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[bpfk] dag-cll git updates for Sat Mar 19 04:21:09 EDT 2011
commit adb7cb87d57a0a7793cc849bf6dbb15906c25fe4
Author: Robin Lee Powell <rlpowell@digitalkingdom.org>
Date: Sat Mar 19 01:03:00 2011 -0700
Updated documentation.
diff --git a/todocbook/ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS b/todocbook/ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..32ea7e3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/todocbook/ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
@@ -0,0 +1,4 @@
+
+Robin Lee Powell / camgusmis did most of the conversion work here,
+but a great deal was also done by Zort.
+
diff --git a/todocbook/README-tags b/todocbook/README-tags
index b697991..0570451 100644
--- a/todocbook/README-tags
+++ b/todocbook/README-tags
@@ -1,126 +1,323 @@
- BASIC <jbophrase> theory.
+ ============
+ Introduction
+ ============
- We don't *actually* want to index every use of a Lojban word.
+The docbook for the CLL uses a lot of our own custom/homebrew xml tags.
- So, <jbophrase> does nothing at all.
+No really. A *lot*.
- All the *other* tags to index generation.
+These are all auto-converted to basic docbook. Our customization of
+docbook itself is very minor; just the usual CSS and
+docbook2html_config.xsl stuff.
- The primary one is <valsi>; it's still called that even if it
- wraps a cmavo compound. Any cmavo compound weird enough to have a
- seperate meaning should be wrapped in <valsi>. Any others can
- just be handled by having adjacent <valsi> bits.
+The basic point of all the custom tags is to make it easy to enter
+our own special-case stuff, and also to maintain semantic
+distinctions that we might want to mark up later, whether we want to
+mark them up specially right now or not. The actual markup is done
+with the "role" attribute and CSS, basically.
- We need more of these. Lots of them, in fact. And we need to
- allow them in lots of places.
+The following is a list of the custom tags and when to use them.
+Mostly it's just in the form of examples; ask rlpowell/camgusmis if
+you want more detail.
- All <jbophrase> have been converted to <oldjbophrase>, which marks
- up badly (FIXME: todo)
+IMPORTANT: These tags (both name and structure) are not sacred; if
+you can see a better way to do things, please let rlpowell/camgusmis
+know.
- Almost everything with glossary="false", valid="false", valid="iffy"
- should simply be <jbophrase>; I can't see any use to keeping that
- stuff around.
+ Simple Phrase Markup
+ ====================
+These are used to markup inline phrases, mostly in Lojban.
-We have a variety of local-use-only tags and roles that get converted into
-docbook XML as part of the processing.
+ oldjbophrase
+ ------------
- <example> roles
+FIXME: Remove when not needed.
- <interlinear-gloss>
+This exists only as an artifact of the conversion process. Feel
+free to help. These tags should be turned into one of the other
+entries in this section.
-This is to only be used for
+ jbophrase
+ ---------
- <jbophrase>
+Example: "a man biting a dog at a specified place and time. But
+Lojbanic events may be much more <quote>spread out</quote> than
+that: <jbophrase>mi vasxu</jbophrase> (I breathe) is something
+which is true during the whole of my life"
+
+This is used for any sequence of Lojban words that is simply present
+inline as normal text. For now at least, these are entered in a
+special Lojban phrase glossary; we'll see how useful that turns out
+to be. (<--- FIXME: rephrase when decided)
+
+ jbophrase validity
+ ------------------
+
+A <jbophrase> that contains invalid Lojban should be <jbophrase
+valid="false">, and one that contains strange or surprising Lojban
+should be <jbophrase valid="iffy">, to give us the option of marking
+them up with special colours or other indicators later.
+
+
+ valsi
+ -----
+
+Example: "It is also possible to put the tense somewhere else in the
+bridi by adding <valsi>ku</valsi> after it."
+
+This is used for a single Lojban word when it is referenced in the
+text (that is, when discussing the word, not when using its actual
+meaning). This results in a link from the Lojban glossary.
+
+A special case here is compound cmavo. Where the compound has its
+own meaning that isn't necessarily composable from the parts, use a
+single tag, like so:
+
+ <valse>.uinai</valsi>
+
+Where it is decomposable, use two adjacent, like so:
+
+ <valse>je</valsi><valsi>nai</valsi>
+
+ diphthong
+ ---------
+
+Example: "(for example, <diphthong>io</diphthong> is pronounced
+<quote>yo</quote>)"
+
+Used to markup diphthong in discussion of morphology.
+
+FIXME: *many* of these are wrapping actual UI cmavo, which should be
+<valsi> instead.
+
+ letteral
+ --------
+
+Example: "they all end in the letter <letteral>o</letteral>, which
+is otherwise a rare letter in Lojban gismu."
+
+Used to markup individual letters when their use in Lojban is being
+referred to by the text.
+
+ rafsi
+ -----
+
+Example: "<para>In making a lujvo that contains <rafsi>jax-</rafsi>
+for a selbri that contains <valsi>jai</valsi>,"
+
+Used to markup a rafsi when referred to as such.
+
+ morphology
+ ----------
+
+Example: "As a result, <morphology>bf</morphology> is forbidden, and
+so is <morphology>sd</morphology>"
+
+Used to markup any morphological examples not otherwise covered.
+
+ inlinemath
+ ----------
+
+Example: <inlinemath>(1000 * 6) - (500 * 0) + (100 * 0) - (10 * 15) - 3 = 5847</inlinemath>
+
+Used to wrap math that appears inline; just shorthand for docbook's
+<inlineequation><mathphrase>
+
+ math
+ ----
+
+Example: <math>(1000 * L) - (500 * A) + (100 * H) - (10 * R) - V</math>
+
+Used to wrap math that appears as its own paragrah; just shorthand
+for docbook's <informalequation><mathphrase>
+
+ grammar-template
+ ----------------
+
+Example:
+
+ The syntax of jeks is:</para>
+ <grammar-template>
+ [na] [se] JA [nai]
+ </grammar-template>
+ <para>parallel to eks and giheks.</para>
+
+Used to show (usually very simplified versions of) the Lojban formal
+grammatical productions.
+
+ definition
+ ----------
+
+Example:
+
+ <definition>
+ <valsi>bridi</valsi>: x1 is a predicate relationship with relation x2 (abstraction) among arguments (sequence/set) x3
+ </definition>
+
+Used to denote a free-standing definition for a Lojban word (as opposed to the
+cmavo-list sections).
+
+ The cmavo Lists
+ ===============
+
+At the top of most sections, and sometimes embedded throughout, is a list of
+cmavo, with (at least) the cmavo, a selmaho, and a description.
+
+Basic Example:
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>bo</cmavo>
<selmaho>BO</selmaho>
<description>closest scope grouping</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
+Example that covers the attitudinal version:
+
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>.u'i</cmavo>
+ <attitudinal-scale point="sai">amusement</attitudinal-scale>
+ <attitudinal-scale point="nai">weariness</attitudinal-scale>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+
+Example that covers the sumtcita version:
+
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>bai</cmavo>
+ <gismu>bapli</gismu>
+ <modal-place>compelled by</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">compelling</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+
+THere's also a <cmavo-list-head> which works just like a normal
+table/list head, and only actually occurs once so far.
+
+ Examples
+ ========
+
+A truly staggering percentage of the CLL consists of what it calls
+"exmaples" (they usually aren't examples of anything really, but
+that's neither here nor there). These come in a few set patterns,
+which we've codified. Each of these comes with a bunch of sub-tags,
+as well, that are only valid inside examples.
+
+Note that the <jbo> tags here can also take valid="false" and
+valid="iffy", like <jbophrase>.
+
+ interlinear-gloss-example
+ -------------------------
+
+(This is a technical linguistics term for word-by-word
+pseudo-translations; see
+http://www.eva.mpg.de/lingua/resources/glossing-rules.php )
+
+Example:
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-do-mamta-mi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e1d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do mamta mi</jbo>
<gloss>You are-a-mother-of me</gloss>
- <en>You are my mother</en>
+ <natlang>You are my mother</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
+Inside the <interlinear-gloss>, <jbo> marks raw Lojban, <gloss> marks natural
+language text (normally English) that matches the Lojban word for word, and
+<natlang> marks natural language text (normally English) that more
+loosely/colloquially translates the Lojban.
+
+ pronunciation-example
+ ---------------------
+
+Example:
+
<example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k2B4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c3e3d1"/>
</title>
<pronunciation>
<jbo>.i.ai.i.ai.o</jbo>
<ipa><phrase role="IPA">[ʔi ʔaj ʔi ʔaj ʔo]</phrase></ipa>
- <en>Ee! Eye! Ee! Eye! Oh!</en>
+ <natlang>Ee! Eye! Ee! Eye! Oh!</natlang>
</pronunciation>
</example>
-<phrase role="logical-vowel">A</phrase>,
+Similar in concept, but the <ipa> section matches the <jbo> section
+in terms of sounds rather than words.
-docbook2html_preprocess.xsl: <xsl:template match="compound-cmavo">
-docbook2html_preprocess.xsl: <xsl:template match="jbophrase[count(str:tokenize(text())) = 1 and ( not(@glossary) or @glossary != 'false')
-docbook2html_preprocess.xsl: <xsl:template match="jbophrase"
+ lojbanization-example
+ ---------------------
- <xsl:template match="jbophrase[count(str:tokenize(text())) = 1 and (
-not(@glossary) or @glossary != 'false') and ( not(@role) or ( @role !=
-'morphology' and @role != 'rafsi' and @role != 'diphthong' and @role !=
-'letteral' ) ) ]" priority="2">
+Example:
-generate_glossary.xsl: <xsl:template name="make_slug">
-generate_glossary.xsl: <xsl:template match="//jbophrase[count(str:tokenize(text())) = 1 and ( not(@glossary) or @glossary != 'false')
-generate_glossary.xsl: <xsl:template match="//text()">
+ <example role="lojbanization-example" xml:id="example-random-id-DQju">
+ <title>
+ <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>cobra</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e7d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <lojbanization>
+ <natlang>cobra</natlang>
+ <jbo>kobra <comment>Lojbanize</comment></jbo>
+ <jbo>sinc,r,kobra <comment>prefix rafsi</comment></jbo>
+ </lojbanization>
+ </example>
- <xsl:template match="//jbophrase[count(str:tokenize(text())) = 1 and (
-not(@glossary) or @glossary != 'false') and ( not(@role) or ( @role !=
-'morphology' and @role != 'rafsi' and @role != 'diphthong' and @role !=
-'letteral' ) ) ]">
+Used for demonstration of conversion of a natural language word or
+name into a Lojban word. Note the <comment> tag that can be
+associated with particular lines.
+ lujvo-example
+ -------------
- ;<rafsi>\1</rafsi>;g' [0-9]*
- ;<letteral>\1</letteral>;g' [0-9]*
- ;<diphthong>\1</diphthong>;g' [0-9]*
- ;<morphology>\1</morphology>;g' [0-9]*
+Example:
-<pronunciation>
- <jbo>.i,ai,i,ai,on.</jbo>
- <ipa>[ʔi jaj ji jaj jonʔ]</ipa>
-</pronunciation>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjbP" role="lujvo-example">
+ <title>
+ <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>supper</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e6d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <lujvo-making>
+ <jbo>vancysanmi</jbo>
+ <veljvo>vanci sanmi</veljvo>
+ <gloss><quote>evening meal</quote></gloss>
+ <natlang>or <quote>supper</quote></natlang>
+ </lujvo-making>
+ </example>
-<lojbanization>
- <jbo>cobra</jbo>
- <jbo>sinc,r,kobra <comment>prefix rafsi</comment></jbo>
-</lojbanization>
+Used to show conversion between a lujvo and the words used to make
+it, and its meaning; note the new <veljvo> internal tag.
-<grammar-template>X TENSE le nu Y</grammar-template>
+ compound-cmavo-example
+ ----------------------
-<place-structure>x1 (seller) sells x2 (goods) to x3 (buyer) for x4
-(price)</place-structure>
+Example:
-<inlinemath>(1000 * 6) - (500 * 0) + (100 * 0) - (10 * 15) - 3 =
-5847</inlinemath>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qIYK" role="compound-cmavo-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e2d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <compound-cmavo>
+ <jbo>punaijecanai</jbo>
+ <jbo>pu nai je ca nai</jbo>
+ </compound-cmavo>
+ </example>
+
+Used to show the breakup of compound cmavo.
-<math>(1000 * L) - (500 * A) + (100 * H) - (10 * R) - V</math>
+ Special Cases
+ =============
+
+<phrase role="logical-vowel">A</phrase> denotes one of the A, E, O
+or U vowels associated with Lojbanic logic operations.
<lujvo-making>
<jbo>zbasai</jbo>
<rafsi>zba + sai</rafsi>
<score><inlinemath>(1000 * 6) - (500 * 0) + (100 * 0) - (10 * 15) - 3 = 5847</inlinemath></score>
</lujvo-making>
-
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ba'i</cmavo>
- <gismu>basti</gismu>
- <modal-place>replaced by</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">instead of</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
diff --git a/todocbook/TODO b/todocbook/TODO
index e82a9a5..991ac70 100644
--- a/todocbook/TODO
+++ b/todocbook/TODO
@@ -1,163 +1,49 @@
-
-All the imported/manual indexterm entries for single words or selma'o need
-removing. Might be nice to re-apply * cb87291250fa978bcb67f965bfb880601ce9f367
-Chapter 6 lojban-word-importeds. for this.
-
-WRT rafsi: <rafsi type="prefix">man</rafsi> seems best
-
- Will that suck for <member><jbophrase role="rafsi">ger</jbophrase><jbophrase role="rafsi">-zda</jbophrase></member> ?
-
- Let alone <member><jbophrase
- role="rafsi">logj</jbophrase><jbophrase
- role="rafsi">-bang</jbophrase><jbophrase
- role="rafsi">-girz</jbophrase></member>
-
-Handling chapter 2: why don't we just require that the number of sub-entries matches?
- Also: maybe rename jbo/gloss for this purpose, or introduce roles.
-
-From IRC:
-
-< vensa> rlpowell: are you aware of the TYPO at the bottm of this CLL page? http://dag.github.com/cll/10/16/
-< rlpowell> Heh. I get an internal server error. :)
-< rlpowell> Can you paste?
-< vensa> subordinate: X TENSE le nu Y -- that's the proper part
-< vensa> forethought coordinate: TENSE+gi X gi Y -- thats the bad part pe'i
-< rlpowell> What do you think the problem is?
-< kebukebu> (They are said to be equivalent)
-< vensa> (should be TENSE+gi *Y* gi *X*)
-
-20.xml:
-
- <xref linkend="chapter-attitudinals-section-intensity-scale -- and friends do not agree with the chapter
-
- <xref linkend="chapter-vuho"/> -- should be chapter-relative-clauses-section-vuho
-
-21.xml:
-
- <jbophrase role="letteral">.</jbophrase> -- should be <quote>
-
-TODO
-
- move all commenst about jbophrase and such into README-tags, have
- README and TODO reference README-tags
-
-All
-
- At least one TAG SPOT para is stil there but not in use.
-
==================
Instructions For Helpers
==================
-Most of the below is intended to be done as needed as you review a
-particular chapter/section. It looks like more complexity than it
-actually is; you'll get used to it.
+Ok, things are a lot more miscellaneous now, and require a lot more
+care and attention.
- SAY HERE WHAT YOU'VE DONE, including parts you haven't completed
- (like index work).
+First off,
-Robin Powell: 5.1, 5.2, 5.3
-Zort: All chapters except 20 & 21 excepting index stuff (plenty of FIXMEs, though)
-Matthew Walton: 3
+ YOU MUST READ "README-tags"
+
+in its entirety. The rest of this won't make sense until you do.
+If that document seems confusing, feel free to bug
+rlpowell/camgusmis or zort, but it may mean you're not cut out to
+help at this stage.
------
IF YOU CHANGE, ADD, OR REMOVE ANY ACTUAL CONTENT, I WILL EAT YOUR
FAMILY. WITH STEAK SAUCE. MMMMMM.
If you make a change that is not *solely* XML tags, that's a content
change, and I will hunt you down and bad things will occur.
------
-Ignore Chapter 2 for now.
-
- ------
-
-If you have any trouble, add a FIXME comment, like so:
-
-<!-- FIXME: detailed explanation here -->
-
- ------
-
-Make sure the <interlinear-gloss> bits look right in the output (which
-is why the columns are so spaced out).
-
- ------
-
-References to examples in the text should be changed to <xref>s, using
-the random id of the example in question, e.g. <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjmr"/>
-
-The important thing here is that *NOTHING* mentions a fixed number!
-*NOWHERE* in the docbook should *ANYTHING* be aware that it is in
-chapter 20 or section 7 or anything like that. This is to give us
-the freedom to move things around later.
-
-Numeric-based stuff will all be autogenerated during processing,
-based on the current state of the docs.
-
-THERE IS ONE EXCEPTION: DO NOT change anchors that are one to three
-pairs of letters and numbers, like this:
-
- <anchor xml:id="c5e1d5" />
-
-They are going to be needed down the road to provide backwards
-compatability. Don't touch them.
-
- ------
-
-Feel free to do visual cleanup *of the source*; don't worry about
-how crappy the *output* looks, we're only doing data structures
-right now. In particular, there are a lot of elements with no space
-after their terminators; it doesn't really matter, but it's
-annoying.
-
- ------
-
-If you see a <quote>...</quote> around Lojban text, replace it with
-<jbophrase>...</jbophrase>. There are lots of these.
-
-Also, use <jbophrase valid="false">...</jbophrase> for purposeful na
-gendra and <jbophrase valid="iffy">...</jbophrase> for na smudra
-
-Turn Lojban letters, like <quote>l</quote>, into <jbophrase
-role="letteral">l</jbophrase> (including ",", ".", and "'").
-
-Similarily we have role="morphology" (consonant clusters),
-role="diphthong", and role="rafsi".
-
- ------
-
-<programlisting> is bad; change it. If you can't figure out how to
-change it, or think it's actually correct in some particular place,
-post to the BPFK list.
-
- ------
-
-If an example/interlinear-gloss consists solely of English, replace
-the <interlinear-gloss>...</interlinear-gloss> with <para>...</para>
+==================
+ Non-Visual Issues
+==================
- ------
+Deal with all the <oldjbophrase> crap. This is probably the single
+biggest remaining chunk of work.
-Make sure all the components of <example>s are appropriately wrapped in
-<jbo>, <gloss>, <en>, <ipa>, <math>, or <foreign> (if it doesn't fit
-one of those, make up a tag).
+Basically every use of <lojbanization> has <jbo> for the first
+entry, when it should actually be <natlang>.
- ------
-
-Entries like <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"> (NOTE the type)
-probably need to be destroyed; there should be a bit of Lojban near
-them that can be wrapped in <jbophrase>, to exactly the same effect
-as the <indexterm> entry, UNLESS said Lojban text is part of a bigger
-Lojban phrase; leave those for now. If you can't find such a correspondance,
-add a FIXME comment.
+All instances of <definition> need to be checked, because many of
+them do not, in fact, denote definitions (in which case they should
+be replaced be <quote>).
------
Entries like <indexterm type="example-imported"> (NOTE the type)
need to be moved into examples.
Especially things like this:
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>lemon tree</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
@@ -165,67 +51,77 @@ which are artificial paragraphs solely for index importing.
All such indexterm entries should end up in the example itself, like so:
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>lemon tree</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c5e2d1"/>
</title>
------
-==================
- Data
-==================
-- The per-section cmavo lists should be like this:
+The per-section cmavo lists should be like this:
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ke</cmavo>
<selmaho>KE</selmaho>
<description>start grouping</description>
</cmavo-entry>
...
</cmavo-list>
- - also need to wrap the lojban words there in a way that does
- indexing, and ideally auto-generation of the cmavo-per-selmaho
- lists we want for chapter 20
- - does the <cmavo-list> structure achieve this?
+
+All the imported/manual indexterm entries for single words or
+selma'o need to be checked; they should be covered adequately by
+nearby <cmavo-list> or <valsi> entries, both of which create index
+entries. If you don't know how to search for only the relevant
+entries in your particular text editor, come on #jbopre and ask.
+
+Clean up the "FIXME: TAG SPOT" bits. Those were put there as part
+of the semi-automated index insertion project. If there's an
+<indexterm> next to them, great; kill it. If there isn't, maybe
+look around nearby and make sure that obvious <valsi> tags and
+similar are in use.
+
+Similarily, entries like <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported">
+(NOTE the type) probably need to be destroyed; there should be a bit
+of Lojban near them that can be wrapped in <valsi>, to exactly the
+same effect as the <indexterm> entry. If you can't find such a
+correspondance, add a FIXME comment.
+
+Hunt down all FIXME:s and <!-- ... --> with todo type comments.
+That's all going to be advanced shit, though.
+
+==================
+ Visual Issues
+==================
+
+After we're done with all that, we need to actually make it look
+nice. That's going to be quite a bit of work, and mostly on the
+XSLT end of things, but here are some things you can do to maybe
+help (you're certainly free to hack the XSLT if you know how,
+though).
+
+Make sure the <interlinear-gloss> bits look right in the output (which
+is why the columns are so spaced out).
+
+==================
+ Data
+==================
- It seems that there is a problem with the cmavo lists at the
beginning of sections having missing entries; in particular, ones
wwith +/* in the selma'o, maybe?; they need to be manually checked
- lojban words, lojban phrases, terms of art ("abstraction"),
others?... should each have their own index
-- cll_chapter5-section1 should be content-words-brivla or so ; those
- IDs should not change when things are moved around
- list the members of each selma'o in chapter 20
-- make sure the examples that aren't interlinear glosses don't have
- that as their role
- - so far there's
- - pronunciation-example
- - compound-cmavo-example
- - lujvo-making-example
- - lojbanization-example
- - lujvo-example
- <phrase role="IPA">∞</phrase> is *not* IPA
-- <@xalbo> I do think having distinct structures for quoted correct
- lojban and for intentionally incorrect lojban (if there's any, but
- I would expect there is) would probably be a good thing. <@xalbo>
- (found one: search for djeimz) <@xalbo> I see three cases, though
- I don't know if they're all represented in the text: valid, good
- lojban, invalid lojban, and something in between ({lo nanmu
- bajra}, for instance; maybe worth flagging with a "this isn't what
- you think it is" type of thing
- - use <jbophrase valid="false">...</jbophrase> for purposeful na
- gendra and <jbophrase valid="iffy">...</jbophrase> for na smudra
- In the mediaobjects in chapter 1, can we do better than <alt>The
picture for chapter 20</alt> in terms of non-numerical cross
referencing?
-- Replace chapter xrefs with section xrefs
- Fix all FIXMEs; in particular the output of:
grep 'FIXME:' [0-9]*.xml | grep -v 'TAG SPOT'
==================
Display
==================
- links to examples should *say* "example N"; easy to test from the
index
- links to sections should say the number of section and chapter
- examples should be 5.2.1 rather than 5.6 for the first example in
@@ -248,11 +144,10 @@ All such indexterm entries should end up in the example itself, like so:
the way the red book does
==================
Both/Other
==================
- make sure backwards-compatible anchors exist
- Ideally, make sure they are autogenerated as part of the HTML
production.
- Similarily, generate more-readable anchors based on current
section number and such
-�ý5:q!
diff --git a/todocbook/TODO-index b/todocbook/TODO-index
deleted file mode 100644
index ca46523..0000000
--- a/todocbook/TODO-index
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,1507 +0,0 @@
-# ' symbol: and consonant cluster determination in lujvo, 56; definition (see also apostrophe), 31
-# &: word for, 416
-# (n + 1)(n + 1) = n^2 + 2n + 1: example, 437
-# (n+1)-th rat: example, 448
-# .: word for, 416
-# .1010_2 ( 2^{110_2}: example, 451
-# : , word for, 416
-# +1 + -1 = 0: example, 436
-# -1: example, 433
-#
-# 1 + 1 = 2: example, 435
-#
-# 10^20: example, 451
-#
-# 123: example, 432
-#
-# 12-point: example, 418
-#
-# 2 + 2: example, 262
-#
-# 2 rats + 2 rabbits = 4 animals: example, 456
-#
-# 2/7: example, 433
-#
-# 3 ( 10^8: example, 451
-#
-# 3 grams: example, 435
-#
-# 3.1415: example, 433
-#
-# 4-letter rafsi: definition, 57
-#
-# 5-letter rafsi: definition, 57
-#
-# 8 out of ten: example, 448
-# a: example, 322
-# a is letteral: example, 422
-# A selma'o, 336, 340, 341, 352, 354, 361, 364, 453, 489
-# a/an: contrasted with the, 322
-# an: example, 322
-# but/and equivalence, 25
-# C/C string: as a symbol for a permissible consonant pair, 50
-# C/CC string: as a symbol for a consonant triple, 50
-# di'u-series pro-sumti /r dihuseries, 148
-# me/du equivalence, 99
-# or": "and/or" contrasted with "either ... or ... but not both, 334
-# pro-sumti for speaker/listener/others: as masses, 146; relation to joi, 146
-# rounded/unrounded vowels, 31
-# space/time metaphor: expressing direction mapping for, 231
-# tan(pi/2) = infinity: example, 456
-# tense direction/distance as sumti tcita: contrasted with event contours, 232
-# this/that in English: compared with ti-series pro-sumti, 147
-# topic/comment: multiple sentence, 468
-# voiced/unvoiced consonants: restrictions on, 36
-# when/where/how: example, 250
-# yes/no questions, 321; quick-tour version, 23
-# z = f(x): example, 438
-#
-abbreviated lujvo and plausibility -- has count 0, skipping -- abbreviated lujvo and plausibility, 284
-abstraction contours -- has count 0, skipping -- abstraction contours: compared with contour tenses, 268
-abstraction -- has count 119, skipping -- abstraction(s): achievement, 258; activity, 258; amount, 261; amount contrasted with property, 261; concept, 265; connection, 269; creating new types, 266; event, 256; experience, 265; forethought connection in, 365; grammatical uses, 255; grouping of connectives in, 365; idea, 265; implicit in sumti, 257; logical connection of, 365; making concrete, 267; mental activity, 262; place structure, 255; point-event, 258; predication/sentence, 262; process, 258; property, 259; sentence, contrasted with quotation, 263; simplification to sumti, 266; simplification to sumti with jai, 267; simplification to sumti with tu'a, 266; speaking, writing, etc., 263; state, 258; sumti ellipsis in, 256; syntax, 255; table, 269; truth-value, 262; truth-value contrasted with amount, 262; truth-value and fuzzy logic, 262; types, 265; vague, 265; with knowing, believing, etc., 262; with wonder, doubt, etc., 264
-abstractors -- has count 19, skipping -- abstractors, 502
-accented letters -- has count 0, skipping -- accented letters: considered as distinct from unaccented, 419
-achievative event contour -- has count 0, skipping -- achievative event contour, 228
-achievement abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- achievement abstraction: place structure, 259
-achievement abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- achievement abstraction(s): definition, 258; related tense contours, 269
-achievement event -- has count 0, skipping -- achievement event: described, 258
-acronym names from lerfu words -- has count 0, skipping -- acronym names from lerfu words: assigning final consonant, 424
-acronyms names based on lerfu words -- has count 0, skipping -- acronyms names based on lerfu words: omitting bu, 424; using "z" instead of " ' "in, 424
-activity abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- activity abstraction: place structure, 259
-activity abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- activity abstraction(s): definition, 258; related tense contours, 268
-activity event -- has count 0, skipping -- activity event: described, 258
-actual stop -- has count 0, skipping -- actual stop: contrasted with natural end, 229
-addition -- has count 73, skipping -- addition: a mathematical operator, 436
-addition operator -- has count 0, skipping -- addition operator: contrasted with positive sign, 436
-adjective-noun combination -- has count 0, skipping -- adjective-noun combination: with tanru, 84
-adverb-verb combination -- has count 0, skipping -- adverb-verb combination: with tanru, 84
-affirmative answer -- has count 0, skipping -- affirmative answer: quick-tour version, 23
-afraid of horse -- has count 0, skipping -- afraid of horse: example, 179
-after sleep -- has count 0, skipping -- after sleep: example, 303
-afterthought bridi connectives -- has count 0, skipping -- afterthought bridi connectives: contrasted with forethought bridi connectives, 338
-afterthought connective -- has count 0, skipping -- afterthought connective(s): as complete grammatical utterance, 352; contrasted with forethought connective, 338
-afterthought sentence connection -- has count 0, skipping -- afterthought sentence connection: modal contrasted with tense, 248
-ai -- has count 23, skipping -- ai, 302
-aleph null -- has count 0, skipping -- aleph null: example, 434
-alienable possession -- has count 0, skipping -- alienable possession: definition, 173
-aliens -- has count 0, skipping -- aliens: communication with, 329
-allowable diphthongs -- has count 0, skipping -- allowable diphthongs: in fu'ivla contrasted with in gismu/lujvo, 63
-all-th -- has count 0, skipping -- all-th: example, 447
-alphabet -- has count 44, skipping -- alphabet: Latin used for Lojban, 413; Lojban, 29; words for letters in, rationale, 413; words for non-Lojban letters, rationale, 413
-American Indian languages and evidentials -- has count 0, skipping -- American Indian languages and evidentials, 315
-amount abstraction and mathematics -- has count 0, skipping -- amount abstraction and mathematics, 261
-Amsterdam -- has count 0, skipping -- Amsterdam: example, 38
-anaphoric pro-bridi -- has count 0, skipping -- anaphoric pro-bridi: stability of, 162
-and -- has count 2881, skipping -- and: as non-logical connective, 353; compared with but, 353; contrasted with cross-product, 357
-and earlier -- has count 0, skipping -- and earlier: example, 364
-and then -- has count 39, skipping -- and then: example, 240, 364
-animals -- has count 11, skipping -- animals: use of fu'ivla for specific, 61
-anomalous ordering of lujvo places -- has count 0, skipping -- anomalous ordering of lujvo places, 283
-answers -- has count 14, skipping -- answers, 469; go'i for yes/no questions, 154; to operator questions, 457; to place structure questions, 191; to tense-or-modal questions, 250
-antecedent -- has count 15, skipping -- antecedent: for pro-bridi, 151; for pro-bridi as full bridi, 151
-antecedent of pro-bridi -- has count 0, skipping -- antecedent of pro-bridi: definition, 145
-antecedent of pro-sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- antecedent of pro-sumti: definition, 145
-any -- has count 324, skipping -- any: as a restricted universal claim, 399; as a translation problem, 399; as a universal claim, later restricted, 400; as an existential claim, 400; expressing as existential by variable in subordinate bridi, 401
-apostrophe -- has count 27, skipping -- apostrophe: and consonant cluster determination in lujvo, 56; as not a consonant for morphological discussions, 49; as preferable over comma in names, 33; definition of, 31; example of, 33; purpose of, 31; quick-tour version, 12; type of letter in word-formation, 31; use in vowel pairs, 34; variant of, 31
-approximate numbers -- has count 0, skipping -- approximate numbers: expressing, 442; expressing some exactness of, 443
-Artur Rubenstein -- has count 0, skipping -- Artur Rubenstein: example, 202
-assignable pro-sumti -- has count 11, skipping -- assignable pro-sumti: explicit cancellation of by rebinding, 162; stability of, 162
-assumption -- has count 13, skipping -- assumption: example, 317
-asymmetrical tanru types -- has count 0, skipping -- asymmetrical tanru types: activity + implement-used, 110; cause + effect, 107; characteristic/detail + object, 106; characteristic-time + event, 110; effect + causative agent, 107; elements-in-set + set, 105; energy-source + powered, 110; general-class + sub-class, 106; inhabitant + habitat, 106; locus-of-application + object, 110; miscellaneous, 111; object + component/detail, 106; object + place-sold, 110; object + usual-container, 110; object-giving-characteristic + other-object, 109; object-measured + standard-object, 108; object-of-action + action, 105; object-of-purpose-of-instrument + instrument, 107; overriding-property + object-with-implicit-properties, 108; possessor + object, 106; product + producer, 109; product + source, 108; purpose-of-instrument + instrument, 107; set + element-of-set, 105; similar-appearance-object + object, 109; source + product, 107; source-material + object, 108; typical-place + object, 109; undesired-object + protection-object, 110; whole + part, 109
-at least -- has count 53, skipping -- at least: contrasted with more than, less than, at most, 443; example, 443
-attend school -- has count 0, skipping -- attend school: example, 226
-attitude -- has count 41, skipping -- attitude, 297; avoidance of expression, 322; scalar, 305
-attitudes -- has count 21, skipping -- attitudes: beginning, 314; ceasing, 314; continuing, 314; empathy contrasted with sympathy, 314; expressing changes in, 314
-attitudinal -- has count 53, skipping -- attitudinal: example of scale effect, 305; scope, 474; signaling as non-propositional, 304
-attitudinal answers -- has count 0, skipping -- attitudinal answers: plausibility, 313
-attitudinal categories -- has count 0, skipping -- attitudinal categories, 306; example of effect, 307; mnemonic for, 307; rationale, 306
-attitudinal indicator -- has count 0, skipping -- attitudinal indicator: unspecified, 311
-attitudinal questions -- has count 0, skipping -- attitudinal questions, 313; asking about specific attitude, 313; asking intensity, 313
-attitudinal scale -- has count 0, skipping -- attitudinal scale: as axis in emotion-space, 306; neutral compared with positive + negative, 306; seven-position, 305; stand-alone usage, 305; usage, 305
-attitudinal scales -- has count 0, skipping -- attitudinal scales: rationale for assignment, 304
-attitudinals -- has count 38, skipping -- attitudinals: a- series, 301; affecting whole grammatical structures, 312; ambivalent emotion words, 300; and logic, 392; at beginning of text, 312; attributing emotion to others, 314; benefit in written expression, 312; categories with nai, 307; categories with scale markers, 307; comparison of meaning based on position, 301; complex emotion words, 300; complexity, 310; compound, 298; contours, 314; contrasted with bridi, 303, 306; contrasted with discursives, 317; contrasted with rationalizations of emotion, 306; design benefit, 306; difficult emotion words, 300; e- series, 301; effect of cu'i, 299; effect of nai, 299; emotional contrasted with propositional, 301; emotional/propositional caveat, 302; exceptions, 314; external grammar, 312; grammar of internal compounding, 311; grammar of placement in bridi, 312; i- series, 298, 301; internal grammar, complete, 311; logical language and, 302; negative, 304; neutral, 304; non-speaker attitudes, 314; o- series, 298; order of, 306; placement for prevailing attitude, 297; placement in sentences with "nai", 311; positive, 304; prevailing attitude, 297; propositional contrasted with emotional, 301; propositional effect on claim, 301; propositional indicators, 301; propositional/emotional caveat, 302; pure emotion, 298; rationale for, 303; referent uncertainty, 312; scale of, 304; stand-alone categories, 307; u- series, 298; word-form for primary, 297
-attitudinals and claims -- has count 0, skipping -- attitudinals and claims, 298
-attitudinals and irony -- has count 0, skipping -- attitudinals and irony, 299
-attitudinals and truth value -- has count 0, skipping -- attitudinals and truth value, 298
-attitudinals for emotional reaction -- has count 0, skipping -- attitudinals for emotional reaction, 299
-au -- has count 14, skipping -- au, 302
-author of this book -- has count 0, skipping -- author of this book, 5
-ba -- has count 107, skipping -- ba, 219, 363
-back-counting pro-sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- back-counting pro-sumti, 139
-ba'e -- has count 10, skipping -- ba'e, 416, 479; interaction with bu, 416
-BAhE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- BAhE selma'o, 479, 480, 489
-bai -- has count 21, skipping -- bai, 201
-BAI modal tags -- has count 0, skipping -- BAI modal tags: rationale for, 195
-BAI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- BAI selma'o, 195, 205, 224, 489; as short forms for fi'o constructs, 195; effect of conversion on, 196; form of cmavo in, 197; rationale for selection, 196
-ba'o -- has count 20, skipping -- ba'o, 228; as futureward of event, 229; derivation of word, 228; explanation of derivation, 229
-base -- has count 37, skipping -- base: assumed, 444; changing permanently, 444; non-constant, 444; specifying, 444; vague, 445
-base greater than 16 -- has count 0, skipping -- base greater than 16: compound single-digits contrasted with two digits, 445; expressing numbers in, 445; two digits contrasted with compound single-digits, 445
-base varying for each digit -- has count 0, skipping -- base varying for each digit: separator for, 445
-be -- has count 1573, skipping -- be, 93, 197, 262
-BE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- BE selma'o, 93, 489; terminator for, 490
-bear wrote story -- has count 0, skipping -- bear wrote story: example, 121
-Bears wrote book -- has count 0, skipping -- Bears wrote book: example, 124
-beautiful dog -- has count 0, skipping -- beautiful dog: example, 20
-because -- has count 247, skipping -- because: English word, four varieties of, 198
-begin -- has count 35, skipping -- begin: contrasted with resume, 229
-BEhO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- BEhO selma'o, 93, 490
-bei -- has count 20, skipping -- bei, 93
-BEI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- BEI selma'o, 93, 489
-be'o -- has count 40, skipping -- be'o, 93; effect of ku on elidability of, 94; effect of relative clauses on elidability of, 94; elidability of, 94
-better -- has count 20, skipping -- better: example, 293
-bibliography -- has count 0, skipping -- bibliography, 6
-bicycle race -- has count 0, skipping -- bicycle race: example, 266
-big nose -- has count 0, skipping -- big nose: example, 169
-big nose-pores -- has count 0, skipping -- big nose-pores: example, 170
-BIhE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- BIhE selma'o, 437, 490
-BIhI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- BIhI selma'o, 246, 359, 360, 361, 455, 490; grammar of, 360
-bi'i -- has count 17, skipping -- bi'i, 359, 362
-binary system -- has count 0, skipping -- binary system: specifying numbers in (see also base), 444
-bi'o -- has count 11, skipping -- bi'o, 359
-blue -- has count 128, skipping -- blue: as sad, example, 322
-blue house -- has count 30, skipping -- blue house: example, 193, 349
-blueness -- has count 11, skipping -- blueness: example, 261
-blueness varying -- has count 0, skipping -- blueness varying: example, 261
-bo -- has count 126, skipping -- bo, 86, 198, 238, 240, 342, 343, 349, 361, 364, 459, 466; contrasted with ke for tensed logical connection, 364; contrasted with tu'e for tensed logical connection, 364; for right-grouping in tanru, 87; in jeks for operators, 361; in joiks for operators, 361; in logical connectives, 342; right-grouping, 343
-bo and forethought connectives -- has count 0, skipping -- bo and forethought connectives, 343
-BO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- BO selma'o, 86, 133, 342, 343, 349, 361, 364, 454, 466, 490
-boi -- has count 31, skipping -- boi, 362, 421, 438, 449, 450, 458; effect on elidability of me'u, 449; eliding from lerfu strings, 421; exception before MAI, 458; exception before MOI, 449; exception before ROI, 458; in Polish notation, 438; required between pro-sumti lerfu string and quantifier, 421
-BOI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- BOI selma'o, 421, 490
-bold -- has count 0, skipping -- bold: example, 418
-bomb destroyed fifty miles -- has count 0, skipping -- bomb destroyed fifty miles: example, 360
-boring legalities -- has count 0, skipping -- boring legalities, 8
-borrowing from other language -- has count 0, skipping -- borrowing from other language: fu'ivla as, 53
-bound variable pro-sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- bound variable pro-sumti: stability of, 162
