru are pairings of two concepts or ideas. Such tanru take two simpler ideas that can be represented by gismu and combine them into a single more complex idea. Two-part tanru may then be recombined in pairs with other tanru, or with individual gismu, to form more complex or more specific ideas, and so on.</para>
<para>The meaning of a tanru is usually at least partly ambiguous:
<quote>skami pilno</quote>could refer to a computer that is a user, or to a user of computers. There are a variety of ways that the modifier component can be related to the modified component. It is also possible to use cmavo within tanru to provide variations (or to prevent ambiguities) of meaning.</para>
<para>Making tanru is essentially a poetic or creative act, not a science. While the syntax expressing the grouping relationships within tanru is unambiguous, tanru are still semantically ambiguous, since the rules defining the relationships between the gismu are flexible. The process of devising a new tanru is dealt with in detail in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5" />.</para>
<para>To express a simple tanru, simply say the component gismu together. Thus the binary metaphor
<quote>big boat</quote>becomes the tanru</para>
+<!-- ^^ big boat: example, 55 -->
+<indexterm><primary>big boat</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-oLE3">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e5d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section5-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>barda bloti</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>representing roughly the same concept as the English word
<quote>ship</quote>.</para>
<para>The binary metaphor
<quote>father mother</quote>can refer to a paternal grandmother (
+<!-- ^^ paternal grandmother: example, 55 -->
+<indexterm><primary>paternal grandmother</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ father mother: example, 55 -->
+<indexterm><primary>father mother</primary></indexterm>
<quote>a father-ly type of mother</quote>), while
<quote>mother father</quote>can refer to a maternal grandfather (
+<!-- ^^ mother father: example, 55 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mother father</primary></indexterm>
<quote>a mother-ly type of father</quote>). In Lojban, these become the tanru</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-4wK9">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e5d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section5-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>patfu mamta</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -539,105 +653,131 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>bralo'i</jbo>
<gloss>big-boat</gloss>
<en>ship</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The lujvo representing a given tanru is built from units representing the component gismu. These units are called
<quote>rafsi</quote>in Lojban. Each rafsi represents only one gismu. The rafsi are attached together in the order of the words in the tanru, occasionally inserting so-called
<quote>hyphen</quote>letters to ensure that the pieces stick together as a single word and cannot accidentally be broken apart into cmavo, gismu, or other word forms. As a result, each lujvo can be readily and accurately recognized, allowing a listener to pick out the word from a string of spoken Lojban, and if necessary, unambiguously decompose the word to a unique source tanru, thus providing a strong clue to its meaning.</para>
+<!-- ^^ word forms: as related to grammatical uses, 49; in Lojban (see also morphology), 49 -->
+<indexterm><primary>word forms</primary></indexterm>
<para>The lujvo that can be built from the tanru
<quote>mamta patfu</quote>in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4-section5-example4" />is</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-TCUH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e5d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section5-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mampa'u</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which refers specifically to the concept
<quote>maternal grandfather</quote>. The two gismu that constitute the tanru are represented in
<quote>mampa'u</quote>by the rafsi
<quote>mam-</quote>and
<quote>-pa'u</quote>, respectively; these two rafsi are then concatenated together to form
<quote>mampa'u</quote>.</para>
<para>Like gismu, lujvo have only one meaning. When a lujvo is formally entered into a dictionary of the language, a specific definition will be assigned based on one particular interrelationship between the terms. (See
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12" />for how this has been done.) Unlike gismu, lujvo may have more than one form. This is because there is no difference in meaning between the various rafsi for a gismu when they are used to build a lujvo. A long rafsi may be used, especially in noisy environments, in place of a short rafsi; the result is considered the same lujvo, even though the word is spelled and pronounced differently. Thus the word
+<!-- ^^ noisy environments: proposed lerfu words for, 429 -->
+<indexterm><primary>noisy environments</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ long rafsi: definition, 57 -->
+<indexterm><primary>long rafsi</primary></indexterm>
<quote>brivla</quote>, built from the tanru
<quote>bridi valsi</quote>, is the same lujvo as
<quote>brivalsi</quote>,
<quote>bridyvla</quote>, and
<quote>bridyvalsi</quote>, each of which uses a different combination of rafsi.</para>
<para>When assembling rafsi together into lujvo, the rules for valid brivla must be followed: a consonant cluster must occur in the first five letters (excluding
<quote>y</quote>and
<quote>'</quote>), and the lujvo must end in a vowel.</para>
<para>A
<quote>y</quote>(which is ignored in determining stress or consonant clusters) is inserted in the middle of the consonant cluster to glue the word together when the resulting cluster is either not permissible or the word is likely to break up. There are specific rules describing these conditions, detailed in
+<!-- ^^ consonant clusters: buffering of, 38; contrasted with doubled consonants, 35; contrasted with single consonants, 35; definition of, 35; more than three consonants in, 37 -->
+<!-- ^^ doubled consonants: contrasted with consonant clusters, 35; contrasted with single consonants, 35 -->
+<indexterm><primary>doubled consonants</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>consonant clusters</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4-section6" />.</para>
<para>An
<quote>r</quote>(in some cases, an
<quote>n</quote>) is inserted when a CVV-form rafsi attaches to the beginning of a lujvo in such a way that there is no consonant cluster. For example, in the lujvo</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-3Qtv">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e5d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section5-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>soirsai</jbo>
<gloss>sonci sanmi</gloss>
<gloss>soldier meal</gloss>
<en>field rations</en>
+<!-- ^^ field rations: example, 56 -->
+<indexterm><primary>field rations</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>the rafsi
<quote>soi-</quote>and
<quote>-sai</quote>are joined, with the additional
+<!-- ^^ sai, 305 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sai</primary></indexterm>
<quote>r</quote>making up the
<quote>rs</quote>consonant pair needed to make the word a brivla. Without the
<quote>r</quote>, the word would break up into
<quote>soi sai</quote>, two cmavo. The pair of cmavo have no relation to their rafsi lookalikes; they will either be ungrammatical (as in this case), or will express a different meaning from what was intended.</para>
+<!-- ^^ sai, 305 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sai</primary></indexterm>
<para>Learning rafsi and the rules for assembling them into lujvo is clearly seen to be necessary for fully using the potential Lojban vocabulary.</para>
<para>Most important, it is possible to invent new lujvo while you speak or write in order to represent a new or unfamiliar concept, one for which you do not know any existing Lojban word. As long as you follow the rules for building these compounds, there is a good chance that you will be understood without explanation.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter4-section6">
<title>6. rafsi</title>
<para>Every gismu has from two to five rafsi, each of a different form, but each such rafsi represents only one gismu. It is valid to use any of the rafsi forms in building lujvo - whichever the reader or listener will most easily understand, or whichever is most pleasing - subject to the rules of lujvo making. There is a scoring algorithm which is intended to determine which of the possible and legal lujvo forms will be the standard dictionary form (see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4-section12" />).</para>
<para>Each gismu always has at least two rafsi forms; one is the gismu itself (used only at the end of a lujvo), and one is the gismu without its final vowel (used only at the beginning or middle of a lujvo). These forms are represented as CVC/CV or CCVCV (called
<quote>the 5-letter rafsi</quote>), and CVC/C or CCVC (called
<quote>the 4-letter rafsi</quote>) respectively. The dashes in these rafsi form representations show where other rafsi may be attached to form a valid lujvo. When lujvo are formed only from 4-letter and 5-letter rafsi, known collectively as
+<!-- ^^ rafsi form: effect of choice on meaning of lujvo, 56 -->
+<indexterm><primary>rafsi form</primary></indexterm>
<quote>long rafsi</quote>, they are called
+<!-- ^^ long rafsi: definition, 57 -->
+<indexterm><primary>long rafsi</primary></indexterm>
<quote>unreduced lujvo</quote>.</para>
+<!-- ^^ unreduced lujvo: definition, 57 -->
+<indexterm><primary>unreduced lujvo</primary></indexterm>
<para>Some examples of unreduced lujvo forms are:</para>
+<!-- ^^ unreduced lujvo: definition, 57 -->
+<indexterm><primary>unreduced lujvo</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Qbex">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e6d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section6-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e6d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section6-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e6d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section6-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e6d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section6-example4" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e6d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section6-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mamtypatfu</jbo>
<gloss>from
<quote>mamta patfu</quote></gloss>
<en>
<quote>mother father</quote>or
+<!-- ^^ mother father: example, 55 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mother father</primary></indexterm>
<quote>maternal grandfather</quote></en>
<jbo>lerfyliste</jbo>
<gloss>from
<quote>lerfu liste</quote></gloss>
<gloss>
<quote>letter list</quote>or a
<quote>list of letters</quote></gloss>
<en>(letters of the alphabet)</en>
<jbo>nancyprali</jbo>
<gloss>from
@@ -650,61 +790,79 @@
<quote>pruni plipe</quote></gloss>
<en>
<quote>elastic (springy) leap</quote>or
<quote>spring</quote>(the verb)</en>
<jbo>vancysanmi</jbo>
<gloss>from
<quote>vanci sanmi</quote></gloss>
<en>
<quote>evening meal</quote>or
<quote>supper</quote></en>
+<!-- ^^ supper: example, 57 -->
+<indexterm><primary>supper</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In addition to these two forms, each gismu may have up to three additional short rafsi, three letters long. All short rafsi have one of the forms CVC, CCV, or CVV. The total number of rafsi forms that are assigned to a gismu depends on how useful the gismu is, or is presumed to be, in making lujvo, when compared to other gismu that could be assigned the rafsi.</para>
<para>For example,
<quote>zmadu</quote>(
<quote>more than</quote>) has the two short rafsi
<quote>zma</quote>and
<quote>mau</quote>(in addition to its unreduced rafsi
+<!-- ^^ mau, 203, 432; avoiding in favor of seme'a, 203 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mau</primary></indexterm>
<quote>zmad</quote>and
<quote>zmadu</quote>), because a vast number of lujvo have been created based on
<quote>zmadu</quote>, corresponding in general to English comparative adjectives ending in
+<!-- ^^ adjectives: brivla as Lojban equivalents, 52 -->
+<indexterm><primary>adjectives</primary></indexterm>
<quote>-er</quote>such as
<quote>whiter</quote>(Lojban
<quote>labmau</quote>). On the other hand,
<quote>bakri</quote>(
<quote>chalk</quote>) has no short rafsi and few lujvo.</para>
<para>There are at most one CVC-form, one CCV-form, and one CVV-form rafsi per gismu. In fact, only a tiny handful of gismu have both a CCV-form and a CVV-form rafsi assigned, and still fewer have all three forms of short rafsi. However, gismu with both a CVC-form and another short rafsi are fairly common, partly because more possible CVC-form rafsi exist. Yet CVC-form rafsi, even though they are fairly easy to remember, cannot be used at the end of a lujvo (because lujvo must end in vowels), so justifying the assignment of an additional short rafsi to many gismu.</para>
+<!-- ^^ at most: contrasted with more than, at least, less than, 443; example, 443 -->
+<indexterm><primary>at most</primary></indexterm>
<para>The intention was to use the available
<quote>rafsi space</quote>- the set of all possible short rafsi forms - in the most efficient way possible; the goal is to make the most-used lujvo as short as possible (thus maximizing the use of short rafsi), while keeping the rafsi very recognizable to anyone who knows the source gismu. For this reason, the letters in a rafsi have always been chosen from among the five letters of the corresponding gismu. As a result, there are a limited set of short rafsi available for assignment to each gismu. At most seven possible short rafsi are available for consideration (of which at most three can be used, as explained above).</para>
+<!-- ^^ rafsi space, 58 -->
+<indexterm><primary>rafsi space</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ at most: contrasted with more than, at least, less than, 443; example, 443 -->
+<indexterm><primary>at most</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ anyone: contrasted with everyone in assumption of existence, 399 -->
+<indexterm><primary>anyone</primary></indexterm>
<para>Here are the only short rafsi forms that can possibly exist for gismu of the form CVC/CV, like
<quote>sakli</quote>. The digits in the second column represent the gismu letters used to form the rafsi.</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>CVC</cmavo>
<selmaho>123</selmaho>
<description>-sak-</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>CVC</cmavo>
<selmaho>124</selmaho>
<description>-sal-</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>CVV</cmavo>
<selmaho>12'5</selmaho>
<description>-sa'i-</description>
+<!-- ^^ sa'i, 452 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sa'i</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>CVV</cmavo>
<selmaho>125</selmaho>
<description>-sai-</description>
+<!-- ^^ sai, 305 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sai</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>CCV</cmavo>
<selmaho>345</selmaho>
<description>-kli-</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>CCV</cmavo>
<selmaho>132</selmaho>
<description>-ska-</description>
@@ -758,25 +916,29 @@
<quote>ai</quote>,
<quote>ei</quote>,
<quote>oi</quote>, or
<quote>au</quote>; and a CCV-form rafsi is possible only if the two consonants form a permissible initial consonant pair (see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4-section1" />). Thus
<quote>mamta</quote>, which has the same form as
<quote>salci</quote>, can only have
<quote>mam</quote>,
<quote>mat</quote>, and
<quote>ma'a</quote>as possible rafsi: in fact, only
+<!-- ^^ ma'a, 146 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ma'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>mam</quote>is assigned to it.</para>
<para>Some cmavo also have associated rafsi, usually CVC-form. For example, the ten common numerical digits, which are all CV form cmavo, each have a CVC-form rafsi formed by adding a consonant to the cmavo. Most cmavo that have rafsi are ones used in composing tanru (for a complete list, see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12" />).</para>
<para>The term for a lujvo made up solely of short rafsi is
<quote>fully reduced lujvo</quote>. Here are some examples of fully reduced lujvo:</para>
+<!-- ^^ fully reduced lujvo: definition, 59 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fully reduced lujvo</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-QIgb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e6d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section6-example6" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e6d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section6-example7" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e6d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section6-example8" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e6d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section6-example9" />
@@ -815,31 +977,35 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section6-example10" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e6d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section6-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mampa'u</jbo>
<gloss>from
<quote>mamta patfu</quote></gloss>
<en>
<quote>mother father</quote>or
+<!-- ^^ mother father: example, 55 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mother father</primary></indexterm>
<quote>maternal grandfather</quote></en>
<jbo>lerste</jbo>
<gloss>from
<quote>lerfu liste</quote></gloss>
<en>
<quote>letter list</quote>or a
<quote>list of letters</quote></en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>As noted above, CVC-form rafsi cannot appear as the final rafsi in a lujvo, because all lujvo must end with one or two vowels. As a brivla, a lujvo must also contain a consonant cluster within the first five letters - this ensures that they cannot be mistaken for compound cmavo. Of course, all lujvo have at least six letters since they have two or more rafsi, each at least three letters long; hence they cannot be confused with gismu.</para>
<para>When attaching two rafsi together, it may be necessary to insert a hyphen letter. In Lojban, the term
+<!-- ^^ hyphen letter: definition, 59 -->
+<indexterm><primary>hyphen letter</primary></indexterm>
<quote>hyphen</quote>always refers to a letter, either the vowel
<quote>y</quote>or one of the consonants
<quote>r</quote>and
<quote>n</quote>. (The letter
<quote>l</quote>can also be a hyphen, but is not used as one in lujvo.)</para>
<para>The
<quote>y</quote>-hyphen is used after a CVC-form rafsi when joining it with the following rafsi could result in an impermissible consonant pair, or when the resulting lujvo could fall apart into two or more words (either cmavo or gismu).</para>
<para>Thus, the tanru
<quote>pante tavla</quote>(
<quote>protest talk</quote>) cannot produce the lujvo
@@ -905,116 +1071,168 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section6-example15" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e6d16" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section6-example16" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xy. zei kantu</jbo>
<en>X ray</en>
<jbo>kulnr,farsi zei lolgai</jbo>
<gloss>Farsi floor-cover</gloss>
<en>Persian rug</en>
+<!-- ^^ rug: Persian, example, 60 -->
+<indexterm><primary>rug</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ Persian rug: example, 60 -->
+<!-- ^^ rug: Persian, example, 60 -->
+<indexterm><primary>rug</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>Persian rug</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ rug: Persian, example, 60 -->
+<indexterm><primary>rug</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>na'e zei .a zei na'e zei by. livgyterbilma</jbo>
<gloss>non-A, non-B liver-disease</gloss>
<en>non-A, non-B hepatitis</en>
+<!-- ^^ hepatitis: example, 60 -->
+<indexterm><primary>hepatitis</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>.cerman. zei jamkarce</jbo>
<gloss>Sherman war-car</gloss>
<en>Sherman tank</en>
+<!-- ^^ tank: Sherman, example, 60 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tank</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ Sherman tank: example, 60 -->
+<!-- ^^ tank: Sherman, example, 60 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tank</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>Sherman tank</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ tank: Sherman, example, 60 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tank</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4-section6-example15" />is particularly noteworthy because the phrase that would be produced by removing the
<quote>zei</quote>s from it doesn't end with a brivla, and in fact is not even grammatical. As written, the example is a tanru with two components, but by adding a
<quote>zei</quote>between
<quote>by.</quote>and
<quote>livgyterbilma</quote>to produce</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Wnaz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e6d17" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section6-example17" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>na'e zei .a zei na'e zei by. zei livgyterbilma</jbo>
<en>non-A-non-B-hepatitis</en>
+<!-- ^^ hepatitis: example, 60 -->
+<indexterm><primary>hepatitis</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>the whole phrase would become a single lujvo. The longer lujvo of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4-section6-example17" />may be preferable, because its place structure can be built from that of
<quote>bilma</quote>, whereas the place structure of a lujvo without a brivla must be constructed ad hoc.</para>
<para>Note that rafsi may not be used in
<quote>zei</quote>phrases, because they are not words. CVV rafsi look like words (specifically cmavo) but there can be no confusion between the two uses of the same letters, because cmavo appear only as separate words or in compound cmavo (which are really just a notation for writing separate but closely related words as if they were one); rafsi appear only as parts of lujvo.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter4-section7">
<title>7. fu'ivla</title>
<para>The use of tanru or lujvo is not always appropriate for very concrete or specific terms (e.g.
+<!-- ^^ specific terms: use of fu'ivla for, 61 -->
+<indexterm><primary>specific terms</primary></indexterm>
<quote>brie</quote>or
+<!-- ^^ brie: example, 63 -->
+<indexterm><primary>brie</primary></indexterm>
<quote>cobra</quote>), or for jargon words specialized to a narrow field (e.g.
+<!-- ^^ jargon: use of fu'ivla for, 61 -->
+<indexterm><primary>jargon</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ cobra: example, 63 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cobra</primary></indexterm>
<quote>quark</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ quark: example, 63 -->
+<indexterm><primary>quark</primary></indexterm>
<quote>integral</quote>, or
+<!-- ^^ integral: architectural concept, example, 64; mathematical concept, example, 64 -->
+<indexterm><primary>integral</primary></indexterm>
<quote>iambic pentameter</quote>). These words are in effect names for concepts, and the names were invented by speakers of another language. The vast majority of words referring to plants, animals, foods, and scientific terminology cannot be easily expressed as tanru. They thus must be borrowed (actually
+<!-- ^^ plants: use of fu'ivla for specific, 61 -->
+<indexterm><primary>plants</primary></indexterm>
<quote>copied</quote>) into Lojban from the original language.</para>
<para>There are four stages of borrowing in Lojban, as words become more and more modified (but shorter and easier to use). Stage 1 is the use of a foreign name quoted with the cmavo
+<!-- ^^ borrowing: four stages of, 61 -->
+<indexterm><primary>borrowing</primary></indexterm>
<quote>la'o</quote>(explained in full in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19" />):</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-QpNm">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e7d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section7-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>me la'o ly. spaghetti .ly.</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ spaghetti, 61; example, 63 -->
+<indexterm><primary>spaghetti</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is a predicate with the place structure
<quote>x1 is a quantity of spaghetti</quote>.</para>
+<!-- ^^ spaghetti, 61; example, 63 -->
+<indexterm><primary>spaghetti</primary></indexterm>
<para>Stage 2 involves changing the foreign name to a Lojbanized name, as explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4-section8" />:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-zijY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e7d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section7-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>me la spagetis.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>One of these expedients is often quite sufficient when you need a word quickly in conversation. (This can make it easier to get by when you do not yet have full command of the Lojban vocabulary, provided you are talking to someone who will recognize the borrowing.)</para>
+<!-- ^^ borrowing: four stages of, 61 -->
+<indexterm><primary>borrowing</primary></indexterm>
<para>Where a little more universality is desired, the word to be borrowed must be Lojbanized into one of several permitted forms. A rafsi is then usually attached to the beginning of the Lojbanized form, using a hyphen to ensure that the resulting word doesn't fall apart.</para>
<para>The rafsi categorizes or limits the meaning of the fu'ivla; otherwise a word having several different jargon meanings in other languages would require the word-inventor to choose which meaning should be assigned to the fu'ivla, since fu'ivla (like other brivla) are not permitted to have more than one definition. Such a Stage 3 borrowing is the most common kind of fu'ivla.</para>
+<!-- ^^ jargon: use of fu'ivla for, 61 -->
+<indexterm><primary>jargon</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ borrowing: four stages of, 61 -->
+<indexterm><primary>borrowing</primary></indexterm>
<para>Finally, Stage 4 fu'ivla do not have any rafsi classifier, and are used where a fu'ivla has become so common or so important that it must be made as short as possible. (See
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4-section16" />for a proposal concerning Stage 4 fu'ivla.)</para>
<para>The form of a fu'ivla reliably distinguishes it from both the gismu and the cmavo. Like cultural gismu, fu'ivla are generally based on a word from a single non-Lojban language. The word is
<quote>borrowed</quote>(actually
<quote>copied</quote>, hence the Lojban tanru
<quote>fukpi valsi</quote>) from the other language and Lojbanized - the phonemes are converted to their closest Lojban equivalent and modifications are made as necessary to make the word a legitimate Lojban fu'ivla-form word. All fu'ivla:</para>
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para>must contain a consonant cluster in the first five letters of the word; if this consonant cluster is at the beginning, it must either be a permissible initial consonant pair, or a longer cluster such that each pair of adjacent consonants in the cluster is a permissible initial consonant pair:
<quote>spraile</quote>is acceptable, but not
<quote>ktraile</quote>or
<quote>trkaile</quote>;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>must end in one or more vowels;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>must not be gismu or lujvo, or any combination of cmavo, gismu, and lujvo; furthermore, a fu'ivla with a CV cmavo joined to the front of it must not have the form of a lujvo (the so-called
<quote>slinku'i test</quote>, not discussed further in this book);</para>
+<!-- ^^ slinku'i test: definition, 62 -->
+<indexterm><primary>slinku'i test</primary></indexterm>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>cannot contain
<quote>y</quote>, although they may contain syllabic pronunciations of Lojban consonants;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>like other brivla, are stressed on the penultimate syllable.</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
<para>Note that consonant triples or larger clusters that are not at the beginning of a fu'ivla can be quite flexible, as long as all consonant pairs are permissible. There is no need to restrict fu'ivla clusters to permissible initial pairs except at the beginning.</para>
+<!-- ^^ consonant triples, 37; restrictions on, 37 -->
+<indexterm><primary>consonant triples</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ consonant pairs: in brivla, 53; initial, 36; letter y within, 53; restrictions on, 36 -->
+<indexterm><primary>consonant pairs</primary></indexterm>
<para>This is a fairly liberal definition and allows quite a lot of possibilities within
<quote>fu'ivla space</quote>. Stage 3 fu'ivla can be made easily on the fly, as lujvo can, because the procedure for forming them always guarantees a word that cannot violate any of the rules. Stage 4 fu'ivla require running tests that are not simple to characterize or perform, and should be made only after deliberation and by someone knowledgeable about all the considerations that apply.</para>
<para>Here is a simple and reliable procedure for making a non-Lojban word into a valid Stage 3 fu'ivla:</para>
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Eliminate all double consonants and silent letters.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Convert all sounds to their closest Lojban equivalents. Lojban
<quote>y</quote>, however, may not be used in any fu'ivla.</para>
@@ -1029,152 +1247,182 @@
<para>Prefix the result of steps 1-5 with a 4-letter rafsi that categorizes the fu'ivla into a
<quote>topic area</quote>. It is only safe to use a 4-letter rafsi; short rafsi sometimes produce invalid fu'ivla. Hyphenate the rafsi to the rest of the fu'ivla with an
<quote>r</quote>-hyphen; if that would produce a double
<quote>r</quote>, use an
<quote>n</quote>-hyphen instead; if the rafsi ends in
<quote>r</quote>and the rest of the fu'ivla begins with
<quote>n</quote>(or vice versa), or if the rafsi ends in "r" and the rest of the fu'ivla begins with "tc", "ts", "dj", or "dz" (using "n" would result in a phonotactically impermissible cluster), use an
<quote>l</quote>-hyphen. (This is the only use of
<quote>l</quote>-hyphen in Lojban.)</para>
<para>Alternatively, if a CVC-form short rafsi is available it can be used instead of the long rafsi.</para>
+<!-- ^^ long rafsi: definition, 57 -->
+<indexterm><primary>long rafsi</primary></indexterm>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Remember that the stress necessarily appears on the penultimate (next-to-the-last) syllable.</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
<para>In this section, the hyphen is set off with commas in the examples, but these commas are not required in writing, and the hyphen need not be pronounced as a separate syllable.</para>
<para>Here are a few examples:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ufin">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e7d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section7-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>spaghetti (from English or Italian)</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ spaghetti, 61; example, 63 -->
+<indexterm><primary>spaghetti</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>spageti (Lojbanize)</gloss>
<gloss>cidj,r,spageti (prefix long rafsi)</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ long rafsi: definition, 57 -->
+<indexterm><primary>long rafsi</primary></indexterm>
<en>dja,r,spageti (prefix short rafsi)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where
<quote>cidj-</quote>is the 4-letter rafsi for
<quote>cidja</quote>, the Lojban gismu for
<quote>food</quote>, thus categorizing
<quote>cidjrspageti</quote>as a kind of food. The form with the short rafsi happens to work, but such good fortune cannot be relied on: in any event, it means the same thing.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-pzXe">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e7d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section7-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>Acer (the scientific name of maple trees)</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ maple trees: example, 63 -->
+<indexterm><primary>maple trees</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ Acer: example, 63 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Acer</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>acer (Lojbanize)</gloss>
<gloss>xaceru (add initial consonant and final vowel)</gloss>
<gloss>tric,r,xaceru (prefix rafsi)</gloss>
<en>ric,r,xaceru (prefix short rafsi)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where
<quote>tric-</quote>and
<quote>ric-</quote>are rafsi for
<quote>tricu</quote>, the gismu for
<quote>tree</quote>. Note that by the same principles,
<quote>maple sugar</quote>could get the fu'ivla
+<!-- ^^ maple sugar: example, 63 -->
+<indexterm><primary>maple sugar</primary></indexterm>
<quote>saktrxaceru</quote>, or could be represented by the tanru
<quote>tricrxaceru sakta</quote>. Technically,
<quote>ricrxaceru</quote>and
<quote>tricrxaceru</quote>are distinct fu'ivla, but they would surely be given the same meanings if both happened to be in use.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-C0YS">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e7d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section7-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>brie (from French)</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ brie: example, 63 -->
+<indexterm><primary>brie</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>bri (Lojbanize)</gloss>
<en>cirl,r,bri (prefix rafsi)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where
<quote>cirl-</quote>represents
<quote>cirla</quote>(
<quote>cheese</quote>).</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-DQju">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e7d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section7-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>cobra</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ cobra: example, 63 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cobra</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>kobra (Lojbanize)</gloss>
<en>sinc,r,kobra (prefix rafsi)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where
<quote>sinc-</quote>represents
<quote>since</quote>(
<quote>snake</quote>).</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-TFzH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e7d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section7-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>quark</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ quark: example, 63 -->
+<indexterm><primary>quark</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>kuark (Lojbanize)</gloss>
<gloss>kuarka (add final vowel)</gloss>
<en>sask,r,kuarka (prefix rafsi)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where
<quote>sask-</quote>represents
<quote>saske</quote>(
<quote>science</quote>). Note the extra vowel
<quote>a</quote>added to the end of the word, and the diphthong
<quote>ua</quote>, which never appears in gismu or lujvo, but may appear in fu'ivla.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-FTfQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e7d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section7-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>자모 (from Korean)</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ Korean: example, 64 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Korean</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>djamo (Lojbanize)</gloss>
<gloss>lerf,r,djamo (prefix rafsi)</gloss>
<en>ler,l,djamo (prefix rafsi)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where
<quote>ler-</quote>represents
<quote>lerfu</quote>(
<quote>letter</quote>). Note the l-hyphen in "lerldjamo", since "lerndjamo" contains the forbidden cluster "ndj".</para>
+<!-- ^^ l-hyphen: use of, 62 -->
+<indexterm><primary>l-hyphen</primary></indexterm>
<para>The use of the prefix helps distinguish among the many possible meanings of the borrowed word, depending on the field. As it happens,
<quote>spageti</quote>and
<quote>kuarka</quote>are valid Stage 4 fu'ivla, but
<quote>xaceru</quote>looks like a compound cmavo, and
<quote>kobra</quote>like a gismu.</para>
<para>For another example,
<quote>integral</quote>has a specific meaning to a mathematician. But the Lojban fu'ivla
+<!-- ^^ integral: architectural concept, example, 64; mathematical concept, example, 64 -->
+<indexterm><primary>integral</primary></indexterm>
<quote>integrale</quote>, which is a valid Stage 4 fu'ivla, does not convey that mathematical sense to a non-mathematical listener, even one with an English-speaking background; its source - the English word
<quote>integral</quote>- has various other specialized meanings in other fields.</para>
+<!-- ^^ integral: architectural concept, example, 64; mathematical concept, example, 64 -->
+<indexterm><primary>integral</primary></indexterm>
<para>Left uncontrolled,
<quote>integrale</quote>almost certainly would eventually come to mean the same collection of loosely related concepts that English associates with
<quote>integral</quote>, with only the context to indicate (possibly) that the mathematical term is meant.</para>
+<!-- ^^ integral: architectural concept, example, 64; mathematical concept, example, 64 -->
+<indexterm><primary>integral</primary></indexterm>
<para>The prefix method would render the mathematical concept as
<quote>cmacrntegrale</quote>, if the
<quote>i</quote>of
<quote>integrale</quote>is removed, or something like
<quote>cmacrnintegrale</quote>, if a new consonant is added to the beginning;
<quote>cmac-</quote>is the rafsi for
<quote>cmaci</quote>(
<quote>mathematics</quote>). The architectural sense of
<quote>integral</quote>might be conveyed with
+<!-- ^^ integral: architectural concept, example, 64; mathematical concept, example, 64 -->
+<indexterm><primary>integral</primary></indexterm>
<quote>djinrnintegrale</quote>or
<quote>tarmrnintegrale</quote>, where
<quote>dinju</quote>and
<quote>tarmi</quote>mean
<quote>building</quote>and
<quote>form</quote>respectively.</para>
<para>Here are some fu'ivla representing cultures and related things, shown with more than one rafsi prefix:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-oWGs">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e7d9" />
@@ -1184,43 +1432,57 @@
<anchor xml:id="c4e7d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section7-example11" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e7d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section7-example12" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e7d13" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section7-example13" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>bang,r,blgaria</jbo>
<en>Bulgarian (in language)</en>
+<!-- ^^ Bulgarian: example, 64 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Bulgarian</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>kuln,r,blgaria</jbo>
<en>Bulgarian (in culture)</en>
+<!-- ^^ Bulgarian: example, 64 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Bulgarian</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>gugd,r,blgaria</jbo>
<en>Bulgaria (the country)</en>
<jbo>bang,r,kore,a</jbo>
<en>Korean (the language)</en>
+<!-- ^^ Korean: example, 64 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Korean</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>kuln,r,kore,a</jbo>
<en>Korean (the culture)</en>
+<!-- ^^ Korean: example, 64 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Korean</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note the commas in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4-section7-example12" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4-section7-example13" />, used because
<quote>ea</quote>is not a valid diphthong in Lojban. Arguably, some form of the native name
<quote>Chosen</quote>should have been used instead of the internationally known
<quote>Korea</quote>; this is a recurring problem in all borrowings. In general, it is better to use the native name unless using it will severely impede understanding:
+<!-- ^^ borrowings: fu'ivla form with categorizing rafsi, 61; fu'ivla form without categorizing rafsi, 62; most common form for, 61; Stage 1, 61; Stage 2, 61; Stage 3, 61; Stage 3 contrasted with Stage 4 in ease of construction, 62; Stage 4, 62; using foreign-language name, 61; using lojbanized name, 61 -->
+<indexterm><primary>borrowings</primary></indexterm>
<quote>Navajo</quote>is far more widely known than
+<!-- ^^ Navajo: example, 64 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Navajo</primary></indexterm>
<quote>Dine'e</quote>.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter4-section8">
<title>8. cmene</title>
<para>Lojbanized names, called
<quote>cmene</quote>, are very much like their counterparts in other languages. They are labels applied to things (or people) to stand for them in descriptions or in direct address. They may convey meaning in themselves, but do not necessarily do so.</para>
+<!-- ^^ direct address, 323 -->
+<indexterm><primary>direct address</primary></indexterm>
<para>Because names are often highly personal and individual, Lojban attempts to allow native language names to be used with a minimum of modification. The requirement that the Lojban speech stream be unambiguously analyzable, however, means that most names must be modified somewhat when they are Lojbanized. Here are a few examples of English names and possible Lojban equivalents:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-1LIJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e8d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section8-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e8d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section8-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e8d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section8-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e8d4" />
@@ -1230,47 +1492,65 @@
<anchor xml:id="c4e8d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section8-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>djim.</jbo>
<en>Jim</en>
<jbo>djein.</jbo>
<en>Jane</en>
<jbo>.arnold.</jbo>
<en>Arnold</en>
+<!-- ^^ Arnold: example, 65 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Arnold</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>pit.</jbo>
<en>Pete</en>
+<!-- ^^ Pete: example, 65 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Pete</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>katrinas.</jbo>
<en>Katrina</en>
+<!-- ^^ Katrina: example, 65 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Katrina</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>kat,r,in.</jbo>
<en>Catherine</en>
+<!-- ^^ Catherine: example, 65 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Catherine</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(Note that syllabic
<quote>r</quote>is skipped in determining the stressed syllable, so
+<!-- ^^ stressed syllable: compared with stressed vowel, 40 -->
+<!-- ^^ stressed vowel: compared with stressed syllable, 40 -->
+<indexterm><primary>stressed vowel</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>stressed syllable</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4-section8-example6" />is stressed on the
<quote>ka</quote>.)</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-TX1F">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e8d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section8-example7" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e8d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section8-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>katis.</jbo>
<en>Cathy</en>
+<!-- ^^ Cathy: example, 65 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Cathy</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>keit.</jbo>
<en>Kate</en>
+<!-- ^^ Kate: example, 65 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Kate</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Names may have almost any form, but always end in a consonant, and are followed by a pause. They are penultimately stressed, unless unusual stress is marked with capitalization. A name may have multiple parts, each ending with a consonant and pause, or the parts may be combined into a single word with no pause. For example,</para>
+<!-- ^^ capitalization: for unusual stress in names, 66; use in names, 66; use of, 66 -->
+<indexterm><primary>capitalization</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-43uP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e8d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section8-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>djan. djonz.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and</para>
@@ -1278,20 +1558,22 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e8d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section8-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>djandjonz.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>are both valid Lojbanizations of
<quote>John Jones</quote>.</para>
+<!-- ^^ John Jones: example, 65 -->
+<indexterm><primary>John Jones</primary></indexterm>
<para>The final arbiter of the correct form of a name is the person doing the naming, although most cultures grant people the right to determine how they want their own name to be spelled and pronounced. The English name
<quote>Mary</quote>can thus be Lojbanized as
<quote>meris.</quote>,
<quote>maris.</quote>,
<quote>meiris.</quote>,
<quote>merix.</quote>, or even
<quote>marys.</quote>. The last alternative is not pronounced much like its English equivalent, but may be desirable to someone who values spelling over pronunciation. The final consonant need not be an
<quote>s</quote>; there must, however, be some Lojban consonant at the end.</para>
<para>Names are not permitted to have the sequences
<quote>la</quote>,
@@ -1303,37 +1585,43 @@
<quote>la plas.</quote>, and
<quote>ilanas.</quote>would be misunderstood as
<quote>.i la nas.</quote>. However,
<quote>NEderlants.</quote>cannot be misheard as
<quote>NEder lants.</quote>, because
<quote>NEder</quote>with no following pause is not a possible Lojban word.</para>
<para>There are close alternatives to these forbidden sequences that can be used in Lojbanizing names, such as
<quote>ly</quote>,
<quote>lei</quote>, and
<quote>dai</quote>or
+<!-- ^^ dai, 314 -->
+<indexterm><primary>dai</primary></indexterm>
<quote>do'i</quote>, that do not cause these problems.</para>
<para>Lojban cmene are identifiable as word forms by the following characteristics:</para>
+<!-- ^^ word forms: as related to grammatical uses, 49; in Lojban (see also morphology), 49 -->
+<indexterm><primary>word forms</primary></indexterm>
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para>They must end in one or more consonants. There are no rules about how many consonants may appear in a cluster in cmene, provided that each consonant pair (whether standing by itself, or as part of a larger cluster) is a permissible pair.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>They may contain the letter y as a normal, non-hyphenating vowel. They are the only kind of Lojban word that may contain the two diphthongs
<quote>iy</quote>and
<quote>uy</quote>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>They are always followed in speech by a pause after the final consonant, written as
<quote>.</quote>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>They may be stressed on any syllable; if this syllable is not the penultimate one, it must be capitalized when writing. Neither names nor words that begin sentences are capitalized in Lojban, so this is the only use of capital letters.</para>
+<!-- ^^ capital letters: use in Lojban, 415; use of, 29 -->
+<indexterm><primary>capital letters</primary></indexterm>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
<para>Names meeting these criteria may be invented, Lojbanized from names in other languages, or formed by appending a consonant onto a cmavo, a gismu, a fu'ivla or a lujvo. Some cmene built from Lojban words are:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ziuQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e8d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section8-example11" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e8d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section8-example12" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e8d13" />
@@ -1343,31 +1631,41 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>pav.</jbo>
<gloss>the One</gloss>
<en>from the cmavo
<quote>pa</quote>, with rafsi
<quote>pav</quote>, meaning
<quote>one</quote></en>
<jbo>sol.</jbo>
<gloss>the Sun</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ Sun: the, example, 66 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Sun</primary></indexterm>
<en>from the gismu
<quote>solri</quote>, meaning
<quote>solar</quote>, or actually
<quote>pertaining to the Sun</quote></en>
+<!-- ^^ Sun: the, example, 66 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Sun</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>ralj.</jbo>
<gloss>Chief (as a title)</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ Chief: example, 66 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Chief</primary></indexterm>
<en>from the gismu
<quote>ralju</quote>, meaning
<quote>principal</quote>.</en>
<jbo>nol.</jbo>
<gloss>Lord/Lady</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ Lord: example, 66 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Lord</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ Lady: example, 66 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Lady</primary></indexterm>
<en>from the gismu
<quote>nobli</quote>, with rafsi
<quote>nol</quote>, meaning
<quote>noble</quote>.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>To Lojbanize a name from the various natural languages, apply the following rules:</para>
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Eliminate double consonants and silent letters.</para>
@@ -1375,40 +1673,58 @@
<listitem>
<para>Add a final
<quote>s</quote>or
<quote>n</quote>(or some other consonant that sounds good) if the name ends in a vowel.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Convert all sounds to their closest Lojban equivalents.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>If possible and acceptable, shift the stress to the penultimate (next-to-the-last) syllable. Use commas and capitalization in written Lojban when it is necessary to preserve non-standard syllabication or stress. Do not capitalize names otherwise.</para>
+<!-- ^^ syllabication: and names, 39; definition of, 39; examples of, 39; rules for, 39; variants of, 41 -->
+<indexterm><primary>syllabication</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ capitalization: for unusual stress in names, 66; use in names, 66; use of, 66 -->
+<indexterm><primary>capitalization</primary></indexterm>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>If the name contains an impermissible consonant pair, insert a vowel between the consonants:
<quote>y</quote>is recommended.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>No cmene may have the syllables
<quote>la</quote>,
<quote>lai</quote>, or
<quote>doi</quote>in them, unless immediately preceded by a consonant. If these combinations are present, they must be converted to something else. Possible substitutions include
<quote>ly</quote>,
<quote>ly'i</quote>, and
<quote>dai</quote>or
+<!-- ^^ dai, 314 -->
+<indexterm><primary>dai</primary></indexterm>
<quote>do'i</quote>, respectively.</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
<para>There are some additional rules for Lojbanizing the scientific names (technically known as
+<!-- ^^ scientific names: rules for, 67 -->
+<indexterm><primary>scientific names</primary></indexterm>
<quote>Linnaean binomials</quote>after their inventor) which are internationally applied to each species of animal or plant. Where precision is essential, these names need not be Lojbanized, but can be directly inserted into Lojban text using the cmavo
+<!-- ^^ Linnaean binomials, 479 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Linnaean binomials</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ Linnaean, 479 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Linnaean</primary></indexterm>
<quote>la'o</quote>, explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19" />. Using this cmavo makes the already lengthy Latinized names at least four syllables longer, however, and leaves the pronunciation in doubt. The following suggestions, though incomplete, will assist in converting Linnaean binomals to valid Lojban names. They can also help to create fu'ivla based on Linnaean binomials or other words of the international scientific vocabulary. The term
+<!-- ^^ Linnaean binomials, 479 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Linnaean binomials</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ Linnaean, 479 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Linnaean</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ converting: operand to operator, 500; operator to selbri, 502; quantifier to selbri, 500; selbri to operand, 501; selbri to operator, 501; sumti to operand, 500; sumti to tanru unit, 500 -->
+<indexterm><primary>converting</primary></indexterm>
<quote>back vowel</quote>in the following list refers to any of the letters
<quote>a</quote>,
<quote>o</quote>, or
<quote>u</quote>; the term
<quote>front vowel</quote>correspondingly refers to any of the letters
<quote>e</quote>,
<quote>i</quote>, or
<quote>y</quote>.</para>
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
@@ -1474,71 +1790,95 @@
<listitem>
<para>Change
<quote>h</quote>between two vowels to
<quote>'</quote>, but otherwise remove it completely. If preservation of the
<quote>h</quote>seems essential, change it to
<quote>x</quote>instead.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Place
<quote>'</quote>between any remaining vowel pairs that do not form Lojban diphthongs.</para>
+<!-- ^^ vowel pairs: contrasted with diphthongs, 34; definition of, 34; grouping of, 35; involving y, 35; list of, 35; use of apostrophe in, 34 -->
+<indexterm><primary>vowel pairs</primary></indexterm>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
<para>Some further examples of Lojbanized names are:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
English
<quote>Mary</quote> meris.
or meiris.
English
<quote>Smith</quote> smit.
English
<quote>Jones</quote> djonz.
English
<quote>John</quote> djan. or jan. (American)
or djon. or jon. (British)
English
<quote>Alice</quote> .alis.
English
<quote>Elise</quote> .eLIS.
English
<quote>Johnson</quote> djansn.
+<!-- ^^ Johnson: example, 68 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Johnson</primary></indexterm>
English
<quote>William</quote> .uiliam.
+<!-- ^^ William: example, 68 -->
+<indexterm><primary>William</primary></indexterm>
or .uil,iam.
English
<quote>Brown</quote> braun.
+<!-- ^^ Brown: James Cooke, 6; James Cooke, and "letteral", 413 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Brown</primary></indexterm>
English
<quote>Charles</quote> tcarlz.
French
<quote>Charles</quote> carl.
French
<quote>De Gaulle</quote> dyGOL.
+<!-- ^^ De Gaulle: example, 68 -->
+<indexterm><primary>De Gaulle</primary></indexterm>
German
<quote>Heinrich</quote> xainrix.
Spanish
<quote>Joaquin</quote> xuaKIN.
Russian
<quote>Svetlana</quote> sfietlanys.
+<!-- ^^ Svetlana: example, 68 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Svetlana</primary></indexterm>
Russian
<quote>Khrushchev</quote> xrucTCOF.
+<!-- ^^ Khrushchev: example, 68 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Khrushchev</primary></indexterm>
Hindi
<quote>Krishna</quote> kricnas.
+<!-- ^^ Krishna: example, 68 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Krishna</primary></indexterm>
Polish
<quote>Lech Walesa</quote> lex. va,uensas.
+<!-- ^^ Lech Walesa: example, 68 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Lech Walesa</primary></indexterm>
Spanish
<quote>Don Quixote</quote> don. kicotes.
+<!-- ^^ Don Quixote: example, 68 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Don Quixote</primary></indexterm>
or modern Spanish: don. kixotes.
or Mexican dialect: don. ki'otes.
Chinese
<quote>Mao Zedong</quote> maudzydyn.
+<!-- ^^ Mao Zedong: example, 68 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Mao Zedong</primary></indexterm>
Japanese
<quote>Fujiko</quote> fudjikos.
+<!-- ^^ Fujiko: example, 68 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Fujiko</primary></indexterm>
or fujikos.
</programlisting>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter4-section9">
<title>9. Rules for inserting pauses</title>
<para>Summarized in one place, here are the rules for inserting pauses between Lojban words:</para>
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Any two words may have a pause between them; it is always illegal to pause in the middle of a word, because that breaks up the word into two words.</para>
</listitem>
@@ -1558,68 +1898,96 @@
<listitem>
<para>If the last syllable of a word bears the stress, and a brivla follows, the two must be separated by a pause, to prevent confusion with the primary stress of the brivla. In this case, the first word must be either a cmavo or a cmene with unusual stress (which already ends with a pause, of course).</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>A cmavo of the form
<quote>Cy</quote>must be followed by a pause unless another
<quote>Cy</quote>-form cmavo follows.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>When non-Lojban text is embedded in Lojban, it must be preceded and followed by pauses. (How to embed non-Lojban text is explained in
+<!-- ^^ non-Lojban text: rules for pause with, 69 -->
+<indexterm><primary>non-Lojban text</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19" />.)</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter4-section10">
<title>10. Considerations for making lujvo</title>
<para>Given a tanru which expresses an idea to be used frequently, it can be turned into a lujvo by following the lujvo-making algorithm which is given in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4-section11" />.</para>
<para>In building a lujvo, the first step is to replace each gismu with a rafsi that uniquely represents that gismu. These rafsi are then attached together by fixed rules that allow the resulting compound to be recognized as a single word and to be analyzed in only one way.</para>
<para>There are three other complications; only one is serious.</para>
<para>The first is that there is usually more than one rafsi that can be used for each gismu. The one to be used is simply whichever one sounds or looks best to the speaker or writer. There are usually many valid combinations of possible rafsi. They all are equally valid, and all of them mean exactly the same thing. (The scoring algorithm given in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4-section12" />is used to choose the standard form of the lujvo - the version which would be entered into a dictionary.)</para>
<para>The second complication is the serious one. Remember that a tanru is ambiguous - it has several possible meanings. A lujvo, or at least one that would be put into the dictionary, has just a single meaning. Like a gismu, a lujvo is a predicate which encompasses one area of the semantic universe, with one set of places. Hopefully the meaning chosen is the most useful of the possible semantic spaces. A possible source of linguistic drift in Lojban is that as Lojbanic society evolves, the concept that seems the most useful one may change.</para>
+<!-- ^^ linguistic drift in Lojban: possible source of, 69 -->
+<indexterm><primary>linguistic drift in Lojban</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ linguistic drift, 4 -->
+<indexterm><primary>linguistic drift</primary></indexterm>
<para>You must also be aware of the possibility of some prior meaning of a new lujvo, especially if you are writing for posterity. If a lujvo is invented which involves the same tanru as one that is in the dictionary, and is assigned a different meaning (or even just a different place structure), linguistic drift results. This isn't necessarily bad. Every natural language does it. But in communication, when you use a meaning different from the dictionary definition, someone else may use the dictionary and therefore misunderstand you. You can use the cmavo
+<!-- ^^ linguistic drift, 4 -->
+<indexterm><primary>linguistic drift</primary></indexterm>
<quote>za'e</quote>(explained in
+<!-- ^^ za'e, 69, 416, 480; interaction with bu, 416; use to avoid lujvo misunderstandings, 69 -->
+<indexterm><primary>za'e</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19" />) before a newly coined lujvo to indicate that it may have a non-dictionary meaning.</para>
<para>The essential nature of human communication is that if the listener understands, then all is well. Let this be the ultimate guideline for choosing meanings and place structures for invented lujvo.</para>
<para>The third complication is also simple, but tends to scare new Lojbanists with its implications. It is based on Zipf's Law, which says that the length of words is inversely proportional to their usage. The shortest words are those which are used more; the longest ones are used less. Conversely, commonly used concepts will be tend to be abbreviated. In English, we have abbreviations and acronyms and jargon, all of which represent complex ideas that are used often by small groups of people, so they shortened them to convey more information more rapidly.</para>
+<!-- ^^ Zipf's Law, 69 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Zipf's Law</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ jargon: use of fu'ivla for, 61 -->
+<indexterm><primary>jargon</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ acronyms: as lerfu strings using "me", 424; using names based on lerfu words, 423 -->
+<indexterm><primary>acronyms</primary></indexterm>
<para>Therefore, given a complicated tanru with grouping markers, abstraction markers, and other cmavo in it to make it syntactically unambiguous, the psychological basis of Zipf's Law may compel the lujvo-maker to drop some of the cmavo to make a shorter (technically incorrect) tanru, and then use that tanru to make the lujvo.</para>
+<!-- ^^ Zipf's Law, 69 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Zipf's Law</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ basis: example, 317 -->
+<indexterm><primary>basis</primary></indexterm>
<para>This doesn't lead to ambiguity, as it might seem to. A given lujvo still has exactly one meaning and place structure. It is just that more than one tanru is competing for the same lujvo. But more than one meaning for the tanru was already competing for the
<quote>right</quote>to define the meaning of the lujvo. Someone has to use judgment in deciding which one meaning is to be chosen over the others.</para>
<para>If the lujvo made by a shorter form of tanru is in use, or is likely to be useful for another meaning, the decider then retains one or more of the cmavo, preferably ones that set this meaning apart from the shorter form meaning that is used or anticipated. As a rule, therefore, the shorter lujvo will be used for a more general concept, possibly even instead of a more frequent word. If both words are needed, the simpler one should be shorter. It is easier to add a cmavo to clarify the meaning of the more complex term than it is to find a good alternate tanru for the simpler term.</para>
+<!-- ^^ anticipated: example, 316 -->
+<indexterm><primary>anticipated</primary></indexterm>
<para>And of course, we have to consider the listener. On hearing an unknown word, the listener will decompose it and get a tanru that makes no sense or the wrong sense for the context. If the listener realizes that the grouping operators may have been dropped out, he or she may try alternate groupings, or try inserting an abstraction operator if that seems plausible. (The grouping of tanru is explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5" />; abstraction is explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11" />.) Plausibility is the key to learning new ideas and to evaluating unfamiliar lujvo.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter4-section11">
<title>11. The lujvo-making algorithm</title>
<para>The following is the current algorithm for generating Lojban lujvo given a known tanru and a complete list of gismu and their assigned rafsi. The algorithm was designed by Bob LeChevalier and Dr. James Cooke Brown for computer program implementation. It was modified in 1989 with the assistance of Nora LeChevalier, who detected a flaw in the original
+<!-- ^^ Brown: James Cooke, 6; James Cooke, and "letteral", 413 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Brown</primary></indexterm>
<quote>tosmabru test</quote>.</para>
+<!-- ^^ tosmabru test, 71 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tosmabru test</primary></indexterm>
<para>Given a tanru that is to be made into a lujvo:</para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry>
<term>1)</term>
<listitem>
<para>Choose a 3-letter or 4-letter rafsi for each of the gismu and cmavo in the tanru except the last.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>2)</term>
<listitem>
<para>Choose a 3-letter (CVV-form or CCV-form) or 5-letter rafsi for the final gismu in the tanru.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>3)</term>
<listitem>
<para>Join the resulting string of rafsi, initially without hyphens.</para>
+<!-- ^^ hyphens: use of, 59 -->
+<indexterm><primary>hyphens</primary></indexterm>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>4)</term>
<listitem>
<para>Add hyphen letters where necessary. It is illegal to add a hyphen at a place that is not required by this algorithm. Right-to-left tests are recommended, for reasons discussed below.
<variablelist>
<varlistentry>
<term>4a)</term>
<listitem>
@@ -1640,63 +2008,75 @@
<listitem>
<para>Put a
<quote>y</quote>-hyphen between the consonants of any impermissible consonant pair. This will always appear between rafsi.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>4c)</term>
<listitem>
<para>Put a
<quote>y</quote>-hyphen after any 4-letter rafsi form.</para>
+<!-- ^^ rafsi form: effect of choice on meaning of lujvo, 56 -->
+<indexterm><primary>rafsi form</primary></indexterm>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist></para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>5)</term>
<listitem>
<para>Test all forms with one or more initial CVC-form rafsi - with the pattern
<quote>CVC ... CVC + X</quote>- for
<quote>tosmabru failure</quote>. X must either be a CVCCV long rafsi that happens to have a permissible initial pair as the consonant cluster, or is something which has caused a
+<!-- ^^ long rafsi: definition, 57 -->
+<indexterm><primary>long rafsi</primary></indexterm>
<quote>y</quote>-hyphen to be installed between the previous CVC and itself by one of the above rules.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
<para>Note that the
<quote>tosmabru test</quote>implies that the algorithm will be more efficient if rafsi junctures are tested for required hyphens from right to left, instead of from left to right; when the test is required, it cannot be completed until hyphenation to the right has been determined.</para>
+<!-- ^^ tosmabru test, 71 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tosmabru test</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ hyphens: use of, 59 -->
+<indexterm><primary>hyphens</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter4-section12">
<title>12. The lujvo scoring algorithm</title>
<para>This algorithm was devised by Bob and Nora LeChevalier in 1989. It is not the only possible algorithm, but it usually gives a choice that people find preferable. The algorithm may be changed in the future. The lowest-scoring variant will usually be the dictionary form of the lujvo. (In previous versions, it was the highest-scoring variant.)</para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry>
<term>1)</term>
<listitem>
<para>Count the total number of letters, including hyphens and apostrophes; call it
+<!-- ^^ hyphens: use of, 59 -->
+<indexterm><primary>hyphens</primary></indexterm>
<quote>L</quote>.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>2)</term>
<listitem>
<para>Count the number of apostrophes; call it
<quote>A</quote>.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>3)</term>
<listitem>
<para>Count the number of
<quote>y</quote>-,
<quote>r</quote>-, and
<quote>n</quote>-hyphens; call it
+<!-- ^^ hyphens: use of, 59 -->
+<indexterm><primary>hyphens</primary></indexterm>
<quote>H</quote>.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>4)</term>
<listitem>
<para>For each rafsi, find the value in the following table. Sum this value over all rafsi; call it
<quote>R</quote>:
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
@@ -1720,86 +2100,104 @@
<description>4</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>CVC</cmavo>
<selmaho>(-nun-)</selmaho>
<description>5</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>CVV with an apostrophe</cmavo>
<selmaho>(-ta'u-)</selmaho>
+<!-- ^^ ta'u, 318 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ta'u</primary></indexterm>
<description>6</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>CCV</cmavo>
<selmaho>(-zba-)</selmaho>
<description>7</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>CVV with no apostrophe</cmavo>
<selmaho>(-sai-)</selmaho>
+<!-- ^^ sai, 305 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sai</primary></indexterm>
<description>8</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list></para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>5)</term>
<listitem>
<para>Count the number of vowels, not including
<quote>y</quote>; call it
<quote>V</quote>.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
<para>The score is then:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
(1000 * L) - (500 * A) + (100 * H) - (10 * R) - V
</programlisting>
<para>In case of ties, there is no preference. This should be rare. Note that the algorithm essentially encodes a hierarchy of priorities: short words are preferred (counting apostrophes as half a letter), then words with fewer hyphens, words with more pleasing rafsi (this judgment is subjective), and finally words with more vowels are chosen. Each decision principle is applied in turn if the ones before it have failed to choose; it is possible that a lower-ranked principle might dominate a higher-ranked one if it is ten times better than the alternative.</para>
+<!-- ^^ hyphens: use of, 59 -->
+<indexterm><primary>hyphens</primary></indexterm>
<para>Here are some lujvo with their scores (not necessarily the lowest scoring forms for these lujvo, nor even necessarily sensible lujvo):</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-sdBq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e12d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section12-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e12d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section12-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e12d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section12-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c4e12d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section12-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>zbasai</jbo>
<gloss>zba + sai</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ sai, 305 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sai</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>(1000 * 6) - (500 * 0) + (100 * 0) - (10 * 15) - 3</gloss>
<en>= 5847</en>
<jbo>nunynau</jbo>
<gloss>nun + y + nau</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ nau, 238; effect on sticky tenses, 238; syntax, 238 -->
+<indexterm><primary>nau</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>(1000 * 7) - (500 * 0) + (100 * 1) - (10 * 13) - 3</gloss>
<en>= 6967</en>
<jbo>sairzbata'u</jbo>
<gloss>sai + r + zba + ta'u</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ ta'u, 318 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ta'u</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ sai, 305 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sai</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>(1000 * 11) - (500 * 1) + (100 * 1) - (10 * 21) - 5</gloss>
<en>= 10385</en>
<jbo>zbazbasysarji</jbo>
<gloss>zba + zbas + y + sarji</gloss>
<gloss>(1000 * 13) - (500 * 0) + (100 * 1) - (10 * 12) - 4</gloss>
<en>= 12976</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter4-section13">
<title>13. lujvo-making examples</title>
<para>This section contains examples of making and scoring lujvo. First, we will start with the tanru
<quote>gerku zdani</quote>(
<quote>dog house</quote>) and construct a lujvo meaning
+<!-- ^^ lujvo meaning, 274 -->
+<indexterm><primary>lujvo meaning</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ dog house: example, 274 -->
+<indexterm><primary>dog house</primary></indexterm>
<quote>doghouse</quote>, that is, a house where a dog lives. We will use a brute-force application of the algorithm in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4-section12" />, using every possible rafsi.</para>
<para>The rafsi for
<quote>gerku</quote>are:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
-ger-, -ge'u-, -gerk-, -gerku
</programlisting>
<para>The rafsi for
<quote>zdani</quote>are:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
@@ -1815,58 +2213,68 @@
<quote>zdani</quote>. The six possible forms of the lujvo are then:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ger-zda
ger-zdani
ge'u-zda
ge'u-zdani
gerk-zda
gerk-zdani
</programlisting>
<para>We must then insert appropriate hyphens in each case. The first two forms need no hyphenation:
+<!-- ^^ hyphens: use of, 59 -->
+<indexterm><primary>hyphens</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ge</quote>cannot fall off the front, because the following word would begin with
<quote>rz</quote>, which is not a permissible initial consonant pair. So the lujvo forms are
<quote>gerzda</quote>and
<quote>gerzdani</quote>.</para>
<para>The third form,
<quote>ge'u-zda</quote>, needs no hyphen, because even though the first rafsi is CVV, the second one is CCV, so there is a consonant cluster in the first five letters. So
<quote>ge'uzda</quote>is this form of the lujvo.</para>
<para>The fourth form,
<quote>ge'u-zdani</quote>, however, requires an
<quote>r</quote>-hyphen; otherwise, the
<quote>ge'u-</quote>part would fall off as a cmavo. So this form of the lujvo is
<quote>ge'urzdani</quote>.</para>
<para>The last two forms require
<quote>y</quote>-hyphens, as all 4-letter rafsi do, and so are
+<!-- ^^ hyphens: use of, 59 -->
+<indexterm><primary>hyphens</primary></indexterm>
<quote>gerkyzda</quote>and
<quote>gerkyzdani</quote>respectively.</para>
<para>The scoring algorithm is heavily weighted in favor of short lujvo, so we might expect that
<quote>gerzda</quote>would win. Its L score is 6, its A score is 0, its H score is 0, its R score is 12, and its V score is 3, for a final score of 5878. The other forms have scores of 7917, 6367, 9506, 8008, and 10047 respectively. Consequently, this lujvo would probably appear in the dictionary in the form
<quote>gerzda</quote>.</para>
<para>For the next example, we will use the tanru
<quote>bloti klesi</quote>(
<quote>boat class</quote>) presumably referring to the category (rowboat, motorboat, cruise liner) into which a boat falls. We will omit the long rafsi from the process, since lujvo containing long rafsi are almost never preferred by the scoring algorithm when there are short rafsi available.</para>
+<!-- ^^ long rafsi: definition, 57 -->
+<indexterm><primary>long rafsi</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ boat class: example, 73 -->
+<indexterm><primary>boat class</primary></indexterm>
<para>The rafsi for
<quote>bloti</quote>are
<quote>-lot-</quote>,
<quote>-blo-</quote>, and
<quote>-lo'i-</quote>; for
<quote>klesi</quote>they are
<quote>-kle-</quote>and
<quote>-lei-</quote>. Both these gismu are among the handful which have both CVV-form and CCV-form rafsi, so there is an unusual number of possibilities available for a two-part tanru:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
lotkle blokle lo'ikle
<!-- not a cmavo list -->
lotlei blolei lo'irlei
</programlisting>
<para>Only
<quote>lo'irlei</quote>requires hyphenation (to avoid confusion with the cmavo sequence
<quote>lo'i lei</quote>). All six forms are valid versions of the lujvo, as are the six further forms using long rafsi; however, the scoring algorithm produces the following results:</para>
+<!-- ^^ long rafsi: definition, 57 -->
+<indexterm><primary>long rafsi</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
lotkle 5878 blokle 5858 lo'ikle 6367
<!-- not a cmavo list -->
lotlei 5867 blolei 5847 lo'irlei 7456
</programlisting>
<para>So the form
<quote>blolei</quote>is preferred, but only by a tiny margin over
<quote>blokle</quote>; "lotlei" and "lotkle" are only slightly worse;
<quote>lo'ikle</quote>suffers because of its apostrophe, and
<quote>lo'irlei</quote>because of having both apostrophe and hyphen.</para>
@@ -1906,27 +2314,31 @@
logjybangri logjybaugri logjybangygri
lojbangirzu lojbaugirzu lojbangygirzu
logjybangirzu logjybaugirzu logjybangygirzu
lojbangir. lojbaugir. lojbangygir.
logjybangir. logjybaugir. logjybangygir.
lojbangirz. lojbaugirz. lojbangygirz.
logjybangirz. logjybaugirz. logjybangygirz.
</programlisting>
<para>The only fully reduced lujvo forms are
+<!-- ^^ fully reduced lujvo: definition, 59 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fully reduced lujvo</primary></indexterm>
<quote>lojbangri</quote>and
<quote>lojbaugri</quote>, of which the latter has a slightly lower score: 8827 versus 8796, respectively. However, for the name of the organization, we chose to make sure the name of the language was embedded in it, and to use the clearer long-form rafsi for
<quote>girzu</quote>, producing
<quote>lojbangirz.</quote></para>
<para>Finally, here is a four-part lujvo with a cmavo in it, based on the tanru
<quote>nakni ke cinse ctuca</quote>or
<quote>male (sexual teacher)</quote>. The
+<!-- ^^ sexual teacher: male, example, 74 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sexual teacher</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ke</quote>cmavo ensures the interpretation
<quote>teacher of sexuality who is male</quote>, rather than
<quote>teacher of male sexuality</quote>. Here are the possible forms of the lujvo, both before and after hyphenation:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
nak-kem-cin-ctu nakykemcinctu
nak-kem-cin-ctuca nakykemcinctuca
nak-kem-cins-ctu nakykemcinsyctu
nak-kem-cins-ctuca nakykemcinsyctuca
nakn-kem-cin-ctu naknykemcinctu
nakn-kem-cin-ctuca naknykemcinctuca
@@ -1943,20 +2355,26 @@
<quote>ke</quote>required for grouping need not be expressed.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter4-section14">
<title>14. The gismu creation algorithm</title>
<para>The gismu were created through the following process:</para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry>
<term>1)</term>
<listitem>
<para>At least one word was found in each of the six source languages (Chinese, English, Hindi, Spanish, Russian, Arabic) corresponding to the proposed gismu. This word was rendered into Lojban phonetics rather liberally: consonant clusters consisting of a stop and the corresponding fricative were simplified to just the fricative (
+<!-- ^^ source languages: use in creating gismu, 75 -->
+<indexterm><primary>source languages</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ consonant clusters: buffering of, 38; contrasted with doubled consonants, 35; contrasted with single consonants, 35; definition of, 35; more than three consonants in, 37 -->
+<!-- ^^ doubled consonants: contrasted with consonant clusters, 35; contrasted with single consonants, 35 -->
+<indexterm><primary>doubled consonants</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>consonant clusters</primary></indexterm>
<quote>tc</quote>became
<quote>c</quote>,
<quote>dj</quote>became
<quote>j</quote>) and non-Lojban vowels were mapped onto Lojban ones. Furthermore, morphological endings were dropped. The same mapping rules were applied to all six languages for the sake of consistency.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>2)</term>
<listitem>
<para>All possible gismu forms were matched against the six source-language forms. The matches were scored as follows:
@@ -1997,20 +2415,22 @@
<varlistentry>
<term>5)</term>
<listitem>
<para>The gismu form with the highest score usually became the actual gismu. Sometimes a lower-scoring form was used to provide a better rafsi. A few gismu were changed in error as a result of transcription blunders (for example, the gismu
<quote>gismu</quote>should have been
<quote>gicmu</quote>, but it's too late to fix it now).</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
<para>Note that the stressed vowel of the gismu was considered sufficiently distinctive that two or more gismu may differ only in this vowel; as an extreme example,
+<!-- ^^ stressed vowel: compared with stressed syllable, 40 -->
+<indexterm><primary>stressed vowel</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bradi</quote>,
<quote>bredi</quote>,
<quote>bridi</quote>, and
<quote>brodi</quote>(but fortunately not
<quote>brudi</quote>) are all existing gismu.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter4-section15">
<title>15. Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu</title>
<para>The following gismu were not made by the gismu creation algorithm. They are, in effect, coined words similar to fu'ivla. They are exceptions to the otherwise mandatory gismu creation algorithm where there was sufficient justification for such exceptions. Except for the small metric prefixes and the assignable predicates beginning with
<quote>brod-</quote>, they all end in the letter
@@ -2070,20 +2490,22 @@
sinso sine
stero steradian
tanjo tangent
xampo ampere
</programlisting>
<para>The gismu
<quote>sinso</quote>and
<quote>tanjo</quote>were only made non-algorithmically because they were identical (having been borrowed from a common source) in all the dictionaries that had translations. The other terms in this group are units in the international metric system; some metric units, however, were made by the ordinary process (usually because they are different in Chinese).</para>
<para>Finally, there are the cultural gismu, which are also borrowed, but by modifying a word from one particular language, instead of using the multi-lingual gismu creation algorithm. Cultural gismu are used for words that have local importance to a particular culture; other cultures or languages may have no word for the concept at all, or may borrow the word from its home culture, just as Lojban does. In such a case, the gismu algorithm, which uses weighted averages, doesn't accurately represent the frequency of usage of the individual concept. Cultural gismu are not even required to be based on the six major languages.</para>
<para>The six Lojban source languages:</para>
+<!-- ^^ source languages: use in creating gismu, 75 -->
+<indexterm><primary>source languages</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
jungo Chinese (from
<quote>Zhong
<superscript>1</superscript>guo
<superscript>2</superscript></quote>)
glico English
xindo Hindi
spano Spanish
rusko Russian
xrabo Arabic
@@ -2145,20 +2567,22 @@
Portuguese:
brazo Brazilian
Urdu:
kisto Pakistani
</programlisting>
<para>The continents (and oceanic regions) of the Earth:</para>
+<!-- ^^ continents: gismu for, 79 -->
+<indexterm><primary>continents</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
bemro North American (from
<quote>berti merko</quote>)
dzipo Antarctican (from
<quote>cadzu cipni</quote>)
ketco South American (from
<quote>Quechua</quote>)
friko African
polno Polynesian/Oceanic
ropno European
@@ -2210,27 +2634,31 @@
<para>The second, and fully experimental, part of the proposal is to allow rafsi to be formed from these cultural fu'ivla by removing the final vowel and treating the result as a 4-letter rafsi (although it would contain five letters, not four). These rafsi could then be used on a par with all other rafsi in forming lujvo. The tanru</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-hcR6">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e16d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section16-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>tci'ile ke canre tutra</jbo>
<gloss>Chilean type-of (sand territory)</gloss>
<en>Chilean desert</en>
+<!-- ^^ Chilean desert: example, 80 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Chilean desert</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>could be represented by the lujvo</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-0rzn">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e16d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter4-section16-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>tci'ilykemcantutra</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which is an illegal word in standard Lojban, but a valid lujvo under this proposal. There would be no short rafsi or 5-letter rafsi assigned to any fu'ivla, so no fu'ivla could appear as the last element of a lujvo.</para>
<para>The cultural fu'ivla introduced under this proposal are called
<quote>rafsi fu'ivla</quote>, since they are distinguished from other Type 4 fu'ivla by the property of having rafsi. If this proposal is workable and introduces no problems into Lojban morphology, it might become standard for all Type 4 fu'ivla, including those made for plants, animals, foodstuffs, and other things.</para>
+<!-- ^^ plants: use of fu'ivla for specific, 61 -->
+<indexterm><primary>plants</primary></indexterm>
</section>
</chapter>
diff --git a/todocbook/5.xml b/todocbook/5.xml
index cbfdb30..9d3b7a4 100644
--- a/todocbook/5.xml
+++ b/todocbook/5.xml
@@ -55,52 +55,66 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-UMjE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e1d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section1-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta blotrskunri</jbo>
<gloss>That is-a-(boat)-schooner.</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ schooner: example, 83 -->
+<indexterm><primary>schooner</primary></indexterm>
<en>That is a schooner.</en>
+<!-- ^^ schooner: example, 83 -->
+<indexterm><primary>schooner</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>illustrate the three types of brivla (gismu, lujvo, and fu'ivla respectively), but in each case the selbri is composed of a single word whose meaning can be learned independent of its origins.</para>
<para>The remainder of this chapter will mostly use gismu as example brivla, because they are short. However, it is important to keep in mind that wherever a gismu appears, it could be replaced by any other kind of brivla.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter5-section2">
<title>2. Simple tanru</title>
<para>Beyond the single brivla, a selbri may consist of two brivla placed together. When a selbri is built in this way from more than one brivla, it is called a tanru, a word with no single English equivalent. The nearest analogue to tanru in English are combinations of two nouns such as
+<!-- ^^ nouns: brivla as Lojban equivalents, 52 -->
+<indexterm><primary>nouns</primary></indexterm>
<quote>lemon tree</quote>. There is no way to tell just by looking at the phrase
+<!-- ^^ lemon tree: example, 84 -->
+<indexterm><primary>lemon tree</primary></indexterm>
<quote>lemon tree</quote>exactly what it refers to, even if you know the meanings of
+<!-- ^^ lemon tree: example, 84 -->
+<indexterm><primary>lemon tree</primary></indexterm>
<quote>lemon</quote>and
<quote>tree</quote>by themselves. As English-speakers, we must simply know that it refers to
<quote>a tree which bears lemons as fruits</quote>. A person who didn't know English very well might think of it as analogous to
<quote>brown tree</quote>and wonder,
<quote>What kind of tree is lemon-colored?</quote></para>
<para>In Lojban, tanru are also used for the same purposes as English adjective-noun combinations like
<quote>big boy</quote>and adverb-verb combinations like
<quote>quickly run</quote>. This is a consequence of Lojban not having any such categories as
<quote>noun</quote>,
<quote>verb</quote>,
<quote>adjective</quote>, or
<quote>adverb</quote>. English words belonging to any of these categories are translated by simple brivla in Lojban. Here are some examples of tanru:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-z0wS">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e2d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section2-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>tu pelnimre tricu</jbo>
<gloss>That-yonder is-a-(lemon tree).</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ lemon tree: example, 84 -->
+<indexterm><primary>lemon tree</primary></indexterm>
<en>That is a lemon tree.</en>
+<!-- ^^ lemon tree: example, 84 -->
+<indexterm><primary>lemon tree</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-qHNA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e2d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section2-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. barda nanla</jbo>
<gloss>John is-a-big boy.</gloss>
@@ -134,20 +148,22 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi sutra</jbo>
<en>I am-fast/quick.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>shows
<quote>sutra</quote>used to translate an adjective, whereas in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section2-example3" />it is translating an adverb. (Another correct translation of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section2-example3" />, however, would be
<quote>I am a quick runner</quote>.)</para>
+<!-- ^^ quick runner: example, 84 -->
+<indexterm><primary>quick runner</primary></indexterm>
<para>There are special Lojban terms for the two components of a tanru, derived from the place structure of the word
<quote>tanru</quote>. The first component is called the
<quote>seltau</quote>, and the second component is called the
<quote>tertau</quote>.</para>
<para>The most important rule for use in interpreting tanru is that the tertau carries the primary meaning. A
<quote>pelnimre tricu</quote>is primarily a tree, and only secondarily is it connected with lemons in some way. For this reason, an alternative translation of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section2-example1" />would be:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-hP9j">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e2d5" />
@@ -222,20 +238,24 @@
<para>are parallel tanru, in the sense that the relationship between
<quote>barda</quote>and
<quote>prenu</quote>is the same as that between
<quote>cmalu</quote>and
<quote>prenu</quote>.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section14" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section15" />contain a partial listing of some types of tanru, with examples.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter5-section3">
<title>3. Three-part tanru grouping with
+<!-- ^^ tanru grouping: complex, 87; effect of tanru inversion on, 96; guheks compared with jeks, 350; three-part, 85; with bo, 87; with ke, 88; with ke and bo, 88 -->
+<!-- ^^ tanru inversion, 95; definition, 95; effect on tanru grouping, 96; in complex tanru, 96; multiple, 96; rule for removing, 96; where allowed, 96 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tanru inversion</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>tanru grouping</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bo</quote></title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>bo</cmavo>
<selmaho>BO</selmaho>
<description>closest scope grouping</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>Consider the English sentence:</para>
@@ -265,20 +285,22 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section2" />. We understand that
<quote>girls' school</quote>means
<quote>a school where girls are the students</quote>, and not
<quote>a school where girls are the teachers</quote>or
<quote>a school which is a girl</quote>(!). Likewise, we understand that
<quote>little girl</quote>means
<quote>girl who is small</quote>. This is an ambiguity of grouping. Is
<quote>girls' school</quote>to be taken as a unit, with
<quote>little</quote>specifying the type of girls' school? Or is
<quote>little girl</quote>to be taken as a unit, specifying the type of school? In English speech, different tones of voice, or exaggerated speech rhythm showing the grouping, are used to make the distinction; English writing usually leaves it unrepresented.</para>
+<!-- ^^ speech rhythm: for grouping in English, 85 -->
+<indexterm><primary>speech rhythm</primary></indexterm>
<para>Lojban makes no use of tones of voice for any purpose; explicit words are used to do the work. The cmavo
<quote>bo</quote>(which belongs to selma'o BO) may be placed between the two brivla which are most closely associated. Therefore, a Lojban translation of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section3-example2" />would be:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-nwuU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e3d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section3-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta cmalu nixli bo ckule</jbo>
@@ -305,20 +327,24 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section3-example4" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section3-example5" />reveals a tanru nested within a tanru. In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section3-example4" />, the main tanru has a seltau of
<quote>cmalu</quote>and a tertau of
<quote>nixli bo ckule</quote>; the tertau is itself a tanru with
<quote>nixli</quote>as the seltau and
<quote>ckule</quote>as the tertau. In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section3-example5" />, on the other hand, the seltau is
<quote>cmalu bo nixli</quote>(itself a tanru), whereas the tertau is
<quote>ckule</quote>. This structure of tanru nested within tanru forms the basis for all the more complex types of selbri that will be explained below.</para>
+<!-- ^^ tanru nested within tanru, 86 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tanru nested within tanru</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ basis: example, 317 -->
+<indexterm><primary>basis</primary></indexterm>
<para>What about
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section3-example6" />? What does it mean?</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-9FPm">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e3d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section3-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta cmalu nixli ckule</jbo>
<en>That is-a-small girl school.</en>
@@ -359,40 +385,46 @@
<jbo>ta klama bo jubme</jbo>
<en>That is-a goer–table.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is a legal Lojban bridi that means exactly the same thing as
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section2-example8" />, and is ambiguous in exactly the same ways. The cmavo
<quote>bo</quote>serves only to resolve grouping ambiguity: it says nothing about the more basic ambiguity present in all tanru.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter5-section4">
<title>4. Complex tanru grouping</title>
+<!-- ^^ tanru grouping: complex, 87; effect of tanru inversion on, 96; guheks compared with jeks, 350; three-part, 85; with bo, 87; with ke, 88; with ke and bo, 88 -->
+<!-- ^^ tanru inversion, 95; definition, 95; effect on tanru grouping, 96; in complex tanru, 96; multiple, 96; rule for removing, 96; where allowed, 96 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tanru inversion</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>tanru grouping</primary></indexterm>
<para>If one element of a tanru can be another tanru, why not both elements?</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-m5SD">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e4d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section4-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do mutce bo barda gerku bo kavbu</jbo>
<gloss>You are-a-(very type-of large) (dog type-of capturer).</gloss>
<en>You are a very large dog-catcher.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section4-example1" />, the selbri is a tanru with seltau
<quote>mutce bo barda</quote>and tertau
<quote>gerku bo kavbu</quote>. It is worth emphasizing once again that this tanru has the same fundamental ambiguity as all other Lojban tanru: the sense in which the
<quote>dog type-of capturer</quote>is said to be
<quote>very type-of large</quote>is not precisely specified. Presumably it is his body which is large, but theoretically it could be one of his other properties.</para>
<para>We will now justify the title of this chapter by exploring the ramifications of the phrase
<quote>pretty little girls' school</quote>, an expansion of the tanru used in
+<!-- ^^ pretty little girls' school: forty ways, examples, 112 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pretty little girls' school</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section3" />to four brivla. (Although this example has been used in the Loglan Project almost since the beginning - it first appeared in Quine's book
<citation>Word and Object</citation>(1960) - it is actually a mediocre example because of the ambiguity of English
<quote>pretty</quote>; it can mean
<quote>beautiful</quote>, the sense intended here, or it can mean
<quote>very</quote>. Lojban
<quote>melbi</quote>is not subject to this ambiguity: it means only
<quote>beautiful</quote>.)</para>
<para>Here are four ways to group this phrase:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-KSuA">
<title>
@@ -420,20 +452,22 @@
<en>That is a small school for girls which is beautiful.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section4-example5" />uses a construction which has not been seen before:
<quote>cmalu bo nixli bo ckule</quote>, with two consecutive uses of
<quote>bo</quote>between brivla. The rule for multiple
<quote>bo</quote>constructions is the opposite of the rule when no
<quote>bo</quote>is present at all: the last two are grouped together. Not surprisingly, this is called the
<quote>right-grouping rule</quote>, and it is associated with every use of
+<!-- ^^ right-grouping rule: definition of, 87 -->
+<indexterm><primary>right-grouping rule</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bo</quote>in the language. Therefore,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-snKn">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e4d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section4-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta cmalu bo nixli bo ckule</jbo>
<en>That is-a-little type-of (girl type-of school).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -460,20 +494,24 @@
<description>start grouping</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ke'e</cmavo>
<selmaho>KEhE</selmaho>
<description>end grouping</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>There is, in fact, a fifth grouping of
<quote>pretty little girls' school</quote>that cannot be expressed with the resources explained so far. To handle it, we must introduce the grouping parentheses cmavo,
+<!-- ^^ pretty little girls' school: forty ways, examples, 112 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pretty little girls' school</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ grouping parentheses, 88 -->
+<indexterm><primary>grouping parentheses</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ke</quote>and
<quote>ke'e</quote>(belonging to selma'o KE and KEhE respectively). Any portion of a selbri sandwiched between these two cmavo is taken to be a single tanru component, independently of what is adjacent to it. Thus,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section4-example2" />can be rewritten in any of the following ways:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-cnjH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e5d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section5-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c5e5d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section5-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c5e5d3" />
@@ -511,20 +549,22 @@
<anchor xml:id="c5e5d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section5-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta melbi cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e]</jbo>
<en>That is-a-(pretty type-of little) ( girl type-of school ).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The final
<quote>ke'e</quote>is given in square brackets here to indicate that it can be elided. It is always possible to elide
+<!-- ^^ square brackets: use of in notation, 5 -->
+<indexterm><primary>square brackets</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ke'e</quote>at the end of the selbri, making
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section5-example5" />as terse as
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section4-example3" />.</para>
<para>Now how about that fifth grouping? It is</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-tz0L">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e5d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section5-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -571,23 +611,29 @@
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
je JA tanru logical
<quote>and</quote>
ja JA tanru logical
<quote>or</quote>
joi JOI mixed mass
<quote>and</quote>
gu'e GUhA tanru forethought logical
<quote>and</quote>
gi GI forethought connection separator
+<!-- ^^ forethought connection: contrasted with afterthought for grammatical utterances, 352; definition, 199; in abstractions, 365; in tenses, 363; observatives, 347; of operands, 453; of operators, 453 -->
+<!-- ^^ observatives: and abstractions, 255; quick-tour version, 15 -->
+<indexterm><primary>observatives</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>forethought connection</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>Consider the English phrase
<quote>big red dog</quote>. How shall this be rendered as a Lojban tanru? The naive attempt:</para>
+<!-- ^^ big red dog: example, 89 -->
+<indexterm><primary>big red dog</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-riAq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e6d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section6-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>barda xunre gerku</jbo>
<en>(big type-of red) type-of dog</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -597,24 +643,28 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e6d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section6-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>barda xunre bo gerku</jbo>
<en>big type-of (red type-of dog)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>much better. After all, the straightforward understanding of the English phrase is that the dog is big as compared with other dogs, not merely as compared with other red dogs. In fact, the bigness and redness are independent properties of the dog, and only obscure rules of English adjective ordering prevent us from saying
+<!-- ^^ adjective ordering, 89 -->
+<indexterm><primary>adjective ordering</primary></indexterm>
<quote>red big dog</quote>.</para>
<para>The Lojban approach to this problem is to introduce the cmavo
<quote>je</quote>, which is one of the many equivalents of English
<quote>and</quote>. A big red dog is one that is both big and red, and we can say:</para>
+<!-- ^^ big red dog: example, 89 -->
+<indexterm><primary>big red dog</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-0UrF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e6d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section6-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>barda je xunre gerku</jbo>
<en>(big and red) type-of dog</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -676,20 +726,22 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>definitely refers to something which is both blue and is a house, and not to any of the other possible interpretations of simple
<quote>blanu zdani</quote>. Furthermore,
<quote>blanu zdani</quote>refers to something which is blue in the way that houses are blue;
<quote>blanu je zdani</quote>has no such implication - the blueness of a
<quote>blanu je zdani</quote>is independent of its houseness.</para>
<para>With the addition of
<quote>je</quote>, many more versions of
<quote>pretty little girls' school</quote>are made possible: see
+<!-- ^^ pretty little girls' school: forty ways, examples, 112 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pretty little girls' school</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section16" />for a complete list.</para>
<para>A subtle point in the semantics of tanru like
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section6-example3" />needs special elucidation. There are at least two possible interpretations of:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-N5Bt">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e6d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section6-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta melbi je nixli ckule</jbo>
@@ -786,40 +838,48 @@
<quote>whether or not</quote>in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section6-example16" />.</para>
<para>Now consider the following example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-NuWM">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e6d17" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section6-example17" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ricfu je blanu jabo crino</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ jabo, 91 -->
+<indexterm><primary>jabo</primary></indexterm>
<en>rich and (blue or green)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which illustrates a new grammatical feature: the use of both
<quote>ja</quote>and
<quote>bo</quote>between tanru components. The two cmavo combine to form a compound whose meaning is that of
<quote>ja</quote>but which groups more closely;
<quote>jabo</quote>is to
+<!-- ^^ jabo, 91 -->
+<indexterm><primary>jabo</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ja</quote>as plain
<quote>bo</quote>is to no cmavo at all. However, both
<quote>ja</quote>and
<quote>jabo</quote>group less closely than
+<!-- ^^ jabo, 91 -->
+<indexterm><primary>jabo</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bo</quote>does:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-KxqX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e6d18" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section6-example18" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ricfu je blanu jabo crino bo blanu</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ jabo, 91 -->
+<indexterm><primary>jabo</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>rich and (blue or green – blue)</gloss>
<en>rich and (blue or greenish-blue)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>An alternative form of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section6-example17" />is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-2WtT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e6d19" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section6-example19" />
@@ -833,20 +893,22 @@
<quote>joi</quote>, which is the kind of
<quote>and</quote>that denotes a mixture:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Hr1L">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e6d20" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section6-example20" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti blanu joi xunre bolci</jbo>
<en>This is-a-(blue and red) ball.</en>
+<!-- ^^ blue and red: example, 354 -->
+<indexterm><primary>blue and red</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The ball described is neither solely red nor solely blue, but probably striped or in some other way exhibiting a combination of the two colors.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section6-example20" />is distinct from:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-NAhT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e6d21" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section6-example21" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -857,23 +919,27 @@
<para>which would be a ball whose color is some sort of purple tending toward red, since
<quote>xunre</quote>is the more important of the two components. On the other hand,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-78C3">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e6d22" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section6-example22" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti blanu je xunre bolci</jbo>
<en>This is a (blue and red) ball</en>
+<!-- ^^ blue and red: example, 354 -->
+<indexterm><primary>blue and red</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is probably self-contradictory, seeming to claim that the ball is independently both blue and red at the same time, although some sensible interpretation may exist.</para>
+<!-- ^^ blue and red: example, 354 -->
+<indexterm><primary>blue and red</primary></indexterm>
<para>Finally, just as English
<quote>and</quote>has the variant form
<quote>both ... and</quote>, so
<quote>je</quote>between tanru components has the variant form
<quote>gu'e ... gi</quote>, where
<quote>gu'e</quote>is placed before the components and
<quote>gi</quote>between them:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-gLbh">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e6d23" />
@@ -915,30 +981,36 @@
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter5-section7">
<title>7. Linked sumti:
<quote>be–bei–be'o</quote></title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>be</cmavo>
<selmaho>BE</selmaho>
<description>linked sumti marker</description>
+<!-- ^^ linked sumti: definition, 93; in tanru, 93 -->
+<indexterm><primary>linked sumti</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>bei</cmavo>
<selmaho>BEI</selmaho>
<description>linked sumti separator</description>
+<!-- ^^ linked sumti: definition, 93; in tanru, 93 -->
+<indexterm><primary>linked sumti</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>be'o</cmavo>
<selmaho>BEhO</selmaho>
<description>linked sumti terminator</description>
+<!-- ^^ linked sumti: definition, 93; in tanru, 93 -->
+<indexterm><primary>linked sumti</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>The question of the place structures of selbri has been glossed over so far. This chapter does not attempt to treat place structure issues in detail; they are discussed in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9" />. One grammatical structure related to places belongs here, however. In simple sentences such as
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section1-example1" />, the place structure of the selbri is simply the defined place structure of the gismu
<quote>mamta</quote>. What about more complex selbri?</para>
<para>For tanru, the place structure rule is simple: the place structure of a tanru is always the place structure of its tertau. Thus, the place structure of
<quote>blanu zdani</quote>is that of
<quote>zdani</quote>: the x1 place is a house or nest, and the x2 place is its occupants.</para>
<para>What about the places of
@@ -948,20 +1020,22 @@
<quote>blanu</quote>with
<quote>xamgu</quote>, we get:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-tffW">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e7d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section7-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti xamgu zdani</jbo>
<gloss>This is-a-good house.</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ good house: example, 92 -->
+<indexterm><primary>good house</primary></indexterm>
<en>This is a good (for someone, by some standard) house.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Since
<quote>xamgu</quote>has three places (x1, the good thing; x2, the person for whom it is good; and x3, the standard of goodness),
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section7-example1" />necessarily omits information about the last two: there is no room for them. Room can be made, however!</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Uuio">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e7d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section7-example2" />
@@ -985,27 +1059,33 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section7-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti cmalu be le ka canlu</jbo>
<gloss>bei lo'e ckule be'o</gloss>
<gloss>nixli be li mu bei lo merko be'o bo</gloss>
<gloss>ckule la bryklyn. loi pemci</gloss>
<gloss>le mela nu,IORK. prenu</gloss>
<gloss>le jecta</gloss>
<gloss>This is a small (in-dimension the property-of volume</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ dimension: meaning as sumti tcita, 233 -->
+<indexterm><primary>dimension</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>by-standard the-typical school)</gloss>
<gloss>(girl (of-years the-number five by-standard some American-thing)</gloss>
<gloss>school) in-Brooklyn with-subject poems</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ Brooklyn: example, 93 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Brooklyn</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>for-audience New-York persons</gloss>
<gloss>with-operator the state.</gloss>
<gloss>This is a school, small in volume compared to the typical school, pertaining</gloss>
<gloss>to five-year-old girls (by American standards), in Brooklyn, teaching poetry</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ Brooklyn: example, 93 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Brooklyn</primary></indexterm>
<en>to the New York community and operated by the state.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the three places of
<quote>cmalu</quote>, the three of
<quote>nixli</quote>, and the four of
<quote>ckule</quote>are fully specified. Since the places of
<quote>ckule</quote>are the places of the bridi as a whole, it was not necessary to link the sumti which follow
<quote>ckule</quote>. It would have been legal to do so, however:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-YIty">
@@ -1038,20 +1118,22 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>melbi je cmalu nixli bo ckule</jbo>
<gloss>a (pretty and little) (girl school)</gloss>
<en>a school for girls which is both beautiful and small</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is simply that of
<quote>ckule</quote>. (The sole exception to this rule is discussed in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section8" />.)</para>
<para>It is possible to precede linked sumti by the place structure ordering tags
+<!-- ^^ linked sumti: definition, 93; in tanru, 93 -->
+<indexterm><primary>linked sumti</primary></indexterm>
<quote>fe</quote>,
<quote>fi</quote>,
<quote>fo</quote>, and
<quote>fu</quote>(of selma'o FA, discussed further in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9" />), which serve to explicitly specify the x2, x3, x4, and x5 places respectively. Normally, the place following the
<quote>be</quote>is the x2 place and the other places follow in order. If it seems convenient to change the order, however, it can be accomplished as follows:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-mhS7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e7d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section7-example7" />
@@ -1073,23 +1155,27 @@
<para>Of course, using FA cmavo makes it easy to specify one place while omitting a previous place:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-9b37">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e7d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section7-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti xamgu be fi mi [be'o] zdani</jbo>
<gloss>This is-a-good (by-standard me) house.</gloss>
<en>This is a good house by my standards.</en>
+<!-- ^^ good house: example, 92 -->
+<indexterm><primary>good house</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Similarly, sumti labeled by modal or tense tags can be inserted into strings of linked sumti just as they can into bridi:</para>
+<!-- ^^ linked sumti: definition, 93; in tanru, 93 -->
+<indexterm><primary>linked sumti</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-GstI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e7d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section7-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta blanu be ga'a mi [be'o] zdani</jbo>
<gloss>That is-a-blue (to-observer me) house.</gloss>
<en>That is a blue, as I see it, house.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1105,20 +1191,22 @@
<jbo>ta blanu zdani ga'a mi</jbo>
<gloss>That is-a-blue house to-observer me.</gloss>
<en>That is a blue house, as I see it.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>See discussions in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9" />of modals and in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10" />of tenses for more explanations.</para>
<para>The terminator
<quote>be'o</quote>is almost always elidable: however, if the selbri belongs to a description, then a relative clause following it will attach to the last linked sumti unless
+<!-- ^^ linked sumti: definition, 93; in tanru, 93 -->
+<indexterm><primary>linked sumti</primary></indexterm>
<quote>be'o</quote>is used, in which case it will attach to the outer description:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-CNY7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e7d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section7-example11" />
<anchor xml:id="c5e7d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section7-example12" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le xamgu be do noi barda cu zdani</jbo>
@@ -1152,20 +1240,22 @@
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter5-section8">
<title>8. Inversion of tanru:
<quote>co</quote></title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>co</cmavo>
<selmaho>CO</selmaho>
<description>tanru inversion marker</description>
+<!-- ^^ tanru inversion, 95; definition, 95; effect on tanru grouping, 96; in complex tanru, 96; multiple, 96; rule for removing, 96; where allowed, 96 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tanru inversion</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>The standard order of Lojban tanru, whereby the modifier precedes what it modifies, is very natural to English-speakers: we talk of
<quote>blue houses</quote>, not of
<quote>houses blue</quote>. In other languages, however, such matters are differently arranged, and Lojban supports this reverse order (tertau before seltau) by inserting the particle
<quote>co</quote>.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section8-example1" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section8-example2" />mean exactly the same thing:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-YrRz">
<title>
@@ -1178,20 +1268,22 @@
<jbo>ta blanu zdani</jbo>
<gloss>That is-a-blue type-of-house.</gloss>
<en>That is a blue house.</en>
<jbo>ta zdani co blanu</jbo>
<gloss>That is-a-house of-type blue.</gloss>
<en>That is a blue house.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This change is called
<quote>tanru inversion</quote>. In tanru inversion, the element before
+<!-- ^^ tanru inversion, 95; definition, 95; effect on tanru grouping, 96; in complex tanru, 96; multiple, 96; rule for removing, 96; where allowed, 96 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tanru inversion</primary></indexterm>
<quote>co</quote>(
<quote>zdani</quote>in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section8-example2" />) is the tertau, and the element following
<quote>co</quote>(
<quote>blanu</quote>) in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section8-example2" />) is the seltau.</para>
<para>The meaning, and more specifically, the place structure, of a tanru is not affected by inversion: the place structure of
<quote>zdani co blanu</quote>is still that of
<quote>zdani</quote>. However, the existence of inversion in a selbri has a very special effect on any sumti which follow that selbri. Instead of being interpreted as filling places of the selbri, they actually fill the places (starting with x2) of the seltau. In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section7" />, we saw how to fill interior places with
@@ -1202,34 +1294,40 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e8d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section8-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c5e8d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section8-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama be le zarci bei le zdani be'o troci</jbo>
<gloss>I am-a-(goer to the market from the house) type-of trier.</gloss>
<en>I try to go to the market from the house.</en>
+<!-- ^^ try to go: example, 95 -->
+<indexterm><primary>try to go</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>mi troci co klama le zarci le zdani</jbo>
<gloss>I am-a-trier of-type (goer to-the market from-the house).</gloss>
<en>I try to go to the market from the house.</en>
+<!-- ^^ try to go: example, 95 -->
+<indexterm><primary>try to go</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section8-example4" />is a less deeply nested construction, requiring fewer cmavo. As a result it is probably easier to understand.</para>
<para>Note that in Lojban
<quote>trying to go</quote>is expressed using
<quote>troci</quote>as the tertau. The reason is that
<quote>trying to go</quote>is a
<quote>going type of trying</quote>, not a
<quote>trying type of going</quote>. The trying is more fundamental than the going - if the trying fails, we may not have a going at all.</para>
<para>Any sumti which precede a selbri with an inverted tanru fill the places of the selbri (i.e., the places of the tertau) in the ordinary way. In
+<!-- ^^ inverted tanru: effect on sumti after the selbri, 95; effect on sumti before the selbri, 95 -->
+<indexterm><primary>inverted tanru</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section8-example4" />,
<quote>mi</quote>fills the x1 place of
<quote>troci co klama</quote>, which is the x1 place of
<quote>troci</quote>. The other places of the selbri remain unfilled. The trailing sumti
<quote>le zarci</quote>and
<quote>le zdani</quote>do not occupy selbri places, despite appearances.</para>
<para>As a result, the regular mechanisms (involving selma'o VOhA and GOhI, explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7" />) for referring to individual sumti of a bridi cannot refer to any of the trailing places of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section8-example4" />, because they are not really
<quote>sumti of the bridi</quote>at all.</para>
@@ -1289,20 +1387,22 @@
<anchor xml:id="c5e8d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section8-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ke melbi nixli ke'e ckule</jbo>
<en>(pretty girl) school</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Multiple
<quote>co</quote>cmavo can appear within a selbri, indicating multiple inversions: a right-grouping rule is employed, as for
+<!-- ^^ right-grouping rule: definition of, 87 -->
+<indexterm><primary>right-grouping rule</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bo</quote>. The above rule can be applied to interpret such selbri, but all
<quote>co</quote>cmavo must be removed simultaneously:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-yLn5">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e8d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section8-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ckule co nixli co cmalu</jbo>
<en>school of-type (girl of-type little)</en>
@@ -1374,30 +1474,36 @@
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>nu'a</cmavo>
<selmaho>NUhA</selmaho>
<description>math operator to selbri</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>moi</cmavo>
<selmaho>MOI</selmaho>
<description>changes number to ordinal selbri</description>
+<!-- ^^ ordinal selbri: definition, 447; place structure, 447; place structure effect from subjective numbers, 448 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ordinal selbri</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>mei</cmavo>
<selmaho>MOI</selmaho>
<description>changes number to cardinal selbri</description>
+<!-- ^^ cardinal selbri: definition, 446; place structure, 446; place structure effect from subjective numbers, 448 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cardinal selbri</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>nu</cmavo>
<selmaho>NU</selmaho>
<description>event abstraction</description>
+<!-- ^^ event abstraction(s): types, 257 -->
+<indexterm><primary>event abstraction</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>kei</cmavo>
<selmaho>KEI</selmaho>
<description>terminator for NU</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>So far we have only discussed brivla and tanru built up from brivla as possible selbri. In fact, there are a few other constructions in Lojban which are grammatically equivalent to brivla: they can be used either directly as selbri, or as components in tanru. Some of these types of simple selbri are discussed at length in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7" />,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11" />, and
@@ -1443,20 +1549,22 @@
<quote>go'i</quote>and inserted into
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section9-example2" />.</para>
<para>The exceptional member of GOhA is
<quote>du</quote>, which represents the relation of identity. Its place structure is:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
x1 is identical with x2, x3, ...
</programlisting>
<para>for as many places as are given. More information on selma'o GOhA is available in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7" />.</para>
<para>Lojban mathematical expressions (mekso) can be incorporated into selbri in two different ways. Mathematical operators such as
+<!-- ^^ mathematical expressions: connectives in, 361; implicit quantifier for, 142; tensed connection in, 364 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mathematical expressions</primary></indexterm>
<quote>su'i</quote>, meaning
<quote>plus</quote>, can be transformed into selbri by prefixing them with
<quote>nu'a</quote>(of selma'o NUhA). The resulting place structure is:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
x1 is the result of applying (the operator) to arguments x2, x3, etc.
</programlisting>
<para>for as many arguments as are required. (The result goes in the x1 place because the number of following places may be indefinite.) For example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-pp6j">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e9d4" />
@@ -1470,38 +1578,50 @@
<para>A possible tanru example might be:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-K7yz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e9d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section9-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi jimpe tu'a loi nu'a su'i nabmi</jbo>
<gloss>I understand something-about the-mass-of is-the-sum-of problems.</gloss>
<en>I understand addition problems.</en>
+<!-- ^^ addition problems: example, 98 -->
+<indexterm><primary>addition problems</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>More usefully, it is possible to combine a mathematical expression with a cmavo of selma'o MOI to create one of various numerical selbri. Details are available in
+<!-- ^^ numerical selbri: alternative to compensate for restriction on numbers, 448; based on non-numerical sumti, 448; complex, 448; grammar, 448; restriction on numbers used for, 448; special, 446; special, with lerfu strings, 448; use of "me" with, 448 -->
+<indexterm><primary>numerical selbri</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18" />. Here are a few tanru:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-VcmF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e9d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section9-example6" />
<anchor xml:id="c5e9d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section9-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la prim. palvr. pamoi cusku</jbo>
<gloss>Preem Palver is-the-1-th speaker.</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ Preem Palver: example, 98 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Preem Palver</primary></indexterm>
<en>Preem Palver is the first speaker.</en>
+<!-- ^^ Preem Palver: example, 98 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Preem Palver</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>la an,iis. joi la .asun. bruna remei</jbo>
<gloss>Anyi massed-with Asun are-a-brother type-of-twosome.</gloss>
<en>Anyi and Asun are two brothers.</en>
+<!-- ^^ two brothers: example, 98 -->
+<indexterm><primary>two brothers</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ brothers: example, 355 -->
+<indexterm><primary>brothers</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Finally, an important type of simple selbri which is not a brivla is the abstraction. Grammatically, abstractions are simple: a cmavo of selma'o NU, followed by a bridi, followed by the elidable terminator
<quote>kei</quote>of selma'o KEI. Semantically, abstractions are an extremely subtle and powerful feature of Lojban whose full ramifications are documented in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11" />. A few examples:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-5szz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e9d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section9-example8" />
</title>
@@ -1548,20 +1668,22 @@
<anchor xml:id="c5e10d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section10-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ci nolraitru</jbo>
<gloss>the three noblest-governors</gloss>
<en>the three kings</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>If these are understood to be the Three Kings of Christian tradition, who arrive every year on January 6, then we may say:</para>
+<!-- ^^ Three Kings: example, 99 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Three Kings</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-99r3">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e10d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section10-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la BALtazar. cu me le ci nolraitru</jbo>
<gloss>Balthazar is one-of-the-referents-of
<quote>the three kings</quote>.</gloss>
<en>Balthazar is one of the three kings.</en>
@@ -1622,27 +1744,39 @@
<quote>la</quote>, as seltau. For example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-raQG">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e10d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section10-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta me lai kraislr. [me'u] karce</jbo>
<gloss>That (is-a-referent of
<quote>the-mass-called ‘Chrysler'</quote>) car.</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ Chrysler: example, 99 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Chrysler</primary></indexterm>
<en>That is a Chrysler car.</en>
+<!-- ^^ Chrysler: example, 99 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Chrysler</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The elidable terminator
<quote>me'u</quote>can usually be omitted. It is absolutely required only if the
<quote>me</quote>selbri is being used in an indefinite description (a type of sumti explained in
+<!-- ^^ indefinite description: as needing explicit outer quantifier, 132; as prohibiting explicit inner quantifier, 132; compared with restricted variable, 398; definition, 132, 398 -->
+<!-- ^^ restricted variable: compared with indefinite description, 398 -->
+<indexterm><primary>restricted variable</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>indefinite description</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6" />), and if the indefinite description is followed by a relative clause (explained in
+<!-- ^^ indefinite description: as needing explicit outer quantifier, 132; as prohibiting explicit inner quantifier, 132; compared with restricted variable, 398; definition, 132, 398 -->
+<!-- ^^ restricted variable: compared with indefinite description, 398 -->
+<indexterm><primary>restricted variable</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>indefinite description</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8" />) or a sumti logical connective (explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14" />). Without a
<quote>me'u</quote>, the relative clause or logical connective would appear to belong to the sumti embedded in the
<quote>me</quote>expression. Here is a contrasting pair of sentences:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Tw0c">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e10d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section10-example8" />
<anchor xml:id="c5e10d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section10-example9" />
@@ -1651,20 +1785,24 @@
<jbo>re me le ci nolraitru .e la djan. [me'u] cu blabi</jbo>
<en>Two of the group
<quote>the three kings and John</quote>are white.</en>
<jbo>re me le ci nolraitru me'u .e la djan. cu blabi</jbo>
<en>Two of the three kings, and John, are white.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section10-example8" />the
<quote>me</quote>selbri covers the three kings plus John, and the indefinite description picks out two of them that are said to be white: we cannot say which two. In
+<!-- ^^ indefinite description: as needing explicit outer quantifier, 132; as prohibiting explicit inner quantifier, 132; compared with restricted variable, 398; definition, 132, 398 -->
+<!-- ^^ restricted variable: compared with indefinite description, 398 -->
+<indexterm><primary>restricted variable</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>indefinite description</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section10-example9" />, though, the
<quote>me</quote>selbri covers only the three kings: two of them are said to be white, and so is John.</para>
<para>Finally, here is another example requiring
<quote>me'u</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ygzq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e10d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section10-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1677,20 +1815,22 @@
<quote>me'u</quote>or some other elidable terminator must be expressed:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-8yDj">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e10d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section10-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le me le ci nolraitru [ku] me'u nunsalci</jbo>
<gloss>the (the three kings) type-of-event-of-celebrating</gloss>
<en>the Three Kings celebration</en>
+<!-- ^^ Three Kings: example, 99 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Three Kings</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>requires either
<quote>ku</quote>or
<quote>me'u</quote>to be explicit, and (as with
<quote>be'o</quote>in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section7" />) the
<quote>me'u</quote>leaves no doubt which cmavo it is paired with.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter5-section11">
@@ -1920,20 +2060,22 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The difference arises because the
<quote>na'e</quote>in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section12-example9" />negates the whole construction from
<quote>ke</quote>to
<quote>ke'e</quote>, whereas in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section12-example8" />it negates
<quote>sutra</quote>alone.</para>
<para>Beware of omitting terminators in these complex examples! If the explicit
+<!-- ^^ omitting terminators: perils of, 102 -->
+<indexterm><primary>omitting terminators</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ke'e</quote>is left out in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section12-example9" />, it is transformed into:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Y53U">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e12d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section12-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o je masno klama [ke'e] le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I non-(quickly ( (walking using the arms) ) and slowly) go-to) the market.</gloss>
@@ -1952,22 +2094,26 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka je masno klama [be'o] [ke'e] le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I non-(quickly walk on my (arm-type and slow) goers) on the market.</gloss>
<gloss>I do something other than quickly walking using the goers, both arm-type</gloss>
<en>and slow, relative-to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section12-example11" />, everything after
<quote>be</quote>is a linked sumti, so the place structure is that of
+<!-- ^^ linked sumti: definition, 93; in tanru, 93 -->
+<indexterm><primary>linked sumti</primary></indexterm>
<quote>cadzu</quote>, whose x2 place is the surface walked upon. It is less than clear what an
<quote>arm-type goer</quote>might be. Furthermore, since the x3 place has been occupied by the linked sumti, the
+<!-- ^^ linked sumti: definition, 93; in tanru, 93 -->
+<indexterm><primary>linked sumti</primary></indexterm>
<quote>le zarci</quote>following the selbri falls into the nonexistent x4 place of
<quote>cadzu</quote>. As a result, the whole example, though grammatical, is complete nonsense. (The bracketed Lojban words appear where a fluent Lojbanist would understand them to be implied.)</para>
<para>Finally, it is also possible to place
<quote>na'e</quote>before a
<quote>gu'e ... gi</quote>logically connected tanru construction. The meaning of this usage has not yet been firmly established.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter5-section13">
<title>13. Tenses and bridi negation</title>
<para>A bridi can have cmavo associated with it which specify the time, place, or mode of action. For example, in</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-uz13">
@@ -1998,20 +2144,22 @@
<jbo>la djonz. na pamoi cusku</jbo>
<gloss>Jones (Not!) is-the-first speaker</gloss>
<gloss>It is not true that Jones is the first speaker.</gloss>
<en>Jones isn't the first speaker.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Jones may be the second speaker, or not a speaker at all;
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section13-example2" />doesn't say. There are other ways of expressing bridi negation as well; the topic is explained fully in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15" />.</para>
<para>Various combinations of tense and bridi negation cmavo are permitted. If both are expressed, either order is permissible with no change in meaning:</para>
+<!-- ^^ negation cmavo: position relative to selbri, 104 -->
+<indexterm><primary>negation cmavo</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-RV4C">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e13d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section13-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na pu klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>mi pu na klama le zarci</gloss>
<gloss>It is false that I went to the market.</gloss>
<en>I didn't go to the market.</en>
@@ -2026,56 +2174,70 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section13-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na na klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>It is false that it is false that I go to the market.</gloss>
<en>I go to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>It is even possible, though somewhat pointless, to have multiple
<quote>na</quote>cmavo and tense cmavo mixed together, subject to the limitation that two adjacent tense cmavo will be understood as a compound tense, and must fit the grammar of tenses as explained in
+<!-- ^^ compound tense: compared with multiple tenses in sentence, 234; compared with tense in scope of sticky tense, 234; definition, 218; Lojban contrasted with English in order of specification, 218 -->
+<!-- ^^ tense in scope of sticky tense: compared with compound tense, 234 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tense in scope of sticky tense</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ multiple tenses: effect of order in sentence, 235 -->
+<indexterm><primary>multiple tenses</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>compound tense</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter10" />.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-hw6g">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e13d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section13-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na pu na ca klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [not] [past] [not] [present] go to-the market</gloss>
<gloss>It is not the case that in the past it was not the case that in the present I</gloss>
<gloss>went to the market.</gloss>
<gloss>I didn't not go to the market.</gloss>
<en>I went to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Tense, modal, and negation cmavo can appear only at the beginning of the selbri. They cannot be embedded within it.</para>
+<!-- ^^ negation cmavo: position relative to selbri, 104 -->
+<indexterm><primary>negation cmavo</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter5-section14">
<title>14. Some types of asymmetrical tanru</title>
+<!-- ^^ asymmetrical tanru, 104; definition, 104 -->
+<indexterm><primary>asymmetrical tanru</primary></indexterm>
<para>This section and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section15" />contain some example tanru classified into groups based on the type of relationship between the modifying seltau and the modified tertau. All the examples are paralleled by compounds actually observed in various natural languages. In the tables which follow, each group is preceded by a brief explanation of the relationship. The tables themselves contain a tanru, a literal gloss, an indication of the languages which exhibit a compound analogous to this tanru, and (for those tanru with no English parallel) a translation.</para>
<para>Here are the 3-letter abbreviations used for the various languages (it is presumed to be obvious whether a compound is found in English or not, so English is not explicitly noted):</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
Aba = Abazin Kaz = Kazakh
Chi = Chinese Kor = Korean
+<!-- ^^ Korean: example, 64 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Korean</primary></indexterm>
Ewe = Ewe Mon = Mongolian
Fin = Finnish Qab = Qabardian
Geo = Georgian Que = Quechua
Gua = Guarani Rus = Russian
Hop = Hopi Skt = Sanskrit
Hun = Hungarian Swe = Swedish
Imb = Imbabura Quechua Tur = Turkish
Kar = Karaitic Udm = Udmurt
</programlisting>
<para>Any lujvo or fu'ivla used in a group are glossed at the end of that group.</para>
<para>The tanru discussed in this section are asymmetrical tanru; that is, ones in which the order of the terms is fundamental to the meaning of the tanru. For example,
+<!-- ^^ asymmetrical tanru, 104; definition, 104 -->
+<indexterm><primary>asymmetrical tanru</primary></indexterm>
<quote>junla dadysli</quote>, or
<quote>clock pendulum</quote>, is the kind of pendulum used in a clock, whereas
<quote>dadysli junla</quote>, or
<quote>pendulum clock</quote>, is the kind of clock that employs a pendulum. Most tanru are asymmetrical in this sense. Symmetrical tanru are discussed in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5-section15" />.</para>
<para>The tertau represents an action, and the seltau then represents the object of that action:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
pinsi nunkilbra pencil sharpener (Hun)
zgike nunctu music instruction (Hun)
mirli nunkalte deer hunting (Hun)
@@ -2177,20 +2339,22 @@
<para>Conversely: the tertau specifies an effect, and the seltau specifies its cause.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
djacu barna water mark (Chi)
</programlisting>
<para>The tertau specifies an instrument, and the seltau specifies the purpose of that instrument:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
taxfu dadgreku garment rack (Chi)
tergu'i ti'otci lamp shade (Chi)
xirma zdani horse house (Chi = stall)
nuzba tanbo news board (Chi = bulletin board)
+<!-- ^^ news: example, 467 -->
+<indexterm><primary>news</primary></indexterm>
dadgreku = hang-frame
tergu'i = source of illumination
ti'otci = shadow-tool
</programlisting>
<para>More vaguely: the tertau specifies an instrument, and the seltau specifies the object of the purpose for which that instrument is used:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
cpina rokci pepper stone (Que = stone for grinding pepper)
jamfu djacu foot water (Skt = water for washing the feet)
grana mudri post wood (Skt = wood for making a post)
@@ -2380,22 +2544,28 @@
<quote>tooth</quote>is being specified, and that
<quote>milk</quote>and
<quote>eye</quote>act as modifiers. However, the relationship between
<quote>ladru</quote>and
<quote>denci</quote>is something like
<quote>tooth which one has when one is drinking milk from one's mother</quote>, a relationship certainly present nowhere except in this particular concept. As for
<quote>kanla denci</quote>, the relationship is not only not present on the surface, it is hardly possible to formulate it at all.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter5-section15">
<title>15. Some types of symmetrical tanru</title>
+<!-- ^^ symmetrical tanru, 111 -->
+<indexterm><primary>symmetrical tanru</primary></indexterm>
<para>This section deals with symmetrical tanru, where order is not important. Many of these tanru can be expressed with a logical or non-logical connective between the components.</para>
+<!-- ^^ symmetrical tanru, 111 -->
+<indexterm><primary>symmetrical tanru</primary></indexterm>
<para>The tanru may refer to things which are correctly specified by both tanru components. Some of these instances may also be seen as asymmetrical tanru where the seltau specifies a material. The connective
+<!-- ^^ asymmetrical tanru, 104; definition, 104 -->
+<indexterm><primary>asymmetrical tanru</primary></indexterm>
<quote>je</quote>is appropriate:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
cipnrstrigi pacru'i owl demon (Skt)
nolraitru prije royal sage (Skt)
remna nakni human-being male (Qab = man)
remna fetsi human-being female (Qab = woman)
sonci tolvri soldier coward (Que)
panzi nanmu offspring man (Ewe = son)
panzi ninmu offspring woman (Ewe = daughter)
solji sicni gold coin (Tur)
@@ -2413,66 +2583,78 @@
pacru'i = evil-spirit
tolvri = opposite-of-brave
</programlisting>
<para>The tanru may refer to all things which are specified by either of the tanru components. The connective
<quote>ja</quote>is appropriate:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
nunji'a nunterji'a victory defeat (Skt = victory or defeat)
donri nicte day night (Skt = day and night)
lunra tarci moon stars (Skt = moon and stars)
patfu mamta father mother (Imb,Kaz,Chi = parents)
+<!-- ^^ father mother: example, 55 -->
+<indexterm><primary>father mother</primary></indexterm>
tuple birka leg arm (Kaz = extremity)
nuncti nunpinxe eating drinking (Udm = cuisine)
bersa tixnu son daughter (Chi = children)
nunji'a = event-of-winning
nunterji'a = event-of-losing
nuncti = event-of-eating
nunpinxe = event-of-drinking
</programlisting>
<para>Alternatively, the tanru may refer to things which are specified by either of the tanru components or by some more inclusive class of things which the components typify:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
curnu jalra worm beetle (Mon = insect)
+<!-- ^^ beetle: example, 280 -->
+<indexterm><primary>beetle</primary></indexterm>
jalra curnu beetle worm (Mon = insect)
+<!-- ^^ beetle: example, 280 -->
+<indexterm><primary>beetle</primary></indexterm>
kabri palta cup plate (Kaz = crockery)
jipci gunse hen goose (Qab = housefowl)
xrula tricu flower tree (Chi = vegetation)
</programlisting>
<para>The tanru components specify crucial or typical parts of the referent of the tanru as a whole:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
tumla vacri land air (Fin = world)
moklu stedu mouth head (Aba = face)
sudysrasu cunmi hay millet (Qab = agriculture)
gugde ciste state system (Mon = politics)
prenu so'imei people multitude (Mon = masses)
djacu dertu water earth (Chi = climate)
sudysrasu = dry-grass
so'imei = manysome
+<!-- ^^ manysome: example, 447 -->
+<indexterm><primary>manysome</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter5-section16">
<title>16.
<quote>Pretty little girls' school</quote>: forty ways to say it</title>
<para>The following examples show every possible grouping arrangement of
<quote>melbi cmalu nixli ckule</quote>using
<quote>bo</quote>or
<quote>ke ... ke'e</quote>for grouping and
<quote>je</quote>or
<quote>jebo</quote>for logical connection. Most of these are definitely not plausible interpretations of the English phrase
<quote>pretty little girls' school</quote>, especially those which describe something which is both a girl and a school.</para>
+<!-- ^^ pretty little girls' school: forty ways, examples, 112 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pretty little girls' school</primary></indexterm>
<para>Examples 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, and 5.6 are repeated here as Examples 16.1, 16.9, 16.17, 16.25, and 16.33 respectively. The seven examples following each of these share the same grouping pattern, but differ in the presence or absence of
<quote>je</quote>at each possible site. Some of the examples have more than one Lojban version. In that case, they differ only in grouping mechanism, and are always equivalent in meaning.</para>
<para>The logical connective
<quote>je</quote>is associative: that is,
<quote>A and (B and C)</quote>is the same as
<quote>(A and B) and C</quote>. Therefore, some of the examples have the same meaning as others. In particular, 16.8, 16.16, 16.24, 16.32, and 16.40 all have the same meaning because all four brivla are logically connected and the grouping is simply irrelevant. Other equivalent forms are noted in the examples themselves. However, if
+<!-- ^^ irrelevant: specifying of sumti place, 157 -->
+<indexterm><primary>irrelevant</primary></indexterm>
<quote>je</quote>were replaced by
<quote>naja</quote>or
<quote>jo</quote>or most of the other logical connectives, the meanings would become distinct.</para>
<para>It must be emphasized that, because of the ambiguity of all tanru, the English translations are by no means definitive - they represent only one possible interpretation of the corresponding Lojban sentence.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-1Pzb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e16d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section16-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c5e16d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter5-section16-example2" />
diff --git a/todocbook/6.xml b/todocbook/6.xml
index 6a7a245..9fc4547 100644
--- a/todocbook/6.xml
+++ b/todocbook/6.xml
@@ -1,39 +1,45 @@
<chapter xml:id="cll_chapter6">
<title>Chapter 6 To Speak Of Many Things: The Lojban sumti</title>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter6-section1">
<title>1. The five kinds of simple sumti</title>
+<!-- ^^ simple sumti, 119 -->
+<indexterm><primary>simple sumti</primary></indexterm>
<para>If you understand anything about Lojban, you know what a sumti is by now, right? An argument, one of those things that fills the places of simple Lojban sentences like:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-VKU6">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e1d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section1-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci</jbo>
<en>I go-to the market</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section1-example1" />,
<quote>mi</quote>and
<quote>le zarci</quote>are the sumti. It is easy to see that these two sumti are not of the same kind:
<quote>mi</quote>is a pro-sumti (the Lojban analogue of a pronoun) referring to the speaker, whereas
<quote>le zarci</quote>is a description which refers to something described as being a market.</para>
<para>There are five kinds of simple sumti provided by Lojban:</para>
+<!-- ^^ simple sumti, 119 -->
+<indexterm><primary>simple sumti</primary></indexterm>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry>
<term>1)</term>
<listitem>
<para>descriptions like
<quote>le zarci</quote>, which usually begin with a descriptor (called a
<quote>gadri</quote>in Lojban) such as
+<!-- ^^ gadri: definition, 119 -->
+<indexterm><primary>gadri</primary></indexterm>
<quote>le</quote>;</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>2)</term>
<listitem>
<para>pro-sumti, such as
<quote>mi</quote>;</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
@@ -150,20 +156,22 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section2-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>one-or-more-specific-things-each-of-which-I-describe-as being-a-market</gloss>
<en>the market</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The long gloss for
<quote>le</quote>is of course far too long to use most of the time, and in fact
+<!-- ^^ too long: example, 233; Example, 230 -->
+<indexterm><primary>too long</primary></indexterm>
<quote>le</quote>is quite close in meaning to English
<quote>the</quote>. It has particular implications, however, which
<quote>the</quote>does not have.</para>
<para>The general purpose of all descriptors is to create a sumti which might occur in the x1 place of the selbri belonging to the description. Thus
<quote>le zarci</quote>conveys something which might be found in the x1 place of
<quote>zarci</quote>, namely a market.</para>
<para>The specific purpose of
<quote>le</quote>is twofold. First, it indicates that the speaker has one or more specific markets in mind (whether or not the listener knows which ones they are). Second, it also indicates that the speaker is merely describing the things he or she has in mind as markets, without being committed to the truth of that description.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ULGC">
<title>
@@ -188,26 +196,32 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e2d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section2-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu cu ninmu</jbo>
<gloss>One-or-more-specific-things-which-I-describe as
<quote>men</quote>are women.</gloss>
<gloss>The man is a woman.</gloss>
<en>The men are women.</en>
+<!-- ^^ The men are women: example, 120 -->
+<indexterm><primary>The men are women</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section2-example3" />is not self-contradictory in Lojban, because
<quote>le nanmu</quote>merely means something or other which, for my present purposes, I choose to describe as a man, whether or not it really is a man. A plausible instance would be: someone we had assumed to be a man at a distance turned out to be actually a woman on closer observation.
+<!-- ^^ observation: example, 316 -->
+<indexterm><primary>observation</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section2-example3" />is what I would say to point out my observation to you.</para>
+<!-- ^^ observation: example, 316 -->
+<indexterm><primary>observation</primary></indexterm>
<para>In all descriptions with
<quote>le</quote>, the listener is presumed to either know what I have in mind or else not to be concerned at present (perhaps I will give more identifying details later). In particular, I might be pointing at the supposed man or men:
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section2-example3" />would then be perfectly intelligible, since
<quote>le nanmu</quote>merely clarifies that I am pointing at the supposed man, not at a landscape, or a nose, which happens to lie in the same direction.</para>
<para>The second descriptor dealt with in this section is
<quote>lo</quote>. Unlike
<quote>le</quote>,
<quote>lo</quote>is nonspecific:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-t11z">
<title>
@@ -232,20 +246,22 @@
<anchor xml:id="c6e2d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section2-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo nanmu cu ninmu</jbo>
<gloss>Some man is a woman.</gloss>
<en>Some men are women.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>must be false in Lojban, given that there are no objects in the real world which are both men and women. Pointing at some specific men or women would not make
+<!-- ^^ real world: contrasted with hypothetical world, example, 320 -->
+<indexterm><primary>real world</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section2-example5" />true, because those specific individuals are no more both-men-and-women than any others. In general,
<quote>lo</quote>refers to whatever individuals meet its description.</para>
<para>The last descriptor of this section is
<quote>la</quote>, which indicates that the selbri which follows it has been dissociated from its normal meaning and is being used as a name. Like
<quote>le</quote>descriptions,
<quote>la</quote>descriptions are implicitly restricted to those I have in mind. (Do not confuse this use of
<quote>la</quote>with its use before regular Lojbanized names, which is discussed in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section12" />.) For example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-PrGp">
<title>
@@ -255,20 +271,22 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la cribe pu finti le lisri</jbo>
<gloss>The-one-named
<quote>bear</quote>[past] creates the story.</gloss>
<en>Bear wrote the story.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section2-example6" />,
<quote>la cribe</quote>refers to someone whose naming predicate is
+<!-- ^^ naming predicate, 121 -->
+<indexterm><primary>naming predicate</primary></indexterm>
<quote>cribe</quote>, i.e.
<quote>Bear</quote>. In English, most names don't mean anything, or at least not anything obvious. The name
<quote>Frank</quote>coincides with the English word
<quote>frank</quote>, meaning
<quote>honest</quote>, and so one way of translating
<quote>Frank ate some cheese</quote>into Lojban would be:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-yyBX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e2d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section2-example7" />
@@ -309,20 +327,22 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section2-example8" />is about a specific bear or bearlike thing(s), or thing(s) which the speaker (perhaps whimsically or metaphorically) describes as a bear (or more than one);
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section2-example9" />is about one or more of the really existing, objectively defined bears. In either case, though, each of them must have contributed to the writing of the story, if more than one bear (or
<quote>bear</quote>) is meant.</para>
<para>(The notion of a
<quote>really existing, objectively defined bear</quote>raises certain difficulties. Is a panda bear a
<quote>real bear</quote>? How about a teddy bear? In general, the answer is
<quote>yes</quote>. Lojban gismu are defined as broadly as possible, allowing tanru and lujvo to narrow down the definition. There probably are no necessary and sufficient conditions for defining what is and what is not a bear that can be pinned down with complete precision: the real world is fuzzy. In borderline cases,
+<!-- ^^ real world: contrasted with hypothetical world, example, 320 -->
+<indexterm><primary>real world</primary></indexterm>
<quote>le</quote>may communicate better than
<quote>lo</quote>.)</para>
<para>So while
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section2-example6" />could easily be true (there is a real writer named
<quote>Greg Bear</quote>), and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section2-example8" />could be true if the speaker is sufficiently peculiar in what he or she describes as a bear,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section2-example9" />is certainly false.</para>
<para>Similarly, compare the following two examples, which are analogous to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section2-example8" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section2-example9" />respectively:</para>
@@ -385,44 +405,52 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section1" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section2" />refer to individuals, whether one or more than one. Consider the following example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-mwhq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e3d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section3-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le prenu cu bevri le pipno</jbo>
<gloss>One-or-more-of-those-I-describe-as persons carry the piano.</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ carry the piano: example, 361 -->
+<indexterm><primary>carry the piano</primary></indexterm>
<en>The person(s) carry the piano.</en>
+<!-- ^^ carry the piano: example, 361 -->
+<indexterm><primary>carry the piano</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(Of course the second
<quote>le</quote>should really get the same translation as the first, but I am putting the focus of this discussion on the first
<quote>le</quote>, the one preceding
<quote>prenu</quote>. I will assume that there is only one piano under discussion.)</para>
<para>Suppose the context of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section3-example1" />is such that you can determine that I am talking about three persons. What am I claiming? I am claiming that each of the three persons carried the piano. This claim can be true if the persons carried the piano one at a time, or in turns, or in a variety of other ways. But in order for
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section3-example1" />to be true, I must be willing to assert that person 1 carried the piano, and that person 2 carried the piano, and that person 3 carried the piano.</para>
<para>But suppose I am not willing to claim that. For in fact pianos are heavy, and very few persons can carry a piano all by themselves. The most likely factual situation is that person 1 carried one end of the piano, and person 2 the other end, while person 3 either held up the middle or else supervised the whole operation without actually lifting anything. The correct way of expressing such a situation in Lojban is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-eCsh">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e3d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section3-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lei prenu cu bevri le pipno</jbo>
<en>The-mass-of-one-or-more-of-those-I-describe-as persons carry the piano.</en>
+<!-- ^^ carry the piano: example, 361 -->
+<indexterm><primary>carry the piano</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the same three persons are treated not as individuals, but as a so-called
<quote>mass entity</quote>, or just
<quote>mass</quote>. A mass has the properties of each individual which composes it, and may have other properties of its own as well. This can lead to apparent contradictions. Thus suppose in the piano-moving example above that person 1 has fair skin, whereas person 2 has dark skin. Then it is correct to say that the person-mass has both fair skin and dark skin. Using the mass descriptor
+<!-- ^^ piano-moving: example, 123 -->
+<indexterm><primary>piano-moving</primary></indexterm>
<quote>lei</quote>signals that ordinary logical reasoning is not applicable: contradictions can be maintained, and all sorts of other peculiarities may exist. However, we can safely say that a mass inherits only the component properties that are relevant to it; it would be ludicrous to say that a mass of two persons is of molecular dimensions, simply because some of the parts (namely, the molecules) of the persons are that small.</para>
<para>The descriptors
<quote>loi</quote>and
<quote>lai</quote>are analogous to
<quote>lo</quote>and
<quote>la</quote>respectively, but refer to masses either by property (
<quote>loi</quote>) or by name (
<quote>lai</quote>). A classic example of
<quote>loi</quote>use is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-T1pF">
@@ -455,56 +483,70 @@
<gloss>cu xabju le fi'ortu'a</gloss>
<gloss>Part-of-the-mass-of-those-which-really are-English-persons</gloss>
<gloss>dwell in-the African-land.</gloss>
<en>The English dwell in Africa.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>since there is at least one English person living there.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section4" />explains another method of saying what is usually meant by
<quote>The lion lives in Africa</quote>which does imply that living in Africa is normal, not exceptional, for lions.</para>
<para>Note that the Lojban mass articles are sometimes translated by English plurals (the most usual case), sometimes by English singulars (when the singular is used to express typicalness or abstraction), and sometimes by singulars with no article:</para>
+<!-- ^^ articles: cmavo as Lojban equivalents, 50 -->
+<indexterm><primary>articles</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ article, 498; number, 435 -->
+<indexterm><primary>article</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-yDCF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e3d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section3-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>loi matne cu ranti</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ matne, 124 -->
+<indexterm><primary>matne</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>Part-of-the-mass-of-that-which-really is-a-quantity-of-butter is-soft.</gloss>
<en>Butter is soft.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Of course, some butter is hard (for example, if it is frozen butter), so the
<quote>part-of</quote>implication of
<quote>loi</quote>becomes once again useful. The reason this mechanism works is that the English words like
<quote>butter</quote>, which are seen as already describing masses, are translated in Lojban by non-mass forms. The place structure of
<quote>matne</quote>is
+<!-- ^^ matne, 124 -->
+<indexterm><primary>matne</primary></indexterm>
<quote>x1 is a quantity of butter from source x2</quote>, so the single English word
<quote>butter</quote>is translated as something like
<quote>a part of the mass formed from all the quantities of butter that exist</quote>. (Note that the operation of forming a mass entity does not imply, in Lojban, that the components of the mass are necessarily close to one another or even related in any way other than conceptually. Masses are formed by the speaker's intention to form a mass, and can in principle contain anything.)</para>
<para>The mass name descriptor
+<!-- ^^ name descriptor, 498 -->
+<indexterm><primary>name descriptor</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ mass name: use of, 124 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mass name</primary></indexterm>
<quote>lai</quote>is used in circumstances where we wish to talk about a mass of things identified by a name which is common to all of them. It is not used to identify a mass by a single name peculiar to it. Thus the mass version of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section2-example5" />,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-H8z5">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e3d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section3-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lai cribe pu finti le vi cukta</jbo>
<gloss>The-mass-of-those-named
<quote>bear</quote>[past] creates the nearby book.</gloss>
<en>The Bears wrote this book.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>in a context where
<quote>la cribe</quote>would be understood as plural, would mean that either Tom Bear or Fred Bear (to make up some names) might have written the book, or that Tom and Fred might have written it as collaborators. Using
+<!-- ^^ plural: Lojban contrasted with English in necessity of marking, 120; Lojban equivalent of, 443; meaning of le with, 123 -->
+<indexterm><primary>plural</primary></indexterm>
<quote>la</quote>instead of
<quote>lai</quote>in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section3-example6" />would give the implication that each of Tom and Fred, considered individually, had written it.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter6-section4">
<title>4. Masses and sets</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>le'i</cmavo>
@@ -517,20 +559,26 @@
<description>the set of those which really are</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>la'i</cmavo>
<selmaho>LA</selmaho>
<description>the set of those named</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>Having said so much about masses, let us turn to sets. Sets are easier to understand than masses, but are more rarely used. Like a mass, a set is an abstract object formed from a number of individuals; however, the properties of a set are not derived from any of the properties of the individuals that compose it.</para>
<para>Sets have properties like cardinality (how many elements in the set), membership (the relationship between a set and its elements), and set inclusion (the relationship between two sets, one of which - the superset – contains all the elements of the other - the subset). The set descriptors
+<!-- ^^ membership: property of sets, 125 -->
+<indexterm><primary>membership</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ inclusion: property of sets, 125 -->
+<indexterm><primary>inclusion</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ cardinality: definition, 125; property of sets, 125 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cardinality</primary></indexterm>
<quote>le'i</quote>,
<quote>lo'i</quote>and
<quote>la'i</quote>correspond exactly to the mass descriptors
<quote>lei</quote>,
<quote>loi</quote>, and
<quote>lai</quote>except that normally we talk of the whole of a set, not just part of it. Here are some examples contrasting
<quote>lo</quote>,
<quote>loi</quote>, and
<quote>lo'i</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-TfS7">
@@ -539,67 +587,77 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section4-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c6e4d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section4-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c6e4d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section4-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo ratcu cu bunre</jbo>
<gloss>One-or-more-of-those-which-really-are rats are-brown.</gloss>
<en>Some rats are brown.</en>
+<!-- ^^ rats are brown: example, 125 -->
+<indexterm><primary>rats are brown</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>loi ratcu cu cmalu</jbo>
<gloss>Part-of-the-mass-of-those-which-really-are rats are-small.</gloss>
<en>Rats are small.</en>
<jbo>lo'i ratcu cu barda</jbo>
<gloss>The-set-of rats is-large.</gloss>
<en>There are a lot of rats.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The mass of rats is small because at least one rat is small; the mass of rats is also large; the set of rats, though, is unquestionably large - it has billions of members. The mass of rats is also brown, since some of its components are; but it would be incorrect to call the set of rats brown - brown-ness is not the sort of property that sets possess.</para>
+<!-- ^^ set of rats: example, 135 -->
+<indexterm><primary>set of rats</primary></indexterm>
<para>Lojban speakers should generally think twice before employing the set descriptors. However, certain predicates have places that require set sumti to fill them. For example, the place structure of
<quote>fadni</quote>is:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
x1 is ordinary/common/typical/usual in property x2 among the members of set x3
</programlisting>
<para>Why is it necessary for the x3 place of
<quote>fadni</quote>to be a set? Because it makes no sense for an individual to be typical of another individual: an individual is typical of a group. In order to make sure that the bridi containing
<quote>fadni</quote>is about an entire group, its x3 place must be filled with a set:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-xIXo">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e4d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section4-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi fadni zo'e lo'i lobypli</jbo>
<gloss>I am-ordinary among the-set-of Lojban-users.</gloss>
<en>I am a typical Lojban user.</en>
+<!-- ^^ typical Lojban user: example, 125 -->
+<indexterm><primary>typical Lojban user</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that the x2 place has been omitted; I am not specifying in exactly which way I am typical - whether in language knowledge, or age, or interests, or something else. If
<quote>lo'i</quote>were changed to
<quote>lo</quote>in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section4-example4" />, the meaning would be something like
<quote>I am typical of some Lojban user</quote>, which is nonsense.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter6-section5">
<title>5. Descriptors for typical objects</title>
+<!-- ^^ typical objects: and instantiation, 126; determining characteristics of, 126 -->
+<indexterm><primary>typical objects</primary></indexterm>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>lo'e</cmavo>
<selmaho>LE</selmaho>
<description>the typical</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>le'e</cmavo>
<selmaho>LE</selmaho>
<description>the stereotypical</description>
+<!-- ^^ stereotypical: as not derogatory in Lojban, 126; compared with typical, 126 -->
+<indexterm><primary>stereotypical</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>As promised in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section3" />, Lojban has a method for discriminating between
<quote>the lion</quote>who lives in Africa and
<quote>the Englishman</quote>who, generally speaking, doesn't live in Africa even though some Englishmen do. The descriptor
<quote>lo'e</quote>means
<quote>the typical</quote>, as in</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-AJKt">
<title>
@@ -634,76 +692,92 @@
<quote>le'e</quote>and
<quote>le'i</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-D88V">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e5d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section5-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le'e xelso merko cu gusta ponse</jbo>
<gloss>The-stereotypical Greek-type-of American is-a-restaurant-type-of owner.</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ stereotypical: as not derogatory in Lojban, 126; compared with typical, 126 -->
+<indexterm><primary>stereotypical</primary></indexterm>
<en>Lots of Greek-Americans own restaurants.</en>
+<!-- ^^ Greek-Americans own restaurants, 126 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Greek-Americans own restaurants</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here we are concerned not with the actual set of Greek-Americans, but with the set of those the speaker has in mind, which is typified by one (real or imaginary) who owns a restaurant. The word
<quote>stereotypical</quote>is often derogatory in English, but
+<!-- ^^ stereotypical: as not derogatory in Lojban, 126; compared with typical, 126 -->
+<indexterm><primary>stereotypical</primary></indexterm>
<quote>le'e</quote>need not be derogatory in Lojban: it simply suggests that the example is typical in the speaker's imagination rather than in some objectively agreed-upon way. Of course, different speakers may disagree about what the features of
<quote>the typical lion</quote>are (some would include having a short intestine, whereas others would know nothing of lions' intestines), so the distinction between
<quote>lo'e cinfo</quote>and
<quote>le'e cinfo</quote>may be very fine.</para>
<para>Furthermore,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-NVFy">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e5d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section5-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le'e skina cu se finti ne'i la xali,uyd.</jbo>
<en>The-stereotypical movie is-invented in Hollywood.</en>
+<!-- ^^ stereotypical: as not derogatory in Lojban, 126; compared with typical, 126 -->
+<indexterm><primary>stereotypical</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ Hollywood: example, 127 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Hollywood</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is probably true to an American, but might be false (not the stereotype) to someone living in India or Russia.</para>
<para>Note that there is no naming equivalent of
<quote>lo'e</quote>and
<quote>le'e</quote>, because there is no need, as a rule, for a
<quote>typical George</quote>or a
<quote>typical Smith</quote>. People or things who share a common name do not, in general, have any other common attributes worth mentioning.</para>
+<!-- ^^ typical Smith: example, 127 -->
+<indexterm><primary>typical Smith</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter6-section6">
<title>6. Quantified sumti</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ro</cmavo>
<selmaho>PA</selmaho>
<description>all of/each of</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>su'o</cmavo>
<selmaho>PA</selmaho>
<description>at least (one of)</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>Quantifiers tell us how many: in the case of quantifiers with sumti, how many things we are talking about. In Lojban, quantifiers are expressed by numbers and mathematical expressions: a large topic discussed in some detail in
+<!-- ^^ mathematical expressions: connectives in, 361; implicit quantifier for, 142; tensed connection in, 364 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mathematical expressions</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18" />. For the purposes of this chapter, a simplified treatment will suffice. Our examples will employ either the simple Lojban numbers
<quote>pa</quote>,
<quote>re</quote>,
<quote>ci</quote>,
<quote>vo</quote>, and
<quote>mu</quote>, meaning
<quote>one</quote>,
<quote>two</quote>,
<quote>three</quote>,
<quote>four</quote>,
<quote>five</quote>respectively, or else one of four special quantifiers, two of which are discussed in this section and listed above. These four quantifiers are important because every Lojban sumti has either one or two of them implicitly present in it - which one or two depends on the particular kind of sumti. There is more explanation of implicit quantifiers later in this section. (The other two quantifiers,
<quote>piro</quote>and
<quote>pisu'o</quote>, are explained in
+<!-- ^^ pisu'o: explanation of meaning, 130 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pisu'o</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section7" />.)</para>
<para>Every Lojban sumti may optionally be preceded by an explicit quantifier. The purpose of this quantifier is to specify how many of the things referred to by the sumti are being talked about. Here are some simple examples contrasting sumti with and without explicit quantifiers:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-AEoN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e6d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section6-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c6e6d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section6-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -727,41 +801,51 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e6d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section6-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ponse su'o ci cutci</jbo>
<en>I possess at-least three shoes.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is true if you own three shoes, or four, or indeed any larger number. More details on vague numbers appear in the discussion of mathematical expressions in
+<!-- ^^ vague numbers, 128 -->
+<indexterm><primary>vague numbers</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ mathematical expressions: connectives in, 361; implicit quantifier for, 142; tensed connection in, 364 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mathematical expressions</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18" />.)</para>
<para>Now consider
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section6-example1" />again. How many of the listeners are claimed to walk on the ice? The answer turns out to be: all of them, however many that is. So
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section6-example1" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section6-example4" />:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-0qr0">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e6d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section6-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro do cadzu le bisli</jbo>
<en>All-of you walk-on the ice.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>turn out to mean exactly the same thing. This is a safe strategy, because if one of my listeners doesn't turn out to be walking on the ice, I can safely claim that I didn't intend that person to be a listener! And in fact, all of the personal pro-sumti such as
+<!-- ^^ personal pro-sumti, 139; implicit cancellation of by change of speaker/listener, 162; implicit quantifier for, 128, 139; stability of, 162 -->
+<indexterm><primary>personal pro-sumti</primary></indexterm>
<quote>mi</quote>and
<quote>mi'o</quote>and
<quote>ko</quote>obey the same rule. We say that personal pro-sumti have a so-called
+<!-- ^^ personal pro-sumti, 139; implicit cancellation of by change of speaker/listener, 162; implicit quantifier for, 128, 139; stability of, 162 -->
+<indexterm><primary>personal pro-sumti</primary></indexterm>
<quote>implicit quantifier</quote>of
<quote>ro</quote>(all). This just means that if no quantifier is given explicitly, the meaning is the same as if the implicit quantifier had been used.</para>
+<!-- ^^ no quantifier: expanding, 403 -->
+<indexterm><primary>no quantifier</primary></indexterm>
<para>Not all sumti have
<quote>ro</quote>as the implicit quantifier, however. Consider the quotation in:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-3eMo">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e6d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section6-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cusku lu do cadzu le bisli li'u</jbo>
<gloss>I express [quote] you walk-on the ice [unquote].</gloss>
@@ -871,20 +955,22 @@
<anchor xml:id="c6e7d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section7-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ci gerku cu blabi</jbo>
<gloss>The three dogs are-white.</gloss>
<en>The three dogs are white.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>There are rules for each of the 11 descriptors specifying what the implicit values for the inner and outer quantifiers are. They are meant to provide sensible default values when context is absent, not necessarily to prescribe hard and fast rules. The following table lists the implicit values:</para>
+<!-- ^^ lists: use of tu'e/tu'u in, 358 -->
+<indexterm><primary>lists</primary></indexterm>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry>
<term>le:</term>
<listitem>
<para>ro le su'o</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>lo:</term>
<listitem>
@@ -894,32 +980,38 @@
<varlistentry>
<term>la:</term>
<listitem>
<para>ro la su'o</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>lei:</term>
<listitem>
<para>pisu'o lei su'o</para>
+<!-- ^^ pisu'o: explanation of meaning, 130 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pisu'o</primary></indexterm>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>loi:</term>
<listitem>
<para>pisu'o loi ro</para>
+<!-- ^^ pisu'o: explanation of meaning, 130 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pisu'o</primary></indexterm>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>lai:</term>
<listitem>
<para>pisu'o lai su'o</para>
+<!-- ^^ pisu'o: explanation of meaning, 130 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pisu'o</primary></indexterm>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>le'i:</term>
<listitem>
<para>piro le'i su'o</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>lo'i:</term>
@@ -948,44 +1040,58 @@
</variablelist>
<para>When examined for the first time, this table looks dreadfully arbitrary. In fact, there are quite a few regularities in it. First of all, the la-series (that is, the descriptors
<quote>la</quote>,
<quote>lai</quote>, and
<quote>la'i</quote>) and the le-series (that is, the descriptors
<quote>le</quote>,
<quote>lei</quote>,
<quote>le'i</quote>, and
<quote>le'e</quote>) always have corresponding implicit quantifiers, so we may subsume the la-series under the le-series for the rest of this discussion:
<quote>le-series cmavo</quote>will refer to both the le-series proper and to the la-series.</para>
+<!-- ^^ le-series cmavo: as encompassing le-series and la-series descriptors for quantification discussion, 130; definition, 130; rationale for implicit inner quantifier, 130; rule for implicit inner quantifier, 130 -->
+<indexterm><primary>le-series cmavo</primary></indexterm>
<para>The rule for the inner quantifier is very simple: the lo-series cmavo (namely,
+<!-- ^^ lo-series cmavo: rationale for implicit inner quantifier, 130; rule for implicit inner quantifier, 130 -->
+<indexterm><primary>lo-series cmavo</primary></indexterm>
<quote>lo</quote>,
<quote>loi</quote>,
<quote>lo'i</quote>, and
<quote>lo'e</quote>) all have an implicit inner quantifier of
<quote>ro</quote>, whereas the le-series cmavo all have an implicit inner quantifier of
+<!-- ^^ le-series cmavo: as encompassing le-series and la-series descriptors for quantification discussion, 130; definition, 130; rationale for implicit inner quantifier, 130; rule for implicit inner quantifier, 130 -->
+<indexterm><primary>le-series cmavo</primary></indexterm>
<quote>su'o</quote>.</para>
<para>Why? Because lo-series descriptors always refer to all of the things which really fit into the x1 place of the selbri. They are not restricted by the speaker's intention. Descriptors of the le-series, however, are so restricted, and therefore talk about some number, definite or indefinite, of objects the speaker has in mind - but never less than one.</para>
<para>Understanding the implicit outer quantifier requires rules of greater subtlety. In the case of mass and set descriptors, a single rule suffices for each: reference to a mass is implicitly a reference to some part of the mass; reference to a set is implicitly a reference to the whole set. Masses and sets are inherently singular objects: it makes no sense to talk about two distinct masses with the same components, or two distinct sets with the same members. Therefore, the largest possible outer quantifier for either a set description or a mass description is
<quote>piro</quote>, the whole of it.</para>
<para>(Pedantically, it is possible that the mass of water molecules composing an ice cube might be thought of as different from the same mass of water molecules in liquid form, in which case we might talk about
<quote>re lei djacu</quote>, two masses of the water-bits I have in mind.)</para>
<para>Why
<quote>pi-</quote>? It is the Lojban cmavo for the decimal point. Just as
+<!-- ^^ decimal point: as numerical punctuation, 433; effect of different notations, 433; in bases other than 10, 444 -->
+<indexterm><primary>decimal point</primary></indexterm>
<quote>pimu</quote>means
<quote>.5</quote>, and when used as a quantifier specifies a portion consisting of five tenths of a thing,
<quote>piro</quote>means a portion consisting of the all-ness – the entirety - of a thing. Similarly,
<quote>pisu'o</quote>specifies a portion consisting of at least one part of a thing, i.e. some of it.</para>
+<!-- ^^ pisu'o: explanation of meaning, 130 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pisu'o</primary></indexterm>
<para>Smaller quantifiers are possible for sets, and refer to subsets. Thus
+<!-- ^^ subsets: expressing with outer quantifiers, 131 -->
+<indexterm><primary>subsets</primary></indexterm>
<quote>pimu le'i nanmu</quote>is a subset of the set of men I have in mind; we don't know precisely which elements make up this subset, but it must have half the size of the full set. This is the best way to say
<quote>half of the men</quote>; saying
<quote>pimu le nanmu</quote>would give us a half-portion of one of them instead! Of course, the result of
<quote>pimu le'i nanmu</quote>is still a set; if you need to refer to the individuals of the subset, you must say so (see
<quote>lu'a</quote>in
+<!-- ^^ lu'a, 134; effect of on meaning, 134 -->
+<indexterm><primary>lu'a</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section10" />).</para>
<para>The case of outer quantifiers for individual descriptors (including
<quote>le</quote>,
<quote>lo</quote>,
<quote>la</quote>, and the typical descriptors
<quote>le'e</quote>and
<quote>lo'e</quote>) is special. When we refer to specific individuals with
<quote>le</quote>, we mean to refer to all of those we have in mind, so
<quote>ro</quote>is appropriate as the implicit quantifier, just as it is appropriate for
<quote>do</quote>. Reference to non-specific individuals with
@@ -1029,20 +1135,22 @@
<quote>ro</quote>says that each of the dogs in the restricted group is white; in the case of
<quote>lo</quote>, the implicit inner quantifier simply says that three dogs, chosen from the group of all the dogs there are, are white.</para>
<para>Using exact numbers as inner quantifiers in lo-series descriptions is dangerous, because you are stating that exactly that many things exist which really fit the description. So examples like</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-uYH4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e7d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section7-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>[so'o] lo ci gerku cu blabi</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ so'o, 440 -->
+<indexterm><primary>so'o</primary></indexterm>
<en>[some-of] those-which-really-are three dogs are-white</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>are semantically anomalous;
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section7-example6" />claims that some dog (or dogs) is white, but also that there are just three dogs in the universe!</para>
<para>Nevertheless, inner quantifiers are permitted on
<quote>lo</quote>descriptors for consistency's sake, and may occasionally be useful.</para>
<para>Note that the inner quantifier of
<quote>le</quote>, even when exact, need not be truthful:
<quote>le ci nanmu</quote>means
@@ -1062,87 +1170,109 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ci gerku [ku] cu blabi</jbo>
<en>Three dogs are white.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is equivalent in meaning to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section7-example5" />. Even though the descriptor is not present, the elidable terminator
<quote>ku</quote>may still be used. The name
<quote>indefinite description</quote>for this syntactic form is historically based: of course, it is no more and no less indefinite than its counterpart with an explicit
+<!-- ^^ indefinite description: as needing explicit outer quantifier, 132; as prohibiting explicit inner quantifier, 132; compared with restricted variable, 398; definition, 132, 398 -->
+<!-- ^^ restricted variable: compared with indefinite description, 398 -->
+<indexterm><primary>restricted variable</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>indefinite description</primary></indexterm>
<quote>lo</quote>. Indefinite descriptions were introduced into the language in order to imitate the syntax of English and other natural languages.</para>
<para>Indefinite descriptions must fit this mold exactly: there is no way to make one which does not have an explicit outer quantifier (thus
<quote>*gerku cu blabi</quote>is ungrammatical), or which has an explicit inner quantifier (thus
<quote>*reboi ci gerku cu blabi</quote>is also ungrammatical -
<quote>re ci gerku cu blabi</quote>is fine, but means
<quote>23 dogs are white</quote>).</para>
<para>Note:
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section6-example3" />also contains an indefinite description, namely
+<!-- ^^ indefinite description: as needing explicit outer quantifier, 132; as prohibiting explicit inner quantifier, 132; compared with restricted variable, 398; definition, 132, 398 -->
+<!-- ^^ restricted variable: compared with indefinite description, 398 -->
+<indexterm><primary>restricted variable</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>indefinite description</primary></indexterm>
<quote>su'o ci cutci</quote>; another version of that example using an explicit
<quote>lo</quote>would be:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-SMvA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e8d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section8-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ponse su'o ci lo cutci</jbo>
<gloss>I possess at-least three things-which-really-are shoes</gloss>
<en>I own three (or more) shoes.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter6-section9">
<title>9. sumti-based descriptions</title>
<para>As stated in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section2" />, most descriptions consist of just a descriptor and a selbri. (In this chapter, the selbri have always been single gismu, but of course any selbri, however complex, can be employed in a description. The syntax and semantics of selbri are explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5" />.) In the intervening sections, inner and outer quantifiers have been added to the syntax. Now it is time to discuss a description of a radically different kind: the sumti-based description.</para>
+<!-- ^^ sumti-based description: definition, 132; inner quantifier on, 132; outer quantifier on, 132 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sumti-based description</primary></indexterm>
<para>A sumti-based description has a sumti where the selbri would normally be, and the inner quantifier is required - it cannot be implicit. An outer quantifier is permitted but not required.</para>
+<!-- ^^ sumti-based description: definition, 132; inner quantifier on, 132; outer quantifier on, 132 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sumti-based description</primary></indexterm>
<para>A full theory of sumti-based descriptions has yet to be worked out. One common case, however, is well understood. Compare the following:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-aJEh">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e9d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section9-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c6e9d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section9-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>re do cu nanmu</jbo>
<en>Two-of you are-men.</en>
<jbo>le re do cu nanmu</jbo>
<en>The two-of you are men.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section9-example1" />simply specifies that of the group of listeners, size unknown, two are men.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section9-example2" />, which has the sumti-based description
+<!-- ^^ sumti-based description: definition, 132; inner quantifier on, 132; outer quantifier on, 132 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sumti-based description</primary></indexterm>
<quote>le re do</quote>, says that of the two listeners, all (the implicit outer quantifier
<quote>ro</quote>) are men. So in effect the inner quantifier
<quote>re</quote>gives the number of individuals which the inner sumti
+<!-- ^^ inner sumti: referring to from within relative clause within relative clause, 184 -->
+<indexterm><primary>inner sumti</primary></indexterm>
<quote>do</quote>refers to.</para>
<para>Here is another group of examples:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Nwtz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e9d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section9-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c6e9d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section9-example4" />
<anchor xml:id="c6e9d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section9-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>re le ci cribe cu bunre</jbo>
<en>Two-of the three bears are-brown.</en>
+<!-- ^^ three bears: example, 133 -->
+<indexterm><primary>three bears</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>le re le ci cribe cu bunre</jbo>
<en>The two-of the three bears are-brown.</en>
+<!-- ^^ three bears: example, 133 -->
+<indexterm><primary>three bears</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>pa le re le ci cribe cu bunre</jbo>
<en>One-of the two-of the three bears are-brown.</en>
+<!-- ^^ three bears: example, 133 -->
+<indexterm><primary>three bears</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In each case,
<quote>le ci cribe</quote>restricts the bears (or alleged bears) being talked of to some group of three which the speaker has in mind.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section9-example3" />says that two of them (which two is not stated) are brown.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section9-example4" />says that a specific pair of them are brown.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section9-example5" />says that of a specific pair chosen from the original three, one or the other of that pair is brown.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter6-section10">
<title>10. sumti qualifiers</title>
@@ -1158,66 +1288,92 @@
<selmaho>LAhE</selmaho>
<description>a reference to</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>tu'a</cmavo>
<selmaho>LAhE</selmaho>
<description>an abstraction involving</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>lu'a</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ lu'a, 134; effect of on meaning, 134 -->
+<indexterm><primary>lu'a</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>LAhE</selmaho>
<description>an individual/member/component of</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>lu'i</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ lu'i, 134; effect of on meaning, 134 -->
+<indexterm><primary>lu'i</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>LAhE</selmaho>
<description>a set formed from</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>lu'o</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ lu'o, 134; effect of on meaning, 134 -->
+<indexterm><primary>lu'o</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>LAhE</selmaho>
<description>a mass formed from</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>vu'i</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ vu'i, 134; effect of on meaning, 134; use for creating sequence, 134 -->
+<indexterm><primary>vu'i</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>LAhE</selmaho>
<description>a sequence formed from</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>lu'u</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ lu'u, 133, 267; as elidable terminator for qualified sumti, 133 -->
+<indexterm><primary>lu'u</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>LUhU</selmaho>
<description>elidable terminator for LAhE and NAhE+BO</description>
+<!-- ^^ NAhE+BO: terminator for, 499 -->
+<indexterm><primary>NAhE+BO</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>Well, that's quite a list of cmavo. What are they all about?</para>
<para>The above cmavo and compound cmavo are called the
<quote>sumti qualifiers</quote>. All of them are either single cmavo of selma'o LAhE, or else compound cmavo involving a scalar negation cmavo of selma'o NAhE immediately followed by
+<!-- ^^ negation cmavo: position relative to selbri, 104 -->
+<indexterm><primary>negation cmavo</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bo</quote>of selma'o BO. Syntactically, you can prefix a sumti qualifier to any sumti and produce another simple sumti. (You may need to add the elidable terminator
+<!-- ^^ simple sumti, 119 -->
+<indexterm><primary>simple sumti</primary></indexterm>
<quote>lu'u</quote>to show where the qualified sumti ends.)</para>
+<!-- ^^ lu'u, 133, 267; as elidable terminator for qualified sumti, 133 -->
+<indexterm><primary>lu'u</primary></indexterm>
<para>Semantically, sumti qualifiers represent short forms of certain common special cases. Suppose you want to say
<quote>I see 'The Red Pony'</quote>, where
+<!-- ^^ Red Pony: example, 133, 182 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Red Pony</primary></indexterm>
<quote>The Red Pony</quote>is the title of a book. How about:</para>
+<!-- ^^ Red Pony: example, 133, 182 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Red Pony</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-6W3v">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e10d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section10-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u</jbo>
<en>I see [quote] the red small-horse [unquote].</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>But
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section10-example1" />doesn't work: it says that you see a piece of text
<quote>The Red Pony</quote>. That might be all right if you were looking at the cover of the book, where the words
+<!-- ^^ Red Pony: example, 133, 182 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Red Pony</primary></indexterm>
<quote>The Red Pony</quote>are presumably written. (More precisely, where the words
+<!-- ^^ Red Pony: example, 133, 182 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Red Pony</primary></indexterm>
<quote>le xunre cmaxirma</quote>are written – but we may suppose the book has been translated into Lojban.)</para>
<para>What you really want to say is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-MSVK">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e10d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section10-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska le selsinxa be lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u</jbo>
<en>I see the thing-represented-by [quote] the red small-horse [unquote].</en>
@@ -1230,25 +1386,31 @@
<quote>sinxa</quote>) is the thing represented by the sign.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section10-example2" />allows us to use a symbol (namely the title of a book) to represent the thing it is a symbol of (namely the book itself).</para>
<para>This operation turns out to be needed often enough that it's useful to be able to say:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Ajty">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e10d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section10-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska la'e lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u [lu'u]</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ lu'u, 133, 267; as elidable terminator for qualified sumti, 133 -->
+<indexterm><primary>lu'u</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ la'e lu: compared with me'o, 422 -->
+<indexterm><primary>la'e lu</primary></indexterm>
<en>I see the-referent-of [quote] the red small-horse [unquote].</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>So when
<quote>la'e</quote>is prefixed to a sumti referring to a symbol, it produces a sumti referring to the referent of that symbol. (In computer jargon,
+<!-- ^^ jargon: use of fu'ivla for, 61 -->
+<indexterm><primary>jargon</primary></indexterm>
<quote>la'e</quote>dereferences a pointer.)</para>
<para>By introducing a sumti qualifier, we correct a false sentence (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section10-example1" />), which too closely resembles its literal English equivalent, into a true sentence (
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section10-example3" />), without having to change it overmuch; in particular, the structure remains the same. Most of the uses of sumti qualifiers are of this general kind.</para>
<para>The sumti qualifier
<quote>lu'e</quote>provides the converse operation: it can be prefixed to a sumti referring to some thing to produce a sumti referring to a sign or symbol for the thing. For example,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-7ytm">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e10d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section10-example4" />
@@ -1269,23 +1431,31 @@
<jbo>mi pu cusku le sinxa be le vi cukta</jbo>
<en>I [past] express the symbol-for the nearby book.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which is equivalent to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section10-example4" />, but longer.</para>
<para>The other sumti qualifiers follow the same rules. The cmavo
<quote>tu'a</quote>is used in forming abstractions, and is explained more fully in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11" />. The triplet
<quote>lu'a</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ lu'a, 134; effect of on meaning, 134 -->
+<indexterm><primary>lu'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>lu'i</quote>, and
+<!-- ^^ lu'i, 134; effect of on meaning, 134 -->
+<indexterm><primary>lu'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>lu'o</quote>convert between individuals, sets, and masses;
+<!-- ^^ lu'o, 134; effect of on meaning, 134 -->
+<indexterm><primary>lu'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>vu'i</quote>belongs to this group as well, but creates a sequence, which is similar to a set but has a definite order. (The set of John and Charles is the same as the set of Charles and John, but the sequences are different.) Here are some examples:</para>
+<!-- ^^ vu'i, 134; effect of on meaning, 134; use for creating sequence, 134 -->
+<indexterm><primary>vu'i</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ioCu">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e10d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section10-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi troci tu'a le vorme</jbo>
<gloss>I try some-abstraction-about the door.</gloss>
<en>I try (to open) the door.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1300,95 +1470,125 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e10d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section10-example7" />
<anchor xml:id="c6e10d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section10-example8" />
<anchor xml:id="c6e10d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section10-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo'i ratcu cu barda .iku'i lu'a ri cmalu</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ lu'a, 134; effect of on meaning, 134 -->
+<indexterm><primary>lu'a</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>The-set-of rats is-large. But some-members-of it-last-mentioned is-small.</gloss>
<en>The set of rats is large, but some of its members are small.</en>
+<!-- ^^ set of rats: example, 135 -->
+<indexterm><primary>set of rats</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>lo ratcu cu cmalu .iku'i lu'i ri barda</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ lu'i, 134; effect of on meaning, 134 -->
+<indexterm><primary>lu'i</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>Some rats are-small. But the-set-of them-last-mentioned is-large.</gloss>
<en>Some rats are small, but the set of rats is large.</en>
+<!-- ^^ set of rats: example, 135 -->
+<indexterm><primary>set of rats</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>mi ce do girzu</jbo>
<gloss>.i lu'o ri gunma</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ lu'o, 134; effect of on meaning, 134 -->
+<indexterm><primary>lu'o</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>.i vu'i ri porsi</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ vu'i, 134; effect of on meaning, 134; use for creating sequence, 134 -->
+<indexterm><primary>vu'i</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I in-a-set-with you are-a-set.</gloss>
<gloss>The-mass-of it-last-mentioned is-a-mass.</gloss>
<gloss>The-sequence-of it-last-mentioned is-a-sequence</gloss>
<gloss>The set of you and me is a set.</gloss>
<gloss>The mass of you and me is a mass.</gloss>
<en>The sequence of you and me is a sequence.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(Yes, I know these examples are a bit silly. This set was introduced for completeness, and practical examples are as yet hard to come by.)</para>
<para>Finally, the four sumti qualifiers formed from a cmavo of NAhE and
<quote>bo</quote>are all concerned with negation, which is discussed in detail in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter15" />. Here are a few examples of negation sumti qualifiers:</para>
+<!-- ^^ negation sumti qualifiers: meanings of, 135 -->
+<indexterm><primary>negation sumti qualifiers</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-4Mte">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e10d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section10-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska na'ebo le gerku</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ na'ebo, 135 -->
+<indexterm><primary>na'ebo</primary></indexterm>
<en>I see something-other-than the dog.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This compound,
<quote>na'ebo</quote>, is the most common of the four negation sumti qualifiers. The others usually only make sense in the context of repeating, with modifications, something already referred to:</para>
+<!-- ^^ negation sumti qualifiers: meanings of, 135 -->
+<indexterm><primary>negation sumti qualifiers</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ na'ebo, 135 -->
+<indexterm><primary>na'ebo</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-JwCb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e10d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section10-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci loi glare cidja</jbo>
<gloss>.ije do nelci to'ebo ri</gloss>
<gloss>.ije la djein. nelci no'ebo ra</gloss>
<gloss>I like part-of-the-mass-of hot-type-of food.</gloss>
<gloss>And you like the-opposite-of the-last-mentioned.</gloss>
<gloss>And Jane likes the-neutral-value-of something-mentioned.</gloss>
<en>I like hot food, and you like cold food, and Jane likes lukewarm food.</en>
+<!-- ^^ lukewarm food: example, 135 -->
+<indexterm><primary>lukewarm food</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section10-example11" />, the sumti
<quote>ra</quote>refers to some previously mentioned sumti other than that referred to by
<quote>ri</quote>. We cannot use
<quote>ri</quote>here, because it would signify
<quote>la djein.</quote>, that being the most recent sumti available to
<quote>ri</quote>. See more detailed explanations in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7" />.)</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter6-section11">
<title>11. The syntax of vocative phrases</title>
<para>Vocative phrases are not sumti, but are explained in this chapter because their syntax is very similar to that of sumti. Grammatically, a vocative phrase is one of the so-called
+<!-- ^^ vocative phrase: as a free modifier, 135; effect of position on meaning, 137; elidable terminator for, 137; explicit quantifiers prohibited on, 136; forms of, 136; implicit descriptor on, 136; implicit quantifiers on, 136; purpose of, 136; relative clauses on, 184; with complete sumti, 136; with sumti without descriptor, 136 -->
+<indexterm><primary>vocative phrase</primary></indexterm>
<quote>free modifiers</quote>of Lojban, along with subscripts, parentheses, and various other constructs explained in
+<!-- ^^ free modifiers: effects on elidability of terminators, 450 -->
+<indexterm><primary>free modifiers</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19" />. They can be placed after many, but not all, constructions of the grammar: in general, after any elidable terminator (which, however, must not then be elided!), at the beginnings and ends of sentences, and in many other places.</para>
<para>The purpose of a vocative phrase is to indicate who is being addressed, or to indicate to that person that he or she ought to be listening. A vocative phrase begins with a cmavo of selma'o COI or DOI, all of which are explained in more detail in
+<!-- ^^ vocative phrase: as a free modifier, 135; effect of position on meaning, 137; elidable terminator for, 137; explicit quantifiers prohibited on, 136; forms of, 136; implicit descriptor on, 136; implicit quantifiers on, 136; purpose of, 136; relative clauses on, 184; with complete sumti, 136; with sumti without descriptor, 136 -->
+<indexterm><primary>vocative phrase</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13" />. Sometimes that is all there is to the phrase:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-nweb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e11d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section11-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c6e11d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section11-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>coi</jbo>
<gloss>[greetings]</gloss>
<en>Hello.</en>
<jbo>je'e</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ je'e, 324, 325; contrasted with vi'o, 325 -->
+<indexterm><primary>je'e</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>[acknowledgement]</gloss>
<gloss>Uh-huh.</gloss>
<en>Roger!</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In these cases, the person being addressed is obvious from the context. However, a vocative word (more precisely, one or more cmavo of COI, possibly followed by
<quote>doi</quote>, or else just
<quote>doi</quote>by itself) can be followed by one of several kinds of phrases, all of which are intended to indicate the addressee. The most common case is a name:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Bega">
<title>
@@ -1470,25 +1670,33 @@
<anchor xml:id="c6e11d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section11-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>doi la djan.</jbo>
<en>The-one-named John!</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Finally, the elidable terminator for vocative phrases is
<quote>do'u</quote>(of selma'o DOhU), which is rarely needed except when a simple vocative word is being placed somewhere within a bridi. It may also be required when a vocative is placed between a sumti and its relative clause, or when there are a sequence of so-called
+<!-- ^^ do'u, 137, 323 -->
+<indexterm><primary>do'u</primary></indexterm>
<quote>free modifiers</quote>(vocatives, subscripts, utterance ordinals - see
+<!-- ^^ ordinals: utterance, 474 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ordinals</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ free modifiers: effects on elidability of terminators, 450 -->
+<indexterm><primary>free modifiers</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter18" />- metalinguistic comments - see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19" />- or reciprocals - see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19" />) which must be properly separated.</para>
<para>The meaning of a vocative phrase that is within a sentence is not affected by its position in the sentence: thus
+<!-- ^^ vocative phrase: as a free modifier, 135; effect of position on meaning, 137; elidable terminator for, 137; explicit quantifiers prohibited on, 136; forms of, 136; implicit descriptor on, 136; implicit quantifiers on, 136; purpose of, 136; relative clauses on, 184; with complete sumti, 136; with sumti without descriptor, 136 -->
+<indexterm><primary>vocative phrase</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section11-example9" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section11-example10" />mean the same thing:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-tBeK">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e11d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section11-example10" />
<anchor xml:id="c6e11d11" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section11-example11" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1514,20 +1722,22 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>djan. meris. djein. .alis.</jbo>
<en>John. Mary. Jane. Alice.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(Note that
<quote>.alis.</quote>begins as well as ends with a pause, because all Lojban words beginning with a vowel must be preceded by a pause. See
<xref linkend="cll_chapter4" />for more information.)</para>
<para>Names of this kind have two basic uses in Lojban: when used in a vocative phrase (see
+<!-- ^^ vocative phrase: as a free modifier, 135; effect of position on meaning, 137; elidable terminator for, 137; explicit quantifiers prohibited on, 136; forms of, 136; implicit descriptor on, 136; implicit quantifiers on, 136; purpose of, 136; relative clauses on, 184; with complete sumti, 136; with sumti without descriptor, 136 -->
+<indexterm><primary>vocative phrase</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section11" />) they indicate who the listener is or should be. When used with a descriptor of selma'o LA, namely
<quote>la</quote>,
<quote>lai</quote>, or
<quote>la'i</quote>, they form sumti which refer to the persons or things known by the name.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-cX6R">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e12d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section12-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c6e12d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section12-example3" />
@@ -1547,21 +1757,25 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section12-example3" />, the Joneses are massified, and only some part of them needs to be going. Of course, by
<quote>djonz.</quote>I can mean whomever I want: that person need not use the name
<quote>djonz.</quote>at all.</para>
<para>The sumti in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section12-example2" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section12-example3" />operate exactly like the similar uses of
<quote>la</quote>and
<quote>lai</quote>in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section2-example6" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section3-example6" />respectively. The only difference is that these descriptors are followed by Lojban name-words. And in fact, the only difference between descriptors of selma'o LA (these three) and of selma'o LE (all the other descriptors) is that the former can be followed by name-words, whereas the latter cannot.</para>
+<!-- ^^ name-words: limitations on, 138; pause requirements before, 138; permissible consonant combinations, 138 -->
+<indexterm><primary>name-words</primary></indexterm>
<para>There are certain limitations on the form of name-words in Lojban. In particular, they cannot contain the letter-sequences (or sound-sequences)
+<!-- ^^ name-words: limitations on, 138; pause requirements before, 138; permissible consonant combinations, 138 -->
+<indexterm><primary>name-words</primary></indexterm>
<quote>la</quote>,
<quote>lai</quote>, or
<quote>doi</quote>unless a consonant immediately precedes within the name. Reciprocally, every name not preceded by
<quote>la</quote>,
<quote>lai</quote>,
<quote>la'i</quote>, or
<quote>doi</quote>must be preceded by a pause instead:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-VIsx">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e12d4" />
@@ -1585,116 +1799,156 @@
<para>Unless some other rule prevents it (such as the rule that
<quote>zo</quote>is always followed by a single word, which is quoted), multiple names may appear wherever one name is permitted, each with its terminating pause:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-cw3p">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e12d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section12-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>doi djan. pol. djonz. le bloti cu klama fi la niuport. niuz.</jbo>
<en>John Paul Jones, the boat comes (to somewhere) from Newport News.</en>
+<!-- ^^ Newport News: example, 138 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Newport News</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ John Paul Jones: example, 138 -->
+<indexterm><primary>John Paul Jones</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>A name may not contain any consonant combination that is illegal in Lojban words generally: the
<quote>impermissible consonant clusters</quote>of Lojban morphology (explained in
+<!-- ^^ consonant clusters: buffering of, 38; contrasted with doubled consonants, 35; contrasted with single consonants, 35; definition of, 35; more than three consonants in, 37 -->
+<!-- ^^ doubled consonants: contrasted with consonant clusters, 35; contrasted with single consonants, 35 -->
+<indexterm><primary>doubled consonants</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>consonant clusters</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter3" />). Thus
<quote>djeimz.</quote>is not a valid version of
<quote>James</quote>(because
<quote>mz</quote>is invalid):
<quote>djeimyz</quote>will suffice. Similarly,
<quote>la</quote>may be replaced by
<quote>ly</quote>,
<quote>lai</quote>by
<quote>ly'i</quote>,
<quote>doi</quote>by
<quote>do'i</quote>or
<quote>dai</quote>. Here are a few examples:</para>
+<!-- ^^ dai, 314 -->
+<indexterm><primary>dai</primary></indexterm>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>Doyle</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ Doyle: example, 138 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Doyle</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>*doi,l</selmaho>
<description>do'il or dai,l</description>
+<!-- ^^ dai, 314 -->
+<indexterm><primary>dai</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>Lyra</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ Lyra: example, 138 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Lyra</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>*lairas</selmaho>
<description>ly'iras</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>Lottie</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ Lottie: example, 138 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Lottie</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>*latis</selmaho>
<description>LYtis. or lotis.</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>Names may be borrowed from other languages or created arbitrarily. Another common practice is to use one or more rafsi, arranged to end with a consonant, to form a name: thus the rafsi
<quote>loj-</quote>for
<quote>logji</quote>(logical) and
<quote>ban-</quote>for
<quote>bangu</quote>(language) unite to form the name of this language:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-uXAY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e12d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section12-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lojban.</jbo>
<en>Lojban</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>When borrowing names from another language which end in a vowel, or when turning a Lojban brivla (all of which end in vowels) into a name, the vowel may be removed or an arbitrary consonant added. It is common (but not required) to use the consonants
+<!-- ^^ borrowing: four stages of, 61 -->
+<indexterm><primary>borrowing</primary></indexterm>
<quote>s</quote>or
<quote>n</quote>when borrowing vowel-final names from English; speakers of other languages may wish to use other consonant endings.</para>
+<!-- ^^ borrowing: four stages of, 61 -->
+<indexterm><primary>borrowing</primary></indexterm>
<para>The implicit quantifier for name sumti of the form
<quote>la</quote>followed by a name is
<quote>su'o</quote>, just as for
<quote>la</quote>followed by a selbri.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter6-section13">
<title>13. Pro-sumti summary</title>
<para>The Lojban pro-sumti are the cmavo of selma'o KOhA. They fall into several classes: personal, definable, quantificational, reflexive, back-counting, indefinite, demonstrative, metalinguistic, relative, question. More details are given in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7" />; this section mostly duplicates information found there, but adds material on the implicit quantifier of each pro-sumti.</para>
<para>The following examples illustrate each of the classes. Unless otherwise noted below, the implicit quantification for pro-sumti is
<quote>ro</quote>(all). In the case of pro-sumti which refer to other sumti, the
<quote>ro</quote>signifies
<quote>all of those referred to by the other sumti</quote>: thus it is possible to restrict, but not to extend, the quantification of the other sumti.</para>
<para>Personal pro-sumti (
<quote>mi</quote>,
<quote>do</quote>,
<quote>mi'o</quote>,
<quote>mi'a</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ mi'a, 146 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mi'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ma'a</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ ma'a, 146 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ma'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>do'o</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ do'o, 146 -->
+<indexterm><primary>do'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ko</quote>) refer to the speaker or the listener or both, with or without third parties:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-PHPi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e13d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section13-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi prami do</jbo>
<en>I love you.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The personal pro-sumti may be interpreted in context as either representing individuals or masses, so the implicit quantifier may be
+<!-- ^^ personal pro-sumti, 139; implicit cancellation of by change of speaker/listener, 162; implicit quantifier for, 128, 139; stability of, 162 -->
+<indexterm><primary>personal pro-sumti</primary></indexterm>
<quote>pisu'o</quote>rather than
+<!-- ^^ pisu'o: explanation of meaning, 130 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pisu'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ro</quote>: in particular,
<quote>mi'o</quote>,
<quote>mi'a</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ mi'a, 146 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mi'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ma'a</quote>, and
+<!-- ^^ ma'a, 146 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ma'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>do'o</quote>specifically represent mass combinations of the individuals (you and I, I and others, you and I and others, you and others) that make them up.</para>
+<!-- ^^ do'o, 146 -->
+<indexterm><primary>do'o</primary></indexterm>
<para>Definable pro-sumti (
<quote>ko'a</quote>,
<quote>ko'e</quote>,
<quote>ko'i</quote>,
<quote>ko'o</quote>,
<quote>ko'u</quote>,
<quote>fo'a</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ fo'a, 163 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fo'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>fo'e</quote>,
<quote>fo'i</quote>,
<quote>fo'o</quote>,
<quote>fo'u</quote>) refer to whatever the speaker has explicitly made them refer to. This reference is accomplished with
<quote>goi</quote>(of selma'o GOI), which means
<quote>defined-as</quote>.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-8whK">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e13d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section13-example2" />
@@ -1714,20 +1968,22 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section13-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro da poi prenu cu prami pa de poi finpe</jbo>
<gloss>All somethings-1 which-are persons love one something-2 which-is a-fish.</gloss>
<en>All persons love a fish (each his/her own).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(This is not the same as
<quote>All persons love a certain fish</quote>; the difference between the two is one of quantifier order.) The implicit quantification rules for quantificational pro-sumti are particular to them, and are discussed in detail in
+<!-- ^^ quantificational pro-sumti, 139; implicit quantification rules, 139 -->
+<indexterm><primary>quantificational pro-sumti</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16" />. Roughly speaking, the quantifier is
<quote>su'o</quote>(at least one) when the pro-sumti is first used, and
<quote>ro</quote>(all) thereafter.</para>
<para>Reflexive pro-sumti (
<quote>vo'a</quote>,
<quote>vo'e</quote>,
<quote>vo'i</quote>,
<quote>vo'o</quote>,
<quote>vo'u</quote>) refer to the same referents as sumti filling other places in the same bridi, with the effect that the same thing is referred to twice:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-nMse">
@@ -1752,32 +2008,36 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama la frankfurt. ri</jbo>
<gloss>I go to-Frankfurt from-the-referent-of-the-last-sumti</gloss>
<en>I go from Frankfurt to Frankfurt (by some unstated route).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Indefinite pro-sumti (
<quote>zo'e</quote>,
<quote>zu'i</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ zu'i, 157 -->
+<indexterm><primary>zu'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>zi'o</quote>) refer to something which is unspecified:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-d5Ee">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e13d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section13-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama la frankfurt. zo'e zo'e zo'e</jbo>
<en>I go to-Frankfurt from-unspecified via-unspecified by-means-unspecified.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The implicit quantifier for indefinite pro-sumti is, well, indefinite. It might be
+<!-- ^^ indefinite pro-sumti, 140, 157; implicit quantifier for, 140; stability of, 162 -->
+<indexterm><primary>indefinite pro-sumti</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ro</quote>(all) or
<quote>su'o</quote>(at least one) or conceivably even
<quote>no</quote>(none), though
<quote>no</quote>would require a very odd context indeed.</para>
<para>Demonstrative pro-sumti (
<quote>ti</quote>,
<quote>ta</quote>,
<quote>tu</quote>) refer to things pointed at by the speaker, or when pointing is not possible, to things near or far from the speaker:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-aqfJ">
<title>
@@ -1788,77 +2048,109 @@
<jbo>ko muvgau</jbo>
<gloss>ti ta tu</gloss>
<gloss>You [imperative] move</gloss>
<gloss>this-thing from-that-nearby-place to-that-further-away-place.</gloss>
<en>Move this from there to over there!</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Metalinguistic pro-sumti (
<quote>di'u</quote>,
<quote>de'u</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ de'u, 148 -->
+<indexterm><primary>de'u</primary></indexterm>
<quote>da'u</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ da'u, 148 -->
+<indexterm><primary>da'u</primary></indexterm>
<quote>di'e</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ di'e, 149, 358; effect of tu'e/tu'u on, 358 -->
+<indexterm><primary>di'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>de'e</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ de'e, 149 -->
+<indexterm><primary>de'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>da'e</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ da'e, 149 -->
+<indexterm><primary>da'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>dei</quote>,
<quote>do'i</quote>) refer to spoken or written utterances, either preceding, following, or the same as the current utterance.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-8VYF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e13d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section13-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li re su'i re du li vo</jbo>
<gloss>.i la'e di'u jetnu</gloss>
<gloss>The-number two plus two equals the-number four.</gloss>
<en>The-referent-of the-previous-utterance is-true.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The implicit quantifier for metalinguistic pro-sumti is
+<!-- ^^ metalinguistic pro-sumti, 140; implicit quantifier for, 140 -->
+<indexterm><primary>metalinguistic pro-sumti</primary></indexterm>
<quote>su'o</quote>(at least one), because they are considered analogous to
<quote>lo</quote>descriptions: they refer to things which really are previous, current, or following utterances.</para>
<para>The relative pro-sumti (
+<!-- ^^ relative pro-sumti, 140 -->
+<indexterm><primary>relative pro-sumti</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ke'a</quote>) is used within relative clauses (see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8" />for a discussion of relative clauses) to refer to whatever sumti the relative clause is attached to.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-sf2T">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e13d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section13-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska le mlatu ku poi zo'e zbasu ke'a</jbo>
<gloss>loi slasi</gloss>
<gloss>I see the cat(s) such-that something-unspecified makes it/them (the cats)</gloss>
<gloss>from-a-mass-of plastic.</gloss>
<en>I see the cat(s) made of plastic.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The question pro-sumti (
+<!-- ^^ question pro-sumti, 140; implicit quantifier for, 140 -->
+<indexterm><primary>question pro-sumti</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ma</quote>) is used to ask questions which request the listener to supply a sumti which will make the question into a truth:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-9tSb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e13d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section13-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do klama ma</jbo>
<gloss>You go to-what-sumti?</gloss>
<en>Where are you going?</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The implicit quantifier for the question pro-sumti is
+<!-- ^^ question pro-sumti, 140; implicit quantifier for, 140 -->
+<indexterm><primary>question pro-sumti</primary></indexterm>
<quote>su'o</quote>(at least one), because the listener is only being asked to supply a single answer, not all correct answers.</para>
<para>In addition, sequences of lerfu words (of selma'o BY and related selma'o) can also be used as definable pro-sumti.</para>
+<!-- ^^ definable pro-sumti, 139; sequences of lerfu words as, 140 -->
+<indexterm><primary>definable pro-sumti</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter6-section14">
<title>14. Quotation summary</title>
<para>There are four kinds of quotation in Lojban: text quotation, words quotation, single-word quotation, non-Lojban quotation. More information is provided in
+<!-- ^^ word quotation: as morphologically valid, 141; internal grammar of, 141 -->
+<indexterm><primary>word quotation</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ text quotation: as internally grammatical, 141; syntax of, 141 -->
+<indexterm><primary>text quotation</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ single-word quotation, 141 -->
+<!-- ^^ word quotation: as morphologically valid, 141; internal grammar of, 141 -->
+<indexterm><primary>word quotation</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>single-word quotation</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ word quotation: as morphologically valid, 141; internal grammar of, 141 -->
+<indexterm><primary>word quotation</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ non-Lojban quotation, 141 -->
+<indexterm><primary>non-Lojban quotation</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19" />.</para>
<para>Text quotations are preceded by
<quote>lu</quote>and followed by
<quote>li'u</quote>, and are an essential part of the surrounding text: they must be grammatical Lojban texts.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-v1DE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e14d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section14-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1878,20 +2170,22 @@
<jbo>mi cusku lo'u li mi le'u</jbo>
<gloss>I say the-words [quote]
<quote>li mi</quote>[unquote].</gloss>
<en>I say
<quote>li mi</quote>.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that the translation of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6-section14-example2" />does not translate the Lojban words, because they are not presumed to have any meaning (in fact, they are ungrammatical).</para>
<para>Single-word quotation quotes a single Lojban word. Compound cmavo are not allowed.</para>
+<!-- ^^ word quotation: as morphologically valid, 141; internal grammar of, 141 -->
+<indexterm><primary>word quotation</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-XqKv">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e14d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter6-section14-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cusku zo .ai</jbo>
<en>I say the-word
<quote>.ai</quote>.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1966,16 +2260,18 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>me'o re su'i re</jbo>
<gloss>the-expression two plus two</gloss>
<en>
<quote>2+2</quote>
</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>refer to different pieces of text.</para>
<para>The implicit quantifier for numbers and mathematical expressions is
+<!-- ^^ mathematical expressions: connectives in, 361; implicit quantifier for, 142; tensed connection in, 364 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mathematical expressions</primary></indexterm>
<quote>su'o</quote>, because these sumti are analogous to
<quote>lo</quote>descriptions: they refer to things which actually are numbers or pieces of text. In the case of numbers (with
<quote>li</quote>), this is a distinction without a difference, as there is only one number which is 4; but there are many texts
<quote>4</quote>, as many as there are documents in which that numeral appears.</para>
</section>
</chapter>
diff --git a/todocbook/7.xml b/todocbook/7.xml
index f72bf01..815df9e 100644
--- a/todocbook/7.xml
+++ b/todocbook/7.xml
@@ -1,32 +1,36 @@
<chapter xml:id="cll_chapter7">
<title>Chapter 7 Brevity Is The Soul Of Language: Pro-sumti And Pro-bridi</title>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter7-section1">
<title>1. What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?</title>
<para>Speakers of Lojban, like speakers of other languages, require mechanisms of abbreviation. If every time we referred to something, we had to express a complete description of it, life would be too short to say what we have to say. In English, we have words called
<quote>pronouns</quote>which allow us to replace nouns or noun phrases with shorter terms. An English with no pronouns might look something like this:</para>
+<!-- ^^ nouns: brivla as Lojban equivalents, 52 -->
+<indexterm><primary>nouns</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-KeL4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e1d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section1-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>Speakers of Lojban, like speakers of other languages,</jbo>
<gloss>require mechanisms of abbreviation. If every time</gloss>
<gloss>speakers of Lojban referred to a thing to which</gloss>
<gloss>speakers of Lojban refer, speakers of Lojban had to</gloss>
<gloss>express a complete description of what speakers</gloss>
<gloss>of Lojban referred to, life would be too short to say</gloss>
<en>what speakers of Lojban have to say.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Speakers of this kind of English would get mightily sick of talking. Furthermore, there are uses of pronouns in English which are independent of abbreviation. There is all the difference in the world between:</para>
+<!-- ^^ pronouns in English: as independent of abbreviations, 145; as noun abbreviations, 145 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pronouns in English</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-VISf">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e1d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section1-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>John picked up a stick and shook it.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and</para>
@@ -36,25 +40,29 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section1-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>John picked up a stick and shook a stick.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section1-example3" />does not imply that the two sticks are necessarily the same, whereas
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section1-example2" />requires that they are.</para>
<para>In Lojban, we have sumti rather than nouns, so our equivalent of pronouns are called by the hybrid term
+<!-- ^^ nouns: brivla as Lojban equivalents, 52 -->
+<indexterm><primary>nouns</primary></indexterm>
<quote>pro-sumti</quote>. A purely Lojban term would be
<quote>sumti cmavo</quote>: all of the pro-sumti are cmavo belonging to selma'o KOhA. In exactly the same way, Lojban has a group of cmavo (belonging to selma'o GOhA) which serve as selbri or full bridi. These may be called
<quote>pro-bridi</quote>or
<quote>bridi cmavo</quote>. This chapter explains the uses of all the members of selma'o KOhA and GOhA. They fall into a number of groups, known as series: thus, in selma'o KOhA, we have among others the mi-series, the ko'a-series, the da-series, and so on. In each section, a series of pro-sumti is explained, and if there is a corresponding series of pro-bridi, it is explained and contrasted. Many pro-sumti series don't have pro-bridi analogues, however.</para>
<para>A few technical terms: The term
+<!-- ^^ technical terms, 5 -->
+<indexterm><primary>technical terms</primary></indexterm>
<quote>referent</quote>means the thing to which a pro-sumti (by extension, a pro-bridi) refers. If the speaker of a sentence is James, then the referent of the word
<quote>I</quote>is James. On the other hand, the term
<quote>antecedent</quote>refers to a piece of language which a pro-sumti (or pro-bridi) implicitly repeats. In</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-AnBS">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e1d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section1-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>John loves himself</jbo>
@@ -67,29 +75,37 @@
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter7-section2">
<title>2. Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi KOhA mi-series I, me
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
do KOhA mi-series you
mi'o KOhA mi-series you and I
mi'a KOhA mi-series I and others, we but not you
+<!-- ^^ mi'a, 146 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mi'a</primary></indexterm>
ma'a KOhA mi-series you and I and others
+<!-- ^^ ma'a, 146 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ma'a</primary></indexterm>
do'o KOhA mi-series you and others
+<!-- ^^ do'o, 146 -->
+<indexterm><primary>do'o</primary></indexterm>
ko KOhA mi-series you-imperative
</programlisting>
<para>The mi-series of pro-sumti refer to the speaker, the listener, and others in various combinations.