-brackets -- has count 22, skipping -- brackets: use in IPA notation, 29
-bridi -- has count 632, skipping -- bridi: building from selbri and sumti, 187; compared with predication, 11; concept of, 11; definition, 83, 187; definition, quick-tour version, 26; effect of alternate form on sumti order, 188; effect of using non-standard form, 188; exception to sumti place structure in, 188; leaving a sumti place unspecified in with zo'e, 189; leaving end sumti places unspecified in, 189; logical connection with negation, 337; logical connective for, 336; non-standard form, 188; omitting the first sumti place, 188; quick-tour version, 14; relation to selbri, 83; selbri-first as exceptional, 188; standard form of, 188
-bridi negation -- has count 32, skipping -- bridi negation: and DeMorgan's Law, 408; and negation boundary, 408; compared with negation between sentences, 404; multiple, 104; na before selbri compared to naku in prenex, 401; naku in prenex compared to na before selbri, 401; relative order with tense, 103; two forms of, 401
-bridi-based comparison -- has count 0, skipping -- bridi-based comparison: contrasted with comparison with relative phrase, in claims about parts, 204
-bridi-tail -- has count 33, skipping -- bridi-tail: definition, 344, 495
-bridi-tails -- has count 20, skipping -- bridi-tails: eliding vau in, 345; forethought tense connection of, 240
-brivla -- has count 110, skipping -- brivla: as one of the 3 basic word classes, 50; consonant pairs in, 53; definition, 52; definition, quick-tour version, 27; from tanru, 55; properties of, 53; recognition of, 53; relation to bridi, 11; stress on, 40; subtypes of, 53; types, 83; types of, quick-tour version, 20
-brivla as selbri -- has count 0, skipping -- brivla as selbri, 83
-brivla equivalents -- has count 0, skipping -- brivla equivalents, 97
-brivla form -- has count 0, skipping -- brivla form: contrasted with cmavo form, 53; contrasted with cmene form, 53
-broda -- has count 27, skipping -- broda, 151
-broda-series for pro-bridi -- has count 0, skipping -- broda-series for pro-bridi: compared with ko'a-series for pro-sumti, 151
-broda-series pro-bridi -- has count 0, skipping -- broda-series pro-bridi, 151; assigning with cei, 151; use as abstract pattern, 151; use as sample gismu, 151; with no assignment, 151; word-form rationale, 151
-bu -- has count 235, skipping -- bu, 414; and compound cmavo, 416; effect of multiple, 416; effect on preceding word, 414; for extension of lerfu word set, 416; grammar of, 416; interactions, 416, 417; omitting in acronyms names based on lerfu words, 424
-BU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- BU selma'o, 414, 490
-bu'a -- has count 18, skipping -- bu'a, 164, 409
-bu'a-series pro-sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- bu'a-series pro-sumti: for bound variables, 161
-bubu -- has count 0, skipping -- bubu, 416
-but -- has count 617, skipping -- but: compared with and, 353; example, 318
-butter is soft -- has count 0, skipping -- butter is soft: example, 124
-BY selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- BY selma'o, 414, 418, 425, 491; terminator for, 490
-C string -- has count 0, skipping -- C string: as a symbol for a single consonant, 49
-ca -- has count 94, skipping -- ca, 219, 232; compared with bu'u, 219; meaning as a sumti tcita, 232; meaning when following interval specification, 221; rational for, 219
-CAhA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- CAhA selma'o, 243, 491; making sticky, 243; order in tense construct, 243
-CAI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- CAI selma'o, 305, 491
-cancellation of indicators -- has count 0, skipping -- cancellation of indicators, 494
-cancellation of pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignment -- has count 0, skipping -- cancellation of pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignment: with da'o, 162
-cancellation of sumti assignment -- has count 0, skipping -- cancellation of sumti assignment, 492
-ca'o -- has count 14, skipping -- ca'o, 228; derivation of word, 228
-canceling letter shifts -- has count 0, skipping -- canceling letter shifts, 418
-captions to pictures -- has count 0, skipping -- captions to pictures, 7
-carried piano -- has count 0, skipping -- carried piano: example, 353
-carry sack -- has count 0, skipping -- carry sack: example, 205
-carry sack and dog -- has count 0, skipping -- carry sack and dog: example, 241
-Carthage destroyed -- has count 0, skipping -- Carthage destroyed: example, 317
-case -- has count 155, skipping -- case: upper/lower specification, 415
-cat of plastic -- has count 0, skipping -- cat of plastic: example, 160
-cause death -- has count 0, skipping -- cause death: example, 267, 287
-CC string -- has count 0, skipping -- CC string: as a symbol for a permissible initial consonant pair, 50
-CCVVCV fu'ivla -- has count 0, skipping -- CCVVCV fu'ivla: and rafsi fu'ivla proposal, 80
-ce -- has count 61, skipping -- ce, 354, 355
-ce'e -- has count 13, skipping -- ce'e, 208, 347, 399
-CEhE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- CEhE selma'o, 347, 399, 491
-cei for broda-series assignment -- has count 0, skipping -- cei for broda-series assignment: compared with goi for ko'a-series assignment, 151
-CEI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- CEI selma'o, 491
-ce'u -- has count 21, skipping -- ce'u, 161, 260, 261; use in specifying sumti place of property in abstraction, 161
-cessitive event contour -- has count 0, skipping -- cessitive event contour, 228
-chapter numbering -- has count 0, skipping -- chapter numbering, 458
-chapter titles -- has count 0, skipping -- chapter titles: intent of, 4
-character encoding schemes -- has count 0, skipping -- character encoding schemes: application to lerfu words, 425
-characters -- has count 11, skipping -- characters: definition, 425; special, 31
-child on ice -- has count 0, skipping -- child on ice: example, 221
-choose from -- has count 0, skipping -- choose from: example, 355
-ch-sound in English -- has count 0, skipping -- ch-sound in English: representation in Lojban, 31
-claims -- has count 33, skipping -- claims: contrasted with expression of feelings, 298
-clarity of sounds -- has count 0, skipping -- clarity of sounds, 31
-Classical Greek aorist tense -- has count 0, skipping -- Classical Greek aorist tense: compared with Lojban tense, 223
-clause -- has count 98, skipping -- clause: subordinate using abstraction, 255
-closings -- has count 0, skipping -- closings: letter, 325
-cmavo -- has count 2065, skipping -- cmavo: as one of the 3 basic word classes, 50; compound, 51; contrasted with rafsi in usage, 61; contrasted with same-form rafsi in meaning, 56; definition, 50; definition, quick-tour version, 27; diphthongs in, 51; experimental, 51; for experimental use, 51; interaction list, 485; lack of relation of form to grammatical use, 51; rules for pause after Cy-form, 69; simple, 51; stress on, 40, 52; structure of, 51
-cmavo as brivla -- has count 0, skipping -- cmavo as brivla, 495
-cmavo as selbri -- has count 0, skipping -- cmavo as selbri: quick-tour version, 20
-cmavo as sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- cmavo as sumti, 497
-cmavo without rafsi -- has count 0, skipping -- cmavo without rafsi: method of including in lujvo, 60
-cmene -- has count 33, skipping -- cmene: algorithm for, 66; alternatives for restricted sequences in, 66; and analyzability of speech stream, 64; as one of the 3 basic word classes, 50; authority for, 65; avoiding impermissible consonant clusters in, 67; consonant clusters permitted in, 66; definition, 64; examples of, 64; final letter in, 66; from Lojban words, 66; method of including in lujvo, 60; proscribed syllables in, 67; purpose of, 64; rationale for lojbanizing, 64; requirement for pause after, 66; restrictions on form of, 65; rules for, 66; rules for formation, 65; rules for pause before, 68; stress in, 65, 66; unusual stress in, 65
-cmene form -- has count 0, skipping -- cmene form: contrasted with brivla form, 53
-co -- has count 71, skipping -- co, 95
-CO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- CO selma'o, 491
-co'e-series pro-bridi -- has count 0, skipping -- co'e-series pro-bridi, 157
-coffee mixed with tea -- has count 0, skipping -- coffee mixed with tea: example, 359
-coi -- has count 18, skipping -- coi, 136, 324; quick-tour version, 21
-coin heads -- has count 0, skipping -- coin heads: example, 447
-combining words into one -- has count 0, skipping -- combining words into one, 507
-comma -- has count 24, skipping -- comma: definition of, 32; effect on relative clause in English, 171; example of, 32; main use of, 32; optional, 32; quick-tour version, 12; variant of, 32
-command -- has count 10, skipping -- command: contrasted with observative form, 188
-commas in numbers -- has count 0, skipping -- commas in numbers: as numerical punctuation, 433; effect of other notation conventions, 433; with elided digits, 433
-commutative truth functions -- has count 0, skipping -- commutative truth functions, 335
-comparison with relative phrase -- has count 0, skipping -- comparison with relative phrase: contrasted with bridi-based comparison, in claims about parts, 204
-completitive event contour -- has count 0, skipping -- completitive event contour, 228
-complex logical connection -- has count 0, skipping -- complex logical connection: grouping strategies contrasted, 343
-complex negation -- has count 0, skipping -- complex negation: examples, 102
-complex numbers -- has count 0, skipping -- complex numbers: expressing, 434
-components contrasted with mass -- has count 0, skipping -- components contrasted with mass: in properties of, 354
-compound bridi with more than one sumti in common -- has count 0, skipping -- compound bridi with more than one sumti in common: with common sumti first, 345; with vau, 345
-compound cmavo -- has count 41, skipping -- compound cmavo: compared with sequence of simple cmavo, 51; definition, 51; recognition of, 51
-compound letter marker -- has count 0, skipping -- compound letter marker, 505
-compound letters -- has count 0, skipping -- compound letters: native language, representing as distinct letters, 419
-compound logical connectives -- has count 0, skipping -- compound logical connectives: components, 336; naming convention, 336
-compound of gismu -- has count 0, skipping -- compound of gismu: lujvo as, 53
-compound spatial tense -- has count 0, skipping -- compound spatial tense: as direction with-or-without distance, 218; beginning with distance only, 218; effect of different ordering, 218; explanation of, 218; with direction and distance, 218
-compound temporal tense -- has count 0, skipping -- compound temporal tense: beginning with distance only, 220
-compound tense ordering -- has count 0, skipping -- compound tense ordering: Lojban contrasted with English, 218
-concept abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- concept abstraction, 265
-concept abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- concept abstraction(s): place structure, 265
-concrete terms -- has count 0, skipping -- concrete terms: use of fu'ivla for, 61
-confusion -- has count 19, skipping -- confusion: metalinguistic, 321
-confusion about what was said -- has count 0, skipping -- confusion about what was said, 321
-connecting operands -- has count 0, skipping -- connecting operands: with bo in connective, 361; with ke in connective, 361
-connecting operators -- has count 0, skipping -- connecting operators: with bo in connective, 361; with ke in connective, 361
-connection -- has count 147, skipping -- connection: forethought, 494; forethought separator, 495; non-distributed, 356; of bridi-tails, 495; of sumti, 489, 496; of tanru units, 495, 496; simultaneously modal and logical, 204
-connection of operators -- has count 0, skipping -- connection of operators: grouping, 454
-connective answers -- has count 0, skipping -- connective answers: non-logical, 359
-connective question answers -- has count 0, skipping -- connective question answers: contrasted with other languages, 353
-connective -- has count 124, skipping -- connective(s): as complete grammatical utterance, 352; as ungrammatical utterance, 352
-connectives -- has count 107, skipping -- connectives: for abstractions, 269; table by constructs connected, 366
-consonant -- has count 119, skipping -- consonant: definition, 35; effect on syllable count, 35
-consonant-final words -- has count 0, skipping -- consonant-final words: necessity for pause after, 68
-consonants -- has count 59, skipping -- consonants: contrasted with vowels, 33; final, 36; position of, 36; pronunciation of, quick-tour version, 12; restrictions on, 36; syllabic, 34; voiced/unvoiced equivalents, 35; voicing of, 35
-continuitive event contour -- has count 0, skipping -- continuitive event contour, 228
-contradictory negation -- has count 14, skipping -- contradictory negation: using naku before selbri, 405
-contradictory negation of modals -- has count 0, skipping -- contradictory negation of modals: explanation of meaning, 207
-contradictory negation of tenses -- has count 0, skipping -- contradictory negation of tenses: selma'o allowed with, 242
-contributors to this book -- has count 0, skipping -- contributors to this book, 5
-conversion -- has count 45, skipping -- conversion: accessing tense of bridi with jai, 247; definition, 100, 247; effect of multiple on a selbri, 194; effect on BAI, 196; extending scope of, 193; modal, 206, 496; of BAI, 195; of operator places, 459; of selbri, 504; scope of, 193; swapping non-first places, 194; swapping with modal place, 205; using jai, 101
-conversion and tanru -- has count 0, skipping -- conversion and tanru, 100
-conversion into sumti from mekso -- has count 0, skipping -- conversion into sumti from mekso, 436
-conversion of mekso into sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- conversion of mekso into sumti, 436
-conversion of operand into operator -- has count 0, skipping -- conversion of operand into operator, 460
-conversion of operator into operand -- has count 0, skipping -- conversion of operator into operand, 460
-conversion of operator into selbri -- has count 0, skipping -- conversion of operator into selbri, 457
-conversion of selbri into operand -- has count 0, skipping -- conversion of selbri into operand, 456
-conversion of selbri into operator -- has count 0, skipping -- conversion of selbri into operator, 456
-conversion of selbri to modal -- has count 0, skipping -- conversion of selbri to modal, 493
-conversion of sentence with quantified variables -- has count 0, skipping -- conversion of sentence with quantified variables: technique, 407
-conversion of sumti into operand -- has count 0, skipping -- conversion of sumti into operand, 456
-conversion of sumti into selbri -- has count 0, skipping -- conversion of sumti into selbri, 98
-conversion with `ke' -- has count 0, skipping -- conversion with `ke', 101
-conversion with se -- has count 0, skipping -- conversion with se: effect of naku negation boundary on, 406
-converting sumti to related meaning -- has count 0, skipping -- converting sumti to related meaning, 498
-co'o -- has count 11, skipping -- co'o, 324; quick-tour version, 21
-credits for pictures -- has count 0, skipping -- credits for pictures, 6
-credits for this book -- has count 0, skipping -- credits for this book, 6
-cu -- has count 460, skipping -- cu, 188, 190, 216; as selbri separator, 188; effect of selbri-first bridi on, 190; effect of tense specification, 216; effect on elidability of ku, 122; effect on elidable terminators, 188; necessity of, 188; need for, quick-tour version, 19; omission of, quick-tour version, 14; quick-tour version, 14; use of, quick-tour version, 14; usefulness of, 188
-CU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- CU selma'o, 188, 492
-cu'e -- has count 10, skipping -- cu'e: combining with other tense cmavo, 250
-CUhE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- CUhE selma'o, 238, 492
-cultural knowledge -- has count 0, skipping -- cultural knowledge: example, 316
-cultural words -- has count 0, skipping -- cultural words: rafsi fu'ivla proposal for, 80
-culturally dependent lujvo -- has count 0, skipping -- culturally dependent lujvo, 322
-cycles -- has count 0, skipping -- cycles, 230
-Cy-form cmavo -- has count 0, skipping -- Cy-form cmavo: rules for pause after, 69
-da -- has count 156, skipping -- da, 162, 392, 473; as a translation for "something", 392; contrasted with zo'e, 392
-da poi -- has count 25, skipping -- da poi, 394
-da prami de -- has count 18, skipping -- da prami de: contrasted with da prami da, 393
-DA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- DA selma'o, 473
-da'a -- has count 10, skipping -- da'a, 441; default number for, 441
-DAhO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- DAhO selma'o, 162, 466, 492
-da-series -- has count 10, skipping -- da-series: after third, 472
-da-series pro-sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- da-series pro-sumti: for bound variables, 161
-default operator precedence -- has count 0, skipping -- default operator precedence: contrasted with mekso goal, 436
-definite numbers -- has count 0, skipping -- definite numbers: combined with indefinite, 442
-dei -- has count 14, skipping -- dei, 149
-demonstrated potential -- has count 0, skipping -- demonstrated potential: expressing, 244
-demonstrative pro-sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- demonstrative pro-sumti, 140, 147; stability of, 162
-DeMorgan's Law -- has count 13, skipping -- DeMorgan's Law: and bridi-tail logical connection, 408; and distributing a negation, 407; and internal naku negations, 409; and logically connected sentences, 408; and moving a logical connective relative to "naku", 407; sample applications, 408
-dereferencing a pointer -- has count 0, skipping -- dereferencing a pointer: with la'e, 134
-descriptions -- has count 54, skipping -- descriptions: and abstractions, 255; as based on first place of following selbri, 193; as possessive sumti, 180; based on go'i-series pro-bridi, 155; components of, 120; importance of selbri first place in, 120; non-specific, 121; quick-tour version, 19; specific, 121; types of, 120; use of SE in, 193
-descriptions with lo -- has count 0, skipping -- descriptions with lo: teddy bear contrasted with real bear, 122
-descriptor -- has count 26, skipping -- descriptor, 498; as part of description, 120
-descriptor for numbers -- has count 0, skipping -- descriptor for numbers, 499
-descriptors -- has count 20, skipping -- descriptors: different implicit outer quantifiers among, 131; implicit quantifiers for, 129; omission of, 132; purpose of, 120
-diacritic marks -- has count 0, skipping -- diacritic marks: proposed lerfu words for, 429
-diacritical marks -- has count 0, skipping -- diacritical marks: as lerfu, 418; considered as forming distinct letters, 419; order of specification within tei...foi, 419; problem of position, 418; problem with multiple on one lerfu, 419; specifying with tei...foi, 419
-dictionary -- has count 22, skipping -- dictionary: superior authority of, 5
-die after living -- has count 0, skipping -- die after living: example, 232
-digit questions -- has count 0, skipping -- digit questions, 449
-digits -- has count 20, skipping -- digits, 502; cmavo for, 432; list of decimal, 462; list of hexadecimal, 462; names from, 459; rafsi for, 459; rationale for having 16, 444
-digits beyond 9 -- has count 0, skipping -- digits beyond 9: word pattern, 444
-dimensionality of interval -- has count 0, skipping -- dimensionality of interval: as subjective, 224
-diphthongs -- has count 21, skipping -- diphthongs: classification of, 34; contrasted with vowel pairs, 34; definition of, 33; English analogues of, 45; in fu'ivla, 63; IPA for, 33; list of, 33; pronunciation of, quick-tour version, 12; specific to cmene, 66; specific to names, 66
-direction -- has count 37, skipping -- direction: following interval in tense construct, 221; interaction with movement specification in tenses, 224; order of relative to distance in spatial tenses, 217; reference frame for, 224; spatial, 493; specification with FAhA, 217; time, 503
-directions -- has count 15, skipping -- directions: multiple with movement, 225
-disclaimers -- has count 0, skipping -- disclaimers, 5
-discourse -- has count 33, skipping -- discourse: commentary on, 319; expressing utterance relation to, 317; gesture markers, 319; tone of voice markers, 319
-discrete -- has count 0, skipping -- discrete: of tense intervals, 225
-discursives -- has count 11, skipping -- discursives: as metalinguistic claims, 317; contrasted with attitudinals, 317; definition, 317; discourse commentary, 319; discourse management, 320; embedded, 481; expressing how things are said, 318; knowledge, 319; placement in sentence, 317; quick-tour version, 25; su'a, 316; word-level, 318
-discursives for consecutive discourse -- has count 0, skipping -- discursives for consecutive discourse, 317; contrasted, 318
-discursives for managing discourse flow -- has count 0, skipping -- discursives for managing discourse flow, 320
-discuss in language -- has count 0, skipping -- discuss in language: example, 357
-distance -- has count 52, skipping -- distance: order of relative to direction in spatial tenses, 217; spatial, 506; specification with VA, 217; time, 507
-distributing a negation -- has count 0, skipping -- distributing a negation, 407
-distribution of quantified sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- distribution of quantified sumti, 398
-di'u -- has count 33, skipping -- di'u, 148; contrasted with la'edi'u, 149; contrasted with ta, 148; quick-tour version, 21
-do -- has count 425, skipping -- do, 146
-doctor and then rich -- has count 0, skipping -- doctor and then rich: example, 364
-dog or cat -- has count 0, skipping -- dog or cat: example, 351
-doghouse -- has count 10, skipping -- doghouse: example, 72, 277
-DOhU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- DOhU selma'o, 137, 323, 492
-do'i -- has count 10, skipping -- do'i, 149; compared with zo'e-series as indefinite pro-sumti, 158
-doi -- has count 48, skipping -- doi, 136, 138, 323; effect on necessity for pause before name-word, 138; effect on pause before name, 323; quick-tour version, 21
-double negation -- has count 0, skipping -- double negation: and naku, 407
-du -- has count 165, skipping -- du, 162, 164; as an exception within GOhA selma'o, 97; compared with me in effect, 99; contrasted with dunli, 163, 439; contrasted with mintu, 163; derivation of, 163; grammar of, 435; meaning of, 163; rationale for selection of selma'o for, 162; with complex mekso on both sides, 436
-du'u -- has count 33, skipping -- du'u, 263, 264
-e -- has count 1064, skipping -- e, 340; contrasted with fa'u, 356; contrasted with pi'u, 357
-eat bread -- has count 0, skipping -- eat bread: example, 441
-eat in airplane -- has count 0, skipping -- eat in airplane: example, 225
-EBNF grammar -- has count 0, skipping -- EBNF grammar, 552
-editorial commentary -- has count 0, skipping -- editorial commentary, 480
-Eek! -- has count 0, skipping -- Eek!: example, 301
-ei -- has count 20, skipping -- ei, 303, 305
--ek -- has count 0, skipping -- -ek: in name for logical connectives, 336
-ek -- has count 27, skipping -- ek: definition, 336
-eks -- has count 15, skipping -- eks: connecting operands, 361; in sumti forethought logical connection, 340
-elidability of be'o -- has count 0, skipping -- elidability of be'o, 94
-elidability of me'u -- has count 0, skipping -- elidability of me'u, 99
-elided tense -- has count 0, skipping -- elided tense: meaning of, 215
-elliptical pro-bridi -- has count 0, skipping -- elliptical pro-bridi, 157
-elliptical pro-sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- elliptical pro-sumti, 157
-embedded bridi tenses -- has count 0, skipping -- embedded bridi tenses: effect of main bridi tense on, 235
-emotion -- has count 51, skipping -- emotion, 297
-emotional categories -- has count 0, skipping -- emotional categories, 306
-emotional indicators -- has count 0, skipping -- emotional indicators: noticeable effects of, 330
-emotions -- has count 38, skipping -- emotions: compound, 306; cultural bias of expression, 329; insights, 306; marking, 505; marking intensity of, 491; recording using indicators, 329; research using indicators, 329; when expressed, 306
-emphasis -- has count 44, skipping -- emphasis, 479; changing by using non-standard form of bridi, 188; marking, 489
-end of file -- has count 0, skipping -- end of file, 484
-end of text indicator -- has count 0, skipping -- end of text indicator, 493
-endpoints -- has count 10, skipping -- endpoints: inclusion in interval, 360
-Englishman in Africa -- has count 0, skipping -- Englishman in Africa: example, 124
-equivalents to brivla -- has count 0, skipping -- equivalents to brivla, 97
-error marking -- has count 0, skipping -- error marking: metalinguistic, 321
-e'u -- has count 10, skipping -- e'u, 303, 317; compared with ru'a, 317
--er -- has count 0, skipping -- -er: use of zmadu in forming, 58
-'et'e -- has count 0, skipping -- 'et'e: example, 419
-Eureka! -- has count 0, skipping -- Eureka!: example, 299
-event contours as sumti tcita -- has count 0, skipping -- event contours as sumti tcita: contrasted with direction and distance, 232
-events -- has count 39, skipping -- events: considered as a process, 228; duration, 256; place structure, 257
-everybody loves something -- has count 0, skipping -- everybody loves something: example, 401
-everyone -- has count 12, skipping -- everyone: contrasted with anyone in assumption of existence, 399
-everyone bitten by dog -- has count 0, skipping -- everyone bitten by dog, 396
-everything -- has count 30, skipping -- everything: expressing with "ro da", 394
-everything breathes -- has count 0, skipping -- everything breathes: example, 395
-everything loves everything -- has count 0, skipping -- everything loves everything: example, 394
-everything sees me -- has count 0, skipping -- everything sees me: example, 394
-everything sees something -- has count 0, skipping -- everything sees something: example, 394
-exact number -- has count 0, skipping -- exact number: expressing, 443
-exactly two -- has count 10, skipping -- exactly two: example, 443
-example of examples -- has count 0, skipping -- example of examples, 5
-examples -- has count 151, skipping -- examples: structure of, 5
-expanding "no" quantifier -- has count 0, skipping -- expanding "no" quantifier, 403
-experience abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- experience abstraction, 265
-experience abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- experience abstraction(s): place structure, 265
-experimental cmavo -- has count 0, skipping -- experimental cmavo: definition, 51; forms for, 51
-exporting negation to prenex -- has count 0, skipping -- exporting negation to prenex: "naku" contrasted with internal bridi negation, 406; internal bridi negation contrasted with "naku", 406
-fa -- has count 44, skipping -- fa, 189
-FA in selbri -- has count 0, skipping -- FA in selbri: compared with converted selbri in meaning, 193; contrasted converted selbri with in structure, 193
-FA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- FA selma'o, 93, 189, 206, 247, 493; after 5th place, 472; as a reminder of place in place structure, 190; avoidance of complex usage of, 191; compared with zo'e for omitting places, 190; effect on place structure, 190; effect on place structure order, 190; effect on subsequent non-tagged places, 191; for accessing a selbri place explicitly by relative number, 190; for putting more than one sumti in a single place, 191; syntax of, 189
-FA tags and linked sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- FA tags and linked sumti, 93
-face -- has count 11, skipping -- face: specifying for letters, 418
-FAhA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- FAhA selma'o, 217, 242, 493; and direction, 217; contradictory negation of, 241; use in specifying space/time mapping direction, 231
-FAhO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- FAhO selma'o, 484, 493
-fancy E -- has count 0, skipping -- fancy E: notation convention, 335
-fancy O -- has count 0, skipping -- fancy O: notation convention, 335
-fai -- has count 15, skipping -- fai, 206, 247, 287; as allowing access to original first place in modal conversion, 206; effect on numbering of place structure places, 206
-falsity of mathematical relation -- has count 0, skipping -- falsity of mathematical relation: expressing, 440
-fancy A -- has count 0, skipping -- fancy A: notation convention, 335
-fancy U -- has count 0, skipping -- fancy U: notation convention, 335
-fast-talker shoe -- has count 0, skipping -- fast-talker shoe: example, 17
-father -- has count 21, skipping -- father: example, 11
-fa'u -- has count 12, skipping -- fa'u, 354, 356, 470; compared to termsets, 356; contrasted with .e, 356
-fe -- has count 65, skipping -- fe, 189
-fe'e -- has count 13, skipping -- fe'e, 230, 231, 232; effect of TAhE/ROI with ZAhO on, 231
-feeling -- has count 15, skipping -- feeling, 297
-FEhE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- FEhE selma'o, 230, 493
-FEhU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- FEhU selma'o, 194, 493
-fe'o -- has count 11, skipping -- fe'o, 325; contrasted with fa'o, 325
-fe'u -- has count 10, skipping -- fe'u, 194
-fi -- has count 103, skipping -- fi, 189
-Fido -- has count 13, skipping -- Fido: example, 396
-figurative lujvo -- has count 0, skipping -- figurative lujvo, 322; place structure, 322
-FIhO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- FIhO selma'o, 194, 493; terminator for, 493
-final syllable stress -- has count 0, skipping -- final syllable stress: rules for pause after, 69
-finish -- has count 0, skipping -- finish: contrasted with stop, 229
-fi'o -- has count 24, skipping -- fi'o, 194; and modal conversion, 206; as modal tag, 194; effect on following selbri, 194; mixed modal connection with, 205; proscribed for sticky modals, 208; restriction on use, 201; use in adding places to place structure, 194
-fi'o constructs -- has count 0, skipping -- fi'o constructs: short forms as BAI, 195
-fi'o modal followed by selbri -- has count 0, skipping -- fi'o modal followed by selbri: effect on eliding fe'u, 202
-fi'o modals -- has count 0, skipping -- fi'o modals: negation of by negating selbri, 207; usage in relative phrases, 204
-fi'o tag -- has count 0, skipping -- fi'o tag: relation of modal sumti following to selbri, 195
-fi'o with selbri -- has count 0, skipping -- fi'o with selbri: meaning of, 194
-fish eat -- has count 0, skipping -- fish eat: example, 468
-fish on right -- has count 0, skipping -- fish on right: example, 222
-flashbacks in story time -- has count 0, skipping -- flashbacks in story time: example, 237
-floating point numbers -- has count 0, skipping -- floating point numbers: expressing, 451
-flow of discourse -- has count 0, skipping -- flow of discourse: managing with discursives, 320
-fo -- has count 40, skipping -- fo, 189
-foi -- has count 13, skipping -- foi, 419
-FOI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- FOI selma'o, 419, 494
-food -- has count 18, skipping -- food: use of fu'ivla for specific, 61
-forethought bridi connectives -- has count 0, skipping -- forethought bridi connectives: contrasted with afterthought bridi connectives, 338
-forethought connectives and bo -- has count 0, skipping -- forethought connectives and bo, 343
-forethought interval -- has count 0, skipping -- forethought interval: GAhO position, 361
-forethought logical connectives in tanru -- has count 0, skipping -- forethought logical connectives in tanru: effect on tanru grouping, 92
-forethought mathematical notation -- has count 0, skipping -- forethought mathematical notation (see also Polish), 438
-forethought modal sentence connection -- has count 0, skipping -- forethought modal sentence connection, 199; relation to modal of first bridi in, 199; relation to modal of second bridi in, 199
-forethought modal sentence connection for causals -- has count 0, skipping -- forethought modal sentence connection for causals: order of cause and effect, 199
-forethought tanru connection -- has count 0, skipping -- forethought tanru connection, 350
-forethought tense connection of bridi-tails -- has count 0, skipping -- forethought tense connection of bridi-tails: order of, 240
-forethought tense connection of sentences -- has count 0, skipping -- forethought tense connection of sentences: order of, 239
-forethought tense connection of sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- forethought tense connection of sumti: order of, 239
-formulae -- has count 0, skipping -- formulae: expressing based on pure dimensions, 456
-four "e"s -- has count 0, skipping -- four "e"s: example, 422
-fourteen "e"s -- has count 0, skipping -- fourteen "e"s: example, 413
-frequency within interval -- has count 0, skipping -- frequency within interval: specifying, 504
-from one to two o'clock -- has count 0, skipping -- from one to two o'clock: example, 359
-fu -- has count 93, skipping -- fu, 189
-FUhA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- FUhA selma'o, 494
-FUhE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- FUhE selma'o, 475, 494
-FUhO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- FUhO selma'o, 475, 494
-fu'ivla -- has count 59, skipping -- fu'ivla: algorithm for constructing, 62; as a subtype of brivla, 53; as Stage 3 borrowings, 61; as Stage 4 borrowings, 62; categorized contrasted with uncategorized in ease of construction, 62; considerations for choosing basis word, 64; consonant clusters in, 62; construction of, 62; definition, quick-tour version, 27; diphthongs in, 63; disambiguation of, 64; form for rafsi fu'ivla proposal, 80; form of, 62; initial consonant cluster in, 62; method of including in lujvo, 60; quick-tour version, 20; rules for formation of, 62; stress in, 62; uniqueness of meaning in, 61; use of, 61; with invalid diphthongs, 64
-fu'ivla categorizer -- has count 0, skipping -- fu'ivla categorizer, 61; for distinguishing fu'ivla form, 64; for distinguishing specialized meanings, 64; selection consideration for, 62
-fuzzy logic and truth-value abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- fuzzy logic and truth-value abstraction, 262
-ga -- has count 59, skipping -- ga, 408
-GA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- GA selma'o, 336, 338, 339, 340, 341, 352, 361, 453, 494
-GAhO position in forethought intervals -- has count 0, skipping -- GAhO position in forethought intervals, 361
-GAhO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- GAhO selma'o, 246, 360, 361, 494; grammar of, 360
-ganai -- has count 13, skipping -- ganai, 339, 340
-ga'o -- has count 12, skipping -- ga'o, 360, 362; etymology of, 360
-ge -- has count 73, skipping -- ge, 408
-ge'a -- has count 12, skipping -- ge'a, 450, 452, 453; for infix operations with too many operands, 451
-GEhU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- GEhU selma'o, 175, 495
-gei -- has count 18, skipping -- gei, 450; as a binary operator, 450; as a ternary operator, 451; rationale for order of places, 451
-gek -- has count 19, skipping -- gek: definition, 338
-gek bridi connectives -- has count 0, skipping -- gek bridi connectives: contrasted with ijeks, 338
-geks -- has count 12, skipping -- geks: connecting operands, 361; in forethought sumti connection, 341; syntax of, 340
-German rich man -- has count 0, skipping -- German rich man: example, 344
-gerund -- has count 0, skipping -- gerund: using abstraction, 255
-ge'u -- has count 14, skipping -- ge'u, 151, 175, 318; effect of following logical connective on elidability, 175; elidability of from relative phrases, 175
-gi -- has count 168, skipping -- gi, 92, 199, 239, 240, 340, 361, 408
-GI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- GI selma'o, 336, 339, 340, 361, 495
-gi'e -- has count 28, skipping -- gi'e, 344
-GIhA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- GIhA selma'o, 336, 344, 346, 352, 364, 495; terminator for, 506
-gihek -- has count 17, skipping -- gihek: definition, 344
-gik -- has count 14, skipping -- gik: as name for compound cmavo, 336; definition, 340
-ginai -- has count 18, skipping -- ginai, 340
-girls' school -- has count 20, skipping -- girls' school: little, example, 85
-gismu -- has count 211, skipping -- gismu: algorithm for, 75; and cmavo, major, 53; as a subtype of brivla, 53; as partitioning semantic space, 53; basic rafsi for, 57; coined, 77; conflicts between, 54; creation, and transcription blunders, 76; creation, considerations for selection after scoring, 75; creation, proscribed gismu pairs, 76; creation, scoring rules, 75; cultural, 78; definition, 53; definition, quick-tour version, 27; ethnic, 79; examples of, 54; exceptions to gismu creation by algorithm, 77; for countries, 79; for languages, 78; for Lojban source languages, 78; geographical, 79; length of, 54; level of uniqueness of rafsi relating to, 57; Lojban-specific, 77; place order, rationale, 295; place structures, 294; place structures, rationale, 294; quick-tour version, 20; rationale for, 273; rationale for choice of, 53; religious, 80; rules for, 54; scientific-mathematical, 77; selection of, 53; source of, 54; source-language weights for, 76; special, 54; too-similar, 76
-give -- has count 39, skipping -- give: example, 11
-give or receive? -- has count 0, skipping -- give or receive?: example, 191
-global attitudinals -- has count 0, skipping -- global attitudinals, 475
-glue in lujvo -- has count 0, skipping -- glue in lujvo: n-hyphen as, 56; r-hyphen as, 56; y-hyphen as, 56
-go -- has count 440, skipping -- go: example, 187
-go to market -- has count 0, skipping -- go to market: example, 215
-go to Paris or Rome -- has count 0, skipping -- go to Paris or Rome: example, 408
-go to the store -- has count 28, skipping -- go to the store: example, 4
-go'i-series pro-bridi -- has count 0, skipping -- go'i-series pro-bridi: assigning for permanent reference, 154; in narrative about quotation, 156; in quotation series, 156; in quotations, 156
-goal of this book -- has count 0, skipping -- goal of this book, 3
-goer table -- has count 0, skipping -- goer table: example, 85
-GOhA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- GOhA selma'o, 97, 145, 409, 470, 495; as component in tanru, 97; as selbri, 97
-go'i -- has count 73, skipping -- go'i, 97, 154, 318; as affirmative answer to yes/no question, 154; compared with mo in overriding of arguments, 160; contrasted with go'i ra'o, 156; contrasted with mi'u, 318
-goi assignment of ko'a-series pro-sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- goi assignment of ko'a-series pro-sumti: use in speech contrasted with writing, 151
-goi for ko'a-series assignment -- has count 0, skipping -- goi for ko'a-series assignment: compared with cei for broda-series assignment, 151
-GOI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- GOI selma'o, 172, 495; terminator for, 495
-go'i with xu -- has count 0, skipping -- go'i with xu: quick-tour version, 23
-go'i-series pro-bridi -- has count 0, skipping -- go'i-series pro-bridi, 152; as basis for description, 155; as main-bridi anaphora only, 154; as main-bridi anaphora only, exception, 155; as repeating referent concept, 155; compared with ri-series in word formation, 152; compared with ri-series pro-sumti in rules of reference, 154; effect of sub-clauses on, 154; effect of sumti of referent bridi on, 154; no'a as exception to only main-bridi anaphora, 155; referent of, 154; reinterpreting sumti references with ra'o, 156
-goi -- has count 35, skipping -- goi, 150, 154, 162, 421; rationale for non-inclusion in relative clause chapter, 175; use in assigning lerfu as pro-sumti, 152; use in assigning name, 152
-grammatical categories -- has count 0, skipping -- grammatical categories: use of upper case for, 5
-grasp water -- has count 0, skipping -- grasp water: example, 199
-grouping -- has count 75, skipping -- grouping: indicator for, 496; of connection in abstractions, 365; of connection in tenses, 363
-gu -- has count 34, skipping -- gu, 339
-GU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- GU selma'o, 339
-gu'e -- has count 15, skipping -- gu'e, 92
-GUhA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- GUhA selma'o, 350, 352, 361, 495
-guheks for tanru connection -- has count 0, skipping -- guheks for tanru connection: rationale, 350
-han4zi4 -- has count 0, skipping -- han4zi4: example, 420
-hands in pockets -- has count 0, skipping -- hands in pockets: example, 175
-having -- has count 28, skipping -- having: of properties, 259
-hexadecimal system -- has count 0, skipping -- hexadecimal system: specifying numbers in (see also base), 444
-hierarchy of priorities for selecting lujvo form -- has count 0, skipping -- hierarchy of priorities for selecting lujvo form, 72
-hit cousin -- has count 0, skipping -- hit cousin: example, 318
-hit nose -- has count 0, skipping -- hit nose: example, 318
-Hooray! -- has count 0, skipping -- Hooray!: example, 299
-huh? -- has count 0, skipping -- huh?: example, 321
-hyphens in lujvo -- has count 0, skipping -- hyphens in lujvo: proscribed where not required, 70
-hypothetical world point of view -- has count 0, skipping -- hypothetical world point of view, 320
-i -- has count 1028, skipping -- i, 198, 238, 465; quick-tour version, 16; regarding forethought bridi connection, 339
-I selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- I selma'o, 336, 337, 338, 339, 358, 364, 465, 495
-idea abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- idea abstraction, 265
-idea abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- idea abstraction(s): place structure, 265
-identity -- has count 13, skipping -- identity: expressing with po'u, 174
-ie -- has count 13, skipping -- ie, 304
-if -- has count 339, skipping -- if: English usage contrasted with Lojban logical connective, 337; expressing real world, 320; meaning in logical connections, 337
-if coffee -- has count 0, skipping -- if coffee: bring tea, example, 353
-if -- has count 349, skipping -- if, expressing hypothetical world, 320
-ii -- has count 11, skipping -- ii, 301
-ijek -- has count 10, skipping -- ijek: definition, 336
-ijek bridi connectives -- has count 0, skipping -- ijek bridi connectives: contrasted with geks, 338
-ijek logical connective -- has count 0, skipping -- ijek logical connective(s): connecting bridi, 336
-ijeks -- has count 10, skipping -- ijeks: syntax of, 338
-imaginary journey -- has count 14, skipping -- imaginary journey: and spatial tense, 217; ending point, 217; origin in tense forethought bridi-tail connection, 240; origin in tense forethought sentence connection, 239; origin in tense forethought sumti connection, 239; origin of in tense-connected sentences, 239; stages of in compound tenses, 218; starting at a different point, 232; starting point, 217, 232; with interval direction, 222
-imaginary journey origin -- has count 0, skipping -- imaginary journey origin: with sticky tenses, 234
-implicit quantifier -- has count 14, skipping -- implicit quantifier: definition, 128; for quotations, 128; on personal pro-sumti, 128; on quotations, discussion of, 128
-importance of point -- has count 0, skipping -- importance of point: scale with ra'u, 320
-inalienable possession -- has count 0, skipping -- inalienable possession: definition, 173; expressing with po'e, 173
-inchoative event contour -- has count 0, skipping -- inchoative event contour, 228
-indefinite portions -- has count 0, skipping -- indefinite portions: subjective, 442
-indefinite pro-bridi -- has count 0, skipping -- indefinite pro-bridi, 157; stability of, 162
-index numbering -- has count 0, skipping -- index numbering, 500
-indicator tables -- has count 0, skipping -- indicator tables: format convention, 298
-indicators -- has count 87, skipping -- indicators, 298; cancellation of, 494; derived from gismu, 298; evolutionary development of, 329; grammar for compounding, 310; meaning when compounded, 310; placement of, 298; quick-tour version, 24; ramifications, 329; rationale for selection, 329; scope effect of new paragraph, 466; types of, 298
-indicators derived from gismu -- has count 0, skipping -- indicators derived from gismu: notation convention, 298
-indirect question involving sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- indirect question involving sumti, 265
-indirect questions without "kau" -- has count 0, skipping -- indirect questions without "kau", 265
-individual -- has count 28, skipping -- individual: example, 446
-individual objects -- has count 0, skipping -- individual objects: multiple, 123
-individuals -- has count 24, skipping -- individuals: expressing relation with mass formed, 446; expressing relation with set formed, 446
-individuals into mass -- has count 0, skipping -- individuals into mass: by non-logical connection, 355
-individuals into set -- has count 0, skipping -- individuals into set: by non-logical connection, 355
-individuals of set -- has count 0, skipping -- individuals of set: expressing measurement standard for indefinites, 446
-inexact numbers with bounds -- has count 0, skipping -- inexact numbers with bounds, 443
-inexact portions with bounds -- has count 0, skipping -- inexact portions with bounds, 444
-inferior -- has count 0, skipping -- inferior: example, 308
-infix mathematical notation -- has count 0, skipping -- infix mathematical notation: shortcomings of, 438
-infix notation mixed with Polish -- has count 0, skipping -- infix notation mixed with Polish, 455; example, 455
-initiative event contour -- has count 0, skipping -- initiative event contour, 228
-innate property -- has count 0, skipping -- innate property: extension of from mass to individuals, 243; extension to individuals not actually capable, 244
-inner product -- has count 0, skipping -- inner product, 452
-inner quantifier -- has count 27, skipping -- inner quantifier: contrasted with outer quantifier, 129; definition, 129; effect of on meaning, 129; explicit, 129; implicit on descriptors, 129; in indefinite description, 132
-inner quantifier of sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- inner quantifier of sumti: meaning of, 178
-interaction list -- has count 0, skipping -- interaction list: cmavo, 485
-internal naku negations -- has count 0, skipping -- internal naku negations: and DeMorgan's Law, 409
-internal world -- has count 0, skipping -- internal world, 301
-International Phonetic Alphabet -- has count 0, skipping -- International Phonetic Alphabet (see also IPA), 29
-interval -- has count 130, skipping -- interval: closed, 360; effect of nai on, 360; expressed as center and distance, 359; expressed as endpoints, 359; expressing by endpoints with bi'o, 246; followed by direction in tense construct, 221; forethought, 361; forming, 490; inclusion of endpoints, 360; open, 360; open/closed specification, 494; relation to point specified by direction and distance, 221; relative order with direction and distance in tense, 221; specifying relation to point specified by direction and distance, 221; spread of actions over, 225
-interval continuousness -- has count 0, skipping -- interval continuousness: meaning as sumti tcita, 233
-interval direction -- has count 0, skipping -- interval direction: specifying, 221
-interval spread -- has count 0, skipping -- interval spread: expressing English intermittently, 226; mutually contrasted, 226; negation with nai, 226; with unspecified interval, 226
-invalid diphthongs -- has count 0, skipping -- invalid diphthongs: in fu'ivla, 64
-invalid speech -- has count 0, skipping -- invalid speech: marking as error with na'i, 321
-inversion of quantifiers -- has count 0, skipping -- inversion of quantifiers: definition, 402; in moving negation boundary, 402
-inversion of quantifiers on passing negation boundary -- has count 0, skipping -- inversion of quantifiers on passing negation boundary: rationale for, 402
-inverting a tanru -- has count 0, skipping -- inverting a tanru, 491
-inverting quantifiers -- has count 0, skipping -- inverting quantifiers: with movement relative to fixed negation, 406; with movement relative to naku, 405
-IPA -- has count 158, skipping -- IPA, 29
-IPA pronunciation -- has count 0, skipping -- IPA pronunciation: description, 42
-IT -- has count 19, skipping -- IT: as notation convention in relative clause chapter, 170
-italic -- has count 0, skipping -- italic: example, 418
--ity -- has count 0, skipping -- -ity, 259
-iu -- has count 11, skipping -- iu, 301
-iy diphthong -- has count 0, skipping -- iy diphthong: in cmene, 66
-JA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- JA selma'o, 90, 245, 336, 337, 338, 350, 352, 354, 361, 364, 365, 496
-jai -- has count 28, skipping -- jai, 206, 247, 267, 287; conversion using, 101
-JAI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- JAI selma'o, 206, 267, 496
-jai with tense -- has count 0, skipping -- jai with tense: as equivalent of SE in grammar, 247
-jai without modal -- has count 0, skipping -- jai without modal: meaning, 206
-James -- has count 89, skipping -- James: example, 36
-Jane -- has count 38, skipping -- Jane: example, 65
-ja'o -- has count 12, skipping -- ja'o, 316
-je -- has count 141, skipping -- je, 89, 208
-jei -- has count 19, skipping -- jei, 262; place structure, 262
-jek -- has count 32, skipping -- jek: definition, 336
-jeks -- has count 11, skipping -- jeks: connecting abstractors, 365; connecting operators, 361; syntax of, 350
-ji -- has count 29, skipping -- ji, 352
-ji'i -- has count 11, skipping -- ji'i, 442; effect of placement, 442; with elided number, 443
-Jim -- has count 25, skipping -- Jim: example, 65
-JOhI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- JOhI selma'o, 451, 496; terminator for, 505
-John is coming -- has count 13, skipping -- John is coming: example, 297
-John says that George goes to market -- has count 0, skipping -- John says that George goes to market: example, 238
-jo'i -- has count 11, skipping -- jo'i, 451; precedence of, 451
-joi -- has count 22, skipping -- joi, 353, 354, 355
-joi grammar -- has count 0, skipping -- joi grammar: contrasted with eks, 354; contrasted with jeks, 354
-JOI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- JOI selma'o, 246, 336, 353, 354, 355, 357, 358, 360, 361, 364, 455, 470, 496
-joik -- has count 39, skipping -- joik: as name for compound cmavo, 336; definition, 354
-joiks -- has count 11, skipping -- joiks: effect of nai on, 358; grouping, 357; syntax of, 360; use of "se" in, 355
-Jones -- has count 15, skipping -- Jones: John, example, 65
-j-sound in English -- has count 0, skipping -- j-sound in English: representation in Lojban, 31
-Jupiter life -- has count 0, skipping -- Jupiter life: example, 365
-juror 5 -- has count 0, skipping -- juror 5: example, 181
-ju'u -- has count 14, skipping -- ju'u: grammar of, 444
-ka -- has count 58, skipping -- ka, 259
-ka'u -- has count 10, skipping -- ka'u, 316
-ke -- has count 239, skipping -- ke, 88, 193, 205, 343, 344, 346, 350, 361, 364; contrasted with bo for tensed logical connection, 364; for conversion of tanru, 101; for expanding scope of scalar negation, 101
-ke in sumti grouping -- has count 0, skipping -- ke in sumti grouping: where allowed, 344
-KE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- KE selma'o, 88, 343, 344, 350, 361, 364, 454, 496; terminator for, 497
-ke'a -- has count 46, skipping -- ke'a, 160, 169; ambiguity when omitted, 161; and abstract descriptions, 161; as referent for relativized sumti, 169; contrasted with ri in relative clauses, 161; effect of omission of, 170; for relativized sumti in relative clauses, 160; meaning in relative clause inside relative clause, 184; non-initial place use in relative clause, 170; stability of, 162; subscripting for nested relative clauses, 161
-ke'a with subscript -- has count 0, skipping -- ke'a with subscript: use for outer sumti reference, 184
-ke'e -- has count 125, skipping -- ke'e, 88, 193, 205, 343, 361
-KEhE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- KEhE selma'o, 88, 343, 346, 497
-ke'i -- has count 11, skipping -- ke'i, 360, 362; etymology of, 360
-KEI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- KEI selma'o, 98, 255, 497; eliding, 255
-kei -- has count 53, skipping -- kei, 255, 262
-kept on too long -- has count 0, skipping -- kept on too long: example, 230
-ki -- has count 54, skipping -- ki, 207, 234, 243; with no tense, 235
-KI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- KI selma'o, 234, 497
-ki'a -- has count 11, skipping -- ki'a, 321; compared to ke'o, 325
-klama -- has count 431, skipping -- klama, 187; place structure of, 187
-know -- has count 87, skipping -- know: example, 263
-knowledge discursives -- has count 0, skipping -- knowledge discursives, 319; compared with propositional attitudes, 319
-ko -- has count 133, skipping -- ko, 119, 146; in later selbri place in imperative, 147; in sub-clause of main bridi, 147; quick-tour version, 22; use for commands, 146; use for imperatives, 146
-ko'a -- has count 59, skipping -- ko'a, 150
-ko'a-series -- has count 24, skipping -- ko'a-series: after tenth, 472
-ko'a-series for pro-sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- ko'a-series for pro-sumti: compared with broda-series for pro-bridi, 151
-KOhA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- KOhA selma'o, 145, 260, 469, 497
-ku -- has count 138, skipping -- ku, 122, 177, 201, 216, 354; as elidable terminator for descriptions, 122; effect of following selbri on elidability of, 122; effect of possessive sumti on elidability of, 181; effect on of omitting descriptor, 132; quick-tour version, 19; uses of, 122; with tense, 216
-KU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- KU selma'o, 354, 497; quick-tour version, 19
-ku'e -- has count 15, skipping -- ku'e, 438
-KUhE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- KUhE selma'o, 497
-KUhO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- KUhO selma'o, 169, 498
-ku'o -- has count 33, skipping -- ku'o, 169, 178, 394; effect of relative clause after descriptor on elidability, 178; effect of vau on elidability, 181; elidability for relative clauses, 170
-la -- has count 594, skipping -- la, 119, 121, 129, 137, 138; compared with le in specificity, 121; contrasted with lai in implications, 124; contrasted with le in implications, 122; contrasted with lo in implications, 122; contrasted with vocatives, 323; contrasted with zo, 478; implications of, 121; use with descriptions contrasted with use before Lojbanized names, 121
-LA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- LA selma'o, 120, 138, 193, 498; contrasted with LE in use of name-words, 138; effect on necessity for pause before name-word, 138; terminator for, 497
-la'e -- has count 21, skipping -- la'e, 134, 149, 182, 422, 459, 478; as short for "le selsinxa be", 134; effect of on meaning, 134
-LAhE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- LAhE selma'o, 133, 149, 182, 266, 478, 498; effect of relative clause placement with, 182; terminator for, 499
-la'i -- has count 10, skipping -- la'i, 125, 130, 138; as set counterpart of lai, 125
-lai -- has count 22, skipping -- lai, 123, 130, 137, 138; as mass counterpart of lai, 123; contrasted with la in implications, 124
-language shift -- has count 12, skipping -- language shift: based on name + bu, 418; choice of Lojban-lerfu-word counterpart, 417; compound, 418; effect on following words, 417; formation of shift alphabet name, 418; interaction with bu, 417; rationale for, 417; standardization of, 418
-languages -- has count 96, skipping -- languages: abbreviations for, 104
-la'o -- has count 11, skipping -- la'o, 61, 416, 479; interaction with bu, 416
-Laplace -- has count 0, skipping -- Laplace: example, 65
-large-base decimal fraction -- has count 0, skipping -- large-base decimal fraction: expressing, 445
-la-series descriptors -- has count 0, skipping -- la-series descriptors: compared with le-series in implicit quantification, 130
-Latin -- has count 16, skipping -- Latin: alphabet of Lojban, 413
-LAU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- LAU selma'o, 415, 418, 419, 498; grammar of following BY, 426
-le -- has count 1039, skipping -- le, 119, 129, 177, 354; and specificity, 120; and truth of selbri, 120; compared with English "the", 120; compared with la in specificity, 121; contrasted with lo in implications, 122; contrasted with lo in implicit quantification, 131; contrasted with lo in specificity, 121; contrasted with lo in truth requirement, 121; implications of, 120; implicit outer quantifier for, 131; in false-to-fact descriptions, 120; meaning of in the plural, 123
-le contrasted with lo -- has count 0, skipping -- le contrasted with lo: for relative clause placement considerations, 179
-le nu -- has count 75, skipping -- le nu: definition, 256
-le'e -- has count 12, skipping -- le'e, 126, 130; relationship to le'i, 126
-left-grouping rule -- has count 12, skipping -- left-grouping rule: definition of, 86
-legalities -- has count 0, skipping -- legalities: boring, 8
-LEhU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- LEhU selma'o, 476, 498
-le'i -- has count 14, skipping -- le'i, 125, 130; as set counterpart of lei, 125; relationship to le'e, 126
-lei -- has count 30, skipping -- lei, 123, 130; contrasted with loi in specificity, 124
-Length -- has count 0, skipping -- Length ( Width ( Depth = Volume: example, 456
-lerfu -- has count 217, skipping -- lerfu: as assignable pro-sumti, 152; contrasted with lerfu word, 413; definition, 413; reference to, 422; referring to with me'o, 422
-lerfu juxtaposition interpretation -- has count 0, skipping -- lerfu juxtaposition interpretation: contrasted with mathematical interpretation, 423
-lerfu pro-sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- lerfu pro-sumti: effect on ri-series pro-sumti, 153
-lerfu shift scope -- has count 0, skipping -- lerfu shift scope: exception for mathematical texts, 423
-lerfu string -- has count 32, skipping -- lerfu string: as acronym using "me", 424; as function name, 423; as function, in mathematics, 438; as mathematical variable, 422; as pro-sumti, 421; as pro-sumti assigned by goi, 421; as pro-sumti, assumption of reference, 421; as pro-sumti, for multiple sumti separated by boi, 421; as quantifier, 423; as quantifier, avoiding interaction with sumti quantifier, 423; as selbri, 423; as subscript, 423; as utterance ordinal, 423; as variable, in mathematics, 438; definition, 420; in mathematical expressions, 437; interpretation of contrasted with normal mathematical interpretation, 437; interpretation, contrasted with mathematical interpretation, 423; use in mathematics, 422; with numerical selbri, 448
-lerfu word -- has count 47, skipping -- lerfu word: contrasted with lerfu, 413; for " ' ", 414
-lerfu word cmavo -- has count 0, skipping -- lerfu word cmavo: list of auxiliary, 425
-lerfu word set extension -- has count 0, skipping -- lerfu word set extension: with bu, 416
-lerfu words -- has count 81, skipping -- lerfu words: as a basis for acronym names, 423; composed of compound cmavo, 414; composed of single cmavo, 414; consonant words contrasted with vowel words, 414; effect of systematic formulation, 414; for consonants, 414; for vowels, 414; formation rules, 414; forming new for non-Lojban letters using bu, 419; list of proposed, notation convention, 426; Lojban coverage requirement, 413; proposed for accent marks, 429; proposed for Cyrillic alphabet, 427; proposed for diacritic marks, 429; proposed for Greek alphabet, 426; proposed for Hebrew alphabet, 428; proposed for multiple letters, 429; proposed for noisy environments, 429; proposed for radio communication, 429; table of Lojban, 414; using computer encoding schemes with se'e, 425; vowel words contrasted with consonant words, 414
-lerfu words ending with "y" -- has count 0, skipping -- lerfu words ending with "y": pause after, rationale, 414
-lerfu words for vowels -- has count 0, skipping -- lerfu words for vowels: pause requirement before, 414
-lerfu words with numeric digits -- has count 0, skipping -- lerfu words with numeric digits: grammar considerations, 420
-le-series descriptors -- has count 0, skipping -- le-series descriptors: compared with la-series in implicit quantification, 130
-less -- has count 81, skipping -- less: English word, expressing with relative phrases, 203; English word, importance of relative phrase to, 204
-less than -- has count 27, skipping -- less than: contrasted with more than, at least, at most, 443; example, 443
-letter -- has count 88, skipping -- letter: alphabet, 413; contrasted with word for the letter, 413; making a word into, 490
-letter encoding schemes -- has count 0, skipping -- letter encoding schemes: application to lerfu words, 425
-letteral -- has count 20, skipping -- letteral: definition, 413
-letters -- has count 79, skipping -- letters, 491; non-Lojban, representation of diacritical marks on, 418; non-Lojban, representation with consonant-word + bu, 417; non-Lojban, representation with consonant-word + bu, drawback, 417; non-Lojban, representation with language-shift, 417; non-Lojban, representation with names, 416; sound contrasted with symbol for spelling, 417; symbol contrasted with sound for spelling, 417
-le'u -- has count 28, skipping -- le'u, 119, 141, 476; interaction with zoi, 478
-li -- has count 200, skipping -- li, 119, 141, 435; as converter of mekso into sumti, 436; contrasted with me'o, 457; relation to me'o compared with la/zo relation, 457; terminator for, 454
-LI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- LI selma'o, 142, 422, 499; terminator for, 499
-LIhU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- LIhU selma'o, 476, 499
-likes more than -- has count 0, skipping -- likes more than: example, 203
-linked sumti and FA tags -- has count 0, skipping -- linked sumti and FA tags, 93
-linked sumti and sumti tcita -- has count 0, skipping -- linked sumti and sumti tcita, 94
-Linnaean names -- has count 0, skipping -- Linnaean names: rules for, 67
-lion in Africa -- has count 0, skipping -- lion in Africa: example, 126
-lions in Africa -- has count 0, skipping -- lions in Africa: example, 124
-list -- has count 302, skipping -- list: as a physical object, 355; contrasted with sequence, 355; example, 355
-list of things to do -- has count 0, skipping -- list of things to do: example, 358
-listen attentively -- has count 0, skipping -- listen attentively: example, 278
-literally -- has count 14, skipping -- literally, 322
-li'u -- has count 40, skipping -- li'u, 119, 141, 476
-Livingston -- has count 0, skipping -- Livingston: example, 317
-lo -- has count 207, skipping -- lo, 121, 129; and truth of selbri, 121; contrasted with le in implications, 122; contrasted with le in implicit quantification, 131; contrasted with le in specificity, 121; contrasted with le in truth requirement, 121; contrasted with loi and lo'i, 125; implications of, 121; implicit outer quantifier for, 131; omission of, 132
-lo contrasted with le -- has count 0, skipping -- lo contrasted with le: for relative clause placement considerations, 179
-lo'e -- has count 13, skipping -- lo'e, 126, 130; relationship to lo'i, 126
-logic -- has count 26, skipping -- logic: and attitudinals, 392; limits of, 392; resolving ambiguities of "nobody", 391
-logical connection -- has count 67, skipping -- logical connection: effect on elidability of lo'o, 454; grouping strategies for complex cases contrasted, 343; in abstraction(s), inner bridi contrasted with outer bridi, 365; in mathematical expressions, 361; in tanru, contrasted with unconnected version, 349; in tanru, expandability of, 349; in tanru, grouping with bo, 349; in tanru, grouping with ke, 350; inside an abstraction(s), contrasted with outside, 365; interaction with tenses, 363; negation in connecting more than 2 sentences, 342; of bridi-tail as opposed to tanru, 350; of bridi-tails, forethought, 347; of bridi-tails, restriction on ke, 346; of forethought termsets, 348; of modals, 208; of more than 2 sentences, all or none, 342; of more than 2 sentences, forethought, 342; of more than 2 sentences, mixed "and" and "or", 342; of more than 2 sentences, things to avoid, 342; of observatives, relation of first places, 345; of selbri, 344; of sumti, grouping with parenthesis, 344; of sumti, restriction on ke, 344; of tanru as opposed to bridi-tail, 350; of tanru, caveat, 350; termsets, 347; transformation between forms, 340; with bo, precedence, 342
-logical connectives -- has count 90, skipping -- logical connectives, 333; associative, 341; bridi-tail connection, 345; cmavo, format for each selma'o, 336; effect on elidability of ge'u from preceding relative phrase, 175; grouping with bo, 342; in tanru, 89; more than 2 sentences, 341; negated first sentence as a potential problem for understanding, 339; observative sentence connection, 345; pairing from left, 342; rationale for multiple sets in grammar, 335; recipes, simplified for logic chapter discussion, 403; relation to truth functions, 334; relative precedence with me'u, 99; right-grouping with bo, 343; selma'o, enumerated, 336; syntax rules summary, 366; table by truth function value, 366; tensed, 240
-logical connectives and bridi negation -- has count 0, skipping -- logical connectives and bridi negation, 403
-logical connectives and negation -- has count 0, skipping -- logical connectives and negation: caveat for logic chapter discussions, 403
-logical connectives in tanru -- has count 0, skipping -- logical connectives in tanru, 349; ambiguity of, 90; effect on formal logical manipulations, 90; effect on tanru grouping, 89; usefulness of, 90
-logical connectives within negation -- has count 0, skipping -- logical connectives within negation: effects of expansion on, 407
-Logical Language Group -- has count 10, skipping -- Logical Language Group: example, 74; relation to Lojban, 3
-logical variables -- has count 0, skipping -- logical variables: creating more by subscripting, 410; effect of global substitution, 393; effect of order in prenex, 394; effect of using multiple different, 393; explicitly placing in outer prenex, 400; for selbri, 409; implicit placement in smallest enclosing bridi prenex, 400; notation convention, 392; when not in main bridi, 393; with multiple appearances in bridi, 393; with poi, in multiple appearances, 396; with ro, in multiple appearances, 396
-Loglan -- has count 16, skipping -- Loglan, 6
-LOhO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- LOhO selma'o, 499
-LOhU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- LOhU selma'o, 476, 499; terminator for, 498
-lo'i -- has count 23, skipping -- lo'i, 125, 130, 447; as set counterpart of loi, 125; contrasted with lo and loi, 125; relationship to lo'e, 126; with elided quantifiers, 447
-loi -- has count 47, skipping -- loi, 123, 130; as mass counterpart of lo, 123; contrasted with lei in specificity, 124; contrasted with lo and lo'i, 125
-Lojban -- has count 992, skipping -- Lojban: features of, 3; history of, 3; stability of, 4
-long rafsi form -- has count 0, skipping -- long rafsi form: compared with short form in effect on lujvo meaning, 56
-loose association -- has count 0, skipping -- loose association: expressing with pe, 172
-lo-series description -- has count 0, skipping -- lo-series description: caution on exact numbers as inner quantifiers on, 131
-lo'u -- has count 30, skipping -- lo'u, 141, 416, 476; interaction with bu, 416; interaction with zoi, 478
-love more -- has count 0, skipping -- love more: example, 260
-lower case letters -- has count 0, skipping -- lower case letters: use in Lojban, 415
-lower-case letters -- has count 0, skipping -- lower-case letters: English usage contrasted with Lojban, 415; Lojban usage contrasted with English, 415
-lower-case word -- has count 0, skipping -- lower-case word: effect on following lerfu words, 415
-lu -- has count 75, skipping -- lu, 119, 141, 422, 476; contrasted with me'o for representing lerfu, 422
-LU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- LU selma'o, 476, 499; terminator for, 499
-lu'e -- has count 10, skipping -- lu'e, 134, 264, 459, 478; as short for "le sinxa be", 134; effect of on meaning, 134
-LUhU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- LUhU selma'o, 267, 499
-lujvo -- has count 335, skipping -- lujvo: abbreviated, 284; abstract, 286; algorithm for, 70; and consonant pairs, 59; and plausibility, 70; and seltau/tertau relationship, 276; and the listener, 70; anomalous, 290; as a subtype of brivla, 53; as suppliers of agent place, 295; asymmetric abstraction, 288; asymmetrical, 278; based on multiple tanru, 70; cmavo incorporation, 274; comparatives, 292; compared with tanru, 273; consideration in choosing meaning for, 69; considerations for retaining elements of, 70; construction of, 56; definition, quick-tour version, 27; design consideration for relationship, 276; dropping elements of, 69; dropping NU in implicit abstractions, 288; dropping NU rafsi, 288; dropping SE rafsi, 283; examples of making, 72; from cmavo with no rafsi, 60; from tanru, 55; fully reduced, 59; grammar of, 273; guidelines for place structure, 273; implicit-abstraction, 288; interpreting, 276; invention of, 57; meaning drift of, 69; meaning of, 56; multiple forms of, 56; NU-dropping contrasted with SE-dropping, 288; place structure of, 273; place structure of figurative lujvo, 322; pro-sumti rafsi effect on place structure of, 163; quick-tour version, 20; rationale for, 273; recognizing, 59; rules for formation of, 56; scope abstraction in underlying veljvo, 287; scored examples of, 72; scoring of, 71; selection of best form of, 71; shorter for more general concepts, 70; summary of form characteristics, 59; superlatives, 292; symmetrical, 278; ultimate guideline for choice of meaning/place-structure, 69; unambiguity of, 69; unambiguous decomposition of, 56; unreduced, 57; unsuitability of for concrete/specific terms and jargon, 61; with "jai", 287; with zei, 60; zi'o rafsi effect on place structure of, 163
-lujvo place order -- has count 0, skipping -- lujvo place order, 281; asymmetrical lujvo, 282; based on 3-or-more part veljvo, 282; comparatives, 292; complex relation, 290; elliptical lujvo, 291; multi-part with NU, 287; non-overlapping place structures, 290; rationale for standardization, 281; redundant non-first places, 290; superlatives, 294; superlatives as exceptions, 294; symmetrical lujvo, 282
-ma -- has count 101, skipping -- ma, 159, 249, 469; as sumti question, 159; for tense questions, 249; quick-tour version, 22
-MAhO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- MAhO selma'o, 500; terminator for, 505
-MAI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- MAI selma'o, 458, 474, 500; exception on use of boi before, 458
-male sexual teacher -- has count 0, skipping -- male sexual teacher: example, 74
-man biting dog -- has count 0, skipping -- man biting dog, 217
-man or woman -- has count 0, skipping -- man or woman: example, 333
-ma'o -- has count 15, skipping -- ma'o, 438, 460; potential ambiguity caveat, 460
-mai -- has count 10, skipping -- mai, 458, 474; contrasted with mo'o, 458
-man is woman -- has count 0, skipping -- man is woman: example, 177
-man-woman -- has count 0, skipping -- man-woman: example, 350
-Mars road -- has count 0, skipping -- Mars road: example, 193
-mass -- has count 110, skipping -- mass: compared with set as abstract of multiple individuals, 125; contrasted with ordered sequence, 355; contrasted with set in attribution of component properties, 125; contrasted with set in distribution of properties, 355; expressing measurement standard for indefinites, 446; expressing portions of, 441; expressing relation with individuals forming, 446; expressing relation with set forming, 446; joining elements into a, 353; rule for implicit outer quantifier, 130
-mass contrasted with components -- has count 0, skipping -- mass contrasted with components: in properties of, 354
-mass object -- has count 0, skipping -- mass object: and logical reasoning, 123; as dependent on intention, 124; contrasted with multiple individual objects, 123; properties of, 123
-mass objects -- has count 0, skipping -- mass objects: peculiarities of English translation of, 124
-mathematical expression -- has count 10, skipping -- mathematical expression: abbreviation notation, 431; definition (see also "mekso"), 431; referring to, 457
-mathematical expressions in tanru -- has count 0, skipping -- mathematical expressions in tanru, 97
-mathematical inequalities -- has count 0, skipping -- mathematical inequalities: expressing, 439
-mathematical texts -- has count 0, skipping -- mathematical texts: effect on lerfu shift scope, 423
-mathematical variables -- has count 0, skipping -- mathematical variables: lerfu strings as, 422
-mathematics -- has count 18, skipping -- mathematics: use of lerfu strings in, 422
-matrix -- has count 12, skipping -- matrix: as combination of vectors, 452; definition, 451; use as operand, 452; use of parentheses with, 452; with ge'a for more than 2 rows/columns, 452; with more than 2 dimensions, 452
-ma'u -- has count 12, skipping -- ma'u, 442; with elided number, 442
-me -- has count 277, skipping -- me, 98, 424, 448; compared with du in effect, 99; effect of MOI on, 448; explicitly specifying, 325; place structure of, 98; used with names, 99
-ME selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- ME selma'o, 98, 448, 500; terminator for, 500
-MEhU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- MEhU selma'o, 98, 500
-mei -- has count 11, skipping -- mei, 446; place structure formed for objective indefinites, 446
-mekso -- has count 71, skipping -- mekso: and literary translation, 460; complex used as quantifier, 454; definition, 431; design goals, 431; list of selma'o for, 461
-mekso chapter -- has count 0, skipping -- mekso chapter: completeness, 431; table notation convention, 431
-mekso goal -- has count 0, skipping -- mekso goal: coverage, 431; expandable, 431; for common use, 431; for mathematical writing, 431; precision, 431; unambiguous, 431
-mekso goals -- has count 0, skipping -- mekso goals: and ambiguity, 431; and non-mathematical expression, 431; mathematical notation form, 431
-me'o -- has count 21, skipping -- me'o, 142, 422, 457; compared with la'e lu, 422; contrasted with li, 457; contrasted with lu...li'u for representing lerfu, 422; contrasted with quotation for representing lerfu, 422; relation to li compared with la/zo relation, 457
-metalinguistic levels or reference -- has count 0, skipping -- metalinguistic levels or reference, 481
-metalinguistic words -- has count 0, skipping -- metalinguistic words: quick-tour version, 25
-me'u -- has count 20, skipping -- me'u, 98, 448, 449; relative precedence with logical connectives, 99
-mi -- has count 799, skipping -- mi, 119, 146
-mi'e -- has count 13, skipping -- mi'e, 146, 325; contrasted with other members of COI, 325; effect of ordering multiple COI, 325
-mi'o -- has count 11, skipping -- mi'o, 146
-mi-series -- has count 12, skipping -- mi-series: of pro-sumti, 146
-mi-series pro-sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- mi-series pro-sumti: lack of pro-bridi equivalent, 147
-mixed claim -- has count 10, skipping -- mixed claim: definition, 394
-mixed modal connection -- has count 0, skipping -- mixed modal connection: afterthought, 205; as proscribed in forethought, 205; definition, 204; of bridi-tails, 205; of sentences, 204; of sumti, 205
-mo -- has count 70, skipping -- mo, 160, 470; as selbri question, 160; compared with go'i in overriding of arguments, 160; quick-tour version, 23
-modal bridi-tail connection -- has count 0, skipping -- modal bridi-tail connection, 200
-modal causals -- has count 0, skipping -- modal causals: implication differences, 197
-modal cmavo table -- has count 0, skipping -- modal cmavo table: format of, 210
-modal connection -- has count 12, skipping -- modal connection: simultaneous with logical, 204
-modal connection of selbri -- has count 0, skipping -- modal connection of selbri: using bridi-tail modal connection, 200
-modal conversion with fi'o -- has count 0, skipping -- modal conversion with fi'o, 206
-modal conversion without modal -- has count 0, skipping -- modal conversion without modal: as vague, 206
-modal conversions -- has count 0, skipping -- modal conversions: in descriptions, 206
-modal followed by selbri -- has count 0, skipping -- modal followed by selbri: compared with tanru modification in meaning, 202; contrasted with tanru modification in grammar, 202; effect on eliding cu, 201
-modal operand connection -- has count 0, skipping -- modal operand connection, 201
-modal place -- has count 10, skipping -- modal place: definition, 195; on description selbri, 197; rationale for term name, 195; relation of to selbri, 195
-modal place relation -- has count 0, skipping -- modal place relation: importance of first place in, 195
-modal sumti connection -- has count 0, skipping -- modal sumti connection, 200
-modal tag -- has count 15, skipping -- modal tag: and sumti tcita, 94; contrasted with English preposition in preciseness, 196; definition (see also sumti tcita), 195; fi'o with selbri as, 194; for vague relationship, 197; short form as BAI, 195
-modal with no sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- modal with no sumti: indicator for, 497
-modal-or-tense question -- has count 0, skipping -- modal-or-tense question: with cu'e, 250
-modals -- has count 42, skipping -- modals: compared with tenses in syntax, 248; contradictory negation of, 206; contrasted with tenses in semantics, 248; expanding scope over inner modal connection, 202; expanding scope over logical connection with ke...ke'e, 202; expanding scope over multiple sentences with tu'e...tu'u, 202; expanding scope over non-logical connection, 202; for causal gismu, 197; importance of 1st sumti place for sumti tcita use, 248; improving relative phrase preciseness with, 203; making long-scope, 207; making sticky, 207; negation of, 206; scalar negation of, 207; termset connection, 200
-modals often attached with relative phrases -- has count 0, skipping -- modals often attached with relative phrases: list, 204
-modified -- has count 19, skipping -- modified: of a tanru, 274
-modifier -- has count 27, skipping -- modifier: of a tanru, 274; seltau as, 84
-modifying brivla -- has count 0, skipping -- modifying brivla (see also seltau), 55
-MOhE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- MOhE selma'o, 500; terminator for, 505
-MOhI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- MOhI selma'o, 224, 501
-mo'i -- has count 13, skipping -- mo'i, 224
-mo'o -- has count 11, skipping -- mo'o, 458, 474; contrasted with mai, 458
-moi -- has count 14, skipping -- moi, 447
-MOI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- MOI selma'o, 98, 446, 449, 463, 500; list of cmavo in, 463; use of boi before, 449
-more -- has count 452, skipping -- more: English word, expressing with relative phrases, 203; English word, importance of relative phrase to, 204
-more than -- has count 121, skipping -- more than: contrasted with less than, at least, at most, 443; example, 443
-morphology -- has count 12, skipping -- morphology: conventions for, 49; definition, 49; derivational, 49; simplicity of, 49; symbolic conventions for discussing, 49
-movement -- has count 13, skipping -- movement: order in tense constructs, 225; time, 225; with multiple directions, 225
-movement specification -- has count 0, skipping -- movement specification: interaction with direction in tenses, 224
-multiple compound bridi -- has count 0, skipping -- multiple compound bridi: restriction on ke, 346
-multiple conversion -- has count 0, skipping -- multiple conversion: avoiding, 194; effect of ordering, 194
-multiple indefinite sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- multiple indefinite sumti: effect of re-ordering in sentence, 399; expressing with equal scope, 399; meaning, 398
-multiple indefinite sumti scope -- has count 0, skipping -- multiple indefinite sumti scope: in termset, 399
-multiple individual objects -- has count 0, skipping -- multiple individual objects: contrasted with mass object, 123; meaning of, 123
-multiple logical connectives -- has count 0, skipping -- multiple logical connectives: within tanru, 91
-multiple ma -- has count 0, skipping -- multiple ma: as multiple questions, 160
-multiple mo -- has count 0, skipping -- multiple mo: as multiple questions, 160
-multiple quantification -- has count 0, skipping -- multiple quantification: effect on selbri placement among sumti, 407
-multiple questions in one bridi -- has count 0, skipping -- multiple questions in one bridi: expressing, 160
-multiple relative clauses -- has count 0, skipping -- multiple relative clauses: attaching with zi'e, 175; connecting different kinds with zi'e, 176
-multiple sumti in one place -- has count 0, skipping -- multiple sumti in one place: avoiding, 191; meaning, 191
-multiple tanru inversion -- has count 0, skipping -- multiple tanru inversion: effect on grouping, 96
-my -- has count 168, skipping -- my: example, 180
-n people -- has count 0, skipping -- n people: example, 423
-na -- has count 261, skipping -- na, 104, 338, 346, 350, 401, 408; and negation boundary, 408; order in logical connectives with se, 338
-na and tense -- has count 0, skipping -- na and tense: multiple, 104
-NA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- NA selma'o, 501
-na writing convention -- has count 0, skipping -- na writing convention: in eks, 341
-na.a -- has count 12, skipping -- na.a, 341
-na'e -- has count 82, skipping -- na'e, 207; before gu'e, 103; contrasted with na'e ke, 102