<quote>mi</quote>refers to the speaker and perhaps others for whom the speaker speaks; it may be a Lojbanic mass.
<quote>do</quote>refers to the listener or listeners. Neither
<quote>mi</quote>nor
<quote>do</quote>is specific about the number of persons referred to; for example, the foreman of a jury may refer to the members of the jury as
+<!-- ^^ foreman of a jury: example, 146 -->
+<indexterm><primary>foreman of a jury</primary></indexterm>
<quote>mi</quote>, since in speaking officially he represents all of them.</para>
<para>The referents of
<quote>mi</quote>and
<quote>do</quote>are usually obvious from the context, but may be assigned by the vocative words of selma'o COI, explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter13" />. The vocative
<quote>mi'e</quote>assigns
<quote>mi</quote>, whereas all of the other vocatives assign
<quote>do</quote>.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-4dna">
<title>
@@ -99,51 +115,69 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi'e djan. doi frank. mi cusku lu mi bajra li'u do</jbo>
<gloss>I-am John, O Frank, I express [quote] I run [unquote] to-you</gloss>
<en>I am John, Frank; I tell you
<quote>I run</quote>.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>mi'o</quote>,
<quote>mi'a</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ mi'a, 146 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mi'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ma'a</quote>, and
+<!-- ^^ ma'a, 146 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ma'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>do'o</quote>express various combinations of the speaker and/or the listener and/or other people:</para>
+<!-- ^^ do'o, 146 -->
+<indexterm><primary>do'o</primary></indexterm>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>
<quote>mi'o</quote>includes only the speaker and the listener but no one else;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
<quote>mi'a</quote>includes the speaker and others but excludes the listener;</para>
+<!-- ^^ mi'a, 146 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mi'a</primary></indexterm>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
<quote>do'o</quote>includes the listener and others but excludes the speaker;</para>
+<!-- ^^ do'o, 146 -->
+<indexterm><primary>do'o</primary></indexterm>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
<quote>ma'a</quote>includes all three: speaker, listener, others.</para>
+<!-- ^^ ma'a, 146 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ma'a</primary></indexterm>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
<para>All of these pro-sumti represent masses. For example,
<quote>mi'o</quote>is the same as
<quote>mi joi do</quote>, the mass of me and you considered jointly.</para>
<para>In English,
<quote>we</quote>can mean
<quote>mi</quote>or
<quote>mi'o</quote>or
<quote>mi'a</quote>or even
+<!-- ^^ mi'a, 146 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mi'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ma'a</quote>, and English-speakers often suffer because they cannot easily distinguish
+<!-- ^^ ma'a, 146 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ma'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>mi'o</quote>from
<quote>mi'a</quote>:</para>
+<!-- ^^ mi'a, 146 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mi'a</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-22dg">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e2d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section2-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>We're going to the store.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Does this include the listener or not? There's no way to be sure.</para>
@@ -226,48 +260,56 @@
<quote>this</quote>refers to something pointed at that is near the speaker, and
<quote>that</quote>refers to something further away. The Lojban pro-sumti of the ti-series serve the same functions, but more narrowly. The cmavo
<quote>ti</quote>,
<quote>ta</quote>, and
<quote>tu</quote>provide only the pointing function of
<quote>this</quote>and
<quote>that</quote>; they are not used to refer to things that cannot be pointed at.</para>
<para>There are three pro-sumti of the ti-series rather than just two because it is often useful to distinguish between objects that are at more than two different distances. Japanese, among other languages, regularly does this. Until the 16th century, English did too; the pronoun
<quote>that</quote>referred to something at a medium distance from the speaker, and the now-archaic pronoun
<quote>yon</quote>to something far away.</para>
+<!-- ^^ yon: as archaic English equivalent of tu, 147 -->
+<indexterm><primary>yon</primary></indexterm>
<para>In conversation, there is a special rule about
<quote>ta</quote>and
<quote>tu</quote>that is often helpful in interpreting them. When used contrastingly,
<quote>ta</quote>refers to something that is near the listener, whereas
<quote>tu</quote>refers to something far from both speaker and listener. This makes for a parallelism between
<quote>ti</quote>and
<quote>mi</quote>, and
<quote>ta</quote>and
<quote>do</quote>, that is convenient when pointing is not possible; for example, when talking by telephone. In written text, on the other hand, the meaning of the ti-series is inherently vague; is the writer to be taken as pointing to something, and if so, to what? In all cases, what counts as
<quote>near</quote>and
<quote>far away</quote>is relative to the current situation.</para>
<para>It is important to distinguish between the English pronoun
<quote>this</quote>and the English adjective
<quote>this</quote>as in
<quote>this boat</quote>. The latter is not represented in Lojban by
+<!-- ^^ this boat: example, 148 -->
+<indexterm><primary>this boat</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ti</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-IWi7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e3d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section3-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ti bloti</jbo>
<en>the this boat</en>
+<!-- ^^ this boat: example, 148 -->
+<indexterm><primary>this boat</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>does not mean
<quote>this boat</quote>but rather
+<!-- ^^ this boat: example, 148 -->
+<indexterm><primary>this boat</primary></indexterm>
<quote>this one's boat</quote>,
<quote>the boat associated with this thing</quote>, as explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8" />. A correct Lojban translation of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section3-example1" />is</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-rfUc">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e3d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section3-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -279,36 +321,48 @@
<para>using a spatial tense before the selbri
<quote>bloti</quote>to express that the boat is near the speaker. (Tenses are explained in full in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11" />.) Another correct translation would be:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-pRLq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e3d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section3-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti noi bloti</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ti noi: as adjective expression for this, 148 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ti noi</primary></indexterm>
<en>this-thing which-incidentally is-a-boat</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>There are no demonstrative pro-bridi to correspond to the ti-series: you can't point to a relationship.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter7-section4">
<title>4. Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
di'u KOhA di'u-series the previous utterance
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
de'u KOhA di'u-series an earlier utterance
+<!-- ^^ de'u, 148 -->
+<indexterm><primary>de'u</primary></indexterm>
da'u KOhA di'u-series a much earlier utterance
+<!-- ^^ da'u, 148 -->
+<indexterm><primary>da'u</primary></indexterm>
di'e KOhA di'u-series the next utterance
+<!-- ^^ di'e, 149, 358; effect of tu'e/tu'u on, 358 -->
+<indexterm><primary>di'e</primary></indexterm>
de'e KOhA di'u-series a later utterance
+<!-- ^^ de'e, 149 -->
+<indexterm><primary>de'e</primary></indexterm>
da'e KOhA di'u-series a much later utterance
+<!-- ^^ da'e, 149 -->
+<indexterm><primary>da'e</primary></indexterm>
dei KOhA di'u-series this very utterance
do'i KOhA di'u-series some utterance
</programlisting>
<para>The cmavo of the di'u-series enable us to talk about things that have been, are being, or will be said. In English, it is normal to use
<quote>this</quote>and
<quote>that</quote>for this (indeed, the immediately preceding
<quote>this</quote>is an example of such a usage):</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-KNih">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e4d1" />
@@ -342,37 +396,49 @@
<quote>tu</quote>, the cmavo of the di'u-series come in threes: a close utterance, a medium-distance utterance, and a distant utterance, either in the past or in the future. It turned out to be impossible to use the
<quote>i</quote>/
<quote>a</quote>/
<quote>u</quote>vowel convention of the demonstratives in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section3" />without causing collisions with other cmavo, and so the di'u-series has a unique
<quote>i</quote>/
<quote>e</quote>/
<quote>a</quote>convention in the first vowel of the cmavo.</para>
<para>Most references in speech are to the past (what has already been said), so
<quote>di'e</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ di'e, 149, 358; effect of tu'e/tu'u on, 358 -->
+<indexterm><primary>di'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>de'e</quote>, and
+<!-- ^^ de'e, 149 -->
+<indexterm><primary>de'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>da'e</quote>are not very useful when speaking. In writing, they are frequently handy:</para>
+<!-- ^^ da'e, 149 -->
+<indexterm><primary>da'e</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-erEL">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e4d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section4-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la saimn. cusku di'e</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ di'e, 149, 358; effect of tu'e/tu'u on, 358 -->
+<indexterm><primary>di'e</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>Simon expresses the-following-utterance.</gloss>
<en>Simon says:</en>
+<!-- ^^ Simon says: example, 149 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Simon says</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section4-example3" />would typically be followed by a quotation. Note that although presumably the quotation is of something Simon has said in the past, the quotation utterance itself would appear after
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section4-example3" />, and so
<quote>di'e</quote>is appropriate.</para>
+<!-- ^^ di'e, 149, 358; effect of tu'e/tu'u on, 358 -->
+<indexterm><primary>di'e</primary></indexterm>
<para>The remaining two cmavo,
<quote>dei</quote>and
<quote>do'i</quote>, refer respectively to the very utterance that the speaker is uttering, and to some vague or unspecified utterance uttered by someone at some time:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-4RYt">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e4d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section4-example4" />
<anchor xml:id="c7e4d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section4-example5" />
</title>
@@ -404,60 +470,76 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi prami la djein. .i mi nelci la'e di'u</jbo>
<gloss>I love Jane. And I like the-referent-of the-last-utterance.</gloss>
<en>I love Jane, and I like that.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The effect of
<quote>la'e di'u</quote>in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section4-example6" />is that the speaker likes, not the previous sentence, but rather the state of affairs referred to by the previous sentence, namely his loving Jane. This cmavo compound is often written as a single word:
<quote>la'edi'u</quote>. It is important not to mix up
+<!-- ^^ la'edi'u, 149; contrasted with di'u, 149; quick-tour version, 21 -->
+<indexterm><primary>la'edi'u</primary></indexterm>
<quote>di'u</quote>and
<quote>la'edi'u</quote>, or the wrong meaning will generally result:</para>
+<!-- ^^ la'edi'u, 149; contrasted with di'u, 149; quick-tour version, 21 -->
+<indexterm><primary>la'edi'u</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-68ru">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e4d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section4-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi prami la djein. .i mi nelci di'u</jbo>
<en>I love Jane. And I like the-last-utterance.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>says that the speaker likes one of his own sentences.</para>
<para>There are no pro-bridi corresponding to the di'u-series.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter7-section5">
<title>5. Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series</title>
<para>The following cmavo and gismu are discussed in this section:</para>
+<!-- ^^ cmavo and gismu: major, 53 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cmavo and gismu</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ko'a KOhA ko'a-series it-1
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
ko'e KOhA ko'a-series it-2
ko'i KOhA ko'a-series it-3
ko'o KOhA ko'a-series it-4
ko'u KOhA ko'a-series it-5
fo'a KOhA ko'a-series it-6
+<!-- ^^ fo'a, 163 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fo'a</primary></indexterm>
fo'e KOhA ko'a-series it-7
fo'i KOhA ko'a-series it-8
fo'o KOhA ko'a-series it-9
fo'u KOhA ko'a-series it-10
broda BRIVLA broda-series is-thing-1
brode BRIVLA broda-series is-thing-2
brodi BRIVLA broda-series is-thing-3
brodo BRIVLA broda-series is-thing-4
brodu BRIVLA broda-series is-thing-5
goi GOI pro-sumti assignment
+<!-- ^^ pro-sumti assignment: explicit cancellation of with da'o, 162; no'i effect on, 162; stability of, 162 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pro-sumti assignment</primary></indexterm>
cei CEI pro-bridi assignment
+<!-- ^^ cei, 151, 154, 162; for broda-series pro-bridi assignment, 151 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cei</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>The discussion of personal pro-sumti in
+<!-- ^^ personal pro-sumti, 139; implicit cancellation of by change of speaker/listener, 162; implicit quantifier for, 128, 139; stability of, 162 -->
+<indexterm><primary>personal pro-sumti</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section2" />may have seemed incomplete. In English, the personal pronouns include not only
+<!-- ^^ personal pronouns: with ko'a-series for he/she/it/they, 150; with mi-series for I/you, 146 -->
+<indexterm><primary>personal pronouns</primary></indexterm>
<quote>I</quote>and
<quote>you</quote>but also
<quote>he</quote>,
<quote>she</quote>,
<quote>it</quote>, and
<quote>they</quote>. Lojban does have equivalents of this latter group: in fact, it has more of them than English does. However, they are organized and used very differently.</para>
<para>There are ten cmavo in the ko'a-series, and they may be assigned freely to any sumti whatsoever. The English word
<quote>he</quote>can refer only to males,
<quote>she</quote>only to females (and ships and a few other things),
<quote>it</quote>only to inanimate things, and
@@ -467,20 +549,22 @@
<anchor xml:id="c7e5d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section5-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .alis. klama le zarci .i ko'a blanu</jbo>
<en>Alice goes-to the store. It-1 is-blue.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The English gloss
<quote>it-1</quote>, plus knowledge about the real world, would tend to make English-speakers believe that
+<!-- ^^ real world: contrasted with hypothetical world, example, 320 -->
+<indexterm><primary>real world</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ko'a</quote>refers to the store; in other words, that its antecedent is
<quote>le zarci</quote>. To a Lojbanist, however,
<quote>la .alis.</quote>is just as likely an antecedent, in which case
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section5-example1" />means that Alice, not the store, is blue.</para>
<para>To avoid this pitfall, Lojban employs special syntax, using the cmavo
<quote>goi</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-duGR">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e5d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section5-example2" />
@@ -523,80 +607,106 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section5-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .alis. goi ko'a klama le zarci .i ko'a cu blanu</jbo>
<en>Alice, also-known-as it-1, goes-to the store. It-1 is-blue.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Again,
<quote>ko'a goi la .alis.</quote>would have been entirely acceptable in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section5-example4" />. This last form is reminiscent of legal jargon:
+<!-- ^^ legal jargon: example, 151 -->
+<indexterm><primary>legal jargon</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ jargon: use of fu'ivla for, 61 -->
+<indexterm><primary>jargon</primary></indexterm>
<quote>The party of the first part, hereafter known as Buyer, ...</quote>.</para>
+<!-- ^^ hereafter known as: example, 151 -->
+<indexterm><primary>hereafter known as</primary></indexterm>
<para>Just as the ko'a-series of pro-sumti allows a substitute for a sumti which is long or complex, or which for some other reason we do not want to repeat, so the broda-series of pro-bridi allows a substitute for a selbri or even a whole bridi:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-yXYT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e5d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section5-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti slasi je mlatu bo cidja lante gacri cei broda</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ cei, 151, 154, 162; for broda-series pro-bridi assignment, 151 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cei</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>.i le crino broda cu barda .i le xunre broda cu cmalu</gloss>
<gloss>These are plastic cat-food can covers or thingies.</gloss>
<en>The green thingy is large. The red thingy is small.</en>
+<!-- ^^ thingy: example, 151 -->
+<indexterm><primary>thingy</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The pro-bridi
<quote>broda</quote>has as its antecedent the selbri
<quote>slasi je mlatu bo cidja lante gacri</quote>. The cmavo
<quote>cei</quote>performs the role of
+<!-- ^^ cei, 151, 154, 162; for broda-series pro-bridi assignment, 151 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cei</primary></indexterm>
<quote>goi</quote>in assigning
<quote>broda</quote>to this long phrase, and
<quote>broda</quote>can then be used just like any other brivla. (In fact,
<quote>broda</quote>and its relatives actually
<emphasis>are</emphasis>brivla: they are gismu in morphology, although they behave exactly like the members of selma'o GOhA. The reasons for using gismu rather than cmavo are buried in the Loglan Project's history.)</para>
<para>Note that pro-bridi are so called because, even though they have the grammar of selbri, their antecedents are whole bridi. In the following rather contrived example, the antecedent of
<quote>brode</quote>is the whole bridi
<quote>mi klama le zarci</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-UFJf">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e5d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section5-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama cei brode le zarci .i do brode</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ cei, 151, 154, 162; for broda-series pro-bridi assignment, 151 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cei</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I go-to (which-is claim-1) the store. You claim-1.</gloss>
<en>I go to the store. You, too.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In the second bridi,
<quote>do brode</quote>means
<quote>do klama le zarci</quote>, because
<quote>brode</quote>carries the x2 sumti of
<quote>mi klama le zarci</quote>along with it. It also potentially carries the x1 sumti as well, but the explicit x1 sumti
<quote>do</quote>overrides the
<quote>mi</quote>of the antecedent bridi. Similarly, any tense or negation that is present in the antecedent is also carried, and can be overridden by explicit tense or negation cmavo on the pro-bridi. These rules hold for all pro-bridi that have antecedents.</para>
+<!-- ^^ negation cmavo: position relative to selbri, 104 -->
+<indexterm><primary>negation cmavo</primary></indexterm>
<para>Another use of
<quote>broda</quote>and its relatives, without assignment, is as
<quote>sample gismu</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-AYYA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e5d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section5-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>broda ke brode brodi</jbo>
<en>a thing-1 type of (thing-2 type-of thing-3)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>represents an abstract pattern, a certain kind of tanru. (Historically, this use was the original one.)</para>
<para>As is explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter17" />, the words for Lojban letters, belonging to selma'o BY and certain related selma'o, are also usable as assignable pro-sumti. The main difference between letter pro-sumti and ko'a-series pro-sumti is that, in the absence of an explicit assignment, letters are taken to refer to the most recent name or description sumti beginning with the same letter:</para>
+<!-- ^^ Lojban letters: IPA for pronouncing, 30; list with IPA pronunciation, 30 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Lojban letters</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ ko'a-series pro-sumti, 150; as assignable, 150; assigning with goi, 150; assignment with goi as symmetrical, 150; contrasted with lerfu as pro-sumti in explicit assignment of, 152; effect on ri-series pro-sumti, 153 -->
+<!-- ^^ ri-series pro-sumti, 152; and order of possible referents, 153; assigning for permanent reference, 154; compared with ti-series in word formation, 152; effect of ko'a-series pro-sumti on, 153; effect of lerfu pro-sumti on, 153; effect of other ri-series pro-sumti on, 153; effect of ti-series pro-sumti on, 153; effect of use on meaning, 153; effect on other ri-series pro-sumti, 153; in narrative about quotation, 156; in quotation series, 156; in quotations, 156; non-allowable referents of, 153; possible referents of, 153 -->
+<!-- ^^ ti-series pro-sumti: 3 degrees of distance with, 147; as pointing referents only, 147; compared with English this/that, 147; contrasted with di'u-series pro-sumti, 148; conversational convention for, 147; effect on ri-series pro-sumti, 153; lack of pro-bridi equivalent, 148; problems in written text, 147 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ti-series pro-sumti</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>ri-series pro-sumti</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ lerfu as pro-sumti: contrasted with ko'a-series in explicit assignment of, 152; explicit assignment of antecedent, 152; implicit assignment of antecedent, 152 -->
+<indexterm><primary>lerfu as pro-sumti</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>ko'a-series pro-sumti</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-x1gh">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e5d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section5-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska le gerku .i gy. cusku zo arf.</jbo>
<en>I see the dog. D expresses the-word
<quote>Arf!</quote>.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -630,37 +740,59 @@
<title>6. Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ri KOhA ri-series (repeats last sumti)
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
ra KOhA ri-series (repeats previous sumti)
ru KOhA ri-series (repeats long-ago sumti)
go'i GOhA go'i-series (repeats last bridi)
go'a GOhA go'i-series (repeats previous bridi)
+<!-- ^^ go'a, 154 -->
+<indexterm><primary>go'a</primary></indexterm>
go'u GOhA go'i-series (repeats long-ago bridi)
+<!-- ^^ go'u, 154 -->
+<indexterm><primary>go'u</primary></indexterm>
go'e GOhA go'i-series (repeats last-but-one bridi)
+<!-- ^^ go'e, 154 -->
+<indexterm><primary>go'e</primary></indexterm>
go'o GOhA go'i-series (repeats future bridi)
+<!-- ^^ go'o, 155 -->
+<indexterm><primary>go'o</primary></indexterm>
nei GOhA go'i-series (repeats current bridi)
+<!-- ^^ nei, 155 -->
+<indexterm><primary>nei</primary></indexterm>
no'a GOhA go'i-series (repeats outer bridi)
+<!-- ^^ no'a, 155; contrasted with other members of go'i-series in possible referents, 155 -->
+<indexterm><primary>no'a</primary></indexterm>
ra'o RAhO pro-cmavo update
</programlisting>
<para>The term
<quote>anaphora</quote>literally means
+<!-- ^^ anaphora: definition, 152; pro-bridi go'i-series as, 152; pro-sumti ri-series as, 152; pro-sumti vo'a-series as, 158 -->
+<indexterm><primary>anaphora</primary></indexterm>
<quote>repetition</quote>, but is used in linguistics to refer to pronouns whose significance is the repetition of earlier words, namely their antecedents. Lojban provides three pro-sumti anaphora,
+<!-- ^^ anaphora: definition, 152; pro-bridi go'i-series as, 152; pro-sumti ri-series as, 152; pro-sumti vo'a-series as, 158 -->
+<indexterm><primary>anaphora</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ri</quote>,
<quote>ra</quote>, and
<quote>ru</quote>; and three corresponding pro-bridi anaphora,
+<!-- ^^ anaphora: definition, 152; pro-bridi go'i-series as, 152; pro-sumti ri-series as, 152; pro-sumti vo'a-series as, 158 -->
+<indexterm><primary>anaphora</primary></indexterm>
<quote>go'i</quote>,
<quote>go'a</quote>, and
+<!-- ^^ go'a, 154 -->
+<indexterm><primary>go'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>go'u</quote>. These cmavo reveal the same vowel pattern as the ti-series, but the
+<!-- ^^ go'u, 154 -->
+<indexterm><primary>go'u</primary></indexterm>
<quote>distances</quote>referred to are not physical distances, but distances from the anaphoric cmavo to its antecedent.</para>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>ri</quote>is the simplest of these; it has the same referent as the last complete sumti appearing before the
<quote>ri</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-3som">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e6d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section6-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -807,21 +939,25 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>allows the store to be referred to henceforth as
<quote>ko'a</quote>without ambiguity.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section6-example7" />is equivalent to
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section5-example1" />and eliminates any possibility of
<quote>ko'a</quote>being interpreted by the listener as referring to Alice.</para>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>go'i</quote>,
<quote>go'a</quote>, and
+<!-- ^^ go'a, 154 -->
+<indexterm><primary>go'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>go'u</quote>follow exactly the same rules as
+<!-- ^^ go'u, 154 -->
+<indexterm><primary>go'u</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ri</quote>,
<quote>ra</quote>, and
<quote>ru</quote>, except that they are pro-bridi, and therefore repeat bridi, not sumti - specifically, main sentence bridi. Any bridi that are embedded within other bridi, such as relative clauses or abstractions, are not counted. Like the cmavo of the broda-series, the cmavo of the go'i-series copy all sumti with them. This makes
<quote>go'i</quote>by itself convenient for answering a question affirmatively, or for repeating the last bridi, possibly with new sumti:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-54sP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e6d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section6-example8" />
<anchor xml:id="c7e6d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section6-example9" />
@@ -833,34 +969,42 @@
<en>Is John your name? Yes.</en>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci .i do go'i</jbo>
<gloss>I go-to the store. You [repeat last bridi].</gloss>
<en>I go to the store. You, too.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section6-example9" />means the same as
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section5-example6" />, but without the bother of assigning an actual broda-series word to the first bridi. For long-term reference, use
<quote>go'i cei broda</quote>or the like, analogously to
+<!-- ^^ cei, 151, 154, 162; for broda-series pro-bridi assignment, 151 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cei</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ri goi ko'a</quote>in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section6-example7" />.</para>
<para>The remaining four cmavo of the go'i-series are provided for convenience or for achieving special effects. The cmavo
<quote>go'e</quote>means the same as
+<!-- ^^ go'e, 154 -->
+<indexterm><primary>go'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>go'ixire</quote>: it repeats the last bridi but one. This is useful in conversation:</para>
+<!-- ^^ go'ixire, 154 -->
+<indexterm><primary>go'ixire</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-9hf5">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e6d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section6-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>A: mi ba klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>B: mi nelci le si'o mi go'i</gloss>
<gloss>A: do go'e</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ go'e, 154 -->
+<indexterm><primary>go'e</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>A: I [future] go-to the store.</gloss>
<gloss>B: I like the concept-of I [repeat last bridi].</gloss>
<gloss>A: You [repeat last bridi but one].</gloss>
<gloss>A: I am going to the store.</gloss>
<gloss>B: I like the idea of my going.</gloss>
<en>A: You'll go, too.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here B's sentence repeats A's within an abstraction (explained in Chapter 11):
<quote>le si'o mi go'i</quote>means
@@ -884,84 +1028,108 @@
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
I like the idea of your going to the store.
</programlisting>
<para>The repetition signalled by
<quote>go'i</quote>is not literally of words, but of concepts. Finally, A repeats her own sentence, but with the x1 changed to
<quote>do</quote>, meaning B. Note that in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section6-example10" />, the tense
<quote>ba</quote>(future time) is carried along by both
<quote>go'i</quote>and
<quote>go'e</quote>.</para>
+<!-- ^^ go'e, 154 -->
+<indexterm><primary>go'e</primary></indexterm>
<para>Descriptions based on go'i-series cmavo can be very useful for repeating specific sumti of previous bridi:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-hwau">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e6d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section6-example12" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le xekri mlatu cu klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>.i le go'i cu cadzu le bisli</gloss>
<gloss>The black cat goes-to the store.</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ black cat: example, 155 -->
+<indexterm><primary>black cat</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>That-described-as-the-x1-place-of [repeat last bridi] walks-on the ice.</gloss>
<en>The black cat goes to the store. It walks on the ice.</en>
+<!-- ^^ black cat: example, 155 -->
+<indexterm><primary>black cat</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the
<quote>go'i</quote>repeats
<quote>le xekri mlatu cu klama le zarci</quote>, and since
<quote>le</quote>makes the x1 place into a description, and the x1 place of this bridi is
<quote>le xekri mlatu</quote>,
<quote>le go'i</quote>means
<quote>le xekri mlatu</quote>.</para>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>go'o</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ go'o, 155 -->
+<indexterm><primary>go'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>nei</quote>, and
+<!-- ^^ nei, 155 -->
+<indexterm><primary>nei</primary></indexterm>
<quote>no'a</quote>have been little used so far. They repeat respectively some future bridi, the current bridi, and the bridi that encloses the current bridi (
+<!-- ^^ no'a, 155; contrasted with other members of go'i-series in possible referents, 155 -->
+<indexterm><primary>no'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>no'a</quote>, unlike the other members of the go'i- series, can repeat non-sentence bridi). Here are a few examples:</para>
+<!-- ^^ no'a, 155; contrasted with other members of go'i-series in possible referents, 155 -->
+<indexterm><primary>no'a</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-EUmV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e6d13" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section6-example13" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nupre le nu mi go'o</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ go'o, 155 -->
+<indexterm><primary>go'o</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>.i ba dunda le djini le bersa</gloss>
<gloss>.i ba dunda le zdani le tixnu</gloss>
<gloss>I promise the event-of I [repeat future bridi]</gloss>
<gloss>[Future] give the money to-the son</gloss>
<gloss>[Future] give the house to-the daughter</gloss>
<gloss>I promise to do the following:</gloss>
<gloss>Give the money to my son.</gloss>
<en>Give the house to my daughter.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(Note: The Lojban does not contain an equivalent of the
<quote>my</quote>in the colloquial English; it leaves the fact that it is the speaker's son and daughter that are referred to implicit. To make the fact explicit, use
<quote>le bersa/tixnu be mi</quote>.)</para>
<para>For good examples of
<quote>nei</quote>and
+<!-- ^^ nei, 155 -->
+<indexterm><primary>nei</primary></indexterm>
<quote>no'a</quote>, we need nested bridi contexts:</para>
+<!-- ^^ no'a, 155; contrasted with other members of go'i-series in possible referents, 155 -->
+<indexterm><primary>no'a</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-SSVz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e6d14" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section6-example14" />
<anchor xml:id="c7e6d15" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section6-example15" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi se pluka le nu do pensi</jbo>
<gloss>le nu nei kei pu le nu do zukte</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ nei, 155 -->
+<indexterm><primary>nei</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I am-pleased-by the event-of (you think-about</gloss>
<gloss>(the event-of [main bridi]) before the-event of (your acting).</gloss>
<gloss>I am pleased that you thought about whether I</gloss>
<en>would be pleased (about ...) before you acted.</en>
<jbo>mi ba klama ca le nu do no'a</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ no'a, 155; contrasted with other members of go'i-series in possible referents, 155 -->
+<indexterm><primary>no'a</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I [future] go [present] the event-of you [repeats outer bridi]</gloss>
<en>I will go when you do.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Finally,
<quote>ra'o</quote>is a cmavo that can be appended to any go'i-series cmavo, or indeed any cmavo of selma'o GOhA, to signal that pro-sumti or pro-bridi cmavo in the antecedent are to be repeated literally and reinterpreted in their new context. Normally, any pro-sumti used within the antecedent of the pro-bridi keep their meanings intact. In the presence of
<quote>ra'o</quote>, however, their meanings must be reinterpreted with reference to the new environment. If someone says to you:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-9Uq6">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e6d16" />
@@ -984,90 +1152,146 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>or:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-qW1B">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e6d18" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section6-example18" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi go'i ra'o</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ go'i ra'o: contrasted with go'i, 156 -->
+<indexterm><primary>go'i ra'o</primary></indexterm>
<en>I will wash my car.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The
<quote>ra'o</quote>forces the second
<quote>mi</quote>from the original bridi to mean the new speaker rather than the former speaker. This means that
<quote>go'e ra'o</quote>would be an acceptable alternative to
+<!-- ^^ go'e, 154 -->
+<indexterm><primary>go'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>do go'e</quote>in B's statement in
+<!-- ^^ go'e, 154 -->
+<indexterm><primary>go'e</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section6-example10" />.</para>
<para>The anaphoric pro-sumti of this section can be used in quotations, but never refer to any of the supporting text outside the quotation, since speakers presumably do not know that they may be quoted by someone else.</para>
+<!-- ^^ anaphoric pro-sumti: stability of, 162 -->
+<indexterm><primary>anaphoric pro-sumti</primary></indexterm>
<para>However, a
<quote>ri</quote>-series or
<quote>go'a</quote>-series reference within a quotation can refer to something mentioned in an earlier quotation if the two quotations are closely related in time and context. This allows a quotation to be broken up by narrative material without interfering with the pro-sumti within it. Here's an example:</para>
+<!-- ^^ go'a, 154 -->
+<indexterm><primary>go'a</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-LWyE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e6d19" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section6-example19" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. cusku lu mi klama le zarci li'u</jbo>
<gloss>.i la .alis. cusku lu mi go'i li'u</gloss>
<gloss>John says [quote] I go-to the store [unquote].</gloss>
<gloss>Alice says [quote] I [repeat] [unquote].</gloss>
<gloss>John says,
<quote>I am going to the store.</quote></gloss>
<en>Alice says,
<quote>Me too.</quote></en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Of course, there is no problem with narrative material referring to something within a quotation: people who quote, unlike people who are quoted, are aware of what they are doing.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter7-section7">
<title>7. Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series</title>
+<!-- ^^ zo'e-series: compared with do'i as indefinite pro-sumti, 158 -->
+<indexterm><primary>zo'e-series</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ co'e, 158, 164; as selbri place-holder, 158; rationale for word form, 158 -->
+<indexterm><primary>co'e</primary></indexterm>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
zo'e KOhA zo'e-series the obvious value
+<!-- ^^ zo'e-series: compared with do'i as indefinite pro-sumti, 158 -->
+<indexterm><primary>zo'e-series</primary></indexterm>
zu'i KOhA zo'e-series the typical value
+<!-- ^^ zu'i, 157 -->
+<indexterm><primary>zu'i</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ zo'e-series: compared with do'i as indefinite pro-sumti, 158 -->
+<indexterm><primary>zo'e-series</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ typical value: contrasted with elliptical value for sumti, 157; contrasted with mathematical average, 441 -->
+<indexterm><primary>typical value</primary></indexterm>
zi'o KOhA zo'e-series the nonexistent value
+<!-- ^^ zo'e-series: compared with do'i as indefinite pro-sumti, 158 -->
+<indexterm><primary>zo'e-series</primary></indexterm>
co'e GOhA co'e-series has the obvious relationship
+<!-- ^^ co'e, 158, 164; as selbri place-holder, 158; rationale for word form, 158 -->
+<indexterm><primary>co'e</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>The cmavo of the zo'e-series represent indefinite, unspecified sumti. The cmavo
+<!-- ^^ zo'e-series: compared with do'i as indefinite pro-sumti, 158 -->
+<indexterm><primary>zo'e-series</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ unspecified sumti: non-trailing, 189; using zo'e as place-holder for, 189 -->
+<indexterm><primary>unspecified sumti</primary></indexterm>
<quote>zo'e</quote>represents an elliptical value for this sumti place; it is the optional spoken place holder when a sumti is skipped without being specified. Note that the elliptical value is not always the typical value. The properties of ellipsis lead to an elliptical sumti being defined as
+<!-- ^^ typical value: contrasted with elliptical value for sumti, 157; contrasted with mathematical average, 441 -->
+<indexterm><primary>typical value</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ elliptical value: contrasted with typical value for sumti, 157 -->
+<!-- ^^ typical value: contrasted with elliptical value for sumti, 157; contrasted with mathematical average, 441 -->
+<indexterm><primary>typical value</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>elliptical value</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ elliptical sumti, 157 -->
+<indexterm><primary>elliptical sumti</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ ellipsis: quick-tour version, 14 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ellipsis</primary></indexterm>
<quote>whatever I want it to mean but haven't bothered to figure out, or figure out how to express</quote>.</para>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>zu'i</quote>, on the other hand, represents the typical value for this place of this bridi:</para>
+<!-- ^^ zu'i, 157 -->
+<indexterm><primary>zu'i</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ typical value: contrasted with elliptical value for sumti, 157; contrasted with mathematical average, 441 -->
+<indexterm><primary>typical value</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-VScg">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e7d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section7-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le bartu be le zdani le nenri be le zdani</jbo>
<gloss>zu'i zu'i</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ zu'i, 157 -->
+<indexterm><primary>zu'i</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I go to-the outside of the house from-the inside of the house</gloss>
<en>[by-typical-route] [by-typical-means]</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section7-example1" />, the first
<quote>zu'i</quote>probably means something like
+<!-- ^^ zu'i, 157 -->
+<indexterm><primary>zu'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>by the door</quote>, and the second
<quote>zu'i</quote>probably means something like
+<!-- ^^ zu'i, 157 -->
+<indexterm><primary>zu'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>on foot</quote>, those being the typical route and means for leaving a house. On the other hand, if you are at the top of a high rise during a fire, neither
<quote>zu'i</quote>is appropriate. It's also common to use
+<!-- ^^ zu'i, 157 -->
+<indexterm><primary>zu'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>zu'i</quote>in
+<!-- ^^ zu'i, 157 -->
+<indexterm><primary>zu'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>by standard</quote>places.</para>
<para>Finally, the cmavo
<quote>zi'o</quote>represents a value which does not even exist. When a bridi fills one of its places with
<quote>zi'o</quote>, what is really meant is that the selbri has a place which is irrelevant to the true relationship the speaker wishes to express. For example, the place structure of
+<!-- ^^ irrelevant: specifying of sumti place, 157 -->
+<indexterm><primary>irrelevant</primary></indexterm>
<quote>zbasu</quote>is</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
zbasu: actor x1 makes x2 from materials x3
</programlisting>
<para>Consider the sentence</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
Living things are made from cells.
</programlisting>
<para>This cannot be correctly expressed as:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ipCV">
@@ -1078,20 +1302,22 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>loi jmive cu se zbasu [zo'e] fi loi selci</jbo>
<en>The-mass-of living-things is-made [by-something] from the-mass-of cells</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>because the
<quote>zo'e</quote>, expressed or understood, in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section7-example2" />indicates that there is still a
<quote>maker</quote>in this relationship. We do not generally suppose, however, that someone
<quote>makes</quote>living things from cells. The best answer is probably to find a different selbri, one which does not imply a
+<!-- ^^ living things: example, 157 -->
+<indexterm><primary>living things</primary></indexterm>
<quote>maker</quote>: however, an alternative strategy is to use
<quote>zi'o</quote>to eliminate the maker place:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-xxm1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e7d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section7-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>loi jmive cu se zbasu zi'o loi selci</jbo>
<en>The-mass-of living-things is-made [without-maker] from the-mass-of cells.</en>
@@ -1126,104 +1352,140 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>If
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section7-example4" />is true, then
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section7-example5" />through
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section7-example7" />must be true also. However,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section7-example3" />does not correspond to any sentence with three regular (non-
<quote>zi'o</quote>) sumti.</para>
<para>The pro-bridi
<quote>co'e</quote>(which by itself constitutes the co'e-series of selma'o GOhA) represents the elliptical selbri. Lojban grammar does not allow the speaker to merely omit a selbri from a bridi, although any or all sumti may be freely omitted. Being vague about a relationship requires the use of
+<!-- ^^ co'e, 158, 164; as selbri place-holder, 158; rationale for word form, 158 -->
+<indexterm><primary>co'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>co'e</quote>as a selbri place-holder:</para>
+<!-- ^^ co'e, 158, 164; as selbri place-holder, 158; rationale for word form, 158 -->
+<indexterm><primary>co'e</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-uy9R">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e7d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section7-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi troci le nu mi co'e le vorme</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ co'e, 158, 164; as selbri place-holder, 158; rationale for word form, 158 -->
+<indexterm><primary>co'e</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I try the event-of my [doing-the-obvious-action] to-the door.</gloss>
<en>I try the door.</en>
+<!-- ^^ try the door: example, 266 -->
+<indexterm><primary>try the door</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The English version means, and the Lojban version probably means, that I try to open the door, but the relationship of opening is not actually specified; the Lojbanic listener must guess it from context. Lojban, unlike English, makes it clear that there is an implicit action that is not being expressed.</para>
<para>The form of
<quote>co'e</quote>was chosen to resemble
+<!-- ^^ co'e, 158, 164; as selbri place-holder, 158; rationale for word form, 158 -->
+<indexterm><primary>co'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>zo'e</quote>; the cmavo
<quote>do'e</quote>of selma'o BAI (see
+<!-- ^^ do'e, 197; compared with English of, 197 -->
+<indexterm><primary>do'e</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9" />) also belongs to the same group of cmavo.</para>
<para>Note that
<quote>do'i</quote>, of the di'u-series, is also a kind of indefinite pro-sumti: it is indefinite in referent, but is restricted to referring only to an utterance.</para>
+<!-- ^^ indefinite pro-sumti, 140, 157; implicit quantifier for, 140; stability of, 162 -->
+<indexterm><primary>indefinite pro-sumti</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter7-section8">
<title>8. Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series</title>
+<!-- ^^ reciprocal pro-sumti, 158 -->
+<indexterm><primary>reciprocal pro-sumti</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ reciprocal: expression of mathematical, 433 -->
+<indexterm><primary>reciprocal</primary></indexterm>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
vo'a KOhA vo'a-series x1 of this bridi
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
vo'e KOhA vo'a-series x2 of this bridi
vo'i KOhA vo'a-series x3 of this bridi
vo'o KOhA vo'a-series x4 of this bridi
vo'u KOhA vo'a-series x5 of this bridi
soi SOI reciprocity
+<!-- ^^ reciprocity: expressing with soi, 159; expressing with vo'a-series pro-sumti and soi, 159; marking, 504 -->
+<!-- ^^ vo'a-series pro-sumti: use in expressing reciprocity with soi, 159 -->
+<indexterm><primary>vo'a-series pro-sumti</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>reciprocity</primary></indexterm>
se'u SEhU soi terminator
</programlisting>
<para>The cmavo of the vo'a-series are pro-sumti anaphora, like those of the ri-series, but have a specific function. These cmavo refer to the other places of the same bridi; the five of them represent up to five places. The same vo'a-series cmavo mean different things in different bridi. Some examples:</para>
+<!-- ^^ anaphora: definition, 152; pro-bridi go'i-series as, 152; pro-sumti ri-series as, 152; pro-sumti vo'a-series as, 158 -->
+<indexterm><primary>anaphora</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-0hwM">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e8d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section8-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c7e8d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section8-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi lumci vo'a</jbo>
<en>I wash myself</en>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci vo'e</jbo>
<en>I go to the store from itself [by some route unspecified].</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>To refer to places of neighboring bridi, constructions like
<quote>le se go'i ku</quote>do the job: this refers to the 2nd place of the previous main bridi, as explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section6" />.</para>
<para>The cmavo of the vo'a-series are also used with
<quote>soi</quote>(of selma'o SOI) to precisely express reciprocity, which in English is imprecisely expressed with a discursive phrase like
+<!-- ^^ reciprocity: expressing with soi, 159; expressing with vo'a-series pro-sumti and soi, 159; marking, 504 -->
+<!-- ^^ vo'a-series pro-sumti: use in expressing reciprocity with soi, 159 -->
+<indexterm><primary>vo'a-series pro-sumti</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>reciprocity</primary></indexterm>
<quote>vice versa</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-vpb3">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e8d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section8-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi prami do soi vo'a vo'e</jbo>
<gloss>I love you [reciprocity] [x1 of this bridi] [x2 of this bridi].</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ reciprocity: expressing with soi, 159; expressing with vo'a-series pro-sumti and soi, 159; marking, 504 -->
+<!-- ^^ vo'a-series pro-sumti: use in expressing reciprocity with soi, 159 -->
+<indexterm><primary>vo'a-series pro-sumti</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>reciprocity</primary></indexterm>
<en>I love you and vice versa (swapping
<quote>I</quote>and
<quote>you</quote>).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The significance of
<quote>soi vo'a vo'e</quote>is that the bridi is still true even if the x1 (specified by
<quote>vo'a</quote>) and the x2 (specified by
<quote>vo'e</quote>) places are interchanged. If only a single sumti follows
<quote>soi</quote>, then the sumti immediately preceding
<quote>soi</quote>is understood to be one of those involved:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-CMQ1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e8d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section8-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi prami do soi vo'a</jbo>
<en>I love you [reciprocity] [x1 of this bridi].</en>
+<!-- ^^ reciprocity: expressing with soi, 159; expressing with vo'a-series pro-sumti and soi, 159; marking, 504 -->
+<!-- ^^ vo'a-series pro-sumti: use in expressing reciprocity with soi, 159 -->
+<indexterm><primary>vo'a-series pro-sumti</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>reciprocity</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>again involves the x1 and x2 places.</para>
<para>Of course, other places can be involved, and other sumti may be used in place of vo'a-series cmavo, provided those other sumti can be reasonably understood as referring to the same things mentioned in the bridi proper. Here are several examples that mean the same thing:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-rqNJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e8d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section8-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1232,35 +1494,43 @@
<gloss>soi vo'e vo'i mi bajykla ti ta</gloss>
<en>I runningly-go to this from that and vice versa (to that from this).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The elidable terminator for
<quote>soi</quote>is
<quote>se'u</quote>(selma'o SEhU), which is normally needed only if there is just one sumti after the
<quote>soi</quote>, and the
<quote>soi</quote>construction is not at the end of the bridi. Constructions using
<quote>soi</quote>are free modifiers, and as such can go almost anywhere. Here is an example where
+<!-- ^^ free modifiers: effects on elidability of terminators, 450 -->
+<indexterm><primary>free modifiers</primary></indexterm>
<quote>se'u</quote>is required:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-RFBV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e8d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section8-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi bajykla ti soi vo'i se'u ta</jbo>
<gloss>I runningly-go to-this [reciprocity] [x3 of this bridi] from-that</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ reciprocity: expressing with soi, 159; expressing with vo'a-series pro-sumti and soi, 159; marking, 504 -->
+<!-- ^^ vo'a-series pro-sumti: use in expressing reciprocity with soi, 159 -->
+<indexterm><primary>vo'a-series pro-sumti</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>reciprocity</primary></indexterm>
<en>I runningly-go to this from that and vice versa.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter7-section9">
<title>9. sumti and bridi questions:
+<!-- ^^ bridi questions: quick-tour version, 23 -->
+<indexterm><primary>bridi questions</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ma</quote>and
<quote>mo</quote></title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ma</cmavo>
<selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
<description>sumti question</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
@@ -1322,20 +1592,22 @@
<anchor xml:id="c7e9d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section9-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>doi ma</jbo>
<en>O [what sumti?]</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which uses the vocative
<quote>doi</quote>to address someone, and simultaneously asks who the someone is.)</para>
+<!-- ^^ and simultaneously: example, 364 -->
+<indexterm><primary>and simultaneously</primary></indexterm>
<para>A further example of
<quote>mo</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-PP7r">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e9d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section9-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo mo prenu cu darxi do .i barda</jbo>
<gloss>A [what selbri?] type-of person hit you? (Observative:) A big thing.</gloss>
@@ -1359,20 +1631,22 @@
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter7-section10">
<title>10. Relativized pro-sumti:
<quote>ke'a</quote></title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ke'a</cmavo>
<selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
<description>relativized sumti</description>
+<!-- ^^ relativized sumti: definition, 169; in relative clauses within relative clauses, 184 -->
+<indexterm><primary>relativized sumti</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>This pro-sumti is used in relative clauses (explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8" />) to indicate how the sumti being relativized fits within the clause. For example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-UNBb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e10d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section10-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1393,58 +1667,70 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi catlu lo mlatu poi [ke'a]</jbo>
<gloss>zbasu lei slasi</gloss>
<gloss>I see a cat such-that the-thing-being-relativized</gloss>
<gloss>[the cat] makes a-mass-of plastic</gloss>
<en>I see a cat that makes plastic.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The anaphora cmavo
+<!-- ^^ anaphora: definition, 152; pro-bridi go'i-series as, 152; pro-sumti ri-series as, 152; pro-sumti vo'a-series as, 158 -->
+<indexterm><primary>anaphora</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ri</quote>cannot be used in place of
<quote>ke'a</quote>in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section10-example1" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section10-example2" />, because the relativized sumti is not yet complete when the
+<!-- ^^ relativized sumti: definition, 169; in relative clauses within relative clauses, 184 -->
+<indexterm><primary>relativized sumti</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ke'a</quote>appears.</para>
<para>Note that
<quote>ke'a</quote>is used only with relative clauses, and not with other embedded bridi such as abstract descriptions. In the case of relative clauses within relative clauses,
<quote>ke'a</quote>may be subscripted to make the difference clear (see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8" />).</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter7-section11">
<title>11. Abstraction focus pro-sumti:
<quote>ce'u</quote></title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ce'u</cmavo>
<selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
<description>abstraction focus</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>ce'u</quote>is used within abstraction bridi, particularly property abstractions introduced by the cmavo
+<!-- ^^ abstraction bridi: contrasted with component non-abstraction bridi in meaning, 98; effect on claim of bridi, 198 -->
+<indexterm><primary>abstraction bridi</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ka</quote>. Abstractions, including the uses of
<quote>ce'u</quote>, are discussed in full in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11" />.</para>
<para>In brief: Every property abstraction specifies a property of one of the sumti in it; that sumti place is filled by using
+<!-- ^^ property abstraction, 259; use of multiple ce'u for relationship abstraction, 260 -->
+<!-- ^^ relationship abstraction, 260 -->
+<indexterm><primary>relationship abstraction</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>property abstraction</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ce'u</quote>. This convention enables us to distinguish clearly between:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ELxF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e11d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section11-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ka ce'u gleki</jbo>
<gloss>the property-of (X being-happy)</gloss>
<gloss>the property of being happy</gloss>
<en>happiness</en>
+<!-- ^^ happiness: example, 161 -->
+<indexterm><primary>happiness</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-VSw3">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e11d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section11-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ka gleki ce'u</jbo>
@@ -1457,21 +1743,25 @@
<title>12. Bound variable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the da-series and the bu'a-series</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
da KOhA da-series something-1
<!-- skip cmavo list automation -->
de KOhA da-series something-2
di KOhA da-series something-3
bu'a GOhA bu'a-series some-predicate-1
bu'e GOhA bu'a-series some-predicate-2
+<!-- ^^ bu'e, 409 -->
+<indexterm><primary>bu'e</primary></indexterm>
bu'i GOhA bu'a-series some-predicate-3
+<!-- ^^ bu'i, 409 -->
+<indexterm><primary>bu'i</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>Bound variables belong to the predicate-logic part of Lojban, and are listed here for completeness only. Their semantics is explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16" />. It is worth mentioning that the Lojban translation of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section1-example2" />is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-6vxz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e12d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section12-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1480,43 +1770,59 @@
<en>John picked up a stick and shook it.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter7-section13">
<title>13. Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>da'o</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ da'o, 162, 466; for cancellation of pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignment, 162; syntax of, 162 -->
+<indexterm><primary>da'o</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>DAhO</selmaho>
<description>cancel all pro-sumti/pro-bridi</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>How long does a pro-sumti or pro-bridi remain stable? In other words, once we know the referent of a pro-sumti or pro-bridi, how long can we be sure that future uses of the same cmavo have the same referent? The answer to this question depends on which series the cmavo belongs to.</para>
<para>Personal pro-sumti are stable until there is a change of speaker or listener, possibly signaled by a vocative. Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi last indefinitely or until rebound with
<quote>goi</quote>or
<quote>cei</quote>. Bound variable pro-sumti and pro-bridi also generally last until re-bound; details are available in
+<!-- ^^ cei, 151, 154, 162; for broda-series pro-bridi assignment, 151 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cei</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16" />.</para>
<para>Utterance pro-sumti are stable only within the utterance in which they appear; similarly, reflexive pro-sumti are stable only within the bridi in which they appear; and
+<!-- ^^ reflexive pro-sumti, 139, 158; stability of, 162 -->
+<indexterm><primary>reflexive pro-sumti</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ke'a</quote>is stable only within its relative clause. Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi are stable only within narrow limits depending on the rules for the particular cmavo.</para>
<para>Demonstrative pro-sumti, indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi, and sumti and bridi questions potentially change referents every time they are used.</para>
+<!-- ^^ indefinite pro-sumti, 140, 157; implicit quantifier for, 140; stability of, 162 -->
+<indexterm><primary>indefinite pro-sumti</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ bridi questions: quick-tour version, 23 -->
+<indexterm><primary>bridi questions</primary></indexterm>
<para>However, there are ways to cancel all pro-sumti and pro-bridi, so that none of them have known referents. (Some, such as
<quote>mi</quote>, will acquire the same referent as soon as they are used again after the cancellation.) The simplest way to cancel everything is with the cmavo
<quote>da'o</quote>of selma'o DAhO, which is used solely for this purpose; it may appear anywhere, and has no effect on the grammar of texts containing it. One use of
+<!-- ^^ da'o, 162, 466; for cancellation of pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignment, 162; syntax of, 162 -->
+<indexterm><primary>da'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>da'o</quote>is when entering a conversation, to indicate that one's pro-sumti assignments have nothing to do with any assignments already made by other participants in the conversation.</para>
+<!-- ^^ da'o, 162, 466; for cancellation of pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignment, 162; syntax of, 162 -->
+<indexterm><primary>da'o</primary></indexterm>
<para>In addition, the cmavo
<quote>ni'o</quote>and
<quote>no'i</quote>of selma'o NIhO, which are used primarily to indicate shifts in topic, may also have the effect of canceling pro-sumti and pro-bridi assignments, or of reinstating ones formerly in effect. More explanations of NIhO can be found in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter19" />.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter7-section14">
<title>14. The identity predicate: du</title>
+<!-- ^^ identity predicate, 162 -->
+<indexterm><primary>identity predicate</primary></indexterm>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>du</cmavo>
<selmaho>GOhA</selmaho>
<description>identity</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>du</quote>has the place structure:</para>
@@ -1539,243 +1845,331 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-prfu">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e14d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section14-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ko'a mintu le nanmu</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ mintu: contrasted with du, 163 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mintu</primary></indexterm>
<en>It-1 is-the-same-as the man</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is this defining nature.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section14-example1" />presumes that the speaker is responding to a request for information about what
<quote>ko'a</quote>refers to, or that the speaker in some way feels the need to define
<quote>ko'a</quote>for later reference. A bridi with
<quote>du</quote>is an identity sentence, somewhat metalinguistically saying that all attached sumti are representations for the same referent. There may be any number of sumti associated with
<quote>du</quote>, and all are said to be identical.</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section14-example2" />, however, predicates; it is used to make a claim about the identity of
<quote>ko'a</quote>, which presumably has been defined previously.</para>
<para>Note:
<quote>du</quote>historically is derived from
<quote>dunli</quote>, but
+<!-- ^^ dunli: contrasted with du, 163, 439 -->
+<indexterm><primary>dunli</primary></indexterm>
<quote>dunli</quote>has a third place which
+<!-- ^^ dunli: contrasted with du, 163, 439 -->
+<indexterm><primary>dunli</primary></indexterm>
<quote>du</quote>lacks: the standard of equality.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter7-section15">
<title>15. lujvo based on pro-sumti</title>
<para>There exist rafsi allocated to a few cmavo of selma'o KOhA, but they are rarely used. (See
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7-section16" />for a complete list.) The obvious way to use them is as internal sumti, filling in an appropriate place of the gismu or lujvo to which they are attached; as such, they usually stand as the first rafsi in their lujvo.</para>
<para>Thus
<quote>donta'a</quote>, meaning
<quote>you-talk</quote>, would be interpreted as
+<!-- ^^ you-talk: example, 163 -->
+<indexterm><primary>you-talk</primary></indexterm>
<quote>tavla be do</quote>, and would have the place structure</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-unmV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e15d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section15-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>t1 talks to you about subject t3 in language t4</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>since t2 (the addressee) is already known to be
<quote>do</quote>.</para>
<para>On the other hand, the lujvo
<quote>donma'o</quote>, literally
<quote>you-cmavo</quote>, which means
+<!-- ^^ you-cmavo: example, 163 -->
+<indexterm><primary>you-cmavo</primary></indexterm>
<quote>a second person personal pronoun</quote>, would be interpreted as
<quote>cmavo be zo do</quote>, and have the place structure:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-H5NB">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e15d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section15-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>c1 is a second person pronoun in language c4</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>since both the c2 place (the grammatical class) and the c3 place (the meaning) are obvious from the context
<quote>do</quote>.</para>
<para>An anticipated use of rafsi for cmavo in the
+<!-- ^^ anticipated: example, 316 -->
+<indexterm><primary>anticipated</primary></indexterm>
<quote>fo'a</quote>series is to express lujvo which can't be expressed in a convenient rafsi form, because they are too long to express, or are formally inconvenient (fu'ivla, cmene, and so forth.) An example would be:</para>
+<!-- ^^ too long: example, 233; Example, 230 -->
+<indexterm><primary>too long</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ rafsi form: effect of choice on meaning of lujvo, 56 -->
+<indexterm><primary>rafsi form</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ fo'a, 163 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fo'a</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-tH6w">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e15d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter7-section15-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>fo'a goi le kulnrsu,omi .i lo fo'arselsanga</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ fo'a, 163 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fo'a</primary></indexterm>
<en>x6 stands for Finnish-culture. An x6-song.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Finally, lujvo involving
<quote>zi'o</quote>are also possible, and are fully discussed in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter12" />. In brief, the convention is to use the rafsi for
<quote>zi'o</quote>as a prefix immediately followed by the rafsi for the number of the place to be deleted. Thus, if we consider a beverage (something drunk without considering who, if anyone, drinks it) as a
+<!-- ^^ beverage: example, 163 -->
+<indexterm><primary>beverage</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ anyone: contrasted with everyone in assumption of existence, 399 -->
+<indexterm><primary>anyone</primary></indexterm>
<quote>se pinxe be zi'o</quote>, the lujvo corresponding to this is
<quote>zilrelselpinxe</quote>(deleting the second place of
<quote>se pinxe</quote>). Deleting the x1 place in this fashion would move all remaining places up by one. This would mean that
<quote>zilpavypinxe</quote>has the same place structure as
<quote>zilrelselpinxe</quote>, and
<quote>lo zilpavypinxe</quote>, like
<quote>lo zilrelselpinxe</quote>, refers to a beverage, and not to a non-existent drinker.</para>
+<!-- ^^ beverage: example, 163 -->
+<indexterm><primary>beverage</primary></indexterm>
<para>The pro-bridi
<quote>co'e</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ co'e, 158, 164; as selbri place-holder, 158; rationale for word form, 158 -->
+<indexterm><primary>co'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>du</quote>, and
<quote>bu'a</quote>also have rafsi, which can be used just as if they were gismu. The resulting lujvo have (except for
<quote>du</quote>-based lujvo) highly context-dependent meanings.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter7-section16">
<title>16. KOhA cmavo by series</title>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
mi-series:
mi I (rafsi:
<quote>mib</quote>)
do you (rafsi:
<quote>don</quote> and
<quote>doi</quote>)
mi'o you and I
mi'a I and others, we but not you
+<!-- ^^ mi'a, 146 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mi'a</primary></indexterm>
ma'a you and I and others
+<!-- ^^ ma'a, 146 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ma'a</primary></indexterm>
do'o you and others
+<!-- ^^ do'o, 146 -->
+<indexterm><primary>do'o</primary></indexterm>
ko you-imperative
ti-series:
ti this here; something nearby (rafsi:
<quote>tif</quote>)
ta that there; something distant (rafsi:
<quote>taz</quote>)
tu that yonder; something far distant (rafsi:
<quote>tuf</quote>)
di'u-series:
di'u the previous utterance
de'u an earlier utterance
+<!-- ^^ de'u, 148 -->
+<indexterm><primary>de'u</primary></indexterm>
da'u a much earlier utterance
+<!-- ^^ da'u, 148 -->
+<indexterm><primary>da'u</primary></indexterm>
di'e the next utterance
+<!-- ^^ di'e, 149, 358; effect of tu'e/tu'u on, 358 -->
+<indexterm><primary>di'e</primary></indexterm>
de'e a later utterance
+<!-- ^^ de'e, 149 -->
+<indexterm><primary>de'e</primary></indexterm>
da'e a much later utterance
+<!-- ^^ da'e, 149 -->
+<indexterm><primary>da'e</primary></indexterm>
dei this very utterance
do'i some utterance
ko'a-series:
ko'a it-1; 1st assignable pro-sumti
ko'e it-2; 2nd assignable pro-sumti
ko'i it-3; 3rd assignable pro-sumti
ko'o it-4; 4th assignable pro-sumti
ko'u it-5; 5th assignable pro-sumti
fo'a it-6; 6th assignable pro-sumti (rafsi:
+<!-- ^^ fo'a, 163 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fo'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>fo'a</quote>)
+<!-- ^^ fo'a, 163 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fo'a</primary></indexterm>
fo'e it-7; 7th assignable pro-sumti (rafsi:
<quote>fo'e</quote>)
fo'i it-8; 8th assignable pro-sumti (rafsi:
<quote>fo'i</quote>)
fo'o it-9; 9th assignable pro-sumti
fo'u it-10; 10th assignable pro-sumti
ri-series:
ri (repeats the last sumti)
ra (repeats a previous sumti)
ru (repeats a long-ago sumti)
zo'e-series:
+<!-- ^^ zo'e-series: compared with do'i as indefinite pro-sumti, 158 -->
+<indexterm><primary>zo'e-series</primary></indexterm>
zo'e the obvious value
zu'i the typical value
+<!-- ^^ zu'i, 157 -->
+<indexterm><primary>zu'i</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ typical value: contrasted with elliptical value for sumti, 157; contrasted with mathematical average, 441 -->
+<indexterm><primary>typical value</primary></indexterm>
zi'o the nonexistent value (rafsi:
<quote>zil</quote>)
vo'a-series:
vo'a x1 of this bridi
vo'e x2 of this bridi
vo'i x3 of this bridi
vo'o x4 of this bridi
vo'u x5 of this bridi
da-series:
da something-1 (rafsi:
<quote>dav</quote>/
<quote>dza</quote>)
de something-2
di something-3
others:
ke'a relativized sumti
+<!-- ^^ relativized sumti: definition, 169; in relative clauses within relative clauses, 184 -->
+<indexterm><primary>relativized sumti</primary></indexterm>
ma sumti question
ce'u abstraction focus
</programlisting>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter7-section17">
<title>17. GOhA and other pro-bridi by series</title>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
broda-series (not GOhA):
broda is-1; 1st assignable pro-bridi
brode is-2; 2nd assignable pro-bridi
brodi is-3; 3rd assignable pro-bridi
brodo is-4; 4th assignable pro-bridi
brodu is-5; 5th assignable pro-bridi
go'i-series:
go'i (repeats the last bridi)
go'a (repeats a previous bridi)
+<!-- ^^ go'a, 154 -->
+<indexterm><primary>go'a</primary></indexterm>
go'u (repeats a long-ago bridi)
+<!-- ^^ go'u, 154 -->
+<indexterm><primary>go'u</primary></indexterm>
go'e (repeats the last-but-one bridi)
+<!-- ^^ go'e, 154 -->
+<indexterm><primary>go'e</primary></indexterm>
go'o (repeats a future bridi)
+<!-- ^^ go'o, 155 -->
+<indexterm><primary>go'o</primary></indexterm>
nei (repeats the current bridi)
+<!-- ^^ nei, 155 -->
+<indexterm><primary>nei</primary></indexterm>
no'a (repeats the next outer bridi)
+<!-- ^^ no'a, 155; contrasted with other members of go'i-series in possible referents, 155 -->
+<indexterm><primary>no'a</primary></indexterm>
bu'a-series:
bu'a some-predicate-1 (rafsi:
<quote>bul</quote>)
bu'e some-predicate-2
+<!-- ^^ bu'e, 409 -->
+<indexterm><primary>bu'e</primary></indexterm>
bu'i some-predicate-3
+<!-- ^^ bu'i, 409 -->
+<indexterm><primary>bu'i</primary></indexterm>
others:
co'e has the obvious relationship (rafsi:
+<!-- ^^ co'e, 158, 164; as selbri place-holder, 158; rationale for word form, 158 -->
+<indexterm><primary>co'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>com</quote>/
<quote>co'e</quote>)
+<!-- ^^ co'e, 158, 164; as selbri place-holder, 158; rationale for word form, 158 -->
+<indexterm><primary>co'e</primary></indexterm>
mo bridi question
du identity: x1 is identical to x2, x3 ... (rafsi:
<quote>dub</quote>/
<quote>du'o</quote>)
</programlisting>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter7-section18">
<title>18. Other cmavo discussed in this chapter</title>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>goi</cmavo>
<selmaho>GOI</selmaho>
<description>pro-sumti assignment (ko'a-series)</description>
+<!-- ^^ pro-sumti assignment: explicit cancellation of with da'o, 162; no'i effect on, 162; stability of, 162 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pro-sumti assignment</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>cei</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ cei, 151, 154, 162; for broda-series pro-bridi assignment, 151 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cei</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>CEI</selmaho>
<description>pro-bridi assignment (broda-series)</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ra'o</cmavo>
<selmaho>RAhO</selmaho>
<description>pro-sumti/pro-bridi update</description>
+<!-- ^^ pro-bridi update: flag for, 503 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pro-bridi update</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>soi</cmavo>
<selmaho>SOI</selmaho>
<description>reciprocity</description>
+<!-- ^^ reciprocity: expressing with soi, 159; expressing with vo'a-series pro-sumti and soi, 159; marking, 504 -->
+<!-- ^^ vo'a-series pro-sumti: use in expressing reciprocity with soi, 159 -->
+<indexterm><primary>vo'a-series pro-sumti</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>reciprocity</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>se'u</cmavo>
<selmaho>SEhU</selmaho>
<description>soi terminator</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>da'o</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ da'o, 162, 466; for cancellation of pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignment, 162; syntax of, 162 -->
+<indexterm><primary>da'o</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>DAhO</selmaho>
<description>cancel all pro-sumti/pro-bridi</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
</section>
</chapter>
diff --git a/todocbook/8.xml b/todocbook/8.xml
index 8617a9e..830d902 100644
--- a/todocbook/8.xml
+++ b/todocbook/8.xml
@@ -1,25 +1,29 @@
<chapter xml:id="cll_chapter8">
<title>Chapter 8 Relative Clauses, Which Make sumti Even More Complicated</title>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter8-section1">
<title>1. What are you pointing at?</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>poi</cmavo>
<selmaho>NOI</selmaho>
<description>restrictive relative clause introducer</description>
+<!-- ^^ restrictive relative clause: definition, 171 -->
+<indexterm><primary>restrictive relative clause</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ke'a</cmavo>
<selmaho>GOhA</selmaho>
<description>relative pro-sumti</description>
+<!-- ^^ relative pro-sumti, 140 -->
+<indexterm><primary>relative pro-sumti</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ku'o</cmavo>
<selmaho>KUhO</selmaho>
<description>relative clause terminator</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>Let us think about the problem of communicating what it is that we are pointing at when we are pointing at something. In Lojban, we can refer to what we are pointing at by using the pro-sumti
<quote>ti</quote>if it is nearby, or
<quote>ta</quote>if it is somewhat further away, or
@@ -32,32 +36,36 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section1-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti cu barda</jbo>
<en>This-one is-big.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>What is the referent of
<quote>ti</quote>? Is it the person? Or perhaps it is the person's nose? Or even (for
<quote>ti</quote>can be plural as well as singular, and mean
+<!-- ^^ plural: Lojban contrasted with English in necessity of marking, 120; Lojban equivalent of, 443; meaning of le with, 123 -->
+<indexterm><primary>plural</primary></indexterm>
<quote>these ones</quote>as well as
<quote>this one</quote>) the pores on the person's nose?</para>
<para>To help solve this problem, Lojban uses a construction called a
<quote>relative clause</quote>. Relative clauses are usually attached to the end of sumti, but there are other places where they can go as well, as explained later in this chapter. A relative clause begins with a word of selma'o NOI, and ends with the elidable terminator
<quote>ku'o</quote>(of selma'o KUhO). As you might suppose,
<quote>noi</quote>is a cmavo of selma'o NOI; however, first we will discuss the cmavo
<quote>poi</quote>, which also belongs to selma'o NOI.</para>
<para>In between the
<quote>poi</quote>and the
<quote>ku'o</quote>appears a full bridi, with the same syntax as any other bridi. Anywhere within the bridi of a relative clause, the pro-sumti
<quote>ke'a</quote>(of selma'o KOhA) may be used, and it stands for the sumti to which the relative clause is attached (called the
<quote>relativized sumti</quote>). Here are some examples before we go any further:</para>
+<!-- ^^ relativized sumti: definition, 169; in relative clauses within relative clauses, 184 -->
+<indexterm><primary>relativized sumti</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-K7cm">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e1d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section1-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c8e1d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section1-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c8e1d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section1-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -183,27 +191,35 @@
<quote>that</quote>are used in literal translations in this chapter in order to make them read more smoothly.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter8-section2">
<title>2. Incidental relative clauses</title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>noi</cmavo>
<selmaho>NOI</selmaho>
<description>incidental relative clause introducer</description>
+<!-- ^^ incidental relative clause: as a parenthetical device, 171; definition, 171 -->
+<indexterm><primary>incidental relative clause</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>There are two basic kinds of relative clauses: restrictive relative clauses introduced by
+<!-- ^^ restrictive relative clauses: non-veridical using voi, 177; veridical using poi, 177 -->
+<indexterm><primary>restrictive relative clauses</primary></indexterm>
<quote>poi</quote>, and incidental (sometimes called simply
<quote>non-restrictive</quote>) relative clauses introduced by
<quote>noi</quote>. The difference between restrictive and incidental relative clauses is that restrictive clauses provide information that is essential to identifying the referent of the sumti to which they are attached, whereas incidental relative clauses provide additional information which is helpful to the listener but is not essential for identifying the referent of the sumti. All of the examples in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section1" />are restrictive relative clauses: the information in the relative clause is essential to identification. (The title of this chapter, though, uses an incidental relative clause.)</para>
+<!-- ^^ restrictive relative clauses: non-veridical using voi, 177; veridical using poi, 177 -->
+<indexterm><primary>restrictive relative clauses</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ incidental relative clause: as a parenthetical device, 171; definition, 171 -->
+<indexterm><primary>incidental relative clause</primary></indexterm>
<para>Consider the following examples:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-IU0R">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e2d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section2-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c8e2d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section2-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le gerku poi blanu cu barda</jbo>
@@ -214,20 +230,24 @@
<en>The dog, which is blue, is large.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section2-example1" />, the information conveyed by
<quote>poi blanu</quote>is essential to identifying the dog in question: it restricts the possible referents from dogs in general to dogs that are blue. This is why
<quote>poi</quote>relative clauses are called restrictive. In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section2-example2" />, on the other hand, the dog which is referred to has presumably already been identified clearly, and the relative clause
<quote>noi blanu</quote>just provides additional information about it. (If in fact the dog hasn't been identified clearly, then the relative clause does not help identify it further.)</para>
<para>In English, the distinction between restrictive and incidental relative clauses is expressed in writing by surrounding incidental, but not restrictive, clauses with commas. These commas are functioning as parentheses, because incidental relative clauses are essentially parenthetical. This distinction in punctuation is represented in speech by a difference in tone of voice. In addition, English restrictive relative clauses can be introduced by
+<!-- ^^ tone of voice, 297 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tone of voice</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ restrictive relative clauses: non-veridical using voi, 177; veridical using poi, 177 -->
+<indexterm><primary>restrictive relative clauses</primary></indexterm>
<quote>that</quote>as well as
<quote>which</quote>and
<quote>who</quote>, whereas incidental relative clauses cannot begin with
<quote>that</quote>. Lojban, however, always uses the cmavo
<quote>poi</quote>and
<quote>noi</quote>rather than punctuation or intonation to make the distinction.</para>
<para>Here are more examples of incidental relative clauses:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-WxJo">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e2d3" />
@@ -248,21 +268,25 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xu do viska le mi karce noi blabi</jbo>
<gloss>[True?] You see my car incidentally-which is-white.</gloss>
<en>Do you see my car, which is white?</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section2-example4" />, the speaker is presumed to have only one car, and is providing incidental information that it is white. (Alternatively, he or she might have more than one car, since
<quote>le karce</quote>can be plural, in which case the incidental information is that each of them is white.) Contrast
+<!-- ^^ plural: Lojban contrasted with English in necessity of marking, 120; Lojban equivalent of, 443; meaning of le with, 123 -->
+<indexterm><primary>plural</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section2-example5" />with a restrictive relative clause:</para>
+<!-- ^^ restrictive relative clause: definition, 171 -->
+<indexterm><primary>restrictive relative clause</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-0qU1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e2d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section2-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xu do viska le mi karce poi blabi</jbo>
<gloss>[True?] You see my car which is-white.</gloss>
<gloss>Do you see my car that is white?</gloss>
<en>Do you see my white car?</en>
@@ -277,56 +301,74 @@
<anchor xml:id="c8e2d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section2-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xu do viska le mi blabi karce</jbo>
<gloss>[True?] You see my white car.</gloss>
<en>Do you see my car, the white one?</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>So a restrictive relative clause attached to a description can often mean the same as a description involving a tanru. However,
+<!-- ^^ restrictive relative clause: definition, 171 -->
+<indexterm><primary>restrictive relative clause</primary></indexterm>
<quote>blabi karce</quote>, like all tanru, is somewhat vague: in principle, it might refer to a car which carries white things, or even express some more complicated concept involving whiteness and car-ness; the restrictive relative clause of
+<!-- ^^ restrictive relative clause: definition, 171 -->
+<indexterm><primary>restrictive relative clause</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section2-example5" />can only refer to a car which is white, not to any more complex or extended concept.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter8-section3">
<title>3. Relative phrases</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>pe</cmavo>
<selmaho>GOI</selmaho>
<description>restrictive association</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>po</cmavo>
<selmaho>GOI</selmaho>
<description>restrictive possession</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>po'e</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ po'e, 173; as intrinsic possession, 173; compared with poi ke'a jinzi ke se steci srana, 173; contrasted with po, 173 -->
+<indexterm><primary>po'e</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>GOI</selmaho>
<description>restrictive intrinsic possession</description>
+<!-- ^^ intrinsic possession: definition, 173; expressing by using place in some selbri, 173; expressing with po'e, 173 -->
+<!-- ^^ po'e, 173; as intrinsic possession, 173; compared with poi ke'a jinzi ke se steci srana, 173; contrasted with po, 173 -->
+<indexterm><primary>po'e</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>intrinsic possession</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>po'u</cmavo>
<selmaho>GOI</selmaho>
<description>restrictive identification</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ne</cmavo>
<selmaho>GOI</selmaho>
<description>incidental association</description>
+<!-- ^^ incidental association: expressing with ne, 174 -->
+<indexterm><primary>incidental association</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>no'u</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ no'u, 174; compared with po'u, 174; contrasted with po'u, 175 -->
+<indexterm><primary>no'u</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>GOI</selmaho>
<description>incidental identification</description>
+<!-- ^^ incidental identification: expressing with no'u, 174 -->
+<!-- ^^ no'u, 174; compared with po'u, 174; contrasted with po'u, 175 -->
+<indexterm><primary>no'u</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>incidental identification</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ge'u</cmavo>
<selmaho>GEhU</selmaho>
<description>relative phrase terminator</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>There are types of relative clauses (those which have a certain selbri) which are frequently wanted in Lojban, and can be expressed using a shortcut called a relative phrase. Relative phrases are introduced by cmavo of selma'o GOI, and consist of a GOI cmavo followed by a single sumti.</para>
<para>Here is an example of
<quote>pe</quote>, plus an equivalent sentence using a relative clause:</para>
@@ -369,69 +411,91 @@
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section3-example4" />contrast with
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section3-example1" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section3-example2" />: the chair is more permanently connected with the speaker. A plausible (though not the only possible) contrast between
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section3-example1" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section3-example3" />is that
<quote>pe mi</quote>would be appropriate for a chair the speaker is currently sitting on (whether or not the speaker owned that chair), and
<quote>po mi</quote>for a chair owned by the speaker (whether or not he or she was currently occupying it).</para>
<para>As a result, the relationship expressed between two sumti by
<quote>po</quote>is usually called
<quote>possession</quote>, although it does not necessarily imply ownership, legal or otherwise. The central concept is that of specificity (
+<!-- ^^ specificity: expressing with po, 173 -->
+<indexterm><primary>specificity</primary></indexterm>
<quote>steci</quote>in Lojban).</para>
<para>Here is an example of
<quote>po'e</quote>, as well as another example of
+<!-- ^^ po'e, 173; as intrinsic possession, 173; compared with poi ke'a jinzi ke se steci srana, 173; contrasted with po, 173 -->
+<indexterm><primary>po'e</primary></indexterm>
<quote>po</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-EARj">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e3d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section3-example5" />
<anchor xml:id="c8e3d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section3-example6" />
<anchor xml:id="c8e3d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section3-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le birka po'e mi cu spofu</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ po'e, 173; as intrinsic possession, 173; compared with poi ke'a jinzi ke se steci srana, 173; contrasted with po, 173 -->
+<indexterm><primary>po'e</primary></indexterm>
<en>The arm intrinsically-possessed-by me is-broken</en>
<jbo>le birka poi jinzi ke se steci srana mi cu spofu</jbo>
<en>The arm which is-intrinsically (specifically associated-with) me is-broken.</en>
<jbo>le botpi po mi cu spofu</jbo>
<en>The bottle specific-to me is-broken</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section3-example5" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section3-example6" />on the one hand, and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section3-example7" />on the other, illustrate the contrast between two types of possession called
<quote>intrinsic</quote>and
<quote>extrinsic</quote>, or sometimes
<quote>inalienable</quote>and
+<!-- ^^ inalienable: distinguishing from alienable, 173 -->
+<indexterm><primary>inalienable</primary></indexterm>
<quote>alienable</quote>, respectively. Something is intrinsically (or inalienably) possessed by someone if the possession is part of the possessor, and cannot be changed without changing the possessor. In the case of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section3-example5" />, people are usually taken to intrinsically possess their arms: even if an arm is cut off, it remains the arm of that person. (If the arm is transplanted to another person, however, it becomes intrinsically possessed by the new user, though, so intrinsic possession is a matter of degree.)</para>
+<!-- ^^ intrinsic possession: definition, 173; expressing by using place in some selbri, 173; expressing with po'e, 173 -->
+<!-- ^^ po'e, 173; as intrinsic possession, 173; compared with poi ke'a jinzi ke se steci srana, 173; contrasted with po, 173 -->
+<indexterm><primary>po'e</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>intrinsic possession</primary></indexterm>
<para>By contrast, the bottle of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section3-example7" />can be given away, or thrown away, or lost, or stolen, so it is possessed extrinsically (alienably). The exact line between intrinsic and extrinsic possession is culturally dependent. The U.S. Declaration of Independence speaks of the
+<!-- ^^ extrinsic possession: definition, 173 -->
+<indexterm><primary>extrinsic possession</primary></indexterm>
<quote>inalienable rights</quote>of men, but just what those rights are, and even whether the concept makes sense at all, varies from culture to culture.</para>
+<!-- ^^ inalienable: distinguishing from alienable, 173 -->
+<indexterm><primary>inalienable</primary></indexterm>
<para>Note that
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section3-example5" />can also be expressed without a relative clause:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-bF0U">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e3d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section3-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le birka be mi cu spofu</jbo>
<en>The arm of-body me is broken</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>reflecting the fact that the gismu
<quote>birka</quote>has an x2 place representing the body to which the arm belongs. Many, but not all, cases of intrinsic possession can be thus covered without using
+<!-- ^^ intrinsic possession: definition, 173; expressing by using place in some selbri, 173; expressing with po'e, 173 -->
+<!-- ^^ po'e, 173; as intrinsic possession, 173; compared with poi ke'a jinzi ke se steci srana, 173; contrasted with po, 173 -->
+<indexterm><primary>po'e</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>intrinsic possession</primary></indexterm>
<quote>po'e</quote>by placing the possessor into the appropriate place of the description selbri.</para>
+<!-- ^^ po'e, 173; as intrinsic possession, 173; compared with poi ke'a jinzi ke se steci srana, 173; contrasted with po, 173 -->
+<indexterm><primary>po'e</primary></indexterm>
<para>Here is an example of
<quote>po'u</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-IK2W">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e3d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section3-example9" />
<anchor xml:id="c8e3d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section3-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -484,61 +548,71 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e3d14" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section3-example14" />
<anchor xml:id="c8e3d15" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section3-example15" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le kabri pe le mi pendo cu cmalu</jbo>
<gloss>The cup associated-with my friend is small.</gloss>
<en>My friend's cup is small</en>
+<!-- ^^ friend's cup: example, 174 -->
+<indexterm><primary>friend's cup</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>le mi pendo pe le kabri cu cmalu</jbo>
<gloss>My friend associated-with the cup is small.</gloss>
<en>My friend, the one with the cup, is small.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section3-example14" />is useful in a context which is about my friend, and states that his or her cup is small, whereas
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section3-example15" />is useful in a context that is primarily about a certain cup, and makes a claim about
<quote>my friend of the cup</quote>, as opposed to some other friend of mine. Here the cup appears to
<quote>possess</quote>the person! English can't even express this relationship with a possessive -
<quote>the cup's friend of mine</quote>looks like nonsense - but Lojban has no trouble doing so.</para>
+<!-- ^^ cup's friend: example, 174 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cup's friend</primary></indexterm>
<para>Finally, the cmavo
<quote>ne</quote>and
<quote>no'u</quote>stand to
+<!-- ^^ no'u, 174; compared with po'u, 174; contrasted with po'u, 175 -->
+<indexterm><primary>no'u</primary></indexterm>
<quote>pe</quote>and
<quote>po'u</quote>, respectively, as
<quote>noi</quote>does to
<quote>poi</quote>- they provide incidental information:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Arj8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e3d16" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section3-example16" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le blabi gerku ne mi cu batci do</jbo>
<gloss>The white dog, incidentally-associated-with me, bites you.</gloss>
<en>The white dog, which is mine, bites you.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section3-example16" />, the white dog is already fully identified (after all, presumably the listener knows which dog bit him or her!). The fact that it is yours is merely incidental to the main bridi claim.</para>
<para>Distinguishing between
<quote>po'u</quote>and
<quote>no'u</quote>can be a little tricky. Consider a room with several men in it, one of whom is named Jim. If you don't know their names, I might say:</para>
+<!-- ^^ no'u, 174; compared with po'u, 174; contrasted with po'u, 175 -->
+<indexterm><primary>no'u</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-DSf4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e3d17" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section3-example17" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu no'u la djim. cu terpemci</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ no'u, 174; compared with po'u, 174; contrasted with po'u, 175 -->
+<indexterm><primary>no'u</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>The man, incidentally-who-is Jim, is-a-poet.</gloss>
<en>The man, Jim, is a poet.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here I am saying that one of the men is a poet, and incidentally telling you that he is Jim. But if you do know the names, then</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-y8nH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e3d18" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section3-example18" />
</title>
@@ -567,20 +641,22 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu cu punji le xance le daski</jbo>
<en>The man puts the hand at-locus-the pocket.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is very natural. Of course, if the man is in fact putting his hands into another's pockets, or another's hands into his pockets, the fact can be specified.</para>
<para>Finally, the elidable terminator for GOI cmavo is
<quote>ge'u</quote>of selma'o GEhU; it is almost never required. However, if a logical connective immediately follows a sumti modified by a relative phrase, then an explicit
<quote>ge'u</quote>is needed to allow the connective to affect the relativized sumti rather than the sumti of the relative phrase. (What about the cmavo after which selma'o GOI is named? It is discussed in
+<!-- ^^ relativized sumti: definition, 169; in relative clauses within relative clauses, 184 -->
+<indexterm><primary>relativized sumti</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter7" />, as it is not semantically akin to the other kinds of relative phrases, although the syntax is the same.)</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter8-section4">
<title>4. Multiple relative clauses:
<quote>zi'e</quote></title>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>zi'e</cmavo>
<selmaho>ZIhE</selmaho>
<description>relative clause joiner</description>
@@ -644,41 +720,47 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e4d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section4-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ba zutse le stizu pe mi zi'e po do</jbo>
<gloss>zi'e poi xunre</gloss>
<gloss>I [future] sit-in the chair associated-with me and specific-to you</gloss>
<gloss>and which-is red.</gloss>
<en>I will sit in my chair (really yours), the red one.</en>
+<!-- ^^ my chair: example, 176 -->
+<indexterm><primary>my chair</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section4-example4" />illustrates that more than two relative phrases or clauses can be connected with
<quote>zi'e</quote>. It almost defies colloquial translation because of the very un-English contrast between
<quote>pe mi</quote>, implying that the chair is temporarily connected with me, and
<quote>po do</quote>, implying that the chair has a more permanent association with you. (Perhaps I am a guest in your house, in which case the chair would naturally be your property.)</para>
<para>Here is another example, mixing a relative phrase and two relative clauses, a restrictive one and a non-restrictive one:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-erma">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e4d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section4-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ba citka le dembi pe mi</jbo>
<gloss>zi'e poi cpana le mi palta</gloss>
<gloss>zi'e noi do dunda ke'a mi</gloss>
<gloss>I [future] eat the beans associated-with me</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ beans: example, 176 -->
+<indexterm><primary>beans</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>and which are-upon my plate</gloss>
<gloss>and which-incidentally you gave IT to-me.</gloss>
<en>I'll eat my beans that are on my plate, the ones you gave me.</en>
+<!-- ^^ beans: example, 176 -->
+<indexterm><primary>beans</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter8-section5">
<title>5. Non-veridical relative clauses:
<quote>voi</quote></title>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>voi</cmavo>
<selmaho>NOI</selmaho>
@@ -743,20 +825,22 @@
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter8-section6">
<title>6. Relative clauses and descriptors</title>
<para>So far, this chapter has described the various kinds of relative clauses (including relative phrases). The list is now complete, and the rest of the chapter will be concerned with the syntax of sumti that include relative clauses. So far, all relative clauses have appeared directly after the sumti to which they are attached. This is the most common position (and originally the only one), but a variety of other placements are also possible which produce a variety of semantic effects.</para>
<para>There are actually three places where a relative clause can be attached to a description sumti: after the descriptor (
<quote>le</quote>,
<quote>lo</quote>, or whatever), after the embedded selbri but before the elidable terminator (which is
<quote>ku</quote>), and after the
<quote>ku</quote>. The relative clauses attached to descriptors that we have seen have occupied the second position. Thus
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section5-example1" />, if written out with all elidable terminators, would appear as:</para>
+<!-- ^^ elidable terminators: list, 486 -->
+<indexterm><primary>elidable terminators</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-UmLX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e6d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section6-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le gerku poi blabi ku'o ku cu klama vau</jbo>
<gloss>The (dog which (is-white) ) goes.</gloss>
<en>The dog which is white is going.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -799,20 +883,22 @@
<quote>outer quantifier</quote>) can be attached to a description. The inner quantifier specifies how many things the descriptor refers to: it appears between the descriptor and the description selbri. The outer quantifier appears before the descriptor, and specifies how many of the things referred to by the descriptor are involved in this particular bridi. In the following example,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-3nJN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e6d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section6-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>re le mu prenu cu klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>Two-of the five persons go to-the market.</gloss>
<en>Two of the five people [that I have in mind] are going to the market.</en>
+<!-- ^^ five people: example, 178 -->
+<indexterm><primary>five people</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<quote>mu</quote>is the inner quantifier and
<quote>re</quote>is the outer quantifier. Now what is meant by attaching a relative clause to the sumti
<quote>re le mu prenu</quote>? Suppose the relative clause is
<quote>poi ninmu</quote>(meaning
<quote>who are women</quote>). Now the three possible attachment points discussed previously take on significance.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-c58E">
<title>
@@ -823,20 +909,22 @@
<anchor xml:id="c8e6d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section6-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>re le poi ninmu ku'o mu prenu cu klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>Two of the such-that([they] are-women) five persons go to-the market.</gloss>
<en>Two women out of the five persons go to the market.</en>
<jbo>re le mu prenu poi ninmu [ku] cu klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>Two of the (five persons which are-women) go to-the market.</gloss>
<en>Two of the five women go to the market.</en>
+<!-- ^^ five women: example, 178 -->
+<indexterm><primary>five women</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>re le mu prenu ku poi ninmu cu klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>(Two of the five persons) which are-women go to-the market.</gloss>
<en>Two women out of the five persons go to the market.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>As the parentheses show,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section6-example6" />means that all five of the persons are women, whereas
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section6-example7" />means that the two who are going to the market are women. How do we remember which is which? If the relative clause comes after the explicit
<quote>ku</quote>, as in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section6-example7" />, then the sumti as a whole is qualified by the relative clause. If there is no
@@ -873,24 +961,28 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Both
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section6-example8" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section6-example9" />tell us that one or more persons are going to the market. However, they make very different incidental claims. Now, what does
<quote>lo prenu noi blabi</quote>mean? Well, the default inner quantifier is
<quote>ro</quote>(meaning
<quote>all</quote>), and the default outer quantifier is
<quote>su'o</quote>(meaning
<quote>at least one</quote>). Therefore, we must first take all persons, then choose at least one of them. That one or more people will be going.</para>
+<!-- ^^ all persons: example, 398 -->
+<indexterm><primary>all persons</primary></indexterm>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section6-example8" />, the relative clause described the sumti once the outer quantifier was applied: one or more people, who are white, are going. But in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section6-example9" />, the relative clause actually describes the sumti before the outer quantification is applied, so that it ends up meaning
<quote>First take all persons - by the way, they're all white</quote>. But not all people are white, so the incidental claim being made here is false.</para>
+<!-- ^^ all persons: example, 398 -->
+<indexterm><primary>all persons</primary></indexterm>
<para>The safe strategy, therefore, is to always use
<quote>ku</quote>when attaching a
<quote>noi</quote>relative clause to a
<quote>lo</quote>descriptor. Otherwise we may end up claiming far too much.</para>
<para>When the descriptor is
<quote>la</quote>, indicating that what follows is a selbri used for naming, then the positioning of relative clauses has a different significance. A relative clause inside the
<quote>ku</quote>, whether before or after the selbri, is reckoned part of the name; a relative clause outside the
<quote>ku</quote>is not. Therefore,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-JYj4">
<title>
@@ -914,35 +1006,45 @@
<jbo>mi viska la nanmu ku poi terpa le ke'a xirma.</jbo>
<gloss>I see that-named(
<quote>Man</quote>) which fears the of-IT horse.</gloss>
<en>I see the person named
<quote>Man</quote>who is afraid of his horse.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>refers to one (or more) of those named
<quote>Man</quote>, namely the one(s) who are afraid of their horses.</para>
<para>Finally, so-called indefinite sumti like
+<!-- ^^ indefinite sumti: as implicit quantification, 406; compared to sumti with lo, 399; meaning when multiple in sentence, 398; multiple in sentence, 398 -->
+<!-- ^^ sumti with lo: compared to indefinite sumti, 399 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sumti with lo</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>indefinite sumti</primary></indexterm>
<quote>re karce</quote>, which means almost the same as
<quote>re lo karce</quote>(which in turn means the same as
<quote>re lo ro karce</quote>), can have relative clauses attached; these are taken to be of the outside-the-
<quote>ku</quote>variety. Here is an example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-J11I">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e6d12" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section6-example12" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ponse re karce [ku] poi xekri</jbo>
<en>I possess two cars which-are black.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The restrictive relative clause only affects the two cars being affected by the main bridi, not all cars that exist. It is ungrammatical to try to place a relative clause within an indefinite sumti (that is, before an explicitly expressed terminating
+<!-- ^^ restrictive relative clause: definition, 171 -->
+<indexterm><primary>restrictive relative clause</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ indefinite sumti: as implicit quantification, 406; compared to sumti with lo, 399; meaning when multiple in sentence, 398; multiple in sentence, 398 -->
+<!-- ^^ sumti with lo: compared to indefinite sumti, 399 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sumti with lo</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>indefinite sumti</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ku</quote>.) Use an explicit
<quote>lo</quote>instead.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter8-section7">
<title>7. Possessive sumti</title>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section2-example4" />through
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section2-example6" />, the sumti
<quote>le mi karce</quote>appears, glossed as
<quote>my car</quote>. Although it might not seem so, this sumti actually contains a relative phrase. When a sumti appears between a descriptor and its description selbri, it is actually a
@@ -975,64 +1077,80 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section7-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le karce pe mi cu xunre</jbo>
<en>The car associated-with me is-red.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means the same thing as well. A sumti like the one in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section7-example1" />is called a
<quote>possessive sumti</quote>. Of course, it does not really indicate possession in the sense of ownership, but like
+<!-- ^^ possessive sumti: compared with relative phrase, 180; contrasted with relative phrases in complexity allowed, 180; definition, 180; effect on elidability of ku, 181; relative clauses on, 181; syntax allowed, 180; with relative clauses on possessive sumti, 181 -->
+<indexterm><primary>possessive sumti</primary></indexterm>
<quote>pe</quote>relative phrases, indicates only weak association; you can say
<quote>le mi karce</quote>even if you've only borrowed it for the night. (In English,
<quote>my car</quote>usually means
<quote>le karce po mi</quote>, but we do not have the same sense of possession in
<quote>my seat on the bus</quote>; Lojban simply makes the weaker sense the standard one.) The inner sumti,
+<!-- ^^ inner sumti: referring to from within relative clause within relative clause, 184 -->
+<indexterm><primary>inner sumti</primary></indexterm>
<quote>mi</quote>in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section7-example1" />, is correspondingly called the
<quote>possessor sumti</quote>.</para>
<para>Historically, possessive sumti existed before any other kind of relative phrase or clause, and were retained when the machinery of relative phrases and clauses as detailed in this chapter so far was slowly built up. When preposed relative clauses of the
+<!-- ^^ possessive sumti: compared with relative phrase, 180; contrasted with relative phrases in complexity allowed, 180; definition, 180; effect on elidability of ku, 181; relative clauses on, 181; syntax allowed, 180; with relative clauses on possessive sumti, 181 -->
+<indexterm><primary>possessive sumti</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section7-example2" />type were devised, possessive sumti were most easily viewed as a special case of them.</para>
+<!-- ^^ possessive sumti: compared with relative phrase, 180; contrasted with relative phrases in complexity allowed, 180; definition, 180; effect on elidability of ku, 181; relative clauses on, 181; syntax allowed, 180; with relative clauses on possessive sumti, 181 -->
+<indexterm><primary>possessive sumti</primary></indexterm>
<para>Although any sumti, however complex, can appear in a full-fledged relative phrase, only simple sumti can appear as possessor sumti, without a
+<!-- ^^ simple sumti, 119 -->
+<indexterm><primary>simple sumti</primary></indexterm>
<quote>pe</quote>. Roughly speaking, the legal possessor sumti are: pro-sumti, quotations, names and descriptions, and numbers. In addition, the possessor sumti may not be preceded by a quantifier, as such a form would be interpreted as the unusual
<quote>descriptor + quantifier + sumti</quote>type of description. All these sumti forms are explained in full in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6" />.</para>
<para>Here is an example of a description used in a possessive sumti:</para>
+<!-- ^^ possessive sumti: compared with relative phrase, 180; contrasted with relative phrases in complexity allowed, 180; definition, 180; effect on elidability of ku, 181; relative clauses on, 181; syntax allowed, 180; with relative clauses on possessive sumti, 181 -->
+<indexterm><primary>possessive sumti</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-rBmw">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e7d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section7-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le le nanmu ku karce cu blanu</jbo>
<gloss>The (associated-with-the man) car is blue.</gloss>
<en>The man's car is blue.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note the explicit
<quote>ku</quote>at the end of the possessor sumti, which prevents the selbri of the possessor sumti from merging with the selbri of the main description sumti. Because of the need for this
<quote>ku</quote>, the most common kind of possessor sumti are pro-sumti, especially personal pro-sumti, which require no elidable terminator. Descriptions are more likely to be attached with relative phrases.</para>
+<!-- ^^ personal pro-sumti, 139; implicit cancellation of by change of speaker/listener, 162; implicit quantifier for, 128, 139; stability of, 162 -->
+<indexterm><primary>personal pro-sumti</primary></indexterm>
<para>And here is a number used as a possessor sumti:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-pYfN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e7d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section7-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le li mu jdice se bende</jbo>
<gloss>The of-the-number-five judging team-member</gloss>
<en>Juror number 5</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which is not quite the same as
<quote>the fifth juror</quote>; it simply indicates a weak association between the particular juror and the number 5.</para>
<para>A possessive sumti may also have regular relative clauses attached to it. This would need no comment if it were not for the following special rule: a relative clause immediately following the possessor sumti is understood to affect the possessor sumti, not the possessive. For example:</para>
+<!-- ^^ possessive sumti: compared with relative phrase, 180; contrasted with relative phrases in complexity allowed, 180; definition, 180; effect on elidability of ku, 181; relative clauses on, 181; syntax allowed, 180; with relative clauses on possessive sumti, 181 -->
+<indexterm><primary>possessive sumti</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-cVjs">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e7d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section7-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le mi noi sipna vau karce cu na klama</jbo>
<en>The of-me incidentally-which-(is-sleeping) car isn't going.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1045,116 +1163,148 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le mi karce poi sipna cu na klama</jbo>
<en>The of-me car which sleeps isn't going.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section7-example6" />uses
<quote>vau</quote>rather than
<quote>ku'o</quote>at the end of the relative clause: this terminator ends every simple bridi and is almost always elidable; in this case, though, it is a syllable shorter than the equally valid alternative,
+<!-- ^^ simple bridi: terminator for, 506 -->
+<indexterm><primary>simple bridi</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ku'o</quote>.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter8-section8">
<title>8. Relative clauses and complex sumti:
<quote>vu'o</quote></title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>vu'o</cmavo>
<selmaho>VUhO</selmaho>
<description>relative clause attacher</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>Normally, relative clauses attach only to simple sumti or parts of sumti: pro-sumti, names and descriptions, pure numbers, and quotations. An example of a relative clause attached to a pure number is:</para>
+<!-- ^^ simple sumti, 119 -->
+<indexterm><primary>simple sumti</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-sfHA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e8d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section8-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li pai noi na'e frinu namcu</jbo>
<gloss>The-number pi, incidentally-which is-a-non- fraction number</gloss>
<en>The irrational number pi</en>
+<!-- ^^ irrational number: example, 181 -->
+<indexterm><primary>irrational number</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>And here is an incidental relative clause attached to a quotation:</para>
+<!-- ^^ incidental relative clause: as a parenthetical device, 171; definition, 171 -->
+<indexterm><primary>incidental relative clause</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-WuBh">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e8d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section8-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lu mi klama le zarci li'u</jbo>
<gloss>noi mi cusku ke'a cu jufra</gloss>
<gloss>[quote] I go to-the market [unquote]</gloss>
<gloss>incidentally-which-(I express IT) is-a-sentence.</gloss>
<en>
<quote>I'm going to the market</quote>, which I'd said, is a sentence.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which may serve to identify the author of the quotation or some other relevant, but subsidiary, fact about it. All such relative clauses appear only after the simple sumti, never before it.</para>
+<!-- ^^ simple sumti, 119 -->
+<indexterm><primary>simple sumti</primary></indexterm>
<para>In addition, sumti with attached sumti qualifiers of selma'o LAhE or NAhE+BO (which are explained in detail in
+<!-- ^^ NAhE+BO: terminator for, 499 -->
+<indexterm><primary>NAhE+BO</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6" />) can have a relative clause appearing after the qualifier and before the qualified sumti, as in:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-4sqi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e8d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section8-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la'e poi tolcitno vau lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u</jbo>
<gloss>cu zvati le vu kumfa</gloss>
<gloss>A-referent-of (which is-old) [quote] The Red Small-horse [unquote]</gloss>
<gloss>is-at the [far distance] room.</gloss>
<en>An old
<quote>The Red Pony</quote>is in the far room.</en>
+<!-- ^^ Red Pony: example, 133, 182 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Red Pony</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section8-example3" />is a bit complex, and may need some picking apart. The quotation
<quote>lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u</quote>means the string of words
<quote>The Red Pony</quote>. If the
+<!-- ^^ Red Pony: example, 133, 182 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Red Pony</primary></indexterm>
<quote>la'e</quote>at the beginning of the sentence were omitted,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section8-example3" />would claim that a certain string of words is in a room distant from the speaker. But obviously a string of words can't be in a room! The effect of the
<quote>la'e</quote>is to modify the sumti so that it refers not to the words themselves, but to the referent of those words, a novel by John Steinbeck (presumably in Lojban translation). The particular copy of
<quote>The Red Pony</quote>is identified by the restrictive relative clause.