-NAhE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- NAhE selma'o, 101, 133, 182, 242, 459, 501; effect of relative clause placement with, 182
-NAhU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- NAhU selma'o, 501; terminator for, 505
-na'i -- has count 19, skipping -- na'i, 321
-NAI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- NAI selma'o, 501
-naku -- has count 66, skipping -- naku, 401; as creating a negation boundary, 405; compared with sumti in grammar, 405; effect on moving quantifiers, 405; in linked sumti places, 407; multiple in sentence, 407; outside of prenex, 405
-naku negation -- has count 0, skipping -- naku negation: rationale for considering an advanced technique, 406
-naku negation boundary -- has count 0, skipping -- naku negation boundary: effect on conversion with se, 406
-naku zo'u -- has count 12, skipping -- naku zo'u, 408; and negation boundary, 408
-name equivalent for "typical" -- has count 0, skipping -- name equivalent for "typical": rationale for lack of, 127
-names -- has count 99, skipping -- names: algorithm for, 66; alternatives for restricted sequences in, 66; as possessive sumti, 180; assigning with goi, 152; authority for, 65; borrowing from other languages, 138; examples of, 64; from Lojban words, 66; in vocative phrase, 137; multiple, 138; non-Lojban, 479; pause requirement in lerfu words, 416; purpose of, 64; quick-tour version, 13; rationale for lojbanizing, 64; requirement for pause after, 66; restrictions on form of, 65; rules for, 66; rules for formation, 65; stress in, 65, 66; stress on, 40; two kinds of, 137; unusual stress in, 65; uses of, 137; using rafsi, 138; with LA descriptor, 137; with zo versus la, 478
-names from vowel-final base -- has count 0, skipping -- names from vowel-final base: commonly used consonant endings, 138
-names in Lojban -- has count 0, skipping -- names in Lojban (see also cmene), 64
-names with la -- has count 0, skipping -- names with la: implicit quantifier for, 139
-na'u -- has count 13, skipping -- na'u, 456; terminator for, 456; use in asking operator questions, 457
-nai -- has count 87, skipping -- nai, 206, 226, 241, 299, 338, 340, 346, 350, 358, 360, 361, 408; effect on intervals, 360; effect on joiks, 358; placement in afterthought bridi connection contrasted with forethought, 339; placement in forethought bridi connection contrasted with afterthought, 339
-ne -- has count 22, skipping -- ne, 174, 203; compared with pe, 174
-Nederlands -- has count 0, skipping -- Nederlands: example, 65
-negated interval -- has count 0, skipping -- negated interval: meaning of, 360
-negating a forethought-connected bridi-tail pair -- has count 0, skipping -- negating a forethought-connected bridi-tail pair, 347
-negating a forethought-connected sentence pair -- has count 0, skipping -- negating a forethought-connected sentence pair, 347
-negation -- has count 228, skipping -- negation: complex examples, 102; form for emulating natural language negation, 405; of operand, 459; of operator, 459; of tenses, 241
-negation between sentences -- has count 0, skipping -- negation between sentences: compared with bridi negation, 404; meaning of, 404
-negation boundary -- has count 15, skipping -- negation boundary: and zero, 402; effect of moving, 402; forming, 497
-negation in prenex -- has count 0, skipping -- negation in prenex: effects of position, 401
-negation manipulation -- has count 0, skipping -- negation manipulation: "na" contrasted with "naku" in difficulty of, 407; "naku" contrasted with "na" in difficulty of, 407
-negation of fi'o modals -- has count 0, skipping -- negation of fi'o modals: by negating selbri, 207
-negation of modals -- has count 0, skipping -- negation of modals, 206; contradictory, 206; scalar, 207
-negations with logical connectives -- has count 0, skipping -- negations with logical connectives: effects on expansion of sentence, 407
-negative numbers -- has count 0, skipping -- negative numbers: expressing, 432
-negator -- has count 11, skipping -- negator: contradictory, 501; movement from bridi to sumti, 408; scalar, 501; single-word, 501
--ness -- has count 0, skipping -- -ness, 259
-New York city -- has count 0, skipping -- New York city: example, 174
-New York state -- has count 0, skipping -- New York state: example, 174
--ng -- has count 0, skipping -- -ng: Lojban contrasted with English, 41
-ni -- has count 97, skipping -- ni, 261, 262
-NIhE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- NIhE selma'o, 501; terminator for, 505
-NIhO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- NIhO selma'o, 466, 467, 502; quick-tour version, 16
-ni'o -- has count 24, skipping -- ni'o, 466; effect on pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignments, 162; quick-tour version, 16
-ni'u -- has count 12, skipping -- ni'u, 432, 438, 442; contrasted with va'a and vu'u, 438; with elided number, 442
-nobody -- has count 12, skipping -- nobody: ambiguous interpretations of, 391; interpretation of, 391; Lojban contrasted with English, 391
-no'i -- has count 11, skipping -- no'i, 467; effect on pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignments, 162
-noi -- has count 39, skipping -- noi, 171, 203
-NOI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- NOI selma'o, 169, 502; terminator for, 498
-non-logical connectives -- has count 17, skipping -- non-logical connectives: effect of nai on, 358; grouping, 357; including tense, 364; intervals, 359; ordered intervals, 359; sentence, 358; syntax rules summary, 366; un-ordered intervals, 359; within tanru, 91
-non-logical forethought termsets -- has count 0, skipping -- non-logical forethought termsets: connecting tagged sumti, 358
-non-logically connected tenses -- has count 0, skipping -- non-logically connected tenses, 363
-non-restrictive relative clause -- has count 0, skipping -- non-restrictive relative clause: definition (see also incidental relative clause), 171
-non-specific descriptions -- has count 0, skipping -- non-specific descriptions, 121
-non-standard orthographies -- has count 0, skipping -- non-standard orthographies: caveat, 46; Cyrillic, 46; Tengwar, 46
-non-standard words -- has count 0, skipping -- non-standard words: marking, 480
-nothing sits -- has count 0, skipping -- nothing sits: example, 401
-nu -- has count 169, skipping -- nu, 256, 259, 261; definition, 256; place structure, 257
-NU compared with ZAhO -- has count 0, skipping -- NU compared with ZAhO, 268
-NU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- NU selma'o, 98, 255, 256, 257, 262, 263, 268, 365, 502; syntax, 255; terminator for, 497
-nu'a -- has count 14, skipping -- nu'a, 97, 457; use in answering operator questions, 457
-NUhA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- NUhA selma'o, 502
-NUhI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- NUhI selma'o, 348, 399, 502
-NUhU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- NUhU selma'o, 348, 399, 502; terminator for, 502
-nu'i -- has count 14, skipping -- nu'i, 200, 348, 399
-number questions -- has count 0, skipping -- number questions, 449; answers to, 449
-number words -- has count 0, skipping -- number words: pattern in, 432
-numbers -- has count 85, skipping -- numbers: as compound cmavo, 432; as grammatically complete utterances, 449; as possessive sumti, 180; cmavo as Lojban equivalents, 50; descriptor for, 499; English contrasted with Lojban on exactness, 397; expressing simple, 432; greater than 9, 432; implicit quantifier for, 142; indefinite, 440; list of indefinite, 463; list of special, 462; Lojban contrasted with English on exactness, 397; meaning when used as quantifiers, 127; on logical variables, 397; rafsi for, 59; special, 434; talking about contrasted with using for quantification, 435; using for quantification contrasted with talking about, 435
-numeric digits in lerfu words -- has count 0, skipping -- numeric digits in lerfu words: grammar considerations, 420
-numerical punctuation -- has count 14, skipping -- numerical punctuation, 433; undefined, 434
-numerical tenses -- has count 0, skipping -- numerical tenses: effect on use of boi, 458
-nu'u -- has count 15, skipping -- nu'u, 200, 348, 399
-ny -- has count 40, skipping -- ny, 437
-observation evidential -- has count 0, skipping -- observation evidential: contrasted with observative, 316
-observative form -- has count 0, skipping -- observative form: contrasted with command, 188
-observative with elided CAhA -- has count 0, skipping -- observative with elided CAhA: convention, 245
-octal system -- has count 0, skipping -- octal system: specifying numbers in (see also base), 444
-office or ice-dance -- has count 0, skipping -- office or ice-dance: example, 347
-Old McDonald -- has count 0, skipping -- Old McDonald: example, 32
-on right -- has count 0, skipping -- on right: contrasted with toward right, 224
-on two occasions -- has count 0, skipping -- on two occasions: example, 246
-on verge -- has count 0, skipping -- on verge: example, 228
-once -- has count 36, skipping -- once: example, 226, 458
-one-third of food -- has count 0, skipping -- one-third of food, 447
-only if -- has count 27, skipping -- only if: compared with if ... then, 338
-of -- has count 4492, skipping -- of: in English, compared with do'e, 197
-oi -- has count 16, skipping -- oi: example, 300
-omission of descriptor -- has count 0, skipping -- omission of descriptor: effect on ku, 132
-once and future king -- has count 0, skipping -- once and future king: example, 363
-One -- has count 43, skipping -- One: the, example, 66
-only -- has count 371, skipping -- only: example, 318
-open interval -- has count 0, skipping -- open interval, 360; expressed with mi'i, 455
-operand -- has count 86, skipping -- operand: converting from operator, 460; converting into operator, 460; converting selbri into, 456; converting sumti into, 456
-operand connection -- has count 0, skipping -- operand connection: afterthought, 453; forethought, 453
-operand modal connection -- has count 0, skipping -- operand modal connection, 201
-operands -- has count 87, skipping -- operands: connecting, 361; contrasted with general sumti, 436; too few for infix operation, 450; too many for infix operation, 451
-operator -- has count 158, skipping -- operator: converting from operand, 460; converting into operand, 460; converting into selbri, 457; converting selbri into, 456; forethought marker, 503
-operator ...ku'e in Polish notation -- has count 0, skipping -- operator ...ku'e in Polish notation: contrasted with vei ...ve'o, 438
-operator connection -- has count 0, skipping -- operator connection: afterthought, 453; forethought, 453
-operator derived from selbri -- has count 0, skipping -- operator derived from selbri: effect of selbri place structure on, 456
-operator left-right grouping -- has count 0, skipping -- operator left-right grouping: as Lojban default, 436
-operator precedence in other languages -- has count 0, skipping -- operator precedence in other languages, 436
-operator priority -- has count 0, skipping -- operator priority, 490
-operators -- has count 86, skipping -- operators: analogue of tanru in, 361; connecting, 361; list of simple, 461; mathematical, 507
-operators of VUhU -- has count 0, skipping -- operators of VUhU: grammar of operands, 436
-ordered sequence -- has count 0, skipping -- ordered sequence: by listing members, 355; contrasted with mass, 355; contrasted with set, 355
-outer product -- has count 0, skipping -- outer product, 452
-outer quantifier -- has count 23, skipping -- outer quantifier: contrasted with inner quantifier, 129; definition, 129; effect of on meaning, 129; for expressing subset, 131; implicit on descriptors, 129; in indefinite description, 132; rationale for differences in implicit quantifier on descriptors, 131
-outer quantifier of sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- outer quantifier of sumti: meaning of, 178
-outer sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- outer sumti: prenex for referring to from within relative clause within relative clause, 185; referring to from within relative clause within relative clause, 184
-owe money -- has count 0, skipping -- owe money: example, 346
-pa -- has count 65, skipping -- pa, 433
-PA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- PA selma'o, 397, 432, 440, 449, 502; exception on use of boi with MOI, 449; members with rafsi, 460; terminator for, 490
-paragraph marker -- has count 0, skipping -- paragraph marker, 502
-paragraph separation -- has count 0, skipping -- paragraph separation: spoken text, 467; written text, 466
-paragraphs -- has count 12, skipping -- paragraphs: effects on scope, 466; separating, 466; separator, 466
-parentheses -- has count 35, skipping -- parentheses: for complex mekso used as quantifier, 454
-parenthesis -- has count 29, skipping -- parenthesis: discourse, 505; mathematical, 437; textual, 480
-partial quotation -- has count 0, skipping -- partial quotation, 321
-pausative event contour -- has count 0, skipping -- pausative event contour, 228
-pause -- has count 95, skipping -- pause: and cmene, 68; and consonant-final words, 68; and Cy-form cmavo, 69; and final-syllable stress, 69; and non-Lojban text, 69; and vowel-initial words, 68; between words, 68; contrasted with stop, 229; contrasted with syllable break, 32; proscribed within words, 68; representation of in Lojban, 31; requirement between stressed syllables, 52; symbol for, 416; word for, 416
-pauses -- has count 16, skipping -- pauses: before vowels, 52; rules for, 68
-pe -- has count 65, skipping -- pe, 172, 180, 203; as loose association, 172; compared with ne, 174; compared with poi ke'a srana, 172; contrasted with po, 173
-peace symbol -- has count 0, skipping -- peace symbol, 425
-PEhE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- PEhE selma'o, 347, 503
-PEhO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- PEhO selma'o, 503; terminator for, 497
-pei -- has count 14, skipping -- pei, 313
-perfective event contour -- has count 0, skipping -- perfective event contour, 228
-perils of omitting terminators -- has count 0, skipping -- perils of omitting terminators, 102
-period -- has count 17, skipping -- period: definition of, 31; example of, 32; optional, 32; quick-tour version, 12; within a word, 32
-permissions notice -- has count 0, skipping -- permissions notice, 8
-personal pronouns for he/she/it/they -- has count 0, skipping -- personal pronouns for he/she/it/they: English contrasted with Lojban in organization, 150
-person's arm -- has count 0, skipping -- person's arm: example, 173
-pe'u -- has count 12, skipping -- pe'u, 324; contrasted with e'o, 324
-phonetic alphabet -- has count 0, skipping -- phonetic alphabet, 29; proposed lerfu words for, 429
-physical distress -- has count 0, skipping -- physical distress: example, 307
-pi -- has count 84, skipping -- pi, 130, 433, 441, 442, 444; effect on indefinite numbers, 441
-pi'e -- has count 14, skipping -- pi'e, 445
-pi'i -- has count 27, skipping -- pi'i, 436
-piro -- has count 10, skipping -- piro, 130; explanation of meaning, 130
-place of eating -- has count 0, skipping -- place of eating: example, 247
-place structure -- has count 216, skipping -- place structure: adding new places to with modal sumti, 194; definition, 12, 187; effect of FA on, 190; effect of modal conversion on, 206; empty slots in, 187; explicitly mapping sumti to place with FA, 190; gismu, 294; instability of, 187; leaving a sumti place unspecified in with zo'e, 189; notation conventions, 187; omitting places with FA, 190; omitting places with zo'e, 189; re-ordering by conversion, 100
-place structure and tanru inversion -- has count 0, skipping -- place structure and tanru inversion, 95
-place structure of selbri -- has count 0, skipping -- place structure of selbri: determining, 187
-place structure questions -- has count 0, skipping -- place structure questions, 191
-plant grows -- has count 11, skipping -- plant grows: example, 197, 207
-plural masses -- has count 0, skipping -- plural masses: possible use for, 130
-plus negative of -- has count 0, skipping -- plus negative of: example, 438
-po -- has count 51, skipping -- po, 173; as restrictive possession, 173; compared with poi ke'a se steci srana, 173; contrasted with English possession, 173; contrasted with pe, 173; contrasted with po'e, 173
-point -- has count 143, skipping -- point: event considered as, 230
-point-event abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- point-event abstraction: place structure, 259
-point-event abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- point-event abstraction(s): definition, 258; related tense contours, 269
-pointing cmavo -- has count 0, skipping -- pointing cmavo: quick-tour version, 13
-Polish notation -- has count 10, skipping -- Polish notation: and mekso goals, 431; and use of boi, 438; definition, 438; end-of-operands indicator, 438; explicitly marking as, 439; operands with infix expressions, 439; operator ...ku'e compared with parenthesization, 438; separating operands in, 438; vei ...ve'o contrasted with operator ...ku'e, 438
-Polish notation mixed with infix -- has count 0, skipping -- Polish notation mixed with infix, 455; example, 455
-politeness -- has count 0, skipping -- politeness: thank you and you're welcome, 324; you're welcome, 324, 325
-poi -- has count 138, skipping -- poi, 169, 203, 394, 396; contrasted with voi in veridicality, 177; discussion of translation, 170; dropping from multiple appearances on logical variables, 396; syntax of, 169
-pointing -- has count 15, skipping -- pointing: reference by, 147
-portion -- has count 23, skipping -- portion: on set contrasted with on individual, 131
-portion of whole -- has count 0, skipping -- portion of whole: expressing, 441
-positive numbers -- has count 0, skipping -- positive numbers: explicit expression, 432
-possessed in relative phrases -- has count 0, skipping -- possessed in relative phrases: compared with possessor, 174
-possession -- has count 38, skipping -- possession: expressing with po, 173; intrinsic, expressing with po'e, 173; Lojban usage compared with French and German in omission/inclusion, 175; Lojban usage contrasted with English in omission/inclusion, 175; quick-tour version, 21
-possession not ownership -- has count 0, skipping -- possession not ownership: quick-tour version, 21
-possessive sumti and relative clauses -- has count 0, skipping -- possessive sumti and relative clauses: development history, 180
-possessive sumti with relative clauses -- has count 0, skipping -- possessive sumti with relative clauses: effect of placement, 181
-possessor in relative phrases -- has count 0, skipping -- possessor in relative phrases: compared with possessed, 174
-potential -- has count 20, skipping -- potential: expressing in past/future, 244
-po'u -- has count 22, skipping -- po'u, 174; as identity, 174; compared with no'u, 174; compared with poi ke'a du, 174; contrasted with no'u, 175; relative phrase of contrasted with relativized sumti of, 174
-prayer -- has count 10, skipping -- prayer: example, 281, 290
-precedence -- has count 32, skipping -- precedence: mathematical default, 436
-predication -- has count 14, skipping -- predication: as a relationship, 11; compared with bridi, 11
-pregnant sister -- has count 0, skipping -- pregnant sister: example, 320
-prenex -- has count 71, skipping -- prenex: considerations for dropping, 395; dropping for terseness, 397; effect of order of variables in, 396; explanation, 392; internal to a bridi, 400; purpose of, 396; removing when numeric quantifiers present, 397; syntax of, 392; use for outer sumti reference, 185
-prenex marker -- has count 0, skipping -- prenex marker, 508
-prenex scope -- has count 0, skipping -- prenex scope: for sentences joined by .i, 410; for sentences joined by ijeks, 410; in abstractions, 410; in embedded bridi, 410; in relative clauses, 410; informal, 410
-pretty -- has count 68, skipping -- pretty: English ambiguity of, 87
-pro-bridi -- has count 76, skipping -- pro-bridi: as abbreviation for bridi, 151; broda-series, 151; broda-series list, 165; bu'a-series list, 165; compared to pro-sumti as means of abbreviation, 145; definition, 145; go'i-series list, 165; list by series, 165; list of miscellaneous cmavo used with, 166; miscellaneous list, 165; overriding sumti of antecedent bridi for, 151; quotation of, 476; scope effect of new paragraph, 466
-pro-bridi assignment -- has count 19, skipping -- pro-bridi assignment: explicit cancellation of with da'o, 162; no'i effect on, 162; stability of, 162
-pro-bridi rafsi -- has count 0, skipping -- pro-bridi rafsi: as producing context-dependent meanings, 164
-process abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- process abstraction: place structure, 259
-process abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- process abstraction(s): definition, 258; related tense contours, 268
-process event -- has count 0, skipping -- process event: described, 258
-pronouncement -- has count 0, skipping -- pronouncement: example, 316
-pronouns -- has count 10, skipping -- pronouns: as anaphora, 152; compared to pro-sumti in usage as abbreviations, 145
-pronunciation -- has count 64, skipping -- pronunciation: IPA for Lojban, 30; quick-tour version, 12; relation to orthography, 29; standard, 29
-properties -- has count 33, skipping -- properties: place structure, 261
-property abstraction -- has count 12, skipping -- property abstraction(s): contrasted with amount abstraction, 261; specifying determining place by sumti ellipsis, 259; specifying determining place with ce'u, 260; specifying sumti place of property with ce'u, 161; sumti ellipsis in, 259
-property of loving -- has count 0, skipping -- property of loving: example, 260
-proposed lerfu words -- has count 23, skipping -- proposed lerfu words: as working basis, 426
-propositional -- has count 15, skipping -- propositional: of attitudinals, 301
-pro-sumti -- has count 162, skipping -- pro-sumti: and discursive utterances, 481; as possessive sumti, 180; classes of, 139; compared to pro-bridi as means of abbreviation, 145; compared to pronouns in usage as abbreviations, 145; contrasted with description, 119; da-series list, 165; definition, 145; di'u-series, 148; di'u-series list, 164; for listener(s), 146; for listeners and/or speakers and/or others, 146; for relativized sumti in relative clauses, 160; for speaker(s), 146; implicit quantifier for, 139; ko'a-series, 150; ko'a-series list, 164; lerfu as, 152; lerfu string, effect on reference to lerfu itself, 422; lerfu string, interaction with quantifier and boi, 421; list by series, 164; list of miscellaneous cmavo used with, 166; miscellaneous list, 165; mi-series, 146; mi-series list, 164; quick-tour version, 13; quotation of, 476; rafsi for, 163; referring to place of different bridi with go'i-series, 159; referring to place of same bridi with vo'a-series, 158; ri-series list, 164; scope effect of new paragraph, 466; series, 145; ti-series, 147; ti-series list, 164; typical, 157; unspecified, 157; vo'a-series, 158; vo'a-series list, 165; zo'e-series list, 164
-pro-sumti for utterances -- has count 0, skipping -- pro-sumti for utterances, 148
-pro-sumti rafsi -- has count 0, skipping -- pro-sumti rafsi: anticipated use of for abbreviating inconvenient forms, 163; effect of on place structure of lujvo, 163
-pu -- has count 134, skipping -- pu, 219, 232; meaning as a sumti tcita, 232; meaning when following interval specification, 222
-PU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- PU selma'o, 219, 227, 242, 362, 503; compared with FAhA, 219; contradictory negation of, 241
-punctuation -- has count 36, skipping -- punctuation, 297; in numbers, 433; list of numerical, 462
-punctuation lerfu words -- has count 0, skipping -- punctuation lerfu words: interaction with different alphabet systems, 420; mechanism for creating, 419; rationale for lau, 419
-pu'o -- has count 16, skipping -- pu'o, 228; as pastward of event, 229; derivation of word, 228; explanation of derivation, 229
-quadratic formula -- has count 0, skipping -- quadratic formula: example, 455
-qualified sumti -- has count 12, skipping -- qualified sumti: contrasted with unqualified sumti, 133
-quantification -- has count 11, skipping -- quantification: before description sumti compared with before non-description sumti, 129
-quantified temporal tense -- has count 0, skipping -- quantified temporal tense: definition, 226; negating with nai, 227
-quantified temporal tense with direction -- has count 0, skipping -- quantified temporal tense with direction: Lojban contrasted with English in implications, 227
-quantified temporal tenses -- has count 0, skipping -- quantified temporal tenses: "once" contrasted with "only once", 227; caveat on implication of, 227
-quantified tenses -- has count 0, skipping -- quantified tenses: as sumti tcita, 233
-quantifier -- has count 124, skipping -- quantifier, 502; effect of moving naku, 405; explicit on sumti, 127; lerfu string as, 423; on previously quantified variable, 410; on sumti, effect on relative clause, 178; on sumti, expressing inexact amount with, 127; on sumti, indicating exact number, 127; with logical variables, 397; with sumti, 127
-questions -- has count 64, skipping -- questions, 469; answering with go'i, 154; connection, 351; digit, 449; fill-in-the-blank, 469; indirect, 264; marking in advance, 322; modal, 492; multiple, 470; number, 449, 470; operator, 457; place structure position, 191; quick-tour version, 22; rhetorical, 322; selbri, 160, 470; sumti, 159, 469; truth, 469; with "xu, 321
-quotation -- has count 80, skipping -- quotation, 475; any text, 508; as possessive sumti, 180; contrasted with me'o for representing lerfu, 422; contrasted with sentence abstraction, 263; delimited, 508; four kinds, 141; grammatical, 499; implicit quantifier for, 128, 141; of grammatical Lojban text, 476; of Lojban words, 499; of non-Lojban, 477; of parseable Lojban text, 476; of rafsi, 478; of single word, 477; of ungrammatical Lojban text, 476; referent versus symbol, 478; single-word, 508; ungrammatical Lojban containing le'u, 477; ungrammatical Lojban containing lo'u, 477
-ra -- has count 44, skipping -- ra, 153; practical referent conventions, 153
-radix -- has count 0, skipping -- radix: decimal (see also base), 444
-rafsi -- has count 201, skipping -- rafsi: as fu'ivla categorizer, 61; based on pro-sumti, 163; considerations restricting construction of, 58; contrasted with cmavo in usage, 61; contrasted with same-form cmavo in meaning, 56; contrasted with words, 61; conventional meaning for cu'o, 460; conventional meaning for frinu, 460; definition, 56; definition, quick-tour version, 27; forms of, 57; four-letter, requirement for y-hyphen, 60; lack of, effect on forming lujvo, 60; level of uniqueness of relation to gismu, 57; long, 57; multiple for each gismu, 69; multiplicity of for single gismu, 57; possible forms for construction of, 58; quotation of, 478; rationale for assignments of, 58; rules for combining to form lujvo, 56; selection considerations in making lujvo, 57; short, 57; uniqueness in gismu referent of, 57; use of, 57
-rafsi assignments -- has count 0, skipping -- rafsi assignments: non-reassignability of, 58
-rafsi for numbers -- has count 0, skipping -- rafsi for numbers, 59
-rafsi fu'ivla proposal -- has count 0, skipping -- rafsi fu'ivla proposal, 80
-RAhO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- RAhO selma'o, 503
-ra'o -- has count 12, skipping -- ra'o, 156; for reinterpreting go'i-series pro-bridi sumti references, 156
-rat eats cheese -- has count 0, skipping -- rat eats cheese: example, 227, 232
-rat eats cheese in park -- has count 0, skipping -- rat eats cheese in park: example, 247
-rats in park -- has count 0, skipping -- rats in park: example, 446
-real world point of view -- has count 0, skipping -- real world point of view, 320
-re-evaluation of referents -- has count 0, skipping -- re-evaluation of referents: flag for, 503
-reference -- has count 47, skipping -- reference: ambiguity of ti/ta/tu, 169; and discursive utterances, 481; quick-tour version, 20; to relativized sumti with ke'a, 169; use of relative clause for, 169
-reference frame for directions in tenses -- has count 0, skipping -- reference frame for directions in tenses, 224
-referent -- has count 54, skipping -- referent: contrasted with symbol, 478; of operand, 459; referring to with la'e, 134
-referent of pro-bridi -- has count 0, skipping -- referent of pro-bridi: definition, 145
-referent of pro-sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- referent of pro-sumti: definition, 145
-regularly -- has count 10, skipping -- regularly: example, 226
-relation of first places in logical connection of observatives -- has count 0, skipping -- relation of first places in logical connection of observatives: rationale, 345
-relationship -- has count 111, skipping -- relationship: active/static/attributive compared, 11; as basis of sentence, 187; objects of, 187
-relative clause -- has count 91, skipping -- relative clause: as part of name, 179; compared with tanru, 172; connecting to relative phrase with zi'e, 176; connecting to whole sumti, 506; contrasted with tanru, 172; effect of commas in English, 171; effect of elided ku of relativized sumti, 177; effect of omission of ke'a on, 170; effect of relativized sumti quantifiers on, 178; effect on elidability of be'o, 94; impact of indefinite sumti on placement, 180; impact of la on placement, 179; impact of LAhE on placement, 182; impact of le on placement, 179; impact of lo on placement, 179; impact of NAhE on placement, 182; kinds of, 171; list of cmavo for, 185; on connected sumti, 182; on names, 179; on number, 181; on possessive sumti, 181; on quotation, 182; on vocative phrases, 184; placement in sentence, 177; placement with vocative phrases, 184; relative clauses within, 184; restricted contrasted with incidental, 171; restricted contrasted with incidental in English expression, 171; restrictive (see also restrictive relative clause), 171; syntax with indefinite sumti, 180; use for reference, 169; use in restricting existential claims, 394; use in restricting universal claims, 395; use of ke'a for referral to relativized sumti in, 160
-relative clause after descriptor -- has count 0, skipping -- relative clause after descriptor: effect on elidability of ku'o, 178
-relative clause after relativized sumti ku -- has count 0, skipping -- relative clause after relativized sumti ku: meaning, 178
-relative clause after sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- relative clause after sumti: as common placement in sentence, 177
-relative clause and indefinite sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- relative clause and indefinite sumti: placement considerations, 180
-relative clause and LAhE -- has count 0, skipping -- relative clause and LAhE: placement considerations, 182
-relative clause and le-sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- relative clause and le-sumti: placement considerations, 179
-relative clause and lo-sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- relative clause and lo-sumti: placement considerations, 179
-relative clause and NAhE -- has count 0, skipping -- relative clause and NAhE: placement considerations, 182
-relative clause and names -- has count 0, skipping -- relative clause and names: placement considerations, 179
-relative clause and possessive sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- relative clause and possessive sumti: development history, 180
-relative clause and quantified sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- relative clause and quantified sumti: placement considerations, 178
-relative clause before inner quantifier -- has count 0, skipping -- relative clause before inner quantifier: meaning, 178
-relative clause before relativized sumti ku -- has count 0, skipping -- relative clause before relativized sumti ku: meaning, 178
-relative clause marker -- has count 0, skipping -- relative clause marker, 502
-relative clause on complex sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- relative clause on complex sumti: Lojban contrasted with English, 183
-relative clause on indefinite sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- relative clause on indefinite sumti: syntax considerations, 180
-relative clause on lo -- has count 0, skipping -- relative clause on lo: syntax suggestion, 179
-relative clause placement -- has count 0, skipping -- relative clause placement: considerations for lo-sumti contrasted with le-sumti, 179; considerations for simple descriptors contrasted with for quantified sumti, 179; effect on scope, 178; English contrasted with Chinese and Finnish, 178; on sumti with simple descriptor, 178
-relative clause with possessive sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- relative clause with possessive sumti: effect of placement, 181
-relative phrase -- has count 23, skipping -- relative phrase: as an abbreviation of a common relative clause, 172; compared with possessive sumti, 180; connecting to relative clause with zi'e, 176; contrasted with possessive sumti in complexity allowed, 180; contrasted with relative clause in preciseness, 203; improving preciseness with modals, 203; rationale for, 172; syntax of, 172
-relative phrase marker -- has count 0, skipping -- relative phrase marker, 495
-relative phrases with modals -- has count 0, skipping -- relative phrases with modals: compared to relative clauses in preciseness, 203
-re-ordering logical variables with se -- has count 0, skipping -- re-ordering logical variables with se, 396
-repeating decimals -- has count 0, skipping -- repeating decimals: expressing with numerical punctuation, 433; marking start of repeating portion, 433
-replace -- has count 14, skipping -- replace: example, 289
-representing lerfu -- has count 0, skipping -- representing lerfu: lu contrasted with me'o, 422
-respectively -- has count 84, skipping -- respectively: example, 356; specifying with fa'u, 356; with different relationships, 358
-restricted claims -- has count 0, skipping -- restricted claims: definition, 394
-resumptive event contour -- has count 0, skipping -- resumptive event contour, 228
-reviewers of this book -- has count 0, skipping -- reviewers of this book, 6
-ri -- has count 101, skipping -- ri, 152; contrasted with ke'a in relative clauses, 161; non-self-reference of, 153; referent of, 152; subscripting for referring further back, 153
-ri'a -- has count 10, skipping -- ri'a, 197
-rich and German -- has count 0, skipping -- rich and German: example, 356
-right-grouping in tanru -- has count 0, skipping -- right-grouping in tanru: with bo, 87
-ro -- has count 112, skipping -- ro, 128, 129, 139, 394, 396, 440; as implicit quantifier on personal pro-sumti, 128; compared with pa, 440; dropping from multiple appearances on logical variables, 396; effect of order when multiple in sentence, 399
-ro da -- has count 15, skipping -- ro da, 394
-rock face -- has count 0, skipping -- rock face: example, 231
-ROI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- ROI selma'o, 226, 230, 503; effect of ZAhO on fe'e flag, 231; exception on use of boi before, 458; scalar negation of, 242
-RP -- has count 0, skipping -- RP (see reverse Polish notation), 452
-ru -- has count 31, skipping -- ru, 153; practical referent conventions, 153
-sa -- has count 43, skipping -- sa, 312, 416, 477, 483; interaction with bu, 416
-SA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- SA selma'o, 483, 503
-scalar negation -- has count 38, skipping -- scalar negation: effect on selbri, 101
-scalar negation of modals -- has count 0, skipping -- scalar negation of modals: explanation of meaning, 207
-scalar negation of non-logical connective -- has count 0, skipping -- scalar negation of non-logical connective, 358
-scale -- has count 101, skipping -- scale: granular contrasted with continuous, 448
-score -- has count 19, skipping -- score: as 20-year span, 460; as alternate base for years, 461
-se -- has count 220, skipping -- se, 100, 192, 338, 340, 346, 350, 354, 360, 361, 396, 459, 472; as grammatical in JOI compounds, 355; in logical connective to exchange sentences, 338; order in logical connectives with na, 338; quick-tour version, 16; use with operators, 459; using to re-order logical variables, 396
-se du'u -- has count 10, skipping -- se du'u, 263
-se klama -- has count 21, skipping -- se klama: place structure of, 192
-SE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- SE selma'o, 100, 192, 195, 205, 247, 396, 459, 472, 504; after 5th place, 472; effect of multiple on a selbri, 194; effect on place structure numbering, 192; effect on selbri place structure, 192; extending scope of, 193; for converting place structure, 192; quick-tour version, 16; rationale for no 1st place conversion, 192; scope of, 193; word formation of cmavo in, 192
-se writing convention -- has count 0, skipping -- se writing convention: in eks, 341
-section numbering -- has count 0, skipping -- section numbering, 458
-sections of this book -- has count 0, skipping -- sections of this book, 4
-see with eye -- has count 0, skipping -- see with eye: example, 202
-see with left eye -- has count 0, skipping -- see with left eye: example, 194
-SEhU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- SEhU selma'o, 159, 482, 504
-sei -- has count 45, skipping -- sei, 321, 481
-SEI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- SEI selma'o, 458, 481, 504; terminator for, 504
-selbri -- has count 564, skipping -- selbri: as part of description, 120; brivla as, 83; converting into an operand, 456; converting into an operator, 456; converting operator into, 457; definition, 83, 187; definition, quick-tour version, 27; lerfu string as, 423; omitting with co'e, 158; place structure of, 187; place structure of converted operator, 457; relation to bridi, 83; scalar negation of, 101; with GOhA, 97
-selbri assignment -- has count 0, skipping -- selbri assignment, 491
-selbri from sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- selbri from sumti, 98
-selbri list for quick tour -- has count 0, skipping -- selbri list for quick tour, 13
-selbri logical variables -- has count 0, skipping -- selbri logical variables, 409
-selbri place structure -- has count 0, skipping -- selbri place structure: effect on operator formed by, 456; re-ordering, 504
-selbri placement among sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- selbri placement among sumti: effect of multiple quantification on, 407
-selbri to modal converter -- has count 0, skipping -- selbri to modal converter, 493
-selbri-first bridi -- has count 0, skipping -- selbri-first bridi: effect on sumti places, 188; effect on use of cu, 190; specifying first sumti place in with fa, 190
-selma'o -- has count 478, skipping -- selma'o, 12, 396, 398
-selma'o -- has count 478, skipping -- selma'o: cross-reference list of, 489; definition, 50; definition, quick-tour version, 27
-seltau -- has count 93, skipping -- seltau: compared with English adjective, 55; compared with English adverb, 55; definition, 95, 274; definition of, 84; effect on meaning of tanru, 84; filling sumti places in, 93
-semau -- has count 10, skipping -- semau, 204
-seme'a -- has count 13, skipping -- seme'a, 204
-sentence -- has count 321, skipping -- sentence: basic Lojban, 187
-sentence 10.11 -- has count 0, skipping -- sentence 10.11: example, 445
-sentence grouping -- has count 0, skipping -- sentence grouping, 505
-sentences -- has count 150, skipping -- sentences: close grouping, 466; connecting non-logically, 358; connecting with tense, 238; forethought tense connection of, 239; joining, 465; separator for joining, 465; tenseless, quick-tour version, 25
-se'o -- has count 10, skipping -- se'o, 316
-separately tensed sentences -- has count 0, skipping -- separately tensed sentences: contrasted with tense connected sentences, 239
-sequence -- has count 34, skipping -- sequence: as an abstract list, 355; contrasted with list, 355; contrasted with set, 134
-sequence of events -- has count 0, skipping -- sequence of events: expressing non-time-related sequences, 358
-set -- has count 147, skipping -- set: as specified by members, 355; by listing members with ce, 355; compared with mass as abstract of multiple individuals, 125; contrasted with mass in attribution of component properties, 125; contrasted with mass in distribution of properties, 355; contrasted with ordered sequence, 355; expressing measurement standard for indefinites, 446; expressing relation with individuals forming set, 446; expressing relation with mass formed from set, 446
-set operations -- has count 0, skipping -- set operations, 356
-sets -- has count 44, skipping -- sets: properties of, 125; rule for implicit outer quantifier, 130; use in Lojban place structure, 125
-se'u -- has count 30, skipping -- se'u, 159, 482; as elidable terminator for soi, 159; elidability considerations, 159