+<!-- ^^ restrictive relative clause: definition, 171 -->
+<indexterm><primary>restrictive relative clause</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ Red Pony: example, 133, 182 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Red Pony</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section8-example3" />means exactly the same as:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-yX24">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e8d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section8-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la'e lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u lu'u</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ lu'u, 133, 267; as elidable terminator for qualified sumti, 133 -->
+<indexterm><primary>lu'u</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ la'e lu: compared with me'o, 422 -->
+<indexterm><primary>la'e lu</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>poi to'ercitno cu zvati le vu kumfa</gloss>
<gloss>A-referent-of ([quote] The Red Small-horse [unquote])</gloss>
<en>which is-old is-at the [far distance] room.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and the two sentences can be considered stylistic variants. Note the required
<quote>lu'u</quote>terminator, which prevents the relative clause from attaching to the quotation itself: we do not wish to refer to an old quotation!</para>
+<!-- ^^ lu'u, 133, 267; as elidable terminator for qualified sumti, 133 -->
+<indexterm><primary>lu'u</primary></indexterm>
<para>Sometimes, however, it is important to make a relative clause apply to the whole of a more complex sumti, one which involves logical or non-logical connection (explained in
+<!-- ^^ non-logical connection: and elidability of terminators, 354; in mathematical expressions, 361; in tanru, distinguishing from connection of sumti, 354; of individuals into mass, 355; of individuals into set, 355; of modals, 208; of operands, 455; of operators, 455; of sumti, distinguishing from connection in tanru, 354; of termsets, 357 -->
+<indexterm><primary>non-logical connection</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14" />). For example,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-EYgE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e8d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section8-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la frank. .e la djordj. noi nanmu cu klama le zdani</jbo>
<gloss>Frank and George incidentally-who is-a-man go to-the house.</gloss>
<en>Frank and George, who is a man, go to the house.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The incidental claim in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section8-example5" />is not that Frank and George are men, but only that George is a man, because the incidental relative clause attaches only to
+<!-- ^^ incidental relative clause: as a parenthetical device, 171; definition, 171 -->
+<indexterm><primary>incidental relative clause</primary></indexterm>
<quote>la djordj</quote>, the immediately preceding simple sumti.</para>
+<!-- ^^ simple sumti, 119 -->
+<indexterm><primary>simple sumti</primary></indexterm>
<para>To make a relative clause attach to both parts of the logically connected sumti in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section8-example5" />, a new cmavo is needed,
<quote>vu'o</quote>(of selma'o VUhO). It is placed between the sumti and the relative clause, and extends the sphere of influence of that relative clause to the entire preceding sumti, including however many logical or non-logical connectives there may be.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-9XPz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e8d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section8-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la frank. .e la djordj. vu'o noi nanmu cu klama le zdani</jbo>
@@ -1164,20 +1314,24 @@
</example>
<para>The presence of
<quote>vu'o</quote>here means that the relative clause
<quote>noi nanmu</quote>extends to the entire logically connected sumti
<quote>la frank. .e la djordj.</quote>; in other words, both Frank and George are claimed to be men, as the colloquial translation shows.</para>
<para>English is able to resolve the distinction correctly in the case of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section8-example5" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section8-example6" />by making use of number:
<quote>who is</quote>rather than
<quote>who are</quote>. Lojban doesn't distinguish between singular and plural verbs:
+<!-- ^^ verbs: brivla as Lojban equivalents, 52 -->
+<indexterm><primary>verbs</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ plural: Lojban contrasted with English in necessity of marking, 120; Lojban equivalent of, 443; meaning of le with, 123 -->
+<indexterm><primary>plural</primary></indexterm>
<quote>nanmu</quote>can mean
<quote>is a man</quote>or
<quote>are men</quote>, so another means is required. Furthermore, Lojban's mechanism works correctly in general: if
<quote>nanmu</quote>(meaning
<quote>is-a-man</quote>) were replaced with
<quote>pu bajra</quote>(
<quote>ran</quote>), English would have to make the distinction some other way:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-BSqz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e8d7" />
@@ -1188,20 +1342,22 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la frank. .e la djordj. noi pu bajra cu klama le zdani</jbo>
<gloss>Frank and (George who [past] runs) go to-the house.</gloss>
<en>Frank and George, who ran, go to the house.</en>
<jbo>la frank. .e la djordj. vu'o noi pu bajra cu klama le zdani</jbo>
<gloss>(Frank and George) who [past] run go to-the house.</gloss>
<en>Frank and George, who ran, go to the house.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In spoken English, tone of voice would serve; in written English, one or both sentences would need rewriting.</para>
+<!-- ^^ tone of voice, 297 -->
+<indexterm><primary>tone of voice</primary></indexterm>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter8-section9">
<title>9. Relative clauses in vocative phrases</title>
<para>Vocative phrases are explained in more detail in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter6" />. Briefly, they are a method of indicating who a sentence or discourse is addressed to: of identifying the intended listener. They take three general forms, all beginning with cmavo from selma'o COI or DOI (called
<quote>vocative words</quote>; there can be one or many), followed by either a name, a selbri, or a sumti. Here are three examples:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-4KpX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e9d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section9-example1" />
@@ -1209,20 +1365,22 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section9-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c8e9d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section9-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>coi. frank.</jbo>
<en>Hello, Frank.</en>
<jbo>co'o xirma</jbo>
<en>Goodbye, horse.</en>
<jbo>fi'i la frank. .e la djordj.</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ fi'i, 324 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fi'i</primary></indexterm>
<en>Welcome, Frank and George!</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section9-example2" />says farewell to something which doesn't really have to be a horse, something that the speaker simply thinks of as being a horse, or even might be something (a person, for example) who is named
<quote>Horse</quote>. In a sense,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section9-example2" />is ambiguous between
<quote>co'o le xirma</quote>and
<quote>co'o la xirma</quote>, a relatively safe semantic ambiguity, since names are ambiguous in general: saying
<quote>George</quote>doesn't distinguish between the possible Georges.</para>
@@ -1248,22 +1406,26 @@
<anchor xml:id="c8e9d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section9-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>coi. frank. poi xunre se bende</jbo>
<gloss>Hello, Frank who is-a-red team-member</gloss>
<en>Hello, Frank from the Red Team!</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The restrictive relative clause in
+<!-- ^^ restrictive relative clause: definition, 171 -->
+<indexterm><primary>restrictive relative clause</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8-section9-example5" />suggests that there is some other Frank (perhaps on the Green Team) from whom this Frank, the one the speaker is greeting, must be distinguished.</para>
<para>A vocative phrase containing a selbri can have relative clauses either before or after the selbri; both forms have the same meaning. Here are some examples:</para>
+<!-- ^^ vocative phrase: as a free modifier, 135; effect of position on meaning, 137; elidable terminator for, 137; explicit quantifiers prohibited on, 136; forms of, 136; implicit descriptor on, 136; implicit quantifiers on, 136; purpose of, 136; relative clauses on, 184; with complete sumti, 136; with sumti without descriptor, 136 -->
+<indexterm><primary>vocative phrase</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Aa7B">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e9d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section9-example6" />
<anchor xml:id="c8e9d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section9-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>co'o poi mi zvati ke'a ku'o xirma</jbo>
<gloss>Goodbye, such-that-(I am-at IT) horse</gloss>
@@ -1294,25 +1456,29 @@
<quote>ke'a</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-8RdM">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e10d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section10-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le prenu poi zvati le kumfa poi ke'axire zbasu ke'a cu masno</jbo>
<gloss>The person who is-in the room which IT-sub-2 built IT is-slow.</gloss>
<en>The person who is in the room which he built is slow.</en>
+<!-- ^^ room which he built: example, 184 -->
+<indexterm><primary>room which he built</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here, the meaning of
<quote>IT-sub-2</quote>is that sumti attached to the second relative clause, counting from the innermost, is used. Therefore,
<quote>ke'axipa</quote>(IT-sub-1) means the same as plain
+<!-- ^^ ke'axipa, 184 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ke'axipa</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ke'a</quote>.</para>
<para>Alternatively, you can use a prenex (explained in full in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16" />), which is syntactically a series of sumti followed by the special cmavo
<quote>zo'u</quote>, prefixed to the relative clause bridi:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-5TuF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e10d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter8-section10-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1334,30 +1500,46 @@
<title>11. Index of relative clause cmavo</title>
<para>Relative clause introducers (selma'o NOI):</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
noi incidental clauses
poi restrictive clauses
voi restrictive clauses (non-veridical)
</programlisting>
<para>Relative phrase introducers (selma'o GOI):</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
goi pro-sumti assignment
+<!-- ^^ pro-sumti assignment: explicit cancellation of with da'o, 162; no'i effect on, 162; stability of, 162 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pro-sumti assignment</primary></indexterm>
pe restrictive association
ne incidental association
+<!-- ^^ incidental association: expressing with ne, 174 -->
+<indexterm><primary>incidental association</primary></indexterm>
po extrinsic (alienable) possession
po'e intrinsic (inalienable) possession
+<!-- ^^ po'e, 173; as intrinsic possession, 173; compared with poi ke'a jinzi ke se steci srana, 173; contrasted with po, 173 -->
+<indexterm><primary>po'e</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ inalienable: distinguishing from alienable, 173 -->
+<indexterm><primary>inalienable</primary></indexterm>
po'u restrictive identification
no'u incidental identification
+<!-- ^^ no'u, 174; compared with po'u, 174; contrasted with po'u, 175 -->
+<indexterm><primary>no'u</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ incidental identification: expressing with no'u, 174 -->
+<!-- ^^ no'u, 174; compared with po'u, 174; contrasted with po'u, 175 -->
+<indexterm><primary>no'u</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>incidental identification</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>Relativizing pro-sumti (selma'o KOhA):</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ke'a pro-sumti for relativized sumti
+<!-- ^^ relativized sumti: definition, 169; in relative clauses within relative clauses, 184 -->
+<indexterm><primary>relativized sumti</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>Relative clause joiner (selma'o ZIhE):</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
zi'e joins relative clauses applying to a single sumti
</programlisting>
<para>Relative clause associator (selma'o VUhO):</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
vu'o causes relative clauses to apply to all of a complex sumti
</programlisting>
<para>Elidable terminators (each its own selma'o):</para>
diff --git a/todocbook/9.xml b/todocbook/9.xml
index dee4c77..5326d9d 100644
--- a/todocbook/9.xml
+++ b/todocbook/9.xml
@@ -22,20 +22,22 @@
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter9-section2">
<title>2. Standard bridi form:
<quote>cu</quote></title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>cu</cmavo>
<selmaho>CU</selmaho>
<description>prefixed selbri separator</description>
+<!-- ^^ selbri separator, 492 -->
+<indexterm><primary>selbri separator</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>The most usual way of constructing a bridi from a selbri such as
<quote>klama</quote>and an appropriate number of sumti is to place the sumti intended for the x1 place before the selbri, and all the other sumti in order after the selbri, thus:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Ji94">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e2d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section2-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -48,20 +50,24 @@
x1 agent mi
x2 destination la bastn.
x3 origin la .atlantas.
x4 route le dargu
x5 means le karce
</programlisting>
<para>(Note: Many of the examples in the rest of this chapter will turn out to have the same meaning as
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section2-example1" />; this fact will not be reiterated.)</para>
<para>This ordering, with the x1 place before the selbri and all other places in natural order after the selbri, is called
<quote>standard bridi form</quote>, and is found in the bulk of Lojban bridi, whether used in main sentences or in subordinate clauses. However, many other forms are possible, such as:</para>
+<!-- ^^ subordinate clauses: tense usage rules in English, 237 -->
+<indexterm><primary>subordinate clauses</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ standard bridi form: definition, 188 -->
+<indexterm><primary>standard bridi form</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-yLqT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e2d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section2-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi la bastn. la .atlantas. le dargu le karce cu klama</jbo>
<en>I, to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the road using-the car, go.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -77,73 +83,85 @@
<en>I to-Boston go from-Atlanta via-the road using-the car.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>All of the variant forms in this section and following sections can be used to place emphasis on the part or parts which have been moved out of their standard places. Thus,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section2-example2" />places emphasis on the selbri (because it is at the end);
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section2-example3" />emphasizes
<quote>la bastn.</quote>, because it has been moved before the selbri. Moving more than one component may dilute this emphasis. It is permitted, but no stylistic significance has yet been established for drastic reordering.</para>
<para>In all these examples, the cmavo
<quote>cu</quote>(belonging to selma'o CU) is used to separate the selbri from any preceding sumti. It is never absolutely necessary to use
<quote>cu</quote>. However, providing it helps the reader or listener to locate the selbri quickly, and may make it possible to place a complex sumti just before the selbri, allowing the speaker to omit elidable terminators, possibly a whole stream of them, that would otherwise be necessary.</para>
+<!-- ^^ elidable terminators: list, 486 -->
+<indexterm><primary>elidable terminators</primary></indexterm>
<para>The general rule, then, is that the selbri may occur anywhere in the bridi as long as the sumti maintain their order. The only exception (and it is an important one) is that if the selbri appears first, the x1 sumti is taken to have been omitted:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-aQtM">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e2d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section2-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>klama la bastn. la .atlantas. le dargu le karce</jbo>
<gloss>A-goer to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the road using-the car.</gloss>
<gloss>Goes to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the road using-the car.</gloss>
<en>Look: a goer to Boston from Atlanta via the road using the car!</en>
+<!-- ^^ Boston from Atlanta: example, 187 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Boston from Atlanta</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the x1 place is empty: the listener must guess from context who is going to Boston. In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section2-example4" />,
<quote>klama</quote>is glossed
<quote>a goer</quote>rather than
<quote>go</quote>because
<quote>Go</quote>at the beginning of an English sentence would suggest a command:
<quote>Go to Boston!</quote>.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section2-example4" />is not a command, simply a normal statement with the x1 place unspecified, causing the emphasis to fall on the selbri
<quote>klama</quote>. Such a bridi, with empty x1, is called an
<quote>observative</quote>, because it usually calls on the listener to observe something in the environment which would belong in the x1 place. The third translation above shows this observative nature. Sometimes it is the relationship itself which the listener is asked to observe.</para>
+<!-- ^^ observative: contrasted with observation evidential, 316; definition, 188 -->
+<indexterm><primary>observative</primary></indexterm>
<para>(There is a way to both provide a sumti for the x1 place and put the selbri first in the bridi: see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section3-example7" />.)</para>
<para>Suppose the speaker desires to omit a place other than the x1 place? (Presumably it is obvious or, for one reason or another, not worth saying.) Places at the end may simply be dropped:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-5Eqa">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e2d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section2-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama la bastn. la .atlantas.</jbo>
<en>I go to-Boston from-Atlanta (via an unspecified route, using an unspecified means).</en>
+<!-- ^^ unspecified route: example, 189 -->
+<indexterm><primary>unspecified route</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section2-example5" />has empty x4 and x5 places: the speaker does not specify the route or the means of transport. However, simple omission will not work for a place when the places around it are to be specified: in</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-jh7T">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e2d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section2-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama la bastn. la .atlantas. le karce</jbo>
<en>I go to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the car.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<quote>le karce</quote>occupies the x4 place, and therefore
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section2-example6" />means:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
I go to Boston from Atlanta, using the car as a route.
+<!-- ^^ go to Boston from Atlanta: example, 187 -->
+<indexterm><primary>go to Boston from Atlanta</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ Boston from Atlanta: example, 187 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Boston from Atlanta</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>This is nonsense, since a car cannot be a route. What the speaker presumably meant is expressed by:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-tqoQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e2d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section2-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama la bastn. la .atlantas. zo'e le karce</jbo>
<en>I go to-Boston from-Atlanta via-something-unspecified using-the car.</en>
@@ -178,40 +196,46 @@
<selmaho>FA</selmaho>
<description>tags x4 place</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>fu</cmavo>
<selmaho>FA</selmaho>
<description>tags x5 place</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>fi'a</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ fi'a, 191; effect on subsequent untagged sumti, 192 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fi'a</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>FA</selmaho>
<description>place structure question</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>In sentences like
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section2-example1" />, it is easy to get lost and forget which sumti falls in which place, especially if the sumti are more complicated than simple names or descriptions. The place structure tags of selma'o FA may be used to help clarify place structures. The five cmavo
<quote>fa</quote>,
<quote>fe</quote>,
<quote>fi</quote>,
<quote>fo</quote>, and
<quote>fu</quote>may be inserted just before the sumti in the x1 to x5 places respectively:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-yLop">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e3d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section3-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>fa mi cu klama fe la bastn. fi la .atlantas. fo le dargu fu le karce</jbo>
<gloss>x1= I go x2= Boston x3= Atlanta x4= the road x5= the car.</gloss>
<en>I go to Boston from Atlanta via the road using the car.</en>
+<!-- ^^ go to Boston from Atlanta: example, 187 -->
+<indexterm><primary>go to Boston from Atlanta</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ Boston from Atlanta: example, 187 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Boston from Atlanta</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section3-example1" />, the tag
<quote>fu</quote>before
<quote>le karce</quote>clarifies that
<quote>le karce</quote>occupies the x5 place of
<quote>klama</quote>. The use of
<quote>fu</quote>tells us nothing about the purpose or meaning of the x5 place; it simply says that
<quote>le karce</quote>occupies it.</para>
@@ -264,20 +288,22 @@
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section3-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>fu le karce fo le dargu fi la .atlantas. fe la bastn. cu klama fa mi</jbo>
<gloss>x5= the car x4= the road x3= Atlanta x2= Boston go x1=I</gloss>
<en>Using the car, via the road, from Atlanta to Boston go I.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section3-example4" />exhibits the reverse of the standard bridi form seen in
+<!-- ^^ standard bridi form: definition, 188 -->
+<indexterm><primary>standard bridi form</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section2-example1" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section3-example1" />, but still means exactly the same thing. If the FA tags were left out, however, producing:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-j7Nu">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e3d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section3-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le karce le dargu la .atlantas. la bastn. cu klama mi</jbo>
<gloss>The car to-the road from-Atlanta via-Boston goes using-me.</gloss>
@@ -304,20 +330,22 @@
<para>What if some sumti have FA tags and others do not? The rule is that after a FA-tagged sumti, any sumti following it occupy the places numerically succeeding it, subject to the proviso that an already-filled place is skipped:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-oDES">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e3d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section3-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>klama fa mi la bastn. la .atlantas. le dargu le karce</jbo>
<gloss>Go x1= I x2= Boston x3= Atlanta x4= the road x5= the car.</gloss>
<en>Go I to Boston from Atlanta via the road using the car.</en>
+<!-- ^^ Boston from Atlanta: example, 187 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Boston from Atlanta</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section3-example7" />, the
<quote>fa</quote>causes
<quote>mi</quote>to occupy the x1 place, and then the following untagged sumti occupy in order the x2 through x5 places. This is the mechanism by which Lojban allows placing the selbri first while specifying a sumti for the x1 place.</para>
<para>Here is a more complex (and more confusing) example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-q8is">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e3d8" />
@@ -326,20 +354,22 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama fi la .atlantas. le dargu fe la bastn. le karce</jbo>
<gloss>I go x3= Atlanta, the road x2= Boston, the car.</gloss>
<en>I go from Atlanta via the road to Boston using the car.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section3-example8" />,
<quote>mi</quote>occupies the x1 place because it is the first sumti in the sentence (and is before the selbri). The second sumti,
<quote>la .atlantas.</quote>, occupies the x3 place by virtue of the tag
+<!-- ^^ virtue: example, 309 -->
+<indexterm><primary>virtue</primary></indexterm>
<quote>fi</quote>, and
<quote>le dargu</quote>occupies the x4 place as a result of following
<quote>la .atlantas.</quote>. Finally,
<quote>la bastn.</quote>occupies the x2 place because of its tag
<quote>fe</quote>, and
<quote>le karce</quote>skips over the already-occupied x3 and x4 places to land in the x5 place.</para>
<para>Such a convoluted use of tags should probably be avoided except when trying for a literal translation of some English (or other natural-language) sentence; the rules stated here are merely given so that some standard interpretation is possible.</para>
<para>It is grammatically permitted to tag more than one sumti with the same FA cmavo. The effect is that of making more than one claim:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-N1aE">
<title>
@@ -348,49 +378,59 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>[fa] la rik. fa la djein. klama [fe] le skina fe le zdani fe le zarci</jbo>
<en>[x1=] Rick x1= Jane goes-to x2= the movie x2= the house x2= the office</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>may be taken to say that both Rick and Jane go to the movie, the house, and the office, merging six claims into one. More likely, however, it will simply confuse the listener. There are better ways, involving logical connectives (explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14" />), to say such things in Lojban. In fact, putting more than one sumti into a place is odd enough that it can only be done by explicit FA usage: this is the motivation for the proviso above, that already-occupied places are skipped. In this way, no sumti can be forced into a place already occupied unless it has an explicit FA cmavo tagging it.</para>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>fi'a</quote>also belongs to selma'o FA, and allows Lojban users to ask questions about place structures. A bridi containing
+<!-- ^^ fi'a, 191; effect on subsequent untagged sumti, 192 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fi'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>fi'a</quote>is a question, asking the listener to supply the appropriate other member of FA which will make the bridi a true statement:</para>
+<!-- ^^ fi'a, 191; effect on subsequent untagged sumti, 192 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fi'a</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-GnTu">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e3d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section3-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>fi'a do dunda [fe] le vi rozgu</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ fi'a, 191; effect on subsequent untagged sumti, 192 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fi'a</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>[what place]? you give x2= the nearby rose</gloss>
<gloss>In what way are you involved in the giving of this rose?</gloss>
<en>Are you the giver or the receiver of this rose?</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section3-example10" />, the speaker uses the selbri
<quote>dunda</quote>, whose place structure is:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
dunda: x1 gives x2 to x3
</programlisting>
<para>The tagged sumti
<quote>fi'a do</quote>indicates that the speaker wishes to know whether the sumti
+<!-- ^^ fi'a, 191; effect on subsequent untagged sumti, 192 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fi'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>do</quote>falls in the x1 or the x3 place (the x2 place is already occupied by
<quote>le rozgu</quote>). The listener can reply with a sentence consisting solely of a FA cmavo:
<quote>fa</quote>if the listener is the giver,
<quote>fi</quote>if he/she is the receiver.</para>
<para>I have inserted the tag
<quote>fe</quote>in brackets into
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section3-example10" />, but it is actually not necessary, because
<quote>fi'a</quote>does not count as a numeric tag; therefore,
+<!-- ^^ fi'a, 191; effect on subsequent untagged sumti, 192 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fi'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>le vi rozgu</quote>would necessarily be in the x2 place even if no tag were present, because it immediately follows the selbri.</para>
<para>There is also another member of FA, namely
<quote>fai</quote>, which is discussed in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section12" />.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter9-section4">
<title>4. Conversion: SE</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
@@ -408,35 +448,43 @@
<selmaho>SE</selmaho>
<description>4th place conversion</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>xe</cmavo>
<selmaho>SE</selmaho>
<description>5th place conversion</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>So far we have seen ways to move sumti around within a bridi, but the actual place structure of the selbri has always remained untouched. The conversion cmavo of selma'o SE are incorporated within the selbri itself, and produce a new selbri (called a converted selbri) with a different place structure. In particular, after the application of any SE cmavo, the number and purposes of the places remain the same, but two of them have been exchanged, the x1 place and another. Which place has been exchanged with x1 depends on the cmavo chosen. Thus, for example, when
+<!-- ^^ converted selbri: as different selbri from unconverted, 192; as resetting standard order, 193; compared with selbri with FA in meaning, 193; contrasted with other similar selbri, 193; contrasted with selbri with FA in structure, 193; definition, 192; forming with SE, 192; in descriptions, 193; place structure of, 192; retention of basic meaning in, 193; to access non-first place in description, 193 -->
+<indexterm><primary>converted selbri</primary></indexterm>
<quote>se</quote>is used, the x1 place is swapped with the x2 place.</para>
<para>Note that the cmavo of SE begin with consecutive consonants in alphabetical order. There is no
<quote>1st place conversion</quote>cmavo, because exchanging the x1 place with itself is a pointless maneuver.</para>
<para>Here are the place structures of
<quote>se klama</quote>:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
x1 is the destination of x2's going from x3 via x4 using x5
+<!-- ^^ the destination: example, 193 -->
+<indexterm><primary>the destination</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>and
<quote>te klama</quote>:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
x1 is the origin and x2 the destination of x3 going via x4 using x5
+<!-- ^^ the destination: example, 193 -->
+<indexterm><primary>the destination</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>and
<quote>ve klama</quote>:</para>
+<!-- ^^ ve klama, 193; contrasted with pluta, 193 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ve klama</primary></indexterm>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
x1 is the route to x2 from x3 used by x4 going via x5
</programlisting>
<para>and
<quote>xe klama</quote>:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
x1 is the means in going to x2 from x3 via x4 employed by x5
</programlisting>
<para>Note that the place structure numbers in each case continue to be listed in the usual order, x1 to x5.</para>
<para>Consider the following pair of examples:</para>
@@ -453,83 +501,105 @@
<gloss>Boston is my destination.</gloss>
<en>Boston is gone to by me.</en>
<jbo>fe la bastn. cu klama fa mi</jbo>
<gloss>x2 = Boston go x1=I.</gloss>
<en>To Boston go I.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section4-example1" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section4-example2" />mean the same thing, in the sense that there is a relationship of going with the speaker as the agent and Boston as the destination (and with unspecified origin, route, and means). Structurally, however, they are quite different.
+<!-- ^^ the destination: example, 193 -->
+<indexterm><primary>the destination</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section4-example1" />has
<quote>la bastn.</quote>in the x1 place and
<quote>mi</quote>in the x2 place of the selbri
<quote>se klama</quote>, and uses standard bridi order;
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section4-example2" />has
<quote>mi</quote>in the x1 place and
<quote>la bastn.</quote>in the x2 place of the selbri
<quote>klama</quote>, and uses a non-standard order.</para>
<para>The most important use of conversion is in the construction of descriptions. A description is a sumti which begins with a cmavo of selma'o LA or LE, called the descriptor, and contains (in the simplest case) a selbri. We have already seen the descriptions
<quote>le dargu</quote>and
<quote>le karce</quote>. To this we could add:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-3YoA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e4d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section4-example3" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le klama</jbo>
<en>the go-er, the one who goes</en>
+<!-- ^^ the go-er: example, 193 -->
+<indexterm><primary>the go-er</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In every case, the description is about something which fits into the x1 place of the selbri. In order to get a description of a destination (that is, something fitting the x2 place of
<quote>klama</quote>), we must convert the selbri to
<quote>se klama</quote>, whose x1 place is a destination. The result is</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-brDN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e4d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section4-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le se klama</jbo>
<en>the destination gone to by someone</en>
+<!-- ^^ the destination: example, 193 -->
+<indexterm><primary>the destination</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Likewise, we can create three more converted descriptions:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-dKFA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e4d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section4-example5" />
<anchor xml:id="c9e4d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section4-example6" />
<anchor xml:id="c9e4d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section4-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le te klama</jbo>
<en>the origin of someone's going</en>
<jbo>le ve klama</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ve klama, 193; contrasted with pluta, 193 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ve klama</primary></indexterm>
<en>the route of someone's going</en>
<jbo>le xe klama</jbo>
<en>the means by which someone goes</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section4-example6" />does not mean
<quote>the route</quote>plain and simple: that is
<quote>le pluta</quote>, using a different selbri. It means a route that is used by someone for an act of
+<!-- ^^ pluta, 193; contrasted with ve klama, 193 -->
+<!-- ^^ ve klama, 193; contrasted with pluta, 193 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ve klama</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>pluta</primary></indexterm>
<quote>klama</quote>; that is, a journey with origin and destination. A
<quote>road</quote>on Mars, on which no one has traveled or is ever likely to, may be called
<quote>le pluta</quote>, but it cannot be
+<!-- ^^ pluta, 193; contrasted with ve klama, 193 -->
+<!-- ^^ ve klama, 193; contrasted with pluta, 193 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ve klama</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>pluta</primary></indexterm>
<quote>le ve klama</quote>, since there exists no one for whom it is
+<!-- ^^ ve klama, 193; contrasted with pluta, 193 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ve klama</primary></indexterm>
<quote>le ve klama be fo da</quote>(the route taken in an actual journey by someone [da]).</para>
+<!-- ^^ ve klama, 193; contrasted with pluta, 193 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ve klama</primary></indexterm>
<para>When converting selbri that are more complex than a single brivla, it is important to realize that the scope of a SE cmavo is only the following brivla (or equivalent unit). In order to convert an entire tanru, it is necessary to enclose the tanru in
+<!-- ^^ converting: operand to operator, 500; operator to selbri, 502; quantifier to selbri, 500; selbri to operand, 501; selbri to operator, 501; sumti to operand, 500; sumti to tanru unit, 500 -->
+<indexterm><primary>converting</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ke ... ke'e</quote>brackets:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-wQbB">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e4d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section4-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi se ke blanu zdani [ke'e] ti</jbo>
<en>I [2nd conversion] blue house this-thing</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -549,34 +619,42 @@
</programlisting>
<para>Consequently,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section4-example8" />means:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
I am the inhabitant of the blue house which is this thing.
</programlisting>
<para>Conversion applied to only part of a tanru has subtler effects which are explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5" />.</para>
<para>It is grammatical to convert a selbri more than once with SE; later (inner) conversions are applied before earlier (outer) ones. For example, the place structure of
<quote>se te klama</quote>is achieved by exchanging the x1 and x2 place of
+<!-- ^^ se te, 194 -->
+<indexterm><primary>se te</primary></indexterm>
<quote>te klama</quote>, producing:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
x1 is the destination and x2 is the origin of x3 going via x4 using x5
+<!-- ^^ the destination: example, 193 -->
+<indexterm><primary>the destination</primary></indexterm>
</programlisting>
<para>On the other hand,
<quote>te se klama</quote>has a place structure derived from swapping the x1 and x3 places of
<quote>se klama</quote>:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
x1 is the origin of x2's going to x3 via x4 using x5
</programlisting>
<para>which is quite different. However, multiple conversions like this are never necessary. Arbitrary scrambling of places can be achieved more easily and far more intelligibly with FA tags, and only a single conversion is ever needed in a description.</para>
<para>(Although no one has made any real use of it, it is perhaps worth noting that compound conversions of the form
<quote>setese</quote>, where the first and third cmavo are the same, effectively swap the two given places while leaving the others, including x1, alone:
+<!-- ^^ setese, 194 -->
+<indexterm><primary>setese</primary></indexterm>
<quote>setese</quote>(or equivalently
+<!-- ^^ setese, 194 -->
+<indexterm><primary>setese</primary></indexterm>
<quote>tesete</quote>) swap the x2 and x3 places, whereas
<quote>texete</quote>(or
<quote>xetexe</quote>) swap the x3 and x5 places.)</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter9-section5">
<title>5. Modal places: FIhO, FEhU</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>fi'o</cmavo>
@@ -628,22 +706,28 @@
<quote>fi'o kanla</quote>, semantically it belongs in the x1 place of
<quote>kanla</quote>. The selbri may be terminated with
<quote>fe'u</quote>(of selma'o FEhU), an elidable terminator which is rarely required unless a non-logical connective follows the tag (omitting
<quote>fe'u</quote>in that case would make the connective affect the selbri).</para>
<para>The term for such an added place is a
<quote>modal place</quote>, as distinguished from the regular numbered places. (This use of the word
<quote>modal</quote>is specific to the Loglan Project, and does not agree with the standard uses in either logic or linguistics, but is now too entrenched to change easily.) The
<quote>fi'o</quote>construction marking a modal place is called a
<quote>modal tag</quote>, and the sumti which follows it a
<quote>modal sumti</quote>; the purely Lojban terms
+<!-- ^^ modal sumti: and FA marking, 195; as first place of modal tag selbri, 195; definition (see also seltcita sumti), 195; effect on place structure, 195; leaving vague, 201; position in bridi, 195; unspecified, 201 -->
+<!-- ^^ seltcita sumti: definition (see also modal sumti), 195 -->
+<indexterm><primary>seltcita sumti</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>modal sumti</primary></indexterm>
<quote>sumti tcita</quote>and
<quote>seltcita sumti</quote>, respectively, are also commonly used. Modal sumti may be placed anywhere within the bridi, in any order; they have no effect whatever on the rules for assigning unmarked bridi to numbered places, and they may not be marked with FA cmavo.</para>
+<!-- ^^ seltcita sumti: definition (see also modal sumti), 195 -->
+<indexterm><primary>seltcita sumti</primary></indexterm>
<para>Consider
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section5-example1" />again. Another way to view the situation is to consider the speaker's left eye as a tool, a tool for seeing. The relevant selbri then becomes
<quote>pilno</quote>, whose place structure is</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
pilno: x1 uses x2 as a tool for purpose x3
</programlisting>
<para>and we can rewrite
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section5-example1" />as</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Lu15">
<title>
@@ -653,84 +737,108 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska do fi'o se pilno le zunle kanla</jbo>
<gloss>I see you [modal] [conversion] use: the left eye.</gloss>
<en>I see you using my left eye.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the selbri belonging to the modal is
<quote>se pilno</quote>. The conversion of
<quote>pilno</quote>is necessary in order to get the
<quote>tool</quote>place into x1, since only x1 can be the modal sumti. The
+<!-- ^^ modal sumti: and FA marking, 195; as first place of modal tag selbri, 195; definition (see also seltcita sumti), 195; effect on place structure, 195; leaving vague, 201; position in bridi, 195; unspecified, 201 -->
+<!-- ^^ seltcita sumti: definition (see also modal sumti), 195 -->
+<indexterm><primary>seltcita sumti</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>modal sumti</primary></indexterm>
<quote>tool user</quote>place is the x2 of
<quote>se pilno</quote>(because it is the x1 of
<quote>pilno</quote>) and remains unspecified. The tag
<quote>fi'o pilno</quote>would mean
<quote>with tool user</quote>, leaving the tool unspecified.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter9-section6">
<title>6. Modal tags: BAI</title>
<para>There are certain selbri which seem particularly useful in constructing modal tags. In particular,
<quote>pilno</quote>is one of them. The place structure of
<quote>pilno</quote>is:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
pilno: x1 uses x2 as a tool for purpose x3
</programlisting>
<para>and almost any selbri which represents an action may need to specify a tool. Having to say
<quote>fi'o se pilno</quote>frequently would make many Lojban sentences unnecessarily verbose and clunky, so an abbreviation is provided in the language design: the compound cmavo
<quote>sepi'o</quote>.</para>
+<!-- ^^ sepi'o, 195 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sepi'o</primary></indexterm>
<para>Here
<quote>se</quote>is used before a cmavo, namely
<quote>pi'o</quote>, rather than before a brivla. The meaning of this cmavo, which belongs to selma'o BAI, is exactly the same as that of
+<!-- ^^ pi'o, 195 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pi'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>fi'o pilno fe'u</quote>. Since what we want is a tag based on
<quote>se pilno</quote>rather than
<quote>pilno</quote>- the tool, not the tool user - the grammar allows a BAI cmavo to be converted using a SE cmavo.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section5-example2" />may therefore be rewritten as:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-N32m">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e6d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section6-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska do sepi'o le zunle kanla</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ sepi'o, 195 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sepi'o</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I see you with-tool: the left eye</gloss>
<en>I see you using my left eye.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The compound cmavo
<quote>sepi'o</quote>is much shorter than
+<!-- ^^ sepi'o, 195 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sepi'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>fi'o se pilno [fe'u]</quote>and can be thought of as a single word meaning
<quote>with-tool</quote>. The modal tag
<quote>pi'o</quote>, with no
+<!-- ^^ pi'o, 195 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pi'o</primary></indexterm>
<quote>se</quote>, similarly means
<quote>with-tool-user</quote>, probably a less useful concept. Nevertheless, the parallelism with the place structure of
<quote>pilno</quote>makes the additional syllable worthwhile.</para>
<para>Some BAI cmavo make sense with as well as without a SE cmavo; for example,
<quote>ka'a</quote>, the BAI corresponding to the gismu
+<!-- ^^ ka'a, 196 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ka'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>klama</quote>, has five usable forms corresponding to the five places of
<quote>klama</quote>respectively:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ka'a with-goer
+<!-- ^^ ka'a, 196 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ka'a</primary></indexterm>
seka'a with-destination
teka'a with-origin
veka'a with-route
xeka'a with-means-of-transport
</programlisting>
<para>Any of these tags may be used to provide modal places for bridi, as in the following examples:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-r0QA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e6d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section6-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .eivn. cu vecnu loi flira cinta ka'a mi</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ka'a, 196 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ka'a</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>Avon sells a-mass-of face paint with-goer me.</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ Avon: example, 196 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Avon</primary></indexterm>
<en>I am a traveling cosmetics salesperson for Avon.</en>
+<!-- ^^ Avon: example, 196 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Avon</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section6-example2" />may seem a bit strained, but it illustrates the way in which an existing selbri,
<quote>vecnu</quote>in this case, may have a place added to it which might otherwise seem utterly unrelated.)</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-sE2t">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e6d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section6-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c9e6d4" />
@@ -749,130 +857,188 @@
<en>A boat from New York!</en>
<jbo>do bajra veka'a lo djine</jbo>
<gloss>You run with-route a circle.</gloss>
<en>You are running in circles.</en>
<jbo>mi citka xeka'a le vinji</jbo>
<gloss>I eat with-means-of-transport the airplane.</gloss>
<en>I eat in the airplane.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>There are sixty-odd cmavo of selma'o BAI, based on selected gismu that seemed useful in a variety of settings. The list is somewhat biased toward English, because many of the cmavo were selected on the basis of corresponding English prepositions and preposition compounds such as
+<!-- ^^ prepositions: cmavo as Lojban equivalents, 50 -->
+<indexterm><primary>prepositions</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ English prepositions: contrasted with modal tags in preciseness, 196 -->
+<!-- ^^ prepositions: cmavo as Lojban equivalents, 50 -->
+<indexterm><primary>prepositions</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>English prepositions</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ prepositions: cmavo as Lojban equivalents, 50 -->
+<indexterm><primary>prepositions</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ basis: example, 317 -->
+<indexterm><primary>basis</primary></indexterm>
<quote>with</quote>,
<quote>without</quote>, and
<quote>by means of</quote>. The BAI cmavo, however, are far more precise than English prepositions, because their meanings are fixed by the place structures of the corresponding gismu.</para>
+<!-- ^^ prepositions: cmavo as Lojban equivalents, 50 -->
+<indexterm><primary>prepositions</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ English prepositions: contrasted with modal tags in preciseness, 196 -->
+<!-- ^^ prepositions: cmavo as Lojban equivalents, 50 -->
+<indexterm><primary>prepositions</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>English prepositions</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ prepositions: cmavo as Lojban equivalents, 50 -->
+<indexterm><primary>prepositions</primary></indexterm>
<para>All BAI cmavo have the form CV'V or CVV. Most of them are CV'V, where the C is the first consonant of the corresponding gismu and the two Vs are the two vowels of the gismu. The table in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section16" />shows the exceptions.</para>
<para>There is one additional BAI cmavo that is not derived from a gismu:
<quote>do'e</quote>. This cmavo is used when an extra place is needed, but it seems useful to be vague about the semantic implications of the extra place:</para>
+<!-- ^^ do'e, 197; compared with English of, 197 -->
+<indexterm><primary>do'e</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-2vMd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e6d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section6-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo nanmu be do'e le berti cu klama le tcadu</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ do'e, 197; compared with English of, 197 -->
+<indexterm><primary>do'e</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>Some man [related to] the north came to-the city.</gloss>
<en>A man of the north came to the city.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here
<quote>le berti</quote>is provided as a modal place of the selbri
<quote>nanmu</quote>, but its exact significance is vague, and is paralleled in the colloquial translation by the vague English preposition
<quote>of</quote>.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section6-example7" />also illustrates a modal place bound into a selbri with
<quote>be</quote>. This construction is useful when the selbri of a description requires a modal place; this and other uses of
<quote>be</quote>are more fully explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter5" />.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter9-section7">
<title>7. Modal sentence connection: the causals</title>
+<!-- ^^ causals: claiming the relation contrasted with claiming cause and/or effect and/or relation, 198; gismu, 197; modal, 197 -->
+<indexterm><primary>causals</primary></indexterm>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ri'a</cmavo>
<selmaho>BAI</selmaho>
<description>rinka modal: physical cause</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ki'u</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ ki'u, 197 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ki'u</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>BAI</selmaho>
<description>krinu modal: justification</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>mu'i</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ mu'i, 197 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mu'i</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>BAI</selmaho>
<description>mukti modal: motivation</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ni'i</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ ni'i, 197 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ni'i</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>BAI</selmaho>
<description>nibli modal: logical entailment</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>This section has two purposes. On the one hand, it explains the grammatical construct called
<quote>modal sentence connection</quote>. On the other, it exemplifies some of the more useful BAI cmavo: the causals. (There are other BAI cmavo which have causal implications:
+<!-- ^^ modal sentence connection, 198; condensing, 200; effect on modal, 199; forethought, 199; relation to modal of first sentence in, 199; relation to modal of second sentence in, 199; table of equivalent schemata, 249; with other than causals, 199 -->
+<indexterm><primary>modal sentence connection</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ causals: claiming the relation contrasted with claiming cause and/or effect and/or relation, 198; gismu, 197; modal, 197 -->
+<indexterm><primary>causals</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ja'e</quote>means
<quote>with result</quote>, and so
<quote>seja'e</quote>means
<quote>with cause of unspecified nature</quote>; likewise,
<quote>gau</quote>means
<quote>with agent</quote>and
<quote>tezu'e</quote>means
<quote>with purpose</quote>. These other modal cmavo will not be further discussed here, as my purpose is to explain modal sentence connection rather than Lojbanic views of causation.)</para>
+<!-- ^^ modal sentence connection, 198; condensing, 200; effect on modal, 199; forethought, 199; relation to modal of first sentence in, 199; relation to modal of second sentence in, 199; table of equivalent schemata, 249; with other than causals, 199 -->
+<indexterm><primary>modal sentence connection</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ modal cmavo: basis in gismu place structure, 210; list of irregular derivation, 209; position relative to selbri, 104; regular form for derivation, 208; table with English equivalents, 210 -->
+<indexterm><primary>modal cmavo</primary></indexterm>
<para>There are four causal gismu in Lojban, distinguishing different versions of the relationships lumped in English as
<quote>causal</quote>:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
rinka: event x1 physically causes event x2
krinu: event x1 is the justification for event x2
mukti: event x1 is the (human) motive for event x2
nibli: event x1 logically entails event x2
</programlisting>
<para>Each of these gismu has a related modal:
<quote>ri'a</quote>,
<quote>ki'u</quote>,
+<!-- ^^ ki'u, 197 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ki'u</primary></indexterm>
<quote>mu'i</quote>, and
+<!-- ^^ mu'i, 197 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mu'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>ni'i</quote>respectively. Using these gismu and these modals, we can create various causal sentences with different implications:</para>
+<!-- ^^ ni'i, 197 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ni'i</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-RGdy">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e7d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section7-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c9e7d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section7-example2" />
<anchor xml:id="c9e7d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section7-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c9e7d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section7-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le spati cu banro ri'a le nu do djacu dunda fi le spati</jbo>
<gloss>The plant grows with-physical-cause the event-of you water give to the plant.</gloss>
<en>The plant grows because you water it.</en>
<jbo>la djan. cpacu le pamoi se jinga ki'u le nu la djan. jinga</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ki'u, 197 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ki'u</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>John gets the first prize with-justification the event-of John wins.</gloss>
<en>John got the first prize because he won.</en>
<jbo>mi lebna le cukta mu'i le nu mi viska le cukta</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ mu'i, 197 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mu'i</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I took the book with-motivation the event-of I saw the book.</gloss>
<en>I took the book because I saw it.</en>
<jbo>la sokrates. morsi binxo ni'i le nu la sokrates. remna</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ ni'i, 197 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ni'i</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>Socrates dead-became with-logical-justification Socrates is-human.</gloss>
+<!-- ^^ Socrates: example, 198 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Socrates</primary></indexterm>
<en>Socrates died because Socrates is human.</en>
+<!-- ^^ Socrates: example, 198 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Socrates</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section7-example1" />through
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section7-example4" />, the same English word
<quote>because</quote>is used to translate all four modals, but the types of cause being expressed are quite different. Let us now focus on
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section7-example1" />, and explore some variations on it.</para>
<para>As written,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section7-example1" />claims that the plant grows, but only refers to the event of watering it in an abstraction bridi (abstractions are explained in
+<!-- ^^ abstraction bridi: contrasted with component non-abstraction bridi in meaning, 98; effect on claim of bridi, 198 -->
+<indexterm><primary>abstraction bridi</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11" />) without actually making a claim. If I express
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section7-example1" />, I have said that the plant in fact grows, but I have not said that you actually water it, merely that there is a causal relationship between watering and growing. This is semantically asymmetrical. Suppose I wanted to claim that the plant was being watered, and only mention its growth as ancillary information? Then we could reverse the main bridi and the abstraction bridi, saying:</para>
+<!-- ^^ abstraction bridi: contrasted with component non-abstraction bridi in meaning, 98; effect on claim of bridi, 198 -->
+<indexterm><primary>abstraction bridi</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ibro">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e7d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section7-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do djacu dunda fi le spati seri'a le nu ri banro</jbo>
<gloss>You water-give to the plant with-physical-effect it grows.</gloss>
<en>You water the plant; therefore, it grows.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -902,48 +1068,56 @@
<para>Suppose we wish to claim both events as well as their causal relationship? We can use one of two methods:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-9VRd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e7d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section7-example7" />
<anchor xml:id="c9e7d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section7-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le spati cu banro .iri'abo do djacu dunda fi le spati</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ iri'abo, 198 -->
+<indexterm><primary>iri'abo</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>The plant grows. Because you water-give to the plant.</gloss>
<en>The plant grows because you water it.</en>
<jbo>do djacu dunda fi le spati .iseri'abo le spati cu banro</jbo>
<gloss>You water-give to the plant. Therefore it grows.</gloss>
<en>You water the plant; therefore, it grows.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The compound cmavo
<quote>.iri'abo</quote>and
+<!-- ^^ iri'abo, 198 -->
+<indexterm><primary>iri'abo</primary></indexterm>
<quote>.iseri'abo</quote>serve to connect two bridi, as the initial
<quote>.i</quote>indicates. The final
<quote>bo</quote>is necessary to prevent the modal from
<quote>taking over</quote>the following sumti. If the
<quote>bo</quote>were omitted from
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section7-example7" />we would have:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Wo6K">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e7d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section7-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le spati cu banro .i ri'a do djacu dunda fi le spati</jbo>
<gloss>The plant grows. Because of you, [something] water-gives to the plant.</gloss>
<en>The plant grows. Because of you, water is given to the plant.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Because
<quote>ri'a do</quote>is a modal sumti in
+<!-- ^^ modal sumti: and FA marking, 195; as first place of modal tag selbri, 195; definition (see also seltcita sumti), 195; effect on place structure, 195; leaving vague, 201; position in bridi, 195; unspecified, 201 -->
+<!-- ^^ seltcita sumti: definition (see also modal sumti), 195 -->
+<indexterm><primary>seltcita sumti</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>modal sumti</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section7-example9" />, there is no longer an explicit sumti in the x1 place of
<quote>djacu dunda</quote>, and the translation must be changed.</para>
<para>The effect of sentences like
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section7-example7" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section7-example8" />is that the modal,
<quote>ri'a</quote>in this example, no longer modifies an explicit sumti. Instead, the sumti is implicit, the event given by a full bridi. Furthermore, there is a second implication: that the first bridi fills the x2 place of the gismu
<quote>rinka</quote>; it specifies an event which is the effect. I am therefore claiming three things: that the plant grows, that you have watered it, and that there is a cause-and-effect relationship between the two.</para>
<para>In principle, any modal tag can appear in a sentence connective of the type exemplified by
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section7-example7" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section7-example8" />. However, it makes little sense to use any modals which do not expect events or other abstractions to fill the places of the corresponding gismu. The sentence connective
@@ -955,28 +1129,36 @@
<para>Like many Lojban grammatical constructions, sentence modal connection has both forethought and afterthought forms. (See
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14" />for a more detailed discussion of Lojban connectives.)
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section7" />exemplifies only afterthought modal connection, illustrated here by:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-2D4c">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e8d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section8-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi jgari lei djacu .iri'abo mi jgari le kabri</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ iri'abo, 198 -->
+<indexterm><primary>iri'abo</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I grasp the-mass-of water with-physical-cause I grasp the cup.</gloss>
<gloss>Causing the mass of water to be grasped by me, I grasped the cup.</gloss>
<en>I grasp the water because I grasp the cup.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>An afterthought connection is one that is signaled only by a cmavo (or a compound cmavo, in this case) between the two constructs being connected. Forethought connection uses a signal both before the first construct and between the two: the use of
+<!-- ^^ afterthought connection: contrasted with forethought for grammatical utterances, 352; definition, 199; of operands, 453; of operators, 453 -->
+<indexterm><primary>afterthought connection</primary></indexterm>
<quote>both</quote>and
<quote>and</quote>in the first half of this sentence represents a forethought connection (though not a modal one).</para>
+<!-- ^^ forethought connection: contrasted with afterthought for grammatical utterances, 352; definition, 199; in abstractions, 365; in tenses, 363; observatives, 347; of operands, 453; of operators, 453 -->
+<!-- ^^ observatives: and abstractions, 255; quick-tour version, 15 -->
+<indexterm><primary>observatives</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>forethought connection</primary></indexterm>
<para>To make forethought modal sentence connections in Lojban, place the modal plus
<quote>gi</quote>before the first bridi, and
<quote>gi</quote>between the two. No
<quote>.i</quote>is used within the construct. The forethought equivalent of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section8-example1" />is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-d2b9">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e8d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section8-example2" />
</title>
@@ -999,21 +1181,25 @@
<en>With-physical-effect I grasp the-mass-of water, I grasp the cup.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In English, the sentence
<quote>*Therefore I grasp the water, I grasp the cup</quote>is ungrammatical, because
<quote>therefore</quote>is not grammatically equivalent to
<quote>because</quote>. In Lojban,
<quote>seri'agi</quote>can be used just like
<quote>ri'agi</quote>.</para>
<para>When the two bridi joined by a modal connection have one or more elements (selbri or sumti or both) in common, there are various condensed forms that can be used in place of full modal sentence connection with both bridi completely stated.</para>
+<!-- ^^ modal sentence connection, 198; condensing, 200; effect on modal, 199; forethought, 199; relation to modal of first sentence in, 199; relation to modal of second sentence in, 199; table of equivalent schemata, 249; with other than causals, 199 -->
+<indexterm><primary>modal sentence connection</primary></indexterm>
<para>When the bridi are the same except for a single sumti, as in Examples 8.1 through 8.3, then a sumti modal connection may be employed:</para>
+<!-- ^^ sumti modal connection, 200 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sumti modal connection</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-o7FG">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e8d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section8-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi jgari ri'agi le kabri gi lei djacu</jbo>
<en>I grasp because the cup, the-mass-of water.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1040,20 +1226,22 @@
<anchor xml:id="c9e8d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section8-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>nu'i mu'igi mi le cukta la djan. gi la djan. lei jdini mi nu'u dunda</jbo>
<en>[start] because I, the book, John; John, the-mass-of money, me [end] gives.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here there are three sumti in each half of the termset, because the two bridi share only their selbri.</para>
<para>There is no modal connection between selbri as such: bridi which differ only in the selbri can be modally connected using bridi-tail modal connection. The bridi-tail construct is more fully explained in
+<!-- ^^ bridi-tail modal connection, 200 -->
+<indexterm><primary>bridi-tail modal connection</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14" />, but essentially it consists of a selbri with optional sumti following it.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section7-example3" />is suitable for bridi-tail connection, and could be shortened to:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Do9b">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e8d7" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section8-example7" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi mu'igi viska le cukta gi lebna le cukta</jbo>
<en>I, because saw the book, took the book.</en>
@@ -1114,40 +1302,48 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>vei</quote>and
<quote>ve'o</quote>represent mathematical parentheses, and are required so that
<quote>ni'igi</quote>affects more than just the immediately following operand, namely the first
<quote>re</quote>. (The right parenthesis,
<quote>ve'o</quote>, is an elidable terminator.) As usual, no English translation does
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section8-example11" />justice.</para>
<para>Note: Due to restrictions on the Lojban parsing algorithm, it is not possible to form modal connectives using the
+<!-- ^^ modal connectives: fi'o prohibited in, 201 -->
+<indexterm><primary>modal connectives</primary></indexterm>
<quote>fi'o</quote>-plus-selbri form of modal. Only the predefined modals of selma'o BAI can be compounded as shown in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section7" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section8" />.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter9-section9">
<title>9. Modal selbri</title>
<para>Consider the example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-bT4c">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e9d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section9-example1" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi tavla bau la lojban. bai tu'a la frank.</jbo>
<gloss>I speak in-language Lojban with-compeller some-act-by Frank.</gloss>
<en>I speak in Lojban, under compulsion by Frank.</en>
+<!-- ^^ under compulsion: example, 201 -->
+<indexterm><primary>under compulsion</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section9-example1" />has two modal sumti, using the modals
+<!-- ^^ modal sumti: and FA marking, 195; as first place of modal tag selbri, 195; definition (see also seltcita sumti), 195; effect on place structure, 195; leaving vague, 201; position in bridi, 195; unspecified, 201 -->
+<!-- ^^ seltcita sumti: definition (see also modal sumti), 195 -->
+<indexterm><primary>seltcita sumti</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>modal sumti</primary></indexterm>
<quote>bau</quote>and
<quote>bai</quote>. Suppose we wanted to specify the language explicitly but be vague about who's doing the compelling. We can simplify
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section9-example1" />to:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-dbSy">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e9d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section9-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi tavla bau la lojban. bai [ku].</jbo>
@@ -1175,20 +1371,22 @@
<anchor xml:id="c9e9d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section9-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>bau [ku] bai ku mi tavla</jbo>
<en>In-some-language under-compulsion I speak.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>An alternative to using
<quote>ku</quote>is to place the modal cmavo right before the selbri, following the
+<!-- ^^ modal cmavo: basis in gismu place structure, 210; list of irregular derivation, 209; position relative to selbri, 104; regular form for derivation, 208; table with English equivalents, 210 -->
+<indexterm><primary>modal cmavo</primary></indexterm>
<quote>cu</quote>which often appears there. When a modal is present, the
<quote>cu</quote>is almost never necessary.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-613h">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e9d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section9-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi bai tavla bau la lojban.</jbo>
<en>I compelledly speak in-language Lojban.</en>
@@ -1228,20 +1426,22 @@
</example>
<para>There are two other uses of modals. A modal can be attached to a pair of bridi-tails that have already been connected by a logical, non-logical, or modal connection (see
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14" />for more on logical and non-logical connections):</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-vCzL">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e9d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section9-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi bai ke ge klama le zarci gi cadzu le bisli [ke'e]</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ bai ke, 202 -->
+<indexterm><primary>bai ke</primary></indexterm>
<gloss>I under-compulsion (both go to-the market and walk on-the ice).</gloss>
<en>Under compulsion, I both go to the market and walk on the ice.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the
<quote>bai</quote>is spread over both
<quote>klama le zarci</quote>and
<quote>cadzu le bisli</quote>, and the
<quote>ge ... gi</quote>represents the logical connection
<quote>both-and</quote>between the two.</para>
@@ -1273,108 +1473,148 @@
<selmaho>GOI</selmaho>
<description>restrictive relative phrase</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ne</cmavo>
<selmaho>GOI</selmaho>
<description>incidental relative phrase</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>mau</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ mau, 203, 432; avoiding in favor of seme'a, 203 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mau</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>BAI</selmaho>
<description>zmadu modal</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>me'a</cmavo>
+<!-- ^^ me'a, 203; avoiding in favor of semau, 203 -->
+<indexterm><primary>me'a</primary></indexterm>
<selmaho>BAI</selmaho>
<description>mleca modal</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>Relative phrases and clauses are explained in much more detail in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter8" />. However, there is a construction which combines a modal with a relative phrase which is relevant to this chapter. Consider the following examples of relative clauses:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-vuYy">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e10d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section10-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c9e10d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section10-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .apasionatas. poi se cusku la .artr. rubnstain. cu se nelci mi</jbo>
<en>The Appassionata which is-expressed-by Arthur Rubinstein is-liked-by me.</en>
+<!-- ^^ Appassionata: example, 202 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Appassionata</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>la .apasionatas. noi se finti la betovn. cu se nelci mi</jbo>
<en>The Appassionata, which is-created-by Beethoven, is-liked-by me.</en>
+<!-- ^^ Beethoven: example, 202 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Beethoven</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ Appassionata: example, 202 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Appassionata</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section10-example1" />,
<quote>la .apasionatas.</quote>refers to a particular performance of the sonata, namely the one performed by Rubinstein. Therefore, the relative clause
<quote>poi se cusku</quote>uses the cmavo
<quote>poi</quote>(of selma'o NOI) to restrict the meaning of
<quote>la .apasionatas</quote>to the performance in question.</para>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section10-example2" />, however,
<quote>la .apasionatas.</quote>refers to the sonata as a whole, and the information that it was composed by Beethoven is merely incidental. The cmavo
+<!-- ^^ Beethoven: example, 202 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Beethoven</primary></indexterm>
<quote>noi</quote>(also of selma'o NOI) expresses the incidental nature of this relationship.</para>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>pe</quote>and
<quote>ne</quote>(of selma'o GOI) are roughly equivalent to
<quote>poi</quote>and
<quote>noi</quote>respectively, but are followed by sumti rather than full bridi. We can abbreviate
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section10-example1" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section10-example2" />to:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-JtC7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e10d3" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section10-example3" />
<anchor xml:id="c9e10d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section10-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .apasionatas pe la .artr. rubnstain. se nelci mi</jbo>
<en>The Appassionata of Arthur Rubinstein is-liked-by me.</en>
+<!-- ^^ Appassionata: example, 202 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Appassionata</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>la .apasionatas ne la betovn. se nelci mi</jbo>
<en>The Appassionata, which is of Beethoven, is-liked-by me.</en>
+<!-- ^^ Beethoven: example, 202 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Beethoven</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ Appassionata: example, 202 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Appassionata</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the precise selbri of the relative clauses is lost: all we can tell is that the Appassionata is connected in some way with Rubinstein (in
+<!-- ^^ Appassionata: example, 202 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Appassionata</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section10-example3" />) and Beethoven (in
+<!-- ^^ Beethoven: example, 202 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Beethoven</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section10-example4" />), and that the relationships are respectively restrictive and incidental.</para>
<para>It happens that both
<quote>cusku</quote>and
<quote>finti</quote>have BAI cmavo, namely
<quote>cu'u</quote>and
+<!-- ^^ cu'u, 203 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cu'u</primary></indexterm>
<quote>fi'e</quote>. We can recast
+<!-- ^^ fi'e, 203 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fi'e</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section10-example3" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section10-example4" />as:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-oIoY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e10d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section10-example5" />
<anchor xml:id="c9e10d6" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section10-example6" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .apasionatas pe cu'u la .artr. rubnstain. cu se nelci mi</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ cu'u, 203 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cu'u</primary></indexterm>
<en>The Appassionata expressed-by Arthur Rubinstein is-liked-by me.</en>
+<!-- ^^ Appassionata: example, 202 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Appassionata</primary></indexterm>
<jbo>la .apasionatas ne fi'e la betovn. cu se nelci mi</jbo>
+<!-- ^^ fi'e, 203 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fi'e</primary></indexterm>
<en>The Appassionata, invented-by Beethoven, is-liked-by me.</en>
+<!-- ^^ Beethoven: example, 202 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Beethoven</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ Appassionata: example, 202 -->
+<indexterm><primary>Appassionata</primary></indexterm>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section10-example5" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section10-example6" />have the full semantic content of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section10-example1" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section10-example2" />respectively.</para>
<para>Modal relative phrases are often used with the BAI cmavo
<quote>mau</quote>and
+<!-- ^^ mau, 203, 432; avoiding in favor of seme'a, 203 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mau</primary></indexterm>
<quote>me'a</quote>, which are based on the comparative gismu
+<!-- ^^ me'a, 203; avoiding in favor of semau, 203 -->
+<indexterm><primary>me'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>zmadu</quote>(more than) and
<quote>mleca</quote>(less than) respectively. The place structures are:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
zmadu: x1 is more than x2 in property/quantity x3 by amount x4
mleca: x1 is less than x2 in property/quantity x3 by amount x4
</programlisting>
<para>Here are some examples:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-Jr4V">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e10d7" />
@@ -1383,83 +1623,111 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la frank. nelci la betis. ne semau la meiris.</jbo>
<gloss>Frank likes Betty, which-is more-than Mary.</gloss>
<en>Frank likes Betty more than (he likes) Mary.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section10-example7" />requires that Frank likes Betty, but adds the information that his liking for Betty exceeds his liking for Mary. The modal appears in the form
<quote>semau</quote>because the x2 place of
<quote>zmadu</quote>is the basis for comparison: in this case, Frank's liking for Mary.</para>
+<!-- ^^ comparison: claims related to based on form, 204 -->
+<indexterm><primary>comparison</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ basis: example, 317 -->
+<indexterm><primary>basis</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-ecf1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e10d8" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section10-example8" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la frank. nelci la meiris. ne seme'a la betis.</jbo>
<gloss>Frank likes Mary, which-is less-than Betty.</gloss>
<en>Frank likes Mary less than (he likes) Betty.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here we are told that Frank likes Mary less than he likes Betty; the information about the comparison is the same. It would be possible to rephrase
+<!-- ^^ comparison: claims related to based on form, 204 -->
+<indexterm><primary>comparison</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section10-example7" />using
<quote>me'a</quote>rather than
+<!-- ^^ me'a, 203; avoiding in favor of semau, 203 -->
+<indexterm><primary>me'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>semau</quote>, and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section10-example8" />using
<quote>mau</quote>rather than
+<!-- ^^ mau, 203, 432; avoiding in favor of seme'a, 203 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mau</primary></indexterm>
<quote>seme'a</quote>, but such usage would be unnecessarily confusing. Like many BAI cmavo,
<quote>mau</quote>and
+<!-- ^^ mau, 203, 432; avoiding in favor of seme'a, 203 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mau</primary></indexterm>
<quote>me'a</quote>are more useful when converted with
+<!-- ^^ me'a, 203; avoiding in favor of semau, 203 -->
+<indexterm><primary>me'a</primary></indexterm>
<quote>se</quote>.</para>
<para>If the
<quote>ne</quote>were omitted in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section10-example7" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section10-example8" />, the modal sumti (
+<!-- ^^ modal sumti: and FA marking, 195; as first place of modal tag selbri, 195; definition (see also seltcita sumti), 195; effect on place structure, 195; leaving vague, 201; position in bridi, 195; unspecified, 201 -->
+<!-- ^^ seltcita sumti: definition (see also modal sumti), 195 -->
+<indexterm><primary>seltcita sumti</primary></indexterm>
+<indexterm><primary>modal sumti</primary></indexterm>
<quote>la meiris.</quote>and
<quote>la betis.</quote>respectively) would become attached to the bridi as a whole, producing a very different translation.
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section10-example8" />would become:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-5QHA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e10d9" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section10-example9" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la frank. nelci la meiris. seme'a la betis.</jbo>
<gloss>Frank likes Mary is-less-than Betty.</gloss>
<en>Frank's liking Mary is less than Betty.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which compares a liking with a person, and is therefore nonsense.</para>
<para>Pure comparison, which states only the comparative information but says nothing about whether Frank actually likes either Mary or Betty (he may like neither, but dislike Betty less), would be expressed differently, as:</para>
+<!-- ^^ comparison: claims related to based on form, 204 -->
+<indexterm><primary>comparison</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-AAQp">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e10d10" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section10-example10" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ni la frank. nelci la betis. cu zmadu</jbo>
<gloss>le ni la frank. nelci la meiris.</gloss>
<gloss>The quantity-of Frank's liking Betty is-more-than</gloss>
<en>the quantity-of Frank's liking Mary.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The mechanisms explained in this section are appropriate to many modals other than
<quote>semau</quote>and
<quote>seme'a</quote>. Some other modals that are often associated with relative phrases are:
<quote>seba'i</quote>(
+<!-- ^^ seba'i, 204 -->
+<indexterm><primary>seba'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>instead of</quote>),
<quote>ci'u</quote>(
+<!-- ^^ ci'u, 204 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ci'u</primary></indexterm>
<quote>on scale</quote>),
<quote>de'i</quote>(
+<!-- ^^ de'i, 204 -->
+<indexterm><primary>de'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>dated</quote>),
<quote>du'i</quote>(
+<!-- ^^ du'i, 204 -->
+<indexterm><primary>du'i</primary></indexterm>
<quote>as much as</quote>). Some BAI tags can be used equally well in relative phrases or attached to bridi; others seem useful only attached to bridi. But it is also possible that the usefulness of particular BAI modals is an English-speaker bias, and that speakers of other languages may find other BAIs useful in divergent ways.</para>
<para>Note: The uses of modals discussed in this section are applicable both to BAI modals and to
<quote>fi'o</quote>-plus-selbri modals.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter9-section11">
<title>11. Mixed modal connection</title>
<para>It is possible to mix logical connection (explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14" />) with modal connection, in a way that simultaneously asserts the logical connection and the modal relationship. Consider the sentences:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-4qz4">
<title>
@@ -1493,35 +1761,41 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci do .ijeki'ubo mi nelci la djein.</jbo>
<en>I like you. And justified-by I like Jane.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the two sentences
<quote>mi nelci do</quote>and
<quote>mi nelci la djein.</quote>are simultaneously asserted, their logical connection is asserted, and their causal relationship is asserted. The logical connective
<quote>je</quote>comes before the modal
<quote>ki'u</quote>in all such mixed connections.</para>
+<!-- ^^ ki'u, 197 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ki'u</primary></indexterm>
<para>Since
<quote>mi nelci do</quote>and
<quote>mi nelci la djein.</quote>differ only in the final sumti, we can transform
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section11-example3" />into a mixed sumti connection:</para>
+<!-- ^^ sumti connection: afterthought, 340; forethought, 341 -->
+<indexterm><primary>sumti connection</primary></indexterm>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-gE1z">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e11d4" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section11-example4" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci do .eki'ubo la djein.</jbo>
<en>I like you and/because Jane.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that this connection is an afterthought one. Mixed connectives are always afterthought; forethought connectives must be either logical or modal.</para>
+<!-- ^^ forethought connectives: with tense, 364 -->
+<indexterm><primary>forethought connectives</primary></indexterm>
<para>There are numerous other afterthought logical and non-logical connectives that can have modal information planted within them. For example, a bridi-tail connected version of
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section11-example4" />would be:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-7LmA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e11d5" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section11-example5" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci do gi'eki'ubo nelci la djein.</jbo>
<en>I like you and/because like Jane.</en>
@@ -1573,20 +1847,22 @@
<quote>fi'o</quote>-plus-selbri modals.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter9-section12">
<title>12. Modal conversion: JAI</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>jai</cmavo>
<selmaho>JAI</selmaho>
<description>modal conversion</description>
+<!-- ^^ modal conversion: access to original first place with fai, 206; grammar of, 206; place structure of, 206; with no modal specified, 206 -->
+<indexterm><primary>modal conversion</primary></indexterm>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>fai</cmavo>
<selmaho>FA</selmaho>
<description>modal place structure tag</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>So far, conversion of numbered bridi places with SE and the addition of modal places with BAI have been two entirely separate operations. However, it is possible to convert a selbri in such a way that, rather than exchanging two numbered places, a modal place is made into a numbered place. For example,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-KMMX">
<title>
@@ -1595,41 +1871,49 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cusku bau la lojban.</jbo>
<en>I express [something] in-language Lojban.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>has an explicit x1 place occupied by
<quote>mi</quote>and an explicit
<quote>bau</quote>place occupied by
<quote>la lojban.</quote>To exchange these two, we use a modal conversion operator consisting of
+<!-- ^^ modal conversion: access to original first place with fai, 206; grammar of, 206; place structure of, 206; with no modal specified, 206 -->
+<indexterm><primary>modal conversion</primary></indexterm>
<quote>jai</quote>(of selma'o JAI) followed by the modal cmavo. Thus, the modal conversion of
+<!-- ^^ modal conversion: access to original first place with fai, 206; grammar of, 206; place structure of, 206; with no modal specified, 206 -->
+<indexterm><primary>modal conversion</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ modal cmavo: basis in gismu place structure, 210; list of irregular derivation, 209; position relative to selbri, 104; regular form for derivation, 208; table with English equivalents, 210 -->
+<indexterm><primary>modal cmavo</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section12-example1" />is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-KjyW">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e12d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section12-example2" />
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la lojban. jai bau cusku fai mi</jbo>
<en>Lojban is-the-language-of-expression used-by me.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section12-example2" />, the modal place
<quote>la lojban.</quote>has become the x1 place of the new selbri
<quote>jai bau cusku</quote>. What has happened to the old x1 place? There is no numbered place for it to move to, so it moves to a special
<quote>unnumbered place</quote>marked by the tag
<quote>fai</quote>of selma'o FA.</para>
<para>Note: For the purposes of place numbering,
<quote>fai</quote>behaves like
<quote>fi'a</quote>; it does not affect the numbering of the other places around it.</para>
+<!-- ^^ fi'a, 191; effect on subsequent untagged sumti, 192 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fi'a</primary></indexterm>
<para>Like SE conversions, JAI conversions are especially convenient in descriptions. We may refer to
<quote>the language of an expression</quote>as
<quote>le jai bau cusku</quote>, for example.</para>
<para>In addition, it is grammatical to use
<quote>jai</quote>without a following modal. This usage is not related to modals, but is explained here for completeness. The effect of
<quote>jai</quote>by itself is to send the x1 place, which should be an abstraction, into the
<quote>fai</quote>position, and to raise one of the sumti from the abstract sub-bridi into the x1 place of the main bridi. This feature is discussed in more detail in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter11" />. The following two examples mean the same thing:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-DSQS">
<title>
@@ -1685,20 +1969,22 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le spati cu banro na'emu'i le nu</jbo>
<gloss>do djacu dunda fi le spati</gloss>
<gloss>The plant grows other-than-motivated-by the event-of</gloss>
<en>you water-give to the plant.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section13-example2" />says that the relationship between the plant's growth and your watering it is not one of motivation: the plant is not motivated to grow, as plants are not something which can have motivation as a rule. Implicitly, some other relationship between watering and growth exists, but
+<!-- ^^ plants: use of fu'ivla for specific, 61 -->
+<indexterm><primary>plants</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section13-example2" />doesn't say what it is (presumably
<quote>ri'a</quote>).</para>
<para>Note: Modals made with
<quote>fi'o</quote>plus a selbri cannot be negated directly. The selbri can itself be negated either with contradictory or with scalar negation, however.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter9-section14">
<title>14. Sticky modals</title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
@@ -1754,20 +2040,22 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ki tavla</jbo>
<en>I speak (no implication about language or compulsion).</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note: Modals made with
<quote>fi'o</quote>-plus-selbri cannot be made sticky. This is an unfortunate, but unavoidable, restriction.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter9-section15">
<title>15. Logical and non-logical connection of modals</title>
+<!-- ^^ non-logical connection: and elidability of terminators, 354; in mathematical expressions, 361; in tanru, distinguishing from connection of sumti, 354; of individuals into mass, 355; of individuals into set, 355; of modals, 208; of operands, 455; of operators, 455; of sumti, distinguishing from connection in tanru, 354; of termsets, 357 -->
+<indexterm><primary>non-logical connection</primary></indexterm>
<para>Logical and non-logical connectives are explained in detail in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14" />. For the purposes of this chapter, it suffices to point out that a logical (or non-logical) connection between two bridi which differ only in a modal can be reduced to a single bridi with a connective between the modals. As a result,
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section15-example1" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section15-example2" />mean the same thing:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="random-id-2NAa">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e15d1" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section15-example1" />
<anchor xml:id="c9e15d2" />
<anchor xml:id="cll_chapter9-section15-example2" />
@@ -1794,58 +2082,66 @@
</example>
<para>The cmavo
<quote>ce'e</quote>creates a termset containing two terms (termsets are explained in
<xref linkend="cll_chapter14" />and
<xref linkend="cll_chapter16" />). When a termset contains more than one modal tag derived from a single BAI, the convention is that the two tags are derived from a common event.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="cll_chapter9-section16">
<title>16. CV'V cmavo of selma'o BAI with irregular forms</title>
<para>There are 65 cmavo of selma'o BAI, of which all but one (
<quote>do'e</quote>, discussed in
+<!-- ^^ do'e, 197; compared with English of, 197 -->
+<indexterm><primary>do'e</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="cll_chapter9-section6" />), are derived directly from selected gismu. Of these 64 cmavo, 36 are entirely regular and have the form CV'V, where C is the first consonant of the corresponding gismu, and the Vs are the two vowels of the gismu. The remaining BAI cmavo, which are irregular in one way or another, are listed in the table below. The table is divided into sub-tables according to the nature of the exception; some cmavo appear in more than one sub-table, and are so noted.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
cmavo gismu comments
Monosyllables of the form CVV:
bai bapli
bau bangu
cau claxu
fau fasnu
gau gasnu
kai ckaji uses 2nd consonant of gismu
mau zmadu uses 2nd consonant of gismu
+<!-- ^^ mau, 203, 432; avoiding in favor of seme'a, 203 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mau</primary></indexterm>
koi korbi
rai traji uses 2nd consonant of gismu
sau sarcu
tai tamsmi based on lujvo, not gismu
zau zanru
Second consonant of the gismu as the C:
(the gismu is always of the form CCVCV)
ga'a zgana
kai ckaji has CVV form (monosyllable)
ki'i ckini
la'u klani has irregular 2nd V
le'a klesi has irregular 2nd V
mau zmadu has CVV form (monosyllable)
+<!-- ^^ mau, 203, 432; avoiding in favor of seme'a, 203 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mau</primary></indexterm>
me'e cmene
ra'a srana
ra'i krasi
rai traji has CVV form (monosyllable)
ti'i stidi
tu'i stuzi
Irregular 2nd V:
fi'e finti
+<!-- ^^ fi'e, 203 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fi'e</primary></indexterm>
la'u klani uses 2nd consonant of gismu
le'a klesi uses 2nd consonant of gismu
ma'e marji
mu'u mupli
ti'u tcika
va'o vanbi
Special cases:
ri'i lifri uses 3rd consonant of gismu
@@ -1870,83 +2166,117 @@
bau bangu in language in language of
be'i benji sent by transmitting
te=sent to ve=with transmit origin
xe=transmitted via
ca'i catni by authority of with authority over
cau claxu lacked by without
ci'e ciste in system with system function
te=of system components
ci'o cinmo felt by feeling emotion
ci'u ckilu on the scale on scale measuring
+<!-- ^^ ci'u, 204 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ci'u</primary></indexterm>
cu'u cusku as said by expressing
+<!-- ^^ cu'u, 203 -->
+<indexterm><primary>cu'u</primary></indexterm>
te=as told to ve=expressed in medium
de'i detri dated on the same date as
+<!-- ^^ de'i, 204 -->
+<indexterm><primary>de'i</primary></indexterm>
di'o diklo at the locus of at specific locus
do'e ----- vaguely related to
+<!-- ^^ do'e, 197; compared with English of, 197 -->
+<indexterm><primary>do'e</primary></indexterm>
du'i dunli as much as equal to
+<!-- ^^ dunli: contrasted with du, 163, 439 -->
+<indexterm><primary>dunli</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ du'i, 204 -->
+<indexterm><primary>du'i</primary></indexterm>
du'o djuno according to knowing facts
te=knowing about
ve=under epistemology
fa'e fatne reverse of in reversal of
fau fasnu in the event of
fi'e finti created by creating work
+<!-- ^^ fi'e, 203 -->
+<indexterm><primary>fi'e</primary></indexterm>
te=created for purpose
ga'a zgana to observer observing
te=observed by means
ve=observed under conditions
gau gasnu with agent as agent in doing
ja'e jalge resulting in results because of
ja'i javni by rule by rule prescribing
ji'e jimte up to limit as a limit of
ji'o jitro under direction controlling
ji'u jicmu based on supporting
ka'a klama gone to by with destination
+<!-- ^^ ka'a, 196 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ka'a</primary></indexterm>
te=with origin ve=via route
xe=by transport mode
ka'i krati represented by on behalf of
kai ckaji characterizing with property
ki'i ckini as relation of related to
te=with relation
ki'u krinu justified by with justified result
+<!-- ^^ ki'u, 197 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ki'u</primary></indexterm>
koi korbi bounded by as boundary of
te=bordering
ku'u kulnu in culture in culture of
la'u klani as quantity of in quantity
le'a klesi in category as category of
te=defined by quality
li'e lidne led by leading
ma'e marji of material made from material
te=in material form of
ma'i manri in reference frame as a standard for
+<!-- ^^ reference frame: specifying for direction tenses, 224 -->
+<indexterm><primary>reference frame</primary></indexterm>
+<!-- ^^ ma'i, 224 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ma'i</primary></indexterm>
mau zmadu exceeded by more than
+<!-- ^^ mau, 203, 432; avoiding in favor of seme'a, 203 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mau</primary></indexterm>
me'a mleca undercut by less than
+<!-- ^^ me'a, 203; avoiding in favor of semau, 203 -->
+<indexterm><primary>me'a</primary></indexterm>
me'e cmene with name as a name for
te=as a name to
mu'i mukti motivated by motive therefore
+<!-- ^^ mu'i, 197 -->
+<indexterm><primary>mu'i</primary></indexterm>
mu'u mupli exemplified by as an example of
ni'i nibli entailed by entails
+<!-- ^^ ni'i, 197 -->
+<indexterm><primary>ni'i</primary></indexterm>
pa'a panra in addition to similar to
te=similar in pattern
ve=similar by standard
pa'u pagbu with component as a part of
pi'o pilno used by using tool
+<!-- ^^ pi'o, 195 -->
+<indexterm><primary>pi'o</primary></indexterm>
po'i porsi in the sequence sequenced by rule
pu'a pluka pleased by in order to please
pu'e pruce by process processing from
te=processing into
ve=passing through stages
ra'a srana pertained to by concerning
ra'i krasi from source as an origin of
rai traji with superlative superlative in
te=at extreme ve=superlative among
ri'a rinka caused by causing
ri'i lifri experienced by experiencing
+<!-- ^^ experienced: example, 316 -->
+<indexterm><primary>experienced</primary></indexterm>
sau sarcu requiring necessarily for
te=necessarily under conditions
si'u sidju aided by assisting in
ta'i tadji by method as a method for
tai tamsmi as a form of in form
te=in form similar to
ti'i stidi suggested by suggesting
te=suggested to
ti'u tcika with time at the time of
tu'i stuzi with site as location of
diff --git a/todocbook/README b/todocbook/README
index 29aac60..966282f 100644
--- a/todocbook/README
+++ b/todocbook/README
@@ -69,10 +69,17 @@ on:
docbook2html_preprocess.xsl
identity.xsl
The third pass was pretty limited, and was basically just:
make_cmavo.pl
massage2.sh
(with the .orig trick as above). It create the <cmavo-list>
entries.
+
+The fourth pass was similarily limited, and was just about the
+index:
+
+ make_index.sh
+ cllindex.txt
+ TODO-index
diff --git a/todocbook/TODO-index b/todocbook/TODO-index
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ca46523
--- /dev/null
+++ b/todocbook/TODO-index
@@ -0,0 +1,1507 @@
+# ' symbol: and consonant cluster determination in lujvo, 56; definition (see also apostrophe), 31
+# &: word for, 416
+# (n + 1)(n + 1) = n^2 + 2n + 1: example, 437
+# (n+1)-th rat: example, 448
+# .: word for, 416
+# .1010_2 ( 2^{110_2}: example, 451
+# : , word for, 416
+# +1 + -1 = 0: example, 436
+# -1: example, 433
+#
+# 1 + 1 = 2: example, 435
+#
+# 10^20: example, 451
+#
+# 123: example, 432
+#
+# 12-point: example, 418
+#
+# 2 + 2: example, 262
+#
+# 2 rats + 2 rabbits = 4 animals: example, 456
+#
+# 2/7: example, 433
+#
+# 3 ( 10^8: example, 451
+#
+# 3 grams: example, 435
+#
+# 3.1415: example, 433
+#
+# 4-letter rafsi: definition, 57
+#
+# 5-letter rafsi: definition, 57
+#
+# 8 out of ten: example, 448
+# a: example, 322
+# a is letteral: example, 422
+# A selma'o, 336, 340, 341, 352, 354, 361, 364, 453, 489
+# a/an: contrasted with the, 322
+# an: example, 322
+# but/and equivalence, 25
+# C/C string: as a symbol for a permissible consonant pair, 50
+# C/CC string: as a symbol for a consonant triple, 50
+# di'u-series pro-sumti /r dihuseries, 148
+# me/du equivalence, 99
+# or": "and/or" contrasted with "either ... or ... but not both, 334
+# pro-sumti for speaker/listener/others: as masses, 146; relation to joi, 146
+# rounded/unrounded vowels, 31
+# space/time metaphor: expressing direction mapping for, 231
+# tan(pi/2) = infinity: example, 456
+# tense direction/distance as sumti tcita: contrasted with event contours, 232
+# this/that in English: compared with ti-series pro-sumti, 147
+# topic/comment: multiple sentence, 468
+# voiced/unvoiced consonants: restrictions on, 36
+# when/where/how: example, 250
+# yes/no questions, 321; quick-tour version, 23
+# z = f(x): example, 438
+#
+abbreviated lujvo and plausibility -- has count 0, skipping -- abbreviated lujvo and plausibility, 284
+abstraction contours -- has count 0, skipping -- abstraction contours: compared with contour tenses, 268
+abstraction -- has count 119, skipping -- abstraction(s): achievement, 258; activity, 258; amount, 261; amount contrasted with property, 261; concept, 265; connection, 269; creating new types, 266; event, 256; experience, 265; forethought connection in, 365; grammatical uses, 255; grouping of connectives in, 365; idea, 265; implicit in sumti, 257; logical connection of, 365; making concrete, 267; mental activity, 262; place structure, 255; point-event, 258; predication/sentence, 262; process, 258; property, 259; sentence, contrasted with quotation, 263; simplification to sumti, 266; simplification to sumti with jai, 267; simplification to sumti with tu'a, 266; speaking, writing, etc., 263; state, 258; sumti ellipsis in, 256; syntax, 255; table, 269; truth-value, 262; truth-value contrasted with amount, 262; truth-value and fuzzy logic, 262; types, 265; vague, 265; with knowing, believing, etc., 262; with wonder, doubt, etc., 264
+abstractors -- has count 19, skipping -- abstractors, 502
+accented letters -- has count 0, skipping -- accented letters: considered as distinct from unaccented, 419
+achievative event contour -- has count 0, skipping -- achievative event contour, 228
+achievement abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- achievement abstraction: place structure, 259
+achievement abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- achievement abstraction(s): definition, 258; related tense contours, 269
+achievement event -- has count 0, skipping -- achievement event: described, 258
+acronym names from lerfu words -- has count 0, skipping -- acronym names from lerfu words: assigning final consonant, 424
+acronyms names based on lerfu words -- has count 0, skipping -- acronyms names based on lerfu words: omitting bu, 424; using "z" instead of " ' "in, 424
+activity abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- activity abstraction: place structure, 259
+activity abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- activity abstraction(s): definition, 258; related tense contours, 268
+activity event -- has count 0, skipping -- activity event: described, 258
+actual stop -- has count 0, skipping -- actual stop: contrasted with natural end, 229
+addition -- has count 73, skipping -- addition: a mathematical operator, 436
+addition operator -- has count 0, skipping -- addition operator: contrasted with positive sign, 436
+adjective-noun combination -- has count 0, skipping -- adjective-noun combination: with tanru, 84
+adverb-verb combination -- has count 0, skipping -- adverb-verb combination: with tanru, 84
+affirmative answer -- has count 0, skipping -- affirmative answer: quick-tour version, 23
+afraid of horse -- has count 0, skipping -- afraid of horse: example, 179
+after sleep -- has count 0, skipping -- after sleep: example, 303
+afterthought bridi connectives -- has count 0, skipping -- afterthought bridi connectives: contrasted with forethought bridi connectives, 338
+afterthought connective -- has count 0, skipping -- afterthought connective(s): as complete grammatical utterance, 352; contrasted with forethought connective, 338
+afterthought sentence connection -- has count 0, skipping -- afterthought sentence connection: modal contrasted with tense, 248
+ai -- has count 23, skipping -- ai, 302
+aleph null -- has count 0, skipping -- aleph null: example, 434
+alienable possession -- has count 0, skipping -- alienable possession: definition, 173
+aliens -- has count 0, skipping -- aliens: communication with, 329
+allowable diphthongs -- has count 0, skipping -- allowable diphthongs: in fu'ivla contrasted with in gismu/lujvo, 63
+all-th -- has count 0, skipping -- all-th: example, 447
+alphabet -- has count 44, skipping -- alphabet: Latin used for Lojban, 413; Lojban, 29; words for letters in, rationale, 413; words for non-Lojban letters, rationale, 413
+American Indian languages and evidentials -- has count 0, skipping -- American Indian languages and evidentials, 315
+amount abstraction and mathematics -- has count 0, skipping -- amount abstraction and mathematics, 261
+Amsterdam -- has count 0, skipping -- Amsterdam: example, 38
+anaphoric pro-bridi -- has count 0, skipping -- anaphoric pro-bridi: stability of, 162
+and -- has count 2881, skipping -- and: as non-logical connective, 353; compared with but, 353; contrasted with cross-product, 357
+and earlier -- has count 0, skipping -- and earlier: example, 364
+and then -- has count 39, skipping -- and then: example, 240, 364
+animals -- has count 11, skipping -- animals: use of fu'ivla for specific, 61
+anomalous ordering of lujvo places -- has count 0, skipping -- anomalous ordering of lujvo places, 283
+answers -- has count 14, skipping -- answers, 469; go'i for yes/no questions, 154; to operator questions, 457; to place structure questions, 191; to tense-or-modal questions, 250
+antecedent -- has count 15, skipping -- antecedent: for pro-bridi, 151; for pro-bridi as full bridi, 151
+antecedent of pro-bridi -- has count 0, skipping -- antecedent of pro-bridi: definition, 145
+antecedent of pro-sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- antecedent of pro-sumti: definition, 145
+any -- has count 324, skipping -- any: as a restricted universal claim, 399; as a translation problem, 399; as a universal claim, later restricted, 400; as an existential claim, 400; expressing as existential by variable in subordinate bridi, 401
+apostrophe -- has count 27, skipping -- apostrophe: and consonant cluster determination in lujvo, 56; as not a consonant for morphological discussions, 49; as preferable over comma in names, 33; definition of, 31; example of, 33; purpose of, 31; quick-tour version, 12; type of letter in word-formation, 31; use in vowel pairs, 34; variant of, 31
+approximate numbers -- has count 0, skipping -- approximate numbers: expressing, 442; expressing some exactness of, 443
+Artur Rubenstein -- has count 0, skipping -- Artur Rubenstein: example, 202
+assignable pro-sumti -- has count 11, skipping -- assignable pro-sumti: explicit cancellation of by rebinding, 162; stability of, 162
+assumption -- has count 13, skipping -- assumption: example, 317
+asymmetrical tanru types -- has count 0, skipping -- asymmetrical tanru types: activity + implement-used, 110; cause + effect, 107; characteristic/detail + object, 106; characteristic-time + event, 110; effect + causative agent, 107; elements-in-set + set, 105; energy-source + powered, 110; general-class + sub-class, 106; inhabitant + habitat, 106; locus-of-application + object, 110; miscellaneous, 111; object + component/detail, 106; object + place-sold, 110; object + usual-container, 110; object-giving-characteristic + other-object, 109; object-measured + standard-object, 108; object-of-action + action, 105; object-of-purpose-of-instrument + instrument, 107; overriding-property + object-with-implicit-properties, 108; possessor + object, 106; product + producer, 109; product + source, 108; purpose-of-instrument + instrument, 107; set + element-of-set, 105; similar-appearance-object + object, 109; source + product, 107; source-material + object, 108; typical-place + object, 109; undesired-object + protection-object, 110; whole + part, 109
+at least -- has count 53, skipping -- at least: contrasted with more than, less than, at most, 443; example, 443
+attend school -- has count 0, skipping -- attend school: example, 226
+attitude -- has count 41, skipping -- attitude, 297; avoidance of expression, 322; scalar, 305
+attitudes -- has count 21, skipping -- attitudes: beginning, 314; ceasing, 314; continuing, 314; empathy contrasted with sympathy, 314; expressing changes in, 314
+attitudinal -- has count 53, skipping -- attitudinal: example of scale effect, 305; scope, 474; signaling as non-propositional, 304
+attitudinal answers -- has count 0, skipping -- attitudinal answers: plausibility, 313
+attitudinal categories -- has count 0, skipping -- attitudinal categories, 306; example of effect, 307; mnemonic for, 307; rationale, 306
+attitudinal indicator -- has count 0, skipping -- attitudinal indicator: unspecified, 311
+attitudinal questions -- has count 0, skipping -- attitudinal questions, 313; asking about specific attitude, 313; asking intensity, 313
+attitudinal scale -- has count 0, skipping -- attitudinal scale: as axis in emotion-space, 306; neutral compared with positive + negative, 306; seven-position, 305; stand-alone usage, 305; usage, 305
+attitudinal scales -- has count 0, skipping -- attitudinal scales: rationale for assignment, 304
+attitudinals -- has count 38, skipping -- attitudinals: a- series, 301; affecting whole grammatical structures, 312; ambivalent emotion words, 300; and logic, 392; at beginning of text, 312; attributing emotion to others, 314; benefit in written expression, 312; categories with nai, 307; categories with scale markers, 307; comparison of meaning based on position, 301; complex emotion words, 300; complexity, 310; compound, 298; contours, 314; contrasted with bridi, 303, 306; contrasted with discursives, 317; contrasted with rationalizations of emotion, 306; design benefit, 306; difficult emotion words, 300; e- series, 301; effect of cu'i, 299; effect of nai, 299; emotional contrasted with propositional, 301; emotional/propositional caveat, 302; exceptions, 314; external grammar, 312; grammar of internal compounding, 311; grammar of placement in bridi, 312; i- series, 298, 301; internal grammar, complete, 311; logical language and, 302; negative, 304; neutral, 304; non-speaker attitudes, 314; o- series, 298; order of, 306; placement for prevailing attitude, 297; placement in sentences with "nai", 311; positive, 304; prevailing attitude, 297; propositional contrasted with emotional, 301; propositional effect on claim, 301; propositional indicators, 301; propositional/emotional caveat, 302; pure emotion, 298; rationale for, 303; referent uncertainty, 312; scale of, 304; stand-alone categories, 307; u- series, 298; word-form for primary, 297
+attitudinals and claims -- has count 0, skipping -- attitudinals and claims, 298
+attitudinals and irony -- has count 0, skipping -- attitudinals and irony, 299
+attitudinals and truth value -- has count 0, skipping -- attitudinals and truth value, 298
+attitudinals for emotional reaction -- has count 0, skipping -- attitudinals for emotional reaction, 299
+au -- has count 14, skipping -- au, 302
+author of this book -- has count 0, skipping -- author of this book, 5
+ba -- has count 107, skipping -- ba, 219, 363
+back-counting pro-sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- back-counting pro-sumti, 139
+ba'e -- has count 10, skipping -- ba'e, 416, 479; interaction with bu, 416
+BAhE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- BAhE selma'o, 479, 480, 489
+bai -- has count 21, skipping -- bai, 201
+BAI modal tags -- has count 0, skipping -- BAI modal tags: rationale for, 195
+BAI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- BAI selma'o, 195, 205, 224, 489; as short forms for fi'o constructs, 195; effect of conversion on, 196; form of cmavo in, 197; rationale for selection, 196
+ba'o -- has count 20, skipping -- ba'o, 228; as futureward of event, 229; derivation of word, 228; explanation of derivation, 229
+base -- has count 37, skipping -- base: assumed, 444; changing permanently, 444; non-constant, 444; specifying, 444; vague, 445
+base greater than 16 -- has count 0, skipping -- base greater than 16: compound single-digits contrasted with two digits, 445; expressing numbers in, 445; two digits contrasted with compound single-digits, 445
+base varying for each digit -- has count 0, skipping -- base varying for each digit: separator for, 445
+be -- has count 1573, skipping -- be, 93, 197, 262
+BE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- BE selma'o, 93, 489; terminator for, 490
+bear wrote story -- has count 0, skipping -- bear wrote story: example, 121
+Bears wrote book -- has count 0, skipping -- Bears wrote book: example, 124
+beautiful dog -- has count 0, skipping -- beautiful dog: example, 20
+because -- has count 247, skipping -- because: English word, four varieties of, 198
+begin -- has count 35, skipping -- begin: contrasted with resume, 229
+BEhO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- BEhO selma'o, 93, 490
+bei -- has count 20, skipping -- bei, 93
+BEI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- BEI selma'o, 93, 489
+be'o -- has count 40, skipping -- be'o, 93; effect of ku on elidability of, 94; effect of relative clauses on elidability of, 94; elidability of, 94
+better -- has count 20, skipping -- better: example, 293
+bibliography -- has count 0, skipping -- bibliography, 6
+bicycle race -- has count 0, skipping -- bicycle race: example, 266
+big nose -- has count 0, skipping -- big nose: example, 169
+big nose-pores -- has count 0, skipping -- big nose-pores: example, 170
+BIhE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- BIhE selma'o, 437, 490
+BIhI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- BIhI selma'o, 246, 359, 360, 361, 455, 490; grammar of, 360
+bi'i -- has count 17, skipping -- bi'i, 359, 362
+binary system -- has count 0, skipping -- binary system: specifying numbers in (see also base), 444
+bi'o -- has count 11, skipping -- bi'o, 359
+blue -- has count 128, skipping -- blue: as sad, example, 322
+blue house -- has count 30, skipping -- blue house: example, 193, 349
+blueness -- has count 11, skipping -- blueness: example, 261
+blueness varying -- has count 0, skipping -- blueness varying: example, 261
+bo -- has count 126, skipping -- bo, 86, 198, 238, 240, 342, 343, 349, 361, 364, 459, 466; contrasted with ke for tensed logical connection, 364; contrasted with tu'e for tensed logical connection, 364; for right-grouping in tanru, 87; in jeks for operators, 361; in joiks for operators, 361; in logical connectives, 342; right-grouping, 343
+bo and forethought connectives -- has count 0, skipping -- bo and forethought connectives, 343
+BO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- BO selma'o, 86, 133, 342, 343, 349, 361, 364, 454, 466, 490
+boi -- has count 31, skipping -- boi, 362, 421, 438, 449, 450, 458; effect on elidability of me'u, 449; eliding from lerfu strings, 421; exception before MAI, 458; exception before MOI, 449; exception before ROI, 458; in Polish notation, 438; required between pro-sumti lerfu string and quantifier, 421
+BOI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- BOI selma'o, 421, 490
+bold -- has count 0, skipping -- bold: example, 418
+bomb destroyed fifty miles -- has count 0, skipping -- bomb destroyed fifty miles: example, 360
+boring legalities -- has count 0, skipping -- boring legalities, 8
+borrowing from other language -- has count 0, skipping -- borrowing from other language: fu'ivla as, 53
+bound variable pro-sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- bound variable pro-sumti: stability of, 162
+brackets -- has count 22, skipping -- brackets: use in IPA notation, 29
+bridi -- has count 632, skipping -- bridi: building from selbri and sumti, 187; compared with predication, 11; concept of, 11; definition, 83, 187; definition, quick-tour version, 26; effect of alternate form on sumti order, 188; effect of using non-standard form, 188; exception to sumti place structure in, 188; leaving a sumti place unspecified in with zo'e, 189; leaving end sumti places unspecified in, 189; logical connection with negation, 337; logical connective for, 336; non-standard form, 188; omitting the first sumti place, 188; quick-tour version, 14; relation to selbri, 83; selbri-first as exceptional, 188; standard form of, 188
+bridi negation -- has count 32, skipping -- bridi negation: and DeMorgan's Law, 408; and negation boundary, 408; compared with negation between sentences, 404; multiple, 104; na before selbri compared to naku in prenex, 401; naku in prenex compared to na before selbri, 401; relative order with tense, 103; two forms of, 401
+bridi-based comparison -- has count 0, skipping -- bridi-based comparison: contrasted with comparison with relative phrase, in claims about parts, 204
+bridi-tail -- has count 33, skipping -- bridi-tail: definition, 344, 495
+bridi-tails -- has count 20, skipping -- bridi-tails: eliding vau in, 345; forethought tense connection of, 240
+brivla -- has count 110, skipping -- brivla: as one of the 3 basic word classes, 50; consonant pairs in, 53; definition, 52; definition, quick-tour version, 27; from tanru, 55; properties of, 53; recognition of, 53; relation to bridi, 11; stress on, 40; subtypes of, 53; types, 83; types of, quick-tour version, 20
+brivla as selbri -- has count 0, skipping -- brivla as selbri, 83
+brivla equivalents -- has count 0, skipping -- brivla equivalents, 97
+brivla form -- has count 0, skipping -- brivla form: contrasted with cmavo form, 53; contrasted with cmene form, 53
+broda -- has count 27, skipping -- broda, 151
+broda-series for pro-bridi -- has count 0, skipping -- broda-series for pro-bridi: compared with ko'a-series for pro-sumti, 151
+broda-series pro-bridi -- has count 0, skipping -- broda-series pro-bridi, 151; assigning with cei, 151; use as abstract pattern, 151; use as sample gismu, 151; with no assignment, 151; word-form rationale, 151
+bu -- has count 235, skipping -- bu, 414; and compound cmavo, 416; effect of multiple, 416; effect on preceding word, 414; for extension of lerfu word set, 416; grammar of, 416; interactions, 416, 417; omitting in acronyms names based on lerfu words, 424
+BU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- BU selma'o, 414, 490
+bu'a -- has count 18, skipping -- bu'a, 164, 409
+bu'a-series pro-sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- bu'a-series pro-sumti: for bound variables, 161
+bubu -- has count 0, skipping -- bubu, 416
+but -- has count 617, skipping -- but: compared with and, 353; example, 318
+butter is soft -- has count 0, skipping -- butter is soft: example, 124
+BY selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- BY selma'o, 414, 418, 425, 491; terminator for, 490
+C string -- has count 0, skipping -- C string: as a symbol for a single consonant, 49
+ca -- has count 94, skipping -- ca, 219, 232; compared with bu'u, 219; meaning as a sumti tcita, 232; meaning when following interval specification, 221; rational for, 219
+CAhA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- CAhA selma'o, 243, 491; making sticky, 243; order in tense construct, 243
+CAI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- CAI selma'o, 305, 491
+cancellation of indicators -- has count 0, skipping -- cancellation of indicators, 494
+cancellation of pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignment -- has count 0, skipping -- cancellation of pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignment: with da'o, 162
+cancellation of sumti assignment -- has count 0, skipping -- cancellation of sumti assignment, 492
+ca'o -- has count 14, skipping -- ca'o, 228; derivation of word, 228
+canceling letter shifts -- has count 0, skipping -- canceling letter shifts, 418
+captions to pictures -- has count 0, skipping -- captions to pictures, 7
+carried piano -- has count 0, skipping -- carried piano: example, 353
+carry sack -- has count 0, skipping -- carry sack: example, 205
+carry sack and dog -- has count 0, skipping -- carry sack and dog: example, 241
+Carthage destroyed -- has count 0, skipping -- Carthage destroyed: example, 317
+case -- has count 155, skipping -- case: upper/lower specification, 415
+cat of plastic -- has count 0, skipping -- cat of plastic: example, 160
+cause death -- has count 0, skipping -- cause death: example, 267, 287
+CC string -- has count 0, skipping -- CC string: as a symbol for a permissible initial consonant pair, 50
+CCVVCV fu'ivla -- has count 0, skipping -- CCVVCV fu'ivla: and rafsi fu'ivla proposal, 80
+ce -- has count 61, skipping -- ce, 354, 355
+ce'e -- has count 13, skipping -- ce'e, 208, 347, 399
+CEhE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- CEhE selma'o, 347, 399, 491
+cei for broda-series assignment -- has count 0, skipping -- cei for broda-series assignment: compared with goi for ko'a-series assignment, 151
+CEI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- CEI selma'o, 491
+ce'u -- has count 21, skipping -- ce'u, 161, 260, 261; use in specifying sumti place of property in abstraction, 161
+cessitive event contour -- has count 0, skipping -- cessitive event contour, 228
+chapter numbering -- has count 0, skipping -- chapter numbering, 458
+chapter titles -- has count 0, skipping -- chapter titles: intent of, 4
+character encoding schemes -- has count 0, skipping -- character encoding schemes: application to lerfu words, 425
+characters -- has count 11, skipping -- characters: definition, 425; special, 31
+child on ice -- has count 0, skipping -- child on ice: example, 221
+choose from -- has count 0, skipping -- choose from: example, 355
+ch-sound in English -- has count 0, skipping -- ch-sound in English: representation in Lojban, 31
+claims -- has count 33, skipping -- claims: contrasted with expression of feelings, 298
+clarity of sounds -- has count 0, skipping -- clarity of sounds, 31
+Classical Greek aorist tense -- has count 0, skipping -- Classical Greek aorist tense: compared with Lojban tense, 223
+clause -- has count 98, skipping -- clause: subordinate using abstraction, 255
+closings -- has count 0, skipping -- closings: letter, 325
+cmavo -- has count 2065, skipping -- cmavo: as one of the 3 basic word classes, 50; compound, 51; contrasted with rafsi in usage, 61; contrasted with same-form rafsi in meaning, 56; definition, 50; definition, quick-tour version, 27; diphthongs in, 51; experimental, 51; for experimental use, 51; interaction list, 485; lack of relation of form to grammatical use, 51; rules for pause after Cy-form, 69; simple, 51; stress on, 40, 52; structure of, 51
+cmavo as brivla -- has count 0, skipping -- cmavo as brivla, 495
+cmavo as selbri -- has count 0, skipping -- cmavo as selbri: quick-tour version, 20
+cmavo as sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- cmavo as sumti, 497
+cmavo without rafsi -- has count 0, skipping -- cmavo without rafsi: method of including in lujvo, 60
+cmene -- has count 33, skipping -- cmene: algorithm for, 66; alternatives for restricted sequences in, 66; and analyzability of speech stream, 64; as one of the 3 basic word classes, 50; authority for, 65; avoiding impermissible consonant clusters in, 67; consonant clusters permitted in, 66; definition, 64; examples of, 64; final letter in, 66; from Lojban words, 66; method of including in lujvo, 60; proscribed syllables in, 67; purpose of, 64; rationale for lojbanizing, 64; requirement for pause after, 66; restrictions on form of, 65; rules for, 66; rules for formation, 65; rules for pause before, 68; stress in, 65, 66; unusual stress in, 65
+cmene form -- has count 0, skipping -- cmene form: contrasted with brivla form, 53
+co -- has count 71, skipping -- co, 95
+CO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- CO selma'o, 491
+co'e-series pro-bridi -- has count 0, skipping -- co'e-series pro-bridi, 157
+coffee mixed with tea -- has count 0, skipping -- coffee mixed with tea: example, 359
+coi -- has count 18, skipping -- coi, 136, 324; quick-tour version, 21
+coin heads -- has count 0, skipping -- coin heads: example, 447
+combining words into one -- has count 0, skipping -- combining words into one, 507
+comma -- has count 24, skipping -- comma: definition of, 32; effect on relative clause in English, 171; example of, 32; main use of, 32; optional, 32; quick-tour version, 12; variant of, 32
+command -- has count 10, skipping -- command: contrasted with observative form, 188
+commas in numbers -- has count 0, skipping -- commas in numbers: as numerical punctuation, 433; effect of other notation conventions, 433; with elided digits, 433
+commutative truth functions -- has count 0, skipping -- commutative truth functions, 335
+comparison with relative phrase -- has count 0, skipping -- comparison with relative phrase: contrasted with bridi-based comparison, in claims about parts, 204
+completitive event contour -- has count 0, skipping -- completitive event contour, 228
+complex logical connection -- has count 0, skipping -- complex logical connection: grouping strategies contrasted, 343
+complex negation -- has count 0, skipping -- complex negation: examples, 102
+complex numbers -- has count 0, skipping -- complex numbers: expressing, 434
+components contrasted with mass -- has count 0, skipping -- components contrasted with mass: in properties of, 354
+compound bridi with more than one sumti in common -- has count 0, skipping -- compound bridi with more than one sumti in common: with common sumti first, 345; with vau, 345
+compound cmavo -- has count 41, skipping -- compound cmavo: compared with sequence of simple cmavo, 51; definition, 51; recognition of, 51
+compound letter marker -- has count 0, skipping -- compound letter marker, 505
+compound letters -- has count 0, skipping -- compound letters: native language, representing as distinct letters, 419
+compound logical connectives -- has count 0, skipping -- compound logical connectives: components, 336; naming convention, 336
+compound of gismu -- has count 0, skipping -- compound of gismu: lujvo as, 53
+compound spatial tense -- has count 0, skipping -- compound spatial tense: as direction with-or-without distance, 218; beginning with distance only, 218; effect of different ordering, 218; explanation of, 218; with direction and distance, 218
+compound temporal tense -- has count 0, skipping -- compound temporal tense: beginning with distance only, 220
+compound tense ordering -- has count 0, skipping -- compound tense ordering: Lojban contrasted with English, 218
+concept abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- concept abstraction, 265
+concept abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- concept abstraction(s): place structure, 265
+concrete terms -- has count 0, skipping -- concrete terms: use of fu'ivla for, 61
+confusion -- has count 19, skipping -- confusion: metalinguistic, 321
+confusion about what was said -- has count 0, skipping -- confusion about what was said, 321
+connecting operands -- has count 0, skipping -- connecting operands: with bo in connective, 361; with ke in connective, 361
+connecting operators -- has count 0, skipping -- connecting operators: with bo in connective, 361; with ke in connective, 361
+connection -- has count 147, skipping -- connection: forethought, 494; forethought separator, 495; non-distributed, 356; of bridi-tails, 495; of sumti, 489, 496; of tanru units, 495, 496; simultaneously modal and logical, 204
+connection of operators -- has count 0, skipping -- connection of operators: grouping, 454
+connective answers -- has count 0, skipping -- connective answers: non-logical, 359
+connective question answers -- has count 0, skipping -- connective question answers: contrasted with other languages, 353
+connective -- has count 124, skipping -- connective(s): as complete grammatical utterance, 352; as ungrammatical utterance, 352
+connectives -- has count 107, skipping -- connectives: for abstractions, 269; table by constructs connected, 366
+consonant -- has count 119, skipping -- consonant: definition, 35; effect on syllable count, 35
+consonant-final words -- has count 0, skipping -- consonant-final words: necessity for pause after, 68
+consonants -- has count 59, skipping -- consonants: contrasted with vowels, 33; final, 36; position of, 36; pronunciation of, quick-tour version, 12; restrictions on, 36; syllabic, 34; voiced/unvoiced equivalents, 35; voicing of, 35
+continuitive event contour -- has count 0, skipping -- continuitive event contour, 228
+contradictory negation -- has count 14, skipping -- contradictory negation: using naku before selbri, 405
+contradictory negation of modals -- has count 0, skipping -- contradictory negation of modals: explanation of meaning, 207
+contradictory negation of tenses -- has count 0, skipping -- contradictory negation of tenses: selma'o allowed with, 242
+contributors to this book -- has count 0, skipping -- contributors to this book, 5
+conversion -- has count 45, skipping -- conversion: accessing tense of bridi with jai, 247; definition, 100, 247; effect of multiple on a selbri, 194; effect on BAI, 196; extending scope of, 193; modal, 206, 496; of BAI, 195; of operator places, 459; of selbri, 504; scope of, 193; swapping non-first places, 194; swapping with modal place, 205; using jai, 101
+conversion and tanru -- has count 0, skipping -- conversion and tanru, 100
+conversion into sumti from mekso -- has count 0, skipping -- conversion into sumti from mekso, 436
+conversion of mekso into sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- conversion of mekso into sumti, 436
+conversion of operand into operator -- has count 0, skipping -- conversion of operand into operator, 460
+conversion of operator into operand -- has count 0, skipping -- conversion of operator into operand, 460
+conversion of operator into selbri -- has count 0, skipping -- conversion of operator into selbri, 457
+conversion of selbri into operand -- has count 0, skipping -- conversion of selbri into operand, 456
+conversion of selbri into operator -- has count 0, skipping -- conversion of selbri into operator, 456
+conversion of selbri to modal -- has count 0, skipping -- conversion of selbri to modal, 493
+conversion of sentence with quantified variables -- has count 0, skipping -- conversion of sentence with quantified variables: technique, 407
+conversion of sumti into operand -- has count 0, skipping -- conversion of sumti into operand, 456
+conversion of sumti into selbri -- has count 0, skipping -- conversion of sumti into selbri, 98
+conversion with `ke' -- has count 0, skipping -- conversion with `ke', 101
+conversion with se -- has count 0, skipping -- conversion with se: effect of naku negation boundary on, 406
+converting sumti to related meaning -- has count 0, skipping -- converting sumti to related meaning, 498
+co'o -- has count 11, skipping -- co'o, 324; quick-tour version, 21
+credits for pictures -- has count 0, skipping -- credits for pictures, 6
+credits for this book -- has count 0, skipping -- credits for this book, 6
+cu -- has count 460, skipping -- cu, 188, 190, 216; as selbri separator, 188; effect of selbri-first bridi on, 190; effect of tense specification, 216; effect on elidability of ku, 122; effect on elidable terminators, 188; necessity of, 188; need for, quick-tour version, 19; omission of, quick-tour version, 14; quick-tour version, 14; use of, quick-tour version, 14; usefulness of, 188
+CU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- CU selma'o, 188, 492
+cu'e -- has count 10, skipping -- cu'e: combining with other tense cmavo, 250
+CUhE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- CUhE selma'o, 238, 492
+cultural knowledge -- has count 0, skipping -- cultural knowledge: example, 316
+cultural words -- has count 0, skipping -- cultural words: rafsi fu'ivla proposal for, 80
+culturally dependent lujvo -- has count 0, skipping -- culturally dependent lujvo, 322
+cycles -- has count 0, skipping -- cycles, 230
+Cy-form cmavo -- has count 0, skipping -- Cy-form cmavo: rules for pause after, 69
+da -- has count 156, skipping -- da, 162, 392, 473; as a translation for "something", 392; contrasted with zo'e, 392
+da poi -- has count 25, skipping -- da poi, 394
+da prami de -- has count 18, skipping -- da prami de: contrasted with da prami da, 393
+DA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- DA selma'o, 473
+da'a -- has count 10, skipping -- da'a, 441; default number for, 441
+DAhO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- DAhO selma'o, 162, 466, 492
+da-series -- has count 10, skipping -- da-series: after third, 472
+da-series pro-sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- da-series pro-sumti: for bound variables, 161
+default operator precedence -- has count 0, skipping -- default operator precedence: contrasted with mekso goal, 436
+definite numbers -- has count 0, skipping -- definite numbers: combined with indefinite, 442
+dei -- has count 14, skipping -- dei, 149
+demonstrated potential -- has count 0, skipping -- demonstrated potential: expressing, 244
+demonstrative pro-sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- demonstrative pro-sumti, 140, 147; stability of, 162
+DeMorgan's Law -- has count 13, skipping -- DeMorgan's Law: and bridi-tail logical connection, 408; and distributing a negation, 407; and internal naku negations, 409; and logically connected sentences, 408; and moving a logical connective relative to "naku", 407; sample applications, 408
+dereferencing a pointer -- has count 0, skipping -- dereferencing a pointer: with la'e, 134
+descriptions -- has count 54, skipping -- descriptions: and abstractions, 255; as based on first place of following selbri, 193; as possessive sumti, 180; based on go'i-series pro-bridi, 155; components of, 120; importance of selbri first place in, 120; non-specific, 121; quick-tour version, 19; specific, 121; types of, 120; use of SE in, 193
+descriptions with lo -- has count 0, skipping -- descriptions with lo: teddy bear contrasted with real bear, 122
+descriptor -- has count 26, skipping -- descriptor, 498; as part of description, 120
+descriptor for numbers -- has count 0, skipping -- descriptor for numbers, 499
+descriptors -- has count 20, skipping -- descriptors: different implicit outer quantifiers among, 131; implicit quantifiers for, 129; omission of, 132; purpose of, 120
+diacritic marks -- has count 0, skipping -- diacritic marks: proposed lerfu words for, 429
+diacritical marks -- has count 0, skipping -- diacritical marks: as lerfu, 418; considered as forming distinct letters, 419; order of specification within tei...foi, 419; problem of position, 418; problem with multiple on one lerfu, 419; specifying with tei...foi, 419
+dictionary -- has count 22, skipping -- dictionary: superior authority of, 5
+die after living -- has count 0, skipping -- die after living: example, 232
+digit questions -- has count 0, skipping -- digit questions, 449
+digits -- has count 20, skipping -- digits, 502; cmavo for, 432; list of decimal, 462; list of hexadecimal, 462; names from, 459; rafsi for, 459; rationale for having 16, 444
+digits beyond 9 -- has count 0, skipping -- digits beyond 9: word pattern, 444
+dimensionality of interval -- has count 0, skipping -- dimensionality of interval: as subjective, 224
+diphthongs -- has count 21, skipping -- diphthongs: classification of, 34; contrasted with vowel pairs, 34; definition of, 33; English analogues of, 45; in fu'ivla, 63; IPA for, 33; list of, 33; pronunciation of, quick-tour version, 12; specific to cmene, 66; specific to names, 66
+direction -- has count 37, skipping -- direction: following interval in tense construct, 221; interaction with movement specification in tenses, 224; order of relative to distance in spatial tenses, 217; reference frame for, 224; spatial, 493; specification with FAhA, 217; time, 503
+directions -- has count 15, skipping -- directions: multiple with movement, 225
+disclaimers -- has count 0, skipping -- disclaimers, 5
+discourse -- has count 33, skipping -- discourse: commentary on, 319; expressing utterance relation to, 317; gesture markers, 319; tone of voice markers, 319
+discrete -- has count 0, skipping -- discrete: of tense intervals, 225
+discursives -- has count 11, skipping -- discursives: as metalinguistic claims, 317; contrasted with attitudinals, 317; definition, 317; discourse commentary, 319; discourse management, 320; embedded, 481; expressing how things are said, 318; knowledge, 319; placement in sentence, 317; quick-tour version, 25; su'a, 316; word-level, 318
+discursives for consecutive discourse -- has count 0, skipping -- discursives for consecutive discourse, 317; contrasted, 318
+discursives for managing discourse flow -- has count 0, skipping -- discursives for managing discourse flow, 320
+discuss in language -- has count 0, skipping -- discuss in language: example, 357
+distance -- has count 52, skipping -- distance: order of relative to direction in spatial tenses, 217; spatial, 506; specification with VA, 217; time, 507
+distributing a negation -- has count 0, skipping -- distributing a negation, 407
+distribution of quantified sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- distribution of quantified sumti, 398
+di'u -- has count 33, skipping -- di'u, 148; contrasted with la'edi'u, 149; contrasted with ta, 148; quick-tour version, 21
+do -- has count 425, skipping -- do, 146
+doctor and then rich -- has count 0, skipping -- doctor and then rich: example, 364
+dog or cat -- has count 0, skipping -- dog or cat: example, 351
+doghouse -- has count 10, skipping -- doghouse: example, 72, 277
+DOhU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- DOhU selma'o, 137, 323, 492
+do'i -- has count 10, skipping -- do'i, 149; compared with zo'e-series as indefinite pro-sumti, 158
+doi -- has count 48, skipping -- doi, 136, 138, 323; effect on necessity for pause before name-word, 138; effect on pause before name, 323; quick-tour version, 21
+double negation -- has count 0, skipping -- double negation: and naku, 407
+du -- has count 165, skipping -- du, 162, 164; as an exception within GOhA selma'o, 97; compared with me in effect, 99; contrasted with dunli, 163, 439; contrasted with mintu, 163; derivation of, 163; grammar of, 435; meaning of, 163; rationale for selection of selma'o for, 162; with complex mekso on both sides, 436
+du'u -- has count 33, skipping -- du'u, 263, 264
+e -- has count 1064, skipping -- e, 340; contrasted with fa'u, 356; contrasted with pi'u, 357
+eat bread -- has count 0, skipping -- eat bread: example, 441
+eat in airplane -- has count 0, skipping -- eat in airplane: example, 225
+EBNF grammar -- has count 0, skipping -- EBNF grammar, 552
+editorial commentary -- has count 0, skipping -- editorial commentary, 480
+Eek! -- has count 0, skipping -- Eek!: example, 301
+ei -- has count 20, skipping -- ei, 303, 305
+-ek -- has count 0, skipping -- -ek: in name for logical connectives, 336
+ek -- has count 27, skipping -- ek: definition, 336
+eks -- has count 15, skipping -- eks: connecting operands, 361; in sumti forethought logical connection, 340
+elidability of be'o -- has count 0, skipping -- elidability of be'o, 94
+elidability of me'u -- has count 0, skipping -- elidability of me'u, 99
+elided tense -- has count 0, skipping -- elided tense: meaning of, 215
+elliptical pro-bridi -- has count 0, skipping -- elliptical pro-bridi, 157
+elliptical pro-sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- elliptical pro-sumti, 157
+embedded bridi tenses -- has count 0, skipping -- embedded bridi tenses: effect of main bridi tense on, 235
+emotion -- has count 51, skipping -- emotion, 297
+emotional categories -- has count 0, skipping -- emotional categories, 306
+emotional indicators -- has count 0, skipping -- emotional indicators: noticeable effects of, 330
+emotions -- has count 38, skipping -- emotions: compound, 306; cultural bias of expression, 329; insights, 306; marking, 505; marking intensity of, 491; recording using indicators, 329; research using indicators, 329; when expressed, 306
+emphasis -- has count 44, skipping -- emphasis, 479; changing by using non-standard form of bridi, 188; marking, 489
+end of file -- has count 0, skipping -- end of file, 484
+end of text indicator -- has count 0, skipping -- end of text indicator, 493
+endpoints -- has count 10, skipping -- endpoints: inclusion in interval, 360
+Englishman in Africa -- has count 0, skipping -- Englishman in Africa: example, 124
+equivalents to brivla -- has count 0, skipping -- equivalents to brivla, 97
+error marking -- has count 0, skipping -- error marking: metalinguistic, 321
+e'u -- has count 10, skipping -- e'u, 303, 317; compared with ru'a, 317
+-er -- has count 0, skipping -- -er: use of zmadu in forming, 58
+'et'e -- has count 0, skipping -- 'et'e: example, 419
+Eureka! -- has count 0, skipping -- Eureka!: example, 299
+event contours as sumti tcita -- has count 0, skipping -- event contours as sumti tcita: contrasted with direction and distance, 232
+events -- has count 39, skipping -- events: considered as a process, 228; duration, 256; place structure, 257
+everybody loves something -- has count 0, skipping -- everybody loves something: example, 401
+everyone -- has count 12, skipping -- everyone: contrasted with anyone in assumption of existence, 399
+everyone bitten by dog -- has count 0, skipping -- everyone bitten by dog, 396
+everything -- has count 30, skipping -- everything: expressing with "ro da", 394
+everything breathes -- has count 0, skipping -- everything breathes: example, 395
+everything loves everything -- has count 0, skipping -- everything loves everything: example, 394
+everything sees me -- has count 0, skipping -- everything sees me: example, 394
+everything sees something -- has count 0, skipping -- everything sees something: example, 394
+exact number -- has count 0, skipping -- exact number: expressing, 443
+exactly two -- has count 10, skipping -- exactly two: example, 443
+example of examples -- has count 0, skipping -- example of examples, 5
+examples -- has count 151, skipping -- examples: structure of, 5
+expanding "no" quantifier -- has count 0, skipping -- expanding "no" quantifier, 403
+experience abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- experience abstraction, 265
+experience abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- experience abstraction(s): place structure, 265
+experimental cmavo -- has count 0, skipping -- experimental cmavo: definition, 51; forms for, 51
+exporting negation to prenex -- has count 0, skipping -- exporting negation to prenex: "naku" contrasted with internal bridi negation, 406; internal bridi negation contrasted with "naku", 406
+fa -- has count 44, skipping -- fa, 189
+FA in selbri -- has count 0, skipping -- FA in selbri: compared with converted selbri in meaning, 193; contrasted converted selbri with in structure, 193
+FA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- FA selma'o, 93, 189, 206, 247, 493; after 5th place, 472; as a reminder of place in place structure, 190; avoidance of complex usage of, 191; compared with zo'e for omitting places, 190; effect on place structure, 190; effect on place structure order, 190; effect on subsequent non-tagged places, 191; for accessing a selbri place explicitly by relative number, 190; for putting more than one sumti in a single place, 191; syntax of, 189
+FA tags and linked sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- FA tags and linked sumti, 93
+face -- has count 11, skipping -- face: specifying for letters, 418
+FAhA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- FAhA selma'o, 217, 242, 493; and direction, 217; contradictory negation of, 241; use in specifying space/time mapping direction, 231
+FAhO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- FAhO selma'o, 484, 493
+fancy E -- has count 0, skipping -- fancy E: notation convention, 335
+fancy O -- has count 0, skipping -- fancy O: notation convention, 335
+fai -- has count 15, skipping -- fai, 206, 247, 287; as allowing access to original first place in modal conversion, 206; effect on numbering of place structure places, 206
+falsity of mathematical relation -- has count 0, skipping -- falsity of mathematical relation: expressing, 440
+fancy A -- has count 0, skipping -- fancy A: notation convention, 335
+fancy U -- has count 0, skipping -- fancy U: notation convention, 335
+fast-talker shoe -- has count 0, skipping -- fast-talker shoe: example, 17
+father -- has count 21, skipping -- father: example, 11
+fa'u -- has count 12, skipping -- fa'u, 354, 356, 470; compared to termsets, 356; contrasted with .e, 356
+fe -- has count 65, skipping -- fe, 189
+fe'e -- has count 13, skipping -- fe'e, 230, 231, 232; effect of TAhE/ROI with ZAhO on, 231
+feeling -- has count 15, skipping -- feeling, 297
+FEhE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- FEhE selma'o, 230, 493
+FEhU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- FEhU selma'o, 194, 493
+fe'o -- has count 11, skipping -- fe'o, 325; contrasted with fa'o, 325
+fe'u -- has count 10, skipping -- fe'u, 194
+fi -- has count 103, skipping -- fi, 189
+Fido -- has count 13, skipping -- Fido: example, 396
+figurative lujvo -- has count 0, skipping -- figurative lujvo, 322; place structure, 322
+FIhO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- FIhO selma'o, 194, 493; terminator for, 493
+final syllable stress -- has count 0, skipping -- final syllable stress: rules for pause after, 69
+finish -- has count 0, skipping -- finish: contrasted with stop, 229
+fi'o -- has count 24, skipping -- fi'o, 194; and modal conversion, 206; as modal tag, 194; effect on following selbri, 194; mixed modal connection with, 205; proscribed for sticky modals, 208; restriction on use, 201; use in adding places to place structure, 194
+fi'o constructs -- has count 0, skipping -- fi'o constructs: short forms as BAI, 195
+fi'o modal followed by selbri -- has count 0, skipping -- fi'o modal followed by selbri: effect on eliding fe'u, 202
+fi'o modals -- has count 0, skipping -- fi'o modals: negation of by negating selbri, 207; usage in relative phrases, 204
+fi'o tag -- has count 0, skipping -- fi'o tag: relation of modal sumti following to selbri, 195
+fi'o with selbri -- has count 0, skipping -- fi'o with selbri: meaning of, 194
+fish eat -- has count 0, skipping -- fish eat: example, 468
+fish on right -- has count 0, skipping -- fish on right: example, 222
+flashbacks in story time -- has count 0, skipping -- flashbacks in story time: example, 237
+floating point numbers -- has count 0, skipping -- floating point numbers: expressing, 451
+flow of discourse -- has count 0, skipping -- flow of discourse: managing with discursives, 320
+fo -- has count 40, skipping -- fo, 189
+foi -- has count 13, skipping -- foi, 419
+FOI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- FOI selma'o, 419, 494
+food -- has count 18, skipping -- food: use of fu'ivla for specific, 61
+forethought bridi connectives -- has count 0, skipping -- forethought bridi connectives: contrasted with afterthought bridi connectives, 338
+forethought connectives and bo -- has count 0, skipping -- forethought connectives and bo, 343
+forethought interval -- has count 0, skipping -- forethought interval: GAhO position, 361
+forethought logical connectives in tanru -- has count 0, skipping -- forethought logical connectives in tanru: effect on tanru grouping, 92
+forethought mathematical notation -- has count 0, skipping -- forethought mathematical notation (see also Polish), 438
+forethought modal sentence connection -- has count 0, skipping -- forethought modal sentence connection, 199; relation to modal of first bridi in, 199; relation to modal of second bridi in, 199
+forethought modal sentence connection for causals -- has count 0, skipping -- forethought modal sentence connection for causals: order of cause and effect, 199
+forethought tanru connection -- has count 0, skipping -- forethought tanru connection, 350
+forethought tense connection of bridi-tails -- has count 0, skipping -- forethought tense connection of bridi-tails: order of, 240
+forethought tense connection of sentences -- has count 0, skipping -- forethought tense connection of sentences: order of, 239
+forethought tense connection of sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- forethought tense connection of sumti: order of, 239
+formulae -- has count 0, skipping -- formulae: expressing based on pure dimensions, 456
+four "e"s -- has count 0, skipping -- four "e"s: example, 422
+fourteen "e"s -- has count 0, skipping -- fourteen "e"s: example, 413
+frequency within interval -- has count 0, skipping -- frequency within interval: specifying, 504
+from one to two o'clock -- has count 0, skipping -- from one to two o'clock: example, 359
+fu -- has count 93, skipping -- fu, 189
+FUhA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- FUhA selma'o, 494
+FUhE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- FUhE selma'o, 475, 494
+FUhO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- FUhO selma'o, 475, 494
+fu'ivla -- has count 59, skipping -- fu'ivla: algorithm for constructing, 62; as a subtype of brivla, 53; as Stage 3 borrowings, 61; as Stage 4 borrowings, 62; categorized contrasted with uncategorized in ease of construction, 62; considerations for choosing basis word, 64; consonant clusters in, 62; construction of, 62; definition, quick-tour version, 27; diphthongs in, 63; disambiguation of, 64; form for rafsi fu'ivla proposal, 80; form of, 62; initial consonant cluster in, 62; method of including in lujvo, 60; quick-tour version, 20; rules for formation of, 62; stress in, 62; uniqueness of meaning in, 61; use of, 61; with invalid diphthongs, 64
+fu'ivla categorizer -- has count 0, skipping -- fu'ivla categorizer, 61; for distinguishing fu'ivla form, 64; for distinguishing specialized meanings, 64; selection consideration for, 62
+fuzzy logic and truth-value abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- fuzzy logic and truth-value abstraction, 262
+ga -- has count 59, skipping -- ga, 408
+GA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- GA selma'o, 336, 338, 339, 340, 341, 352, 361, 453, 494
+GAhO position in forethought intervals -- has count 0, skipping -- GAhO position in forethought intervals, 361
+GAhO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- GAhO selma'o, 246, 360, 361, 494; grammar of, 360
+ganai -- has count 13, skipping -- ganai, 339, 340
+ga'o -- has count 12, skipping -- ga'o, 360, 362; etymology of, 360
+ge -- has count 73, skipping -- ge, 408
+ge'a -- has count 12, skipping -- ge'a, 450, 452, 453; for infix operations with too many operands, 451
+GEhU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- GEhU selma'o, 175, 495
+gei -- has count 18, skipping -- gei, 450; as a binary operator, 450; as a ternary operator, 451; rationale for order of places, 451
+gek -- has count 19, skipping -- gek: definition, 338
+gek bridi connectives -- has count 0, skipping -- gek bridi connectives: contrasted with ijeks, 338
+geks -- has count 12, skipping -- geks: connecting operands, 361; in forethought sumti connection, 341; syntax of, 340
+German rich man -- has count 0, skipping -- German rich man: example, 344
+gerund -- has count 0, skipping -- gerund: using abstraction, 255
+ge'u -- has count 14, skipping -- ge'u, 151, 175, 318; effect of following logical connective on elidability, 175; elidability of from relative phrases, 175
+gi -- has count 168, skipping -- gi, 92, 199, 239, 240, 340, 361, 408
+GI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- GI selma'o, 336, 339, 340, 361, 495
+gi'e -- has count 28, skipping -- gi'e, 344
+GIhA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- GIhA selma'o, 336, 344, 346, 352, 364, 495; terminator for, 506
+gihek -- has count 17, skipping -- gihek: definition, 344
+gik -- has count 14, skipping -- gik: as name for compound cmavo, 336; definition, 340
+ginai -- has count 18, skipping -- ginai, 340
+girls' school -- has count 20, skipping -- girls' school: little, example, 85
+gismu -- has count 211, skipping -- gismu: algorithm for, 75; and cmavo, major, 53; as a subtype of brivla, 53; as partitioning semantic space, 53; basic rafsi for, 57; coined, 77; conflicts between, 54; creation, and transcription blunders, 76; creation, considerations for selection after scoring, 75; creation, proscribed gismu pairs, 76; creation, scoring rules, 75; cultural, 78; definition, 53; definition, quick-tour version, 27; ethnic, 79; examples of, 54; exceptions to gismu creation by algorithm, 77; for countries, 79; for languages, 78; for Lojban source languages, 78; geographical, 79; length of, 54; level of uniqueness of rafsi relating to, 57; Lojban-specific, 77; place order, rationale, 295; place structures, 294; place structures, rationale, 294; quick-tour version, 20; rationale for, 273; rationale for choice of, 53; religious, 80; rules for, 54; scientific-mathematical, 77; selection of, 53; source of, 54; source-language weights for, 76; special, 54; too-similar, 76
+give -- has count 39, skipping -- give: example, 11
+give or receive? -- has count 0, skipping -- give or receive?: example, 191
+global attitudinals -- has count 0, skipping -- global attitudinals, 475
+glue in lujvo -- has count 0, skipping -- glue in lujvo: n-hyphen as, 56; r-hyphen as, 56; y-hyphen as, 56
+go -- has count 440, skipping -- go: example, 187
+go to market -- has count 0, skipping -- go to market: example, 215
+go to Paris or Rome -- has count 0, skipping -- go to Paris or Rome: example, 408
+go to the store -- has count 28, skipping -- go to the store: example, 4
+go'i-series pro-bridi -- has count 0, skipping -- go'i-series pro-bridi: assigning for permanent reference, 154; in narrative about quotation, 156; in quotation series, 156; in quotations, 156
+goal of this book -- has count 0, skipping -- goal of this book, 3
+goer table -- has count 0, skipping -- goer table: example, 85
+GOhA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- GOhA selma'o, 97, 145, 409, 470, 495; as component in tanru, 97; as selbri, 97
+go'i -- has count 73, skipping -- go'i, 97, 154, 318; as affirmative answer to yes/no question, 154; compared with mo in overriding of arguments, 160; contrasted with go'i ra'o, 156; contrasted with mi'u, 318
+goi assignment of ko'a-series pro-sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- goi assignment of ko'a-series pro-sumti: use in speech contrasted with writing, 151
+goi for ko'a-series assignment -- has count 0, skipping -- goi for ko'a-series assignment: compared with cei for broda-series assignment, 151
+GOI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- GOI selma'o, 172, 495; terminator for, 495
+go'i with xu -- has count 0, skipping -- go'i with xu: quick-tour version, 23
+go'i-series pro-bridi -- has count 0, skipping -- go'i-series pro-bridi, 152; as basis for description, 155; as main-bridi anaphora only, 154; as main-bridi anaphora only, exception, 155; as repeating referent concept, 155; compared with ri-series in word formation, 152; compared with ri-series pro-sumti in rules of reference, 154; effect of sub-clauses on, 154; effect of sumti of referent bridi on, 154; no'a as exception to only main-bridi anaphora, 155; referent of, 154; reinterpreting sumti references with ra'o, 156
+goi -- has count 35, skipping -- goi, 150, 154, 162, 421; rationale for non-inclusion in relative clause chapter, 175; use in assigning lerfu as pro-sumti, 152; use in assigning name, 152
+grammatical categories -- has count 0, skipping -- grammatical categories: use of upper case for, 5
+grasp water -- has count 0, skipping -- grasp water: example, 199
+grouping -- has count 75, skipping -- grouping: indicator for, 496; of connection in abstractions, 365; of connection in tenses, 363
+gu -- has count 34, skipping -- gu, 339
+GU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- GU selma'o, 339
+gu'e -- has count 15, skipping -- gu'e, 92
+GUhA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- GUhA selma'o, 350, 352, 361, 495
+guheks for tanru connection -- has count 0, skipping -- guheks for tanru connection: rationale, 350
+han4zi4 -- has count 0, skipping -- han4zi4: example, 420
+hands in pockets -- has count 0, skipping -- hands in pockets: example, 175
+having -- has count 28, skipping -- having: of properties, 259
+hexadecimal system -- has count 0, skipping -- hexadecimal system: specifying numbers in (see also base), 444
+hierarchy of priorities for selecting lujvo form -- has count 0, skipping -- hierarchy of priorities for selecting lujvo form, 72
+hit cousin -- has count 0, skipping -- hit cousin: example, 318
+hit nose -- has count 0, skipping -- hit nose: example, 318
+Hooray! -- has count 0, skipping -- Hooray!: example, 299
+huh? -- has count 0, skipping -- huh?: example, 321
+hyphens in lujvo -- has count 0, skipping -- hyphens in lujvo: proscribed where not required, 70
+hypothetical world point of view -- has count 0, skipping -- hypothetical world point of view, 320
+i -- has count 1028, skipping -- i, 198, 238, 465; quick-tour version, 16; regarding forethought bridi connection, 339
+I selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- I selma'o, 336, 337, 338, 339, 358, 364, 465, 495
+idea abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- idea abstraction, 265
+idea abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- idea abstraction(s): place structure, 265
+identity -- has count 13, skipping -- identity: expressing with po'u, 174
+ie -- has count 13, skipping -- ie, 304
+if -- has count 339, skipping -- if: English usage contrasted with Lojban logical connective, 337; expressing real world, 320; meaning in logical connections, 337
+if coffee -- has count 0, skipping -- if coffee: bring tea, example, 353
+if -- has count 349, skipping -- if, expressing hypothetical world, 320
+ii -- has count 11, skipping -- ii, 301
+ijek -- has count 10, skipping -- ijek: definition, 336
+ijek bridi connectives -- has count 0, skipping -- ijek bridi connectives: contrasted with geks, 338
+ijek logical connective -- has count 0, skipping -- ijek logical connective(s): connecting bridi, 336
+ijeks -- has count 10, skipping -- ijeks: syntax of, 338
+imaginary journey -- has count 14, skipping -- imaginary journey: and spatial tense, 217; ending point, 217; origin in tense forethought bridi-tail connection, 240; origin in tense forethought sentence connection, 239; origin in tense forethought sumti connection, 239; origin of in tense-connected sentences, 239; stages of in compound tenses, 218; starting at a different point, 232; starting point, 217, 232; with interval direction, 222
+imaginary journey origin -- has count 0, skipping -- imaginary journey origin: with sticky tenses, 234
+implicit quantifier -- has count 14, skipping -- implicit quantifier: definition, 128; for quotations, 128; on personal pro-sumti, 128; on quotations, discussion of, 128
+importance of point -- has count 0, skipping -- importance of point: scale with ra'u, 320
+inalienable possession -- has count 0, skipping -- inalienable possession: definition, 173; expressing with po'e, 173
+inchoative event contour -- has count 0, skipping -- inchoative event contour, 228
+indefinite portions -- has count 0, skipping -- indefinite portions: subjective, 442
+indefinite pro-bridi -- has count 0, skipping -- indefinite pro-bridi, 157; stability of, 162
+index numbering -- has count 0, skipping -- index numbering, 500
+indicator tables -- has count 0, skipping -- indicator tables: format convention, 298
+indicators -- has count 87, skipping -- indicators, 298; cancellation of, 494; derived from gismu, 298; evolutionary development of, 329; grammar for compounding, 310; meaning when compounded, 310; placement of, 298; quick-tour version, 24; ramifications, 329; rationale for selection, 329; scope effect of new paragraph, 466; types of, 298
+indicators derived from gismu -- has count 0, skipping -- indicators derived from gismu: notation convention, 298
+indirect question involving sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- indirect question involving sumti, 265
+indirect questions without "kau" -- has count 0, skipping -- indirect questions without "kau", 265
+individual -- has count 28, skipping -- individual: example, 446
+individual objects -- has count 0, skipping -- individual objects: multiple, 123
+individuals -- has count 24, skipping -- individuals: expressing relation with mass formed, 446; expressing relation with set formed, 446
+individuals into mass -- has count 0, skipping -- individuals into mass: by non-logical connection, 355
+individuals into set -- has count 0, skipping -- individuals into set: by non-logical connection, 355
+individuals of set -- has count 0, skipping -- individuals of set: expressing measurement standard for indefinites, 446
+inexact numbers with bounds -- has count 0, skipping -- inexact numbers with bounds, 443
+inexact portions with bounds -- has count 0, skipping -- inexact portions with bounds, 444
+inferior -- has count 0, skipping -- inferior: example, 308
+infix mathematical notation -- has count 0, skipping -- infix mathematical notation: shortcomings of, 438
+infix notation mixed with Polish -- has count 0, skipping -- infix notation mixed with Polish, 455; example, 455
+initiative event contour -- has count 0, skipping -- initiative event contour, 228
+innate property -- has count 0, skipping -- innate property: extension of from mass to individuals, 243; extension to individuals not actually capable, 244
+inner product -- has count 0, skipping -- inner product, 452
+inner quantifier -- has count 27, skipping -- inner quantifier: contrasted with outer quantifier, 129; definition, 129; effect of on meaning, 129; explicit, 129; implicit on descriptors, 129; in indefinite description, 132
+inner quantifier of sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- inner quantifier of sumti: meaning of, 178
+interaction list -- has count 0, skipping -- interaction list: cmavo, 485
+internal naku negations -- has count 0, skipping -- internal naku negations: and DeMorgan's Law, 409
+internal world -- has count 0, skipping -- internal world, 301
+International Phonetic Alphabet -- has count 0, skipping -- International Phonetic Alphabet (see also IPA), 29
+interval -- has count 130, skipping -- interval: closed, 360; effect of nai on, 360; expressed as center and distance, 359; expressed as endpoints, 359; expressing by endpoints with bi'o, 246; followed by direction in tense construct, 221; forethought, 361; forming, 490; inclusion of endpoints, 360; open, 360; open/closed specification, 494; relation to point specified by direction and distance, 221; relative order with direction and distance in tense, 221; specifying relation to point specified by direction and distance, 221; spread of actions over, 225
+interval continuousness -- has count 0, skipping -- interval continuousness: meaning as sumti tcita, 233
+interval direction -- has count 0, skipping -- interval direction: specifying, 221
+interval spread -- has count 0, skipping -- interval spread: expressing English intermittently, 226; mutually contrasted, 226; negation with nai, 226; with unspecified interval, 226
+invalid diphthongs -- has count 0, skipping -- invalid diphthongs: in fu'ivla, 64
+invalid speech -- has count 0, skipping -- invalid speech: marking as error with na'i, 321
+inversion of quantifiers -- has count 0, skipping -- inversion of quantifiers: definition, 402; in moving negation boundary, 402
+inversion of quantifiers on passing negation boundary -- has count 0, skipping -- inversion of quantifiers on passing negation boundary: rationale for, 402
+inverting a tanru -- has count 0, skipping -- inverting a tanru, 491
+inverting quantifiers -- has count 0, skipping -- inverting quantifiers: with movement relative to fixed negation, 406; with movement relative to naku, 405
+IPA -- has count 158, skipping -- IPA, 29
+IPA pronunciation -- has count 0, skipping -- IPA pronunciation: description, 42
+IT -- has count 19, skipping -- IT: as notation convention in relative clause chapter, 170
+italic -- has count 0, skipping -- italic: example, 418
+-ity -- has count 0, skipping -- -ity, 259
+iu -- has count 11, skipping -- iu, 301
+iy diphthong -- has count 0, skipping -- iy diphthong: in cmene, 66
+JA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- JA selma'o, 90, 245, 336, 337, 338, 350, 352, 354, 361, 364, 365, 496
+jai -- has count 28, skipping -- jai, 206, 247, 267, 287; conversion using, 101
+JAI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- JAI selma'o, 206, 267, 496
+jai with tense -- has count 0, skipping -- jai with tense: as equivalent of SE in grammar, 247
+jai without modal -- has count 0, skipping -- jai without modal: meaning, 206
+James -- has count 89, skipping -- James: example, 36
+Jane -- has count 38, skipping -- Jane: example, 65
+ja'o -- has count 12, skipping -- ja'o, 316
+je -- has count 141, skipping -- je, 89, 208
+jei -- has count 19, skipping -- jei, 262; place structure, 262
+jek -- has count 32, skipping -- jek: definition, 336
+jeks -- has count 11, skipping -- jeks: connecting abstractors, 365; connecting operators, 361; syntax of, 350
+ji -- has count 29, skipping -- ji, 352
+ji'i -- has count 11, skipping -- ji'i, 442; effect of placement, 442; with elided number, 443
+Jim -- has count 25, skipping -- Jim: example, 65
+JOhI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- JOhI selma'o, 451, 496; terminator for, 505
+John is coming -- has count 13, skipping -- John is coming: example, 297
+John says that George goes to market -- has count 0, skipping -- John says that George goes to market: example, 238
+jo'i -- has count 11, skipping -- jo'i, 451; precedence of, 451
+joi -- has count 22, skipping -- joi, 353, 354, 355
+joi grammar -- has count 0, skipping -- joi grammar: contrasted with eks, 354; contrasted with jeks, 354
+JOI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- JOI selma'o, 246, 336, 353, 354, 355, 357, 358, 360, 361, 364, 455, 470, 496
+joik -- has count 39, skipping -- joik: as name for compound cmavo, 336; definition, 354
+joiks -- has count 11, skipping -- joiks: effect of nai on, 358; grouping, 357; syntax of, 360; use of "se" in, 355
+Jones -- has count 15, skipping -- Jones: John, example, 65
+j-sound in English -- has count 0, skipping -- j-sound in English: representation in Lojban, 31
+Jupiter life -- has count 0, skipping -- Jupiter life: example, 365
+juror 5 -- has count 0, skipping -- juror 5: example, 181
+ju'u -- has count 14, skipping -- ju'u: grammar of, 444
+ka -- has count 58, skipping -- ka, 259
+ka'u -- has count 10, skipping -- ka'u, 316
+ke -- has count 239, skipping -- ke, 88, 193, 205, 343, 344, 346, 350, 361, 364; contrasted with bo for tensed logical connection, 364; for conversion of tanru, 101; for expanding scope of scalar negation, 101
+ke in sumti grouping -- has count 0, skipping -- ke in sumti grouping: where allowed, 344
+KE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- KE selma'o, 88, 343, 344, 350, 361, 364, 454, 496; terminator for, 497
+ke'a -- has count 46, skipping -- ke'a, 160, 169; ambiguity when omitted, 161; and abstract descriptions, 161; as referent for relativized sumti, 169; contrasted with ri in relative clauses, 161; effect of omission of, 170; for relativized sumti in relative clauses, 160; meaning in relative clause inside relative clause, 184; non-initial place use in relative clause, 170; stability of, 162; subscripting for nested relative clauses, 161
+ke'a with subscript -- has count 0, skipping -- ke'a with subscript: use for outer sumti reference, 184
+ke'e -- has count 125, skipping -- ke'e, 88, 193, 205, 343, 361
+KEhE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- KEhE selma'o, 88, 343, 346, 497
+ke'i -- has count 11, skipping -- ke'i, 360, 362; etymology of, 360
+KEI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- KEI selma'o, 98, 255, 497; eliding, 255
+kei -- has count 53, skipping -- kei, 255, 262
+kept on too long -- has count 0, skipping -- kept on too long: example, 230
+ki -- has count 54, skipping -- ki, 207, 234, 243; with no tense, 235
+KI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- KI selma'o, 234, 497
+ki'a -- has count 11, skipping -- ki'a, 321; compared to ke'o, 325
+klama -- has count 431, skipping -- klama, 187; place structure of, 187
+know -- has count 87, skipping -- know: example, 263
+knowledge discursives -- has count 0, skipping -- knowledge discursives, 319; compared with propositional attitudes, 319
+ko -- has count 133, skipping -- ko, 119, 146; in later selbri place in imperative, 147; in sub-clause of main bridi, 147; quick-tour version, 22; use for commands, 146; use for imperatives, 146
+ko'a -- has count 59, skipping -- ko'a, 150
+ko'a-series -- has count 24, skipping -- ko'a-series: after tenth, 472
+ko'a-series for pro-sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- ko'a-series for pro-sumti: compared with broda-series for pro-bridi, 151
+KOhA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- KOhA selma'o, 145, 260, 469, 497
+ku -- has count 138, skipping -- ku, 122, 177, 201, 216, 354; as elidable terminator for descriptions, 122; effect of following selbri on elidability of, 122; effect of possessive sumti on elidability of, 181; effect on of omitting descriptor, 132; quick-tour version, 19; uses of, 122; with tense, 216
+KU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- KU selma'o, 354, 497; quick-tour version, 19
+ku'e -- has count 15, skipping -- ku'e, 438
+KUhE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- KUhE selma'o, 497
+KUhO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- KUhO selma'o, 169, 498
+ku'o -- has count 33, skipping -- ku'o, 169, 178, 394; effect of relative clause after descriptor on elidability, 178; effect of vau on elidability, 181; elidability for relative clauses, 170
+la -- has count 594, skipping -- la, 119, 121, 129, 137, 138; compared with le in specificity, 121; contrasted with lai in implications, 124; contrasted with le in implications, 122; contrasted with lo in implications, 122; contrasted with vocatives, 323; contrasted with zo, 478; implications of, 121; use with descriptions contrasted with use before Lojbanized names, 121