-shared bridi-tail sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- shared bridi-tail sumti: avoiding, 200
-shift -- has count 49, skipping -- shift: single-letter, grammar of, 415
-shift word -- has count 19, skipping -- shift word: canceling effect, 418; for face, 418; for font, 418; for single letter, 415; scope, 415
-ship sank -- has count 0, skipping -- ship sank: example, 314
-shook stick -- has count 0, skipping -- shook stick: example, 145, 162
-short rafsi -- has count 18, skipping -- short rafsi, 57
-short rafsi form -- has count 0, skipping -- short rafsi form: compared with long form in effect on lujvo meaning, 56
-si -- has count 63, skipping -- si, 312, 416, 477, 482; interaction with bu, 416
-SI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- SI selma'o, 482, 504
-signed numbers -- has count 0, skipping -- signed numbers: expressing, 432
-signs on numbers -- has count 0, skipping -- signs on numbers: grammar, 433
-simultaneously -- has count 22, skipping -- simultaneously: example, 364
-single consonants -- has count 16, skipping -- single consonants: contrasted with consonant clusters, 35; contrasted with doubled consonants, 35
-singular me -- has count 0, skipping -- singular me: example, 446
-si'o -- has count 11, skipping -- si'o, 265
-sister pregnant -- has count 0, skipping -- sister pregnant: example, 320
-size -- has count 40, skipping -- size: order with dimensionality in spatial tense intervals, 224
-soi -- has count 28, skipping -- soi, 159; use in expressing reciprocity, 159; use in expressing reciprocity with vo'a-series pro-sumti, 159
-SOI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- SOI selma'o, 159, 504; terminator for, 504
-soi with one following sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- soi with one following sumti: convention, 159
-some do not go to school -- has count 0, skipping -- some do not go to school: example, 405
-somebody -- has count 11, skipping -- somebody: contrasted with somebody else, 393
-somebody loves self -- has count 0, skipping -- somebody loves self: example, 393
-somebody loves somebody -- has count 0, skipping -- somebody loves somebody: example, 393
-somebody's dog -- has count 0, skipping -- somebody's dog: example, 393
-something -- has count 171, skipping -- something: contrasted with someone, 395; expressing using "su'o", 397; unspecified definite with "zo'e", 392
-something is loved by everybody -- has count 0, skipping -- something is loved by everybody: example, 402
-something sees everything -- has count 0, skipping -- something sees everything: example, 394
-something sees me -- has count 0, skipping -- something sees me: example, 392, 397
-sounds -- has count 30, skipping -- sounds: clarity of, 31; complex, 31; difficult, 31
-sounds for letters -- has count 0, skipping -- sounds for letters: Lojban contrasted with English, 31
-sow grain -- has count 0, skipping -- sow grain: example, 231
-sowed grain -- has count 0, skipping -- sowed grain: example, 250
-space -- has count 569, skipping -- space: as time-based metaphor, 231; contrasted with time in number of directions, 219
-space indicator for interval modifiers -- has count 0, skipping -- space indicator for interval modifiers, 493
-space interval -- has count 19, skipping -- space interval: compared with time intervals in continuity, 230
-space location -- has count 0, skipping -- space location: as part of tense system (see also tense, spatial tense), 215
-space movement indicator -- has count 0, skipping -- space movement indicator, 501
-Spanish ch -- has count 0, skipping -- Spanish ch: example, 419
-Spanish ll -- has count 0, skipping -- Spanish ll: example, 419
-spatial contours -- has count 0, skipping -- spatial contours: as sumti tcita, 232; contrasted with temporal event contours, 231; expressing, 231
-spatial information -- has count 0, skipping -- spatial information: adding to a sentence with tense sumti tcita, 231
-spatial interval modifiers -- has count 0, skipping -- spatial interval modifiers: order in tense, 230
-spatial tense -- has count 15, skipping -- spatial tense: 4-dimensional interaction with temporal tense, 224; as an imaginary journey, 217; as optional in English, 217; as sumti tcita, 232; compared with temporal tense in elidability, 217; contrasted with temporal in dimensionality, 223; definition, 217; direction, 217; distance, 217; four-dimensional, 224; linear, 223; one-dimensional, 223; order of direction and distance specification, 217; order relative to temporal, 219; planar, 223; reference frame, 217; referent of, 217; three-dimensional, 223; two-dimensional, 223
-spatial tense interval -- has count 0, skipping -- spatial tense interval: order of size and dimensionality in, 224; order of VEhA and VIhA in, 224
-speaker-listener cooperation -- has count 0, skipping -- speaker-listener cooperation, 23
-specific descriptions -- has count 0, skipping -- specific descriptions, 121
-spiritual discomfort -- has count 0, skipping -- spiritual discomfort: example, 307
-standard for subjective numbers -- has count 0, skipping -- standard for subjective numbers: specifying, 448
-standard pronunciation -- has count 0, skipping -- standard pronunciation, 29
-state abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- state abstraction: place structure, 259
-state abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- state abstraction(s): definition, 258; related tense contours, 268
-state event -- has count 0, skipping -- state event: described, 258
-stereotypical objects -- has count 0, skipping -- stereotypical objects, 126
-sticky modals -- has count 0, skipping -- sticky modals: canceling, 208; definition, 207; fi'o proscribed from, 208
-sticky tenses -- has count 10, skipping -- sticky tenses: and CAhA, 243; canceling, 235; definition, 234; effect of nau on, 238; effect on future tense meaning, 234; from part of a multiple tense, 235
-stoke cat then rabbit -- has count 0, skipping -- stoke cat then rabbit: example, 240
-stop -- has count 43, skipping -- stop: contrasted with finish, 229; contrasted with pause, 229
-story tense -- has count 0, skipping -- story tense: Lojban convention contrasted with English convention, 236
-stress -- has count 49, skipping -- stress: definition of, 40; effect of buffer vowel on, 38; effect of syllabic consonants on, 34; example, 307; final syllable, rules for pause after, 69; irregular marked with upper-case, 415; levels of, 40; on cmavo, 52; primary, 40; quick-tour version, 12; rules for, 40; secondary, 40; showing non-standard, 29
-structure of examples -- has count 0, skipping -- structure of examples, 5
-structure of this book -- has count 0, skipping -- structure of this book, 4
-su -- has count 214, skipping -- su, 312, 416, 477, 484; interaction with bu, 416
-SU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- SU selma'o, 484, 504
-su'a -- has count 13, skipping -- su'a, 316, 319
-subjective amounts -- has count 0, skipping -- subjective amounts: expressing, 442
-subjective numbers -- has count 15, skipping -- subjective numbers: effect on place structure for cardinal selbri, 448; effect on place structure for ordinal selbri, 448; effect on place structure for portion selbri, 448; effect on place structure for probability selbri, 448; effect on place structure for scale selbri, 448; rationale for effect on place structure, 448; specifying standard for, 448
-subjective portions -- has count 0, skipping -- subjective portions: expressing, 442
-subordinate clause tense -- has count 0, skipping -- subordinate clause tense: effect of main bridi tense on, 238; Lojban compared with Esperanto, 238; Lojban compared with Russian, 238; Lojban contrasted with English, 238
-subscripted topics -- has count 0, skipping -- subscripted topics, 467
-subscripts -- has count 12, skipping -- subscripts, 471; and fuzzy truths, 473; and names, 473; and paragraph separators, 474; and pro-sumti, 472; and sumti re-ordering, 472; and tense, 473; before main expression, 450; effects on elidability of terminators, 450; external grammar of, 449; for sticky tense, 236; internal grammar of, 449; lerfu string as, 423; marker, 471, 507; mathematical, 473; multiple as sub-subscript, 450; multiple for same base word, 455; on ke'a for nested relative clauses, 161; on ri, 153; terminator for, 450; to form matrices of more than 2 dimensions, 452; use with ke'a for outer sumti reference, 184; use with logical variables, 410
-subscripts on lerfu words -- has count 0, skipping -- subscripts on lerfu words: effect on elidability of boi, 450
-sub-subscripts -- has count 0, skipping -- sub-subscripts, 450
-subtypes of words -- has count 0, skipping -- subtypes of words, 52
-su'i -- has count 78, skipping -- su'i, 97, 435, 436
-sum of 1 -- has count 0, skipping -- sum of 1: 2, 3, example, 438
-sumti -- has count 1124, skipping -- sumti: as having implicit quantifiers, 127; as objects in place structure slots, 187; beginning with "ke, 344; between descriptor and description selbri, 180; classified by types of objects referred to, 123; converting into an operand, 456; definition, 119, 187; definition, quick-tour version, 27; descriptions as, 119; dropping trailing unspecified, 189; explicitly mapping into place structure with FA, 190; for individual objects, 123; for mass objects, 123; for set objects, 123; forethought tense connection of, 239; irrelevant to relationship, 157; kinds of, 119; multiple in one place with FA, 191; names as, 119; numbers as, 119; omitted first place in selbri-first bridi, 188; order in selbri, 188; order in selbri-first bridi, 188; pro-sumti as, 119; quotations as, 119; relation with bridi, 11; re-ordering with FA, 190; with explicit quantifiers, 127
-sumti assignment -- has count 12, skipping -- sumti assignment: cancellation of, 492
-sumti logical connection -- has count 0, skipping -- sumti logical connection, 340; compared with bridi logical connections, 340; contrasted with tanru logical connection, 350; rationale for, 340
-sumti place -- has count 13, skipping -- sumti place: additional, 489
-sumti placement -- has count 0, skipping -- sumti placement: variant, quick-tour version, 15
-sumti qualifiers -- has count 15, skipping -- sumti qualifiers: as short forms for common special cases, 133; elidable terminator for qualified sumti, 133; external syntax of, 133; for negation, 135; internal syntax of, 133; list of, 133
-sumti reordering -- has count 0, skipping -- sumti reordering: quick-tour version, 16
-sumti tcita -- has count 44, skipping -- sumti tcita: based on event contours, 232; based on spatial contours, 232; based on tense direction, 232; based on tense distance, 232; based on tenses, 231; definition (see also modal tag), 195; event contours contrasted with direction/distance as basis for, 232
-sumti tcita and linked sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- sumti tcita and linked sumti, 94
-sumti tcita and modal tags -- has count 0, skipping -- sumti tcita and modal tags, 94
-sumti tcita and tense tags -- has count 0, skipping -- sumti tcita and tense tags, 94
-sumti tcita based on dimension -- has count 0, skipping -- sumti tcita based on dimension, 233
-sumti tcita based on event contours -- has count 0, skipping -- sumti tcita based on event contours: relation of main bridi to sumti process in, 232
-sumti tcita based on interval continuousness -- has count 0, skipping -- sumti tcita based on interval continuousness, 233
-sumti tcita based on interval properties -- has count 0, skipping -- sumti tcita based on interval properties, 233
-sumti tcita based on interval size -- has count 0, skipping -- sumti tcita based on interval size, 233
-sumti tcita based on quantified tenses -- has count 0, skipping -- sumti tcita based on quantified tenses, 233
-sumti with explicit quantifier -- has count 0, skipping -- sumti with explicit quantifier: contrasted with sumti without explicit quantifier, 127
-sumti with tense -- has count 0, skipping -- sumti with tense: effect of main bridi tense on, 235
-sumti with tenses -- has count 0, skipping -- sumti with tenses: quick-tour version, 26
-sumti-based descriptions with le -- has count 0, skipping -- sumti-based descriptions with le: as increasing restricting to in-mind, 133
-sun liquefies -- has count 0, skipping -- sun liquefies: example, 289
-su'o -- has count 50, skipping -- su'o, 128, 129, 397, 443; as implicit quantifier for quotations, 128; with elided number, 443
-superfective event contour -- has count 0, skipping -- superfective event contour, 228
-su'u -- has count 13, skipping -- su'u, 265
-syllabic l -- has count 0, skipping -- syllabic l: considered as a consonant for morphological discussions, 49
-syllabic m -- has count 0, skipping -- syllabic m: as a consonant for morphological discussions, 49
-syllabic n -- has count 0, skipping -- syllabic n: as a consonant for morphological discussions, 49
-syllabic pronunciations of consonants -- has count 0, skipping -- syllabic pronunciations of consonants: in fu'ivla, 62; in fu'ivla category attachment, 63
-syllabic r -- has count 0, skipping -- syllabic r: as a consonant for morphological discussions, 49
-symbol -- has count 23, skipping -- symbol: contrasted with referent, 478; for operand, 459; referring to with lu'e, 134
-symmetrical tanru types -- has count 0, skipping -- symmetrical tanru types: both separately true, 111; one or other true, 112; using crucial/typical parts, 112; using more inclusive class, 112
-ta -- has count 105, skipping -- ta, 147, 169; contrasted with di'u, 148
-tables -- has count 18, skipping -- tables: format of, 5
-tagged sumti termsets -- has count 0, skipping -- tagged sumti termsets: connecting with non-logical forethought connectives, 358
-TAhE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- TAhE selma'o, 225, 504; effect of ZAhO on fe'e flag, 231; scalar negation of, 242
-tail-terms -- has count 19, skipping -- tail-terms: definition, 345
-Take care! -- has count 0, skipping -- Take care!: example, 22
-Talk! -- has count 0, skipping -- Talk!: example, 22
-talker -- has count 27, skipping -- talker: example, 19
-tanru -- has count 318, skipping -- tanru: ambiguity in, 55; ambiguity of, 55, 85; and abstractions, 255; and conversion, quick-tour version, 18; and creativity, 55; as ambiguous, 85; asymmetrical, 104; combination of, 55; containing mathematical expressions, 97; default left-grouping of, 86; definition, 83; definition, quick-tour version, 27; expanding, 318; explanation of, 55; explicating, 318; explicitly defining, 318; expression of, 55; meaning of, 85; place structure of, 274; place structure of, quick-tour version, 18; place structures of, 92, 93; possible meanings of, 274; primary meaning of, 84; purpose, 274; quick-tour version, 17; reducing logically connected sumti to, caveat, 350; simple, 83; to lujvo, 55; with GOhA, 97
-tanru and conversion -- has count 0, skipping -- tanru and conversion, 100
-tanru connection grouping -- has count 0, skipping -- tanru connection grouping: guheks unmarked tanru, 350
-tanru conversion -- has count 0, skipping -- tanru conversion: effect on place structure, quick-tour version, 18
-tanru default grouping -- has count 0, skipping -- tanru default grouping: quick-tour version, 17
-tanru grouping with JA+BO -- has count 0, skipping -- tanru grouping with JA+BO: effect on tanru grouping, 91
-tanru inversion and place structure -- has count 0, skipping -- tanru inversion and place structure, 95
-tanru unit -- has count 11, skipping -- tanru unit: filling in places of, 489
-ta'onao -- has count 0, skipping -- ta'onao, 320
-tavla -- has count 70, skipping -- tavla, 14
-te -- has count 76, skipping -- te, 100, 192; quick-tour version, 16
-TEhU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- TEhU selma'o, 505
-tei -- has count 13, skipping -- tei, 419
-TEI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- TEI selma'o, 419, 505; terminator for, 494
-temporal tense elision -- has count 0, skipping -- temporal tense elision: compared with spatial tense elision in meaning, 217
-ten -- has count 13, skipping -- ten: expressing as number, 432
-tense -- has count 272, skipping -- tense: aorist, 223; as observer-based, 220; as subjective perception, 219; compared with modals in syntax, 248; connected, with negation, 245; connecting sentences in with, 238; contradictory negation contrasted with scalar negation of, 242; contradictory negation of with nai, 241; contrasted with modals in semantics, 248; effect of different position in sentence, 216; effect of sticky tense on, 234; emphasizing by position in sentence, 216; explanation of presentation method, 215; expressing movement in, 224; extensional, 503; forethought connection in, 363; forethought logical connections, 246; grouping of connectives in, 363; handling multiple episodes, 236; importance of 2nd sumti place for sumti tcita use, 248; in forethought bridi-tail connection, special rule, 365; interval contrasted with point, 221; logically connected with JA, 245; Lojban contrasted with English in implications of completeness, 223; Lojban contrasted with English in implying actuality, 243; Lojban contrasted with native languages, 215; making sticky, 497; multiple in sentence, 234; multiple in sentence compared with compound tense, 234; negating, 241; non-logical connection of, 246; non-logical connection of for sub-events, 246; numerical, 458; on embedded bridi, 235; order of direction specification in, 217; order of direction, distance and interval in, 221; order of distance specification in, 217; order of movement specification in, 225; order of spatial interval modifiers in, 230; order of temporal and spatial in, 219; overriding to speaker's current, 238; point contrasted with interval, 221; position in sentence alternative, 216; position of in sentence, 216; possible groupings of, 246; quantified, 226; quick-tour version, 25; rationale for relative order of temporal and spatial in, 219; relation of interval to point specified by direction and distance, 221; relation of point specified by direction and distance to interval, 221; relative order with bridi negation, 103; scalar negation contrasted with contradictory negation of, 242; scalar negation of with NAhE, 242; scope effect of new paragraph, 466; scope of, 234; selbri types applicable to, 215; space-time dimension for intervals, 224; speaker's current, 238; specifying relation of interval to point specified by direction and distance, 221; static contrasted with moving, 224; subscripting, 236; sumti tcita form contrasted with connected sentences, 239; use as sumti tcita, 231; viewpoint of PU contrasted with viewpoint of ZAhO, 228; with both temporal and spatial, 220; with ku, 216
-tense afterthought connection forms -- has count 0, skipping -- tense afterthought connection forms: selma'o allowed, 240
-tense and na -- has count 0, skipping -- tense and na: multiple, 104
-tense as sumti tcita -- has count 0, skipping -- tense as sumti tcita: contrasted with tense inside sumti, 233
-tense aspect -- has count 0, skipping -- tense aspect, 507
-tense cmavo -- has count 14, skipping -- tense cmavo: position relative to selbri, 104
-tense connected sentences -- has count 0, skipping -- tense connected sentences: contrasted with separately tensed sentences, 239; forethought mode, 239; importance of "bo" in, 239
-tense connection of bridi-tails -- has count 0, skipping -- tense connection of bridi-tails: meaning of, 240
-tense connection of sentences -- has count 0, skipping -- tense connection of sentences: contrasted with sumti tcita form, 239; order of, 239
-tense connection of sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- tense connection of sumti: meaning of, 240
-tense contours -- has count 0, skipping -- tense contours: compared with event abstraction contours, 268
-tense distance -- has count 0, skipping -- tense distance: as sumti tcita, 232
-tense forethought connection forms -- has count 0, skipping -- tense forethought connection forms: selma'o allowed, 240
-tense inside sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- tense inside sumti: contrasted with tense as sumti tcita, 233
-tense magnitude -- has count 0, skipping -- tense magnitude, 250
-tense on main bridi -- has count 0, skipping -- tense on main bridi: effect on embedded bridi tenses, 235; effect on embedded sumti with tenses, 235
-tense questions -- has count 0, skipping -- tense questions: by using logical connective question, 250; methods of asking, 249
-tense questions with ma -- has count 0, skipping -- tense questions with ma, 249
-tense sentence connection -- has count 0, skipping -- tense sentence connection: table of equivalent schemata, 249
-tense specification -- has count 0, skipping -- tense specification: effect on cu, 216; effect on elidability of terminators, 216
-tense tags and sumti tcita -- has count 0, skipping -- tense tags and sumti tcita, 94
-tense with elided CAhA -- has count 0, skipping -- tense with elided CAhA: meaning, 244
-tense with no sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- tense with no sumti: indicator for, 497
-tense with sumti tcita -- has count 0, skipping -- tense with sumti tcita: asymmetry of, 238
-tensed connectives -- has count 0, skipping -- tensed connectives: in mathematical expressions, 364
-tensed logical connection -- has count 0, skipping -- tensed logical connection, 363
-tensed logically connected bridi-tails -- has count 0, skipping -- tensed logically connected bridi-tails, 240; with grouping, 241
-tensed logically connected sentences -- has count 0, skipping -- tensed logically connected sentences, 240; with grouping, 241
-tensed logically connected sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- tensed logically connected sumti, 240; with grouping, 241
-tensed non-logical connectives -- has count 0, skipping -- tensed non-logical connectives, 364; forethought, 364
-tenseless sentences in story time -- has count 0, skipping -- tenseless sentences in story time, 236
-tense-or-modal questions -- has count 0, skipping -- tense-or-modal questions: with cu'e, 250
-term -- has count 948, skipping -- term: definition, 347
-terminators -- has count 35, skipping -- terminators: eliding ku in non-logical connections, 354
-termset -- has count 30, skipping -- termset: effect on scope of multiple indefinite sumti, 399; formation, 347
-termset connectives -- has count 0, skipping -- termset connectives, 503
-termset logical connection -- has count 0, skipping -- termset logical connection: contrasted with bridi connection, 347; contrasted with bridi-tail connection, 347; contrasted with sumti connection, 347; unequal length, 348; when used, 347
-termset marker -- has count 0, skipping -- termset marker, 502
-termset modal connection -- has count 0, skipping -- termset modal connection, 200
-termsets -- has count 24, skipping -- termsets, 491; compared to fa'u, 356; non-logical connection of, 357
-tertau -- has count 91, skipping -- tertau: definition, 95, 274; definition of, 84; effect on meaning of tanru, 84
-te'u -- has count 18, skipping -- te'u, 451, 456, 460
-text -- has count 160, skipping -- text: division numbering with -mai, 458; end-marker, 484; structure of, 465; sub-division numbering with -mai, 458
-thank you -- has count 0, skipping -- thank you: example, 324
-the -- has count 6333, skipping -- the: contrasted with a/an, 322; example, 322; for talking about numbers themselves, 435
-the two of you -- has count 0, skipping -- the two of you: example, 132
-this -- has count 713, skipping -- this: adjective expression with ti noi, 148; adjective usage contrasted with pronoun usage, 148; as utterance reference in English, 148; English, adjective expression with vi, 148; English, pronoun expression with ti, 148; pronoun usage contrasted with adjective usage, 148
-this book -- has count 35, skipping -- this book: author of, 5; contributors to, 5; credits for, 6; examples of, 4; goal of, 3; reviewers of, 6; sections of, 4; structure of, 4
-three cats white -- has count 0, skipping -- three cats white: and two big, example, 410
-three dogs bite two men -- has count 0, skipping -- three dogs bite two men: example, 398
-three of four people -- has count 0, skipping -- three of four people: example, 361
-three or four people -- has count 0, skipping -- three or four people: example, 454
-thus -- has count 68, skipping -- thus: example, 316
-ti -- has count 113, skipping -- ti, 119, 147, 169; as pronoun expression for English this, 148
-time -- has count 251, skipping -- time: as part of tense system (see also tense, temporal tense), 215; as space-based metaphor, 231; contrasted with space in number of directions, 219
-time of death -- has count 0, skipping -- time of death: example, 248
-times -- has count 49, skipping -- times: explicit expression of, 437; implicit expression of, 437
-title -- has count 3218, skipping -- title: specifying with tu'e...tu'u, 466
-title of book -- has count 0, skipping -- title of book: example, 134
-to -- has count 3503, skipping -- to, 480
-to movie -- has count 0, skipping -- to movie: house, office, example, 191
-TO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- TO selma'o, 480, 505; terminator for, 505
-to-do list -- has count 0, skipping -- to-do list: example, 358
-to'i -- has count 14, skipping -- to'i, 321, 480
-toi -- has count 11, skipping -- toi, 480
-TOI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- TOI selma'o, 480, 505
-too -- has count 76, skipping -- too: example, 318
-toward right -- has count 0, skipping -- toward right: contrasted with on right, 224
-transformations with logical connectives -- has count 0, skipping -- transformations with logical connectives: steps, 408
-traveling salesperson -- has count 0, skipping -- traveling salesperson: example, 196
-truncation of number -- has count 0, skipping -- truncation of number: expressing, 443
-truth -- has count 134, skipping -- truth: in imperative sentences, 353
-truth functions -- has count 19, skipping -- truth functions, 333; 16 possible, 333; commutative, 335; creating all 16 with Lojban's basic set, 335; fundamental 4 in Lojban, 334; relation to logical connectives, 334; table of logical connectives, 366
-truth questions -- has count 13, skipping -- truth questions, 321; answering "no", 351; answering "yes", 351; as yes-or-no questions, 351; contrasted with connection questions, 351; simple, 351
-truth-value abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- truth-value abstraction, 262
-truth-value abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- truth-value abstraction(s): place structure, 262, 263
-ts-sound in Russian -- has count 0, skipping -- ts-sound in Russian: representation in Lojban, 31
-tu -- has count 116, skipping -- tu, 147, 169; archaic English yon as equivalent of, 147
-tu'a -- has count 27, skipping -- tu'a, 134, 266; as being deliberately vague, 134; effect of on meaning, 134; use for forming abstractions, 134
-tu'e -- has count 50, skipping -- tu'e, 202, 205, 343, 358, 364, 466; contrasted with bo for tensed logical connection, 364; effect on di'e, 358; use in lists, 358
-TUhE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- TUhE selma'o, 343, 358, 364, 466, 505; terminator for, 505
-TUhU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- TUhU selma'o, 343, 358, 466, 505
-tu'u -- has count 47, skipping -- tu'u, 202, 205, 343, 358, 466
-two dogs are white -- has count 0, skipping -- two dogs are white: example, 129
-types and subtypes of words -- has count 0, skipping -- types and subtypes of words, 52
-typical -- has count 47, skipping -- typical: compared with stereotypical, 126
-typical Englishman -- has count 0, skipping -- typical Englishman: example, 126
-typical sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- typical sumti, 157
-ugh -- has count 0, skipping -- ugh: example, 359
-ui -- has count 15, skipping -- ui, 297
-UI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- UI selma'o, 264, 297, 351, 353, 469, 474, 481, 505; extending the scope of, 494; quick-tour version, 24
-unconnected tanru -- has count 0, skipping -- unconnected tanru: contrasted with logically connected version, 349
-under conditions -- has count 16, skipping -- under conditions: example, 257
-underlines -- has count 0, skipping -- underlines: example, 12
-unequal termset connection -- has count 0, skipping -- unequal termset connection: compared with compound bridi connection with unequal separate bridi-tails, 348
-unfilled places of inverted tanru -- has count 0, skipping -- unfilled places of inverted tanru, 95
-units of measurement -- has count 0, skipping -- units of measurement: expressing, 435
-universal -- has count 28, skipping -- universal: mixed claim with existential, 394
-unqualified sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- unqualified sumti: contrasted with qualified sumti, 133
-unreduced fractions -- has count 0, skipping -- unreduced fractions: use in granular scales, 448
-unspecified direction -- has count 0, skipping -- unspecified direction: temporal contrasted with in spatial, 220
-unspecified level of emotion -- has count 0, skipping -- unspecified level of emotion, 311
-unspecified trailing sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- unspecified trailing sumti: dropping, 189
-utterance -- has count 87, skipping -- utterance: expressing relation to discourse, 317
-utterance pro-sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- utterance pro-sumti: stability of, 162
-utterance pro-sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- utterance pro-sumti (see also di'u-series pro-sumti), 148
-utterances -- has count 16, skipping -- utterances: non-bridi, 471
-uu -- has count 19, skipping -- uu, 297, 299; contrasted with u'u, 299
-uy diphthong -- has count 0, skipping -- uy diphthong: in cmene, 66
-V -- has count 17, skipping -- V: as a symbol for a single vowel, 49
-va -- has count 55, skipping -- va, 217
-VA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- VA selma'o, 217, 506; and distance, 217; relation of words to ti, ta, tu, 217
-va'a -- has count 25, skipping -- va'a, 438; contrasted with vu'u and ni'u, 438
-vague abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- vague abstraction, 265
-vague abstraction -- has count 0, skipping -- vague abstraction(s): place structure, 266
-vague relationship -- has count 0, skipping -- vague relationship: modal tag for, 197
-va'i -- has count 12, skipping -- va'i, 318, 320; contrasted with ke'u, 320
-valid speech -- has count 0, skipping -- valid speech: marking as error with jo'a, 321
-variables -- has count 64, skipping -- variables: logical, 392
-vau -- has count 30, skipping -- vau, 178, 200, 345, 394; effect on elidability ku'o, 181
-vau for shared bridi-tail sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- vau for shared bridi-tail sumti: avoiding, 200
-VAU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- VAU selma'o, 345, 506
-ve -- has count 73, skipping -- ve, 100, 192; quick-tour version, 16
-vector -- has count 11, skipping -- vector: components of, 451; definition, 451; forming, 496; use as operand, 452; use of parentheses with, 452
-VEhA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- VEhA selma'o, 221, 506
-VEhO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- VEhO selma'o, 506
-vei -- has count 26, skipping -- vei, 201, 423, 437
-vei ...ve'o -- has count 0, skipping -- vei ...ve'o: contrasted with operator ...ku'e in Polish notation, 438
-VEI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- VEI selma'o, 506; terminator for, 506
-veljvo -- has count 31, skipping -- veljvo: definition, 274; symmetrical, 278
-ve'o -- has count 30, skipping -- ve'o, 201, 362, 437
-vi -- has count 49, skipping -- vi, 217; as adjective expression for English this, 148
-vice versa -- has count 18, skipping -- vice versa: English, expressing with vo'a-series pro-sumti and soi, 159; example, 159
-VIhA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- VIhA selma'o, 223, 506
-vi'o -- has count 10, skipping -- vi'o, 325; contrasted with je'e, 325
-viska -- has count 94, skipping -- viska, 194
-vo'a -- has count 34, skipping -- vo'a, 158
-vocative -- has count 42, skipping -- vocative, 492
-vocative phrase terminator -- has count 0, skipping -- vocative phrase terminator: elidability of, 137
-vocative phrase with name -- has count 0, skipping -- vocative phrase with name: placement of relative clause on, 184
-vocative phrase with selbri -- has count 0, skipping -- vocative phrase with selbri: placement of relative clause on, 184
-vocatives -- has count 19, skipping -- vocatives: and definition of "you", 323; contrasted with "la", 323; definition, 323; grammar overview, 323; notation convention symbol "X", 323; quick-tour version, 21; rationale for redundancy, 323
-vo'e -- has count 10, skipping -- vo'e, 158
-voi -- has count 12, skipping -- voi, 177; contrasted with poi in veridicality, 177
-voiced consonants -- has count 0, skipping -- voiced consonants: contrasted with unvoiced in allowable consonant pairs, 37
-vowel -- has count 199, skipping -- vowel: buffer, 38
-vowel buffer -- has count 0, skipping -- vowel buffer: contrasted with y sound, 38
-vowel-initial words -- has count 0, skipping -- vowel-initial words: necessity for pause before, 68
-vowels -- has count 53, skipping -- vowels: contrasted with consonants, 33; definition of, 33; length of, 39; pronunciation of, quick-tour version, 12
-vu -- has count 41, skipping -- vu, 217
-VUhO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- VUhO selma'o, 182, 506
-VUhU operands -- has count 0, skipping -- VUhU operands, 436
-VUhU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- VUhU selma'o, 435, 436, 444, 507
-vu'o -- has count 10, skipping -- vu'o, 182
-vu'u -- has count 15, skipping -- vu'u, 438; contrasted with va'a and ni'u, 438
-VV string -- has count 0, skipping -- VV string: as a symbol for a double vowel, 49
-walk to market -- has count 0, skipping -- walk to market: example, 100
-want to be a soldier -- has count 0, skipping -- want to be a soldier: example, 255
-wash self -- has count 0, skipping -- wash self: example, 158
-weapon against self -- has count 0, skipping -- weapon against self: example, 397
-went and bought -- has count 0, skipping -- went and bought: example, 363, 365
-what is your name -- has count 0, skipping -- what is your name: example, 160
-when -- has count 247, skipping -- when: example, 249
-where -- has count 158, skipping -- where: example, 249
-whether criminal -- has count 0, skipping -- whether criminal: example, 262
-who knows what -- has count 0, skipping -- who knows what: example, 160
-whole of -- has count 13, skipping -- whole of: example, 441
-word "abu" -- has count 0, skipping -- word "abu": example, 422
-word "bu" -- has count 0, skipping -- word "bu": example, 416
-words -- has count 386, skipping -- words: marking non-standard, 480
-words not in the dictionary -- has count 0, skipping -- words not in the dictionary, 13
-x < 5 -- has count 0, skipping -- x < 5: example, 439
-x{b -- has count 0, skipping -- x{b: d}, example, 362, 455
-x{k} -- has count 0, skipping -- x{k}: x sub k, example, 423
-x1 -- has count 237, skipping -- x1: in place structure notation, 187; notation convention, quick-tour version, 13
-xe -- has count 12, skipping -- xe, 100, 192; quick-tour version, 16
-xi -- has count 14, skipping -- xi, 449, 452, 471
-XI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- XI selma'o, 449, 471, 507
-xu -- has count 27, skipping -- xu, 321, 351, 469; quick-tour version, 23
-y -- has count 103, skipping -- y, 484; considered not to be a vowel for morphological discussions, 49; letter; between letters of consonant pair, 53; letter, prohibition from fu'ivla, 62; use in avoiding forbidden consonant pairs, 36
-Y selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- Y selma'o, 484, 507
-y sound -- has count 0, skipping -- y sound: contrasted with vowel buffer, 38
-Yay! -- has count 0, skipping -- Yay!: example, 299
-yielding the floor -- has count 0, skipping -- yielding the floor, 484
-you -- has count 460, skipping -- you: defining, 323
-you're welcome -- has count 0, skipping -- you're welcome: fi'i contrasted with je'e, 324; je'e contrasted with fi'i, 324
-z instead of ' -- has count 0, skipping -- z instead of ': in acronymic names based on lerfu words, 424
-ZAhO compared with NU -- has count 0, skipping -- ZAhO compared with NU, 268
-ZAhO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- ZAhO selma'o, 228, 231, 232, 268, 507; contradictory negation of, 241; effect on fe'e flag for TAhE and ROI, 231
-ZEhA selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- ZEhA selma'o, 221, 507
-zei -- has count 18, skipping -- zei, 60, 416; interaction with bu, 416
-ZEI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- ZEI selma'o, 60, 507
-zero -- has count 24, skipping -- zero: relation to negation boundary, 402
-ZI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- ZI selma'o, 219, 507; compared with VA, 219
-zi'e -- has count 17, skipping -- zi'e, 175; compared with English and, 176; contrasted with logical connectives, 176; use in connecting relative phrase/clause to relative phrase/clause, 176
-ZIhE selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- ZIhE selma'o, 175, 508
-zi'o -- has count 15, skipping -- zi'o, 157, 163; as creating new selbri, 157
-zi'o rafsi -- has count 0, skipping -- zi'o rafsi: effect of on place structure of lujvo, 163
-zo -- has count 186, skipping -- zo, 119, 312, 416, 477; contrasted with la for names, 478; interaction with bu, 416
-ZO selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- ZO selma'o, 477, 508
-zo'e -- has count 48, skipping -- zo'e, 157, 189, 392; as a translation for "something", 392; as place-holder for sumti, 157; as place-holder for unspecified sumti, 189; compared with FA for omitting places, 190; contrasted with da, 392; quick-tour version, 14
-zo'e-series pro-sumti -- has count 0, skipping -- zo'e-series pro-sumti, 157
-ZOhU selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- ZOhU selma'o, 392, 467, 508
-zo'u -- has count 75, skipping -- zo'u, 392, 467
-zoi -- has count 25, skipping -- zoi, 119, 416, 477; interaction with bu, 416; interaction with lo'u/le'u, 478
-ZOI selma'o -- has count 0, skipping -- ZOI selma'o, 477, 479, 508
-zu'a -- has count 18, skipping -- zu'a, 217; derivation of word, 217
commit 38f47f97a5680120389f397e3b2b71c17f52ac39
Author: Robin Lee Powell <rlpowell@digitalkingdom.org>
Date: Sat Mar 19 01:02:21 2011 -0700
<en> -> <natlang> conversion
diff --git a/todocbook/docbook2html_preprocess.xsl b/todocbook/docbook2html_preprocess.xsl
index f6b3a82..e76dd8d 100644
--- a/todocbook/docbook2html_preprocess.xsl
+++ b/todocbook/docbook2html_preprocess.xsl
@@ -33,21 +33,21 @@
</xsl:for-each>
</row>
</xsl:for-each>
<xsl:for-each select="$items/gloss">
<row>
<xsl:for-each select="str:tokenize(.)">
<entry><xsl:value-of select="."/></entry>
</xsl:for-each>
</row>
</xsl:for-each>
- <xsl:for-each select="$items/en">
+ <xsl:for-each select="$items/natlang">
<xsl:variable name="startcol" select="concat('col',1)" />
<xsl:variable name="endcol" select="concat('col',count(str:tokenize($maximal)))" />
<row>
<entry namest="{$startcol}" nameend="{$endcol}"><xsl:value-of select="."/></entry>
</row>
</xsl:for-each>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</informaltable>
</xsl:template>
@@ -75,42 +75,42 @@
<row>
<xsl:for-each select="entry">
<xsl:copy-of select="."/>
</xsl:for-each>
</row>
</thead>
</xsl:template>
<!-- Turn interlinear-gloss nodes into tables.
- Such a node must have at least one jbo entry and at least one en entry.
+ Such a node must have at least one jbo entry and at least one natlang entry.
-->
<xsl:template match="interlinear-gloss">
<xsl:choose>
<xsl:when test="false">
</xsl:when>
<!-- FIXME: We should enforce these at some point. It's going
to take a fair bit of manual labour, though; there are a
bunch of examples that are just one line of English, for
example.
<xsl:when test="count(.//jbo) < 1">
<xsl:message>interlinear-gloss needs at least one jbo line; look for "ERROR" in the output</xsl:message>
<xsl:text>
ERROR: The following interlinear-gloss needs at least one jbo line:
</xsl:text>
<xsl:copy/>
</xsl:when>
- <xsl:when test="count(.//en) < 1">
- <xsl:message>interlinear-gloss needs at least one en line; look for "ERROR" in the output</xsl:message>
+ <xsl:when test="count(.//natlang) < 1">
+ <xsl:message>interlinear-gloss needs at least one natlang line; look for "ERROR" in the output</xsl:message>
<xsl:text>
- ERROR: The following interlinear-gloss needs at least one en line:
+ ERROR: The following interlinear-gloss needs at least one natlang line:
</xsl:text>
<xsl:copy/>
</xsl:when>
-->
<xsl:otherwise>
<!-- here is the BEGIN actual table conversion -->
<xsl:variable name="items" select="." />
<!-- We need to find the longest tokenized string, to size
@@ -140,24 +140,24 @@
</xsl:when>
<!-- FIXME: We should enforce something like these at some point.