+LA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- LA selma'o, 120, 138, 193, 498; contrasted with LE in use of name-words, 138; effect on necessity for pause before name-word, 138; terminator for, 497
+la'e -- has count 21, skipping -- la'e, 134, 149, 182, 422, 459, 478; as short for "le selsinxa be", 134; effect of on meaning, 134
+LAhE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- LAhE selma'o, 133, 149, 182, 266, 478, 498; effect of relative clause placement with, 182; terminator for, 499
+la'i -- has count 10, skipping -- la'i, 125, 130, 138; as set counterpart of lai, 125
+lai -- has count 22, skipping -- lai, 123, 130, 137, 138; as mass counterpart of lai, 123; contrasted with la in implications, 124
+language shift -- has count 12, skipping -- language shift: based on name + bu, 418; choice of Lojban-lerfu-word counterpart, 417; compound, 418; effect on following words, 417; formation of shift alphabet name, 418; interaction with bu, 417; rationale for, 417; standardization of, 418
+languages -- has count 96, skipping -- languages: abbreviations for, 104
+la'o -- has count 11, skipping -- la'o, 61, 416, 479; interaction with bu, 416
+Laplace -- has count 0, skipping -- Laplace: example, 65
+large-base decimal fraction -- has count 0, skipping -- large-base decimal fraction: expressing, 445
+la-series descriptors -- has count 0, skipping -- la-series descriptors: compared with le-series in implicit quantification, 130
+Latin -- has count 16, skipping -- Latin: alphabet of Lojban, 413
+LAU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- LAU selma'o, 415, 418, 419, 498; grammar of following BY, 426
+le -- has count 1039, skipping -- le, 119, 129, 177, 354; and specificity, 120; and truth of selbri, 120; compared with English "the", 120; compared with la in specificity, 121; contrasted with lo in implications, 122; contrasted with lo in implicit quantification, 131; contrasted with lo in specificity, 121; contrasted with lo in truth requirement, 121; implications of, 120; implicit outer quantifier for, 131; in false-to-fact descriptions, 120; meaning of in the plural, 123
+le contrasted with lo -- has count 0, skipping -- le contrasted with lo: for relative clause placement considerations, 179
+le nu -- has count 75, skipping -- le nu: definition, 256
+le'e -- has count 12, skipping -- le'e, 126, 130; relationship to le'i, 126
+left-grouping rule -- has count 12, skipping -- left-grouping rule: definition of, 86
+legalities -- has count 0, skipping -- legalities: boring, 8
+LEhU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- LEhU selma'o, 476, 498
+le'i -- has count 14, skipping -- le'i, 125, 130; as set counterpart of lei, 125; relationship to le'e, 126
+lei -- has count 30, skipping -- lei, 123, 130; contrasted with loi in specificity, 124
+Length -- has count 0, skipping -- Length ( Width ( Depth = Volume: example, 456
+lerfu -- has count 217, skipping -- lerfu: as assignable pro-sumti, 152; contrasted with lerfu word, 413; definition, 413; reference to, 422; referring to with me'o, 422
+lerfu juxtaposition interpretation -- has count 0, skipping -- lerfu juxtaposition interpretation: contrasted with mathematical interpretation, 423
+lerfu pro-sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- lerfu pro-sumti: effect on ri-series pro-sumti, 153
+lerfu shift scope -- has count 0, skipping -- lerfu shift scope: exception for mathematical texts, 423
+lerfu string -- has count 32, skipping -- lerfu string: as acronym using "me", 424; as function name, 423; as function, in mathematics, 438; as mathematical variable, 422; as pro-sumti, 421; as pro-sumti assigned by goi, 421; as pro-sumti, assumption of reference, 421; as pro-sumti, for multiple sumti separated by boi, 421; as quantifier, 423; as quantifier, avoiding interaction with sumti quantifier, 423; as selbri, 423; as subscript, 423; as utterance ordinal, 423; as variable, in mathematics, 438; definition, 420; in mathematical expressions, 437; interpretation of contrasted with normal mathematical interpretation, 437; interpretation, contrasted with mathematical interpretation, 423; use in mathematics, 422; with numerical selbri, 448
+lerfu word -- has count 47, skipping -- lerfu word: contrasted with lerfu, 413; for " ' ", 414
+lerfu word cmavo -- has count 0, skipping -- lerfu word cmavo: list of auxiliary, 425
+lerfu word set extension -- has count 0, skipping -- lerfu word set extension: with bu, 416
+lerfu words -- has count 81, skipping -- lerfu words: as a basis for acronym names, 423; composed of compound cmavo, 414; composed of single cmavo, 414; consonant words contrasted with vowel words, 414; effect of systematic formulation, 414; for consonants, 414; for vowels, 414; formation rules, 414; forming new for non-Lojban letters using bu, 419; list of proposed, notation convention, 426; Lojban coverage requirement, 413; proposed for accent marks, 429; proposed for Cyrillic alphabet, 427; proposed for diacritic marks, 429; proposed for Greek alphabet, 426; proposed for Hebrew alphabet, 428; proposed for multiple letters, 429; proposed for noisy environments, 429; proposed for radio communication, 429; table of Lojban, 414; using computer encoding schemes with se'e, 425; vowel words contrasted with consonant words, 414
+lerfu words ending with "y" -- has count 0, skipping -- lerfu words ending with "y": pause after, rationale, 414
+lerfu words for vowels -- has count 0, skipping -- lerfu words for vowels: pause requirement before, 414
+lerfu words with numeric digits -- has count 0, skipping -- lerfu words with numeric digits: grammar considerations, 420
+le-series descriptors -- has count 0, skipping -- le-series descriptors: compared with la-series in implicit quantification, 130
+less -- has count 81, skipping -- less: English word, expressing with relative phrases, 203; English word, importance of relative phrase to, 204
+less than -- has count 27, skipping -- less than: contrasted with more than, at least, at most, 443; example, 443
+letter -- has count 88, skipping -- letter: alphabet, 413; contrasted with word for the letter, 413; making a word into, 490
+letter encoding schemes -- has count 0, skipping -- letter encoding schemes: application to lerfu words, 425
+letteral -- has count 20, skipping -- letteral: definition, 413
+letters -- has count 79, skipping -- letters, 491; non-Lojban, representation of diacritical marks on, 418; non-Lojban, representation with consonant-word + bu, 417; non-Lojban, representation with consonant-word + bu, drawback, 417; non-Lojban, representation with language-shift, 417; non-Lojban, representation with names, 416; sound contrasted with symbol for spelling, 417; symbol contrasted with sound for spelling, 417
+le'u -- has count 28, skipping -- le'u, 119, 141, 476; interaction with zoi, 478
+li -- has count 200, skipping -- li, 119, 141, 435; as converter of mekso into sumti, 436; contrasted with me'o, 457; relation to me'o compared with la/zo relation, 457; terminator for, 454
+LI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- LI selma'o, 142, 422, 499; terminator for, 499
+LIhU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- LIhU selma'o, 476, 499
+likes more than -- has count 0, skipping -- likes more than: example, 203
+linked sumti and FA tags -- has count 0, skipping -- linked sumti and FA tags, 93
+linked sumti and sumti tcita -- has count 0, skipping -- linked sumti and sumti tcita, 94
+Linnaean names -- has count 0, skipping -- Linnaean names: rules for, 67
+lion in Africa -- has count 0, skipping -- lion in Africa: example, 126
+lions in Africa -- has count 0, skipping -- lions in Africa: example, 124
+list -- has count 302, skipping -- list: as a physical object, 355; contrasted with sequence, 355; example, 355
+list of things to do -- has count 0, skipping -- list of things to do: example, 358
+listen attentively -- has count 0, skipping -- listen attentively: example, 278
+literally -- has count 14, skipping -- literally, 322
+li'u -- has count 40, skipping -- li'u, 119, 141, 476
+Livingston -- has count 0, skipping -- Livingston: example, 317
+lo -- has count 207, skipping -- lo, 121, 129; and truth of selbri, 121; contrasted with le in implications, 122; contrasted with le in implicit quantification, 131; contrasted with le in specificity, 121; contrasted with le in truth requirement, 121; contrasted with loi and lo'i, 125; implications of, 121; implicit outer quantifier for, 131; omission of, 132
+lo contrasted with le -- has count 0, skipping -- lo contrasted with le: for relative clause placement considerations, 179
+lo'e -- has count 13, skipping -- lo'e, 126, 130; relationship to lo'i, 126
+logic -- has count 26, skipping -- logic: and attitudinals, 392; limits of, 392; resolving ambiguities of "nobody", 391
+logical connection -- has count 67, skipping -- logical connection: effect on elidability of lo'o, 454; grouping strategies for complex cases contrasted, 343; in abstraction(s), inner bridi contrasted with outer bridi, 365; in mathematical expressions, 361; in tanru, contrasted with unconnected version, 349; in tanru, expandability of, 349; in tanru, grouping with bo, 349; in tanru, grouping with ke, 350; inside an abstraction(s), contrasted with outside, 365; interaction with tenses, 363; negation in connecting more than 2 sentences, 342; of bridi-tail as opposed to tanru, 350; of bridi-tails, forethought, 347; of bridi-tails, restriction on ke, 346; of forethought termsets, 348; of modals, 208; of more than 2 sentences, all or none, 342; of more than 2 sentences, forethought, 342; of more than 2 sentences, mixed "and" and "or", 342; of more than 2 sentences, things to avoid, 342; of observatives, relation of first places, 345; of selbri, 344; of sumti, grouping with parenthesis, 344; of sumti, restriction on ke, 344; of tanru as opposed to bridi-tail, 350; of tanru, caveat, 350; termsets, 347; transformation between forms, 340; with bo, precedence, 342
+logical connectives -- has count 90, skipping -- logical connectives, 333; associative, 341; bridi-tail connection, 345; cmavo, format for each selma'o, 336; effect on elidability of ge'u from preceding relative phrase, 175; grouping with bo, 342; in tanru, 89; more than 2 sentences, 341; negated first sentence as a potential problem for understanding, 339; observative sentence connection, 345; pairing from left, 342; rationale for multiple sets in grammar, 335; recipes, simplified for logic chapter discussion, 403; relation to truth functions, 334; relative precedence with me'u, 99; right-grouping with bo, 343; selma'o, enumerated, 336; syntax rules summary, 366; table by truth function value, 366; tensed, 240
+logical connectives and bridi negation -- has count 0, skipping -- logical connectives and bridi negation, 403
+logical connectives and negation -- has count 0, skipping -- logical connectives and negation: caveat for logic chapter discussions, 403
+logical connectives in tanru -- has count 0, skipping -- logical connectives in tanru, 349; ambiguity of, 90; effect on formal logical manipulations, 90; effect on tanru grouping, 89; usefulness of, 90
+logical connectives within negation -- has count 0, skipping -- logical connectives within negation: effects of expansion on, 407
+Logical Language Group -- has count 10, skipping -- Logical Language Group: example, 74; relation to Lojban, 3
+logical variables -- has count 0, skipping -- logical variables: creating more by subscripting, 410; effect of global substitution, 393; effect of order in prenex, 394; effect of using multiple different, 393; explicitly placing in outer prenex, 400; for selbri, 409; implicit placement in smallest enclosing bridi prenex, 400; notation convention, 392; when not in main bridi, 393; with multiple appearances in bridi, 393; with poi, in multiple appearances, 396; with ro, in multiple appearances, 396
+Loglan -- has count 16, skipping -- Loglan, 6
+LOhO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- LOhO selma'o, 499
+LOhU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- LOhU selma'o, 476, 499; terminator for, 498
+lo'i -- has count 23, skipping -- lo'i, 125, 130, 447; as set counterpart of loi, 125; contrasted with lo and loi, 125; relationship to lo'e, 126; with elided quantifiers, 447
+loi -- has count 47, skipping -- loi, 123, 130; as mass counterpart of lo, 123; contrasted with lei in specificity, 124; contrasted with lo and lo'i, 125
+Lojban -- has count 992, skipping -- Lojban: features of, 3; history of, 3; stability of, 4
+long rafsi form -- has count 0, skipping -- long rafsi form: compared with short form in effect on lujvo meaning, 56
+loose association -- has count 0, skipping -- loose association: expressing with pe, 172
+lo-series description -- has count 0, skipping -- lo-series description: caution on exact numbers as inner quantifiers on, 131
+lo'u -- has count 30, skipping -- lo'u, 141, 416, 476; interaction with bu, 416; interaction with zoi, 478
+love more -- has count 0, skipping -- love more: example, 260
+lower case letters -- has count 0, skipping -- lower case letters: use in Lojban, 415
+lower-case letters -- has count 0, skipping -- lower-case letters: English usage contrasted with Lojban, 415; Lojban usage contrasted with English, 415
+lower-case word -- has count 0, skipping -- lower-case word: effect on following lerfu words, 415
+lu -- has count 75, skipping -- lu, 119, 141, 422, 476; contrasted with me'o for representing lerfu, 422
+LU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- LU selma'o, 476, 499; terminator for, 499
+lu'e -- has count 10, skipping -- lu'e, 134, 264, 459, 478; as short for "le sinxa be", 134; effect of on meaning, 134
+LUhU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- LUhU selma'o, 267, 499
+lujvo -- has count 335, skipping -- lujvo: abbreviated, 284; abstract, 286; algorithm for, 70; and consonant pairs, 59; and plausibility, 70; and seltau/tertau relationship, 276; and the listener, 70; anomalous, 290; as a subtype of brivla, 53; as suppliers of agent place, 295; asymmetric abstraction, 288; asymmetrical, 278; based on multiple tanru, 70; cmavo incorporation, 274; comparatives, 292; compared with tanru, 273; consideration in choosing meaning for, 69; considerations for retaining elements of, 70; construction of, 56; definition, quick-tour version, 27; design consideration for relationship, 276; dropping elements of, 69; dropping NU in implicit abstractions, 288; dropping NU rafsi, 288; dropping SE rafsi, 283; examples of making, 72; from cmavo with no rafsi, 60; from tanru, 55; fully reduced, 59; grammar of, 273; guidelines for place structure, 273; implicit-abstraction, 288; interpreting, 276; invention of, 57; meaning drift of, 69; meaning of, 56; multiple forms of, 56; NU-dropping contrasted with SE-dropping, 288; place structure of, 273; place structure of figurative lujvo, 322; pro-sumti rafsi effect on place structure of, 163; quick-tour version, 20; rationale for, 273; recognizing, 59; rules for formation of, 56; scope abstraction in underlying veljvo, 287; scored examples of, 72; scoring of, 71; selection of best form of, 71; shorter for more general concepts, 70; summary of form characteristics, 59; superlatives, 292; symmetrical, 278; ultimate guideline for choice of meaning/place-structure, 69; unambiguity of, 69; unambiguous decomposition of, 56; unreduced, 57; unsuitability of for concrete/specific terms and jargon, 61; with "jai", 287; with zei, 60; zi'o rafsi effect on place structure of, 163
+lujvo place order -- has count 0, skipping -- lujvo place order, 281; asymmetrical lujvo, 282; based on 3-or-more part veljvo, 282; comparatives, 292; complex relation, 290; elliptical lujvo, 291; multi-part with NU, 287; non-overlapping place structures, 290; rationale for standardization, 281; redundant non-first places, 290; superlatives, 294; superlatives as exceptions, 294; symmetrical lujvo, 282
+ma -- has count 101, skipping -- ma, 159, 249, 469; as sumti question, 159; for tense questions, 249; quick-tour version, 22
+MAhO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- MAhO selma'o, 500; terminator for, 505
+MAI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- MAI selma'o, 458, 474, 500; exception on use of boi before, 458
+male sexual teacher -- has count 0, skipping -- male sexual teacher: example, 74
+man biting dog -- has count 0, skipping -- man biting dog, 217
+man or woman -- has count 0, skipping -- man or woman: example, 333
+ma'o -- has count 15, skipping -- ma'o, 438, 460; potential ambiguity caveat, 460
+mai -- has count 10, skipping -- mai, 458, 474; contrasted with mo'o, 458
+man is woman -- has count 0, skipping -- man is woman: example, 177
+man-woman -- has count 0, skipping -- man-woman: example, 350
+Mars road -- has count 0, skipping -- Mars road: example, 193
+mass -- has count 110, skipping -- mass: compared with set as abstract of multiple individuals, 125; contrasted with ordered sequence, 355; contrasted with set in attribution of component properties, 125; contrasted with set in distribution of properties, 355; expressing measurement standard for indefinites, 446; expressing portions of, 441; expressing relation with individuals forming, 446; expressing relation with set forming, 446; joining elements into a, 353; rule for implicit outer quantifier, 130
+mass contrasted with components -- has count 0, skipping -- mass contrasted with components: in properties of, 354
+mass object -- has count 0, skipping -- mass object: and logical reasoning, 123; as dependent on intention, 124; contrasted with multiple individual objects, 123; properties of, 123
+mass objects -- has count 0, skipping -- mass objects: peculiarities of English translation of, 124
+mathematical expression -- has count 10, skipping -- mathematical expression: abbreviation notation, 431; definition (see also "mekso"), 431; referring to, 457
+mathematical expressions in tanru -- has count 0, skipping -- mathematical expressions in tanru, 97
+mathematical inequalities -- has count 0, skipping -- mathematical inequalities: expressing, 439
+mathematical texts -- has count 0, skipping -- mathematical texts: effect on lerfu shift scope, 423
+mathematical variables -- has count 0, skipping -- mathematical variables: lerfu strings as, 422
+mathematics -- has count 18, skipping -- mathematics: use of lerfu strings in, 422
+matrix -- has count 12, skipping -- matrix: as combination of vectors, 452; definition, 451; use as operand, 452; use of parentheses with, 452; with ge'a for more than 2 rows/columns, 452; with more than 2 dimensions, 452
+ma'u -- has count 12, skipping -- ma'u, 442; with elided number, 442
+me -- has count 277, skipping -- me, 98, 424, 448; compared with du in effect, 99; effect of MOI on, 448; explicitly specifying, 325; place structure of, 98; used with names, 99
+ME selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- ME selma'o, 98, 448, 500; terminator for, 500
+MEhU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- MEhU selma'o, 98, 500
+mei -- has count 11, skipping -- mei, 446; place structure formed for objective indefinites, 446
+mekso -- has count 71, skipping -- mekso: and literary translation, 460; complex used as quantifier, 454; definition, 431; design goals, 431; list of selma'o for, 461
+mekso chapter -- has count 0, skipping -- mekso chapter: completeness, 431; table notation convention, 431
+mekso goal -- has count 0, skipping -- mekso goal: coverage, 431; expandable, 431; for common use, 431; for mathematical writing, 431; precision, 431; unambiguous, 431
+mekso goals -- has count 0, skipping -- mekso goals: and ambiguity, 431; and non-mathematical expression, 431; mathematical notation form, 431
+me'o -- has count 21, skipping -- me'o, 142, 422, 457; compared with la'e lu, 422; contrasted with li, 457; contrasted with lu...li'u for representing lerfu, 422; contrasted with quotation for representing lerfu, 422; relation to li compared with la/zo relation, 457
+metalinguistic levels or reference -- has count 0, skipping -- metalinguistic levels or reference, 481
+metalinguistic words -- has count 0, skipping -- metalinguistic words: quick-tour version, 25
+me'u -- has count 20, skipping -- me'u, 98, 448, 449; relative precedence with logical connectives, 99
+mi -- has count 799, skipping -- mi, 119, 146
+mi'e -- has count 13, skipping -- mi'e, 146, 325; contrasted with other members of COI, 325; effect of ordering multiple COI, 325
+mi'o -- has count 11, skipping -- mi'o, 146
+mi-series -- has count 12, skipping -- mi-series: of pro-sumti, 146
+mi-series pro-sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- mi-series pro-sumti: lack of pro-bridi equivalent, 147
+mixed claim -- has count 10, skipping -- mixed claim: definition, 394
+mixed modal connection -- has count 0, skipping -- mixed modal connection: afterthought, 205; as proscribed in forethought, 205; definition, 204; of bridi-tails, 205; of sentences, 204; of sumti, 205
+mo -- has count 70, skipping -- mo, 160, 470; as selbri question, 160; compared with go'i in overriding of arguments, 160; quick-tour version, 23
+modal bridi-tail connection -- has count 0, skipping -- modal bridi-tail connection, 200
+modal causals -- has count 0, skipping -- modal causals: implication differences, 197
+modal cmavo table -- has count 0, skipping -- modal cmavo table: format of, 210
+modal connection -- has count 12, skipping -- modal connection: simultaneous with logical, 204
+modal connection of selbri -- has count 0, skipping -- modal connection of selbri: using bridi-tail modal connection, 200
+modal conversion with fi'o -- has count 0, skipping -- modal conversion with fi'o, 206
+modal conversion without modal -- has count 0, skipping -- modal conversion without modal: as vague, 206
+modal conversions -- has count 0, skipping -- modal conversions: in descriptions, 206
+modal followed by selbri -- has count 0, skipping -- modal followed by selbri: compared with tanru modification in meaning, 202; contrasted with tanru modification in grammar, 202; effect on eliding cu, 201
+modal operand connection -- has count 0, skipping -- modal operand connection, 201
+modal place -- has count 10, skipping -- modal place: definition, 195; on description selbri, 197; rationale for term name, 195; relation of to selbri, 195
+modal place relation -- has count 0, skipping -- modal place relation: importance of first place in, 195
+modal sumti connection -- has count 0, skipping -- modal sumti connection, 200
+modal tag -- has count 15, skipping -- modal tag: and sumti tcita, 94; contrasted with English preposition in preciseness, 196; definition (see also sumti tcita), 195; fi'o with selbri as, 194; for vague relationship, 197; short form as BAI, 195
+modal with no sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- modal with no sumti: indicator for, 497
+modal-or-tense question -- has count 0, skipping -- modal-or-tense question: with cu'e, 250
+modals -- has count 42, skipping -- modals: compared with tenses in syntax, 248; contradictory negation of, 206; contrasted with tenses in semantics, 248; expanding scope over inner modal connection, 202; expanding scope over logical connection with ke...ke'e, 202; expanding scope over multiple sentences with tu'e...tu'u, 202; expanding scope over non-logical connection, 202; for causal gismu, 197; importance of 1st sumti place for sumti tcita use, 248; improving relative phrase preciseness with, 203; making long-scope, 207; making sticky, 207; negation of, 206; scalar negation of, 207; termset connection, 200
+modals often attached with relative phrases -- has count 0, skipping -- modals often attached with relative phrases: list, 204
+modified -- has count 19, skipping -- modified: of a tanru, 274
+modifier -- has count 27, skipping -- modifier: of a tanru, 274; seltau as, 84
+modifying brivla -- has count 0, skipping -- modifying brivla (see also seltau), 55
+MOhE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- MOhE selma'o, 500; terminator for, 505
+MOhI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- MOhI selma'o, 224, 501
+mo'i -- has count 13, skipping -- mo'i, 224
+mo'o -- has count 11, skipping -- mo'o, 458, 474; contrasted with mai, 458
+moi -- has count 14, skipping -- moi, 447
+MOI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- MOI selma'o, 98, 446, 449, 463, 500; list of cmavo in, 463; use of boi before, 449
+more -- has count 452, skipping -- more: English word, expressing with relative phrases, 203; English word, importance of relative phrase to, 204
+more than -- has count 121, skipping -- more than: contrasted with less than, at least, at most, 443; example, 443
+morphology -- has count 12, skipping -- morphology: conventions for, 49; definition, 49; derivational, 49; simplicity of, 49; symbolic conventions for discussing, 49
+movement -- has count 13, skipping -- movement: order in tense constructs, 225; time, 225; with multiple directions, 225
+movement specification -- has count 0, skipping -- movement specification: interaction with direction in tenses, 224
+multiple compound bridi -- has count 0, skipping -- multiple compound bridi: restriction on ke, 346
+multiple conversion -- has count 0, skipping -- multiple conversion: avoiding, 194; effect of ordering, 194
+multiple indefinite sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- multiple indefinite sumti: effect of re-ordering in sentence, 399; expressing with equal scope, 399; meaning, 398
+multiple indefinite sumti scope -- has count 0, skipping -- multiple indefinite sumti scope: in termset, 399
+multiple individual objects -- has count 0, skipping -- multiple individual objects: contrasted with mass object, 123; meaning of, 123
+multiple logical connectives -- has count 0, skipping -- multiple logical connectives: within tanru, 91
+multiple ma -- has count 0, skipping -- multiple ma: as multiple questions, 160
+multiple mo -- has count 0, skipping -- multiple mo: as multiple questions, 160
+multiple quantification -- has count 0, skipping -- multiple quantification: effect on selbri placement among sumti, 407
+multiple questions in one bridi -- has count 0, skipping -- multiple questions in one bridi: expressing, 160
+multiple relative clauses -- has count 0, skipping -- multiple relative clauses: attaching with zi'e, 175; connecting different kinds with zi'e, 176
+multiple sumti in one place -- has count 0, skipping -- multiple sumti in one place: avoiding, 191; meaning, 191
+multiple tanru inversion -- has count 0, skipping -- multiple tanru inversion: effect on grouping, 96
+my -- has count 168, skipping -- my: example, 180
+n people -- has count 0, skipping -- n people: example, 423
+na -- has count 261, skipping -- na, 104, 338, 346, 350, 401, 408; and negation boundary, 408; order in logical connectives with se, 338
+na and tense -- has count 0, skipping -- na and tense: multiple, 104
+NA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- NA selma'o, 501
+na writing convention -- has count 0, skipping -- na writing convention: in eks, 341
+na.a -- has count 12, skipping -- na.a, 341
+na'e -- has count 82, skipping -- na'e, 207; before gu'e, 103; contrasted with na'e ke, 102
+NAhE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- NAhE selma'o, 101, 133, 182, 242, 459, 501; effect of relative clause placement with, 182
+NAhU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- NAhU selma'o, 501; terminator for, 505
+na'i -- has count 19, skipping -- na'i, 321
+NAI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- NAI selma'o, 501
+naku -- has count 66, skipping -- naku, 401; as creating a negation boundary, 405; compared with sumti in grammar, 405; effect on moving quantifiers, 405; in linked sumti places, 407; multiple in sentence, 407; outside of prenex, 405
+naku negation -- has count 0, skipping -- naku negation: rationale for considering an advanced technique, 406
+naku negation boundary -- has count 0, skipping -- naku negation boundary: effect on conversion with se, 406
+naku zo'u -- has count 12, skipping -- naku zo'u, 408; and negation boundary, 408
+name equivalent for "typical" -- has count 0, skipping -- name equivalent for "typical": rationale for lack of, 127
+names -- has count 99, skipping -- names: algorithm for, 66; alternatives for restricted sequences in, 66; as possessive sumti, 180; assigning with goi, 152; authority for, 65; borrowing from other languages, 138; examples of, 64; from Lojban words, 66; in vocative phrase, 137; multiple, 138; non-Lojban, 479; pause requirement in lerfu words, 416; purpose of, 64; quick-tour version, 13; rationale for lojbanizing, 64; requirement for pause after, 66; restrictions on form of, 65; rules for, 66; rules for formation, 65; stress in, 65, 66; stress on, 40; two kinds of, 137; unusual stress in, 65; uses of, 137; using rafsi, 138; with LA descriptor, 137; with zo versus la, 478
+names from vowel-final base -- has count 0, skipping -- names from vowel-final base: commonly used consonant endings, 138
+names in Lojban -- has count 0, skipping -- names in Lojban (see also cmene), 64
+names with la -- has count 0, skipping -- names with la: implicit quantifier for, 139
+na'u -- has count 13, skipping -- na'u, 456; terminator for, 456; use in asking operator questions, 457
+nai -- has count 87, skipping -- nai, 206, 226, 241, 299, 338, 340, 346, 350, 358, 360, 361, 408; effect on intervals, 360; effect on joiks, 358; placement in afterthought bridi connection contrasted with forethought, 339; placement in forethought bridi connection contrasted with afterthought, 339
+ne -- has count 22, skipping -- ne, 174, 203; compared with pe, 174
+Nederlands -- has count 0, skipping -- Nederlands: example, 65
+negated interval -- has count 0, skipping -- negated interval: meaning of, 360
+negating a forethought-connected bridi-tail pair -- has count 0, skipping -- negating a forethought-connected bridi-tail pair, 347
+negating a forethought-connected sentence pair -- has count 0, skipping -- negating a forethought-connected sentence pair, 347
+negation -- has count 228, skipping -- negation: complex examples, 102; form for emulating natural language negation, 405; of operand, 459; of operator, 459; of tenses, 241
+negation between sentences -- has count 0, skipping -- negation between sentences: compared with bridi negation, 404; meaning of, 404
+negation boundary -- has count 15, skipping -- negation boundary: and zero, 402; effect of moving, 402; forming, 497
+negation in prenex -- has count 0, skipping -- negation in prenex: effects of position, 401
+negation manipulation -- has count 0, skipping -- negation manipulation: "na" contrasted with "naku" in difficulty of, 407; "naku" contrasted with "na" in difficulty of, 407
+negation of fi'o modals -- has count 0, skipping -- negation of fi'o modals: by negating selbri, 207
+negation of modals -- has count 0, skipping -- negation of modals, 206; contradictory, 206; scalar, 207
+negations with logical connectives -- has count 0, skipping -- negations with logical connectives: effects on expansion of sentence, 407
+negative numbers -- has count 0, skipping -- negative numbers: expressing, 432
+negator -- has count 11, skipping -- negator: contradictory, 501; movement from bridi to sumti, 408; scalar, 501; single-word, 501
+-ness -- has count 0, skipping -- -ness, 259
+New York city -- has count 0, skipping -- New York city: example, 174
+New York state -- has count 0, skipping -- New York state: example, 174
+-ng -- has count 0, skipping -- -ng: Lojban contrasted with English, 41
+ni -- has count 97, skipping -- ni, 261, 262
+NIhE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- NIhE selma'o, 501; terminator for, 505
+NIhO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- NIhO selma'o, 466, 467, 502; quick-tour version, 16
+ni'o -- has count 24, skipping -- ni'o, 466; effect on pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignments, 162; quick-tour version, 16
+ni'u -- has count 12, skipping -- ni'u, 432, 438, 442; contrasted with va'a and vu'u, 438; with elided number, 442
+nobody -- has count 12, skipping -- nobody: ambiguous interpretations of, 391; interpretation of, 391; Lojban contrasted with English, 391
+no'i -- has count 11, skipping -- no'i, 467; effect on pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignments, 162
+noi -- has count 39, skipping -- noi, 171, 203
+NOI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- NOI selma'o, 169, 502; terminator for, 498
+non-logical connectives -- has count 17, skipping -- non-logical connectives: effect of nai on, 358; grouping, 357; including tense, 364; intervals, 359; ordered intervals, 359; sentence, 358; syntax rules summary, 366; un-ordered intervals, 359; within tanru, 91
+non-logical forethought termsets -- has count 0, skipping -- non-logical forethought termsets: connecting tagged sumti, 358
+non-logically connected tenses -- has count 0, skipping -- non-logically connected tenses, 363
+non-restrictive relative clause -- has count 0, skipping -- non-restrictive relative clause: definition (see also incidental relative clause), 171
+non-specific descriptions -- has count 0, skipping -- non-specific descriptions, 121
+non-standard orthographies -- has count 0, skipping -- non-standard orthographies: caveat, 46; Cyrillic, 46; Tengwar, 46
+non-standard words -- has count 0, skipping -- non-standard words: marking, 480
+nothing sits -- has count 0, skipping -- nothing sits: example, 401
+nu -- has count 169, skipping -- nu, 256, 259, 261; definition, 256; place structure, 257
+NU compared with ZAhO -- has count 0, skipping -- NU compared with ZAhO, 268
+NU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- NU selma'o, 98, 255, 256, 257, 262, 263, 268, 365, 502; syntax, 255; terminator for, 497
+nu'a -- has count 14, skipping -- nu'a, 97, 457; use in answering operator questions, 457
+NUhA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- NUhA selma'o, 502
+NUhI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- NUhI selma'o, 348, 399, 502
+NUhU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- NUhU selma'o, 348, 399, 502; terminator for, 502
+nu'i -- has count 14, skipping -- nu'i, 200, 348, 399
+number questions -- has count 0, skipping -- number questions, 449; answers to, 449
+number words -- has count 0, skipping -- number words: pattern in, 432
+numbers -- has count 85, skipping -- numbers: as compound cmavo, 432; as grammatically complete utterances, 449; as possessive sumti, 180; cmavo as Lojban equivalents, 50; descriptor for, 499; English contrasted with Lojban on exactness, 397; expressing simple, 432; greater than 9, 432; implicit quantifier for, 142; indefinite, 440; list of indefinite, 463; list of special, 462; Lojban contrasted with English on exactness, 397; meaning when used as quantifiers, 127; on logical variables, 397; rafsi for, 59; special, 434; talking about contrasted with using for quantification, 435; using for quantification contrasted with talking about, 435
+numeric digits in lerfu words -- has count 0, skipping -- numeric digits in lerfu words: grammar considerations, 420
+numerical punctuation -- has count 14, skipping -- numerical punctuation, 433; undefined, 434
+numerical tenses -- has count 0, skipping -- numerical tenses: effect on use of boi, 458
+nu'u -- has count 15, skipping -- nu'u, 200, 348, 399
+ny -- has count 40, skipping -- ny, 437
+observation evidential -- has count 0, skipping -- observation evidential: contrasted with observative, 316
+observative form -- has count 0, skipping -- observative form: contrasted with command, 188
+observative with elided CAhA -- has count 0, skipping -- observative with elided CAhA: convention, 245
+octal system -- has count 0, skipping -- octal system: specifying numbers in (see also base), 444
+office or ice-dance -- has count 0, skipping -- office or ice-dance: example, 347
+Old McDonald -- has count 0, skipping -- Old McDonald: example, 32
+on right -- has count 0, skipping -- on right: contrasted with toward right, 224
+on two occasions -- has count 0, skipping -- on two occasions: example, 246
+on verge -- has count 0, skipping -- on verge: example, 228
+once -- has count 36, skipping -- once: example, 226, 458
+one-third of food -- has count 0, skipping -- one-third of food, 447
+only if -- has count 27, skipping -- only if: compared with if ... then, 338
+of -- has count 4492, skipping -- of: in English, compared with do'e, 197
+oi -- has count 16, skipping -- oi: example, 300
+omission of descriptor -- has count 0, skipping -- omission of descriptor: effect on ku, 132
+once and future king -- has count 0, skipping -- once and future king: example, 363
+One -- has count 43, skipping -- One: the, example, 66
+only -- has count 371, skipping -- only: example, 318
+open interval -- has count 0, skipping -- open interval, 360; expressed with mi'i, 455
+operand -- has count 86, skipping -- operand: converting from operator, 460; converting into operator, 460; converting selbri into, 456; converting sumti into, 456
+operand connection -- has count 0, skipping -- operand connection: afterthought, 453; forethought, 453
+operand modal connection -- has count 0, skipping -- operand modal connection, 201
+operands -- has count 87, skipping -- operands: connecting, 361; contrasted with general sumti, 436; too few for infix operation, 450; too many for infix operation, 451
+operator -- has count 158, skipping -- operator: converting from operand, 460; converting into operand, 460; converting into selbri, 457; converting selbri into, 456; forethought marker, 503
+operator ...ku'e in Polish notation -- has count 0, skipping -- operator ...ku'e in Polish notation: contrasted with vei ...ve'o, 438
+operator connection -- has count 0, skipping -- operator connection: afterthought, 453; forethought, 453
+operator derived from selbri -- has count 0, skipping -- operator derived from selbri: effect of selbri place structure on, 456
+operator left-right grouping -- has count 0, skipping -- operator left-right grouping: as Lojban default, 436
+operator precedence in other languages -- has count 0, skipping -- operator precedence in other languages, 436
+operator priority -- has count 0, skipping -- operator priority, 490
+operators -- has count 86, skipping -- operators: analogue of tanru in, 361; connecting, 361; list of simple, 461; mathematical, 507
+operators of VUhU -- has count 0, skipping -- operators of VUhU: grammar of operands, 436
+ordered sequence -- has count 0, skipping -- ordered sequence: by listing members, 355; contrasted with mass, 355; contrasted with set, 355
+outer product -- has count 0, skipping -- outer product, 452
+outer quantifier -- has count 23, skipping -- outer quantifier: contrasted with inner quantifier, 129; definition, 129; effect of on meaning, 129; for expressing subset, 131; implicit on descriptors, 129; in indefinite description, 132; rationale for differences in implicit quantifier on descriptors, 131
+outer quantifier of sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- outer quantifier of sumti: meaning of, 178
+outer sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- outer sumti: prenex for referring to from within relative clause within relative clause, 185; referring to from within relative clause within relative clause, 184
+owe money -- has count 0, skipping -- owe money: example, 346
+pa -- has count 65, skipping -- pa, 433
+PA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- PA selma'o, 397, 432, 440, 449, 502; exception on use of boi with MOI, 449; members with rafsi, 460; terminator for, 490
+paragraph marker -- has count 0, skipping -- paragraph marker, 502
+paragraph separation -- has count 0, skipping -- paragraph separation: spoken text, 467; written text, 466
+paragraphs -- has count 12, skipping -- paragraphs: effects on scope, 466; separating, 466; separator, 466
+parentheses -- has count 35, skipping -- parentheses: for complex mekso used as quantifier, 454
+parenthesis -- has count 29, skipping -- parenthesis: discourse, 505; mathematical, 437; textual, 480
+partial quotation -- has count 0, skipping -- partial quotation, 321
+pausative event contour -- has count 0, skipping -- pausative event contour, 228
+pause -- has count 95, skipping -- pause: and cmene, 68; and consonant-final words, 68; and Cy-form cmavo, 69; and final-syllable stress, 69; and non-Lojban text, 69; and vowel-initial words, 68; between words, 68; contrasted with stop, 229; contrasted with syllable break, 32; proscribed within words, 68; representation of in Lojban, 31; requirement between stressed syllables, 52; symbol for, 416; word for, 416
+pauses -- has count 16, skipping -- pauses: before vowels, 52; rules for, 68
+pe -- has count 65, skipping -- pe, 172, 180, 203; as loose association, 172; compared with ne, 174; compared with poi ke'a srana, 172; contrasted with po, 173
+peace symbol -- has count 0, skipping -- peace symbol, 425
+PEhE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- PEhE selma'o, 347, 503
+PEhO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- PEhO selma'o, 503; terminator for, 497
+pei -- has count 14, skipping -- pei, 313
+perfective event contour -- has count 0, skipping -- perfective event contour, 228
+perils of omitting terminators -- has count 0, skipping -- perils of omitting terminators, 102
+period -- has count 17, skipping -- period: definition of, 31; example of, 32; optional, 32; quick-tour version, 12; within a word, 32
+permissions notice -- has count 0, skipping -- permissions notice, 8
+personal pronouns for he/she/it/they -- has count 0, skipping -- personal pronouns for he/she/it/they: English contrasted with Lojban in organization, 150
+person's arm -- has count 0, skipping -- person's arm: example, 173
+pe'u -- has count 12, skipping -- pe'u, 324; contrasted with e'o, 324
+phonetic alphabet -- has count 0, skipping -- phonetic alphabet, 29; proposed lerfu words for, 429
+physical distress -- has count 0, skipping -- physical distress: example, 307
+pi -- has count 84, skipping -- pi, 130, 433, 441, 442, 444; effect on indefinite numbers, 441
+pi'e -- has count 14, skipping -- pi'e, 445
+pi'i -- has count 27, skipping -- pi'i, 436
+piro -- has count 10, skipping -- piro, 130; explanation of meaning, 130
+place of eating -- has count 0, skipping -- place of eating: example, 247
+place structure -- has count 216, skipping -- place structure: adding new places to with modal sumti, 194; definition, 12, 187; effect of FA on, 190; effect of modal conversion on, 206; empty slots in, 187; explicitly mapping sumti to place with FA, 190; gismu, 294; instability of, 187; leaving a sumti place unspecified in with zo'e, 189; notation conventions, 187; omitting places with FA, 190; omitting places with zo'e, 189; re-ordering by conversion, 100
+place structure and tanru inversion -- has count 0, skipping -- place structure and tanru inversion, 95
+place structure of selbri -- has count 0, skipping -- place structure of selbri: determining, 187
+place structure questions -- has count 0, skipping -- place structure questions, 191
+plant grows -- has count 11, skipping -- plant grows: example, 197, 207
+plural masses -- has count 0, skipping -- plural masses: possible use for, 130
+plus negative of -- has count 0, skipping -- plus negative of: example, 438
+po -- has count 51, skipping -- po, 173; as restrictive possession, 173; compared with poi ke'a se steci srana, 173; contrasted with English possession, 173; contrasted with pe, 173; contrasted with po'e, 173
+point -- has count 143, skipping -- point: event considered as, 230
+point-event abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- point-event abstraction: place structure, 259
+point-event abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- point-event abstraction(s): definition, 258; related tense contours, 269
+pointing cmavo -- has count 0, skipping -- pointing cmavo: quick-tour version, 13
+Polish notation -- has count 10, skipping -- Polish notation: and mekso goals, 431; and use of boi, 438; definition, 438; end-of-operands indicator, 438; explicitly marking as, 439; operands with infix expressions, 439; operator ...ku'e compared with parenthesization, 438; separating operands in, 438; vei ...ve'o contrasted with operator ...ku'e, 438
+Polish notation mixed with infix -- has count 0, skipping -- Polish notation mixed with infix, 455; example, 455
+politeness -- has count 0, skipping -- politeness: thank you and you're welcome, 324; you're welcome, 324, 325
+poi -- has count 138, skipping -- poi, 169, 203, 394, 396; contrasted with voi in veridicality, 177; discussion of translation, 170; dropping from multiple appearances on logical variables, 396; syntax of, 169
+pointing -- has count 15, skipping -- pointing: reference by, 147
+portion -- has count 23, skipping -- portion: on set contrasted with on individual, 131
+portion of whole -- has count 0, skipping -- portion of whole: expressing, 441
+positive numbers -- has count 0, skipping -- positive numbers: explicit expression, 432
+possessed in relative phrases -- has count 0, skipping -- possessed in relative phrases: compared with possessor, 174
+possession -- has count 38, skipping -- possession: expressing with po, 173; intrinsic, expressing with po'e, 173; Lojban usage compared with French and German in omission/inclusion, 175; Lojban usage contrasted with English in omission/inclusion, 175; quick-tour version, 21
+possession not ownership -- has count 0, skipping -- possession not ownership: quick-tour version, 21
+possessive sumti and relative clauses -- has count 0, skipping -- possessive sumti and relative clauses: development history, 180
+possessive sumti with relative clauses -- has count 0, skipping -- possessive sumti with relative clauses: effect of placement, 181
+possessor in relative phrases -- has count 0, skipping -- possessor in relative phrases: compared with possessed, 174
+potential -- has count 20, skipping -- potential: expressing in past/future, 244
+po'u -- has count 22, skipping -- po'u, 174; as identity, 174; compared with no'u, 174; compared with poi ke'a du, 174; contrasted with no'u, 175; relative phrase of contrasted with relativized sumti of, 174
+prayer -- has count 10, skipping -- prayer: example, 281, 290
+precedence -- has count 32, skipping -- precedence: mathematical default, 436
+predication -- has count 14, skipping -- predication: as a relationship, 11; compared with bridi, 11
+pregnant sister -- has count 0, skipping -- pregnant sister: example, 320
+prenex -- has count 71, skipping -- prenex: considerations for dropping, 395; dropping for terseness, 397; effect of order of variables in, 396; explanation, 392; internal to a bridi, 400; purpose of, 396; removing when numeric quantifiers present, 397; syntax of, 392; use for outer sumti reference, 185
+prenex marker -- has count 0, skipping -- prenex marker, 508
+prenex scope -- has count 0, skipping -- prenex scope: for sentences joined by .i, 410; for sentences joined by ijeks, 410; in abstractions, 410; in embedded bridi, 410; in relative clauses, 410; informal, 410
+pretty -- has count 68, skipping -- pretty: English ambiguity of, 87
+pro-bridi -- has count 76, skipping -- pro-bridi: as abbreviation for bridi, 151; broda-series, 151; broda-series list, 165; bu'a-series list, 165; compared to pro-sumti as means of abbreviation, 145; definition, 145; go'i-series list, 165; list by series, 165; list of miscellaneous cmavo used with, 166; miscellaneous list, 165; overriding sumti of antecedent bridi for, 151; quotation of, 476; scope effect of new paragraph, 466
+pro-bridi assignment -- has count 19, skipping -- pro-bridi assignment: explicit cancellation of with da'o, 162; no'i effect on, 162; stability of, 162
+pro-bridi rafsi -- has count 0, skipping -- pro-bridi rafsi: as producing context-dependent meanings, 164
+process abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- process abstraction: place structure, 259
+process abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- process abstraction(s): definition, 258; related tense contours, 268
+process event -- has count 0, skipping -- process event: described, 258
+pronouncement -- has count 0, skipping -- pronouncement: example, 316
+pronouns -- has count 10, skipping -- pronouns: as anaphora, 152; compared to pro-sumti in usage as abbreviations, 145
+pronunciation -- has count 64, skipping -- pronunciation: IPA for Lojban, 30; quick-tour version, 12; relation to orthography, 29; standard, 29
+properties -- has count 33, skipping -- properties: place structure, 261
+property abstraction -- has count 12, skipping -- property abstraction(s): contrasted with amount abstraction, 261; specifying determining place by sumti ellipsis, 259; specifying determining place with ce'u, 260; specifying sumti place of property with ce'u, 161; sumti ellipsis in, 259
+property of loving -- has count 0, skipping -- property of loving: example, 260
+proposed lerfu words -- has count 23, skipping -- proposed lerfu words: as working basis, 426
+propositional -- has count 15, skipping -- propositional: of attitudinals, 301
+pro-sumti -- has count 162, skipping -- pro-sumti: and discursive utterances, 481; as possessive sumti, 180; classes of, 139; compared to pro-bridi as means of abbreviation, 145; compared to pronouns in usage as abbreviations, 145; contrasted with description, 119; da-series list, 165; definition, 145; di'u-series, 148; di'u-series list, 164; for listener(s), 146; for listeners and/or speakers and/or others, 146; for relativized sumti in relative clauses, 160; for speaker(s), 146; implicit quantifier for, 139; ko'a-series, 150; ko'a-series list, 164; lerfu as, 152; lerfu string, effect on reference to lerfu itself, 422; lerfu string, interaction with quantifier and boi, 421; list by series, 164; list of miscellaneous cmavo used with, 166; miscellaneous list, 165; mi-series, 146; mi-series list, 164; quick-tour version, 13; quotation of, 476; rafsi for, 163; referring to place of different bridi with go'i-series, 159; referring to place of same bridi with vo'a-series, 158; ri-series list, 164; scope effect of new paragraph, 466; series, 145; ti-series, 147; ti-series list, 164; typical, 157; unspecified, 157; vo'a-series, 158; vo'a-series list, 165; zo'e-series list, 164
+pro-sumti for utterances -- has count 0, skipping -- pro-sumti for utterances, 148
+pro-sumti rafsi -- has count 0, skipping -- pro-sumti rafsi: anticipated use of for abbreviating inconvenient forms, 163; effect of on place structure of lujvo, 163
+pu -- has count 134, skipping -- pu, 219, 232; meaning as a sumti tcita, 232; meaning when following interval specification, 222
+PU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- PU selma'o, 219, 227, 242, 362, 503; compared with FAhA, 219; contradictory negation of, 241
+punctuation -- has count 36, skipping -- punctuation, 297; in numbers, 433; list of numerical, 462
+punctuation lerfu words -- has count 0, skipping -- punctuation lerfu words: interaction with different alphabet systems, 420; mechanism for creating, 419; rationale for lau, 419
+pu'o -- has count 16, skipping -- pu'o, 228; as pastward of event, 229; derivation of word, 228; explanation of derivation, 229
+quadratic formula -- has count 0, skipping -- quadratic formula: example, 455
+qualified sumti -- has count 12, skipping -- qualified sumti: contrasted with unqualified sumti, 133
+quantification -- has count 11, skipping -- quantification: before description sumti compared with before non-description sumti, 129
+quantified temporal tense -- has count 0, skipping -- quantified temporal tense: definition, 226; negating with nai, 227
+quantified temporal tense with direction -- has count 0, skipping -- quantified temporal tense with direction: Lojban contrasted with English in implications, 227
+quantified temporal tenses -- has count 0, skipping -- quantified temporal tenses: "once" contrasted with "only once", 227; caveat on implication of, 227
+quantified tenses -- has count 0, skipping -- quantified tenses: as sumti tcita, 233
+quantifier -- has count 124, skipping -- quantifier, 502; effect of moving naku, 405; explicit on sumti, 127; lerfu string as, 423; on previously quantified variable, 410; on sumti, effect on relative clause, 178; on sumti, expressing inexact amount with, 127; on sumti, indicating exact number, 127; with logical variables, 397; with sumti, 127
+questions -- has count 64, skipping -- questions, 469; answering with go'i, 154; connection, 351; digit, 449; fill-in-the-blank, 469; indirect, 264; marking in advance, 322; modal, 492; multiple, 470; number, 449, 470; operator, 457; place structure position, 191; quick-tour version, 22; rhetorical, 322; selbri, 160, 470; sumti, 159, 469; truth, 469; with "xu, 321
+quotation -- has count 80, skipping -- quotation, 475; any text, 508; as possessive sumti, 180; contrasted with me'o for representing lerfu, 422; contrasted with sentence abstraction, 263; delimited, 508; four kinds, 141; grammatical, 499; implicit quantifier for, 128, 141; of grammatical Lojban text, 476; of Lojban words, 499; of non-Lojban, 477; of parseable Lojban text, 476; of rafsi, 478; of single word, 477; of ungrammatical Lojban text, 476; referent versus symbol, 478; single-word, 508; ungrammatical Lojban containing le'u, 477; ungrammatical Lojban containing lo'u, 477
+ra -- has count 44, skipping -- ra, 153; practical referent conventions, 153
+radix -- has count 0, skipping -- radix: decimal (see also base), 444
+rafsi -- has count 201, skipping -- rafsi: as fu'ivla categorizer, 61; based on pro-sumti, 163; considerations restricting construction of, 58; contrasted with cmavo in usage, 61; contrasted with same-form cmavo in meaning, 56; contrasted with words, 61; conventional meaning for cu'o, 460; conventional meaning for frinu, 460; definition, 56; definition, quick-tour version, 27; forms of, 57; four-letter, requirement for y-hyphen, 60; lack of, effect on forming lujvo, 60; level of uniqueness of relation to gismu, 57; long, 57; multiple for each gismu, 69; multiplicity of for single gismu, 57; possible forms for construction of, 58; quotation of, 478; rationale for assignments of, 58; rules for combining to form lujvo, 56; selection considerations in making lujvo, 57; short, 57; uniqueness in gismu referent of, 57; use of, 57
+rafsi assignments -- has count 0, skipping -- rafsi assignments: non-reassignability of, 58
+rafsi for numbers -- has count 0, skipping -- rafsi for numbers, 59
+rafsi fu'ivla proposal -- has count 0, skipping -- rafsi fu'ivla proposal, 80
+RAhO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- RAhO selma'o, 503
+ra'o -- has count 12, skipping -- ra'o, 156; for reinterpreting go'i-series pro-bridi sumti references, 156
+rat eats cheese -- has count 0, skipping -- rat eats cheese: example, 227, 232
+rat eats cheese in park -- has count 0, skipping -- rat eats cheese in park: example, 247
+rats in park -- has count 0, skipping -- rats in park: example, 446
+real world point of view -- has count 0, skipping -- real world point of view, 320
+re-evaluation of referents -- has count 0, skipping -- re-evaluation of referents: flag for, 503
+reference -- has count 47, skipping -- reference: ambiguity of ti/ta/tu, 169; and discursive utterances, 481; quick-tour version, 20; to relativized sumti with ke'a, 169; use of relative clause for, 169
+reference frame for directions in tenses -- has count 0, skipping -- reference frame for directions in tenses, 224
+referent -- has count 54, skipping -- referent: contrasted with symbol, 478; of operand, 459; referring to with la'e, 134
+referent of pro-bridi -- has count 0, skipping -- referent of pro-bridi: definition, 145
+referent of pro-sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- referent of pro-sumti: definition, 145
+regularly -- has count 10, skipping -- regularly: example, 226
+relation of first places in logical connection of observatives -- has count 0, skipping -- relation of first places in logical connection of observatives: rationale, 345
+relationship -- has count 111, skipping -- relationship: active/static/attributive compared, 11; as basis of sentence, 187; objects of, 187
+relative clause -- has count 91, skipping -- relative clause: as part of name, 179; compared with tanru, 172; connecting to relative phrase with zi'e, 176; connecting to whole sumti, 506; contrasted with tanru, 172; effect of commas in English, 171; effect of elided ku of relativized sumti, 177; effect of omission of ke'a on, 170; effect of relativized sumti quantifiers on, 178; effect on elidability of be'o, 94; impact of indefinite sumti on placement, 180; impact of la on placement, 179; impact of LAhE on placement, 182; impact of le on placement, 179; impact of lo on placement, 179; impact of NAhE on placement, 182; kinds of, 171; list of cmavo for, 185; on connected sumti, 182; on names, 179; on number, 181; on possessive sumti, 181; on quotation, 182; on vocative phrases, 184; placement in sentence, 177; placement with vocative phrases, 184; relative clauses within, 184; restricted contrasted with incidental, 171; restricted contrasted with incidental in English expression, 171; restrictive (see also restrictive relative clause), 171; syntax with indefinite sumti, 180; use for reference, 169; use in restricting existential claims, 394; use in restricting universal claims, 395; use of ke'a for referral to relativized sumti in, 160
+relative clause after descriptor -- has count 0, skipping -- relative clause after descriptor: effect on elidability of ku'o, 178
+relative clause after relativized sumti ku -- has count 0, skipping -- relative clause after relativized sumti ku: meaning, 178
+relative clause after sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- relative clause after sumti: as common placement in sentence, 177
+relative clause and indefinite sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- relative clause and indefinite sumti: placement considerations, 180
+relative clause and LAhE -- has count 0, skipping -- relative clause and LAhE: placement considerations, 182
+relative clause and le-sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- relative clause and le-sumti: placement considerations, 179
+relative clause and lo-sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- relative clause and lo-sumti: placement considerations, 179
+relative clause and NAhE -- has count 0, skipping -- relative clause and NAhE: placement considerations, 182
+relative clause and names -- has count 0, skipping -- relative clause and names: placement considerations, 179
+relative clause and possessive sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- relative clause and possessive sumti: development history, 180
+relative clause and quantified sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- relative clause and quantified sumti: placement considerations, 178
+relative clause before inner quantifier -- has count 0, skipping -- relative clause before inner quantifier: meaning, 178
+relative clause before relativized sumti ku -- has count 0, skipping -- relative clause before relativized sumti ku: meaning, 178
+relative clause marker -- has count 0, skipping -- relative clause marker, 502
+relative clause on complex sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- relative clause on complex sumti: Lojban contrasted with English, 183
+relative clause on indefinite sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- relative clause on indefinite sumti: syntax considerations, 180
+relative clause on lo -- has count 0, skipping -- relative clause on lo: syntax suggestion, 179
+relative clause placement -- has count 0, skipping -- relative clause placement: considerations for lo-sumti contrasted with le-sumti, 179; considerations for simple descriptors contrasted with for quantified sumti, 179; effect on scope, 178; English contrasted with Chinese and Finnish, 178; on sumti with simple descriptor, 178
+relative clause with possessive sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- relative clause with possessive sumti: effect of placement, 181
+relative phrase -- has count 23, skipping -- relative phrase: as an abbreviation of a common relative clause, 172; compared with possessive sumti, 180; connecting to relative clause with zi'e, 176; contrasted with possessive sumti in complexity allowed, 180; contrasted with relative clause in preciseness, 203; improving preciseness with modals, 203; rationale for, 172; syntax of, 172
+relative phrase marker -- has count 0, skipping -- relative phrase marker, 495
+relative phrases with modals -- has count 0, skipping -- relative phrases with modals: compared to relative clauses in preciseness, 203
+re-ordering logical variables with se -- has count 0, skipping -- re-ordering logical variables with se, 396
+repeating decimals -- has count 0, skipping -- repeating decimals: expressing with numerical punctuation, 433; marking start of repeating portion, 433
+replace -- has count 14, skipping -- replace: example, 289
+representing lerfu -- has count 0, skipping -- representing lerfu: lu contrasted with me'o, 422
+respectively -- has count 84, skipping -- respectively: example, 356; specifying with fa'u, 356; with different relationships, 358
+restricted claims -- has count 0, skipping -- restricted claims: definition, 394
+resumptive event contour -- has count 0, skipping -- resumptive event contour, 228
+reviewers of this book -- has count 0, skipping -- reviewers of this book, 6
+ri -- has count 101, skipping -- ri, 152; contrasted with ke'a in relative clauses, 161; non-self-reference of, 153; referent of, 152; subscripting for referring further back, 153
+ri'a -- has count 10, skipping -- ri'a, 197
+rich and German -- has count 0, skipping -- rich and German: example, 356
+right-grouping in tanru -- has count 0, skipping -- right-grouping in tanru: with bo, 87
+ro -- has count 112, skipping -- ro, 128, 129, 139, 394, 396, 440; as implicit quantifier on personal pro-sumti, 128; compared with pa, 440; dropping from multiple appearances on logical variables, 396; effect of order when multiple in sentence, 399
+ro da -- has count 15, skipping -- ro da, 394
+rock face -- has count 0, skipping -- rock face: example, 231
+ROI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- ROI selma'o, 226, 230, 503; effect of ZAhO on fe'e flag, 231; exception on use of boi before, 458; scalar negation of, 242
+RP -- has count 0, skipping -- RP (see reverse Polish notation), 452
+ru -- has count 31, skipping -- ru, 153; practical referent conventions, 153
+sa -- has count 43, skipping -- sa, 312, 416, 477, 483; interaction with bu, 416
+SA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- SA selma'o, 483, 503
+scalar negation -- has count 38, skipping -- scalar negation: effect on selbri, 101
+scalar negation of modals -- has count 0, skipping -- scalar negation of modals: explanation of meaning, 207
+scalar negation of non-logical connective -- has count 0, skipping -- scalar negation of non-logical connective, 358
+scale -- has count 101, skipping -- scale: granular contrasted with continuous, 448
+score -- has count 19, skipping -- score: as 20-year span, 460; as alternate base for years, 461
+se -- has count 220, skipping -- se, 100, 192, 338, 340, 346, 350, 354, 360, 361, 396, 459, 472; as grammatical in JOI compounds, 355; in logical connective to exchange sentences, 338; order in logical connectives with na, 338; quick-tour version, 16; use with operators, 459; using to re-order logical variables, 396
+se du'u -- has count 10, skipping -- se du'u, 263
+se klama -- has count 21, skipping -- se klama: place structure of, 192
+SE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- SE selma'o, 100, 192, 195, 205, 247, 396, 459, 472, 504; after 5th place, 472; effect of multiple on a selbri, 194; effect on place structure numbering, 192; effect on selbri place structure, 192; extending scope of, 193; for converting place structure, 192; quick-tour version, 16; rationale for no 1st place conversion, 192; scope of, 193; word formation of cmavo in, 192
+se writing convention -- has count 0, skipping -- se writing convention: in eks, 341
+section numbering -- has count 0, skipping -- section numbering, 458
+sections of this book -- has count 0, skipping -- sections of this book, 4
+see with eye -- has count 0, skipping -- see with eye: example, 202
+see with left eye -- has count 0, skipping -- see with left eye: example, 194
+SEhU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- SEhU selma'o, 159, 482, 504
+sei -- has count 45, skipping -- sei, 321, 481
+SEI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- SEI selma'o, 458, 481, 504; terminator for, 504
+selbri -- has count 564, skipping -- selbri: as part of description, 120; brivla as, 83; converting into an operand, 456; converting into an operator, 456; converting operator into, 457; definition, 83, 187; definition, quick-tour version, 27; lerfu string as, 423; omitting with co'e, 158; place structure of, 187; place structure of converted operator, 457; relation to bridi, 83; scalar negation of, 101; with GOhA, 97
+selbri assignment -- has count 0, skipping -- selbri assignment, 491
+selbri from sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- selbri from sumti, 98
+selbri list for quick tour -- has count 0, skipping -- selbri list for quick tour, 13
+selbri logical variables -- has count 0, skipping -- selbri logical variables, 409
+selbri place structure -- has count 0, skipping -- selbri place structure: effect on operator formed by, 456; re-ordering, 504
+selbri placement among sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- selbri placement among sumti: effect of multiple quantification on, 407
+selbri to modal converter -- has count 0, skipping -- selbri to modal converter, 493
+selbri-first bridi -- has count 0, skipping -- selbri-first bridi: effect on sumti places, 188; effect on use of cu, 190; specifying first sumti place in with fa, 190
+selma'o -- has count 478, skipping -- selma'o, 12, 396, 398
+selma'o -- has count 478, skipping -- selma'o: cross-reference list of, 489; definition, 50; definition, quick-tour version, 27
+seltau -- has count 93, skipping -- seltau: compared with English adjective, 55; compared with English adverb, 55; definition, 95, 274; definition of, 84; effect on meaning of tanru, 84; filling sumti places in, 93
+semau -- has count 10, skipping -- semau, 204
+seme'a -- has count 13, skipping -- seme'a, 204
+sentence -- has count 321, skipping -- sentence: basic Lojban, 187
+sentence 10.11 -- has count 0, skipping -- sentence 10.11: example, 445
+sentence grouping -- has count 0, skipping -- sentence grouping, 505
+sentences -- has count 150, skipping -- sentences: close grouping, 466; connecting non-logically, 358; connecting with tense, 238; forethought tense connection of, 239; joining, 465; separator for joining, 465; tenseless, quick-tour version, 25
+se'o -- has count 10, skipping -- se'o, 316
+separately tensed sentences -- has count 0, skipping -- separately tensed sentences: contrasted with tense connected sentences, 239
+sequence -- has count 34, skipping -- sequence: as an abstract list, 355; contrasted with list, 355; contrasted with set, 134
+sequence of events -- has count 0, skipping -- sequence of events: expressing non-time-related sequences, 358
+set -- has count 147, skipping -- set: as specified by members, 355; by listing members with ce, 355; compared with mass as abstract of multiple individuals, 125; contrasted with mass in attribution of component properties, 125; contrasted with mass in distribution of properties, 355; contrasted with ordered sequence, 355; expressing measurement standard for indefinites, 446; expressing relation with individuals forming set, 446; expressing relation with mass formed from set, 446
+set operations -- has count 0, skipping -- set operations, 356
+sets -- has count 44, skipping -- sets: properties of, 125; rule for implicit outer quantifier, 130; use in Lojban place structure, 125
+se'u -- has count 30, skipping -- se'u, 159, 482; as elidable terminator for soi, 159; elidability considerations, 159
+shared bridi-tail sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- shared bridi-tail sumti: avoiding, 200
+shift -- has count 49, skipping -- shift: single-letter, grammar of, 415
+shift word -- has count 19, skipping -- shift word: canceling effect, 418; for face, 418; for font, 418; for single letter, 415; scope, 415
+ship sank -- has count 0, skipping -- ship sank: example, 314
+shook stick -- has count 0, skipping -- shook stick: example, 145, 162
+short rafsi -- has count 18, skipping -- short rafsi, 57
+short rafsi form -- has count 0, skipping -- short rafsi form: compared with long form in effect on lujvo meaning, 56
+si -- has count 63, skipping -- si, 312, 416, 477, 482; interaction with bu, 416
+SI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- SI selma'o, 482, 504
+signed numbers -- has count 0, skipping -- signed numbers: expressing, 432
+signs on numbers -- has count 0, skipping -- signs on numbers: grammar, 433
+simultaneously -- has count 22, skipping -- simultaneously: example, 364
+single consonants -- has count 16, skipping -- single consonants: contrasted with consonant clusters, 35; contrasted with doubled consonants, 35
+singular me -- has count 0, skipping -- singular me: example, 446
+si'o -- has count 11, skipping -- si'o, 265
+sister pregnant -- has count 0, skipping -- sister pregnant: example, 320
+size -- has count 40, skipping -- size: order with dimensionality in spatial tense intervals, 224
+soi -- has count 28, skipping -- soi, 159; use in expressing reciprocity, 159; use in expressing reciprocity with vo'a-series pro-sumti, 159
+SOI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- SOI selma'o, 159, 504; terminator for, 504
+soi with one following sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- soi with one following sumti: convention, 159
+some do not go to school -- has count 0, skipping -- some do not go to school: example, 405
+somebody -- has count 11, skipping -- somebody: contrasted with somebody else, 393
+somebody loves self -- has count 0, skipping -- somebody loves self: example, 393
+somebody loves somebody -- has count 0, skipping -- somebody loves somebody: example, 393
+somebody's dog -- has count 0, skipping -- somebody's dog: example, 393
+something -- has count 171, skipping -- something: contrasted with someone, 395; expressing using "su'o", 397; unspecified definite with "zo'e", 392
+something is loved by everybody -- has count 0, skipping -- something is loved by everybody: example, 402
+something sees everything -- has count 0, skipping -- something sees everything: example, 394
+something sees me -- has count 0, skipping -- something sees me: example, 392, 397
+sounds -- has count 30, skipping -- sounds: clarity of, 31; complex, 31; difficult, 31
+sounds for letters -- has count 0, skipping -- sounds for letters: Lojban contrasted with English, 31
+sow grain -- has count 0, skipping -- sow grain: example, 231
+sowed grain -- has count 0, skipping -- sowed grain: example, 250
+space -- has count 569, skipping -- space: as time-based metaphor, 231; contrasted with time in number of directions, 219
+space indicator for interval modifiers -- has count 0, skipping -- space indicator for interval modifiers, 493
+space interval -- has count 19, skipping -- space interval: compared with time intervals in continuity, 230
+space location -- has count 0, skipping -- space location: as part of tense system (see also tense, spatial tense), 215
+space movement indicator -- has count 0, skipping -- space movement indicator, 501
+Spanish ch -- has count 0, skipping -- Spanish ch: example, 419
+Spanish ll -- has count 0, skipping -- Spanish ll: example, 419
+spatial contours -- has count 0, skipping -- spatial contours: as sumti tcita, 232; contrasted with temporal event contours, 231; expressing, 231
+spatial information -- has count 0, skipping -- spatial information: adding to a sentence with tense sumti tcita, 231
+spatial interval modifiers -- has count 0, skipping -- spatial interval modifiers: order in tense, 230
+spatial tense -- has count 15, skipping -- spatial tense: 4-dimensional interaction with temporal tense, 224; as an imaginary journey, 217; as optional in English, 217; as sumti tcita, 232; compared with temporal tense in elidability, 217; contrasted with temporal in dimensionality, 223; definition, 217; direction, 217; distance, 217; four-dimensional, 224; linear, 223; one-dimensional, 223; order of direction and distance specification, 217; order relative to temporal, 219; planar, 223; reference frame, 217; referent of, 217; three-dimensional, 223; two-dimensional, 223
+spatial tense interval -- has count 0, skipping -- spatial tense interval: order of size and dimensionality in, 224; order of VEhA and VIhA in, 224
+speaker-listener cooperation -- has count 0, skipping -- speaker-listener cooperation, 23
+specific descriptions -- has count 0, skipping -- specific descriptions, 121
+spiritual discomfort -- has count 0, skipping -- spiritual discomfort: example, 307
+standard for subjective numbers -- has count 0, skipping -- standard for subjective numbers: specifying, 448
+standard pronunciation -- has count 0, skipping -- standard pronunciation, 29
+state abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- state abstraction: place structure, 259
+state abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- state abstraction(s): definition, 258; related tense contours, 268
+state event -- has count 0, skipping -- state event: described, 258
+stereotypical objects -- has count 0, skipping -- stereotypical objects, 126
+sticky modals -- has count 0, skipping -- sticky modals: canceling, 208; definition, 207; fi'o proscribed from, 208
+sticky tenses -- has count 10, skipping -- sticky tenses: and CAhA, 243; canceling, 235; definition, 234; effect of nau on, 238; effect on future tense meaning, 234; from part of a multiple tense, 235
+stoke cat then rabbit -- has count 0, skipping -- stoke cat then rabbit: example, 240
+stop -- has count 43, skipping -- stop: contrasted with finish, 229; contrasted with pause, 229
+story tense -- has count 0, skipping -- story tense: Lojban convention contrasted with English convention, 236
+stress -- has count 49, skipping -- stress: definition of, 40; effect of buffer vowel on, 38; effect of syllabic consonants on, 34; example, 307; final syllable, rules for pause after, 69; irregular marked with upper-case, 415; levels of, 40; on cmavo, 52; primary, 40; quick-tour version, 12; rules for, 40; secondary, 40; showing non-standard, 29
+structure of examples -- has count 0, skipping -- structure of examples, 5
+structure of this book -- has count 0, skipping -- structure of this book, 4
+su -- has count 214, skipping -- su, 312, 416, 477, 484; interaction with bu, 416
+SU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- SU selma'o, 484, 504
+su'a -- has count 13, skipping -- su'a, 316, 319
+subjective amounts -- has count 0, skipping -- subjective amounts: expressing, 442
+subjective numbers -- has count 15, skipping -- subjective numbers: effect on place structure for cardinal selbri, 448; effect on place structure for ordinal selbri, 448; effect on place structure for portion selbri, 448; effect on place structure for probability selbri, 448; effect on place structure for scale selbri, 448; rationale for effect on place structure, 448; specifying standard for, 448
+subjective portions -- has count 0, skipping -- subjective portions: expressing, 442
+subordinate clause tense -- has count 0, skipping -- subordinate clause tense: effect of main bridi tense on, 238; Lojban compared with Esperanto, 238; Lojban compared with Russian, 238; Lojban contrasted with English, 238
+subscripted topics -- has count 0, skipping -- subscripted topics, 467
+subscripts -- has count 12, skipping -- subscripts, 471; and fuzzy truths, 473; and names, 473; and paragraph separators, 474; and pro-sumti, 472; and sumti re-ordering, 472; and tense, 473; before main expression, 450; effects on elidability of terminators, 450; external grammar of, 449; for sticky tense, 236; internal grammar of, 449; lerfu string as, 423; marker, 471, 507; mathematical, 473; multiple as sub-subscript, 450; multiple for same base word, 455; on ke'a for nested relative clauses, 161; on ri, 153; terminator for, 450; to form matrices of more than 2 dimensions, 452; use with ke'a for outer sumti reference, 184; use with logical variables, 410
+subscripts on lerfu words -- has count 0, skipping -- subscripts on lerfu words: effect on elidability of boi, 450
+sub-subscripts -- has count 0, skipping -- sub-subscripts, 450
+subtypes of words -- has count 0, skipping -- subtypes of words, 52
+su'i -- has count 78, skipping -- su'i, 97, 435, 436
+sum of 1 -- has count 0, skipping -- sum of 1: 2, 3, example, 438
+sumti -- has count 1124, skipping -- sumti: as having implicit quantifiers, 127; as objects in place structure slots, 187; beginning with "ke, 344; between descriptor and description selbri, 180; classified by types of objects referred to, 123; converting into an operand, 456; definition, 119, 187; definition, quick-tour version, 27; descriptions as, 119; dropping trailing unspecified, 189; explicitly mapping into place structure with FA, 190; for individual objects, 123; for mass objects, 123; for set objects, 123; forethought tense connection of, 239; irrelevant to relationship, 157; kinds of, 119; multiple in one place with FA, 191; names as, 119; numbers as, 119; omitted first place in selbri-first bridi, 188; order in selbri, 188; order in selbri-first bridi, 188; pro-sumti as, 119; quotations as, 119; relation with bridi, 11; re-ordering with FA, 190; with explicit quantifiers, 127
+sumti assignment -- has count 12, skipping -- sumti assignment: cancellation of, 492
+sumti logical connection -- has count 0, skipping -- sumti logical connection, 340; compared with bridi logical connections, 340; contrasted with tanru logical connection, 350; rationale for, 340
+sumti place -- has count 13, skipping -- sumti place: additional, 489
+sumti placement -- has count 0, skipping -- sumti placement: variant, quick-tour version, 15
+sumti qualifiers -- has count 15, skipping -- sumti qualifiers: as short forms for common special cases, 133; elidable terminator for qualified sumti, 133; external syntax of, 133; for negation, 135; internal syntax of, 133; list of, 133
+sumti reordering -- has count 0, skipping -- sumti reordering: quick-tour version, 16
+sumti tcita -- has count 44, skipping -- sumti tcita: based on event contours, 232; based on spatial contours, 232; based on tense direction, 232; based on tense distance, 232; based on tenses, 231; definition (see also modal tag), 195; event contours contrasted with direction/distance as basis for, 232
+sumti tcita and linked sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- sumti tcita and linked sumti, 94
+sumti tcita and modal tags -- has count 0, skipping -- sumti tcita and modal tags, 94
+sumti tcita and tense tags -- has count 0, skipping -- sumti tcita and tense tags, 94
+sumti tcita based on dimension -- has count 0, skipping -- sumti tcita based on dimension, 233
+sumti tcita based on event contours -- has count 0, skipping -- sumti tcita based on event contours: relation of main bridi to sumti process in, 232
+sumti tcita based on interval continuousness -- has count 0, skipping -- sumti tcita based on interval continuousness, 233
+sumti tcita based on interval properties -- has count 0, skipping -- sumti tcita based on interval properties, 233
+sumti tcita based on interval size -- has count 0, skipping -- sumti tcita based on interval size, 233
+sumti tcita based on quantified tenses -- has count 0, skipping -- sumti tcita based on quantified tenses, 233
+sumti with explicit quantifier -- has count 0, skipping -- sumti with explicit quantifier: contrasted with sumti without explicit quantifier, 127
+sumti with tense -- has count 0, skipping -- sumti with tense: effect of main bridi tense on, 235
+sumti with tenses -- has count 0, skipping -- sumti with tenses: quick-tour version, 26
+sumti-based descriptions with le -- has count 0, skipping -- sumti-based descriptions with le: as increasing restricting to in-mind, 133
+sun liquefies -- has count 0, skipping -- sun liquefies: example, 289
+su'o -- has count 50, skipping -- su'o, 128, 129, 397, 443; as implicit quantifier for quotations, 128; with elided number, 443
+superfective event contour -- has count 0, skipping -- superfective event contour, 228
+su'u -- has count 13, skipping -- su'u, 265
+syllabic l -- has count 0, skipping -- syllabic l: considered as a consonant for morphological discussions, 49
+syllabic m -- has count 0, skipping -- syllabic m: as a consonant for morphological discussions, 49
+syllabic n -- has count 0, skipping -- syllabic n: as a consonant for morphological discussions, 49
+syllabic pronunciations of consonants -- has count 0, skipping -- syllabic pronunciations of consonants: in fu'ivla, 62; in fu'ivla category attachment, 63
+syllabic r -- has count 0, skipping -- syllabic r: as a consonant for morphological discussions, 49
+symbol -- has count 23, skipping -- symbol: contrasted with referent, 478; for operand, 459; referring to with lu'e, 134
+symmetrical tanru types -- has count 0, skipping -- symmetrical tanru types: both separately true, 111; one or other true, 112; using crucial/typical parts, 112; using more inclusive class, 112
+ta -- has count 105, skipping -- ta, 147, 169; contrasted with di'u, 148
+tables -- has count 18, skipping -- tables: format of, 5
+tagged sumti termsets -- has count 0, skipping -- tagged sumti termsets: connecting with non-logical forethought connectives, 358
+TAhE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- TAhE selma'o, 225, 504; effect of ZAhO on fe'e flag, 231; scalar negation of, 242
+tail-terms -- has count 19, skipping -- tail-terms: definition, 345
+Take care! -- has count 0, skipping -- Take care!: example, 22
+Talk! -- has count 0, skipping -- Talk!: example, 22
+talker -- has count 27, skipping -- talker: example, 19
+tanru -- has count 318, skipping -- tanru: ambiguity in, 55; ambiguity of, 55, 85; and abstractions, 255; and conversion, quick-tour version, 18; and creativity, 55; as ambiguous, 85; asymmetrical, 104; combination of, 55; containing mathematical expressions, 97; default left-grouping of, 86; definition, 83; definition, quick-tour version, 27; expanding, 318; explanation of, 55; explicating, 318; explicitly defining, 318; expression of, 55; meaning of, 85; place structure of, 274; place structure of, quick-tour version, 18; place structures of, 92, 93; possible meanings of, 274; primary meaning of, 84; purpose, 274; quick-tour version, 17; reducing logically connected sumti to, caveat, 350; simple, 83; to lujvo, 55; with GOhA, 97
+tanru and conversion -- has count 0, skipping -- tanru and conversion, 100
+tanru connection grouping -- has count 0, skipping -- tanru connection grouping: guheks unmarked tanru, 350
+tanru conversion -- has count 0, skipping -- tanru conversion: effect on place structure, quick-tour version, 18
+tanru default grouping -- has count 0, skipping -- tanru default grouping: quick-tour version, 17
+tanru grouping with JA+BO -- has count 0, skipping -- tanru grouping with JA+BO: effect on tanru grouping, 91
+tanru inversion and place structure -- has count 0, skipping -- tanru inversion and place structure, 95
+tanru unit -- has count 11, skipping -- tanru unit: filling in places of, 489
+ta'onao -- has count 0, skipping -- ta'onao, 320
+tavla -- has count 70, skipping -- tavla, 14
+te -- has count 76, skipping -- te, 100, 192; quick-tour version, 16
+TEhU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- TEhU selma'o, 505
+tei -- has count 13, skipping -- tei, 419
+TEI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- TEI selma'o, 419, 505; terminator for, 494
+temporal tense elision -- has count 0, skipping -- temporal tense elision: compared with spatial tense elision in meaning, 217
+ten -- has count 13, skipping -- ten: expressing as number, 432
+tense -- has count 272, skipping -- tense: aorist, 223; as observer-based, 220; as subjective perception, 219; compared with modals in syntax, 248; connected, with negation, 245; connecting sentences in with, 238; contradictory negation contrasted with scalar negation of, 242; contradictory negation of with nai, 241; contrasted with modals in semantics, 248; effect of different position in sentence, 216; effect of sticky tense on, 234; emphasizing by position in sentence, 216; explanation of presentation method, 215; expressing movement in, 224; extensional, 503; forethought connection in, 363; forethought logical connections, 246; grouping of connectives in, 363; handling multiple episodes, 236; importance of 2nd sumti place for sumti tcita use, 248; in forethought bridi-tail connection, special rule, 365; interval contrasted with point, 221; logically connected with JA, 245; Lojban contrasted with English in implications of completeness, 223; Lojban contrasted with English in implying actuality, 243; Lojban contrasted with native languages, 215; making sticky, 497; multiple in sentence, 234; multiple in sentence compared with compound tense, 234; negating, 241; non-logical connection of, 246; non-logical connection of for sub-events, 246; numerical, 458; on embedded bridi, 235; order of direction specification in, 217; order of direction, distance and interval in, 221; order of distance specification in, 217; order of movement specification in, 225; order of spatial interval modifiers in, 230; order of temporal and spatial in, 219; overriding to speaker's current, 238; point contrasted with interval, 221; position in sentence alternative, 216; position of in sentence, 216; possible groupings of, 246; quantified, 226; quick-tour version, 25; rationale for relative order of temporal and spatial in, 219; relation of interval to point specified by direction and distance, 221; relation of point specified by direction and distance to interval, 221; relative order with bridi negation, 103; scalar negation contrasted with contradictory negation of, 242; scalar negation of with NAhE, 242; scope effect of new paragraph, 466; scope of, 234; selbri types applicable to, 215; space-time dimension for intervals, 224; speaker's current, 238; specifying relation of interval to point specified by direction and distance, 221; static contrasted with moving, 224; subscripting, 236; sumti tcita form contrasted with connected sentences, 239; use as sumti tcita, 231; viewpoint of PU contrasted with viewpoint of ZAhO, 228; with both temporal and spatial, 220; with ku, 216
+tense afterthought connection forms -- has count 0, skipping -- tense afterthought connection forms: selma'o allowed, 240
+tense and na -- has count 0, skipping -- tense and na: multiple, 104
+tense as sumti tcita -- has count 0, skipping -- tense as sumti tcita: contrasted with tense inside sumti, 233
+tense aspect -- has count 0, skipping -- tense aspect, 507
+tense cmavo -- has count 14, skipping -- tense cmavo: position relative to selbri, 104
+tense connected sentences -- has count 0, skipping -- tense connected sentences: contrasted with separately tensed sentences, 239; forethought mode, 239; importance of "bo" in, 239
+tense connection of bridi-tails -- has count 0, skipping -- tense connection of bridi-tails: meaning of, 240
+tense connection of sentences -- has count 0, skipping -- tense connection of sentences: contrasted with sumti tcita form, 239; order of, 239
+tense connection of sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- tense connection of sumti: meaning of, 240
+tense contours -- has count 0, skipping -- tense contours: compared with event abstraction contours, 268
+tense distance -- has count 0, skipping -- tense distance: as sumti tcita, 232
+tense forethought connection forms -- has count 0, skipping -- tense forethought connection forms: selma'o allowed, 240
+tense inside sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- tense inside sumti: contrasted with tense as sumti tcita, 233
+tense magnitude -- has count 0, skipping -- tense magnitude, 250
+tense on main bridi -- has count 0, skipping -- tense on main bridi: effect on embedded bridi tenses, 235; effect on embedded sumti with tenses, 235
+tense questions -- has count 0, skipping -- tense questions: by using logical connective question, 250; methods of asking, 249
+tense questions with ma -- has count 0, skipping -- tense questions with ma, 249
+tense sentence connection -- has count 0, skipping -- tense sentence connection: table of equivalent schemata, 249
+tense specification -- has count 0, skipping -- tense specification: effect on cu, 216; effect on elidability of terminators, 216
+tense tags and sumti tcita -- has count 0, skipping -- tense tags and sumti tcita, 94
+tense with elided CAhA -- has count 0, skipping -- tense with elided CAhA: meaning, 244
+tense with no sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- tense with no sumti: indicator for, 497
+tense with sumti tcita -- has count 0, skipping -- tense with sumti tcita: asymmetry of, 238
+tensed connectives -- has count 0, skipping -- tensed connectives: in mathematical expressions, 364
+tensed logical connection -- has count 0, skipping -- tensed logical connection, 363
+tensed logically connected bridi-tails -- has count 0, skipping -- tensed logically connected bridi-tails, 240; with grouping, 241
+tensed logically connected sentences -- has count 0, skipping -- tensed logically connected sentences, 240; with grouping, 241
+tensed logically connected sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- tensed logically connected sumti, 240; with grouping, 241
+tensed non-logical connectives -- has count 0, skipping -- tensed non-logical connectives, 364; forethought, 364
+tenseless sentences in story time -- has count 0, skipping -- tenseless sentences in story time, 236
+tense-or-modal questions -- has count 0, skipping -- tense-or-modal questions: with cu'e, 250
+term -- has count 948, skipping -- term: definition, 347
+terminators -- has count 35, skipping -- terminators: eliding ku in non-logical connections, 354
+termset -- has count 30, skipping -- termset: effect on scope of multiple indefinite sumti, 399; formation, 347
+termset connectives -- has count 0, skipping -- termset connectives, 503
+termset logical connection -- has count 0, skipping -- termset logical connection: contrasted with bridi connection, 347; contrasted with bridi-tail connection, 347; contrasted with sumti connection, 347; unequal length, 348; when used, 347
+termset marker -- has count 0, skipping -- termset marker, 502
+termset modal connection -- has count 0, skipping -- termset modal connection, 200
+termsets -- has count 24, skipping -- termsets, 491; compared to fa'u, 356; non-logical connection of, 357