<xsl:when test="count(.//jbo) < 1">
<xsl:message>interlinear-gloss needs at least one jbo line; look for "ERROR" in the output</xsl:message>
<xsl:text>
ERROR: The following interlinear-gloss needs at least one jbo line:
</xsl:text>
<xsl:copy/>
</xsl:when>
- <xsl:when test="count(.//en) < 1">
- <xsl:message>interlinear-gloss needs at least one en line; look for "ERROR" in the output</xsl:message>
+ <xsl:when test="count(.//natlang) < 1">
+ <xsl:message>interlinear-gloss needs at least one natlang line; look for "ERROR" in the output</xsl:message>
<xsl:text>
- ERROR: The following interlinear-gloss needs at least one en line:
+ ERROR: The following interlinear-gloss needs at least one natlang line:
</xsl:text>
<xsl:copy/>
</xsl:when>
-->
<xsl:otherwise>
<itemizedlist role="pronunciation">
<xsl:for-each select=".//jbo">
<listitem role="pronunciation-jbo">
<para>
<xsl:apply-templates select="node()|text()"/>
@@ -169,22 +169,22 @@
<para>
<xsl:apply-templates select="node()|text()"/>
</para>
</listitem>
</xsl:for-each>
</itemizedlist>
</xsl:otherwise>
</xsl:choose>
</xsl:template>
- <!-- <en> tags that arn't in <interlinear-gloss> tags -->
- <xsl:template match="example/en[not(boolean(ancestor::interlinear-gloss))]">
+ <!-- <natlang> tags that arn't in <interlinear-gloss> tags -->
+ <xsl:template match="example/natlang[not(boolean(ancestor::interlinear-gloss))]">
<para>
<xsl:apply-templates select="node()|text()"/>
</para>
</xsl:template>
<!-- <compound-cmavo> tags; placeholder -->
<xsl:template match="compound-cmavo">
<simplelist>
<xsl:for-each select=".//jbo">
<member>
commit 60c918dab7a5b78c3829681d865fb486db2a8ed5
Author: Robin Lee Powell <rlpowell@digitalkingdom.org>
Date: Sat Mar 19 01:00:34 2011 -0700
Invalid jbophrase
diff --git a/todocbook/6.xml b/todocbook/6.xml
index bf8aef5..d66aae6 100644
--- a/todocbook/6.xml
+++ b/todocbook/6.xml
@@ -1990,22 +1990,22 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>word quotation</primary><secondary>internal grammar of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>word quotation</primary><secondary>as morphologically valid</secondary></indexterm> Words quotations are quotations of one or more Lojban words. The words need not mean anything, but they must be morphologically valid so that the end of the quotation can be discerned.</para>
<para> <!-- FIXME: these indexterms aren't <oldjbophrase>d alone --><indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>le'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>lo'u</primary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-UMDQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e14d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cusku lo'u li mi le'u</jbo>
- <gloss>I say the-words [quote] <jbophrase>li mi</jbophrase> [unquote].</gloss>
- <natlang>I say <quote><jbophrase>li mi</jbophrase></quote>.</natlang>
+ <gloss>I say the-words [quote] <jbophrase valid="false">li mi</jbophrase> [unquote].</gloss>
+ <natlang>I say <quote><jbophrase valid="false">li mi</jbophrase></quote>.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that the translation of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-UMDQ"/> does not translate the Lojban words, because they are not presumed to have any meaning (in fact, they are ungrammatical).</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>single-word quotation</primary></indexterm> Single-word quotation quotes a single Lojban word. Compound cmavo are not allowed.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-XqKv">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e14d3"/>
</title>
commit 458808d7245a6b4e7b23a782da596932855f84f2
Author: Robin Lee Powell <rlpowell@digitalkingdom.org>
Date: Sat Mar 19 00:51:41 2011 -0700
Turned <foreign> into <natlang>
diff --git a/todocbook/19.xml b/todocbook/19.xml
index 8a2a236..71e5ae1 100644
--- a/todocbook/19.xml
+++ b/todocbook/19.xml
@@ -156,23 +156,23 @@
<jbo>mi klama le zarci</jbo>
<natlang>I went to the market</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>topic-comment</primary><secondary>description</secondary></indexterm> In Chinese, the normal sentence form is different: a topic is stated, and a comment about it is made. (Japanese also has the concept of a topic, but indicates it by attaching a suffix; other languages also distinguish topics in various ways.) The topic says what the sentence is about:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ovFJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e4d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <foreign xml:lang="zh">
+ <natlang xml:lang="zh">
zhe<superscript>4</superscript> xiao<superscript>1</superscript>xi<superscript>2</superscript> wo<superscript>3</superscript> zhi<superscript>1</superscript>dao le
- </foreign> <!-- FIXME: instead of three spaces, why not a colon? -->
+ </natlang> <!-- FIXME: instead of three spaces, why not a colon? -->
<gloss>this news I know [perfective]</gloss>
<natlang>As for this news, I knew it.</natlang>
<natlang>I've heard this news already.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ZOhU selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>zo'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>news</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> The wide space in the first two versions of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-ovFJ"/> separate the topic (
<quote>this news</quote>) from the comment (
<quote>I know already</quote>).</para>
@@ -215,21 +215,21 @@
<gloss>the fish : eat</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Is the fish eating or being eaten? The sentence doesn't say. The Chinese equivalent of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-tpcK"/> is:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-N6H3">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e4d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
- <foreign xml:lang="zh">yu<superscript>2</superscript> chi<superscript>1</superscript></foreign>
+ <natlang xml:lang="zh">yu<superscript>2</superscript> chi<superscript>1</superscript></natlang>
<gloss>fish eat</gloss> <!-- FIXME: instead of three spaces, why not a colon? -->
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which is vague in exactly the same way.</para>
<para>Grammatically, it is possible to have more than one sumti before
<valsi>zo'u</valsi>. This is not normally useful in topic-comment sentences, but is necessary in the other use of
<valsi>zo'u</valsi>: to separate a quantifying section from a bridi containing quantified variables. This usage belongs to a discussion of quantifier logic in Lojban (see
<xref linkend="section-da-and-zohu"/>), but an example would be:</para>
diff --git a/todocbook/4.xml b/todocbook/4.xml
index 0f8d2d8..33cacca 100644
--- a/todocbook/4.xml
+++ b/todocbook/4.xml
@@ -1284,21 +1284,21 @@
<rafsi>sask-</rafsi> represents
<valsi>saske</valsi> (
<quote>science</quote>). Note the extra vowel
<letteral>a</letteral> added to the end of the word, and the diphthong
<diphthong>ua</diphthong>, which never appears in gismu or lujvo, but may appear in fu'ivla.</para>
<example role="lojbanization-example" xml:id="example-random-id-FTfQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e7d8"/>
</title>
<lojbanization>
- <foreign xml:lang="ko">자모 <comment>from Korean</comment></foreign>
+ <natlang xml:lang="ko">자모 <comment>from Korean</comment></natlang>
<jbo>djamo <comment>Lojbanize</comment></jbo>
<jbo>lerf,r,djamo <comment>prefix rafsi</comment></jbo>
<jbo>ler,l,djamo <comment>prefix rafsi</comment></jbo>
</lojbanization>
</example>
<para>where
<rafsi>ler-</rafsi> represents
<valsi>lerfu</valsi> (
<quote>letter</quote>). Note the l-hyphen in "lerldjamo", since "lerndjamo" contains the forbidden cluster "ndj".</para>
commit b1fbacafd84a0fce1d0ba1a25f12ba96684515e4
Author: Robin Lee Powell <rlpowell@digitalkingdom.org>
Date: Sat Mar 19 00:28:00 2011 -0700
Automated conversion of <place-structure> to <definition>
diff --git a/todocbook/10.xml b/todocbook/10.xml
index eb9ab5a..0c2020c 100644
--- a/todocbook/10.xml
+++ b/todocbook/10.xml
@@ -656,23 +656,23 @@
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-naft">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e6d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] go-to the market.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>really means:</para>
- <place-structure>
+ <definition>
At a moment in the past, and possibly other moments as well, the event <quote>I went to the market</quote> was in progress.
- </place-structure>
+ </definition>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense direction</primary><secondary>implications on scope of event</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>past event</primary><secondary>possible extension into present</secondary></indexterm> The vague or unspecified interval contains an instant in the speaker's past. However, there is no indication whether or not the whole interval is in the speaker's past! It is entirely possible that the interval during which the going-to-the-market is happening stretches into the speaker's present or even future.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>Lojban contrasted with English in implications of completeness</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-naft"/> points up a fundamental difference between Lojban tenses and English tenses. An English past-tense sentence like
<quote>I went to the market</quote> generally signifies that the going-to-the-market is entirely in the past; that is, that the event is complete at the time of speaking. Lojban
<valsi>pu</valsi> has no such implication.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>aorist</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>aorist</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Classical Greek aorist tense</primary><secondary>compared with Lojban tense</secondary></indexterm> This property of a past tense is sometimes called
<quote>aorist</quote>, in reference to a similar concept in the tense system of Classical Greek. All of the Lojban tenses have the same property, however:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-xQ0w">
@@ -1550,23 +1550,23 @@
<jbo>mi klama le zarci pu le nu do pu klama le zdani</jbo>
<gloss>I go-to the market [past] the event-of you [past] go-to the house.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The second
<valsi>pu</valsi> is simply the past tense marker for the event of your going to the house, and says that this event is in the speaker's past. How are we to understand the first
<valsi>pu</valsi>, the sumti tcita?</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>imaginary journey</primary><secondary>starting at a different point</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>imaginary journey</primary><secondary>starting point</secondary></indexterm> All of our imaginary journeys so far have started at the speaker's location in space and time. Now we are specifying an imaginary journey that starts at a different location, namely at the event of your going to the house.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-4aPT"/> then says that my going to the market is in the past, relative not to the speaker's present moment, but instead relative to the moment when you went to the house.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-4aPT"/> can therefore be translated:</para>
- <place-structure>
+ <definition>
I had gone to the market before you went to the house.
-</place-structure>
+</definition>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti tcita</primary><secondary>based on tense distance</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense distance</primary><secondary>as sumti tcita</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>spatial tenses</primary><secondary>as sumti tcita</secondary></indexterm> (Other translations are possible, depending on the ever-present context.) Spatial direction and distance sumti tcita are exactly analogous:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qe2C" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e12d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ratcu cu citka le cirla vi le panka</jbo>
<gloss>The rat eats the cheese [short distance] the park.</gloss>
<natlang>The rat eats the cheese near the park.</natlang>
@@ -1830,23 +1830,23 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>pukiku mi ba klama le zarci .i le nanmu cu batci le gerku</jbo>
<gloss>[past] [sticky] I [future] go-to the market. The man bites the dog.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>What is the implied tense of the second sentence? Not
<oldjbophrase>puba</oldjbophrase>, but only
<valsi>pu</valsi>, since only
<valsi>pu</valsi> was made sticky with
<valsi>ki</valsi>. So the translation is:</para>
- <place-structure>
+ <definition>
I was going to go to the market. The man bit the dog.
-</place-structure>
+</definition>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti with tense</primary><secondary>effect of main bridi tense on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>embedded bridi tenses</primary><secondary>effect of main bridi tense on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense on main bridi</primary><secondary>effect on embedded sumti with tenses</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense on main bridi</primary><secondary>effect on embedded bridi tenses</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>on embedded bridi</secondary></indexterm> Lojban has several ways of embedding a bridi within another bridi: descriptions, abstractors, relative clauses. (Technically, descriptions contain selbri rather than bridi.) Any of the selbri of these subordinate bridi may have tenses attached. These tenses are interpreted relative to the tense of the main bridi:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>former market</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-yxFP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e13d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu klama le ba'o zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] go-to the [perfective] market</gloss>
<natlang>I went to the former market.</natlang>
diff --git a/todocbook/11.xml b/todocbook/11.xml
index 0efb902..7a97453 100644
--- a/todocbook/11.xml
+++ b/todocbook/11.xml
@@ -214,43 +214,43 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e2d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le se nelci cu cafne</jbo>
<gloss>The liked-thing is-frequent.</gloss>
<natlang>The thing which I like happens often.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which in this context means</para>
- <place-structure>
+ <definition>
My swimming happens often.
- </place-structure>
+ </definition>
<para>Event descriptions with
<oldjbophrase>le nu</oldjbophrase> are commonly used to fill the
<quote>under conditions...</quote> places, among others, of gismu and lujvo place structures:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Ia6f">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e2d12"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la lojban. cu frili mi le nu mi tadni [kei]</jbo>
<gloss>Lojban is-easy for-me under-conditions-the event-of I study</gloss>
<natlang>Lojban is easy for me when I study.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>under conditions</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> (The
<quote>when</quote> of the English would also be appropriate for a construction involving a Lojban tense, but the Lojban sentence says more than that the studying is concurrent with the ease.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>nu</primary><secondary>place structure</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>events</primary><secondary>place structure</secondary></indexterm> The place structure of a
<valsi>nu</valsi> abstraction selbri is simply:</para>
- <place-structure>
+ <definition>
x1 is an event of (the bridi)
- </place-structure>
+ </definition>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-event-types">
<title>Types of event abstractions</title>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>NU selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>za'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>zu'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>pu'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>mu'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>event abstractions</primary><secondary>types</secondary></indexterm> The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>mu'e</cmavo>
<selmaho>NU</selmaho>
@@ -375,21 +375,21 @@
<quote>Pheidippides' run from Marathon to Athens</quote> (the original marathon).</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
<para>Further information on types of events can be found in
<xref linkend="section-abstractor-connection"/>.</para>
<para>The four event type abstractors have the following place structures:</para>
- <place-structure>
+ <definition>
<!--
FIXME: put the index entries in
<cx "achievement abstraction: place structure"> XE "achievement abstraction: place structure"
<cx "point-event abstraction: place structure"> XE "point-event abstraction: place structure"
<cx "mu'e: place structure"> XE "mu'e: place structure"
<dt><dd>"mu'e”: x1 is a point event of (the bridi)
@@ -416,21 +416,21 @@
<valsi>pu'u</valsi>: x1 is a process of (the bridi) with stages x2
<valsi>za'i</valsi>: x1 is a continuous state of (the bridi) being true
<valsi>zu'o</valsi>: x1 is an activity of (the bridi) consisting of repeated actions x2
- </place-structure>
+ </definition>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-properties">
<title>Property abstractions</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ka</cmavo>
<selmaho>NU</selmaho>
<description>property abstractor</description>
@@ -623,30 +623,30 @@
</example>
<para>which is also a possible interpretation.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>property abstractions</primary><secondary>use of multiple ce'u for relationship abstraction</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relationship abstraction</primary></indexterm> It is also possible to have more than one
<valsi>ce'u</valsi> in a
<valsi>ka</valsi> abstraction, which transforms it from a property abstraction into a relationship abstraction. Relationship abstractions
<quote>package up</quote> a complex relationship for future use; such an abstraction can be translated back into a selbri by placing it in the x2 place of the selbri
<valsi>bridi</valsi>, whose place structure is:</para>
- <place-structure>
+ <definition>
<valsi>bridi</valsi>: x1 is a predicate relationship with relation
x2 (abstraction) among arguments (sequence/set) x3
- </place-structure>
+ </definition>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>properties</primary><secondary>place structure</secondary></indexterm> The place structure of
<valsi>ka</valsi> abstraction selbri is simply:</para>
- <place-structure>
+ <definition>
<valsi>ka</valsi>: x1 is a property of (the bridi)
- </place-structure>
+ </definition>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-amounts">
<title>Amount abstractions</title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ni</cmavo>
<selmaho>NU</selmaho>
<description>amount abstraction</description>
@@ -721,23 +721,23 @@
<gloss>The picture varies in-the amount-of (X is blue).</gloss>
<gloss>The picture varies in how blue it is.</gloss>
<natlang>The picture varies in blueness.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-1LtX"/> conveys that the blueness comes and goes, whereas
<xref linkend="example-random-id-QKpo"/> conveys that its quantity changes over time.</para>
<para>Whenever we talk of measurement of an amount, there is some sort of scale, and so the place structure of
<valsi>ni</valsi> abstraction selbri is:</para>
- <place-structure>
+ <definition>
ni: x1 is the amount of (the bridi) on scale x2
- </place-structure>
+ </definition>
<para>Note: the best way to express the x2 places of abstract sumti is to use something like
<oldjbophrase>le ni ... kei be</oldjbophrase>. See
<xref linkend="example-random-id-zvfX"/> for the use of this construction.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-truth-values">
<title>Truth-value abstraction:
<valsi>jei</valsi></title>
<para>The
<quote>blueness of the picture</quote> discussed in
@@ -779,23 +779,23 @@
<jbo>mi ba jdice le jei la djordj. cu zekri gasnu [kei]</jbo>
<gloss>I [future] decide the truth-value of (George being-a-(crime doer)).</gloss>
<natlang>I will decide whether George is a criminal.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>whether criminal</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>jei</primary><secondary>place structure</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>truth-value abstractions</primary><secondary>place structure</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>legal system</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-MRD8"/> does not imply that George is, or is not, definitely a criminal. Depending on the legal system I am using, I may make some intermediate decision. As a result,
<valsi>jei</valsi> requires an x2 place analogous to that of
<valsi>ni</valsi>:</para>
- <place-structure>
+ <definition>
jei: x1 is the truth value of (the bridi) under epistemology x2
- </place-structure>
+ </definition>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fuzzy logic and truth-value abstraction</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstractions</primary><secondary>truth-value and fuzzy logic</secondary></indexterm> Abstractions using
<valsi>jei</valsi> are the mechanism for fuzzy logic in Lojban; the
<valsi>jei</valsi> abstraction refers to a number between 0 and 1 inclusive (as distinct from
<valsi>ni</valsi> abstractions, which are often on open-ended scales). The detailed conventions for using
<valsi>jei</valsi> in fuzzy-logic contexts have not yet been established.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-predications">
<title>Predication/sentence abstraction</title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
@@ -889,23 +889,23 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi kucli le jei la frank. cu bebna [kei]</jbo>
<natlang>I am curious about how true it is that Frank is a fool.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>truth-value abstractions</primary><secondary>place structure</secondary></indexterm> As a matter of convenience rather than logical necessity,
<valsi>du'u</valsi> has been given an x2 place, which is a sentence (piece of language) expressing the bridi:</para>
- <place-structure>
+ <definition>
du'u: x1 is the predication (the bridi), expressed in sentence x2
- </place-structure>
+ </definition>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstractions</primary><secondary>speaking</secondary><tertiary>writing, etc.</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>se du'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>linguistic behavior</primary></indexterm> and
<oldjbophrase>le se du'u ...</oldjbophrase> is very useful in filling places of selbri which refer to speaking, writing, or other linguistic behavior regarding bridi:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hzd8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e7d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. cusku le se du'u la djordj. klama le zarci [kei]</jbo>
<gloss>John expresses the sentence-expressing-that George goes-to the store</gloss>
@@ -1128,35 +1128,35 @@
<jbo>ko zgana le su'u le ci smacu cu bajra</jbo>
<gloss>you [imperative] observe the abstract-nature-of the three mice running</gloss>
<natlang>See how the three mice run!</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>mice</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>experience abstractions</primary><secondary>place structure</secondary></indexterm> All three of these abstractors have an x2 place. An experience requires an experiencer, so the place structure of
<valsi>li'i</valsi> is:</para>
- <place-structure>
+ <definition>
<valsi>li'i</valsi>: x1 is the experience of (the bridi) as experienced by x2
- </place-structure>
+ </definition>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>idea abstractions</primary><secondary>place structure</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>concept abstractions</primary><secondary>place structure</secondary></indexterm> Similarly, an idea requires a mind to hold it, so the place structure of
<valsi>si'o</valsi> is:</para>
- <place-structure>
+ <definition>
<valsi>si'o</valsi>: x1 is the idea/concept of (the bridi) in the mind of x2
- </place-structure>
+ </definition>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vague abstractions</primary><secondary>place structure</secondary></indexterm> Finally, there needs to be some way of specifying just what sort of abstraction
<valsi>su'u</valsi> is representing, so its place structure is:</para>
- <place-structure>
+ <definition>
<valsi>su'u</valsi>: x1 is an abstract nature of (the bridi) of type x2
- </place-structure>
+ </definition>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstractions</primary><secondary>creating new types</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>template</primary></indexterm> The x2 place of
<valsi>su'u</valsi> allows it to serve as a substitute for any of the other abstractors, or as a template for creating new ones. For example,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-FnNR">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e9d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nu mi klama</jbo>
<gloss>the event-of my going</gloss>
diff --git a/todocbook/12.xml b/todocbook/12.xml
index 43805f7..1a26a21 100644
--- a/todocbook/12.xml
+++ b/todocbook/12.xml
@@ -79,30 +79,30 @@
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>goer-house</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> As a simple example, consider the rather non-obvious tanru
<oldjbophrase>klama zdani</oldjbophrase>, or
<quote>goer-house</quote>. The gismu
<valsi>zdani</valsi> has two places:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-xcfi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e2d1"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure>x1 is a nest/house/lair/den for inhabitant x2</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition>x1 is a nest/house/lair/den for inhabitant x2</definition></para>
</example>
<para>(but in this chapter we will use simply
<quote>house</quote>, for brevity), and the gismu
<valsi>klama</valsi> has five:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-zUVg">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e2d2"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure>x1 goes to destination x2 from origin point x3 via route x4 using means x5</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition>x1 goes to destination x2 from origin point x3 via route x4 using means x5</definition></para>
</example>
<para>The tanru
<oldjbophrase>klama zdani</oldjbophrase> will also have two places, namely those of
<valsi>zdani</valsi>. Since a
<oldjbophrase>klama zdani</oldjbophrase> is a type of
<valsi>zdani</valsi>, we can assume that all goer-houses – whatever they may be – are also houses.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>dog house</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>possible meanings of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fleas</primary></indexterm> But is knowing the places of the tertau everything that is needed to understand the meaning of a tanru? No. To see why, let us switch to a less unlikely tanru:
<oldjbophrase>gerku zdani</oldjbophrase>, literally
<quote>dog house</quote>. A tanru expresses a very loose relation: a
@@ -186,51 +186,51 @@
<valsi>gerku</valsi>.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo place structure</primary><secondary>explicated walk-through</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>new notation</primary></indexterm> The place structure of
<valsi>zdani</valsi> is given as
<xref linkend="example-random-id-xcfi"/>, but is repeated here using the new notation:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>doghouse</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-95t5">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e3d1"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure>z1 is a nest/house/lair/den of z2</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition>z1 is a nest/house/lair/den of z2</definition></para>
</example>
<para>The place structure of
<valsi>gerku</valsi> is:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-H4ed">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e3d2"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure>g1 is a dog of breed g2</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition>g1 is a dog of breed g2</definition></para>
</example>
<para>But z2 is the same as g1; therefore, the tentative place structure for
<oldjbophrase>gerzda</oldjbophrase> now becomes:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-VHXr">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e3d3"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure>z1 is a house for dweller z2 of breed g2</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition>z1 is a house for dweller z2 of breed g2</definition></para>
</example>
<para>which can also be written</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-MnKf">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e3d4"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure>z1 is a house for dog g1 of breed g2</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition>z1 is a house for dog g1 of breed g2</definition></para>
</example>
<para>or more comprehensively</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-Wx42">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e3d5"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure>z1 is a house for dweller/dog z2=g1 of breed g2</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition>z1 is a house for dweller/dog z2=g1 of breed g2</definition></para>
</example>
<para>Despite the apparently conclusive nature of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Wx42"/>, our task is not yet done: we still need to decide whether any of the remaining places should also be eliminated, and what order the lujvo places should appear in. These concerns will be addressed in the remainder of the chapter; but we are now equipped with the terminology needed for those discussions.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-selecting-places">
<title>Selecting places</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo place structure</primary><secondary>basis of</secondary></indexterm> The set of places of an ordinary lujvo are selected from the places of its component gismu. More precisely, the places of such a lujvo are derived from the set of places of the component gismu by eliminating unnecessary places, until just enough places remain to give an appropriate meaning to the lujvo. In general, including a place makes the concept expressed by a lujvo more general; excluding a place makes the concept more specific, because omitting the place requires assuming a standard value or range of values for it.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo place structure</primary><secondary>rationale for standardization</secondary></indexterm> It would be possible to design the place structure of a lujvo from scratch, treating it as if it were a gismu, and working out what arguments contribute to the notion to be expressed by the lujvo. There are two reasons arguing against doing so and in favor of the procedure detailed in this chapter.</para>
<para>The first is that it might be very difficult for a hearer or reader, who has no preconceived idea of what concept the lujvo is intended to convey, to work out what the place structure actually is. Instead, he or she would have to make use of a lujvo dictionary every time a lujvo is encountered in order to work out what a
<oldjbophrase>se jbopli</oldjbophrase> or a
@@ -245,59 +245,59 @@
<quote>symmetrical lujvo</quote>. A symmetrical lujvo is one based on a tanru interpretation such that the first place of the seltau is equivalent to the first place of the tertau: each component of the tanru characterizes the same object. As an illustration of this, consider the lujvo
<oldjbophrase>balsoi</oldjbophrase>: it is intended to mean
<quote>both great and a soldier</quote>- that is,
<quote>great soldier</quote>, which is the interpretation we would tend to give its veljvo,
<oldjbophrase>banli sonci</oldjbophrase>. The underlying gismu place structures are:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-7AFc">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e5d1"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure> <valsi>banli</valsi>: b1 is great in property b2 by standard b3</place-structure></para>
- <para><place-structure> <valsi>sonci</valsi>: s1 is a soldier of army s2</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition> <valsi>banli</valsi>: b1 is great in property b2 by standard b3</definition></para>
+ <para><definition> <valsi>sonci</valsi>: s1 is a soldier of army s2</definition></para>
</example>
<para>In this case the s1 place of
<valsi>sonci</valsi> is redundant, since it is equivalent to the b1 place of
<valsi>banli</valsi>. Therefore the place structure of
<oldjbophrase>balsoi</oldjbophrase> need not include places for both s1 and b1, as they refer to the same thing. So the place structure of
<oldjbophrase>balsoi</oldjbophrase> is at most</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-UtwF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e5d2"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure>b1=s1 is a great soldier of army s2 in property b2 by standard b3</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition>b1=s1 is a great soldier of army s2 in property b2 by standard b3</definition></para>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>listen attentively</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo place structure</primary><secondary>when first places redundant plus others</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>symmetrical veljvo</primary></indexterm> Some symmetrical veljvo have further equivalent places in addition to the respective first places. Consider the lujvo
<oldjbophrase>tinju'i</oldjbophrase>,
<quote>to listen</quote> (
<quote>to hear attentively, to hear and pay attention</quote>). The place structures of the gismu
<valsi>tirna</valsi> and
<valsi>jundi</valsi> are:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-rFiE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e5d3"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure>
- <valsi>tirna</valsi>: t1 hears sound t2 against background noise t3</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition>
+ <valsi>tirna</valsi>: t1 hears sound t2 against background noise t3</definition></para>
- <para><place-structure>
- <valsi>jundi</valsi>: j1 pays attention to j2</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition>
+ <valsi>jundi</valsi>: j1 pays attention to j2</definition></para>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>background noise</primary></indexterm> and the place structure of the lujvo is:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-EUr1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e5d4"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure>j1=t1 listens to j2=t2 against background noise t3</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition>j1=t1 listens to j2=t2 against background noise t3</definition></para>
</example>
<para>Why so? Because not only is the j1 place (the one who pays attention) equivalent to the t1 place (the hearer), but the j2 place (the thing paid attention to) is equivalent to the t2 place (the thing heard).</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo place structure</primary><secondary>when first place redundant with non-first</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>asymmetrical</secondary></indexterm> A substantial minority of lujvo have the property that the first place of the seltau (
<valsi>gerku</valsi> in this case) is equivalent to a place other than the first place of the tertau; such lujvo are said to be
<quote>asymmetrical</quote>. (There is a deliberate parallel here with the terms
<quote>asymmetrical tanru</quote> and
<quote>symmetrical tanru</quote> used in
@@ -306,29 +306,29 @@
<oldjbophrase>gerzda</oldjbophrase>, discussed in
<xref linkend="section-lujvo-meanings"/>, where we learned that the g1 place was equivalent to the z2 place. In order to get the places aligned, we could convert
<valsi>zdani</valsi> to
<oldjbophrase>se zdani</oldjbophrase> (or
<oldjbophrase>selzda</oldjbophrase> when expressed as a lujvo). The place structure of
<oldjbophrase>selzda</oldjbophrase> is</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-IXoj">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e5d5"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure>s1 is housed by nest s2</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition>s1 is housed by nest s2</definition></para>
</example>
<para>and so the three-part lujvo
<oldjbophrase>gerselzda</oldjbophrase> would have the place structure</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-KqE4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e5d6"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure>s1=g1 is a dog housed in nest s2 of dog breed g2</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition>s1=g1 is a dog housed in nest s2 of dog breed g2</definition></para>
</example>
<para>However, although
<oldjbophrase>gerselzda</oldjbophrase> is a valid lujvo, it doesn't translate
<quote>doghouse</quote>; its first place is the dog, not the doghouse. Furthermore, it is more complicated than necessary;
<oldjbophrase>gerzda</oldjbophrase> is simpler than
<oldjbophrase>gerselzda</oldjbophrase>.</para>
<para>From the reader's or listener's point of view, it may not always be obvious whether a newly met lujvo is symmetrical or asymmetrical, and if the latter, what kind of asymmetrical lujvo. If the place structure of the lujvo isn't given in a dictionary or elsewhere, then plausibility must be applied, just as in interpreting tanru.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>car goer</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> The lujvo
<oldjbophrase>karcykla</oldjbophrase>, for example, is based on
@@ -342,48 +342,48 @@
</title>
<para>karce: ka1 is a car carrying ka2 propelled by ka3</para>
</example>
<para>A asymmetrical interpretation of
<oldjbophrase>karcykla</oldjbophrase> that is strictly analogous to the place structure of
<oldjbophrase>gerzda</oldjbophrase>, equating the kl2 (destination) and ka1 (car) places, would lead to the place structure</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-GgxL">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e5d8"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure>kl1 goes to car kl2=ka1 which carries ka2 propelled by ka3 from origin kl3 via route kl4 by means of kl5</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition>kl1 goes to car kl2=ka1 which carries ka2 propelled by ka3 from origin kl3 via route kl4 by means of kl5</definition></para>
</example>
<para>But in general we go about in cars, rather than going to cars, so a far more likely place structure treats the ka1 place as equivalent to the kl5 place, leading to</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-QiHw">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e5d9"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure>kl1 goes to destination kl2 from origin kl3 via route kl4 by means of car kl5=ka1 carrying ka2 propelled by ka3.</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition>kl1 goes to destination kl2 from origin kl3 via route kl4 by means of car kl5=ka1 carrying ka2 propelled by ka3.</definition></para>
</example>
<para>instead.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-dependent-places">
<title>Dependent places</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo place structure</primary><secondary>dependent places</secondary></indexterm> In order to understand which places, if any, should be completely removed from a lujvo place structure, we need to understand the concept of dependent places. One place of a brivla is said to be dependent on another if its value can be predicted from the values of one or more of the other places. For example, the g2 place of
<valsi>gerku</valsi> is dependent on the g1 place. Why? Because when we know what fits in the g1 place (Spot, let us say, a well-known dog), then we know what fits in the g2 place (
<quote>St. Bernard</quote>, let us say). In other words, when the value of the g1 place has been specified, the value of the g2 place is determined by it. Conversely, since each dog has only one breed, but each breed contains many dogs, the g1 place is not dependent on the g2 place; if we know only that some dog is a St. Bernard, we cannot tell by that fact alone which dog is meant.</para>
<para>For
<valsi>zdani</valsi>, on the other hand, there is no dependency between the places. When we know the identity of a house-dweller, we have not determined the house, because a dweller may dwell in more than one house. By the same token, when we know the identity of a house, we do not know the identity of its dweller, for a house may contain more than one dweller.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo place structure</primary><secondary>dropping dependent seltau places</secondary></indexterm> The rule for eliminating places from a lujvo is that dependent places provided by the seltau are eliminated. Therefore, in
<oldjbophrase>gerzda</oldjbophrase> the dependent g2 place is removed from the tentative place structure given in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Wx42"/>, leaving the place structure:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-zMyY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e6d1"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure>z1 is the house dwelt in by dog z2=g1</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition>z1 is the house dwelt in by dog z2=g1</definition></para>
</example>
<para>Informally put, the reason this has happened – and it happens a lot with seltau places – is that the third place was describing not the doghouse, but the dog who lives in it. The sentence</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PI6B">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e6d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la mon. rePOS. gerzda la spat.</jbo>
<natlang>Mon Repos is a doghouse of Spot.</natlang>
@@ -453,21 +453,21 @@
<para>
<valsi>cinki</valsi>: ci1 is an insect/arthropod of species ci2</para>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo place structure</primary><secondary>dropping cross-dependent places</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo place structure</primary><secondary>cross-dependent places</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cross-dependency</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>arthropod</primary></indexterm> This example illustrates a cross-dependency between a place of one gismu and a place of the other. The ca3 place is dependent on ci1, because all insects (which fit into ci1) have shells made of chitin (which fits into ca3). Furthermore, ca1 is dependent on ci1 as well, because each insect has only a single shell. And since ca2 (the thing with the shell) is equivalent to ci1 (the insect), the place structure is</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-n7JB">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e6d8"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure>ci1=ca2 is a beetle of species ci2</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition>ci1=ca2 is a beetle of species ci2</definition></para>
</example>
<para>with not a single place of
<valsi>calku</valsi> surviving independently!</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>beetles</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Coleoptera</primary></indexterm> (Note that there is nothing in this explanation that tells us just why
<oldjbophrase>cakcinki</oldjbophrase> means
<quote>beetle</quote> (member of Coleoptera), since all insects in their adult forms have chitin shells of some sort. The answer, which is in no way predictable, is that the shell is a prominent, highly noticeable feature of beetles in particular.)</para>
@@ -493,21 +493,21 @@
<oldjbophrase>kuldi'u</oldjbophrase> (from
<oldjbophrase>ckule dinju</oldjbophrase>, and meaning
<quote>school building</quote>) needs to be</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-u6Xz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e6d9"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure>d1 is a building housing school c1 teaching subject c3 to audience c4</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition>d1 is a building housing school c1 teaching subject c3 to audience c4</definition></para>
</example>
<para>even though c3 and c4 are plainly dependent on c1. The other places of
<valsi>ckule</valsi>, the location (c2) and operators (c5), don't seem to be necessary to the concept
<quote>school building</quote>, and are dependent on c1 to boot, so they are omitted. Again, the need for case-by-case consideration of place structures is demonstrated.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-order-of-places">
<title>Ordering lujvo places.</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo place order</primary></indexterm> So far, we have concentrated on selecting the places to go into the place structure of a lujvo. However, this is only half the story. In using selbri in Lojban, it is important to remember the right order of the sumti. With lujvo, the need to attend to the order of sumti becomes critical: the set of places selected should be ordered in such a way that a reader unfamiliar with the lujvo should be able to tell which place is which.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>prayer</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo place order</primary><secondary>rationale for standardization</secondary></indexterm> If we aim to make understandable lujvo, then, we should make the order of places in the place structure follow some conventions. If this does not occur, very real ambiguities can turn up. Take for example the lujvo
@@ -550,21 +550,21 @@
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>great soldier</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo place order</primary><secondary>symmetrical lujvo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>elimination process</primary></indexterm> We use two different ordering rules: one for symmetrical lujvo and one for asymmetrical ones. A symmetrical lujvo like
<oldjbophrase>balsoi</oldjbophrase> (from
<xref linkend="section-symmetrical-asymmetrical"/>) has the places of its tertau followed by whatever places of the seltau survive the elimination process. For
<oldjbophrase>balsoi</oldjbophrase>, the surviving places of
<valsi>banli</valsi> are b2 and b3, leading to the place structure:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-rv1m">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e7d4"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure>b1=s1 is a great soldier of army s2 in property b2 by standard b3</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition>b1=s1 is a great soldier of army s2 in property b2 by standard b3</definition></para>
</example>
<para>just what appears in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-7AFc"/>. In fact, all place structures shown until now have been in the correct order by the conventions of this section, though the fact has been left tacit until now.</para>
<para>The motivation for this rule is the parallelism between the lujvo bridi-schema</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7juc">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e7d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -604,21 +604,21 @@
<valsi>mikce</valsi>: m1 is a doctor to patient m2 for ailment m3 using treatment m4</para>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ailment</primary></indexterm> and the lujvo place structure is:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-WeBW">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e7d8"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure>m1 is a doctor for animal m2=d1 of species d2 for ailment m3 using treatment m4</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition>m1 is a doctor for animal m2=d1 of species d2 for ailment m3 using treatment m4</definition></para>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>animal patient</primary></indexterm> Since the shared place is m2=d1, the animal patient, the remaining seltau place d2 is inserted immediately after the shared place; then the remaining tertau places form the last two places of the lujvo.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-n-part-lujvo">
<title>lujvo with more than two parts.</title>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>tomorrow</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo place order</primary><secondary>based on 3-or-more part veljvo</secondary></indexterm> The theory we have outlined so far is an account of lujvo with two parts. But often lujvo are made containing more than two parts. An example is
<oldjbophrase>bavlamdei</oldjbophrase>,
<quote>tomorrow</quote>: it is composed of the rafsi for
@@ -631,38 +631,38 @@
<quote>next</quote>, and
<valsi>djedi</valsi>. If we know or invent the lujvo place structure for the components, we can compose the new lujvo place structure in the usual way.</para>
<para>In this case,
<oldjbophrase>bavla'i</oldjbophrase> is given the place structure</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-aCg7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e8d1"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure>b1=l1 is next after b2=l2</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition>b1=l1 is next after b2=l2</definition></para>
</example>
<para>making it a symmetrical lujvo. We combine this with
<valsi>djedi</valsi>, which has the place structure:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-Lera">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e8d2"/>
</title>
<para>duration d1 is d2 days long (default 1) by standard d3</para>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>anomalous ordering of lujvo places</primary></indexterm> While symmetrical lujvo normally put any trailing tertau places before any seltau places, the day standard is a much less important concept than the day the tomorrow follows, in the definition of
<oldjbophrase>bavlamdei</oldjbophrase>. This is an example of how the guidelines presented for selecting and ordering lujvo places are just that, not laws that must be rigidly adhered to. In this case, we choose to rank places in order of relative importance. The resulting place structure is:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-KEwW">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e8d3"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure>d1=b1=l1 is a day following b2=l2, d2 days later (default 1) by standard d3</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition>d1=b1=l1 is a day following b2=l2, d2 days later (default 1) by standard d3</definition></para>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>long-sword</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>medieval weapon</primary></indexterm> Here is another example of a multi-part lujvo:
<oldjbophrase>cladakyxa'i</oldjbophrase>, meaning
<quote>long-sword</quote>, a specific type of medieval weapon. The gismu place structures are:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-XpNf">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e8d4"/>
</title>
@@ -675,21 +675,21 @@
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sword blade</primary></indexterm> Since
<oldjbophrase>cladakyxa'i</oldjbophrase> is a symmetrical lujvo based on
<oldjbophrase>cladakfu xarci</oldjbophrase>, and
<oldjbophrase>cladakfu</oldjbophrase> is itself a symmetrical lujvo, we can do the necessary analyses all at once. Plainly c1 (the long thing), d1 (the knife), and xa1 (the weapon) are all the same. Likewise, the d2 place (the thing cut) is the same as the xa2 place (the target of the weapon), given that swords are used to cut victims. Finally, the c2 place (direction of length) is always along the sword blade in a longsword, by definition, and so is dependent on c1=d1=xa1. Adding on the places of the remaining gismu in right-to-left order we get:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-eAbF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e8d5"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure>xa1=d1=c1 is a long-sword for use against xa2=d2 by wielder xa3, with a blade made of d3, length measured by standard c3.</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition>xa1=d1=c1 is a long-sword for use against xa2=d2 by wielder xa3, with a blade made of d3, length measured by standard c3.</definition></para>
</example>
<para>If the last place sounds unimportant to you, notice that what counts legally as a
<quote>sword</quote>, rather than just a
<quote>knife</quote>, depends on the length of the blade (the legal limit varies in different jurisdictions). This fifth place of
<oldjbophrase>cladakyxa'i</oldjbophrase> may not often be explicitly filled, but it is still useful on occasion. Because it is so seldom important, it is best that it be last.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-seltau-SE">
<title>Eliding SE rafsi from seltau</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>dropping SE rafsi</secondary></indexterm> It is common to form lujvo that omit the rafsi based on cmavo of selma'o SE, as well as other cmavo rafsi. Doing so makes lujvo construction for common or useful constructions shorter. Since it puts more strain on the listener who has not heard the lujvo before, the shortness of the word should not necessarily outweigh ease in understanding, especially if the lujvo refers to a rare or unusual concept.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>proposed law</primary></indexterm> Consider as an example the lujvo
@@ -718,28 +718,28 @@
</title>
<para>
<oldjbophrase>selti'i</oldjbophrase>: idea/action se1 is suggested by agent se2 to audience se3</para>
</example>
<para>Here we can see that se1 (what is suggested) is equivalent to f1 (the law), and we get a normal symmetrical lujvo. The final place structure is:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-S0n4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e9d3"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure>f1=se1 is a bill specifying f2 for community f3 under conditions f4 by suggester se2 to audience/lawgivers f5=se3</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition>f1=se1 is a bill specifying f2 for community f3 under conditions f4 by suggester se2 to audience/lawgivers f5=se3</definition></para>
</example>
<para>or, relabeling the places,</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-RM3D">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e9d4"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure>f1=st2 is a bill specifying f2 for community f3 under conditions f4 by suggester st1 to audience/lawgivers f5=st3</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition>f1=st2 is a bill specifying f2 for community f3 under conditions f4 by suggester st1 to audience/lawgivers f5=st3</definition></para>
</example>
<para>where the last place (st3) is probably some sort of legislature.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>abbreviated</secondary></indexterm> Abbreviated lujvo like
<oldjbophrase>ti'ifla</oldjbophrase> are more intuitive (for the lujvo-maker) than their more explicit counterparts like
<oldjbophrase>selti'ifla</oldjbophrase> (as well as shorter). They don't require the coiner to sit down and work out the precise relation between the seltau and the tertau: he or she can just rattle off a rafsi pair. But should the lujvo get to the stage where a place structure needs to be worked out, then the precise relation does need to be specified. And in that case, such abbreviated lujvo form a trap in lujvo place ordering, since they obscure the most straightforward relation between the seltau and tertau. To give our lujvo-making guidelines as wide an application as possible, and to encourage analyzing the seltau-tertau relation in lujvo, lujvo like
@@ -782,21 +782,21 @@
<jbo>la djak. cu se blakanla</jbo>
<gloss>Jack is-the-bearer-of-blue-eyes</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>But look now at the place structure of
<oldjbophrase>blakanla</oldjbophrase>: it is a symmetrical lujvo, so the place structure is:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-ncPN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e10d3"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure>bl1=k1 is a blue eye of bl2=k2</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition>bl1=k1 is a blue eye of bl2=k2</definition></para>
</example>
<para>We end up being most interested in talking about the second place, not the first (we talk much more of people than of their eyes), so
<valsi>se</valsi> would almost always be required.</para>
<para>What is happening here is that we are translating the tertau wrongly, under the influence of English. The English suffix
<quote>-eyed</quote> does not mean
<quote>eye</quote>, but someone with an eye, which is
<oldjbophrase>selkanla</oldjbophrase>.</para>
<para>Because we've got the wrong tertau (eliding a
<valsi>se</valsi> that really should be there), any attempt to accommodate the resulting lujvo into our guidelines for place structure is fitting a square peg in a round hole. Since they can be so misleading, lujvo with SE rafsi elided from the tertau should be avoided in favor of their more explicit counterparts: in this case,
<oldjbophrase>blaselkanla</oldjbophrase>.</para>
@@ -964,79 +964,79 @@
<xref linkend="section-SE"/>.)</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-abstraction-lujvo">
<title>Abstract lujvo</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo place structure</primary><secondary>"nu" lujvo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstract lujvo</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>abstract</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo of NU can participate in the construction of lujvo of a particularly simple and well-patterned kind. Consider that old standard example,
<valsi>klama</valsi>:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-KEao">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e12d1"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure>k1 comes/goes to k2 from k3 via route k4 by means k5.</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition>k1 comes/goes to k2 from k3 via route k4 by means k5.</definition></para>
</example>
<para>The selbri
<oldjbophrase>nu klama [kei]</oldjbophrase> has only one place, the event-of-going, but the full five places exist implicitly between
<valsi>nu</valsi> and
<valsi>kei</valsi>, since a full bridi with all sumti may be placed there. In a lujvo, there is no room for such inside places, and consequently the lujvo
<oldjbophrase>nunkla</oldjbophrase> (
<rafsi>nun-</rafsi> is the rafsi for
<valsi>nu</valsi>), needs to have six places:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-m60H">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e12d2"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure>nu1 is the event of k1's coming/going to k2 from k3 via route k4 by means k5.</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition>nu1 is the event of k1's coming/going to k2 from k3 via route k4 by means k5.</definition></para>
</example>
<para>Here the first place of
<oldjbophrase>nunklama</oldjbophrase> is the first and only place of
<valsi>nu</valsi>, and the other five places have been pushed down by one to occupy the second through the sixth places. Full information on
<valsi>nu</valsi>, as well as the other abstractors mentioned in this section, is given in
<xref linkend="chapter-abstractions"/>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo place structure</primary><secondary>multi-place abstraction lujvo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo place structure</primary><secondary>"ni" lujvo</secondary></indexterm> For those abstractors which have a second place as well, the standard convention is to place this place after, rather than before, the places of the brivla being abstracted. The place structure of
<oldjbophrase>nilkla</oldjbophrase>, the lujvo derived from
<oldjbophrase>ni klama</oldjbophrase>, is the imposing:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-yURu">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e12d3"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure>ni1 is the amount of k1's coming/going to k2 from k3 via route k4 by means k5, measured on scale ni2.</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition>ni1 is the amount of k1's coming/going to k2 from k3 via route k4 by means k5, measured on scale ni2.</definition></para>
</example>
<para>It is not uncommon for abstractors to participate in the making of more complex lujvo as well. For example,
<oldjbophrase>nunsoidji</oldjbophrase>, from the veljvo</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-RKcH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e12d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>nu sonci kei djica</jbo>
<gloss>event-of being-a-soldier desirer</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>has the place structure</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-8Nos">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e12d5"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure>d1 desires the event of (s1 being a soldier of army s2) for purpose d3</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition>d1 desires the event of (s1 being a soldier of army s2) for purpose d3</definition></para>
</example>
<para>where the d2 place has disappeared altogether, being replaced by the places of the seltau. As shown in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-8Nos"/>, the ordering follows this idea of replacement: the seltau places are inserted at the point where the omitted abstraction place exists in the tertau.</para>
<para>The lujvo
<oldjbophrase>nunsoidji</oldjbophrase> is quite different from the ordinary asymmetric lujvo
<oldjbophrase>soidji</oldjbophrase>, a
<quote>soldier desirer</quote>, whose place structure is just</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-2VMP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e12d6"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure>d1 desires (a soldier of army s2) for purpose d3</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition>d1 desires (a soldier of army s2) for purpose d3</definition></para>
</example>
<para>A
<oldjbophrase>nunsoidji</oldjbophrase> might be someone who is about to enlist, whereas a
<oldjbophrase>soidji</oldjbophrase> might be a camp-follower.</para>
<para>One use of abstract lujvo is to eliminate the need for explicit
<valsi>kei</valsi> in tanru:
<oldjbophrase>nunkalri gasnu</oldjbophrase> means much the same as
<oldjbophrase>nu kalri kei gasnu</oldjbophrase>, but is shorter. In addition, many English words ending in
<oldjbophrase>-hood</oldjbophrase> are represented with
@@ -1111,40 +1111,40 @@
<para>In accordance with the procedure for analyzing three-part lujvo given in
<xref linkend="section-n-part-lujvo"/>, we will first create an intermediate lujvo,
<oldjbophrase>nuncti</oldjbophrase>, whose veljvo is
<oldjbophrase>nu citka [kei]</oldjbophrase>. By the rules given in
<xref linkend="section-abstraction-lujvo"/>,
<oldjbophrase>nuncti</oldjbophrase> has the place structure</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-Xhrx">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e13d2"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure>n1 is the event of c1 eating c2</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition>n1 is the event of c1 eating c2</definition></para>
</example>
<para>Now we can transform the veljvo of
<oldjbophrase>nunctikezgau</oldjbophrase> into
<oldjbophrase>nuncti gasnu</oldjbophrase>. The g2 place (what is brought about by the actor g1) obviously denotes the same thing as n1 (the event of eating). So we can eliminate g2 as redundant, leaving us with a tentative place structure of</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-izvp">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e13d3"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure>g1 is the actor in the event n1=g2 of c1 eating c2</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition>g1 is the actor in the event n1=g2 of c1 eating c2</definition></para>
</example>
<para>But it is also possible to omit the n1 place itself! The n1 place describes the event brought about; an event in Lojban is described as a bridi, by a selbri and its sumti; the selbri is already known (it's the seltau), and the sumti are also already known (they're in the lujvo place structure). So n1 would not give us any information we didn't already know. In fact, the n1=g2 place is dependent on c1 and c2 jointly – it does not depend on either c1 or c2 by itself. Being dependent and derived from the seltau, it is omissible. So the final place structure of
<oldjbophrase>nunctikezgau</oldjbophrase> is:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-9oTP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e13d4"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure>g1 is the actor in the event of c1 eating c2</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition>g1 is the actor in the event of c1 eating c2</definition></para>
</example>
<para>There is one further step that can be taken. As we have already seen with
<oldjbophrase>balsoi</oldjbophrase> in
<xref linkend="section-symmetrical-asymmetrical"/>, the interpretation of lujvo is constrained by the semantics of gismu and of their sumti places. Now, any asymmetrical lujvo with
<valsi>gasnu</valsi> as its tertau will involve an event abstraction either implicitly or explicitly, since that is how the g2 place of
<valsi>gasnu</valsi> is defined.</para>
<para>Therefore, if we assume that
<valsi>nu</valsi> is the type of abstraction one would expect to be a
<oldjbophrase>se gasnu</oldjbophrase>, then the rafsi
@@ -1165,69 +1165,69 @@
<quote>socialize with someone</quote> and
<quote>have sex with someone</quote>, are not relevant to
<valsi>gasnu</valsi>.)</para>
<para>So we can simply use
<oldjbophrase>ctigau</oldjbophrase> with the same place structure as
<oldjbophrase>nunctikezgau</oldjbophrase>:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-ITvd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e13d5"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure>agent g1 causes c1 to eat c2</place-structure></para>
- <para><place-structure>g1 feeds c2 to c1</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition>agent g1 causes c1 to eat c2</definition></para>
+ <para><definition>g1 feeds c2 to c1</definition></para>
</example>
<para>This particular kind of asymmetrical lujvo, in which the seltau serves as the selbri of an abstraction which is a place of the tertau, is called an implicit-abstraction lujvo, because one deduces the presence of an abstraction which is unexpressed (implicit).</para>
<para>To give another example: the gismu
<valsi>basti</valsi>, whose place structure is</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-3LIm">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e13d6"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure>b1 replaces b2 in circumstances b3</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition>b1 replaces b2 in circumstances b3</definition></para>
</example>
<para>can form the lujvo
<oldjbophrase>basygau</oldjbophrase>, with the place structure:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-byp8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e13d7"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure>g1 (agent) replaces b1 with b2 in circumstances b3</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition>g1 (agent) replaces b1 with b2 in circumstances b3</definition></para>
</example>
<para>where both
<valsi>basti</valsi> and
<oldjbophrase>basygau</oldjbophrase> are translated
<quote>replace</quote> in English, but represent different relations:
<valsi>basti</valsi> may be used with no mention of any agent doing the replacing.</para>
<para>In addition,
<valsi>gasnu</valsi>-based lujvo can be built from what we would consider nouns or adjectives in English. In Lojban, everything is a predicate, so adjectives, nouns and verbs are all treated in the same way. This is consistent with the use of similar causative affixes in other languages. For example, the gismu
<valsi>litki</valsi>, meaning
<quote>liquid</quote>, with the place structure</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-tDsX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e13d8"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure>l1 is a quantity of liquid of composition l2 under conditions l3</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition>l1 is a quantity of liquid of composition l2 under conditions l3</definition></para>
</example>
<para>can give
<oldjbophrase>likygau</oldjbophrase>, meaning
<quote>to liquefy</quote>:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-p5Bt">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e13d9"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure>g1 (agent) causes l1 to be a quantity of liquid of composition l2 under conditions l3.</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition>g1 (agent) causes l1 to be a quantity of liquid of composition l2 under conditions l3.</definition></para>
</example>
<para>While
<oldjbophrase>likygau</oldjbophrase> correctly represents
<quote>causes to be a liquid</quote>, a different lujvo based on
<valsi>galfi</valsi> (meaning
<quote>modify</quote>) may be more appropriate for
<quote>causes to become a liquid</quote>. On the other hand,
<oldjbophrase>fetsygau</oldjbophrase> is potentially confusing, because it could mean
<quote>agent in the event of something becoming female</quote> (the implicit-abstraction interpretation) or simply
<quote>female agent</quote> (the parallel interpretation), so using implicit-abstraction lujvo is always accompanied with some risk of being misunderstood.</para>
@@ -1235,21 +1235,21 @@
<para>Many other Lojban gismu have places for event abstractions, and therefore are good candidates for the tertau of an implicit-abstraction lujvo. For example, lujvo based on
<valsi>rinka</valsi>, with its place structure</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-Pmz8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e13d10"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure>event r1 causes event r2 to occur</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition>event r1 causes event r2 to occur</definition></para>
</example>
<para>are closely related to those based on
<valsi>gasnu</valsi>. However,
<valsi>rinka</valsi> is less generally useful than
<valsi>gasnu</valsi>, because its r1 place is another event rather than a person:
<oldjbophrase>lo rinka</oldjbophrase> is a cause, not a causer. Thus the place structure of
<oldjbophrase>likyri'a</oldjbophrase>, a lujvo analogous to
<oldjbophrase>likygau</oldjbophrase>, is</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-1HT3">
<title>
@@ -1279,40 +1279,40 @@
<para>
<valsi>cusku</valsi>: c1 expresses text c2 to audience c3 in medium c4</para>
</example>
<para>and
<oldjbophrase>selsku</oldjbophrase>, the tertau of
<oldjbophrase>jdaselsku</oldjbophrase>, has the place structure</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qW3w">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e14d2"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure>s1 is a text expressed by s2 to audience s3 in medium s4</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition>s1 is a text expressed by s2 to audience s3 in medium s4</definition></para>
</example>
<para>Now it is easy to see that the l2 and s2 places are equivalent: the believer in the religion (l2) is the one who expresses the prayer (s2). This is not one of the cases for which a place ordering rule has been given in
<xref linkend="section-order-of-places"/> or
<xref linkend="section-implicit-abstraction"/>; therefore, for lack of a better rule, we put the tertau places first and the remaining seltau places after them, leading to the place structure:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-41dc">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e14d3"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure>s1 is a prayer expressed by s2=l2 to audience s3 in medium s4 pertaining to religion l1</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition>s1 is a prayer expressed by s2=l2 to audience s3 in medium s4 pertaining to religion l1</definition></para>
</example>
<para>The l3 place (the beliefs of the religion) is dependent on the l1 place (the religion) and so is omitted.</para>
<para>We could make this lujvo less messy by replacing it with
<oldjbophrase>se seljdasku</oldjbophrase>, where
<oldjbophrase>seljdasku</oldjbophrase> is a normal symmetrical lujvo with place structure:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-7Tdb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e14d4"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure>c1=l2 religiously expresses prayer c2 to audience c3 in medium s4 pertaining to religion l1</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition>c1=l2 religiously expresses prayer c2 to audience c3 in medium s4 pertaining to religion l1</definition></para>
</example>
<para>which, according to the rule expressed in
<xref linkend="section-seltau-SE"/>, can be further expressed as
<oldjbophrase>selseljdasku</oldjbophrase>. However, there is no need for the ugly
<oldjbophrase>selsel-</oldjbophrase> prefix just to get the rules right:
<oldjbophrase>jdaselsku</oldjbophrase> is a reasonable, if anomalous, lujvo.</para>
<para>However, there is a further problem with
<oldjbophrase>jdaselsku</oldjbophrase>, not resolvable by using
<oldjbophrase>seljdasku</oldjbophrase>. No veljvo involving just the two gismu
<valsi>lijda</valsi> and
@@ -1328,21 +1328,21 @@
<valsi>lanme</valsi> and
<valsi>gerku</valsi> at all. Rather, the lujvo refers to a dog which controls sheep flocks, a
<oldjbophrase>terlanme jitro gerku</oldjbophrase>, the lujvo from which is
<oldjbophrase>terlantroge'u</oldjbophrase> with place structure:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-TW5Q">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e14d5"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure>g1=j1 is a dog that controls sheep flock l3=j2 made up of sheep l1 in activity j3 of dog breed g2</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition>g1=j1 is a dog that controls sheep flock l3=j2 made up of sheep l1 in activity j3 of dog breed g2</definition></para>
</example>
<para>based on the gismu place structures</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-CXeL">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e14d6"/>
</title>
<para>
<valsi>lanme</valsi>: l1 is a sheep of breed l2 belonging to flock l3</para>
<para>
<valsi>gerku</valsi>: g1 is a dog of breed g2</para>
@@ -1377,21 +1377,21 @@
<oldjbophrase>se xance minde</oldjbophrase>, misses the point: the real relation expressed by the lujvo is not just
<quote>one who commands and has a hand</quote>, but
<quote>to command using the hand</quote>. The concept of
<quote>using</quote> suggests the gismu
<valsi>pilno</valsi>, with place structure</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-sqQN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e14d8"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure>p1 uses tool p2 for purpose p3</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition>p1 uses tool p2 for purpose p3</definition></para>
</example>
<para>Some possible three-part veljvo are (depending on how strictly you want to constrain the veljvo)</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qfe4" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e14d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>[ke] xance pilno [ke'e] minde</jbo>
<gloss>(hand user) type-of commander</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1483,21 +1483,21 @@
<natlang>I am six years younger than you.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The place structure for
<oldjbophrase>citmau</oldjbophrase> is</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-I3Uh">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e15d4"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure>z1=c1 is younger than z2=c1 by amount z4</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition>z1=c1 is younger than z2=c1 by amount z4</definition></para>
</example>
<para>Similarly, in Lojban you can say:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-tJDa">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e15d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do citme'a mi lo nanca be li xa</jbo>
<gloss>You are-less-young-than me by-years the-number six.</gloss>
@@ -1595,47 +1595,47 @@
<natlang>I increase in strength.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Finally, lujvo with a tertau of
<valsi>traji</valsi> are used to build superlatives. The place structure of
<valsi>traji</valsi> is</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-N3cU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e15d9"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure>t1 is superlative in property t2, being the t3 extremum (largest by default) of set t4</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition>t1 is superlative in property t2, being the t3 extremum (largest by default) of set t4</definition></para>
</example>
<para>Consider the gismu
<valsi>xamgu</valsi>, whose place structure is:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-MWdr">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e15d10"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure>xa1 is good for xa2 by standard xa3</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition>xa1 is good for xa2 by standard xa3</definition></para>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>better</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> The comparative form is
<oldjbophrase>xagmau</oldjbophrase>, corresponding to English
<quote>better</quote>, with a place structure (by the rules given above) of</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-pR5R">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e15d11"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure>z1 is better than z2 for xa2 by standard xa3 in amount z4</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition>z1 is better than z2 for xa2 by standard xa3 in amount z4</definition></para>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo place order</primary><secondary>superlatives</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo place structure</primary><secondary>superlatives</secondary></indexterm> We would expect the place structure of
<oldjbophrase>xagrai</oldjbophrase>, the superlative form, to somehow mirror that, given that comparatives and superlatives are comparable concepts, resulting in:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-Cc6J">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e15d12"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure>xa1=t1 is the best of the set t4 for xa2 by standard xa3.</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition>xa1=t1 is the best of the set t4 for xa2 by standard xa3.</definition></para>
</example>
<para>The t2 place in
<valsi>traji</valsi>, normally filled by a property abstraction, is replaced by the seltau places, and the t3 place specifying the extremum of
<valsi>traji</valsi> (whether the most or the least, that is) is presumed by default to be
<quote>the most</quote>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo place order</primary><secondary>superlatives as exceptions</secondary></indexterm> But the set against which the t1 place of
<valsi>traji</valsi> is compared is not the t2 place (which would make the place structure of
<valsi>traji</valsi> fully parallel to that of
@@ -1724,21 +1724,21 @@
<valsi>rinka</valsi> does not have a place for the agent, the one who causes, as a result of the pressure toward metaphysical necessity. A cause-effect relationship does not have to include an agent: an event (such as snow melting in the mountains) may cause another event (such as the flooding of the Nile) without any human intervention or even knowledge.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>as suppliers of agent place</secondary></indexterm> Indeed, there is a general tendency to omit agent places from most gismu except for a few such as
<valsi>gasnu</valsi> and
<valsi>zukte</valsi> which are then used as tertau in order to restore the agent place when needed: see
<xref linkend="section-implicit-abstraction"/>.</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-Atby">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e16d4"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure> <valsi>cinfo</valsi>: c1 is a lion of species/breed c2</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition> <valsi>cinfo</valsi>: c1 is a lion of species/breed c2</definition></para>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>diversified species</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>general terms</primary></indexterm> The c2 place of
<valsi>cinfo</valsi> is provided as a result of the pressure toward regularity. All animal and plant gismu have such an x2 place; although there is in fact only one species of lion, and breeds of lion, though they exist, aren't all that important in talking about lions. The species/breed place must exist for such diversified species as dogs, and for general terms like
<valsi>cinki</valsi> (insect), and are provided for all other animals and plants as a matter of regularity.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>place order</secondary><tertiary>rationale</tertiary></indexterm> Less can be said about gismu place structure ordering, but some regularities are apparent. The places tend to appear in decreasing order of psychological saliency or importance. There is an implication within the place structure of
<valsi>klama</valsi>, for example, that
<oldjbophrase>lo klama</oldjbophrase> (the one going) will be talked about more often, and is thus more important, than
diff --git a/todocbook/13.xml b/todocbook/13.xml
index 23023c6..e33e08c 100644
--- a/todocbook/13.xml
+++ b/todocbook/13.xml
@@ -2512,29 +2512,29 @@
<xref linkend="example-random-id-rXiR"/> could mean
<quote>sad</quote> (as in English) or something completely different.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>pe'anai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>literally</primary></indexterm> The negated form,
<oldjbophrase>pe'anai</oldjbophrase>, indicates that what has been said is to be interpreted literally, in the usual way for Lojban; natural-language intuition is to be ignored.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>heartburn</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>culturally dependent lujvo</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>figurative lujvo</primary><secondary>place structure</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>figurative lujvo</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>place structure of figurative lujvo</secondary></indexterm> Alone among the cmavo of selma'o UI,
<valsi>pe'a</valsi> has a rafsi, namely
<rafsi>pev</rafsi>. This rafsi is used in forming figurative (culturally dependent) lujvo, whose place structure need have nothing to do with the place structure of the components. Thus
<oldjbophrase>risnyjelca</oldjbophrase> (heart burn) might have a place structure like:</para>
- <place-structure>
+ <definition>
x1 is the heart of x2, burning in atmosphere x3 at temperature x4
- </place-structure>
+ </definition>
<para>whereas
<oldjbophrase>pevrisnyjelca</oldjbophrase>, explicitly marked as figurative, might have the place structure:</para>
- <place-structure>
+ <definition>
x1 is indigestion/heartburn suffered by x2
- </place-structure>
+ </definition>
<para>which obviously has nothing to do with the places of either
<valsi>risna</valsi> or
<valsi>jelca</valsi>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>bi'unai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>bi'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>an</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>a</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>the</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>a/an</primary><secondary>contrasted with the</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>the</primary><secondary>contrasted with a/an</secondary></indexterm> The uses of
<valsi>bi'u</valsi> and
<oldjbophrase>bi'unai</oldjbophrase> correspond to one of the uses of the English articles
<quote>the</quote> and
diff --git a/todocbook/14.xml b/todocbook/14.xml
index 1a0f1a6..bff1426 100644
--- a/todocbook/14.xml
+++ b/todocbook/14.xml
@@ -793,23 +793,23 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e7d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi dotco .ijo mi ricfu .ijo mi nanmu</jbo>
<gloss>I am-German. If-and-only-if I am-rich. If-and-only-if I am-a-man.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>shows that
<xref linkend="example-random-id-3zE1"/> does not mean that either I am all three of these things or none of them; instead, an accurate translation would be:</para>
- <place-structure>
+ <definition>
Of the three properties – German-ness, wealth, and manhood – I possess either exactly one or else all three.
- </place-structure>
+ </definition>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>negation in connecting more than 2 sentences</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>of more than 2 sentences</secondary><tertiary>things to avoid</tertiary></indexterm> Because of the counterintuitiveness of this outcome, it is safest to avoid
<phrase role="logical-vowel">O</phrase> with more than two sentences. Likewise, the connectives which involve negation also have unexpected truth values when used with more than two sentences.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>of more than 2 sentences</secondary><tertiary>all or none</tertiary></indexterm> In fact, no combination of logical connectives can produce the
<quote>all or none</quote> interpretation intended (but not achieved) by
<xref linkend="example-random-id-3zE1"/> without repeating one of the bridi. See
<xref linkend="example-random-id-KyHw"/>.</para>
<para>There is an additional difficulty with the use of more than two sentences. What is the meaning of:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection of more than 2 sentences</primary><secondary>mixed "and" and "or"</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mLo1">
<title>
@@ -2280,23 +2280,23 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi joibo do ce la djan. joibo la djein. cu gunma se remei</jbo>
<gloss>(I massed-with you) and (John massed-with Jane) are-a-mass type-of-two-set</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>asserts that there is a set of two items each of which is a mass.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>termsets</primary><secondary>non-logical connection of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-logical connection</primary><secondary>of termsets</secondary></indexterm> Non-logical connection is permitted at the joint of a termset; this is useful for associating more than one sumti or tagged sumti with each side of the non-logical connection. The place structure of
<valsi>casnu</valsi> is:</para>
- <place-structure>
+ <definition>
casnu: the mass x1 discusses/talks about x2
- </place-structure>
+ </definition>
<para>so the x1 place must be occupied by a mass (for reasons not explained here); however, different components of the mass may discuss in different languages. To associate each participant with his or her language, we can say:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>discuss in language</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sdba">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e15d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ce'e bau la lojban. pe'e joi do ce'e bau la gliban. nu'u casnu</jbo>
<gloss>( I [plus] in-language Lojban massed-with you [plus] in-language English ) discuss.</gloss>
diff --git a/todocbook/18.xml b/todocbook/18.xml
index 77fabe1..6750f74 100644
--- a/todocbook/18.xml
+++ b/todocbook/18.xml
@@ -900,69 +900,69 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li xy. mleca li mu</jbo>
<gloss>The-number x is-less-than the-number 5.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here is a partial list of selbri useful in mathematical bridi:</para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry>
<term><valsi>du</valsi></term>
- <listitem><place-structure>x1 is identical to x2, x3, x4, ... </place-structure></listitem>
+ <listitem><definition>x1 is identical to x2, x3, x4, ... </definition></listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><valsi>dunli</valsi></term>
- <listitem><place-structure>x1 is equal/congruent to x2 in/on property/quality/dimension/quantity x3</place-structure></listitem>
+ <listitem><definition>x1 is equal/congruent to x2 in/on property/quality/dimension/quantity x3</definition></listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><valsi>mleca</valsi></term>
- <listitem><place-structure>x1 is less than x2</place-structure></listitem>
+ <listitem><definition>x1 is less than x2</definition></listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><valsi>zmadu</valsi></term>
- <listitem><place-structure>x1 is greater than x2</place-structure></listitem>
+ <listitem><definition>x1 is greater than x2</definition></listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><oldjbophrase>dubjavme'a</oldjbophrase></term>
- <listitem><place-structure>x1 is less than or equal to x2 [<valsi>du</valsi> <valsi>ja</valsi> <valsi>mleca</valsi>, equal or less]</place-structure></listitem>
+ <listitem><definition>x1 is less than or equal to x2 [<valsi>du</valsi> <valsi>ja</valsi> <valsi>mleca</valsi>, equal or less]</definition></listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><oldjbophrase>dubjavmau</oldjbophrase></term>
- <listitem><place-structure>x1 is greater than or equal to x2 [<valsi>du</valsi> <valsi>ja</valsi> <valsi>zmadu</valsi>, equal or greater]</place-structure></listitem>
+ <listitem><definition>x1 is greater than or equal to x2 [<valsi>du</valsi> <valsi>ja</valsi> <valsi>zmadu</valsi>, equal or greater]</definition></listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><oldjbophrase>tamdu'i</oldjbophrase></term>
- <listitem><place-structure>x1 is similar to x2 [<valsi>tarmi</valsi> <valsi>dunli</valsi>, shape-equal]</place-structure></listitem>
+ <listitem><definition>x1 is similar to x2 [<valsi>tarmi</valsi> <valsi>dunli</valsi>, shape-equal]</definition></listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><oldjbophrase>turdu'i</oldjbophrase></term>
- <listitem><place-structure>x1 is isomorphic to x2 [<valsi>stura</valsi> <valsi>dunli</valsi>, structure-equal]</place-structure></listitem>
+ <listitem><definition>x1 is isomorphic to x2 [<valsi>stura</valsi> <valsi>dunli</valsi>, structure-equal]</definition></listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><valsi>cmima</valsi></term>
- <listitem><place-structure>x1 is a member of set x2</place-structure></listitem>
+ <listitem><definition>x1 is a member of set x2</definition></listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><oldjbophrase>gripau</oldjbophrase></term>
- <listitem><place-structure>x1 is a subset of set x2 [<valsi>girzu</valsi> <valsi>pagbu</valsi>, set-part]</place-structure></listitem>
+ <listitem><definition>x1 is a subset of set x2 [<valsi>girzu</valsi> <valsi>pagbu</valsi>, set-part]</definition></listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><oldjbophrase>na'ujbi</oldjbophrase></term>
- <listitem><place-structure>x1 is approximately equal to x2 [<valsi>namcu</valsi> <valsi>jibni</valsi>, number-near]</place-structure></listitem>
+ <listitem><definition>x1 is approximately equal to x2 [<valsi>namcu</valsi> <valsi>jibni</valsi>, number-near]</definition></listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><oldjbophrase>terci'e</oldjbophrase></term>
- <listitem><place-structure>x1 is a component with function x2 of system x3</place-structure></listitem>
+ <listitem><definition>x1 is a component with function x2 of system x3</definition></listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
<para>Note the difference between
<valsi>dunli</valsi> and
<valsi>du</valsi>;
<valsi>dunli</valsi> has a third place that specifies the kind of equality that is meant.
<valsi>du</valsi> refers to actual identity, and can have any number of places:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PTmF">
@@ -1792,23 +1792,23 @@
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>me'u</cmavo>
<selmaho>MEhU</selmaho>
<description>terminator for ME</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>MOI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>numerical selbri</primary><secondary>special</secondary></indexterm> Lojban possesses a special category of selbri which are based on mekso. The simplest kind of such selbri are made by suffixing a member of selma'o MOI to a number. There are five members of MOI, each of which serves to create number-based selbri with specific place structures.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>mei</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cardinal selbri</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cardinal selbri</primary><secondary>place structure</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo
<valsi>mei</valsi> creates cardinal selbri. The basic place structure is:</para>
- <place-structure>
+ <definition>
x1 is a mass formed from the set x2 of n members, one or more of which is/are x3
- </place-structure>
+ </definition>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mass</primary><secondary>expressing relation with individuals forming</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mass</primary><secondary>expressing relation with set forming</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>individuals</primary><secondary>expressing relation with mass formed</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>individuals</primary><secondary>expressing relation with set formed</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>set</primary><secondary>expressing relation with individuals forming set</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>set</primary><secondary>expressing relation with mass formed from set</secondary></indexterm> A cardinal selbri interrelates a set with a given number of members, the mass formed from that set, and the individuals which make the set up. The mass argument is placed first as a matter of convenience, not logical necessity.</para>
<para>Some examples:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>three rats</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ujSA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e11d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lei mi ratcu cu cimei</jbo>
@@ -1832,23 +1832,23 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-1Pen"/>,
<valsi>mi</valsi> refers to a mass,
<quote>the mass consisting of me</quote>. Personal pronouns are vague between masses, sets, and individuals.</para>
<para>However, when the number expressed before
<rafsi>-mei</rafsi> is an objective indefinite number of the kind explained in
<xref linkend="section-indefinite-numbers"/>, a slightly different place structure is required:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>individuals of set</primary><secondary>expressing measurement standard for indefinites</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>set</primary><secondary>expressing measurement standard for indefinites</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mass</primary><secondary>expressing measurement standard for indefinites</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mei</primary><secondary>place structure formed for objective indefinites</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
- <place-structure>
+ <definition>
x1 is a mass formed from a set x2 of n members, one or more of which is/are x3, measured relative to the set x4.
- </place-structure>
+ </definition>
<para>An example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-GJsg">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e11d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lei ratcu poi zvati le panka cu so'umei fo lo'i ratcu</jbo>
<gloss>The-mass-of rats which are-in the park are a-fewsome with-respect-to the-set-of rats.</gloss>
<natlang>The rats in the park are a small number of all the rats there are.</natlang>
@@ -1875,23 +1875,23 @@
<para>In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-n52D"/>, the conversion cmavo
<valsi>se</valsi> swaps the x1 and the x2 places, so that the new x1 is the set. The x4 set is unspecified, so the implication is that the rats are
<quote>many</quote> with respect to some unspecified comparison set.</para>
<para>More explanations about the interrelationship of sets, masses, and individuals can be found in
<xref linkend="section-masses"/>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>moi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ordinal selbri</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ordinal selbri</primary><secondary>place structure</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo
<valsi>moi</valsi> creates ordinal selbri. The place structure is:</para>
- <place-structure>
+ <definition>
x1 is the (n)th member of set x2 when ordered by rule x3
- </place-structure>
+ </definition>
<para>Some examples:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qiHw" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e11d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti pamoi le'i mi ratcu</jbo>
<gloss>This-one is the first-of the rats associated-with me.</gloss>
<natlang>This is my first rat.</natlang>
@@ -1918,59 +1918,59 @@
<gloss>I am enough-th in the movie line.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>enough-th</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>all-th</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>first rat</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qIiA"/> means, in the appropriate context, that my position in line is sufficiently far to the front that I will get a seat for the movie.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>si'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>portion selbri</primary><secondary>place structure</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>portion selbri</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo
<valsi>si'e</valsi> creates portion selbri. The place structure is:</para>
- <place-structure>
+ <definition>
x1 is an (n)th portion of mass x2
- </place-structure>
+ </definition>
<para>Some examples:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-i8r4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e11d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>levi sanmi cu fi'ucisi'e lei mi djedi cidja</jbo>
<gloss>This-here meal is-a-slash-three-portion-of my day-food.</gloss>
<natlang>This meal is one-third of my daily food.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>cu'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>probability selbri</primary><secondary>place structure</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>probability selbri</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>one-third of food</primary></indexterm> The cmavo
<valsi>cu'o</valsi> creates probability selbri. The place structure is:</para>
- <place-structure>
+ <definition>
event x1 has probability (n) of occurring under conditions x2
- </place-structure>
+ </definition>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>probability selbri</primary><secondary>values</secondary></indexterm> The number must be between 0 and 1 inclusive. For example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9sf6">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e11d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nu lo sicni cu sedja'o cu pimucu'o</jbo>
<gloss>The event of a coin being a head-displayer has probability .5.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>va'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>coin heads</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>probability .5</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>scale selbri</primary><secondary>place structure</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>scale selbri</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo
<valsi>va'e</valsi> creates a scale selbri. The place structure is:</para>
- <place-structure>
+ <definition>
x1 is at scale position (n) on the scale x2
- </place-structure>
+ </definition>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>unreduced fractions</primary><secondary>use in granular scales</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>scale</primary><secondary>granular contrasted with continuous</secondary></indexterm> If the scale is granular rather than continuous, a form like
<oldjbophrase>cifi'uxa</oldjbophrase> (3/6) may be used; in this case, 3/6 is not the same as 1/2, because the third position on a scale of six positions is not the same as the first position on a scale of two positions. Here is an example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-XiTd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e11d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le vi rozgu cu sofi'upanova'e xunre</jbo>
<gloss>This rose is 9/10-scale red.</gloss>
@@ -2843,23 +2843,23 @@
<quote>2 + 2</quote> and
<quote>4</quote> are not the same. The relationship between
<valsi>li</valsi> and
<valsi>me'o</valsi> is related to that between
<oldjbophrase>la djan.</oldjbophrase>, the person named John, and
<oldjbophrase>zo .djan.</oldjbophrase>, the name
<quote>John</quote></para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>nu'a</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri</primary><secondary>place structure of converted operator</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>conversion of operator into selbri</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>operator</primary><secondary>converting into selbri</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri</primary><secondary>converting operator into</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo
<valsi>nu'a</valsi> is the inverse of
<valsi>na'u</valsi>, and allows a mekso operator to be used as a normal selbri, with the place structure:</para>
- <place-structure>
+ <definition>
x1 is the result of applying (operator) to x2, x3, ...