+tertau -- has count 91, skipping -- tertau: definition, 95, 274; definition of, 84; effect on meaning of tanru, 84
+te'u -- has count 18, skipping -- te'u, 451, 456, 460
+text -- has count 160, skipping -- text: division numbering with -mai, 458; end-marker, 484; structure of, 465; sub-division numbering with -mai, 458
+thank you -- has count 0, skipping -- thank you: example, 324
+the -- has count 6333, skipping -- the: contrasted with a/an, 322; example, 322; for talking about numbers themselves, 435
+the two of you -- has count 0, skipping -- the two of you: example, 132
+this -- has count 713, skipping -- this: adjective expression with ti noi, 148; adjective usage contrasted with pronoun usage, 148; as utterance reference in English, 148; English, adjective expression with vi, 148; English, pronoun expression with ti, 148; pronoun usage contrasted with adjective usage, 148
+this book -- has count 35, skipping -- this book: author of, 5; contributors to, 5; credits for, 6; examples of, 4; goal of, 3; reviewers of, 6; sections of, 4; structure of, 4
+three cats white -- has count 0, skipping -- three cats white: and two big, example, 410
+three dogs bite two men -- has count 0, skipping -- three dogs bite two men: example, 398
+three of four people -- has count 0, skipping -- three of four people: example, 361
+three or four people -- has count 0, skipping -- three or four people: example, 454
+thus -- has count 68, skipping -- thus: example, 316
+ti -- has count 113, skipping -- ti, 119, 147, 169; as pronoun expression for English this, 148
+time -- has count 251, skipping -- time: as part of tense system (see also tense, temporal tense), 215; as space-based metaphor, 231; contrasted with space in number of directions, 219
+time of death -- has count 0, skipping -- time of death: example, 248
+times -- has count 49, skipping -- times: explicit expression of, 437; implicit expression of, 437
+title -- has count 3218, skipping -- title: specifying with tu'e...tu'u, 466
+title of book -- has count 0, skipping -- title of book: example, 134
+to -- has count 3503, skipping -- to, 480
+to movie -- has count 0, skipping -- to movie: house, office, example, 191
+TO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- TO selma'o, 480, 505; terminator for, 505
+to-do list -- has count 0, skipping -- to-do list: example, 358
+to'i -- has count 14, skipping -- to'i, 321, 480
+toi -- has count 11, skipping -- toi, 480
+TOI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- TOI selma'o, 480, 505
+too -- has count 76, skipping -- too: example, 318
+toward right -- has count 0, skipping -- toward right: contrasted with on right, 224
+transformations with logical connectives -- has count 0, skipping -- transformations with logical connectives: steps, 408
+traveling salesperson -- has count 0, skipping -- traveling salesperson: example, 196
+truncation of number -- has count 0, skipping -- truncation of number: expressing, 443
+truth -- has count 134, skipping -- truth: in imperative sentences, 353
+truth functions -- has count 19, skipping -- truth functions, 333; 16 possible, 333; commutative, 335; creating all 16 with Lojban's basic set, 335; fundamental 4 in Lojban, 334; relation to logical connectives, 334; table of logical connectives, 366
+truth questions -- has count 13, skipping -- truth questions, 321; answering "no", 351; answering "yes", 351; as yes-or-no questions, 351; contrasted with connection questions, 351; simple, 351
+truth-value abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- truth-value abstraction, 262
+truth-value abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- truth-value abstraction(s): place structure, 262, 263
+ts-sound in Russian -- has count 0, skipping -- ts-sound in Russian: representation in Lojban, 31
+tu -- has count 116, skipping -- tu, 147, 169; archaic English yon as equivalent of, 147
+tu'a -- has count 27, skipping -- tu'a, 134, 266; as being deliberately vague, 134; effect of on meaning, 134; use for forming abstractions, 134
+tu'e -- has count 50, skipping -- tu'e, 202, 205, 343, 358, 364, 466; contrasted with bo for tensed logical connection, 364; effect on di'e, 358; use in lists, 358
+TUhE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- TUhE selma'o, 343, 358, 364, 466, 505; terminator for, 505
+TUhU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- TUhU selma'o, 343, 358, 466, 505
+tu'u -- has count 47, skipping -- tu'u, 202, 205, 343, 358, 466
+two dogs are white -- has count 0, skipping -- two dogs are white: example, 129
+types and subtypes of words -- has count 0, skipping -- types and subtypes of words, 52
+typical -- has count 47, skipping -- typical: compared with stereotypical, 126
+typical Englishman -- has count 0, skipping -- typical Englishman: example, 126
+typical sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- typical sumti, 157
+ugh -- has count 0, skipping -- ugh: example, 359
+ui -- has count 15, skipping -- ui, 297
+UI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- UI selma'o, 264, 297, 351, 353, 469, 474, 481, 505; extending the scope of, 494; quick-tour version, 24
+unconnected tanru -- has count 0, skipping -- unconnected tanru: contrasted with logically connected version, 349
+under conditions -- has count 16, skipping -- under conditions: example, 257
+underlines -- has count 0, skipping -- underlines: example, 12
+unequal termset connection -- has count 0, skipping -- unequal termset connection: compared with compound bridi connection with unequal separate bridi-tails, 348
+unfilled places of inverted tanru -- has count 0, skipping -- unfilled places of inverted tanru, 95
+units of measurement -- has count 0, skipping -- units of measurement: expressing, 435
+universal -- has count 28, skipping -- universal: mixed claim with existential, 394
+unqualified sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- unqualified sumti: contrasted with qualified sumti, 133
+unreduced fractions -- has count 0, skipping -- unreduced fractions: use in granular scales, 448
+unspecified direction -- has count 0, skipping -- unspecified direction: temporal contrasted with in spatial, 220
+unspecified level of emotion -- has count 0, skipping -- unspecified level of emotion, 311
+unspecified trailing sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- unspecified trailing sumti: dropping, 189
+utterance -- has count 87, skipping -- utterance: expressing relation to discourse, 317
+utterance pro-sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- utterance pro-sumti: stability of, 162
+utterance pro-sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- utterance pro-sumti (see also di'u-series pro-sumti), 148
+utterances -- has count 16, skipping -- utterances: non-bridi, 471
+uu -- has count 19, skipping -- uu, 297, 299; contrasted with u'u, 299
+uy diphthong -- has count 0, skipping -- uy diphthong: in cmene, 66
+V -- has count 17, skipping -- V: as a symbol for a single vowel, 49
+va -- has count 55, skipping -- va, 217
+VA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- VA selma'o, 217, 506; and distance, 217; relation of words to ti, ta, tu, 217
+va'a -- has count 25, skipping -- va'a, 438; contrasted with vu'u and ni'u, 438
+vague abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- vague abstraction, 265
+vague abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- vague abstraction(s): place structure, 266
+vague relationship -- has count 0, skipping -- vague relationship: modal tag for, 197
+va'i -- has count 12, skipping -- va'i, 318, 320; contrasted with ke'u, 320
+valid speech -- has count 0, skipping -- valid speech: marking as error with jo'a, 321
+variables -- has count 64, skipping -- variables: logical, 392
+vau -- has count 30, skipping -- vau, 178, 200, 345, 394; effect on elidability ku'o, 181
+vau for shared bridi-tail sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- vau for shared bridi-tail sumti: avoiding, 200
+VAU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- VAU selma'o, 345, 506
+ve -- has count 73, skipping -- ve, 100, 192; quick-tour version, 16
+vector -- has count 11, skipping -- vector: components of, 451; definition, 451; forming, 496; use as operand, 452; use of parentheses with, 452
+VEhA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- VEhA selma'o, 221, 506
+VEhO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- VEhO selma'o, 506
+vei -- has count 26, skipping -- vei, 201, 423, 437
+vei ...ve'o -- has count 0, skipping -- vei ...ve'o: contrasted with operator ...ku'e in Polish notation, 438
+VEI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- VEI selma'o, 506; terminator for, 506
+veljvo -- has count 31, skipping -- veljvo: definition, 274; symmetrical, 278
+ve'o -- has count 30, skipping -- ve'o, 201, 362, 437
+vi -- has count 49, skipping -- vi, 217; as adjective expression for English this, 148
+vice versa -- has count 18, skipping -- vice versa: English, expressing with vo'a-series pro-sumti and soi, 159; example, 159
+VIhA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- VIhA selma'o, 223, 506
+vi'o -- has count 10, skipping -- vi'o, 325; contrasted with je'e, 325
+viska -- has count 94, skipping -- viska, 194
+vo'a -- has count 34, skipping -- vo'a, 158
+vocative -- has count 42, skipping -- vocative, 492
+vocative phrase terminator -- has count 0, skipping -- vocative phrase terminator: elidability of, 137
+vocative phrase with name -- has count 0, skipping -- vocative phrase with name: placement of relative clause on, 184
+vocative phrase with selbri -- has count 0, skipping -- vocative phrase with selbri: placement of relative clause on, 184
+vocatives -- has count 19, skipping -- vocatives: and definition of "you", 323; contrasted with "la", 323; definition, 323; grammar overview, 323; notation convention symbol "X", 323; quick-tour version, 21; rationale for redundancy, 323
+vo'e -- has count 10, skipping -- vo'e, 158
+voi -- has count 12, skipping -- voi, 177; contrasted with poi in veridicality, 177
+voiced consonants -- has count 0, skipping -- voiced consonants: contrasted with unvoiced in allowable consonant pairs, 37
+vowel -- has count 199, skipping -- vowel: buffer, 38
+vowel buffer -- has count 0, skipping -- vowel buffer: contrasted with y sound, 38
+vowel-initial words -- has count 0, skipping -- vowel-initial words: necessity for pause before, 68
+vowels -- has count 53, skipping -- vowels: contrasted with consonants, 33; definition of, 33; length of, 39; pronunciation of, quick-tour version, 12
+vu -- has count 41, skipping -- vu, 217
+VUhO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- VUhO selma'o, 182, 506
+VUhU operands -- has count 0, skipping -- VUhU operands, 436
+VUhU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- VUhU selma'o, 435, 436, 444, 507
+vu'o -- has count 10, skipping -- vu'o, 182
+vu'u -- has count 15, skipping -- vu'u, 438; contrasted with va'a and ni'u, 438
+VV string -- has count 0, skipping -- VV string: as a symbol for a double vowel, 49
+walk to market -- has count 0, skipping -- walk to market: example, 100
+want to be a soldier -- has count 0, skipping -- want to be a soldier: example, 255
+wash self -- has count 0, skipping -- wash self: example, 158
+weapon against self -- has count 0, skipping -- weapon against self: example, 397
+went and bought -- has count 0, skipping -- went and bought: example, 363, 365
+what is your name -- has count 0, skipping -- what is your name: example, 160
+when -- has count 247, skipping -- when: example, 249
+where -- has count 158, skipping -- where: example, 249
+whether criminal -- has count 0, skipping -- whether criminal: example, 262
+who knows what -- has count 0, skipping -- who knows what: example, 160
+whole of -- has count 13, skipping -- whole of: example, 441
+word "abu" -- has count 0, skipping -- word "abu": example, 422
+word "bu" -- has count 0, skipping -- word "bu": example, 416
+words -- has count 386, skipping -- words: marking non-standard, 480
+words not in the dictionary -- has count 0, skipping -- words not in the dictionary, 13
+x < 5 -- has count 0, skipping -- x < 5: example, 439
+x{b -- has count 0, skipping -- x{b: d}, example, 362, 455
+x{k} -- has count 0, skipping -- x{k}: x sub k, example, 423
+x1 -- has count 237, skipping -- x1: in place structure notation, 187; notation convention, quick-tour version, 13
+xe -- has count 12, skipping -- xe, 100, 192; quick-tour version, 16
+xi -- has count 14, skipping -- xi, 449, 452, 471
+XI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- XI selma'o, 449, 471, 507
+xu -- has count 27, skipping -- xu, 321, 351, 469; quick-tour version, 23
+y -- has count 103, skipping -- y, 484; considered not to be a vowel for morphological discussions, 49; letter; between letters of consonant pair, 53; letter, prohibition from fu'ivla, 62; use in avoiding forbidden consonant pairs, 36
+Y selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- Y selma'o, 484, 507
+y sound -- has count 0, skipping -- y sound: contrasted with vowel buffer, 38
+Yay! -- has count 0, skipping -- Yay!: example, 299
+yielding the floor -- has count 0, skipping -- yielding the floor, 484
+you -- has count 460, skipping -- you: defining, 323
+you're welcome -- has count 0, skipping -- you're welcome: fi'i contrasted with je'e, 324; je'e contrasted with fi'i, 324
+z instead of ' -- has count 0, skipping -- z instead of ': in acronymic names based on lerfu words, 424
+ZAhO compared with NU -- has count 0, skipping -- ZAhO compared with NU, 268
+ZAhO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- ZAhO selma'o, 228, 231, 232, 268, 507; contradictory negation of, 241; effect on fe'e flag for TAhE and ROI, 231
+ZEhA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- ZEhA selma'o, 221, 507
+zei -- has count 18, skipping -- zei, 60, 416; interaction with bu, 416
+ZEI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- ZEI selma'o, 60, 507
+zero -- has count 24, skipping -- zero: relation to negation boundary, 402
+ZI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- ZI selma'o, 219, 507; compared with VA, 219
+zi'e -- has count 17, skipping -- zi'e, 175; compared with English and, 176; contrasted with logical connectives, 176; use in connecting relative phrase/clause to relative phrase/clause, 176
+ZIhE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- ZIhE selma'o, 175, 508
+zi'o -- has count 15, skipping -- zi'o, 157, 163; as creating new selbri, 157
+zi'o rafsi -- has count 0, skipping -- zi'o rafsi: effect of on place structure of lujvo, 163
+zo -- has count 186, skipping -- zo, 119, 312, 416, 477; contrasted with la for names, 478; interaction with bu, 416
+ZO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- ZO selma'o, 477, 508
+zo'e -- has count 48, skipping -- zo'e, 157, 189, 392; as a translation for "something", 392; as place-holder for sumti, 157; as place-holder for unspecified sumti, 189; compared with FA for omitting places, 190; contrasted with da, 392; quick-tour version, 14
+zo'e-series pro-sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- zo'e-series pro-sumti, 157
+ZOhU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- ZOhU selma'o, 392, 467, 508
+zo'u -- has count 75, skipping -- zo'u, 392, 467
+zoi -- has count 25, skipping -- zoi, 119, 416, 477; interaction with bu, 416; interaction with lo'u/le'u, 478
+ZOI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- ZOI selma'o, 477, 479, 508
+zu'a -- has count 18, skipping -- zu'a, 217; derivation of word, 217
diff --git a/todocbook/cllindex.txt b/todocbook/cllindex.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c28d07d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/todocbook/cllindex.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,2714 @@
+# ' symbol: and consonant cluster determination in lujvo, 56; definition (see also apostrophe), 31
+# &: word for, 416
+# (n + 1)(n + 1) = n^2 + 2n + 1: example, 437
+# (n+1)-th rat: example, 448
+# .: word for, 416
+# .1010_2 ( 2^{110_2}: example, 451
+# : , word for, 416
+# +1 + -1 = 0: example, 436
+# -1: example, 433
+#
+# 1 + 1 = 2: example, 435
+#
+# 10^20: example, 451
+#
+# 123: example, 432
+#
+# 12-point: example, 418
+#
+# 2 + 2: example, 262
+#
+# 2 rats + 2 rabbits = 4 animals: example, 456
+#
+# 2/7: example, 433
+#
+# 3 ( 10^8: example, 451
+#
+# 3 grams: example, 435
+#
+# 3.1415: example, 433
+#
+# 4-letter rafsi: definition, 57
+#
+# 5-letter rafsi: definition, 57
+#
+# 8 out of ten: example, 448
+# a: example, 322
+ A gives B to C: example, 421
+ A gives BC: example, 421
+# a is letteral: example, 422
+ A loves B: example, 421
+# A selma'o, 336, 340, 341, 352, 354, 361, 364, 453, 489
+# a/an: contrasted with the, 322
+ a'a, 302
+ abbreviated lujvo and plausibility, 284
+ ABC base 16: example, 444
+ abduction: example, 316
+ Abraham Lincoln: example, 353
+ absolute laws, 273
+ abstract description, 266
+ abstract lujvo, 286; contrasted with abstract bridi, 287
+ abstraction bridi: contrasted with component non-abstraction bridi in meaning, 98; effect on claim of bridi, 198
+ abstraction contours: compared with contour tenses, 268
+ abstraction conversion, 266
+ abstraction lujvo: asymmetric, 288
+ abstraction(s): achievement, 258; activity, 258; amount, 261; amount contrasted with property, 261; concept, 265; connection, 269; creating new types, 266; event, 256; experience, 265; forethought connection in, 365; grammatical uses, 255; grouping of connectives in, 365; idea, 265; implicit in sumti, 257; logical connection of, 365; making concrete, 267; mental activity, 262; place structure, 255; point-event, 258; predication/sentence, 262; process, 258; property, 259; sentence, contrasted with quotation, 263; simplification to sumti, 266; simplification to sumti with jai, 267; simplification to sumti with tu'a, 266; speaking, writing, etc., 263; state, 258; sumti ellipsis in, 256; syntax, 255; table, 269; truth-value, 262; truth-value contrasted with amount, 262; truth-value and fuzzy logic, 262; types, 265; vague, 265; with knowing, believing, etc., 262; with wonder, doubt, etc., 264
+ abstractors, 502
+ accent mark: a diacritical mark, 418; example, 419
+ accent marks: proposed lerfu words for, 429
+ accented letters: considered as distinct from unaccented, 419
+ Acer: example, 63
+ achievative event contour, 228
+ achievement abstraction: place structure, 259
+ achievement abstraction(s): definition, 258; related tense contours, 269
+ achievement event: described, 258
+ acronym: definition, 423
+ acronym names from lerfu words: assigning final consonant, 424
+ acronyms: as lerfu strings using "me", 424; using names based on lerfu words, 423
+ acronyms names based on lerfu words: omitting bu, 424; using "z" instead of " ' "in, 424
+ activity abstraction: place structure, 259
+ activity abstraction(s): definition, 258; related tense contours, 268
+ activity abstractor, 258
+ activity event: described, 258
+ actual events: explicitly expressing, 243
+ actual stop: contrasted with natural end, 229
+ actuality: expressing in past/future, 244; Lojban contrasted with English in implying, 243; marking, 491
+ addition: a mathematical operator, 436
+ addition operator: contrasted with positive sign, 436
+ addition problems: example, 98
+ adjective ordering, 89
+ adjective-noun combination: with tanru, 84
+ adjectives: brivla as Lojban equivalents, 52
+ adverbs: brivla as Lojban equivalents, 52
+ adverb-verb combination: with tanru, 84
+ a'enai, 302
+ affirmative answer: quick-tour version, 23
+ afraid of horse: example, 179
+ after sleep: example, 303
+ afterthought bridi connectives: contrasted with forethought bridi connectives, 338
+ afterthought connection: contrasted with forethought for grammatical utterances, 352; definition, 199; of operands, 453; of operators, 453
+ afterthought connective(s): as complete grammatical utterance, 352; contrasted with forethought connective, 338
+ afterthought sentence connection: modal contrasted with tense, 248
+ afterthought tense connection: contrasted with forethought in likeness to modal connection, 249
+ a'i, 302
+ ai, 302
+ ailment, 282
+ Albania: example, 480
+ aleph null: example, 434
+ Alexander Pavlovitch Kuznetsov: example, 421
+ algebra of functions: operator and operand distinction in, 460
+ alienable possession: definition, 173
+ aliens: communication with, 329
+ all persons: example, 398
+ allowable diphthongs: in fu'ivla contrasted with in gismu/lujvo, 63
+ all-th: example, 447
+ alpha: example, 416
+ alphabet: Latin used for Lojban, 413; Lojban, 29; words for letters in, rationale, 413; words for non-Lojban letters, rationale, 413
+ alphabetic order, 29
+ alternative guidelines, 273
+ always and everywhere: example, 231
+ ambiguity of tanru, 85
+ American dollars: example, 425
+ American Indian languages and evidentials, 315
+ Amharic writing, 420
+ amount abstraction, 261
+ amount abstraction and mathematics, 261
+ amount abstraction(s): place structure, 262; scale, 262; specifying determining place with ce'u, 261
+ ampersand: example, 416
+ ampersand character: word for, 416
+ Amsterdam: example, 38
+# an: example, 322
+ anaphora: definition, 152; pro-bridi go'i-series as, 152; pro-sumti ri-series as, 152; pro-sumti vo'a-series as, 158
+ anaphoric pro-bridi: stability of, 162
+ anaphoric pro-sumti: stability of, 162
+ and: as non-logical connective, 353; compared with but, 353; contrasted with cross-product, 357
+ and earlier: example, 364
+ and simultaneously: example, 364
+ and then: example, 240, 364
+ animal doctor: example, 282
+ animal patient, 282
+ animals: use of fu'ivla for specific, 61
+ anomalous ordering of lujvo places, 283
+ answers, 469; go'i for yes/no questions, 154; to operator questions, 457; to place structure questions, 191; to tense-or-modal questions, 250
+ antecedent: for pro-bridi, 151; for pro-bridi as full bridi, 151
+ antecedent of pro-bridi: definition, 145
+ antecedent of pro-sumti: definition, 145
+ anticipated: example, 316
+ any: as a restricted universal claim, 399; as a translation problem, 399; as a universal claim, later restricted, 400; as an existential claim, 400; expressing as existential by variable in subordinate bridi, 401
+ any box, 400
+ anyone: contrasted with everyone in assumption of existence, 399
+ anyone who goes: walks, example, 399
+ a'o, 297, 302
+ aorist: definition, 223
+ apostrophe: and consonant cluster determination in lujvo, 56; as not a consonant for morphological discussions, 49; as preferable over comma in names, 33; definition of, 31; example of, 33; purpose of, 31; quick-tour version, 12; type of letter in word-formation, 31; use in vowel pairs, 34; variant of, 31
+ Appassionata: example, 202
+ appropriate standard, 480
+ approximate numbers: expressing, 442; expressing some exactness of, 443
+ approximately 40: example, 443
+ Arabian Nights: as multi-level narrative, 467
+ Arabic alphabet: language shift word for, 417
+ argument tags: based on tenses (see also sumti tcita), 231
+ Armstrong: example, 40
+ Arnold: example, 65
+ arthropod, 280
+ article, 498; number, 435
+ articles: cmavo as Lojban equivalents, 50
+ Artur Rubenstein: example, 202
+ ASCII: application to lerfu words, 425
+ aspect: expressing, 228; natural languages compared with respect to, 228
+ assignable pro-sumti: explicit cancellation of by rebinding, 162; stability of, 162
+ assumption: example, 317
+ asymmetric lujvo, 287
+ asymmetrical tanru, 104; definition, 104
+ asymmetrical tanru types: activity + implement-used, 110; cause + effect, 107; characteristic/detail + object, 106; characteristic-time + event, 110; effect + causative agent, 107; elements-in-set + set, 105; energy-source + powered, 110; general-class + sub-class, 106; inhabitant + habitat, 106; locus-of-application + object, 110; miscellaneous, 111; object + component/detail, 106; object + place-sold, 110; object + usual-container, 110; object-giving-characteristic + other-object, 109; object-measured + standard-object, 108; object-of-action + action, 105; object-of-purpose-of-instrument + instrument, 107; overriding-property + object-with-implicit-properties, 108; possessor + object, 106; product + producer, 109; product + source, 108; purpose-of-instrument + instrument, 107; set + element-of-set, 105; similar-appearance-object + object, 109; source + product, 107; source-material + object, 108; typical-place + object, 109; undesired-object + protection-object, 110; whole + part, 109
+ at least: contrasted with more than, less than, at most, 443; example, 443
+ at most: contrasted with more than, at least, less than, 443; example, 443
+ Athens, 258
+ attend school: example, 226
+ attitude, 297; avoidance of expression, 322; scalar, 305
+ attitudes: beginning, 314; ceasing, 314; continuing, 314; empathy contrasted with sympathy, 314; expressing changes in, 314
+ attitudinal: example of scale effect, 305; scope, 474; signaling as non-propositional, 304
+ attitudinal answers: plausibility, 313
+ attitudinal categories, 306; example of effect, 307; mnemonic for, 307; rationale, 306
+ attitudinal indicator: unspecified, 311
+ attitudinal indicators, 297; conventions of interpretation, 311; placement of "nai" in, 311; placement of scale in, 311; quick-tour version, 24
+ attitudinal modifiers, 308
+ attitudinal phrase, 299
+ attitudinal questions, 313; asking about specific attitude, 313; asking intensity, 313
+ attitudinal scale: as axis in emotion-space, 306; neutral compared with positive + negative, 306; seven-position, 305; stand-alone usage, 305; usage, 305
+ attitudinal scales: rationale for assignment, 304
+ attitudinals: a- series, 301; affecting whole grammatical structures, 312; ambivalent emotion words, 300; and logic, 392; at beginning of text, 312; attributing emotion to others, 314; benefit in written expression, 312; categories with nai, 307; categories with scale markers, 307; comparison of meaning based on position, 301; complex emotion words, 300; complexity, 310; compound, 298; contours, 314; contrasted with bridi, 303, 306; contrasted with discursives, 317; contrasted with rationalizations of emotion, 306; design benefit, 306; difficult emotion words, 300; e- series, 301; effect of cu'i, 299; effect of nai, 299; emotional contrasted with propositional, 301; emotional/propositional caveat, 302; exceptions, 314; external grammar, 312; grammar of internal compounding, 311; grammar of placement in bridi, 312; i- series, 298, 301; internal grammar, complete, 311; logical language and, 302; negative, 304; neutral, 304; non-speaker attitudes, 314; o- series, 298; order of, 306; placement for prevailing attitude, 297; placement in sentences with "nai", 311; positive, 304; prevailing attitude, 297; propositional contrasted with emotional, 301; propositional effect on claim, 301; propositional indicators, 301; propositional/emotional caveat, 302; pure emotion, 298; rationale for, 303; referent uncertainty, 312; scale of, 304; stand-alone categories, 307; u- series, 298; word-form for primary, 297
+ attitudinals and claims, 298
+ attitudinals and irony, 299
+ attitudinals and truth value, 298
+ attitudinals for emotional reaction, 299
+ a'ucu'i, 302
+ au, 302
+ audio-visual isomorphism, 29
+ audio-visually isomorphic, 465
+ auditoriums, 281
+ author of this book, 5
+ Avon: example, 196
+ ba, 219, 363
+ ba'a, 316
+ ba'acu'i, 316
+ ba'anai, 316
+ back-counting pro-sumti, 139
+ background noise, 278
+ ba'e, 416, 479; interaction with bu, 416
+ BAhE selma'o, 479, 480, 489
+ bai, 201
+ bai ke, 202
+ BAI modal tags: rationale for, 195
+ BAI selma'o, 195, 205, 224, 489; as short forms for fi'o constructs, 195; effect of conversion on, 196; form of cmavo in, 197; rationale for selection, 196
+ ba'o, 228; as futureward of event, 229; derivation of word, 228; explanation of derivation, 229
+ base: assumed, 444; changing permanently, 444; non-constant, 444; specifying, 444; vague, 445
+ base greater than 16: compound single-digits contrasted with two digits, 445; expressing numbers in, 445; two digits contrasted with compound single-digits, 445
+ base point: in bases other than 10, 444
+ base varying for each digit: separator for, 445
+ base-20 arithmetic: remnants of, 461
+ basis: example, 317
+ ba'u, 318
+ be, 93, 197, 262
+ BE selma'o, 93, 489; terminator for, 490
+ be'a, 231
+ beach: example, 259
+ beans: example, 176
+ bear wrote story: example, 121
+ Bears wrote book: example, 124
+ beautiful dog: example, 20
+ because: English word, four varieties of, 198
+ beckon: example, 291
+ be'e, 324
+ beefsteak, 285; example, 285
+ Beethoven: example, 202
+ beetle: example, 280
+ beetles, 280
+ begin: contrasted with resume, 229
+ beginning point: spatial, 231
+ BEhO selma'o, 93, 490
+ bei, 93
+ BEI selma'o, 93, 489
+ being alive: example, 258
+ be'o, 93; effect of ku on elidability of, 94; effect of relative clauses on elidability of, 94; elidability of, 94
+ better: example, 293
+ between Dresden and Frankfurt: example, 359, 360, 361
+ be'u, 310
+ beverage: example, 163
+ bibliography, 6
+ bicycle race: example, 266
+ bi'e, 437; effect on following operator, 437
+ big boat: example, 55
+ big nose: example, 169
+ big nose-pores: example, 170
+ big person: example, 169
+ big red dog: example, 89
+ BIhE selma'o, 437, 490
+ BIhI selma'o, 246, 359, 360, 361, 455, 490; grammar of, 360
+ bi'i, 359, 362
+ Bill Clinton: example, 275
+ binary system: specifying numbers in (see also base), 444
+ bi'o, 359
+ bi'u, 322
+ bi'unai, 322
+ black cat: example, 155
+ blue: as sad, example, 322
+ blue and red: example, 354
+ blue house: example, 193, 349
+ blue-eyed: example, 284
+ blueness: example, 261
+ blueness varying: example, 261
+ bo, 86, 198, 238, 240, 342, 343, 349, 361, 364, 459, 466; contrasted with ke for tensed logical connection, 364; contrasted with tu'e for tensed logical connection, 364; for right-grouping in tanru, 87; in jeks for operators, 361; in joiks for operators, 361; in logical connectives, 342; right-grouping, 343
+ bo and forethought connectives, 343
+ BO selma'o, 86, 133, 342, 343, 349, 361, 364, 454, 466, 490
+ boat class: example, 73
+ boat sailed: example, 233
+ boi, 362, 421, 438, 449, 450, 458; effect on elidability of me'u, 449; eliding from lerfu strings, 421; exception before MAI, 458; exception before MOI, 449; exception before ROI, 458; in Polish notation, 438; required between pro-sumti lerfu string and quantifier, 421
+ BOI selma'o, 421, 490
+ bold: example, 418
+ bomb destroyed fifty miles: example, 360
+ bone bread: example, 38
+ books about Lojban, 6
+ boring legalities, 8
+ borrowing: four stages of, 61
+ borrowing from other language: fu'ivla as, 53
+ borrowings: fu'ivla form with categorizing rafsi, 61; fu'ivla form without categorizing rafsi, 62; most common form for, 61; Stage 1, 61; Stage 2, 61; Stage 3, 61; Stage 3 contrasted with Stage 4 in ease of construction, 62; Stage 4, 62; using foreign-language name, 61; using lojbanized name, 61
+ Boston from Atlanta: example, 187
+ both dogs: example, 442
+ bound variable pro-sumti: stability of, 162
+ bovine: example, 285
+ bracketed remark, 481
+ brackets: use in IPA notation, 29
+ breathe: example, 363
+ bridi: building from selbri and sumti, 187; compared with predication, 11; concept of, 11; definition, 83, 187; definition, quick-tour version, 26; effect of alternate form on sumti order, 188; effect of using non-standard form, 188; exception to sumti place structure in, 188; leaving a sumti place unspecified in with zo'e, 189; leaving end sumti places unspecified in, 189; logical connection with negation, 337; logical connective for, 336; non-standard form, 188; omitting the first sumti place, 188; quick-tour version, 14; relation to selbri, 83; selbri-first as exceptional, 188; standard form of, 188
+ bridi connection: use of imperatives in, 353; use of truth questions in, 353
+ bridi logical connection: compared with sumti logical connections, 340
+ bridi negation: and DeMorgan's Law, 408; and negation boundary, 408; compared with negation between sentences, 404; multiple, 104; na before selbri compared to naku in prenex, 401; naku in prenex compared to na before selbri, 401; relative order with tense, 103; two forms of, 401
+ bridi negation and logical connectives, 403
+ bridi questions: quick-tour version, 23
+ bridi-based comparison: contrasted with comparison with relative phrase, in claims about parts, 204
+ bridi-tail: definition, 344, 495
+ bridi-tail logical connection: and DeMorgan's Law, 408
+ bridi-tail modal connection, 200
+ bridi-tails: eliding vau in, 345; forethought tense connection of, 240
+ brie: example, 63
+ brivla: as one of the 3 basic word classes, 50; consonant pairs in, 53; definition, 52; definition, quick-tour version, 27; from tanru, 55; properties of, 53; recognition of, 53; relation to bridi, 11; stress on, 40; subtypes of, 53; types, 83; types of, quick-tour version, 20
+ brivla as selbri, 83
+ brivla equivalents, 97
+ brivla form: contrasted with cmavo form, 53; contrasted with cmene form, 53
+ broda, 151
+ broda-series for pro-bridi: compared with ko'a-series for pro-sumti, 151
+ broda-series pro-bridi, 151; assigning with cei, 151; use as abstract pattern, 151; use as sample gismu, 151; with no assignment, 151; word-form rationale, 151
+ Brooklyn: example, 93
+ brothers: example, 355
+ Brown: James Cooke, 6; James Cooke, and "letteral", 413
+ bu, 414; and compound cmavo, 416; effect of multiple, 416; effect on preceding word, 414; for extension of lerfu word set, 416; grammar of, 416; interactions, 416, 417; omitting in acronyms names based on lerfu words, 424
+ BU selma'o, 414, 490
+ bu'a, 164, 409
+ bu'a-series pro-sumti: for bound variables, 161
+ bubu, 416
+ bu'e, 409
+ buffer vowel, 38; and stress, 38; shortening of, 39
+ bu'i, 409
+ Bulgarian: example, 64
+ bu'o, 314
+ bu'onai, 314
+ but: compared with and, 353; example, 318
+# but/and equivalence, 25
+ butter is soft: example, 124
+ butterfly: social, example, 18
+ bu'u, 219; compared with ca, 219
+ BY selma'o, 414, 418, 425, 491; terminator for, 490
+ C string: as a symbol for a single consonant, 49
+# C/C string: as a symbol for a permissible consonant pair, 50
+# C/CC string: as a symbol for a consonant triple, 50
+ ca, 219, 232; compared with bu'u, 219; meaning as a sumti tcita, 232; meaning when following interval specification, 221; rational for, 219
+ ca'a, 243
+ ca'e, 316
+ CAhA selma'o, 243, 491; making sticky, 243; order in tense construct, 243
+ CAI selma'o, 305, 491
+ cancellation of indicators, 494
+ cancellation of pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignment: with da'o, 162
+ cancellation of sumti assignment, 492
+ ca'o, 228; derivation of word, 228
+ cai, 305
+ calculator mathematics: as default in Lojban, 436
+ can see: example, 244
+ canceling letter shifts, 418
+ capital letters: use in Lojban, 415; use of, 29
+ capitalization: for unusual stress in names, 66; use in names, 66; use of, 66
+ captions to pictures, 7
+ car goer: example, 279
+ cardinal selbri: definition, 446; place structure, 446; place structure effect from subjective numbers, 448
+ cardinality: definition, 125; property of sets, 125
+ carried piano: example, 353
+ carry sack: example, 205
+ carry sack and dog: example, 241
+ carry the piano: example, 361
+ Cartesian product: with tenses, 246
+ Carthage destroyed: example, 317
+ case: upper/lower specification, 415
+ cat of plastic: example, 160
+ Catherine: example, 65
+ Cathy: example, 65
+ causals: claiming the relation contrasted with claiming cause and/or effect and/or relation, 198; gismu, 197; modal, 197
+ cause death: example, 267, 287
+ cave: example, 236
+ CC string: as a symbol for a permissible initial consonant pair, 50
+ CCVVCV fu'ivla: and rafsi fu'ivla proposal, 80
+ ce, 354, 355
+ ce'a, 418
+ cedilla: a diacritical mark, 418; proposed lerfu word for, 429
+ ce'e, 208, 347, 399
+ CEhE selma'o, 347, 399, 491
+ ce'i, 433
+ cei for broda-series assignment: compared with goi for ko'a-series assignment, 151
+ CEI selma'o, 491
+ ce'o, 354, 362
+ ce'u, 161, 260, 261; use in specifying sumti place of property in abstraction, 161
+ cei, 151, 154, 162; for broda-series pro-bridi assignment, 151
+ cessitive event contour, 228
+ chapter numbering, 458
+ chapter titles: intent of, 4
+ character codes: definition, 425
+ character encoding schemes: application to lerfu words, 425
+ characters: definition, 425; special, 31
+ Chelsea Clinton, 275
+ chemical elements: use of single-letter shift for, 415
+ Chief: example, 66
+ child on ice: example, 221
+ Chilean desert: example, 80
+ Chinese characters: contrasted with alphabets and syllabaries, 420; representing based on pinyin spelling, 420; representing based on strokes, 420
+ choose from: example, 355
+ Chrysler: example, 99
+ ch-sound in English: representation in Lojban, 31
+ ci'i, 434
+ CIA: example, 424
+ circumflex: a diacritical mark, 418
+ ci'u, 204
+ claims: contrasted with expression of feelings, 298
+ clamshells, 286
+ clarity of sounds, 31
+ Classical Greek aorist tense: compared with Lojban tense, 223
+ clause: subordinate using abstraction, 255
+ close-binding, 490
+ closed interval, 360; expressed with mi'i, 455
+ closings: letter, 325
+ cmavo: as one of the 3 basic word classes, 50; compound, 51; contrasted with rafsi in usage, 61; contrasted with same-form rafsi in meaning, 56; definition, 50; definition, quick-tour version, 27; diphthongs in, 51; experimental, 51; for experimental use, 51; interaction list, 485; lack of relation of form to grammatical use, 51; rules for pause after Cy-form, 69; simple, 51; stress on, 40, 52; structure of, 51
+ cmavo and gismu: major, 53
+ cmavo as brivla, 495
+ cmavo as selbri: quick-tour version, 20
+ cmavo as sumti, 497
+ cmavo form: contrasted with brivla form, 53
+ cmavo without rafsi: method of including in lujvo, 60
+ cmene: algorithm for, 66; alternatives for restricted sequences in, 66; and analyzability of speech stream, 64; as one of the 3 basic word classes, 50; authority for, 65; avoiding impermissible consonant clusters in, 67; consonant clusters permitted in, 66; definition, 64; examples of, 64; final letter in, 66; from Lojban words, 66; method of including in lujvo, 60; proscribed syllables in, 67; purpose of, 64; rationale for lojbanizing, 64; requirement for pause after, 66; restrictions on form of, 65; rules for, 66; rules for formation, 65; rules for pause before, 68; stress in, 65, 66; unusual stress in, 65
+ cmene form: contrasted with brivla form, 53
+ co, 95
+ CO selma'o, 491
+ cobra: example, 63
+ co'e, 158, 164; as selbri place-holder, 158; rationale for word form, 158
+ co'e-series pro-bridi, 157
+ coffee mixed with tea: example, 359
+ coffee or tea: example, 352
+ co'i, 230
+ coi, 136, 324; quick-tour version, 21
+ COI selma'o, 136, 146, 183, 323, 492; effect on pause before name, 323; effect on referent of do, 146; effect on referent of mi, 146; ordering multiple with mi'e, 325; terminator for, 492
+ coin heads: example, 447
+ Coleoptera, 280
+ color standards, 295
+ colorimeter, 261
+ combining words into one, 507
+ comma: definition of, 32; effect on relative clause in English, 171; example of, 32; main use of, 32; optional, 32; quick-tour version, 12; variant of, 32
+ command: contrasted with observative form, 188
+ commands: quick-tour version, 22; with ko, 146
+ commas in numbers: as numerical punctuation, 433; effect of other notation conventions, 433; with elided digits, 433
+ common abstractor, 256
+ commutative truth functions, 335
+ comparative lujvo: against former state, 293; and seltau presupposition, 293; potential ambiguity in, 292; standardized meanings, 292
+ comparatives: use of zmadu in forming, 58
+ comparison: claims related to based on form, 204
+ comparison with relative phrase: contrasted with bridi-based comparison, in claims about parts, 204
+ completitive event contour, 228
+ complex logical connection: grouping strategies contrasted, 343
+ complex logical connectives: grouping with bo, 343; grouping with parenthesis, 343
+ complex movements: expressing, 225
+ complex negation: examples, 102
+ complex numbers: expressing, 434
+ components contrasted with mass: in properties of, 354
+ compound base: definition, 445; expressing digits in, 445; separator for, 445
+ compound bridi: definition, 344; logical connection of, 344; more than one sumti in common, 345; multiple with bo, 346; multiple with ke...ke'e, 346; one sumti in common, 344; separate tail-terms for bridi-tails, 346; separate tail-terms for forethought-connected bridi-tails, 347
+ compound bridi with more than one sumti in common: with common sumti first, 345; with vau, 345
+ compound cmavo: compared with sequence of simple cmavo, 51; definition, 51; recognition of, 51
+ compound emotions, 306
+ compound letter marker, 505
+ compound letters: native language, representing as distinct letters, 419
+ compound logical connectives: components, 336; naming convention, 336
+ compound of gismu: lujvo as, 53
+ compound spatial tense: as direction with-or-without distance, 218; beginning with distance only, 218; effect of different ordering, 218; explanation of, 218; with direction and distance, 218
+ compound subscript, 362, 455
+ compound temporal tense: beginning with distance only, 220
+ compound tense: compared with multiple tenses in sentence, 234; compared with tense in scope of sticky tense, 234; definition, 218; Lojban contrasted with English in order of specification, 218
+ compound tense ordering: Lojban contrasted with English, 218
+ compound words, 273
+ computer interaction, 484
+ concept abstraction, 265
+ concept abstraction(s): place structure, 265
+ concept abstractor, 265
+ concrete terms: use of fu'ivla for, 61
+ condescension: example, 308
+ confusion: metalinguistic, 321
+ confusion about what was said, 321
+ conjunctions: cmavo as Lojban equivalents, 50
+ connected tenses: negation of compared with negation in connective, 245
+ connecting operands: with bo in connective, 361; with ke in connective, 361
+ connecting operators: with bo in connective, 361; with ke in connective, 361
+ connection: forethought, 494; forethought separator, 495; non-distributed, 356; of bridi-tails, 495; of sumti, 489, 496; of tanru units, 495, 496; simultaneously modal and logical, 204
+ connection of operands: grouping, 454; precedence over operator, 455
+ connection of operators: grouping, 454
+ connective answers: non-logical, 359
+ connective question answers: contrasted with other languages, 353
+ connective question cmavo: departure from regularity of, 352
+ connective questions: answering, 352; compared with other languages, 353; non-logical, 359
+ connective(s): as complete grammatical utterance, 352; as ungrammatical utterance, 352
+ connectives: for abstractions, 269; table by constructs connected, 366
+ connector: for relative clauses, 508
+ consonant: definition, 35; effect on syllable count, 35
+ consonant clusters: buffering of, 38; contrasted with doubled consonants, 35; contrasted with single consonants, 35; definition of, 35; more than three consonants in, 37
+ consonant pairs: in brivla, 53; initial, 36; letter y within, 53; restrictions on, 36
+ consonant triples, 37; restrictions on, 37
+ consonant-final words: necessity for pause after, 68
+ consonants: contrasted with vowels, 33; final, 36; position of, 36; pronunciation of, quick-tour version, 12; restrictions on, 36; syllabic, 34; voiced/unvoiced equivalents, 35; voicing of, 35
+ continents: gismu for, 79
+ continues: example, 228
+ continuitive event contour, 228
+ continuous: of tense intervals, 225
+ contradictory negation: using naku before selbri, 405
+ contradictory negation of modals: explanation of meaning, 207
+ contradictory negation of tenses: selma'o allowed with, 242
+ contributors to this book, 5
+ conversion: accessing tense of bridi with jai, 247; definition, 100, 247; effect of multiple on a selbri, 194; effect on BAI, 196; extending scope of, 193; modal, 206, 496; of BAI, 195; of operator places, 459; of selbri, 504; scope of, 193; swapping non-first places, 194; swapping with modal place, 205; using jai, 101
+ conversion and tanru, 100
+ conversion into sumti from mekso, 436
+ conversion of mekso into sumti, 436
+ conversion of operand into operator, 460
+ conversion of operator into operand, 460
+ conversion of operator into selbri, 457
+ conversion of selbri into operand, 456
+ conversion of selbri into operator, 456
+ conversion of selbri to modal, 493
+ conversion of sentence with quantified variables: technique, 407
+ conversion of sumti into operand, 456
+ conversion of sumti into selbri, 98
+ conversion with `ke', 101
+ conversion with se: effect of naku negation boundary on, 406
+ converted selbri: as different selbri from unconverted, 192; as resetting standard order, 193; compared with selbri with FA in meaning, 193; contrasted with other similar selbri, 193; contrasted with selbri with FA in structure, 193; definition, 192; forming with SE, 192; in descriptions, 193; place structure of, 192; retention of basic meaning in, 193; to access non-first place in description, 193
+ converting: operand to operator, 500; operator to selbri, 502; quantifier to selbri, 500; selbri to operand, 501; selbri to operator, 501; sumti to operand, 500; sumti to tanru unit, 500
+ converting sumti to related meaning, 498
+ co'o, 324; quick-tour version, 21
+ creative understanding, 273
+ credits for pictures, 6
+ credits for this book, 6
+ cross product: with tenses, 246
+ cross-dependency, 280
+ cross-product: contrasted with and, 357; of sets, 356
+ cu, 188, 190, 216; as selbri separator, 188; effect of selbri-first bridi on, 190; effect of tense specification, 216; effect on elidability of ku, 122; effect on elidable terminators, 188; necessity of, 188; need for, quick-tour version, 19; omission of, quick-tour version, 14; quick-tour version, 14; use of, quick-tour version, 14; usefulness of, 188
+ CU selma'o, 188, 492
+ cu'e: combining with other tense cmavo, 250
+ CUhE selma'o, 238, 492
+ cu'i, 299, 305
+ cultural knowledge: example, 316
+ cultural words: rafsi fu'ivla proposal for, 80
+ culturally dependent lujvo, 322
+ cumbersome text, 479
+ cu'o, 447
+ cup's friend: example, 174
+ curious, 263; example, 263; example, 263
+ cu'u, 203
+ cycles, 230
+ Cy-form cmavo: rules for pause after, 69
+ Cyrillic alphabet: language shift word for, 417; proposed lerfu words for, 427
+ da, 162, 392, 473; as a translation for "something", 392; contrasted with zo'e, 392
+ da poi, 394
+ da prami da: contrasted with da prami de, 393
+ da prami de: contrasted with da prami da, 393
+ DA selma'o, 473
+ da'a, 441; default number for, 441
+ da'e, 149
+ DAhO selma'o, 162, 466, 492
+ da'i, 319
+ da'o, 162, 466; for cancellation of pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignment, 162; syntax of, 162
+ da-series: after third, 472
+ da-series pro-sumti: for bound variables, 161
+ da'u, 148
+ dai, 314
+ De Gaulle: example, 68
+ de'a, 229
+ decimal point: as numerical punctuation, 433; effect of different notations, 433; in bases other than 10, 444
+ deduction: example, 316
+ de'e, 149
+ default operator precedence: contrasted with mekso goal, 436
+ deference: example, 308
+ definable pro-sumti, 139; sequences of lerfu words as, 140
+ definite numbers: combined with indefinite, 442
+ de'i, 204
+ dei, 149
+ demonstrated potential: expressing, 244
+ demonstrative pro-sumti, 140, 147; stability of, 162
+ DeMorgan's Law: and bridi-tail logical connection, 408; and distributing a negation, 407; and internal naku negations, 409; and logically connected sentences, 408; and moving a logical connective relative to "naku", 407; sample applications, 408
+ dereferencing a pointer: with la'e, 134
+ derivational morphology: definition, 49
+ derogatory terms, 275
+ descriptions: and abstractions, 255; as based on first place of following selbri, 193; as possessive sumti, 180; based on go'i-series pro-bridi, 155; components of, 120; importance of selbri first place in, 120; non-specific, 121; quick-tour version, 19; specific, 121; types of, 120; use of SE in, 193
+ descriptions with lo: teddy bear contrasted with real bear, 122
+ descriptor, 498; as part of description, 120
+ descriptor for numbers, 499
+ descriptors: different implicit outer quantifiers among, 131; implicit quantifiers for, 129; omission of, 132; purpose of, 120
+ de'u, 148
+ Devanagari: example, 418
+ di'a, 229
+ diacritic marks: proposed lerfu words for, 429
+ diacritical marks: as lerfu, 418; considered as forming distinct letters, 419; order of specification within tei...foi, 419; problem of position, 418; problem with multiple on one lerfu, 419; specifying with tei...foi, 419
+ dictionary: superior authority of, 5
+ di'e, 149, 358; effect of tu'e/tu'u on, 358
+ die after living: example, 232
+ digit questions, 449
+ digit string: definition of, 458
+ digits, 502; cmavo for, 432; list of decimal, 462; list of hexadecimal, 462; names from, 459; rafsi for, 459; rationale for having 16, 444
+ digits beyond 9: word pattern, 444
+ di'i, 226
+ dimension: meaning as sumti tcita, 233
+ dimensionality: of walking, 224; order with size in spatial tense intervals, 224; spatial, 506
+ dimensionality of interval: as subjective, 224
+ dimensioned numbers: expressing, 456
+ diphthongs: classification of, 34; contrasted with vowel pairs, 34; definition of, 33; English analogues of, 45; in fu'ivla, 63; IPA for, 33; list of, 33; pronunciation of, quick-tour version, 12; specific to cmene, 66; specific to names, 66
+ direct address, 323
+ direction: following interval in tense construct, 221; interaction with movement specification in tenses, 224; order of relative to distance in spatial tenses, 217; reference frame for, 224; spatial, 493; specification with FAhA, 217; time, 503
+ directions: multiple with movement, 225
+ disambiguated instance, 276
+ disclaimers, 5
+ discourse: commentary on, 319; expressing utterance relation to, 317; gesture markers, 319; tone of voice markers, 319
+ discrete: of tense intervals, 225
+ discursive indicator, 466
+ discursives: as metalinguistic claims, 317; contrasted with attitudinals, 317; definition, 317; discourse commentary, 319; discourse management, 320; embedded, 481; expressing how things are said, 318; knowledge, 319; placement in sentence, 317; quick-tour version, 25; su'a, 316; word-level, 318
+ discursives for consecutive discourse, 317; contrasted, 318
+ discursives for managing discourse flow, 320
+ discuss in language: example, 357
+ distance: order of relative to direction in spatial tenses, 217; spatial, 506; specification with VA, 217; time, 507
+ distributing a negation, 407
+ distribution of quantified sumti, 398
+ ditto: example, 318
+ di'u, 148; contrasted with la'edi'u, 149; contrasted with ta, 148; quick-tour version, 21
+# di'u-series pro-sumti /r dihuseries, 148
+ diversified species, 295
+ DNA: example, 424
+ do, 146
+ do'a, 318
+ doctor and then rich: example, 364
+ do'e, 197; compared with English of, 197
+ dog breathes, 395
+ dog house: example, 274
+ dog or cat: example, 351
+ doghouse: example, 72, 277
+ DOhU selma'o, 137, 323, 492
+ do'i, 149; compared with zo'e-series as indefinite pro-sumti, 158
+ Don Quixote: example, 68
+ Dong: example, 281
+ do'o, 146
+ do'u, 137, 323
+ doi, 136, 138, 323; effect on necessity for pause before name-word, 138; effect on pause before name, 323; quick-tour version, 21
+ DOI selma'o, 136, 183, 323, 492; quick-tour version, 21; terminator for, 492
+ double negation: and naku, 407
+ double negatives: effect of interactions between quantifiers and negation on, 403
+ doubled consonants: contrasted with consonant clusters, 35; contrasted with single consonants, 35
+ Doyle: example, 138
+ dream: example, 316
+ du, 162, 164; as an exception within GOhA selma'o, 97; compared with me in effect, 99; contrasted with dunli, 163, 439; contrasted with mintu, 163; derivation of, 163; grammar of, 435; meaning of, 163; rationale for selection of selma'o for, 162; with complex mekso on both sides, 436
+ ducks swim: example, 243
+ du'e, 442, 448
+ du'i, 204
+ dunli: contrasted with du, 163, 439
+ Dutch ij: proposed lerfu word for, 429
+ du'u, 263, 264
+ e, 340; contrasted with fa'u, 356; contrasted with pi'u, 357
+ e'a, 303
+ Earl: example, 34
+ eat bread: example, 441
+ eat in airplane: example, 225
+ eat themselves: example, 442
+ EBNF grammar, 552
+ editorial commentary, 480
+ editorial insertion, 481; of text already containing sa'a, 321; with sa'a, 321
+ e'e, 303
+ Eek!: example, 301
+ ei, 303, 305
+ eicai, 305
+ eicu'i, 305
+ einai, 305
+ Einstein: example, 294
+ Einsteinian: space-time intervals with 4 dimensions, 224
+ eiro'u, 307
+ eiru'e, 305
+ eisai, 305
+ -ek: in name for logical connectives, 336
+ ek: definition, 336
+ eks: connecting operands, 361; in sumti forethought logical connection, 340
+ elementary schools, 281
+ Elgin: Suzette Haden and evidentials, 315
+ elidability of be'o, 94
+ elidability of me'u, 99
+ elidable terminators: list, 486
+ elided tense: meaning of, 215
+ elimination process, 282
+ ellipsis: quick-tour version, 14
+ elliptical pro-bridi, 157
+ elliptical pro-sumti, 157
+ elliptical sumti, 157
+ elliptical value: contrasted with typical value for sumti, 157
+ embarrassment: example, 307
+ embedded bridi tenses: effect of main bridi tense on, 235
+ embedded discursive, 481
+ embedded quotation, 476
+ emotion, 297
+ emotional categories, 306
+ emotional indicators: noticeable effects of, 330
+ emotional scale, 305
+ emotions: compound, 306; cultural bias of expression, 329; insights, 306; marking, 505; marking intensity of, 491; recording using indicators, 329; research using indicators, 329; when expressed, 306
+ empathy: example, 314
+ emphasis, 479; changing by using non-standard form of bridi, 188; marking, 489
+ emphasis marking, 479
+ end of file, 484
+ end of text indicator, 493
+ endpoints: inclusion in interval, 360
+ engineering: example, 14
+ English prepositions: contrasted with modal tags in preciseness, 196
+ English we: contrasted with Lojban pro-sumti for we, 146
+ Englishman in Africa: example, 124
+ enough currency: example, 442
+ enough-th: example, 447
+ e'o, 303; contrasted with pe'u, 324
+ equivalents to brivla, 97
+ erasure, 482; discourse, 504; multiple word, 483; names, 482; phrase, 503; quotes, 483; sentence, 503; total, 484; word, 482, 504; zo, 482
+ error marking: metalinguistic, 321
+ e'u, 303, 317; compared with ru'a, 317
+ -er: use of zmadu in forming, 58
+ 'et'e: example, 419
+ Eureka!: example, 299
+ event abstraction(s): types, 257
+ event abstractions, 256
+ event contours: achievative, 230; as characteristic portions of events, 228; as sumti tcita, 232; as timeless in perspective, 228; cessative, 229; completitive, 229; continuitive, 228; contrasted with tense direction in implication of extent, 229; definition, 228; division of the event into, 229; implications on scope of event, 229; inchoative, 228; initiative, 229; interruption, 229; order with respect to TAhE and ROI, 228; pausative, 229; perfective, 229; points associated with, 229; resumption, 229; resumptive, 229; strings of, 246; superfective, 230; syntax of, 228; temporal contrasted with spatial, 231
+ event contours as sumti tcita: contrasted with direction and distance, 232
+ event types: described, 258
+ event-relative viewpoint: contrasted with speaker-relative viewpoint, 228
+ events: considered as a process, 228; duration, 256; place structure, 257
+ everybody loves something: example, 401
+ everyone: contrasted with anyone in assumption of existence, 399
+ everyone bitten by dog, 396
+ everything: expressing with "ro da", 394
+ everything breathes: example, 395
+ everything loves everything: example, 394
+ everything sees me: example, 394
+ everything sees something: example, 394
+ evidentials: ba'a scale, 316; definition, 315; grammar, 315; in English, 315; indisputable bridi, 315; inspiration for, 315; ja'o contrasted with su'a, 316; ka'u contrasted with se'o, 316; placement in bridi, 315; quick-tour version, 25; rhetorical flavor, 315; scales, 315; se'o contrasted with ka'u, 316; su'a contrasted with ja'o, 316
+ exact number: expressing, 443
+ exactly two: example, 443
+ example of examples, 5
+ examples: structure of, 5
+ examples in this book, 4
+ except from 10 to 12: example, 360
+ existential: mixed claim with universal, 394
+ existential claims: definition, 392; restricting, 394
+ existential variable: in abstraction contrasted with in main bridi, 400; in main bridi contrasted with in abstraction, 400
+ expanding "no" quantifier, 403
+ experience abstraction, 265
+ experience abstraction(s): place structure, 265
+ experience abstractor, 265
+ experienced: example, 316
+ experimental cmavo: definition, 51; forms for, 51
+ explicit magnitude, 250
+ exponential notation: with base other than 10, 451; with gei, 450
+ exporting negation to prenex: "naku" contrasted with internal bridi negation, 406; internal bridi negation contrasted with "naku", 406
+ expressive power, 290
+ external bridi negation: compared to internal bridi negation, 401; definition, 401
+ extrinsic possession: definition, 173
+ F.8 base 16: example, 444
+ fa, 189
+ FA in selbri: compared with converted selbri in meaning, 193; contrasted converted selbri with in structure, 193
+ FA selma'o, 93, 189, 206, 247, 493; after 5th place, 472; as a reminder of place in place structure, 190; avoidance of complex usage of, 191; compared with zo'e for omitting places, 190; effect on place structure, 190; effect on place structure order, 190; effect on subsequent non-tagged places, 191; for accessing a selbri place explicitly by relative number, 190; for putting more than one sumti in a single place, 191; syntax of, 189
+ FA tags and linked sumti, 93
+ fa'a: special note on direction orientation, 253
+ face: specifying for letters, 418
+ FAhA selma'o, 217, 242, 493; and direction, 217; contradictory negation of, 241; use in specifying space/time mapping direction, 231
+ FAhO selma'o, 484, 493
+ false statement: implications of, 337
+ fancy E: notation convention, 335
+ fancy O: notation convention, 335
+ fa'o, 416, 484; contrasted with fe'o, 325; interaction with bu, 416
+ fai, 206, 247, 287; as allowing access to original first place in modal conversion, 206; effect on numbering of place structure places, 206
+ falsity of mathematical relation: expressing, 440
+ fancy A: notation convention, 335
+ fancy U: notation convention, 335
+ fast talker: example, 17
+ fast-talker shoe: example, 17
+ father: example, 11
+ father mother: example, 55
+ fa'u, 354, 356, 470; compared to termsets, 356; contrasted with .e, 356
+ fe, 189
+ fe'omi'e, 325
+ fe'e, 230, 231, 232; effect of TAhE/ROI with ZAhO on, 231
+ feed: example, 288
+ feeling, 297
+ feelings: expression of contrasted with talking about, 298
+ FEhE selma'o, 230, 493
+ FEhU selma'o, 194, 493
+ fe'o, 325; contrasted with fa'o, 325
+ fe'u, 194
+ fewsome: example, 446
+ fi, 189
+ fi'a, 191; effect on subsequent untagged sumti, 192
+ Fido: example, 396
+ fi'e, 203
+ field rations: example, 56
+ figurative lujvo, 322; place structure, 322
+ figurative speech, 322
+ FIhO selma'o, 194, 493; terminator for, 493
+ fi'i, 324
+ final syllable stress: rules for pause after, 69
+ finish: contrasted with stop, 229
+ finished: example, 229
+ fi'o, 194; and modal conversion, 206; as modal tag, 194; effect on following selbri, 194; mixed modal connection with, 205; proscribed for sticky modals, 208; restriction on use, 201; use in adding places to place structure, 194
+ fi'o constructs: short forms as BAI, 195
+ fi'o modal followed by selbri: effect on eliding fe'u, 202
+ fi'o modals: negation of by negating selbri, 207; usage in relative phrases, 204
+ fi'o tag: relation of modal sumti following to selbri, 195
+ fi'o with selbri: meaning of, 194
+ first rat: example, 447
+ firstly: example, 458
+ fish eat: example, 468
+ fish on right: example, 222
+ fi'u, 433
+ five people: example, 178
+ five women: example, 178
+ flashbacks in story time: example, 237
+ fleas, 274
+ flexible vocabulary, 53
+ floating point numbers: expressing, 451
+ flow of discourse: managing with discursives, 320
+ fo, 189
+ fo'a, 163
+ foi, 419
+ FOI selma'o, 419, 494
+ folk quantifiers: expressing, 456
+ font: example, 418; specifying for letters, 418
+ food: use of fu'ivla for specific, 61
+ foreman of a jury: example, 146
+ forethought bridi connection: as grammatically one sentence, 339
+ forethought bridi connectives: contrasted with afterthought bridi connectives, 338
+ forethought bridi-tail connection: special rule for tense, 365
+ forethought connection: contrasted with afterthought for grammatical utterances, 352; definition, 199; in abstractions, 365; in tenses, 363; observatives, 347; of operands, 453; of operators, 453
+ forethought connections: modal compared with tense in semantics, 249
+ forethought connective(s): as ungrammatical utterance, 352; contrasted with afterthought connective, 338
+ forethought connectives: with tense, 364
+ forethought connectives and bo, 343
+ forethought interval: GAhO position, 361
+ forethought logical connectives: within tanru, 92
+ forethought logical connectives in tanru: effect on tanru grouping, 92
+ forethought mathematical notation (see also Polish), 438
+ forethought modal sentence connection, 199; relation to modal of first bridi in, 199; relation to modal of second bridi in, 199
+ forethought modal sentence connection for causals: order of cause and effect, 199
+ forethought tanru connection, 350
+ forethought tense connection: contrasted with afterthought in likeness to modal connection, 249
+ forethought tense connection of bridi-tails: order of, 240
+ forethought tense connection of sentences: order of, 239
+ forethought tense connection of sumti: order of, 239
+ forethought termsets: logical connection of, 348
+ formal grammar, 511
+ formal requirement: example, 305
+ former market: example, 235
+ former state, 293
+ formulae: expressing based on pure dimensions, 456
+ four "e"s: example, 422
+ Four score and seven: example, 460
+ fourteen "e"s: example, 413
+ fractions: expressing with numerical punctuation, 433; numerator default, 433
+ fragmentary text, 321
+ Frank is a fool: example, 263
+ free modifiers: effects on elidability of terminators, 450
+ frequency within interval: specifying, 504
+ friend's cup: example, 174
+ from one to two o'clock: example, 359
+ fu, 189
+ fu'a, 452
+ fu'e, 475
+ FUhA selma'o, 494
+ FUhE selma'o, 475, 494
+ FUhO selma'o, 475, 494
+ fu'i, 309
+ fu'ivla: algorithm for constructing, 62; as a subtype of brivla, 53; as Stage 3 borrowings, 61; as Stage 4 borrowings, 62; categorized contrasted with uncategorized in ease of construction, 62; considerations for choosing basis word, 64; consonant clusters in, 62; construction of, 62; definition, quick-tour version, 27; diphthongs in, 63; disambiguation of, 64; form for rafsi fu'ivla proposal, 80; form of, 62; initial consonant cluster in, 62; method of including in lujvo, 60; quick-tour version, 20; rules for formation of, 62; stress in, 62; uniqueness of meaning in, 61; use of, 61; with invalid diphthongs, 64
+ fu'ivla categorizer, 61; for distinguishing fu'ivla form, 64; for distinguishing specialized meanings, 64; selection consideration for, 62
+ Fujiko: example, 68
+ fully reduced lujvo: definition, 59
+ function f of x: example, 423
+ function name: lerfu string as, 423
+ functional notation: standard, 438
+ fu'o, 475
+ future event: possible extension into present, 223
+ futureward: as a spatial tense, 224
+ fuzzy logic and truth-value abstraction, 262
+ ga, 408
+ GA selma'o, 336, 338, 339, 340, 341, 352, 361, 453, 494
+ gadri: definition, 119
+ ga'e, 415
+ GAhO position in forethought intervals, 361
+ GAhO selma'o, 246, 360, 361, 494; grammar of, 360
+ ga'i, 308
+ ga'icai, 309
+ ga'inai, 308
+ ganai, 339, 340
+ ga'o, 360, 362; etymology of, 360
+ ge, 408
+ ge'a, 450, 452, 453; for infix operations with too many operands, 451
+ ge'a gei, 453
+ ge'e, 311, 322
+ GEhU selma'o, 175, 495
+ ge'i, 352
+ gei, 450; as a binary operator, 450; as a ternary operator, 451; rationale for order of places, 451
+ gek: definition, 338
+ gek bridi connectives: contrasted with ijeks, 338
+ geks: connecting operands, 361; in forethought sumti connection, 341; syntax of, 340
+ General American, 42
+ general sumti: contrasted with operands, 436
+ general terms, 295
+ German rich man: example, 344
+ gerund: using abstraction, 255
+ Gettysburg Address: example, 460
+ ge'u, 151, 175, 318; effect of following logical connective on elidability, 175; elidability of from relative phrases, 175
+ gi, 92, 199, 239, 240, 340, 361, 408
+ GI selma'o, 336, 339, 340, 361, 495
+ gi'e, 344
+ GIhA selma'o, 336, 344, 346, 352, 364, 495; terminator for, 506
+ gihek: definition, 344
+ giheks: syntax of, 346
+ gi'i, 352
+ gik: as name for compound cmavo, 336; definition, 340
+ giks: syntax of, 340
+ ginai, 340
+ girls' school: little, example, 85
+ gismu: algorithm for, 75; and cmavo, major, 53; as a subtype of brivla, 53; as partitioning semantic space, 53; basic rafsi for, 57; coined, 77; conflicts between, 54; creation, and transcription blunders, 76; creation, considerations for selection after scoring, 75; creation, proscribed gismu pairs, 76; creation, scoring rules, 75; cultural, 78; definition, 53; definition, quick-tour version, 27; ethnic, 79; examples of, 54; exceptions to gismu creation by algorithm, 77; for countries, 79; for languages, 78; for Lojban source languages, 78; geographical, 79; length of, 54; level of uniqueness of rafsi relating to, 57; Lojban-specific, 77; place order, rationale, 295; place structures, 294; place structures, rationale, 294; quick-tour version, 20; rationale for, 273; rationale for choice of, 53; religious, 80; rules for, 54; scientific-mathematical, 77; selection of, 53; source of, 54; source-language weights for, 76; special, 54; too-similar, 76
+ give: example, 11
+ give or receive?: example, 191
+ giving the horse: example, 260
+ global attitudinals, 475
+ glottal stop: as pause in Lojban, 31
+ glue in lujvo: n-hyphen as, 56; r-hyphen as, 56; y-hyphen as, 56
+ go: example, 187
+ go to Boston from Atlanta: example, 187
+ go to market: example, 215
+ go to Paris or Rome: example, 408
+ go to the store: example, 4
+ go'i-series pro-bridi: assigning for permanent reference, 154; in narrative about quotation, 156; in quotation series, 156; in quotations, 156
+ go'a, 154
+ goal of this book, 3
+ go'e, 154
+ goer table: example, 85
+ goer-house: example, 274
+ Goethe, 479
+ GOhA selma'o, 97, 145, 409, 470, 495; as component in tanru, 97; as selbri, 97
+ go'i, 97, 154, 318; as affirmative answer to yes/no question, 154; compared with mo in overriding of arguments, 160; contrasted with go'i ra'o, 156; contrasted with mi'u, 318
+ goi assignment of ko'a-series pro-sumti: use in speech contrasted with writing, 151
+ goi for ko'a-series assignment: compared with cei for broda-series assignment, 151
+ go'i ra'o: contrasted with go'i, 156
+ GOI selma'o, 172, 495; terminator for, 495
+ go'i with xu: quick-tour version, 23
+ go'i-series pro-bridi, 152; as basis for description, 155; as main-bridi anaphora only, 154; as main-bridi anaphora only, exception, 155; as repeating referent concept, 155; compared with ri-series in word formation, 152; compared with ri-series pro-sumti in rules of reference, 154; effect of sub-clauses on, 154; effect of sumti of referent bridi on, 154; no'a as exception to only main-bridi anaphora, 155; referent of, 154; reinterpreting sumti references with ra'o, 156
+ go'ixire, 154
+ go'o, 155
+ go'u, 154
+ goi, 150, 154, 162, 421; rationale for non-inclusion in relative clause chapter, 175; use in assigning lerfu as pro-sumti, 152; use in assigning name, 152
+ good house: example, 92
+ grammatical categories: use of upper case for, 5
+ grammatical terms: quick-tour version, 26
+ grasp water: example, 199
+ great soldier: example, 278, 282
+ Greek alphabet: language shift word for, 417; proposed lerfu words for, 426
+ Greek-Americans own restaurants, 126
+ grouping: indicator for, 496; of connection in abstractions, 365; of connection in tenses, 363
+ grouping parentheses, 88
+ gu, 339
+ GU selma'o, 339
+ gu'e, 92
+ GUhA selma'o, 350, 352, 361, 495
+ guhek: definition, 350
+ guheks: connecting operators, 361; syntax of, 350
+ guheks for tanru connection: rationale, 350
+ gu'i, 352
+ had earlier: example, 234
+ han4zi4: example, 420
+ hands in pockets: example, 175
+ handwriting: example, 418
+ happiness: example, 161
+ happy face: example, 416
+ has a heart: example, 259
+ have never: example, 227
+ having: of properties, 259
+ healthy: example, 24
+ hearsay: example, 316
+ heartburn: example, 322
+ Hebrew alphabet: language shift word for, 417; proposed lerfu words for, 428
+ Helvetica font: example, 418
+ hepatitis: example, 60
+ hereafter known as: example, 151
+ hesitation, 484, 507
+ hesitation sound, 484
+ hexadecimal system: specifying numbers in (see also base), 444
+ hierarchy of priorities for selecting lujvo form, 72
+ hiragana: contrasted with kanji, 420; example, 418
+ hit cousin: example, 318
+ hit nose: example, 318
+ hits: example, 11
+ Hollywood: example, 127
+ Hooray!: example, 299
+ hospitality: example, 324
+ hours:minutes:seconds: example, 445
+ huh?: example, 321
+ hundred: expressing as number, 432
+ husband and wife: example, 316
+ hyphen letter: definition, 59
+ hyphens: use of, 59
+ hyphens in lujvo: proscribed where not required, 70
+ hypothetical world, 301; contrasted with real world, example, 320
+ hypothetical world point of view, 320
+ i, 198, 238, 465; quick-tour version, 16; regarding forethought bridi connection, 339
+ I selma'o, 336, 337, 338, 339, 358, 364, 465, 495
+ i'anai, 304
+ ianai, 297, 303, 319
+ IBM: example, 424
+ ICAO Phonetic Alphabet: proposed lerfu words for, 429
+ ice'o: contrasted with .ibabo, 358
+ idea abstraction, 265
+ idea abstraction(s): place structure, 265
+ identity: expressing with po'u, 174
+ identity predicate, 162
+ i'e, 304
+ i'enai, 304
+ ie, 304
+ if: English usage contrasted with Lojban logical connective, 337; expressing real world, 320; meaning in logical connections, 337
+ if ... then: compared with only if, 338; logical connectives contrasted with other translations, 339
+ if coffee: bring tea, example, 353
+ if, expressing hypothetical world, 320
+ ii, 301
+ ijebabo, 363
+ ijek: definition, 336
+ ijek bridi connectives: contrasted with geks, 338
+ ijek logical connective(s): connecting bridi, 336
+ ijeks: syntax of, 338
+ ijoik: as name for compound cmavo, 336; definition, 358
+ imaginary journey: and spatial tense, 217; ending point, 217; origin in tense forethought bridi-tail connection, 240; origin in tense forethought sentence connection, 239; origin in tense forethought sumti connection, 239; origin of in tense-connected sentences, 239; stages of in compound tenses, 218; starting at a different point, 232; starting point, 217, 232; with interval direction, 222
+ imaginary journey origin: with sticky tenses, 234
+ imperatives: and truth, 353; attitude, 308; English contrasted with Lojban in presence of subject of command, 147; quick-tour version, 22; with ko, 146
+ implausible, 284
+ implicit quantifier: definition, 128; for quotations, 128; on personal pro-sumti, 128; on quotations, discussion of, 128
+ implicit-abstraction lujvo: definition, 289
+ importance of point: scale with ra'u, 320
+ in the aftermath: example, 232
+ inalienable: distinguishing from alienable, 173
+ inalienable possession: definition, 173; expressing with po'e, 173
+ inchoative event contour, 228
+ incidental association: expressing with ne, 174
+ incidental identification: expressing with no'u, 174
+ incidental relative clause: as a parenthetical device, 171; definition, 171
+ inclusion: property of sets, 125
+ indefinite description: as needing explicit outer quantifier, 132; as prohibiting explicit inner quantifier, 132; compared with restricted variable, 398; definition, 132, 398
+ indefinite numbers, 440; combined with definite, 442; effect of pi on, 441
+ indefinite portions: subjective, 442
+ indefinite pro-bridi, 157; stability of, 162
+ indefinite pro-sumti, 140, 157; implicit quantifier for, 140; stability of, 162
+ indefinite sumti: as implicit quantification, 406; compared to sumti with lo, 399; meaning when multiple in sentence, 398; multiple in sentence, 398
+ indefinite values: subjective, 442
+ index numbering, 500
+ indicator scope, 466
+ indicator tables: format convention, 298
+ indicators, 298; cancellation of, 494; derived from gismu, 298; evolutionary development of, 329; grammar for compounding, 310; meaning when compounded, 310; placement of, 298; quick-tour version, 24; ramifications, 329; rationale for selection, 329; scope effect of new paragraph, 466; types of, 298
+ indicators derived from gismu: notation convention, 298
+ indirect question, 323
+ indirect question involving sumti, 265
+ indirect questions, 264; "ma kau" contrasted with "la djan. kau", 264
+ indirect questions without "kau", 265
+ indisputable bridi, 315
+ individual: example, 446
+ individual objects: multiple, 123
+ individuals: expressing relation with mass formed, 446; expressing relation with set formed, 446
+ individuals into mass: by non-logical connection, 355
+ individuals into set: by non-logical connection, 355
+ individuals of set: expressing measurement standard for indefinites, 446
+ indivisible, 258
+ induction: example, 316
+ inexact numbers with bounds, 443
+ inexact portions with bounds, 444
+ infant ducks: example, 244
+ inferior: example, 308
+ infinity: example, 434
+ infix expressions: in operands being used in Polish notation, 439
+ infix mathematical notation: shortcomings of, 438
+ infix notation mixed with Polish, 455; example, 455
+ inflammable: example, 245
+ initial consonant pairs: list of, 37
+ initiative event contour, 228
+ innate capability: expressing explicitly, 243; expressing implicitly, 243
+ innate property: extension of from mass to individuals, 243; extension to individuals not actually capable, 244
+ inner product, 452
+ inner quantifier: contrasted with outer quantifier, 129; definition, 129; effect of on meaning, 129; explicit, 129; implicit on descriptors, 129; in indefinite description, 132
+ inner quantifier of sumti: meaning of, 178
+ inner sumti: referring to from within relative clause within relative clause, 184
+ integral: architectural concept, example, 64; mathematical concept, example, 64
+ interaction list: cmavo, 485
+ interactions between quantifiers and negation: effect, 403
+ interjections: quick-tour version, 24
+ intermediate abstraction, 267
+ intermittently: example, 226
+ internal bridi negation: compared to external bridi negation, 401; definition, 401
+ internal naku negations: and DeMorgan's Law, 409
+ internal world, 301
+ International Phonetic Alphabet (see also IPA), 29
+ intersect, 266
+ intersection: of sets, 356
+ intersection of sets: compared with and, 357
+ interval: closed, 360; effect of nai on, 360; expressed as center and distance, 359; expressed as endpoints, 359; expressing by endpoints with bi'o, 246; followed by direction in tense construct, 221; forethought, 361; forming, 490; inclusion of endpoints, 360; open, 360; open/closed specification, 494; relation to point specified by direction and distance, 221; relative order with direction and distance in tense, 221; specifying relation to point specified by direction and distance, 221; spread of actions over, 225
+ interval continuousness: meaning as sumti tcita, 233
+ interval direction: specifying, 221
+ interval properties: meaning as sumti tcita, 233; strings of, 246
+ interval size: as context-dependent, 222; meaning as sumti tcita, 233; spatial, 506; time, 507; unspecified, 223; vague, 223
+ interval spread: expressing English intermittently, 226; mutually contrasted, 226; negation with nai, 226; with unspecified interval, 226
+ intrinsic possession: definition, 173; expressing by using place in some selbri, 173; expressing with po'e, 173
+ introduce oneself, 325
+ invalid diphthongs: in fu'ivla, 64
+ invalid speech: marking as error with na'i, 321
+ inversion of quantifiers: definition, 402; in moving negation boundary, 402
+ inversion of quantifiers on passing negation boundary: rationale for, 402
+ invertebrate, 285
+ inverted tanru: effect on sumti after the selbri, 95; effect on sumti before the selbri, 95
+ inverting a tanru, 491
+ inverting quantifiers: with movement relative to fixed negation, 406; with movement relative to naku, 405
+ ionai, 301
+ IPA, 29
+ IPA pronunciation: description, 42
+ iri'abo, 198
+ irony: example, 319; expressing, 319
+ irrational number: example, 181
+ irrelevant: specifying of sumti place, 157
+ isomorphism: audio-visual, 29
+ IT: as notation convention in relative clause chapter, 170
+ italic: example, 418
+ -ity, 259
+ iu, 301
+ iy diphthong: in cmene, 66
+ JA selma'o, 90, 245, 336, 337, 338, 350, 352, 354, 361, 364, 365, 496
+ jabo, 91
+ jai, 206, 247, 267, 287; conversion using, 101
+ JAI selma'o, 206, 267, 496
+ jai with tense: as equivalent of SE in grammar, 247
+ jai without modal: meaning, 206
+ James: example, 36
+ Jane: example, 65
+ ja'o, 316
+ Japanese hiragana: example, 418
+ Japanese katakana: example, 418
+ jargon: use of fu'ivla for, 61
+ je, 89, 208
+ je'e, 324, 325; contrasted with vi'o, 325
+ je'i, 352
+ jei, 262; place structure, 262
+ jek: definition, 336
+ jeks: connecting abstractors, 365; connecting operators, 361; syntax of, 350
+ Jesus, 266; example, 266
+ ji, 352
+ ji'a, 317
+ ji'i, 442; effect of placement, 442; with elided number, 443
+ Jim: example, 65
+ jo'a, 321
+ jo'e, 354, 356
+ JOhI selma'o, 451, 496; terminator for, 505
+ John and Sam: example, 11
+ John is coming: example, 297
+ John Jones: example, 65
+ John Paul Jones: example, 138
+ John says that George goes to market: example, 238
+ Johnson: example, 68
+ jo'i, 451; precedence of, 451
+ joi, 353, 354, 355
+ joi grammar: contrasted with eks, 354; contrasted with jeks, 354
+ JOI selma'o, 246, 336, 353, 354, 355, 357, 358, 360, 361, 364, 455, 470, 496
+ joigik: as name for compound cmavo, 336; definition, 361
+ joigiks: connection types, 361; syntax of, 361
+ joik: as name for compound cmavo, 336; definition, 354
+ joiks: effect of nai on, 358; grouping, 357; syntax of, 360; use of "se" in, 355
+ jokes, 4
+ Jones: John, example, 65
+ jo'u, 354, 355; contrasted with ce, 355; contrasted with ce'o, 355; contrasted with joi, 355; result of connection with, 355
+ j-sound in English: representation in Lojban, 31
+ ju'a, 317
+ ju'apei, 317
+ Judy: example, 294
+ ju'i, 324
+ ju'o, 319
+ Jupiter life: example, 365
+ juror 5: example, 181
+ ju'u: grammar of, 444
+ ka, 259
+ ka'a, 196
+ ka'e, 243
+ kanji: contrasted with alphabets and syllabaries, 420; representing based on romaji spelling, 420; representing based on strokes, 420
+ ka'o, 434; as special number compared with as numerical punctuation, 434
+ katakana: example, 418
+ Kate: example, 65
+ Katrina: example, 65
+ ka'u, 316
+ kau, 264, 323; ma kau, contrasted with la djan. kau, 264
+ ke, 88, 193, 205, 343, 344, 346, 350, 361, 364; contrasted with bo for tensed logical connection, 364; for conversion of tanru, 101; for expanding scope of scalar negation, 101
+ ke in sumti grouping: where allowed, 344
+ KE selma'o, 88, 343, 344, 350, 361, 364, 454, 496; terminator for, 497
+ ke'a, 160, 169; ambiguity when omitted, 161; and abstract descriptions, 161; as referent for relativized sumti, 169; contrasted with ri in relative clauses, 161; effect of omission of, 170; for relativized sumti in relative clauses, 160; meaning in relative clause inside relative clause, 184; non-initial place use in relative clause, 170; stability of, 162; subscripting for nested relative clauses, 161
+ ke'a with subscript: use for outer sumti reference, 184
+ ke'axipa, 184
+ ke'e, 88, 193, 205, 343, 361
+ KEhE selma'o, 88, 343, 346, 497
+ ke'i, 360, 362; etymology of, 360
+ KEI selma'o, 98, 255, 497; eliding, 255
+ ke'o, 325; compared to ki'a, 325
+ kei, 255, 262
+ kept on too long: example, 230
+ ke'u, 319; contrasted with va'i, 320
+ ke'unai, 320
+ Khrushchev: example, 68
+ ki, 207, 234, 243; with no tense, 235
+ KI selma'o, 234, 497
+ ki'a, 321; compared to ke'o, 325
+ ki'e, 324
+ killing Jim, 258; example, 258
+ ki'o, 433
+ kissing Jane, example, 256
+ ki'u, 197
+ klama, 187; place structure of, 187
+ know: example, 263
+ know who: contrasted with know that, 264; example, 264
+ knowledge discursives, 319; compared with propositional attitudes, 319
+ ko, 119, 146; in later selbri place in imperative, 147; in sub-clause of main bridi, 147; quick-tour version, 22; use for commands, 146; use for imperatives, 146
+ ko'a, 150
+ ko'a-series: after tenth, 472
+ ko'a-series for pro-sumti: compared with broda-series for pro-bridi, 151
+ ko'a-series pro-sumti, 150; as assignable, 150; assigning with goi, 150; assignment with goi as symmetrical, 150; contrasted with lerfu as pro-sumti in explicit assignment of, 152; effect on ri-series pro-sumti, 153
+ KOhA selma'o, 145, 260, 469, 497
+ Korean: example, 64
+ Krishna: example, 68
+ ku, 122, 177, 201, 216, 354; as elidable terminator for descriptions, 122; effect of following selbri on elidability of, 122; effect of possessive sumti on elidability of, 181; effect on of omitting descriptor, 132; quick-tour version, 19; uses of, 122; with tense, 216
+ KU selma'o, 354, 497; quick-tour version, 19
+ ku'a, 354, 356
+ ku'e, 438
+ KUhE selma'o, 497
+ KUhO selma'o, 169, 498
+ ku'i, 317, 353
+ ku'o, 169, 178, 394; effect of relative clause after descriptor on elidability, 178; effect of vau on elidability, 181; elidability for relative clauses, 170
+ Kzinti: communication with, 329
+ la, 119, 121, 129, 137, 138; compared with le in specificity, 121; contrasted with lai in implications, 124; contrasted with le in implications, 122; contrasted with lo in implications, 122; contrasted with vocatives, 323; contrasted with zo, 478; implications of, 121; use with descriptions contrasted with use before Lojbanized names, 121
+ LA selma'o, 120, 138, 193, 498; contrasted with LE in use of name-words, 138; effect on necessity for pause before name-word, 138; terminator for, 497
+ la'a, 319
+ Lady: example, 66
+ la'e, 134, 149, 182, 422, 459, 478; as short for "le selsinxa be", 134; effect of on meaning, 134
+ la'e lu: compared with me'o, 422
+ la'edi'u, 149; contrasted with di'u, 149; quick-tour version, 21
+ LAhE selma'o, 133, 149, 182, 266, 478, 498; effect of relative clause placement with, 182; terminator for, 499
+ la'i, 125, 130, 138; as set counterpart of lai, 125
+ lai, 123, 130, 137, 138; as mass counterpart of lai, 123; contrasted with la in implications, 124
+ lambda calculus: operator and operand distinction in, 460
+ language shift: based on name + bu, 418; choice of Lojban-lerfu-word counterpart, 417; compound, 418; effect on following words, 417; formation of shift alphabet name, 418; interaction with bu, 417; rationale for, 417; standardization of, 418
+ languages: abbreviations for, 104
+ la'o, 61, 416, 479; interaction with bu, 416
+ Laplace: example, 65
+ large meal: example, 310
+ large-base decimal fraction: expressing, 445
+ la-series descriptors: compared with le-series in implicit quantification, 130
+ latent component, 291
+ Latin: alphabet of Lojban, 413
+ Latin alphabet, 29; language shift word for, 417
+ lau, 419; effect on following lerfu word, 419
+ LAU selma'o, 415, 418, 419, 498; grammar of following BY, 426
+ le, 119, 129, 177, 354; and specificity, 120; and truth of selbri, 120; compared with English "the", 120; compared with la in specificity, 121; contrasted with lo in implications, 122; contrasted with lo in implicit quantification, 131; contrasted with lo in specificity, 121; contrasted with lo in truth requirement, 121; implications of, 120; implicit outer quantifier for, 131; in false-to-fact descriptions, 120; meaning of in the plural, 123
+ le contrasted with lo: for relative clause placement considerations, 179
+ le nu: definition, 256
+ LE selma'o, 120, 193, 247, 354, 498; contrasted with LA in use of name-words, 138; terminator for, 497
+ learning Lojban: magnitude of task, 53
+ Lech Walesa: example, 68
+ le'e, 126, 130; relationship to le'i, 126
+ left-grouping rule: definition of, 86
+ legal jargon: example, 151
+ legal system, 262
+ legalities: boring, 8
+ LEhU selma'o, 476, 498
+ le'i, 125, 130; as set counterpart of lei, 125; relationship to le'e, 126
+ lei, 123, 130; contrasted with loi in specificity, 124
+ lemon tree: example, 84
+ Length ( Width ( Depth = Volume: example, 456
+ le'o, 309
+ Lepidoptera: example, 18
+ lerfu: as assignable pro-sumti, 152; contrasted with lerfu word, 413; definition, 413; reference to, 422; referring to with me'o, 422
+ lerfu as pro-sumti: contrasted with ko'a-series in explicit assignment of, 152; explicit assignment of antecedent, 152; implicit assignment of antecedent, 152
+ lerfu juxtaposition interpretation: contrasted with mathematical interpretation, 423
+ lerfu pro-sumti: effect on ri-series pro-sumti, 153
+ lerfu shift scope: exception for mathematical texts, 423
+ lerfu string: as acronym using "me", 424; as function name, 423; as function, in mathematics, 438; as mathematical variable, 422; as pro-sumti, 421; as pro-sumti assigned by goi, 421; as pro-sumti, assumption of reference, 421; as pro-sumti, for multiple sumti separated by boi, 421; as quantifier, 423; as quantifier, avoiding interaction with sumti quantifier, 423; as selbri, 423; as subscript, 423; as utterance ordinal, 423; as variable, in mathematics, 438; definition, 420; in mathematical expressions, 437; interpretation of contrasted with normal mathematical interpretation, 437; interpretation, contrasted with mathematical interpretation, 423; use in mathematics, 422; with numerical selbri, 448
+ lerfu word: contrasted with lerfu, 413; for " ' ", 414
+ lerfu word cmavo: list of auxiliary, 425
+ lerfu word set extension: with bu, 416
+ lerfu words: as a basis for acronym names, 423; composed of compound cmavo, 414; composed of single cmavo, 414; consonant words contrasted with vowel words, 414; effect of systematic formulation, 414; for consonants, 414; for vowels, 414; formation rules, 414; forming new for non-Lojban letters using bu, 419; list of proposed, notation convention, 426; Lojban coverage requirement, 413; proposed for accent marks, 429; proposed for Cyrillic alphabet, 427; proposed for diacritic marks, 429; proposed for Greek alphabet, 426; proposed for Hebrew alphabet, 428; proposed for multiple letters, 429; proposed for noisy environments, 429; proposed for radio communication, 429; table of Lojban, 414; using computer encoding schemes with se'e, 425; vowel words contrasted with consonant words, 414
+ lerfu words ending with "y": pause after, rationale, 414
+ lerfu words for vowels: pause requirement before, 414
+ lerfu words with numeric digits: grammar considerations, 420
+ le-series cmavo: as encompassing le-series and la-series descriptors for quantification discussion, 130; definition, 130; rationale for implicit inner quantifier, 130; rule for implicit inner quantifier, 130
+ le-series descriptors: compared with la-series in implicit quantification, 130
+ less: English word, expressing with relative phrases, 203; English word, importance of relative phrase to, 204
+ less than: contrasted with more than, at least, at most, 443; example, 443
+ letter: alphabet, 413; contrasted with word for the letter, 413; making a word into, 490
+ letter encoding schemes: application to lerfu words, 425
+ letter shift, 498
+ letteral: definition, 413
+ letters, 491; non-Lojban, representation of diacritical marks on, 418; non-Lojban, representation with consonant-word + bu, 417; non-Lojban, representation with consonant-word + bu, drawback, 417; non-Lojban, representation with language-shift, 417; non-Lojban, representation with names, 416; sound contrasted with symbol for spelling, 417; symbol contrasted with sound for spelling, 417
+ le'u, 119, 141, 476; interaction with zoi, 478
+ l-hyphen: use of, 62
+ li, 119, 141, 435; as converter of mekso into sumti, 436; contrasted with me'o, 457; relation to me'o compared with la/zo relation, 457; terminator for, 454
+ LI selma'o, 142, 422, 499; terminator for, 499
+ li'a, 318
+ ligatured fi: proposed lerfu word for, 429
+ LIhU selma'o, 476, 499
+ li'i, 265
+ likes more than: example, 203
+ lined up, 283
+ linguistic behavior, 263
+ linguistic drift, 4
+ linguistic drift in Lojban: possible source of, 69
+ linked arguments, 471
+ linked sumti: definition, 93; in tanru, 93
+ linked sumti and FA tags, 93
+ linked sumti and sumti tcita, 94
+ Linnaean, 479
+ Linnaean binomials, 479
+ Linnaean names: rules for, 67
+ li'o, 321
+ lion in Africa: example, 126
+ lions in Africa: example, 124
+ liquefy: example, 289
+ list: as a physical object, 355; contrasted with sequence, 355; example, 355
+ list of things to do: example, 358
+ listen attentively: example, 278
+ lists: use of tu'e/tu'u in, 358
+ literally, 322
+ li'u, 119, 141, 476
+ living things: example, 157
+ Livingston: example, 317
+ LLG, 5
+ lo, 121, 129; and truth of selbri, 121; contrasted with le in implications, 122; contrasted with le in implicit quantification, 131; contrasted with le in specificity, 121; contrasted with le in truth requirement, 121; contrasted with loi and lo'i, 125; implications of, 121; implicit outer quantifier for, 131; omission of, 132
+ lo contrasted with le: for relative clause placement considerations, 179
+ lo'a: contrasted with na'a, 418
+ lo'e, 126, 130; relationship to lo'i, 126
+ logic: and attitudinals, 392; limits of, 392; resolving ambiguities of "nobody", 391
+ logic and Lojban: more aspects, 411
+ logical connection: effect on elidability of lo'o, 454; grouping strategies for complex cases contrasted, 343; in abstraction(s), inner bridi contrasted with outer bridi, 365; in mathematical expressions, 361; in tanru, contrasted with unconnected version, 349; in tanru, expandability of, 349; in tanru, grouping with bo, 349; in tanru, grouping with ke, 350; inside an abstraction(s), contrasted with outside, 365; interaction with tenses, 363; negation in connecting more than 2 sentences, 342; of bridi-tail as opposed to tanru, 350; of bridi-tails, forethought, 347; of bridi-tails, restriction on ke, 346; of forethought termsets, 348; of modals, 208; of more than 2 sentences, all or none, 342; of more than 2 sentences, forethought, 342; of more than 2 sentences, mixed "and" and "or", 342; of more than 2 sentences, things to avoid, 342; of observatives, relation of first places, 345; of selbri, 344; of sumti, grouping with parenthesis, 344; of sumti, restriction on ke, 344; of tanru as opposed to bridi-tail, 350; of tanru, caveat, 350; termsets, 347; transformation between forms, 340; with bo, precedence, 342
+ logical connectives, 333; associative, 341; bridi-tail connection, 345; cmavo, format for each selma'o, 336; effect on elidability of ge'u from preceding relative phrase, 175; grouping with bo, 342; in tanru, 89; more than 2 sentences, 341; negated first sentence as a potential problem for understanding, 339; observative sentence connection, 345; pairing from left, 342; rationale for multiple sets in grammar, 335; recipes, simplified for logic chapter discussion, 403; relation to truth functions, 334; relative precedence with me'u, 99; right-grouping with bo, 343; selma'o, enumerated, 336; syntax rules summary, 366; table by truth function value, 366; tensed, 240
+ logical connectives and bridi negation, 403
+ logical connectives and negation: caveat for logic chapter discussions, 403
+ logical connectives in tanru, 349; ambiguity of, 90; effect on formal logical manipulations, 90; effect on tanru grouping, 89; usefulness of, 90
+ logical connectives within negation: effects of expansion on, 407
+ logical language: truth functions, 333
+ Logical Language Group: example, 74; relation to Lojban, 3
+ logical variables: creating more by subscripting, 410; effect of global substitution, 393; effect of order in prenex, 394; effect of using multiple different, 393; explicitly placing in outer prenex, 400; for selbri, 409; implicit placement in smallest enclosing bridi prenex, 400; notation convention, 392; when not in main bridi, 393; with multiple appearances in bridi, 393; with poi, in multiple appearances, 396; with ro, in multiple appearances, 396
+ logically connected sentences: and DeMorgan's Law, 408
+ logically connected tenses: definition, 363; expansion to sentences, 245; with JA, 245
+ Loglan, 6
+ logograms: words for, 416
+ LOhO selma'o, 499
+ LOhU selma'o, 476, 499; terminator for, 498
+ lo'i, 125, 130, 447; as set counterpart of loi, 125; contrasted with lo and loi, 125; relationship to lo'e, 126; with elided quantifiers, 447
+ loi, 123, 130; as mass counterpart of lo, 123; contrasted with lei in specificity, 124; contrasted with lo and lo'i, 125
+ Lojban: features of, 3; history of, 3; stability of, 4
+ Lojban alphabet, 29
+ Lojban letters: IPA for pronouncing, 30; list with IPA pronunciation, 30
+ Lojbanistan, 4
+ long ago and far away: example, 220
+ long rafsi: definition, 57
+ long rafsi form: compared with short form in effect on lujvo meaning, 56
+ long-sword: example, 283
+ lo'o, 454; effect of logical connective on elidability of, 454
+ loose association: expressing with pe, 172
+ Lord: example, 66
+ lo-series cmavo: rationale for implicit inner quantifier, 130; rule for implicit inner quantifier, 130
+ lo-series description: caution on exact numbers as inner quantifiers on, 131
+ Lottie: example, 138
+ lo'u, 141, 416, 476; interaction with bu, 416; interaction with zoi, 478
+ love more: example, 260
+ lower case letters: use in Lojban, 415
+ lower-case: lerfu word for, 415
+ lower-case letters: English usage contrasted with Lojban, 415; Lojban usage contrasted with English, 415
+ lower-case word: effect on following lerfu words, 415
+ lu, 119, 141, 422, 476; contrasted with me'o for representing lerfu, 422
+ LU selma'o, 476, 499; terminator for, 499
+ lu'a, 134; effect of on meaning, 134
+ lu'e, 134, 264, 459, 478; as short for "le sinxa be", 134; effect of on meaning, 134
+ LUhU selma'o, 267, 499
+ lu'i, 134; effect of on meaning, 134
+ lujvo: abbreviated, 284; abstract, 286; algorithm for, 70; and consonant pairs, 59; and plausibility, 70; and seltau/tertau relationship, 276; and the listener, 70; anomalous, 290; as a subtype of brivla, 53; as suppliers of agent place, 295; asymmetric abstraction, 288; asymmetrical, 278; based on multiple tanru, 70; cmavo incorporation, 274; comparatives, 292; compared with tanru, 273; consideration in choosing meaning for, 69; considerations for retaining elements of, 70; construction of, 56; definition, quick-tour version, 27; design consideration for relationship, 276; dropping elements of, 69; dropping NU in implicit abstractions, 288; dropping NU rafsi, 288; dropping SE rafsi, 283; examples of making, 72; from cmavo with no rafsi, 60; from tanru, 55; fully reduced, 59; grammar of, 273; guidelines for place structure, 273; implicit-abstraction, 288; interpreting, 276; invention of, 57; meaning drift of, 69; meaning of, 56; multiple forms of, 56; NU-dropping contrasted with SE-dropping, 288; place structure of, 273; place structure of figurative lujvo, 322; pro-sumti rafsi effect on place structure of, 163; quick-tour version, 20; rationale for, 273; recognizing, 59; rules for formation of, 56; scope abstraction in underlying veljvo, 287; scored examples of, 72; scoring of, 71; selection of best form of, 71; shorter for more general concepts, 70; summary of form characteristics, 59; superlatives, 292; symmetrical, 278; ultimate guideline for choice of meaning/place-structure, 69; unambiguity of, 69; unambiguous decomposition of, 56; unreduced, 57; unsuitability of for concrete/specific terms and jargon, 61; with "jai", 287; with zei, 60; zi'o rafsi effect on place structure of, 163
+ lujvo creation: interaction of KE with NAhE, 286; interaction of KE with SE, 286; use of multiple SE in, 286
+ lujvo form: consonant cluster requirement in, 59; final letter of, 59; hierarchy of priorities for selection of, 72; number of letters in, 59; requirements for hyphen insertion in, 59; requirements for n-hyphen insertion in, 60; requirements for r-hyphen insertion in, 60; requirements for y-hyphen insertion in, 59
+ lujvo meaning, 274
+ lujvo place order, 281; asymmetrical lujvo, 282; based on 3-or-more part veljvo, 282; comparatives, 292; complex relation, 290; elliptical lujvo, 291; multi-part with NU, 287; non-overlapping place structures, 290; rationale for standardization, 281; redundant non-first places, 290; superlatives, 294; superlatives as exceptions, 294; symmetrical lujvo, 282
+ lujvo place structure: "ni" lujvo, 287; "nu" lujvo, 286; basis of, 277; comparative lujvo, 292; cross-dependent places, 280; dependent places, 279; dropping cross-dependent places, 280; dropping dependent places, caveat, 281; dropping dependent seltau places, 279; dropping dependent tertau places, 280; dropping first place of NU, 288; dropping KE, 285; dropping KEhE, 285; dropping redundant places, 276; effect of SE, 278; effect of SE-dropping in tertau, 284; explicated walk-through, 276; guidelines, 273; multi-place abstraction lujvo, 287; notation conventions, 276; rationale for standardization, 277; selecting tertau, 281; superlatives, 294; when first place redundant with non-first, 278; when first places redundant, 278; when first places redundant plus others, 278; with "jai" lujvo, 287
+ lukewarm food: example, 135
+ lu'o, 134; effect of on meaning, 134
+ lu'u, 133, 267; as elidable terminator for qualified sumti, 133
+ Lyra: example, 138
+ ma, 159, 249, 469; as sumti question, 159; for tense questions, 249; quick-tour version, 22
+ ma'a, 146
+ machine grammar, 511
+ macron: proposed lerfu word for, 429
+ magic square: example, 452
+ magnitude: tense, 250
+ MAhO selma'o, 500; terminator for, 505
+ ma'i, 224
+ MAI selma'o, 458, 474, 500; exception on use of boi before, 458
+ male sexual teacher: example, 74
+ man biting dog, 217
+ man or woman: example, 333
+ manhole: example, 218
+ manysome: example, 447
+ ma'o, 438, 460; potential ambiguity caveat, 460
+ mai, 458, 474; contrasted with mo'o, 458
+ man is woman: example, 177
+ man-woman: example, 350
+ Mao Zedong: example, 68
+ maple sugar: example, 63
+ maple trees: example, 63
+ marathon, 258
+ Mars road: example, 193
+ Marsha: example, 470
+ mass: compared with set as abstract of multiple individuals, 125; contrasted with ordered sequence, 355; contrasted with set in attribution of component properties, 125; contrasted with set in distribution of properties, 355; expressing measurement standard for indefinites, 446; expressing portions of, 441; expressing relation with individuals forming, 446; expressing relation with set forming, 446; joining elements into a, 353; rule for implicit outer quantifier, 130
+ mass contrasted with components: in properties of, 354
+ mass name: use of, 124
+ mass object: and logical reasoning, 123; as dependent on intention, 124; contrasted with multiple individual objects, 123; properties of, 123
+ mass objects: peculiarities of English translation of, 124
+ mathematical equality: expressing, 435
+ mathematical expression: abbreviation notation, 431; definition (see also "mekso"), 431; referring to, 457
+ mathematical expressions: connectives in, 361; implicit quantifier for, 142; tensed connection in, 364
+ mathematical expressions in tanru, 97
+ mathematical inequalities: expressing, 439
+ mathematical intervals, 362
+ mathematical notation: and omitted operators, 431; and operator precedence, 436; forethought (see also Polish), 438; infix, 435; infix shortcomings, 438; international uniqueness of, 431
+ mathematical operators, 436
+ mathematical parenthesis: left, 506
+ mathematical texts: effect on lerfu shift scope, 423
+ mathematical variables: lerfu strings as, 422
+ mathematics: use of lerfu strings in, 422
+ matne, 124
+ matrix: as combination of vectors, 452; definition, 451; use as operand, 452; use of parentheses with, 452; with ge'a for more than 2 rows/columns, 452; with more than 2 dimensions, 452
+ matrix column operator, 452
+ matrix row operator, 452
+ ma'u, 442; with elided number, 442
+ mau, 203, 432; avoiding in favor of seme'a, 203
+ Mayan mathematics: as a system with base larger than 16, 445
+ me, 98, 424, 448; compared with du in effect, 99; effect of MOI on, 448; explicitly specifying, 325; place structure of, 98; used with names, 99
+ ME selma'o, 98, 448, 500; terminator for, 500
+# me/du equivalence, 99
+ me'a, 203; avoiding in favor of semau, 203
+ measurement scale, 261
+ measurements: expressing, 435
+ meat slice: example, 285
+ medieval weapon, 283
+ MEhU selma'o, 98, 500
+ me'i, 443; with elided number, 443
+ mei, 446; place structure formed for objective indefinites, 446
+ mekso: and literary translation, 460; complex used as quantifier, 454; definition, 431; design goals, 431; list of selma'o for, 461
+ mekso chapter: completeness, 431; table notation convention, 431
+ mekso goal: coverage, 431; expandable, 431; for common use, 431; for mathematical writing, 431; precision, 431; unambiguous, 431
+ mekso goals: and ambiguity, 431; and non-mathematical expression, 431; mathematical notation form, 431
+ melting, 295
+ membership: property of sets, 125
+ mental activity, 263
+ mental discomfort: example, 307
+ me'o, 142, 422, 457; compared with la'e lu, 422; contrasted with li, 457; contrasted with lu...li'u for representing lerfu, 422; contrasted with quotation for representing lerfu, 422; relation to li compared with la/zo relation, 457
+ metalinguistic comment: with embedded discursive, 481
+ metalinguistic commentary, 480
+ metalinguistic erasers: within ungrammatical-Lojban quotation, 477
+ metalinguistic insertions: marker for, 504
+ metalinguistic levels, 481
+ metalinguistic levels or reference, 481
+ metalinguistic pro-sumti, 140; implicit quantifier for, 140
+ metalinguistic words: quick-tour version, 25
+ me'u, 98, 448, 449; relative precedence with logical connectives, 99
+ mi, 119, 146
+ mi'a, 146
+ mice: example, 265
+ mi'e, 146, 325; contrasted with other members of COI, 325; effect of ordering multiple COI, 325
+ mi'enai, 326
+ mi'i, 359, 455
+ minimal list, 273
+ mintu: contrasted with du, 163
+ mi'o, 146
+ mi-series: of pro-sumti, 146
+ mi-series pro-sumti: lack of pro-bridi equivalent, 147
+ misinterpretation, 286
+ Mitsubishi: example, 420
+ mi'u, 317; contrasted with go'i, 318
+ mixed claim: definition, 394
+ mixed modal connection: afterthought, 205; as proscribed in forethought, 205; definition, 204; of bridi-tails, 205; of sentences, 204; of sumti, 205
+ mixed with: example, 354
+ mo, 160, 470; as selbri question, 160; compared with go'i in overriding of arguments, 160; quick-tour version, 23
+ mo'a, 442, 448
+ modal bridi-tail connection, 200
+ modal causals: implication differences, 197
+ modal cmavo: basis in gismu place structure, 210; list of irregular derivation, 209; position relative to selbri, 104; regular form for derivation, 208; table with English equivalents, 210
+ modal cmavo table: format of, 210
+ modal connection: simultaneous with logical, 204
+ modal connection of selbri: using bridi-tail modal connection, 200
+ modal connectives: fi'o prohibited in, 201
+ modal conversion: access to original first place with fai, 206; grammar of, 206; place structure of, 206; with no modal specified, 206
+ modal conversion with fi'o, 206
+ modal conversion without modal: as vague, 206
+ modal conversions: in descriptions, 206
+ modal followed by selbri: compared with tanru modification in meaning, 202; contrasted with tanru modification in grammar, 202; effect on eliding cu, 201
+ modal operand connection, 201
+ modal place: definition, 195; on description selbri, 197; rationale for term name, 195; relation of to selbri, 195
+ modal place relation: importance of first place in, 195
+ modal sentence connection, 198; condensing, 200; effect on modal, 199; forethought, 199; relation to modal of first sentence in, 199; relation to modal of second sentence in, 199; table of equivalent schemata, 249; with other than causals, 199
+ modal sumti: and FA marking, 195; as first place of modal tag selbri, 195; definition (see also seltcita sumti), 195; effect on place structure, 195; leaving vague, 201; position in bridi, 195; unspecified, 201
+ modal sumti connection, 200
+ modal tag: and sumti tcita, 94; contrasted with English preposition in preciseness, 196; definition (see also sumti tcita), 195; fi'o with selbri as, 194; for vague relationship, 197; short form as BAI, 195
+ modal with no sumti: indicator for, 497
+ modal-or-tense question: with cu'e, 250
+ modals: compared with tenses in syntax, 248; contradictory negation of, 206; contrasted with tenses in semantics, 248; expanding scope over inner modal connection, 202; expanding scope over logical connection with ke...ke'e, 202; expanding scope over multiple sentences with tu'e...tu'u, 202; expanding scope over non-logical connection, 202; for causal gismu, 197; importance of 1st sumti place for sumti tcita use, 248; improving relative phrase preciseness with, 203; making long-scope, 207; making sticky, 207; negation of, 206; scalar negation of, 207; termset connection, 200
+ modals often attached with relative phrases: list, 204
+ modified: of a tanru, 274
+ modifier: of a tanru, 274; seltau as, 84
+ modifying brivla (see also seltau), 55
+ mo'e, 456; terminator for, 456
+ MOhE selma'o, 500; terminator for, 505
+ MOhI selma'o, 224, 501
+ mo'i, 224
+ Mon Repos: example, 280
+ mo'o, 458, 474; contrasted with mai, 458
+ moi, 447
+ MOI selma'o, 98, 446, 449, 463, 500; list of cmavo in, 463; use of boi before, 449
+ more: English word, expressing with relative phrases, 203; English word, importance of relative phrase to, 204
+ more than: contrasted with less than, at least, at most, 443; example, 443
+ morphological glue, 507
+ morphology: conventions for, 49; definition, 49; derivational, 49; simplicity of, 49; symbolic conventions for discussing, 49
+ mother father: example, 55
+ movement: order in tense constructs, 225; time, 225; with multiple directions, 225
+ movement specification: interaction with direction in tenses, 224
+ mu'a, 319
+ mu'e, 257, 258; place structure, 259
+ mu'i, 197
+ multiple compound bridi: restriction on ke, 346
+ multiple conversion: avoiding, 194; effect of ordering, 194
+ multiple indefinite sumti: effect of re-ordering in sentence, 399; expressing with equal scope, 399; meaning, 398
+ multiple indefinite sumti scope: in termset, 399
+ multiple indicators, 312
+ multiple individual objects: contrasted with mass object, 123; meaning of, 123
+ multiple letters: proposed lerfu words for, 429
+ multiple logical connectives: within tanru, 91
+ multiple ma: as multiple questions, 160
+ multiple mo: as multiple questions, 160
+ multiple quantification: effect on selbri placement among sumti, 407
+ multiple questions in one bridi: expressing, 160
+ multiple relative clauses: attaching with zi'e, 175; connecting different kinds with zi'e, 176
+ multiple SE: effect of ordering, 194
+ multiple speakers, 484
+ multiple sumti in one place: avoiding, 191; meaning, 191
+ multiple tanru inversion: effect on grouping, 96
+ multiple tenses: effect of order in sentence, 235
+ multiplication: explicit expression of, 437; implicit expression of, 437
+ mu'o, 325
+ my: example, 180
+ my chair: example, 176
+ myth: example, 316
+ n people: example, 423
+ na, 104, 338, 346, 350, 401, 408; and negation boundary, 408; order in logical connectives with se, 338
+ na and tense: multiple, 104
+ NA selma'o, 501
+ na writing convention: in eks, 341
+ na.a, 341
+ na'a, 418; contrasted with lo'a, 418
+ na'e, 207; before gu'e, 103; contrasted with na'e ke, 102
+ na'ebo, 135
+ nago'i: quick-tour version, 24
+ NAhE selma'o, 101, 133, 182, 242, 459, 501; effect of relative clause placement with, 182
+ NAhE+BO: terminator for, 499
+ NAhU selma'o, 501; terminator for, 505
+ na'i, 321
+ NAI selma'o, 501
+ naicai, 305
+ nairu'e, 305
+ naisai, 305
+ naku, 401; as creating a negation boundary, 405; compared with sumti in grammar, 405; effect on moving quantifiers, 405; in linked sumti places, 407; multiple in sentence, 407; outside of prenex, 405
+ naku negation: rationale for considering an advanced technique, 406
+ naku negation boundary: effect on conversion with se, 406
+ naku su'oda: as expansion of noda, 403
+ naku zo'u, 408; and negation boundary, 408
+ name equivalent for "typical": rationale for lack of, 127
+ name words: recognition of, 137
+ names: algorithm for, 66; alternatives for restricted sequences in, 66; as possessive sumti, 180; assigning with goi, 152; authority for, 65; borrowing from other languages, 138; examples of, 64; from Lojban words, 66; in vocative phrase, 137; multiple, 138; non-Lojban, 479; pause requirement in lerfu words, 416; purpose of, 64; quick-tour version, 13; rationale for lojbanizing, 64; requirement for pause after, 66; restrictions on form of, 65; rules for, 66; rules for formation, 65; stress in, 65, 66; stress on, 40; two kinds of, 137; unusual stress in, 65; uses of, 137; using rafsi, 138; with LA descriptor, 137; with zo versus la, 478
+ names from vowel-final base: commonly used consonant endings, 138
+ names in Lojban (see also cmene), 64
+ names with la: implicit quantifier for, 139
+ name-words: limitations on, 138; pause requirements before, 138; permissible consonant combinations, 138
+ naming predicate, 121
+ na'o, 226
+ natural end: continuing beyond, 230; contrasted with actual stop, 229
+ na'u, 456; terminator for, 456; use in asking operator questions, 457
+ nai, 206, 226, 241, 299, 338, 340, 346, 350, 358, 360, 361, 408; effect on intervals, 360; effect on joiks, 358; placement in afterthought bridi connection contrasted with forethought, 339; placement in forethought bridi connection contrasted with afterthought, 339
+ name descriptor, 498
+ NATO: example, 424
+ nau, 238; effect on sticky tenses, 238; syntax, 238
+ Navajo: example, 64
+ ne, 174, 203; compared with pe, 174
+ near the park: example, 232
+ nearby in time: example, 220
+ necessary detour, 274
+ Nederlands: example, 65
+ need any box, 400
+ negated interval: meaning of, 360
+ negating a forethought-connected bridi-tail pair, 347
+ negating a forethought-connected sentence pair, 347
+ negating a sentence: and truth value, 333
+ negation: complex examples, 102; form for emulating natural language negation, 405; of operand, 459; of operator, 459; of tenses, 241
+ negation and logical connectives: caveat for logic chapter discussions, 403
+ negation between sentences: compared with bridi negation, 404; meaning of, 404
+ negation boundary: and zero, 402; effect of moving, 402; forming, 497
+ negation cmavo: position relative to selbri, 104
+ negation in prenex: effects of position, 401
+ negation manipulation: "na" contrasted with "naku" in difficulty of, 407; "naku" contrasted with "na" in difficulty of, 407
+ negation of fi'o modals: by negating selbri, 207
+ negation of modals, 206; contradictory, 206; scalar, 207
+ negation of tenses: meaning of, 241
+ negation operator: contrasted with negative sign, 438; contrasted with subtraction operator, 438
+ negation sumti qualifiers: meanings of, 135
+ negations with logical connectives: effects on expansion of sentence, 407
+ negative answer: quick-tour version, 24
+ negative numbers: expressing, 432
+ negative sign: contrasted with negation operator, 438; contrasted with subtraction operator, 434
+ negator: contradictory, 501; movement from bridi to sumti, 408; scalar, 501; single-word, 501
+ nei, 155
+ -ness, 259
+ new notation, 276
+ New York city: example, 174
+ New York state: example, 174
+ Newport News: example, 138
+ news: example, 467
+ -ng: Lojban contrasted with English, 41
+ n-hyphen: contrasted with r-hyphen in requirements for use, 60; use of, 56, 60
+ ni, 261, 262
+ ni'e, 456; terminator for, 456
+ ni'enu'a, 460
+ NIhE selma'o, 501; terminator for, 505
+ NIhO selma'o, 466, 467, 502; quick-tour version, 16
+ ni'i, 197
+ ni'o, 466; effect on pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignments, 162; quick-tour version, 16
+ ni'u, 432, 438, 442; contrasted with va'a and vu'u, 438; with elided number, 442
+ no quantifier: expanding, 403
+ no'a, 155; contrasted with other members of go'i-series in possible referents, 155
+ nobody: ambiguous interpretations of, 391; interpretation of, 391; Lojban contrasted with English, 391
+ noda: expanding to naku su'oda, 403
+ no'i, 467; effect on pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignments, 162
+ noi, 171, 203
+ NOI selma'o, 169, 502; terminator for, 498
+ noisy environments: proposed lerfu words for, 429
+ nonagenarian, 293
+ nonce word: marking, 489
+ non-logical connection: and elidability of terminators, 354; in mathematical expressions, 361; in tanru, distinguishing from connection of sumti, 354; of individuals into mass, 355; of individuals into set, 355; of modals, 208; of operands, 455; of operators, 455; of sumti, distinguishing from connection in tanru, 354; of termsets, 357
+ non-logical connectives: effect of nai on, 358; grouping, 357; including tense, 364; intervals, 359; ordered intervals, 359; sentence, 358; syntax rules summary, 366; un-ordered intervals, 359; within tanru, 91
+ non-logical forethought termsets: connecting tagged sumti, 358
+ non-logically connected tenses, 363
+ non-Lojban quotation, 141
+ non-Lojban text: rules for pause with, 69
+ non-restrictive relative clause: definition (see also incidental relative clause), 171
+ non-specific descriptions, 121
+ non-standard orthographies: caveat, 46; Cyrillic, 46; Tengwar, 46
+ non-standard words: marking, 480
+ no'o, 441
+ normal circumstances, 256
+ notation conventions: for Quick Tour chapter, 12
+ nothing sits: example, 401
+ no'u, 174; compared with po'u, 174; contrasted with po'u, 175
+ nouns: brivla as Lojban equivalents, 52
+ Nth rat: example, 423, 448
+ Nthly: example, 423
+ nu, 256, 259, 261; definition, 256; place structure, 257
+ NU compared with ZAhO, 268
+ NU selma'o, 98, 255, 256, 257, 262, 263, 268, 365, 502; syntax, 255; terminator for, 497
+ nu'a, 97, 457; use in answering operator questions, 457
+ nu'e, 324
+ NUhA selma'o, 502
+ NUhI selma'o, 348, 399, 502
+ NUhU selma'o, 348, 399, 502; terminator for, 502
+ nu'i, 200, 348, 399
+ null operand: for infix operations with too few operands, 450
+ null operator: for infix operations with too many operands, 451
+ number article: explanation of use, 435
+ number questions, 449; answers to, 449
+ number sumti: syntax of, 141; with li, 141; with li contrasted with me'o, 142; with me'o, 142; with me'o contrasted with li, 142
+ number words: pattern in, 432
+ numbers: as compound cmavo, 432; as grammatically complete utterances, 449; as possessive sumti, 180; cmavo as Lojban equivalents, 50; descriptor for, 499; English contrasted with Lojban on exactness, 397; expressing simple, 432; greater than 9, 432; implicit quantifier for, 142; indefinite, 440; list of indefinite, 463; list of special, 462; Lojban contrasted with English on exactness, 397; meaning when used as quantifiers, 127; on logical variables, 397; rafsi for, 59; special, 434; talking about contrasted with using for quantification, 435; using for quantification contrasted with talking about, 435
+ numeric digits in lerfu words: grammar considerations, 420
+ numerical punctuation, 433; undefined, 434
+ numerical selbri: alternative to compensate for restriction on numbers, 448; based on non-numerical sumti, 448; complex, 448; grammar, 448; restriction on numbers used for, 448; special, 446; special, with lerfu strings, 448; use of "me" with, 448
+ numerical tenses: effect on use of boi, 458
+ nu'o, 244
+ nu'u, 200, 348, 399
+ ny, 437
+ NYC: example, 424
+ observation: example, 316
+ observation evidential: contrasted with observative, 316
+ observative: contrasted with observation evidential, 316; definition, 188
+ observative form: contrasted with command, 188
+ observative with elided CAhA: convention, 245
+ observatives: and abstractions, 255; quick-tour version, 15
+ ocean shell: example, 286
+ octal system: specifying numbers in (see also base), 444
+ octogenarian, 293
+ o'ecu'i: example, 300
+ office or ice-dance: example, 347
+ o'i: example, 300
+ Old McDonald: example, 32
+ old topic, 466
+ omitting terminators: perils of, 102
+ on right: contrasted with toward right, 224
+ on two occasions: example, 246
+ on verge: example, 228
+ once: example, 226, 458
+ one-third of food, 447
+ only if: compared with if ... then, 338
+ o'onai: example, 300
+ of: in English, compared with do'e, 197
+ oi: example, 300
+ omission of descriptor: effect on ku, 132
+ once and future king: example, 363
+ One: the, example, 66
+ only: example, 318
+ only once: example, 227
+ open interval, 360; expressed with mi'i, 455
+ opening quotation, 476
+ operand: converting from operator, 460; converting into operator, 460; converting selbri into, 456; converting sumti into, 456
+ operand connection: afterthought, 453; forethought, 453
+ operand modal connection, 201
+ operands: connecting, 361; contrasted with general sumti, 436; too few for infix operation, 450; too many for infix operation, 451
+ operator: converting from operand, 460; converting into operand, 460; converting into selbri, 457; converting selbri into, 456; forethought marker, 503
+ operator ...ku'e in Polish notation: contrasted with vei ...ve'o, 438
+ operator connection: afterthought, 453; forethought, 453
+ operator derived from selbri: effect of selbri place structure on, 456
+ operator left-right grouping: as Lojban default, 436
+ operator precedence: and mathematical notation, 436; effect of pragmatic convention, 436; generalized explicit specification, 437; in Lojban default, 436; plans for future, 458; rationale for default left-grouping, 436; scope modification with bi'e, 437; specifying by parenthesis, 437
+ operator precedence in other languages, 436
+ operator priority, 490
+ operators: analogue of tanru in, 361; connecting, 361; list of simple, 461; mathematical, 507
+ operators of VUhU: grammar of operands, 436
+ opinion: example, 317
+ opposite-of-minus: example, 459
+# or": "and/or" contrasted with "either ... or ... but not both, 334
+ order of variables: in moving to prenex, 398
+ ordered sequence: by listing members, 355; contrasted with mass, 355; contrasted with set, 355
+ ordinal selbri: definition, 447; place structure, 447; place structure effect from subjective numbers, 448
+ ordinal tense, 230
+ ordinals: utterance, 474
+ orthography: non-standard, 45; relation to pronunciation, 29
+ o'u: example, 300
+ outer product, 452
+ outer quantifier: contrasted with inner quantifier, 129; definition, 129; effect of on meaning, 129; for expressing subset, 131; implicit on descriptors, 129; in indefinite description, 132; rationale for differences in implicit quantifier on descriptors, 131
+ outer quantifier of sumti: meaning of, 178
+ outer sumti: prenex for referring to from within relative clause within relative clause, 185; referring to from within relative clause within relative clause, 184
+ over-dot: proposed lerfu word for, 429
+ over-ring: proposed lerfu word for, 429
+ owe money: example, 346
+ p = x = z: example, 439
+ pa, 433
+ PA selma'o, 397, 432, 440, 449, 502; exception on use of boi with MOI, 449; members with rafsi, 460; terminator for, 490
+ pa'e, 318, 319
+ pa'enai, 319
+ paragraph marker, 502
+ paragraph separation: spoken text, 467; written text, 466
+ paragraphs: effects on scope, 466; separating, 466; separator, 466
+ parasitic worms: example, 286
+ parentheses: for complex mekso used as quantifier, 454
+ parenthesis: discourse, 505; mathematical, 437; textual, 480
+ partial quotation, 321
+ parts of speech, 50
+ passive voice, 16
+ past event: possible extension into present, 223
+ pastward: as a spatial tense, 224
+ paternal grandmother: example, 55
+ pau, 322; placement in sentence, 322
+ paunai, 322
+ pausative event contour, 228
+ pause: and cmene, 68; and consonant-final words, 68; and Cy-form cmavo, 69; and final-syllable stress, 69; and non-Lojban text, 69; and vowel-initial words, 68; between words, 68; contrasted with stop, 229; contrasted with syllable break, 32; proscribed within words, 68; representation of in Lojban, 31; requirement between stressed syllables, 52; symbol for, 416; word for, 416
+ pause before name: effect of doi, 323; effect of vocatives of COI, 323
+ pauses: before vowels, 52; rules for, 68
+ pe, 172, 180, 203; as loose association, 172; compared with ne, 174; compared with poi ke'a srana, 172; contrasted with po, 173
+ pe'a, 322
+ peace symbol, 425
+ pe'anai, 322
+ pe'e, 347
+ PEhE selma'o, 347, 503
+ PEhO selma'o, 503; terminator for, 497
+ pe'i, 317
+ pe'ipei, 317
+ pe'o, 439
+ pei, 313
+ percent: as numerical punctuation, 433
+ perfective event contour, 228
+ perils of omitting terminators, 102
+ period: definition of, 31; example of, 32; optional, 32; quick-tour version, 12; within a word, 32
+ permissions notice, 8
+ Persian rug: example, 60
+ personal pronouns: with ko'a-series for he/she/it/they, 150; with mi-series for I/you, 146
+ personal pronouns for he/she/it/they: English contrasted with Lojban in organization, 150
+ personal pro-sumti, 139; implicit cancellation of by change of speaker/listener, 162; implicit quantifier for, 128, 139; stability of, 162
+ person's arm: example, 173
+ Pete: example, 65
+ pe'u, 324; contrasted with e'o, 324
+ Pheidippides, 258
+ phoneme stream, 477
+ phonetic alphabet, 29; proposed lerfu words for, 429
+ physical distress: example, 307
+ pi, 130, 433, 441, 442, 444; effect on indefinite numbers, 441
+ pi'a, 452
+ piano-moving: example, 123
+ pictures: captions to, 7; credits for, 6
+ pi'e, 445
+ pi'i, 436
+ pinyin: as a basis for Chinese characters in Lojban lerfu words, 420
+ pi'o, 195
+ piro, 130; explanation of meaning, 130
+ pisu'o: explanation of meaning, 130
+ pi'u, 246, 354, 356; contrasted with .e, 357; use in connecting tenses, 246
+ place number: specifying, 493
+ place of eating: example, 247
+ place structure: adding new places to with modal sumti, 194; definition, 12, 187; effect of FA on, 190; effect of modal conversion on, 206; empty slots in, 187; explicitly mapping sumti to place with FA, 190; gismu, 294; instability of, 187; leaving a sumti place unspecified in with zo'e, 189; notation conventions, 187; omitting places with FA, 190; omitting places with zo'e, 189; re-ordering by conversion, 100
+ place structure and tanru inversion, 95
+ place structure of selbri: determining, 187
+ place structure order: effect of FA on, 190
+ place structure questions, 191
+ plant grows: example, 197, 207
+ plants: use of fu'ivla for specific, 61
+ plausibility: in abbreviated lujvo, 284
+ playgrounds, 281
+ pleases, 20
+ plural: Lojban contrasted with English in necessity of marking, 120; Lojban equivalent of, 443; meaning of le with, 123
+ plural masses: possible use for, 130
+ plus negative of: example, 438
+ pluta, 193; contrasted with ve klama, 193
+ po, 173; as restrictive possession, 173; compared with poi ke'a se steci srana, 173; contrasted with English possession, 173; contrasted with pe, 173; contrasted with po'e, 173
+ po'e, 173; as intrinsic possession, 173; compared with poi ke'a jinzi ke se steci srana, 173; contrasted with po, 173
+ point: event considered as, 230
+ point-event abstraction: place structure, 259
+ point-event abstraction(s): definition, 258; related tense contours, 269
+ point-event abstractor, 258
+ pointing cmavo: quick-tour version, 13
+ police lineup, 449
+ Polish notation: and mekso goals, 431; and use of boi, 438; definition, 438; end-of-operands indicator, 438; explicitly marking as, 439; operands with infix expressions, 439; operator ...ku'e compared with parenthesization, 438; separating operands in, 438; vei ...ve'o contrasted with operator ...ku'e, 438
+ Polish notation mixed with infix, 455; example, 455
+ politeness: thank you and you're welcome, 324; you're welcome, 324, 325
+ po'o, 317; placement in sentence, 318
+ poi, 169, 203, 394, 396; contrasted with voi in veridicality, 177; discussion of translation, 170; dropping from multiple appearances on logical variables, 396; syntax of, 169
+ pointing: reference by, 147
+ portion: on set contrasted with on individual, 131
+ portion of whole: expressing, 441
+ portion selbri: definition, 447; place structure, 447; place structure effect from subjective numbers, 448
+ positive numbers: explicit expression, 432
+ positive sign: contrasted with addition operator, 436
+ possessed in relative phrases: compared with possessor, 174
+ possession: expressing with po, 173; intrinsic, expressing with po'e, 173; Lojban usage compared with French and German in omission/inclusion, 175; Lojban usage contrasted with English in omission/inclusion, 175; quick-tour version, 21
+ possession not ownership: quick-tour version, 21
+ possessive sumti: compared with relative phrase, 180; contrasted with relative phrases in complexity allowed, 180; definition, 180; effect on elidability of ku, 181; relative clauses on, 181; syntax allowed, 180; with relative clauses on possessive sumti, 181
+ possessive sumti and relative clauses: development history, 180
+ possessive sumti with relative clauses: effect of placement, 181
+ possessor in relative phrases: compared with possessed, 174
+ potential: expressing in past/future, 244
+ potential events: expressing implicitly, 243
+ po'u, 174; as identity, 174; compared with no'u, 174; compared with poi ke'a du, 174; contrasted with no'u, 175; relative phrase of contrasted with relativized sumti of, 174
+ prayer: example, 281, 290
+ precedence: mathematical default, 436
+ precise erasures, 483
+ predicate answers, 470
+ predication: as a relationship, 11; compared with bridi, 11
+ predication abstraction, 262
+ Preem Palver: example, 98
+ pregnant sister: example, 320
+ prenex: considerations for dropping, 395; dropping for terseness, 397; effect of order of variables in, 396; explanation, 392; internal to a bridi, 400; purpose of, 396; removing when numeric quantifiers present, 397; syntax of, 392; use for outer sumti reference, 185
+ prenex manipulation: exporting na from left of prenex, 405; importing na from selbri, 405; moving naku past bound variable, 405; rules, 405
+ prenex marker, 508
+ prenex scope: for sentences joined by .i, 410; for sentences joined by ijeks, 410; in abstractions, 410; in embedded bridi, 410; in relative clauses, 410; informal, 410
+ prepositions: cmavo as Lojban equivalents, 50
+ pretty: English ambiguity of, 87
+ pretty little girls' school: forty ways, examples, 112
+ previous topic, 467
+ pride of lions: example, 456
+ primitive roots: gismu as, 53
+ principle of consistency: of logical-if statements, 337
+ probability .5: example, 447
+ probability selbri: definition, 447; place structure, 447; place structure effect from subjective numbers, 448; values, 447
+ pro-bridi: as abbreviation for bridi, 151; broda-series, 151; broda-series list, 165; bu'a-series list, 165; compared to pro-sumti as means of abbreviation, 145; definition, 145; go'i-series list, 165; list by series, 165; list of miscellaneous cmavo used with, 166; miscellaneous list, 165; overriding sumti of antecedent bridi for, 151; quotation of, 476; scope effect of new paragraph, 466
+ pro-bridi assignment: explicit cancellation of with da'o, 162; no'i effect on, 162; stability of, 162
+ pro-bridi rafsi: as producing context-dependent meanings, 164
+ pro-bridi update: flag for, 503
+ process abstraction: place structure, 259
+ process abstraction(s): definition, 258; related tense contours, 268
+ process abstractor, 258
+ process event: described, 258
+ pronouncement: example, 316
+ pronouns: as anaphora, 152; compared to pro-sumti in usage as abbreviations, 145
+ pronouns in English: as independent of abbreviations, 145; as noun abbreviations, 145
+ pronunciation: IPA for Lojban, 30; quick-tour version, 12; relation to orthography, 29; standard, 29
+ properties: place structure, 261
+ property abstraction, 259; use of multiple ce'u for relationship abstraction, 260
+ property abstraction(s): contrasted with amount abstraction, 261; specifying determining place by sumti ellipsis, 259; specifying determining place with ce'u, 260; specifying sumti place of property with ce'u, 161; sumti ellipsis in, 259
+ property abstractor, 259
+ property description, 259
+ property of loving: example, 260
+ proposed law, 283
+ proposed lerfu words: as working basis, 426
+ propositional: of attitudinals, 301
+ propositional attitudes, 262; compared with knowledge discursives, 319
+ pro-sumti: and discursive utterances, 481; as possessive sumti, 180; classes of, 139; compared to pro-bridi as means of abbreviation, 145; compared to pronouns in usage as abbreviations, 145; contrasted with description, 119; da-series list, 165; definition, 145; di'u-series, 148; di'u-series list, 164; for listener(s), 146; for listeners and/or speakers and/or others, 146; for relativized sumti in relative clauses, 160; for speaker(s), 146; implicit quantifier for, 139; ko'a-series, 150; ko'a-series list, 164; lerfu as, 152; lerfu string, effect on reference to lerfu itself, 422; lerfu string, interaction with quantifier and boi, 421; list by series, 164; list of miscellaneous cmavo used with, 166; miscellaneous list, 165; mi-series, 146; mi-series list, 164; quick-tour version, 13; quotation of, 476; rafsi for, 163; referring to place of different bridi with go'i-series, 159; referring to place of same bridi with vo'a-series, 158; ri-series list, 164; scope effect of new paragraph, 466; series, 145; ti-series, 147; ti-series list, 164; typical, 157; unspecified, 157; vo'a-series, 158; vo'a-series list, 165; zo'e-series list, 164
+ pro-sumti assignment: explicit cancellation of with da'o, 162; no'i effect on, 162; stability of, 162
+# pro-sumti for speaker/listener/others: as masses, 146; relation to joi, 146
+ pro-sumti for utterances, 148
+ pro-sumti for we: contrasted with English we, 146
+ pro-sumti rafsi: anticipated use of for abbreviating inconvenient forms, 163; effect of on place structure of lujvo, 163
+ protocol: computer communications using COI, 326; parliamentary using COI, 326; using vocatives, 326
+ pu, 219, 232; meaning as a sumti tcita, 232; meaning when following interval specification, 222
+ pu ge, 365
+ PU selma'o, 219, 227, 242, 362, 503; compared with FAhA, 219; contradictory negation of, 241
+ PU tenses: contrasted with ZAhO tenses in viewpoint, 228
+ pu'i, 244
+ punctuation, 297; in numbers, 433; list of numerical, 462
+ punctuation lerfu words: interaction with different alphabet systems, 420; mechanism for creating, 419; rationale for lau, 419
+ punctuation marks: cmavo as Lojban equivalents, 50
+ pu'o, 228; as pastward of event, 229; derivation of word, 228; explanation of derivation, 229
+ pu'u, 257, 258, 268; place structure, 259
+ quack: example, 417
+ quadratic formula: example, 455
+ qualified sumti: contrasted with unqualified sumti, 133
+ quality and quantity: example, 365
+ quantification: before description sumti compared with before non-description sumti, 129
+ quantificational pro-sumti, 139; implicit quantification rules, 139
+ quantified space, 228
+ quantified sumti: different types contrasted for scope for distribution, 399; relative clause scope with, 178
+ quantified temporal tense: definition, 226; negating with nai, 227
+ quantified temporal tense with direction: Lojban contrasted with English in implications, 227
+ quantified temporal tenses: "once" contrasted with "only once", 227; caveat on implication of, 227
+ quantified tenses: as sumti tcita, 233
+ quantifier, 502; effect of moving naku, 405; explicit on sumti, 127; lerfu string as, 423; on previously quantified variable, 410; on sumti, effect on relative clause, 178; on sumti, expressing inexact amount with, 127; on sumti, indicating exact number, 127; with logical variables, 397; with sumti, 127
+ quantifier scope: in multiple connected sentences, 404
+ quark: example, 63
+ question pro-sumti, 140; implicit quantifier for, 140
+ questions, 469; answering with go'i, 154; connection, 351; digit, 449; fill-in-the-blank, 469; indirect, 264; marking in advance, 322; modal, 492; multiple, 470; number, 449, 470; operator, 457; place structure position, 191; quick-tour version, 22; rhetorical, 322; selbri, 160, 470; sumti, 159, 469; truth, 469; with "xu, 321
+ quick runner: example, 84
+ quotation, 475; any text, 508; as possessive sumti, 180; contrasted with me'o for representing lerfu, 422; contrasted with sentence abstraction, 263; delimited, 508; four kinds, 141; grammatical, 499; implicit quantifier for, 128, 141; of grammatical Lojban text, 476; of Lojban words, 499; of non-Lojban, 477; of parseable Lojban text, 476; of rafsi, 478; of single word, 477; of ungrammatical Lojban text, 476; referent versus symbol, 478; single-word, 508; ungrammatical Lojban containing le'u, 477; ungrammatical Lojban containing lo'u, 477
+ ra, 153; practical referent conventions, 153
+ radio communication: proposed lerfu words for, 429
+ radix: decimal (see also base), 444
+ ra'e, 433
+ rafsi: as fu'ivla categorizer, 61; based on pro-sumti, 163; considerations restricting construction of, 58; contrasted with cmavo in usage, 61; contrasted with same-form cmavo in meaning, 56; contrasted with words, 61; conventional meaning for cu'o, 460; conventional meaning for frinu, 460; definition, 56; definition, quick-tour version, 27; forms of, 57; four-letter, requirement for y-hyphen, 60; lack of, effect on forming lujvo, 60; level of uniqueness of relation to gismu, 57; long, 57; multiple for each gismu, 69; multiplicity of for single gismu, 57; possible forms for construction of, 58; quotation of, 478; rationale for assignments of, 58; rules for combining to form lujvo, 56; selection considerations in making lujvo, 57; short, 57; uniqueness in gismu referent of, 57; use of, 57
+ rafsi assignments: non-reassignability of, 58
+ rafsi for numbers, 59
+ rafsi form: effect of choice on meaning of lujvo, 56
+ rafsi fu'ivla proposal, 80
+ rafsi space, 58
+ RAhO selma'o, 503
+ Ralph: example, 393
+ ra'o, 156; for reinterpreting go'i-series pro-bridi sumti references, 156
+ rat eats cheese: example, 227, 232
+ rat eats cheese in park: example, 247
+ rats are brown: example, 125
+ rats in park: example, 446
+ ra'u, 319; scale of importance, 320
+ rau, 442, 448
+ real world: contrasted with hypothetical world, example, 320
+ real world point of view, 320
+ Received Pronunciation, 42
+ reciprocal: expression of mathematical, 433
+ reciprocal pro-sumti, 158
+ reciprocity: expressing with soi, 159; expressing with vo'a-series pro-sumti and soi, 159; marking, 504
+ recital rooms, 281
+ Red Pony: example, 133, 182
+ redundancy: effect on vocative design, 323
+ re'e, 307
+ re-evaluation of referents: flag for, 503
+ reference: ambiguity of ti/ta/tu, 169; and discursive utterances, 481; quick-tour version, 20; to relativized sumti with ke'a, 169; use of relative clause for, 169
+ reference frame: specifying for direction tenses, 224
+ reference frame for directions in tenses, 224
+ reference grammar, 3
+ referent: contrasted with symbol, 478; of operand, 459; referring to with la'e, 134
+ referent of pro-bridi: definition, 145
+ referent of pro-sumti: definition, 145
+ reflexive pro-sumti, 139, 158; stability of, 162
+ regularly: example, 226
+ re'i, 325
+ re'imi'e, 325
+ relation of first places in logical connection of observatives: rationale, 345
+ relationship: active/static/attributive compared, 11; as basis of sentence, 187; objects of, 187
+ relationship abstraction, 260
+ relative clause: as part of name, 179; compared with tanru, 172; connecting to relative phrase with zi'e, 176; connecting to whole sumti, 506; contrasted with tanru, 172; effect of commas in English, 171; effect of elided ku of relativized sumti, 177; effect of omission of ke'a on, 170; effect of relativized sumti quantifiers on, 178; effect on elidability of be'o, 94; impact of indefinite sumti on placement, 180; impact of la on placement, 179; impact of LAhE on placement, 182; impact of le on placement, 179; impact of lo on placement, 179; impact of NAhE on placement, 182; kinds of, 171; list of cmavo for, 185; on connected sumti, 182; on names, 179; on number, 181; on possessive sumti, 181; on quotation, 182; on vocative phrases, 184; placement in sentence, 177; placement with vocative phrases, 184; relative clauses within, 184; restricted contrasted with incidental, 171; restricted contrasted with incidental in English expression, 171; restrictive (see also restrictive relative clause), 171; syntax with indefinite sumti, 180; use for reference, 169; use in restricting existential claims, 394; use in restricting universal claims, 395; use of ke'a for referral to relativized sumti in, 160
+ relative clause after descriptor: effect on elidability of ku'o, 178
+ relative clause after relativized sumti ku: meaning, 178
+ relative clause after sumti: as common placement in sentence, 177
+ relative clause and indefinite sumti: placement considerations, 180
+ relative clause and LAhE: placement considerations, 182
+ relative clause and le-sumti: placement considerations, 179
+ relative clause and lo-sumti: placement considerations, 179
+ relative clause and NAhE: placement considerations, 182
+ relative clause and names: placement considerations, 179
+ relative clause and possessive sumti: development history, 180
+ relative clause and quantified sumti: placement considerations, 178
+ relative clause before inner quantifier: meaning, 178
+ relative clause before relativized sumti ku: meaning, 178
+ relative clause marker, 502
+ relative clause on complex sumti: Lojban contrasted with English, 183
+ relative clause on indefinite sumti: syntax considerations, 180
+ relative clause on lo: syntax suggestion, 179
+ relative clause placement: considerations for lo-sumti contrasted with le-sumti, 179; considerations for simple descriptors contrasted with for quantified sumti, 179; effect on scope, 178; English contrasted with Chinese and Finnish, 178; on sumti with simple descriptor, 178
+ relative clause scope: extending to preceding sumti with vu'o, 182; with quantified relativized sumti, 178
+ relative clause with possessive sumti: effect of placement, 181
+ relative phrase: as an abbreviation of a common relative clause, 172; compared with possessive sumti, 180; connecting to relative clause with zi'e, 176; contrasted with possessive sumti in complexity allowed, 180; contrasted with relative clause in preciseness, 203; improving preciseness with modals, 203; rationale for, 172; syntax of, 172
+ relative phrase marker, 495
+ relative phrases with modals: compared to relative clauses in preciseness, 203
+ relative pro-sumti, 140
+ relativity theory: relation to Lojban tense system, 220
+ relativized sumti: definition, 169; in relative clauses within relative clauses, 184
+ remembered: example, 316
+ re-ordering logical variables with se, 396
+ repeating decimals: expressing with numerical punctuation, 433; marking start of repeating portion, 433
+ replace: example, 289
+ representing lerfu: lu contrasted with me'o, 422
+ respectively: example, 356; specifying with fa'u, 356; with different relationships, 358
+ restricted claims: definition, 394
+ restricted variable: compared with indefinite description, 398
+ restrictive relative clause: definition, 171
+ restrictive relative clauses: non-veridical using voi, 177; veridical using poi, 177
+ resume: contrasted with begin, 229
+ resumptive event contour, 228
+ re'u, 230
+ revelation: example, 316
+ reverse Polish notation: and mekso goals, 431; definition, 452; indicator, 494; marker, 452; number of operands, 453; operands of, 453; parentheses in operands of, 453; terminator, 452; use of parentheses in, 452; with too few operands, 453; with too many operands, 453
+ reviewers of this book, 6
+ rhetorical question, 322
+ r-hyphen: contrasted with n-hyphen in requirements for use, 60; use of, 56, 60
+ ri, 152; contrasted with ke'a in relative clauses, 161; non-self-reference of, 153; referent of, 152; subscripting for referring further back, 153
+ ri'a, 197
+ rich and German: example, 356
+ ri'e, 309
+ righteous indignation: example, 309
+ right-grouping in tanru: with bo, 87
+ right-grouping rule: definition of, 87
+ ri-series pro-sumti, 152; and order of possible referents, 153; assigning for permanent reference, 154; compared with ti-series in word formation, 152; effect of ko'a-series pro-sumti on, 153; effect of lerfu pro-sumti on, 153; effect of other ri-series pro-sumti on, 153; effect of ti-series pro-sumti on, 153; effect of use on meaning, 153; effect on other ri-series pro-sumti, 153; in narrative about quotation, 156; in quotation series, 156; in quotations, 156; non-allowable referents of, 153; possible referents of, 153
+ ro, 128, 129, 139, 394, 396, 440; as implicit quantifier on personal pro-sumti, 128; compared with pa, 440; dropping from multiple appearances on logical variables, 396; effect of order when multiple in sentence, 399
+ ro da, 394
+ ro prenu, 398
+ ro'a, 307
+ ro'anai: example, 307
+ rock face: example, 231
+ ro'e, 307
+ roger: example, 325
+ ro'i, 307
+ ROI selma'o, 226, 230, 503; effect of ZAhO on fe'e flag, 231; exception on use of boi before, 458; scalar negation of, 242
+ romaji: as a basis for kanji characters in Lojban lerfu words, 420
+ Roman Empire, 258; example, 258
+ ro'o, 307
+ roi, 226, 458
+ room which he built: example, 184
+ ro'u, 307
+ rounded down: example, 443
+ rounded numbers: expressing, 443
+ rounded up: example, 443
+# rounded/unrounded vowels, 31
+ RP (see reverse Polish notation), 452
+ ru, 153; practical referent conventions, 153
+ ru'a, 317; compared with e'u, 317
+ ru'e, 305
+ ru'i, 226
+ rug: Persian, example, 60
+ runner shoe: example, 17
+ sa, 312, 416, 477, 483; interaction with bu, 416
+ SA selma'o, 483, 503
+ sa'a, 321, 481; editorial insertion of text already containing sa'a, 321; interaction with li'o, 321; interaction with sei, 321; interaction with to'i, 321
+ sa'e, 318
+ sa'enai, 319
+ sa'i, 452
+ said John: example, 481
+ salad ingredients: example, 231
+ sarcasm: example, 319; expressing, 319
+ sa'u, 318
+ sai, 305
+ Sapir-Whorf effects: and emotional indicators, 329
+ scalar attitude, 305
+ scalar negation: effect on selbri, 101
+ scalar negation of modals: explanation of meaning, 207
+ scalar negation of non-logical connective, 358
+ scalar negation of tenses: selma'o allowed with, 242
+ scale: granular contrasted with continuous, 448
+ scale of redness: example, 448
+ scale selbri: definition, 447; place structure, 447; place structure effect from subjective numbers, 448
+ school building: example, 281
+ schooner: example, 83
+ scientific names: rules for, 67
+ scientific notation: rationale for order of places, 451; with gei, 450
+ score: as 20-year span, 460; as alternate base for years, 461
+ se, 100, 192, 338, 340, 346, 350, 354, 360, 361, 396, 459, 472; as grammatical in JOI compounds, 355; in logical connective to exchange sentences, 338; order in logical connectives with na, 338; quick-tour version, 16; use with operators, 459; using to re-order logical variables, 396
+ se du'u, 263
+ se klama: place structure of, 192
+ SE selma'o, 100, 192, 195, 205, 247, 396, 459, 472, 504; after 5th place, 472; effect of multiple on a selbri, 194; effect on place structure numbering, 192; effect on selbri place structure, 192; extending scope of, 193; for converting place structure, 192; quick-tour version, 16; rationale for no 1st place conversion, 192; scope of, 193; word formation of cmavo in, 192
+ se te, 194
+ se writing convention: in eks, 341
+ se'a, 310
+ seba'i, 204
+ sebi'o, 359
+ sece'o, 354
+ section numbering, 458
+ sections of this book, 4
+ se'e, 425; and number base convention, 425
+ see with eye: example, 202
+ see with left eye: example, 194
+ sefa'u, 354
+ SEhU selma'o, 159, 482, 504
+ se'i, 309
+ sei, 321, 481
+ SEI selma'o, 458, 481, 504; terminator for, 504
+ selbri: as part of description, 120; brivla as, 83; converting into an operand, 456; converting into an operator, 456; converting operator into, 457; definition, 83, 187; definition, quick-tour version, 27; lerfu string as, 423; omitting with co'e, 158; place structure of, 187; place structure of converted operator, 457; relation to bridi, 83; scalar negation of, 101; with GOhA, 97
+ selbri assignment, 491
+ selbri from sumti, 98
+ selbri list for quick tour, 13
+ selbri logical variables, 409
+ selbri place structure: effect on operator formed by, 456; re-ordering, 504
+ selbri placement among sumti: effect of multiple quantification on, 407
+ selbri questions: quick-tour version, 23
+ selbri separator, 492
+ selbri to modal converter, 493
+ selbri variables: form when not in prenex, 410; prenex form as indefinite description, 409; quantified, 410
+ selbri-first bridi: effect on sumti places, 188; effect on use of cu, 190; specifying first sumti place in with fa, 190
+ self-orientation: example, 308
+ selma'o, 12, 396, 398
+ selma'o: cross-reference list of, 489; definition, 50; definition, quick-tour version, 27
+ seltau: compared with English adjective, 55; compared with English adverb, 55; definition, 95, 274; definition of, 84; effect on meaning of tanru, 84; filling sumti places in, 93
+ seltcita sumti: definition (see also modal sumti), 195
+ semantic primitives, 273
+ semau, 204
+ seme'a, 204
+ sentence: basic Lojban, 187
+ sentence 10.11: example, 445
+ sentence abstraction, 262
+ sentence grouping, 505
+ sentence separator, 495
+ sentences: close grouping, 466; connecting non-logically, 358; connecting with tense, 238; forethought tense connection of, 239; joining, 465; separator for joining, 465; tenseless, quick-tour version, 25
+ se'o, 316
+ separate questions: quick-tour version, 23
+ separately tensed sentences: contrasted with tense connected sentences, 239
+ sepi'o, 195
+ sepi'u, 354
+ sequence: as an abstract list, 355; contrasted with list, 355; contrasted with set, 134
+ sequence of events: expressing non-time-related sequences, 358
+ sequence of tense rules: Lojban contrasted with English, 238
+ set: as specified by members, 355; by listing members with ce, 355; compared with mass as abstract of multiple individuals, 125; contrasted with mass in attribution of component properties, 125; contrasted with mass in distribution of properties, 355; contrasted with ordered sequence, 355; expressing measurement standard for indefinites, 446; expressing relation with individuals forming set, 446; expressing relation with mass formed from set, 446
+ set of all rats: example, 447
+ set of rats: example, 135
+ set operations, 356
+ setese, 194
+ sets: properties of, 125; rule for implicit outer quantifier, 130; use in Lojban place structure, 125
+ se'u, 159, 482; as elidable terminator for soi, 159; elidability considerations, 159
+ sexual discomfort: example, 307
+ sexual teacher: male, example, 74
+ shared bridi-tail sumti: avoiding, 200
+ sheep breed, 290
+ sheep flock: example, 291
+ sheepdog, 290; example, 290
+ shell worm: example, 285
+ shellfish, 285; example, 285
+ Sherman tank: example, 60
+ shift: single-letter, grammar of, 415
+ shift word: canceling effect, 418; for face, 418; for font, 418; for single letter, 415; scope, 415
+ ship sank: example, 314
+ shoehorn, 281
+ shook stick: example, 145, 162
+ short rafsi, 57
+ short rafsi form: compared with long form in effect on lujvo meaning, 56
+ si, 312, 416, 477, 482; interaction with bu, 416
+ SI selma'o, 482, 504
+ si'a, 317
+ si'e, 447
+ signed numbers: expressing, 432
+ signs on numbers: grammar, 433
+ Simon says: example, 149
+ simple bridi: terminator for, 506
+ simple sumti, 119
+ simultaneously: example, 364
+ sinful: example, 309
+ single consonants: contrasted with consonant clusters, 35; contrasted with doubled consonants, 35
+ single-letter shift: as toggle, 415
+ single-word quotation, 141
+ singular me: example, 446
+ si'o, 265
+ sister pregnant: example, 320
+ six-shooter: example, 246
+ size: order with dimensionality in spatial tense intervals, 224
+ slinku'i test: definition, 62
+ slowdown, 258
+ smiley face: example, 416; word for, 416
+ sneak in: example, 285
+ snow falls: example, 233
+ snowball's chance: example, 448
+ so'a, 440
+ social butterfly: example, 18
+ Socrates: example, 198
+ so'e, 440; meaning of, 441
+ so'i, 440
+ soi, 159; use in expressing reciprocity, 159; use in expressing reciprocity with vo'a-series pro-sumti, 159
+ SOI selma'o, 159, 504; terminator for, 504
+ soi with one following sumti: convention, 159
+ some do not go to school: example, 405
+ some relationship: example, 409
+ somebody: contrasted with somebody else, 393
+ somebody loves self: example, 393
+ somebody loves somebody: example, 393
+ somebody's dog: example, 393
+ something: contrasted with someone, 395; expressing using "su'o", 397; unspecified definite with "zo'e", 392
+ something is loved by everybody: example, 402
+ something sees everything: example, 394
+ something sees me: example, 392, 397
+ so'o, 440
+ so'u, 440
+ sounds: clarity of, 31; complex, 31; difficult, 31
+ sounds for letters: Lojban contrasted with English, 31
+ source languages: use in creating gismu, 75
+ south face: example, 231
+ sow grain: example, 231
+ sowed grain: example, 250
+ space: as time-based metaphor, 231; contrasted with time in number of directions, 219
+ space indicator for interval modifiers, 493
+ space interval: compared with time intervals in continuity, 230
+ space location: as part of tense system (see also tense, spatial tense), 215
+ space movement indicator, 501
+ space tenses: quick-tour version, 26
+# space/time metaphor: expressing direction mapping for, 231
+ spaghetti, 61; example, 63
+ Spanish ch: example, 419
+ Spanish ll: example, 419
+ spatial contours: as sumti tcita, 232; contrasted with temporal event contours, 231; expressing, 231
+ spatial directions: list of, 253
+ spatial information: adding to a sentence with tense sumti tcita, 231
+ spatial interval: expressing degree of continuity over, 230
+ spatial interval modifiers: order in tense, 230
+ spatial tense: 4-dimensional interaction with temporal tense, 224; as an imaginary journey, 217; as optional in English, 217; as sumti tcita, 232; compared with temporal tense in elidability, 217; contrasted with temporal in dimensionality, 223; definition, 217; direction, 217; distance, 217; four-dimensional, 224; linear, 223; one-dimensional, 223; order of direction and distance specification, 217; order relative to temporal, 219; planar, 223; reference frame, 217; referent of, 217; three-dimensional, 223; two-dimensional, 223
+ spatial tense interval: order of size and dimensionality in, 224; order of VEhA and VIhA in, 224
+ speaker-listener cooperation, 23
+ speaker-relative viewpoint: contrasted with event-relative viewpoint, 228
+ speaker's state of knowledge, 319
+ specific descriptions, 121
+ specific terms: use of fu'ivla for, 61
+ specificity: expressing with po, 173
+ speech rhythm: for grouping in English, 85
+ spelling out words: Lojban contrasted with English, 414
+ spiritual discomfort: example, 307
+ SQL: example, 424
+ square brackets: use of in notation, 5
+ standard bridi form: definition, 188
+ standard for subjective numbers: specifying, 448
+ standard pronunciation, 29
+ starting marker, 483
+ state abstraction: place structure, 259
+ state abstraction(s): definition, 258; related tense contours, 268
+ state abstractor, 258
+ state event: described, 258
+ steady speed, 258
+ stereotypical: as not derogatory in Lojban, 126; compared with typical, 126
+ stereotypical objects, 126
+ Steven Mark Jones: example, 421
+ sticky modals: canceling, 208; definition, 207; fi'o proscribed from, 208
+ sticky tenses: and CAhA, 243; canceling, 235; definition, 234; effect of nau on, 238; effect on future tense meaning, 234; from part of a multiple tense, 235
+ stoke cat then rabbit: example, 240
+ stop: contrasted with finish, 229; contrasted with pause, 229
+ stories: flow of time in, 236
+ story tense: Lojban convention contrasted with English convention, 236
+ story time: as a convention for inferring tense, 236; definition, 236; rationale for, 236; tenseless sentences in, 236; with no initial sticky time, 237
+ stress: definition of, 40; effect of buffer vowel on, 38; effect of syllabic consonants on, 34; example, 307; final syllable, rules for pause after, 69; irregular marked with upper-case, 415; levels of, 40; on cmavo, 52; primary, 40; quick-tour version, 12; rules for, 40; secondary, 40; showing non-standard, 29
+ stressed syllable: compared with stressed vowel, 40
+ stressed vowel: compared with stressed syllable, 40
+ strong quotation, 477
+ structure of examples, 5
+ structure of this book, 4
+ structure words, 50
+ su, 312, 416, 477, 484; interaction with bu, 416
+ SU selma'o, 484, 504
+ su'a, 316, 319
+ su'anai, 316
+ subjective amounts: expressing, 442
+ subjective numbers: effect on place structure for cardinal selbri, 448; effect on place structure for ordinal selbri, 448; effect on place structure for portion selbri, 448; effect on place structure for probability selbri, 448; effect on place structure for scale selbri, 448; rationale for effect on place structure, 448; specifying standard for, 448
+ subjective portions: expressing, 442
+ subordinate clause tense: effect of main bridi tense on, 238; Lojban compared with Esperanto, 238; Lojban compared with Russian, 238; Lojban contrasted with English, 238
+ subordinate clauses: tense usage rules in English, 237
+ subscripted topics, 467
+ subscripts, 471; and fuzzy truths, 473; and names, 473; and paragraph separators, 474; and pro-sumti, 472; and sumti re-ordering, 472; and tense, 473; before main expression, 450; effects on elidability of terminators, 450; external grammar of, 449; for sticky tense, 236; internal grammar of, 449; lerfu string as, 423; marker, 471, 507; mathematical, 473; multiple as sub-subscript, 450; multiple for same base word, 455; on ke'a for nested relative clauses, 161; on ri, 153; terminator for, 450; to form matrices of more than 2 dimensions, 452; use with ke'a for outer sumti reference, 184; use with logical variables, 410
+ subscripts on lerfu words: effect on elidability of boi, 450
+ subsets: expressing with outer quantifiers, 131
+ sub-subscripts, 450
+ subtraction operator: contrasted with negation operator, 438; contrasted with negative sign, 434
+ subtypes of words, 52
+ su'e, 443; with elided number, 443
+ su'i, 97, 435, 436
+ sum of 1: 2, 3, example, 438
+ sumti: as having implicit quantifiers, 127; as objects in place structure slots, 187; beginning with "ke, 344; between descriptor and description selbri, 180; classified by types of objects referred to, 123; converting into an operand, 456; definition, 119, 187; definition, quick-tour version, 27; descriptions as, 119; dropping trailing unspecified, 189; explicitly mapping into place structure with FA, 190; for individual objects, 123; for mass objects, 123; for set objects, 123; forethought tense connection of, 239; irrelevant to relationship, 157; kinds of, 119; multiple in one place with FA, 191; names as, 119; numbers as, 119; omitted first place in selbri-first bridi, 188; order in selbri, 188; order in selbri-first bridi, 188; pro-sumti as, 119; quotations as, 119; relation with bridi, 11; re-ordering with FA, 190; with explicit quantifiers, 127
+ sumti assignment: cancellation of, 492
+ sumti connection: afterthought, 340; forethought, 341
+ sumti into selbri, 98
+ sumti logical connection, 340; compared with bridi logical connections, 340; contrasted with tanru logical connection, 350; rationale for, 340
+ sumti modal connection, 200
+ sumti place: additional, 489
+ sumti placement: variant, quick-tour version, 15
+ sumti qualifiers: as short forms for common special cases, 133; elidable terminator for qualified sumti, 133; external syntax of, 133; for negation, 135; internal syntax of, 133; list of, 133
+ sumti questions: quick-tour version, 22
+ sumti raising, 266
+ sumti reordering: quick-tour version, 16
+ sumti tcita: based on event contours, 232; based on spatial contours, 232; based on tense direction, 232; based on tense distance, 232; based on tenses, 231; definition (see also modal tag), 195; event contours contrasted with direction/distance as basis for, 232
+ sumti tcita and linked sumti, 94
+ sumti tcita and modal tags, 94
+ sumti tcita and tense tags, 94
+ sumti tcita based on dimension, 233
+ sumti tcita based on event contours: relation of main bridi to sumti process in, 232
+ sumti tcita based on interval continuousness, 233
+ sumti tcita based on interval properties, 233
+ sumti tcita based on interval size, 233
+ sumti tcita based on quantified tenses, 233
+ sumti with explicit quantifier: contrasted with sumti without explicit quantifier, 127
+ sumti with lo: compared to indefinite sumti, 399
+ sumti with tense: effect of main bridi tense on, 235
+ sumti with tenses: quick-tour version, 26
+ sumti-based description: definition, 132; inner quantifier on, 132; outer quantifier on, 132
+ sumti-based descriptions with le: as increasing restricting to in-mind, 133
+ sun liquefies: example, 289
+ sunburn: example, 259
+ su'o, 128, 129, 397, 443; as implicit quantifier for quotations, 128; with elided number, 443
+ superfective event contour, 228
+ superscripts, 450
+ supervising: as a contribution to mass action, 354
+ supper: example, 57
+ supplementary information, 280
+ Susan: example, 481
+ su'u, 265
+ Sun: the, example, 66
+ Svetlana: example, 68
+ sword blade, 283
+ syllabaries: lerfu word representation, 420
+ syllabic consonant: effect on stress, 65
+ syllabic consonants, 34; effect on stress, 34; final in word, 34
+ syllabic l: considered as a consonant for morphological discussions, 49
+ syllabic m: as a consonant for morphological discussions, 49
+ syllabic n: as a consonant for morphological discussions, 49
+ syllabic pronunciations of consonants: in fu'ivla, 62; in fu'ivla category attachment, 63
+ syllabic r: as a consonant for morphological discussions, 49
+ syllabication: and names, 39; definition of, 39; examples of, 39; rules for, 39; variants of, 41
+ syllable break: contrasted with pause, 32; representation in Lojban, 32; symbol for, 416; word for, 416
+ symbol: contrasted with referent, 478; for operand, 459; referring to with lu'e, 134
+ symmetrical tanru, 111
+ symmetrical tanru types: both separately true, 111; one or other true, 112; using crucial/typical parts, 112; using more inclusive class, 112
+ symmetrical veljvo, 278
+ sympathy: example, 299, 314
+ ta, 147, 169; contrasted with di'u, 148
+ ta'apei, 326
+ tables: format of, 5
+ ta'e, 226, 324
+ tagged sumti termsets: connecting with non-logical forethought connectives, 358
+ TAhE selma'o, 225, 504; effect of ZAhO on fe'e flag, 231; scalar negation of, 242
+ tail-terms: definition, 345
+ Take care!: example, 22
+ Talk!: example, 22
+ talker: example, 19
+ taller: example, 11
+# tan(pi/2) = infinity: example, 456
+ tank: Sherman, example, 60
+ tanru: ambiguity in, 55; ambiguity of, 55, 85; and abstractions, 255; and conversion, quick-tour version, 18; and creativity, 55; as ambiguous, 85; asymmetrical, 104; combination of, 55; containing mathematical expressions, 97; default left-grouping of, 86; definition, 83; definition, quick-tour version, 27; expanding, 318; explanation of, 55; explicating, 318; explicitly defining, 318; expression of, 55; meaning of, 85; place structure of, 274; place structure of, quick-tour version, 18; place structures of, 92, 93; possible meanings of, 274; primary meaning of, 84; purpose, 274; quick-tour version, 17; reducing logically connected sumti to, caveat, 350; simple, 83; to lujvo, 55; with GOhA, 97
+ tanru and conversion, 100
+ tanru connection: connotation of non-logical, 354
+ tanru connection grouping: guheks unmarked tanru, 350
+ tanru conversion: effect on place structure, quick-tour version, 18
+ tanru default grouping: quick-tour version, 17
+ tanru grouping: complex, 87; effect of tanru inversion on, 96; guheks compared with jeks, 350; three-part, 85; with bo, 87; with ke, 88; with ke and bo, 88
+ tanru grouping with JA+BO: effect on tanru grouping, 91
+ tanru inversion, 95; definition, 95; effect on tanru grouping, 96; in complex tanru, 96; multiple, 96; rule for removing, 96; where allowed, 96
+ tanru inversion and place structure, 95
+ tanru logical connection: contrasted with sumti logical connection, 350
+ tanru nested within tanru, 86
+ tanru unit: filling in places of, 489
+ ta'o, 319
+ ta'onao, 320
+ ta'u, 318
+ ta'unai, 318
+ tavla, 14
+ te, 100, 192; quick-tour version, 16
+ te'a, 437
+ technical terms, 5
+ TEhU selma'o, 505
+ tei, 419
+ TEI selma'o, 419, 505; terminator for, 494
+ telephone conversation: hello, 324
+ television, 42
+ template, 266
+ temporal direction: exception in meaning when following ze'e, 227
+ temporal information: adding to a sentence with tense sumti tcita, 231
+ temporal tense: as mandatory in English, 215; compared with spatial tense in elidability, 217; historical definition, 215; interaction with 4-dimensional spatial tense, 224; Lojban contrasted with English in necessity, 215; order relative to spatial, 219; quantified with direction, 227; real relationship to time in English, 215
+ temporal tense elision: compared with spatial tense elision in meaning, 217
+ temporal tenses: compared with spatial tenses, 219
+ ten: expressing as number, 432
+ tense: aorist, 223; as observer-based, 220; as subjective perception, 219; compared with modals in syntax, 248; connected, with negation, 245; connecting sentences in with, 238; contradictory negation contrasted with scalar negation of, 242; contradictory negation of with nai, 241; contrasted with modals in semantics, 248; effect of different position in sentence, 216; effect of sticky tense on, 234; emphasizing by position in sentence, 216; explanation of presentation method, 215; expressing movement in, 224; extensional, 503; forethought connection in, 363; forethought logical connections, 246; grouping of connectives in, 363; handling multiple episodes, 236; importance of 2nd sumti place for sumti tcita use, 248; in forethought bridi-tail connection, special rule, 365; interval contrasted with point, 221; logically connected with JA, 245; Lojban contrasted with English in implications of completeness, 223; Lojban contrasted with English in implying actuality, 243; Lojban contrasted with native languages, 215; making sticky, 497; multiple in sentence, 234; multiple in sentence compared with compound tense, 234; negating, 241; non-logical connection of, 246; non-logical connection of for sub-events, 246; numerical, 458; on embedded bridi, 235; order of direction specification in, 217; order of direction, distance and interval in, 221; order of distance specification in, 217; order of movement specification in, 225; order of spatial interval modifiers in, 230; order of temporal and spatial in, 219; overriding to speaker's current, 238; point contrasted with interval, 221; position in sentence alternative, 216; position of in sentence, 216; possible groupings of, 246; quantified, 226; quick-tour version, 25; rationale for relative order of temporal and spatial in, 219; relation of interval to point specified by direction and distance, 221; relation of point specified by direction and distance to interval, 221; relative order with bridi negation, 103; scalar negation contrasted with contradictory negation of, 242; scalar negation of with NAhE, 242; scope effect of new paragraph, 466; scope of, 234; selbri types applicable to, 215; space-time dimension for intervals, 224; speaker's current, 238; specifying relation of interval to point specified by direction and distance, 221; static contrasted with moving, 224; subscripting, 236; sumti tcita form contrasted with connected sentences, 239; use as sumti tcita, 231; viewpoint of PU contrasted with viewpoint of ZAhO, 228; with both temporal and spatial, 220; with ku, 216
+ tense afterthought connection forms: selma'o allowed, 240
+ tense and na: multiple, 104
+ tense as sumti tcita: contrasted with tense inside sumti, 233
+ tense aspect, 507
+ tense cmavo: position relative to selbri, 104
+ tense connected sentences: contrasted with separately tensed sentences, 239; forethought mode, 239; importance of "bo" in, 239
+ tense connection: equivalent meanings, 240; expansions of, 240
+ tense connection of bridi-tails: meaning of, 240
+ tense connection of sentences: contrasted with sumti tcita form, 239; order of, 239
+ tense connection of sumti: meaning of, 240
+ tense contours: compared with event abstraction contours, 268
+ tense conversion: accessing original first place with fai, 247; accessing tense of bridi with jai, 247; of temporal tenses, 248; use in sumti descriptions, 247
+ tense direction: as sumti tcita, 232; contrasted with event contours in implication of extent, 229; implications on scope of event, 223
+# tense direction/distance as sumti tcita: contrasted with event contours, 232
+ tense distance: as sumti tcita, 232
+ tense forethought connection forms: selma'o allowed, 240
+ tense in scope of sticky tense: compared with compound tense, 234
+ tense inside sumti: contrasted with tense as sumti tcita, 233
+ tense magnitude, 250
+ tense on main bridi: effect on embedded bridi tenses, 235; effect on embedded sumti with tenses, 235
+ tense questions: by using logical connective question, 250; methods of asking, 249
+ tense questions with ma, 249
+ tense selma'o: summary of, 252
+ tense sentence connection: table of equivalent schemata, 249
+ tense specification: effect on cu, 216; effect on elidability of terminators, 216
+ tense system: and space location, 215
+ tense tags and sumti tcita, 94
+ tense with elided CAhA: meaning, 244
+ tense with no sumti: indicator for, 497
+ tense with sumti tcita: asymmetry of, 238
+ tensed connectives: in mathematical expressions, 364
+ tensed logical connection, 363
+ tensed logical connective, 240; forethought, 364; with ke...ke'e, 241; with tu'e...tu'u, 241
+ tensed logical connective(s): in ek...bo, 364; in ek...ke, 364; in gihek...bo, 364; in gihek...ke, 364; in ijek...bo, 364; in ijek...tu'e, 364; in ijoik...bo, 364; in ijoik...tu'e, 364; in jek...bo, 364; in joik...bo, 364; in joik...ke, 364
+ tensed logically connected bridi-tails, 240; with grouping, 241
+ tensed logically connected sentences, 240; with grouping, 241
+ tensed logically connected sumti, 240; with grouping, 241
+ tensed non-logical connectives, 364; forethought, 364
+ tenseless sentences in story time, 236
+ tense-or-modal questions: with cu'e, 250
+ term: definition, 347
+ terminators: eliding ku in non-logical connections, 354
+ termset: effect on scope of multiple indefinite sumti, 399; formation, 347
+ termset connectives, 503
+ termset logical connection: contrasted with bridi connection, 347; contrasted with bridi-tail connection, 347; contrasted with sumti connection, 347; unequal length, 348; when used, 347
+ termset marker, 502
+ termset modal connection, 200
+ termsets, 491; compared to fa'u, 356; non-logical connection of, 357
+ tertau: definition, 95, 274; definition of, 84; effect on meaning of tanru, 84
+ te'u, 451, 456, 460
+ text: division numbering with -mai, 458; end-marker, 484; structure of, 465; sub-division numbering with -mai, 458
+ text quotation: as internally grammatical, 141; syntax of, 141
+ thank you: example, 324
+ the: contrasted with a/an, 322; example, 322; for talking about numbers themselves, 435
+ the destination: example, 193
+ the go-er: example, 193
+ The men are women: example, 120
+ the two of you: example, 132
+ there is a Y: expression, notation convention, 401
+ thingy: example, 151
+ this: adjective expression with ti noi, 148; adjective usage contrasted with pronoun usage, 148; as utterance reference in English, 148; English, adjective expression with vi, 148; English, pronoun expression with ti, 148; pronoun usage contrasted with adjective usage, 148
+ this boat: example, 148
+ this book: author of, 5; contributors to, 5; credits for, 6; examples of, 4; goal of, 3; reviewers of, 6; sections of, 4; structure of, 4
+# this/that in English: compared with ti-series pro-sumti, 147
+ three bears: example, 133
+ three cats white: and two big, example, 410
+ three dogs bite two men: example, 398
+ Three Kings: example, 99
+ three of four people: example, 361
+ three or four people: example, 454
+ three rats: example, 446
+ thus: example, 316
+ ti, 119, 147, 169; as pronoun expression for English this, 148
+ ti noi: as adjective expression for this, 148
+ ti'e, 316
+ tilde: a diacritical mark, 418; proposed lerfu word for, 429
+ time: as part of tense system (see also tense, temporal tense), 215; as space-based metaphor, 231; contrasted with space in number of directions, 219
+ time of death: example, 248
+ time tenses: quick-tour version, 25
+ time travel, 225
+ times: explicit expression of, 437; implicit expression of, 437
+ ti'o, 458
+ ti-series pro-sumti: 3 degrees of distance with, 147; as pointing referents only, 147; compared with English this/that, 147; contrasted with di'u-series pro-sumti, 148; conversational convention for, 147; effect on ri-series pro-sumti, 153; lack of pro-bridi equivalent, 148; problems in written text, 147
+ title: specifying with tu'e...tu'u, 466
+ title of book: example, 134
+ to, 480
+ to movie: house, office, example, 191
+ TO selma'o, 480, 505; terminator for, 505
+ to the market from the office, 348
+ to'a, 415
+ to-do list: example, 358
+ to'i, 321, 480
+ toi, 480
+ TOI selma'o, 480, 505
+ Tolkien: and non-standard Lojban orthography, 46
+ tomorrow: example, 282
+ tone of voice, 297
+ to'o: special note on direction orientation, 253
+ too: example, 318
+ too long: example, 233; Example, 230
+ too many rats: example, 448
+# topic/comment: multiple sentence, 468
+ topic-comment: description, 467
+ topic-comment sentences, 467
+ tosmabru test, 71
+ to'u, 318
+ toward her right: example, 225
+ toward my right: example, 224
+ toward right: contrasted with on right, 224
+ transfinite cardinal: example, 434
+ transformations with logical connectives: steps, 408
+ traveling salesperson: example, 196
+ triumph, 258
+ truncation of number: expressing, 443
+ truth: in imperative sentences, 353
+ truth functions, 333; 16 possible, 333; commutative, 335; creating all 16 with Lojban's basic set, 335; fundamental 4 in Lojban, 334; relation to logical connectives, 334; table of logical connectives, 366
+ truth questions, 321; answering "no", 351; answering "yes", 351; as yes-or-no questions, 351; contrasted with connection questions, 351; simple, 351
+ truth table: explanation, 333
+ truth tables: abbreviated format, 334; for 4 fundamental Lojban truth functions, 335; list of 16 in abbreviated form, 334; notation convention, 334
+ truth-value abstraction, 262
+ truth-value abstraction(s): place structure, 262, 263
+ try the door: example, 266
+ try to go: example, 95
+ ts-sound in Russian: representation in Lojban, 31
+ tu, 147, 169; archaic English yon as equivalent of, 147
+ tu'a, 134, 266; as being deliberately vague, 134; effect of on meaning, 134; use for forming abstractions, 134
+ tu'e, 202, 205, 343, 358, 364, 466; contrasted with bo for tensed logical connection, 364; effect on di'e, 358; use in lists, 358
+ TUhE selma'o, 343, 358, 364, 466, 505; terminator for, 505
+ TUhU selma'o, 343, 358, 466, 505
+ tu'o, 450, 453; for infix operations with too few operands, 450
+ tu'o va'a, 453
+ tu'u, 202, 205, 343, 358, 466
+ twice today: example, 233
+ two brothers: example, 98
+ two dogs are white: example, 129
+ types and subtypes of words, 52
+ typical: compared with stereotypical, 126
+ typical Englishman: example, 126
+ typical Lojban user: example, 125
+ typical objects: and instantiation, 126; determining characteristics of, 126
+ typical Smith: example, 127
+ typical sumti, 157
+ typical value: contrasted with elliptical value for sumti, 157; contrasted with mathematical average, 441
+ typographical conventions, 4
+ ue, 297
+ ugh: example, 359
+ ui, 297
+ UI selma'o, 264, 297, 351, 353, 469, 474, 481, 505; extending the scope of, 494; quick-tour version, 24
+ umlaut: a diacritical mark, 418; proposed lerfu word for, 429
+ unabridged dictionary, 480
+ unconditional signal, 484
+ unconnected tanru: contrasted with logically connected version, 349
+ undemonstrated potential: expressing, 244
+ under compulsion: example, 201
+ under conditions: example, 257
+ underlines: example, 12
+ unequal termset connection: compared with compound bridi connection with unequal separate bridi-tails, 348
+ unfilled places of inverted tanru, 95
+ Unicode, 425
+ uninterpreted sequence, 477
+ union: of sets, 356
+ union of sets: compared with or, 357
+ units of measurement: expressing, 435
+ universal: mixed claim with existential, 394
+ universal claims: dangers of using, 396; explanation, 393; restricting, 394, 395
+ unqualified sumti: contrasted with qualified sumti, 133
+ unreduced fractions: use in granular scales, 448
+ unreduced lujvo: definition, 57
+ unspecified breed: example, 280
+ unspecified direction: temporal contrasted with in spatial, 220
+ unspecified emotion, 311
+ unspecified level of emotion, 311
+ unspecified route: example, 189
+ unspecified sumti: non-trailing, 189; using zo'e as place-holder for, 189
+ unspecified trailing sumti: dropping, 189
+ unstated emotion, 311
+ unusual characters: words for, 416
+ unusual position, 290
+ unvoiced consonants: contrasted with voiced in allowable consonant pairs, 37
+ unvoiced vowel glide: apostrophe as, 31
+ upper-case: lerfu word for, 415
+ upper-case letters: English usage contrasted with Lojban, 415; Lojban usage contrasted with English, 415
+ utterance: expressing relation to discourse, 317
+ utterance ordinal: lerfu string as, 423
+ utterance pro-sumti: stability of, 162
+ utterance pro-sumti (see also di'u-series pro-sumti), 148
+ utterances: non-bridi, 471
+ u'u, 299; contrasted with uu, 299
+ uu, 297, 299; contrasted with u'u, 299
+ uuse'inai, 314
+ uy diphthong: in cmene, 66
+ V: as a symbol for a single vowel, 49
+ va, 217
+ VA selma'o, 217, 506; and distance, 217; relation of words to ti, ta, tu, 217
+ va'a, 438; contrasted with vu'u and ni'u, 438
+ va'e, 447
+ vague abstraction, 265
+ vague abstraction(s): place structure, 266
+ vague abstractor, 265
+ vague numbers, 128
+ vague relationship: modal tag for, 197
+ va'i, 318, 320; contrasted with ke'u, 320
+ va'inai, 320
+ valid speech: marking as error with jo'a, 321
+ value abstraction, 262
+ variables: logical, 392
+ vau, 178, 200, 345, 394; effect on elidability ku'o, 181
+ vau for shared bridi-tail sumti: avoiding, 200
+ VAU selma'o, 345, 506
+ ve, 100, 192; quick-tour version, 16
+ ve klama, 193; contrasted with pluta, 193
+ vector: components of, 451; definition, 451; forming, 496; use as operand, 452; use of parentheses with, 452
+ vector indicator, 451; terminator for, 451
+ ve'e, 228
+ VEhA selma'o, 221, 506
+ VEhO selma'o, 506
+ vei, 201, 423, 437
+ vei ...ve'o: contrasted with operator ...ku'e in Polish notation, 438
+ VEI selma'o, 506; terminator for, 506
+ veljvo: definition, 274; symmetrical, 278
+ ve'o, 201, 362, 437
+ verbs: brivla as Lojban equivalents, 52
+ veterinarian: example, 282
+ vi, 217; as adjective expression for English this, 148
+ vi'a, 224
+ vice versa: English, expressing with vo'a-series pro-sumti and soi, 159; example, 159
+ vi'e, 224
+ VIhA selma'o, 223, 506
+ vi'o, 325; contrasted with je'e, 325
+ virtue: example, 309
+ viska, 194
+ vo'a, 158
+ vo'a-series pro-sumti: use in expressing reciprocity with soi, 159
+ vocative, 492
+ vocative indicator, 492
+ vocative phrase: as a free modifier, 135; effect of position on meaning, 137; elidable terminator for, 137; explicit quantifiers prohibited on, 136; forms of, 136; implicit descriptor on, 136; implicit quantifiers on, 136; purpose of, 136; relative clauses on, 184; with complete sumti, 136; with sumti without descriptor, 136
+ vocative phrase terminator: elidability of, 137
+ vocative phrase with name: placement of relative clause on, 184
+ vocative phrase with selbri: placement of relative clause on, 184
+ vocatives: and definition of "you", 323; contrasted with "la", 323; definition, 323; grammar overview, 323; notation convention symbol "X", 323; quick-tour version, 21; rationale for redundancy, 323
+ vo'e, 158
+ voi, 177; contrasted with poi in veridicality, 177
+ voiced consonants: contrasted with unvoiced in allowable consonant pairs, 37
+# voiced/unvoiced consonants: restrictions on, 36
+ vowel: buffer, 38
+ vowel buffer: contrasted with y sound, 38
+ vowel pairs: contrasted with diphthongs, 34; definition of, 34; grouping of, 35; involving y, 35; list of, 35; use of apostrophe in, 34
+ vowel-initial words: necessity for pause before, 68
+ vowels: contrasted with consonants, 33; definition of, 33; length of, 39; pronunciation of, quick-tour version, 12
+ vu, 217
+ vu'e, 309
+ VUhO selma'o, 182, 506
+ VUhU operands, 436
+ VUhU selma'o, 435, 436, 444, 507
+ vu'i, 134; effect of on meaning, 134; use for creating sequence, 134
+ vu'o, 182
+ vu'u, 438; contrasted with va'a and ni'u, 438
+ VV string: as a symbol for a double vowel, 49
+ walk to market: example, 100
+ want to be a soldier: example, 255
+ wash self: example, 158
+ weapon against self: example, 397
+ went and bought: example, 363, 365
+ what is your name: example, 160
+ when: example, 249
+ when else: example, 250
+# when/where/how: example, 250
+ where: example, 249
+ whether criminal: example, 262
+ who knows what: example, 160
+ whole of: example, 441
+ whole time interval: expressing, 227
+ William: example, 68
+ window: example, 336
+ wine-dark sea, 274
+ word "abu": example, 422
+ word "bu": example, 416
+ word classes, 50
+ word forms: as related to grammatical uses, 49; in Lojban (see also morphology), 49
+ word lists, 273
+ word quotation: as morphologically valid, 141; internal grammar of, 141
+ words: marking non-standard, 480
+ words not in the dictionary, 13
+ world's languages, 273
+ wrong concept, 281
+ x < 5: example, 439
+ x{b: d}, example, 362, 455
+ x{k}: x sub k, example, 423
+ x1: in place structure notation, 187; notation convention, quick-tour version, 13
+ xe, 100, 192; quick-tour version, 16
+ xi, 449, 452, 471
+ XI selma'o, 449, 471, 507
+ xo, 449
+ X-ray: example, 60
+ x-sub-3, 449
+ xu, 321, 351, 469; quick-tour version, 23
+ y, 484; considered not to be a vowel for morphological discussions, 49; letter; between letters of consonant pair, 53; letter, prohibition from fu'ivla, 62; use in avoiding forbidden consonant pairs, 36
+ Y selma'o, 484, 507
+ y sound: contrasted with vowel buffer, 38
+ YACC grammar, 511
+ Yay!: example, 299
+# yes/no questions, 321; quick-tour version, 23
+ y-hyphen: and consonant cluster determination, 56; and stress determination, 56; use of, 56
+ yielding the floor, 484
+ yon: as archaic English equivalent of tu, 147
+ you: defining, 323
+ you-cmavo: example, 163
+ younger: example, 292
+ you're welcome: fi'i contrasted with je'e, 324; je'e contrasted with fi'i, 324
+ you-talk: example, 163
+# z = f(x): example, 438
+ z instead of ': in acronymic names based on lerfu words, 424
+ za'a, 316
+ za'e, 69, 416, 480; interaction with bu, 416; use to avoid lujvo misunderstandings, 69
+ ZAhO compared with NU, 268
+ ZAhO selma'o, 228, 231, 232, 268, 507; contradictory negation of, 241; effect on fe'e flag for TAhE and ROI, 231
+ za'i, 257, 258, 268; place structure, 259
+ za'o, 230
+ za'u, 443; with elided number, 443
+ zai, 418
+ ze'e, 227; effect on following PU direction, 227
+ ze'eba, 227; meaning of, 227
+ ze'eca, 227; meaning of, 227
+ ze'epu, 227; meaning of, 227
+ ZEhA selma'o, 221, 507
+ ze'o: special note on direction orientation, 253
+ zei, 60, 416; interaction with bu, 416
+ ZEI selma'o, 60, 507
+ zero: relation to negation boundary, 402
+ zero to one: example, 362
+ ZI selma'o, 219, 507; compared with VA, 219
+ zi'e, 175; compared with English and, 176; contrasted with logical connectives, 176; use in connecting relative phrase/clause to relative phrase/clause, 176
+ ZIhE selma'o, 175, 508
+ zi'o, 157, 163; as creating new selbri, 157
+ zi'o rafsi: effect of on place structure of lujvo, 163
+ Zipf's Law, 69
+ zo, 119, 312, 416, 477; contrasted with la for names, 478; interaction with bu, 416
+ ZO selma'o, 477, 508
+ zo'e, 157, 189, 392; as a translation for "something", 392; as place-holder for sumti, 157; as place-holder for unspecified sumti, 189; compared with FA for omitting places, 190; contrasted with da, 392; quick-tour version, 14
+ zo'e-series: compared with do'i as indefinite pro-sumti, 158
+ zo'e-series pro-sumti, 157
+ ZOhU selma'o, 392, 467, 508
+ zo'i: special note on direction orientation, 253
+ zo'o, 318, 319
+ zo'u, 392, 467
+ zoi, 119, 416, 477; interaction with bu, 416; interaction with lo'u/le'u, 478
+ ZOI selma'o, 477, 479, 508
+ zu'a, 217; derivation of word, 217
+ zu'i, 157
+ zu'o, 257, 258, 268; place structure, 259
+ zu'u, 319
diff --git a/todocbook/make_index.sh b/todocbook/make_index.sh
new file mode 100755
index 0000000..7da2b93
--- /dev/null
+++ b/todocbook/make_index.sh
@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+#!/bin/bash
+
+IFS='
+'
+
+for line in $(cat cllindex.txt | grep -v '^\s*#')
+do
+ item=$(echo $line | sed 's/[(,:].*//' | sed 's/^\s*//' | sed 's/\\/\\\\/g')
+# echo $item
+ count=$(grep "\<$item\>" [0-9]*.xml | wc -l)
+ if [ "$count" -le 0 ]
+ then
+ echo "$item -- has count $count, skipping -- $line"
+ continue
+ fi
+ if [ "$count" -ge 10 ]
+ then
+ echo "$item -- has count $count, skipping -- $line"
+ continue
+ fi
+
+ for file in $(grep -l "\<$item\>" [0-9]*.xml)
+ do
+# echo $file
+ sed -i "/\<$item\>/s|$|\n<!-- ^^ $line -->\n<indexterm><primary>$item</primary></indexterm>|" $file
+ done
+done
diff --git a/todocbook/merge.sh b/todocbook/merge.sh
index b3100b1..e165c75 100755
--- a/todocbook/merge.sh
+++ b/todocbook/merge.sh
@@ -7,11 +7,13 @@ echo '<?xml version="1.0"?>
<book xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink";>
' >cll.xml
for dir in $(ls .. | grep -P '^[0-9]+/?$' | sort -n | sed -e 's;/*$;;' -e 's;.*/;;')
do
cat $dir.xml >>cll.xml
done
echo '
+<index/>
+
</book>' >>cll.xml
--
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