- </place-structure>
+ </definition>
<para>for as many places as may be required. For example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9idi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e19d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li ni'umu cu nu'a va'a li ma'umu</jbo>
<gloss>The-number -5 is-the-negation-of the-number +5.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
diff --git a/todocbook/2.xml b/todocbook/2.xml
index 5d2fa7b..3b850b9 100644
--- a/todocbook/2.xml
+++ b/todocbook/2.xml
@@ -240,95 +240,95 @@
<section xml:id="section-some-selbri">
<title>Some words used to indicate selbri relations</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri list for quick tour</primary></indexterm> Here is a short table of some words used as Lojban selbri in this chapter:</para>
<informaltable>
<tgroup cols="2">
<colspec colnum="1" colname="col1"/>
<colspec colnum="2" colname="col2"/>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry><valsi>vecnu</valsi></entry>
- <entry><place-structure>x1 (seller) sells x2 (goods) to x3 (buyer) for x4 (price)</place-structure></entry>
+ <entry><definition>x1 (seller) sells x2 (goods) to x3 (buyer) for x4 (price)</definition></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><valsi>tavla</valsi></entry>
- <entry><place-structure>x1 (talker) talks to x2 (audience) about x3 (topic) in language x4</place-structure></entry>
+ <entry><definition>x1 (talker) talks to x2 (audience) about x3 (topic) in language x4</definition></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><valsi>sutra</valsi></entry>
- <entry><place-structure>x1 (agent) is fast at doing x2 (action)</place-structure></entry>
+ <entry><definition>x1 (agent) is fast at doing x2 (action)</definition></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><oldjbophrase>blari'o</oldjbophrase></entry>
- <entry><place-structure>x1 (object/light source) is blue-green</place-structure></entry>
+ <entry><definition>x1 (object/light source) is blue-green</definition></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><valsi>melbi</valsi></entry>
- <entry><place-structure>x1 (object/idea) is beautiful to x2 (observer) by standard x3</place-structure></entry>
+ <entry><definition>x1 (object/idea) is beautiful to x2 (observer) by standard x3</definition></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><valsi>cutci</valsi></entry>
- <entry><place-structure>x1 is a shoe/boot for x2 (foot) made of x3 (material)</place-structure></entry>
+ <entry><definition>x1 is a shoe/boot for x2 (foot) made of x3 (material)</definition></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><valsi>bajra</valsi></entry>
- <entry><place-structure>x1 runs on x2 (surface) using x3 (limbs) in manner x4 (gait)</place-structure></entry>
+ <entry><definition>x1 runs on x2 (surface) using x3 (limbs) in manner x4 (gait)</definition></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><valsi>klama</valsi></entry>
- <entry><place-structure>x1 goes/comes to x2 (destination) from x3 (origin point) via x4 (route) using x5 (means of transportation)</place-structure></entry>
+ <entry><definition>x1 goes/comes to x2 (destination) from x3 (origin point) via x4 (route) using x5 (means of transportation)</definition></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><valsi>pluka</valsi></entry>
- <entry><place-structure>x1 pleases/is pleasing to x2 (experiencer) under conditions x3</place-structure></entry>
+ <entry><definition>x1 pleases/is pleasing to x2 (experiencer) under conditions x3</definition></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><valsi>gerku</valsi></entry>
- <entry><place-structure>x1 is a dog of breed x2</place-structure></entry>
+ <entry><definition>x1 is a dog of breed x2</definition></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><valsi>kurji</valsi></entry>
- <entry><place-structure>x1 takes care of x2</place-structure></entry>
+ <entry><definition>x1 takes care of x2</definition></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><valsi>kanro</valsi></entry>
- <entry><place-structure>x1 is healthy by standard x2</place-structure></entry>
+ <entry><definition>x1 is healthy by standard x2</definition></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><valsi>stali</valsi></entry>
- <entry><place-structure>x1 stays/remains with x2</place-structure></entry>
+ <entry><definition>x1 stays/remains with x2</definition></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><valsi>zarci</valsi></entry>
- <entry><place-structure>x1 is a market/store/shop selling x2 (products) operated by x3 (storekeeper)</place-structure></entry>
+ <entry><definition>x1 is a market/store/shop selling x2 (products) operated by x3 (storekeeper)</definition></entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</informaltable>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>x1</primary><secondary>notation convention</secondary><tertiary>quick-tour version</tertiary></indexterm> Each selbri (relation) has a specific rule that defines the role of each sumti in the bridi, based on its position. In the table above, that order was expressed by labeling the sumti positions as x1, x2, x3, x4, and x5.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>words not in the dictionary</primary></indexterm> Like the table in
<xref linkend="section-sumti-cmavo"/>, this table is far from complete: in fact, no complete table can exist, because Lojban allows new words to be created (in specified ways) whenever a speaker or writer finds the existing supply of words inadequate. This notion is a basic difference between Lojban (and some other languages such as German and Chinese) and English; in English, most people are very leery of using words that
<quote>aren't in the dictionary</quote>. Lojbanists are encouraged to invent new words; doing so is a major way of participating in the development of the language.
<xref linkend="chapter-morphology"/> explains how to make new words, and
<xref linkend="chapter-lujvo"/> explains how to give them appropriate meanings.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-some-simple-bridi">
<title>Some simple Lojban bridi</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> Let's look at a simple Lojban bridi. The place structure of the gismu
<valsi>tavla</valsi> is</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-5Lis">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e5d1"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure>x1 talks to x2 about x3 in language x4</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition>x1 talks to x2 about x3 in language x4</definition></para>
</example>
<para>where the
<quote>x</quote> es with following numbers represent the various arguments that could be inserted at the given positions in the English sentence. For example:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-3bc3">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e5d2"/>
</title>
<para>John talks to Sam about engineering in Lojban.</para>
</example>
@@ -730,38 +730,38 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>sutra tavla</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>has the place structure</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-ANfh">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e9d2"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure>x1 is a fast type-of talker to x2 about x3 in language x4</place-structure></para>
- <para><place-structure>x1 talks fast to x2 about x3 in language x4</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition>x1 is a fast type-of talker to x2 about x3 in language x4</definition></para>
+ <para><definition>x1 talks fast to x2 about x3 in language x4</definition></para>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>fast talker</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru default grouping</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> When three or more gismu are in a row, the first modifies the second, and that combined meaning modifies the third, and that combined meaning modifies the fourth, and so on. For example</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pzS9">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e9d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>sutra tavla cutci</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>fast-talker shoe</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> has the place structure</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-7KPn">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e9d4"/>
</title>
- <para><place-structure>s1 is a fast-talker type of shoe worn by s2 of material s3</place-structure></para>
+ <para><definition>s1 is a fast-talker type of shoe worn by s2 of material s3</definition></para>
</example>
<para>That is, it is a shoe that is worn by a fast talker rather than a shoe that is fast and is also worn by a talker.</para>
<para>Note especially the use of
<quote>type-of</quote> as a mechanism for connecting the English translations of the two or more gismu; this convention helps the learner understand each tanru in its context. Creative interpretations are also possible, however:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-jE94">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e9d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
diff --git a/todocbook/5.xml b/todocbook/5.xml
index 8220688..9ce5317 100644
--- a/todocbook/5.xml
+++ b/todocbook/5.xml
@@ -1500,29 +1500,29 @@
<jbo>la djan. klama be le zarci be'o troci</jbo>
<gloss>John is-a-goer (to the market) type-of trier.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>because the whole bridi of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-2UvG"/> has been packaged up into the single word
<valsi>go'i</valsi> and inserted into
<xref linkend="example-random-id-EvoD"/>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>du</primary><secondary>as an exception within GOhA selma'o</secondary></indexterm> The exceptional member of GOhA is
<valsi>du</valsi>, which represents the relation of identity. Its place structure is:</para>
- <place-structure>x1 is identical with x2, x3, ...</place-structure>
+ <definition>x1 is identical with x2, x3, ...</definition>
<para>for as many places as are given. More information on selma'o GOhA is available in
<xref linkend="chapter-anaphoric-cmavo"/>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>su'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>nu'a</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>containing mathematical expressions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mathematical expressions in tanru</primary></indexterm> Lojban mathematical expressions (mekso) can be incorporated into selbri in two different ways. Mathematical operators such as
<valsi>su'i</valsi>, meaning
<quote>plus</quote>, can be transformed into selbri by prefixing them with
<valsi>nu'a</valsi> (of selma'o NUhA). The resulting place structure is:</para>
- <place-structure>x1 is the result of applying (the operator) to arguments x2, x3, etc.</place-structure>
+ <definition>x1 is the result of applying (the operator) to arguments x2, x3, etc.</definition>
<para>for as many arguments as are required. (The result goes in the x1 place because the number of following places may be indefinite.) For example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pp6j">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e9d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li vo nu'a su'i li re li re</jbo>
<gloss>The-number 4 is-the-sum-of the-number 2 and-the-number 2.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1607,21 +1607,21 @@
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>me'u</cmavo>
<selmaho>MEhU</selmaho>
<description>terminator for <valsi>me</valsi></description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>MEhU selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>me'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ME selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>me</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>me</primary><secondary>place structure of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>conversion of sumti into selbri</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti into selbri</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri from sumti</primary></indexterm> A sumti can be made into a simple selbri by preceding it with
<valsi>me</valsi> (of selma'o ME) and following it with the elidable terminator
<valsi>me'u</valsi> (of selma'o MEhU). This makes a selbri with the place structure</para>
- <place-structure>x1 is one of the referents of <quote>[the sumti]</quote></place-structure>
+ <definition>x1 is one of the referents of <quote>[the sumti]</quote></definition>
<para>which is true of the thing, or things, that are the referents of the sumti, and not of anything else. For example, consider the sumti</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-v6QW">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Three Kings</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c5e10d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ci nolraitru</jbo>
<gloss>the three noblest-governors</gloss>
<natlang>the three kings</natlang>
diff --git a/todocbook/6.xml b/todocbook/6.xml
index 1a7a80a..bf8aef5 100644
--- a/todocbook/6.xml
+++ b/todocbook/6.xml
@@ -559,21 +559,21 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo'i ratcu cu barda</jbo>
<gloss>The-set-of rats is-large.</gloss>
<natlang>There are a lot of rats.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The mass of rats is small because at least one rat is small; the mass of rats is also large; the set of rats, though, is unquestionably large – it has billions of members. The mass of rats is also brown, since some of its components are; but it would be incorrect to call the set of rats brown – brown-ness is not the sort of property that sets possess.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sets</primary><secondary>use in Lojban place structure</secondary></indexterm> Lojban speakers should generally think twice before employing the set descriptors. However, certain predicates have places that require set sumti to fill them. For example, the place structure of
<valsi>fadni</valsi> is:</para>
- <place-structure>x1 is ordinary/common/typical/usual in property x2 among the members of set x3</place-structure>
+ <definition>x1 is ordinary/common/typical/usual in property x2 among the members of set x3</definition>
<para>Why is it necessary for the x3 place of
<valsi>fadni</valsi> to be a set? Because it makes no sense for an individual to be typical of another individual: an individual is typical of a group. In order to make sure that the bridi containing
<valsi>fadni</valsi> is about an entire group, its x3 place must be filled with a set:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-xIXo">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>typical Lojban user</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c6e4d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi fadni zo'e lo'i lobypli</jbo>
diff --git a/todocbook/7.xml b/todocbook/7.xml
index e5909ae..f44bb54 100644
--- a/todocbook/7.xml
+++ b/todocbook/7.xml
@@ -1105,21 +1105,21 @@
<valsi>mi</valsi> refers to A. If B said:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2uS7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e6d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci le si'o go'i</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>that would mean:</para>
- <place-structure> I like the idea of your going to the store. </place-structure> <!-- not actually a place structure, but should be set out from the text -->
+ <definition> I like the idea of your going to the store. </definition> <!-- not actually a place structure, but should be set out from the text -->
<para>The repetition signalled by
<valsi>go'i</valsi> is not literally of words, but of concepts. Finally, A repeats her own sentence, but with the x1 changed to
<valsi>do</valsi>, meaning B. Note that in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-9hf5"/>, the tense
<valsi>ba</valsi> (future time) is carried along by both
<valsi>go'i</valsi> and
<valsi>go'e</valsi>.</para>
<para>Descriptions based on go'i-series cmavo can be very useful for repeating specific sumti of previous bridi:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hwau">
@@ -1320,23 +1320,23 @@
<valsi>zu'i</valsi> is appropriate. It's also common to use
<valsi>zu'i</valsi> in
<quote>by standard</quote> places.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>irrelevant</primary><secondary>specifying of sumti place</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>irrelevant to relationship</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>zi'o</primary></indexterm> Finally, the cmavo
<valsi>zi'o</valsi> represents a value which does not even exist. When a bridi fills one of its places with
<valsi>zi'o</valsi>, what is really meant is that the selbri has a place which is irrelevant to the true relationship the speaker wishes to express. For example, the place structure of
<valsi>zbasu</valsi> is</para>
- <place-structure> zbasu: actor x1 makes x2 from materials x3 </place-structure> <!-- not actually a place structure, but needs to be set out from text... egh... -->
+ <definition> zbasu: actor x1 makes x2 from materials x3 </definition> <!-- not actually a place structure, but needs to be set out from text... egh... -->
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>living things</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> Consider the sentence</para>
- <place-structure>Living things are made from cells.</place-structure> <!-- not actually a place structure, but needs to be set out from text... egh... -->
+ <definition>Living things are made from cells.</definition> <!-- not actually a place structure, but needs to be set out from text... egh... -->
<para>This cannot be correctly expressed as:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ipCV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e7d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>loi jmive cu se zbasu [zo'e] fi loi selci</jbo>
<gloss>The-mass-of living-things is-made [by-something] from the-mass-of cells</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1877,21 +1877,21 @@
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>du</cmavo>
<selmaho>GOhA</selmaho>
<description>identity</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>du</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>identity predicate</primary></indexterm> The cmavo
<valsi>du</valsi> has the place structure:</para>
- <place-structure> du: x1 is identical with x2, x3, ... </place-structure>
+ <definition> du: x1 is identical with x2, x3, ... </definition>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>du</primary><secondary>rationale for selection of selma'o for</secondary></indexterm> and appears in selma'o GOhA for reasons of convenience: it is not a pro-bridi.
<valsi>du</valsi> serves as mathematical
<quote>=</quote>, and outside mathematical contexts is used for defining or identifying. Mathematical examples may be found in
<xref linkend="chapter-mekso"/>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mintu</primary><secondary>contrasted with du</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>du</primary><secondary>contrasted with mintu</secondary></indexterm> The main difference between</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-GGoH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e14d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1933,36 +1933,36 @@
<xref linkend="section-koha-summary"/> for a complete list.) The obvious way to use them is as internal sumti, filling in an appropriate place of the gismu or lujvo to which they are attached; as such, they usually stand as the first rafsi in their lujvo.</para>
<para> <!-- FIXME: this indexterm has nowhere to go --><indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>you-talk</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti rafsi</primary><secondary>effect of on place structure of lujvo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>pro-sumti rafsi effect on place structure of</secondary></indexterm> Thus
<oldjbophrase>donta'a</oldjbophrase>, meaning
<quote>you-talk</quote>, would be interpreted as
<oldjbophrase>tavla be do</oldjbophrase>, and would have the place structure</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-unmV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e15d1"/>
</title>
- <place-structure>t1 talks to you about subject t3 in language t4</place-structure>
+ <definition>t1 talks to you about subject t3 in language t4</definition>
</example>
<para>since <varname>t2</varname> (the addressee) is already known to be
<valsi>do</valsi>.</para>
<para> <!-- FIXME: this indexterm has nowhere to go --><indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>you-cmavo</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> On the other hand, the lujvo
<oldjbophrase>donma'o</oldjbophrase>, literally
<quote>you-cmavo</quote>, which means
<quote>a second person personal pronoun</quote>, would be interpreted as
<oldjbophrase>cmavo be zo do</oldjbophrase>, and have the place structure:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-H5NB">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e15d2"/>
</title>
- <place-structure>c1 is a second person pronoun in language c4</place-structure>
+ <definition>c1 is a second person pronoun in language c4</definition>
</example>
<para>since both the <varname>c2</varname> place (the grammatical class) and the <varname>c3</varname> place (the meaning) are obvious from the context
<valsi>do</valsi>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>fo'a</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti rafsi</primary><secondary>anticipated use of for abbreviating inconvenient forms</secondary></indexterm> An anticipated use of rafsi for cmavo in the
<valsi>fo'a</valsi> series is to express lujvo which can't be expressed in a convenient rafsi form, because they are too long to express, or are formally inconvenient (fu'ivla, cmene, and so forth.) An example would be:</para>
diff --git a/todocbook/9.xml b/todocbook/9.xml
index 8149bba..f40ac76 100644
--- a/todocbook/9.xml
+++ b/todocbook/9.xml
@@ -4,23 +4,23 @@
<title>Introductory</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relationship</primary><secondary>objects of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relationship</primary><secondary>as basis of sentence</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sentence</primary><secondary>basic Lojban</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> The basic type of Lojban sentence is the bridi: a claim by the speaker that certain objects are related in a certain way. The objects are expressed by Lojban grammatical forms called
<valsi>sumti</valsi>; the relationship is expressed by the Lojban grammatical form called a
<oldjbophrase>selbri</oldjbophrase>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>as objects in place structure slots</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>place structure</primary><secondary>empty slots in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>place structure</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri</primary><secondary>place structure of</secondary></indexterm> The sumti are not randomly associated with the selbri, but according to a systematic pattern known as the
<quote>place structure</quote> of the selbri. This chapter describes the various ways in which the place structure of Lojban bridi is expressed and by which it can be manipulated. The place structure of a selbri is a sequence of empty slots into which the sumti associated with that selbri are placed. The sumti are said to occupy the places of the selbri.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>place structure of selbri</primary><secondary>determining</secondary></indexterm> For our present purposes, every selbri is assumed to have a well-known place structure. If the selbri is a brivla, the place structure can be looked up in a dictionary (or, if the brivla is a lujvo not in any dictionary, inferred from the principles of lujvo construction as explained in
<xref linkend="chapter-lujvo"/>); if the selbri is a tanru, the place structure is the same as that of the final component in the tanru.</para>
<para><indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>go</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>x1</primary><secondary>in place structure notation</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>place structure</primary><secondary>notation conventions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>klama</primary><secondary>place structure of</secondary></indexterm> The stock example of a place structure is that of the gismu
<valsi>klama</valsi>:</para>
- <place-structure>
+ <definition>
<valsi>klama</valsi>: x1 comes/goes to destination x2 from origin x3 via route x4 employing means of transport x5.
- </place-structure>
+ </definition>
<para>The
<quote>x1 ... x5</quote> indicates that
<valsi>klama</valsi> is a five-place predicate, and show the natural order (as assigned by the language engineers) of those places: agent, destination, origin, route, means.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>place structure</primary><secondary>instability of</secondary></indexterm> The place structures of brivla are not absolutely stable aspects of the language. The work done so far has attempted to establish a basic place structure on which all users can, at first, agree. In the light of actual experience with the individual selbri of the language, there will inevitably be some degree of change to the brivla place structures.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-cu">
<title>Standard bridi form:
<valsi>cu</valsi></title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
@@ -156,23 +156,23 @@
<anchor xml:id="c9e2d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama la bastn. la .atlantas. le karce</jbo>
<gloss>I go to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the car.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<oldjbophrase>le karce</oldjbophrase> occupies the x4 place, and therefore
<xref linkend="example-random-id-jh7T"/> means:</para>
- <place-structure>
+ <definition>
I go to Boston from Atlanta, using the car as a route.
- </place-structure>
+ </definition>
<para>This is nonsense, since a car cannot be a route. What the speaker presumably meant is expressed by:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-tqoQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e2d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama la bastn. la .atlantas. zo'e le karce</jbo>
<gloss>I go to-Boston from-Atlanta via-something-unspecified using-the car.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -417,23 +417,23 @@
<jbo>fi'a do dunda [fe] le vi rozgu</jbo>
<gloss>[what place]? you give x2= the nearby rose</gloss>
<gloss>In what way are you involved in the giving of this rose?</gloss>
<natlang>Are you the giver or the receiver of this rose?</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-GnTu"/>, the speaker uses the selbri
<valsi>dunda</valsi>, whose place structure is:</para>
- <place-structure>
+ <definition>
<valsi>dunda</valsi>: x1 gives x2 to x3
- </place-structure>
+ </definition>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>answers</primary><secondary>to place structure questions</secondary></indexterm> The tagged sumti
<oldjbophrase>fi'a do</oldjbophrase> indicates that the speaker wishes to know whether the sumti
<valsi>do</valsi> falls in the x1 or the x3 place (the x2 place is already occupied by
<oldjbophrase>le rozgu</oldjbophrase>). The listener can reply with a sentence consisting solely of a FA cmavo:
<valsi>fa</valsi> if the listener is the giver,
<valsi>fi</valsi> if he/she is the receiver.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fi'a</primary><secondary>effect on subsequent untagged sumti</secondary></indexterm> I have inserted the tag
<valsi>fe</valsi> in brackets into
<xref linkend="example-random-id-GnTu"/>, but it is actually not necessary, because
@@ -469,39 +469,39 @@
<description>5th place conversion</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para><indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>SE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>SE selma'o</primary><secondary>for converting place structure</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>SE selma'o</primary><secondary>effect on selbri place structure</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>converted selbri</primary><secondary>as different selbri from unconverted</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>converted selbri</primary><secondary>place structure of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>converted selbri</primary><secondary>forming with SE</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>converted selbri</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> So far we have seen ways to move sumti around within a bridi, but the actual place structure of the selbri has always remained untouched. The conversion cmavo of selma'o SE are incorporated within the selbri itself, and produce a new selbri (called a converted selbri) with a different place structure. In particular, after the application of any SE cmavo, the number and purposes of the places remain the same, but two of them have been exchanged, the x1 place and another. Which place has been exchanged with x1 depends on the cmavo chosen. Thus, for example, when
<valsi>se</valsi> is used, the x1 place is swapped with the x2 place.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>SE selma'o</primary><secondary>word formation of cmavo in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>SE selma'o</primary><secondary>rationale for no 1st place conversion</secondary></indexterm> Note that the cmavo of SE begin with consecutive consonants in alphabetical order. There is no
<quote>1st place conversion</quote> cmavo, because exchanging the x1 place with itself is a pointless maneuver.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>se klama</primary><secondary>place structure of</secondary></indexterm> Here are the place structures of
<oldjbophrase>se klama</oldjbophrase>:</para>
- <place-structure>
+ <definition>
x1 is the destination of x2's going from x3 via x4 using x5
- </place-structure>
+ </definition>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>te</primary></indexterm> and
<oldjbophrase>te klama</oldjbophrase>:</para>
- <place-structure>
+ <definition>
x1 is the origin and x2 the destination of x3 going via x4 using x5
- </place-structure>
+ </definition>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ve</primary></indexterm> and
<oldjbophrase>ve klama</oldjbophrase>:</para>
- <place-structure>
+ <definition>
x1 is the route to x2 from x3 used by x4 going via x5
- </place-structure>
+ </definition>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>xe</primary></indexterm> and
<oldjbophrase>xe klama</oldjbophrase>:</para>
- <place-structure>
+ <definition>
x1 is the means in going to x2 from x3 via x4 employed by x5
- </place-structure>
+ </definition>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>SE selma'o</primary><secondary>effect on place structure numbering</secondary></indexterm> Note that the place structure numbers in each case continue to be listed in the usual order, x1 to x5.</para>
<para>Consider the following pair of examples:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qmHh" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e4d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la bastn. cu se klama mi</jbo>
<gloss>Boston is-the-destination of-me.</gloss>
<gloss>Boston is my destination.</gloss>
@@ -612,50 +612,50 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi se ke blanu zdani [ke'e] ti</jbo>
<gloss>I [2nd conversion] blue house this-thing</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The place structure of
<oldjbophrase>blanu zdani</oldjbophrase> (blue house) is the same as that of
<valsi>zdani</valsi>, by the rule given in
<xref linkend="section-sumti-tcita-introduction"/>. The place structure of
<valsi>zdani</valsi> is:</para>
- <place-structure>
+ <definition>
zdani: x1 is a house/nest/lair/den for inhabitant x2
- </place-structure>
+ </definition>
<para>The place structure of
<oldjbophrase>se ke blanu zdani [ke'e]</oldjbophrase> is therefore:</para>
- <place-structure>
+ <definition>
x1 is the inhabitant of the blue house (etc.) x2
- </place-structure>
+ </definition>
<para>Consequently,
<xref linkend="example-random-id-wQbB"/> means:</para>
- <place-structure>
+ <definition>
I am the inhabitant of the blue house which is this thing.
- </place-structure>
+ </definition>
<para>Conversion applied to only part of a tanru has subtler effects which are explained in
<xref linkend="section-place-conversion"/>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple conversion</primary><secondary>effect of ordering</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>conversion</primary><secondary>effect of multiple on a selbri</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple SE</primary><secondary>effect of ordering</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>SE selma'o</primary><secondary>effect of multiple on a selbri</secondary></indexterm> It is grammatical to convert a selbri more than once with SE; later (inner) conversions are applied before earlier (outer) ones. For example, the place structure of
<oldjbophrase>se te klama</oldjbophrase> is achieved by exchanging the x1 and x2 place of
<oldjbophrase>te klama</oldjbophrase>, producing:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>se te</primary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
- <place-structure>
+ <definition>
x1 is the destination and x2 is the origin of x3 going via x4 using x5
- </place-structure>
+ </definition>
<para>On the other hand,
<oldjbophrase>te se klama</oldjbophrase> has a place structure derived from swapping the x1 and x3 places of
<oldjbophrase>se klama</oldjbophrase>:</para>
- <place-structure>
+ <definition>
x1 is the origin of x2's going to x3 via x4 using x5
- </place-structure>
+ </definition>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple conversion</primary><secondary>avoiding</secondary></indexterm> which is quite different. However, multiple conversions like this are never necessary. Arbitrary scrambling of places can be achieved more easily and far more intelligibly with FA tags, and only a single conversion is ever needed in a description.</para>
<para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>conversion</primary><secondary>swapping non-first places</secondary></indexterm> (Although no one has made any real use of it, it is perhaps worth noting that compound conversions of the form
<oldjbophrase>setese</oldjbophrase>, where the first and third cmavo are the same, effectively swap the two given places while leaving the others, including x1, alone:
<oldjbophrase>setese</oldjbophrase> (or equivalently
<oldjbophrase>tesete</oldjbophrase>) swap the x2 and x3 places, whereas
<oldjbophrase>texete</oldjbophrase> (or
<oldjbophrase>xetexe</oldjbophrase>) swap the x3 and x5 places.)</para>
</section>
@@ -669,23 +669,23 @@
<description>modal place prefix</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>fe'u</cmavo>
<selmaho>FEhU</selmaho>
<description>modal terminator</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>Sometimes the place structures engineered into Lojban are inadequate to meet the needs of actual speech. Consider the gismu
<valsi>viska</valsi>, whose place structure is:</para>
- <place-structure>
+ <definition>
viska: x1 sees x2 under conditions x3
- </place-structure>
+ </definition>
<para>Seeing is a threefold relationship, involving an agent (le viska), an object of sight (le se viska), and an environment that makes seeing possible (le te viska). Seeing is done with one or more eyes, of course; in general, the eyes belong to the entity in the x1 place.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>FEhU selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>fe'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>FIhO selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>fi'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>see with left eye</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fi'o</primary><secondary>use in adding places to place structure</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>place structure</primary><secondary>adding new places to with modal sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fi'o</primary><secondary>as modal tag</secondary></indexterm> Suppose, however, that you are blind in one eye and are talking to someone who doesn't know that. You might want to say,
<quote>I see you with the left eye.</quote> There is no place in the place structure of
<valsi>viska</valsi> such as
<quote>with eye x4</quote> or the like. Lojban allows you to solve the problem by adding a new place, changing the relationship:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-BSAc">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e5d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -695,23 +695,23 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fi'o with selbri</primary><secondary>meaning of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal tag</primary><secondary>fi'o with selbri as</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fi'o</primary><secondary>effect on following selbri</secondary></indexterm> The three-place relation
<valsi>viska</valsi> has now acquired a fourth place specifying the eye used for seeing. The combination of the cmavo
<valsi>fi'o</valsi> (of selma'o FIhO) followed by a selbri, in this case the gismu
<valsi>kanla</valsi>, forms a tag which is prefixed to the sumti filling the new place, namely
<oldjbophrase>le zunle</oldjbophrase>. The semantics of
<oldjbophrase>fi'o kanla le zunle</oldjbophrase> is that
<oldjbophrase>le zunle</oldjbophrase> fills the x1 place of
<valsi>kanla</valsi>, whose place structure is</para>
- <place-structure>
+ <definition>
kanla: x1 is an/the eye of body x2
- </place-structure>
+ </definition>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal sumti</primary><secondary>as first place of modal tag selbri</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal place relation</primary><secondary>importance of first place in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fi'o tag</primary><secondary>relation of modal sumti following to selbri</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal place</primary><secondary>relation of to selbri</secondary></indexterm> Thus
<oldjbophrase>le zunle</oldjbophrase> is an eye. The x2 place of
<valsi>kanla</valsi> is unspecified and must be inferred from the context. It is important to remember that even though
<oldjbophrase>le zunle</oldjbophrase> is placed following
<oldjbophrase>fi'o kanla</oldjbophrase>, semantically it belongs in the x1 place of
<valsi>kanla</valsi>. The selbri may be terminated with
<valsi>fe'u</valsi> (of selma'o FEhU), an elidable terminator which is rarely required unless a non-logical connective follows the tag (omitting
<valsi>fe'u</valsi> in that case would make the connective affect the selbri).</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal sumti</primary><secondary>and FA marking</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal sumti</primary><secondary>effect on place structure</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal sumti</primary><secondary>position in bridi</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>seltcita sumti</primary><secondary>definition (see also modal sumti)</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti tcita</primary><secondary>definition (see also modal tag)</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal sumti</primary><secondary>definition (see also seltcita sumti)</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal tag</primary><secondary>definition (see also sumti tcita)</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal place</primary><secondary>rationale for term name</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal place</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> The term for such an added place is a
<quote>modal place</quote>, as distinguished from the regular numbered places. (This use of the word
@@ -720,23 +720,23 @@
<quote>modal tag</quote>, and the sumti which follows it a
<quote>modal sumti</quote>; the purely Lojban terms
<oldjbophrase>sumti tcita</oldjbophrase> and
<oldjbophrase>seltcita sumti</oldjbophrase>, respectively, are also commonly used. Modal sumti may be placed anywhere within the bridi, in any order; they have no effect whatever on the rules for assigning unmarked bridi to numbered places, and they may not be marked with FA cmavo.</para>
<para>Consider
<xref linkend="example-random-id-BSAc"/> again. Another way to view the situation is to consider the speaker's left eye as a tool, a tool for seeing. The relevant selbri then becomes
<valsi>pilno</valsi>, whose place structure is</para>
- <place-structure>
+ <definition>
pilno: x1 uses x2 as a tool for purpose x3
- </place-structure>
+ </definition>
<para>and we can rewrite
<xref linkend="example-random-id-BSAc"/> as</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Lu15">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e5d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska do fi'o se pilno le zunle kanla</jbo>
<gloss>I see you [modal] [conversion] use: the left eye.</gloss>
<natlang>I see you using my left eye.</natlang>
@@ -752,23 +752,23 @@
<oldjbophrase>se pilno</oldjbophrase> (because it is the x1 of
<valsi>pilno</valsi>) and remains unspecified. The tag
<oldjbophrase>fi'o pilno</oldjbophrase> would mean
<quote>with tool user</quote>, leaving the tool unspecified.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-BAI">
<title>Modal tags: BAI</title>
<para>There are certain selbri which seem particularly useful in constructing modal tags. In particular,
<valsi>pilno</valsi> is one of them. The place structure of
<valsi>pilno</valsi> is:</para>
- <place-structure>
+ <definition>
pilno: x1 uses x2 as a tool for purpose x3
- </place-structure>
+ </definition>
<para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>BAI modal tags</primary><secondary>rationale for</secondary></indexterm> and almost any selbri which represents an action may need to specify a tool. Having to say
<oldjbophrase>fi'o se pilno</oldjbophrase> frequently would make many Lojban sentences unnecessarily verbose and clunky, so an abbreviation is provided in the language design: the compound cmavo
<oldjbophrase>sepi'o</oldjbophrase>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>SE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>BAI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>conversion</primary><secondary>of BAI cmavo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal tags</primary><secondary>short forms as BAI cmavo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fi'o constructs</primary><secondary>short forms as BAI cmavo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>BAI selma'o</primary><secondary>as short forms for fi'o constructs</secondary></indexterm> Here
<valsi>se</valsi> is used before a cmavo, namely
<valsi>pi'o</valsi>, rather than before a brivla. The meaning of this cmavo, which belongs to selma'o BAI, is exactly the same as that of
<oldjbophrase>fi'o pilno fe'u</oldjbophrase>. Since what we want is a tag based on
<oldjbophrase>se pilno</oldjbophrase> rather than
@@ -951,33 +951,33 @@
<quote>with agent</quote> and
<oldjbophrase>tezu'e</oldjbophrase> means
<quote>with purpose</quote>. These other modal cmavo will not be further discussed here, as my purpose is to explain modal sentence connection rather than Lojbanic views of causation.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>causals</primary><secondary>gismu</secondary></indexterm> There are four causal gismu in Lojban, distinguishing different versions of the relationships lumped in English as
<quote>causal</quote>:</para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry>
<term><valsi>rinka</valsi></term>
- <listitem><place-structure>>event x1 physically causes event x2</place-structure></listitem>
+ <listitem><definition>>event x1 physically causes event x2</definition></listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><valsi>krinu</valsi></term>
- <listitem><place-structure>>event x1 is the justification for event x2</place-structure></listitem>
+ <listitem><definition>>event x1 is the justification for event x2</definition></listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><valsi>mukti</valsi></term>
- <listitem><place-structure>>event x1 is the (human) motive for event x2</place-structure></listitem>
+ <listitem><definition>>event x1 is the (human) motive for event x2</definition></listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><valsi>nibli</valsi></term>
- <listitem><place-structure>>event x1 logically entails event x2</place-structure></listitem>
+ <listitem><definition>>event x1 logically entails event x2</definition></listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal causals</primary><secondary>implication differences</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>causals</primary><secondary>modal</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modals</primary><secondary>for causal gismu</secondary></indexterm> Each of these gismu has a related modal:
<valsi>ri'a</valsi>,
<valsi>ki'u</valsi>,
<valsi>mu'i</valsi>, and
<valsi>ni'i</valsi> respectively. Using these gismu and these modals, we can create various causal sentences with different implications:</para>
@@ -1565,25 +1565,25 @@
<para> <!-- FIXME: what to do with these "s? --><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>"less"</primary><secondary>English word</secondary><tertiary>expressing with relative phrases</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>"more"</primary><secondary>English word</secondary><tertiary>expressing with relative phrases</tertiary></indexterm> Modal relative phrases are often used with the BAI cmavo
<valsi>mau</valsi> and
<valsi>me'a</valsi>, which are based on the comparative gismu
<valsi>zmadu</valsi> (more than) and
<valsi>mleca</valsi> (less than) respectively. The place structures are:</para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry>
<term><valsi>zmadu</valsi>:</term>
- <listitem><place-structure>>x1 is more than x2 in property/quantity x3 by amount x4</place-structure></listitem>
+ <listitem><definition>>x1 is more than x2 in property/quantity x3 by amount x4</definition></listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><valsi>mleca</valsi>:</term>
- <listitem><place-structure>>x1 is less than x2 in property/quantity x3 by amount x4</place-structure></listitem>
+ <listitem><definition>>x1 is less than x2 in property/quantity x3 by amount x4</definition></listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
<para>Here are some examples:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Jr4V">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e10d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la frank. nelci la betis. ne semau la meiris.</jbo>
<gloss>Frank likes Betty, which-is more-than Mary.</gloss>
@@ -2611,17 +2611,17 @@
<gismu>zukte</gismu>
<modal-place>with actor</modal-place>
<modal-place se="se">with means to goal</modal-place>
<modal-place se="te">with goal</modal-place>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>The lujvo
<oldjbophrase>tamsmi</oldjbophrase> on which
<valsi>tai</valsi> is based is derived from the tanru
<oldjbophrase>tarmi simsa</oldjbophrase> and has the place structure:</para>
- <place-structure>
+ <definition>
tamsmi: x1 has form x2, similar in form to x3 in property/quality x4
- </place-structure>
+ </definition>
<para>This lujvo is employed because
<valsi>tarmi</valsi> does not have a place structure useful for the modal's purpose.</para>
</section>
</chapter>
commit 5d38b598d6cb8f84ccd5aa5a0f2f597d1406dab0
Author: Robin Lee Powell <rlpowell@digitalkingdom.org>
Date: Sat Mar 19 00:12:44 2011 -0700
Automated conversion of <en> to <natlang>
diff --git a/todocbook/1.xml b/todocbook/1.xml
index 68a2708..fd0074c 100644
--- a/todocbook/1.xml
+++ b/todocbook/1.xml
@@ -78,21 +78,21 @@
<para>Each chapter is broken into numbered sections; each section contains a mixture of expository text, numbered examples, and possibly tables.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>this book</primary><secondary>examples of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>examples in this book</primary></indexterm> The reader will notice a certain similarity in the examples used throughout the book. One chapter after another rings the changes on the self-same sentences:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hrtj">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>go to the store</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c1e3d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I go-to that-which-I-describe-as-a store.</gloss>
- <en>I go to the store.</en>
+ <natlang>I go to the store.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> will become wearisomely familiar before
<xref linkend="chapter-grammars"/> is reached. This method is deliberate; I have tried to use simple and (eventually) familiar examples wherever possible, to avoid obscuring new grammatical points with new vocabulary. Of course, this is not the method of a textbook, but this book is not a textbook (although people have learned Lojban from it and its predecessors). Rather, it is intended both for self-learning (of course, at present would-be Lojban teachers must be self-learners) and to serve as a reference in the usual sense, for looking up obscure points about the language.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>examples</primary><secondary>structure of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>structure of examples</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>example of examples</primary></indexterm> It is useful to talk further about
<xref linkend="example-random-id-hrtj"/> for what it illustrates about examples in this book. Examples usually occupy three lines. The first of these is in Lojban, the second in a word-by-word literal translation of the Lojban into English, and the third in colloquial English. The second and third lines are sometimes called the
<quote>literal translation</quote> and the
<quote>colloquial translation</quote> respectively. Sometimes, when clarity is not sacrificed thereby, one or both are omitted. If there is more than one Lojban sentence, it generally means that they have the same meaning.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>square brackets</primary><secondary>use of in notation</secondary></indexterm> Words are sometimes surrounded by square brackets. In Lojban texts, these enclose optional grammatical particles that may (in the context of the particular example) be either omitted or included. In literal translations, they enclose words that are used as conventional translations of specific Lojban words, but don't have exactly the meanings or uses that the English word would suggest. In
diff --git a/todocbook/10.xml b/todocbook/10.xml
index 23f1a24..eb9ab5a 100644
--- a/todocbook/10.xml
+++ b/todocbook/10.xml
@@ -47,54 +47,54 @@
<quote>past time</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nFgv">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e1d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<!-- FIXME: not really a glossing situation -->
<jbo>mi cu pu klama le zarci</jbo>
<jbo>mi pu klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I in-the-past go-to the market.</gloss>
- <en>I went to the market.</en>
+ <natlang>I went to the market.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ku</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ku</primary><secondary>with tense</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>with ku</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>position in sentence alternative</secondary></indexterm> It is also possible to put the tense somewhere else in the bridi by adding
<valsi>ku</valsi> after it. This
<valsi>ku</valsi> is an elidable terminator, but it's almost never possible to actually elide it except at the end of the bridi:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-5V3Y">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e1d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>puku mi klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>In-the-past I go-to the market.</gloss>
- <en>Earlier, I went to the market.</en>
+ <natlang>Earlier, I went to the market.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-DpEI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e1d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama puku le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I go-to in-the-past the market.</gloss>
- <en>I went earlier to the market.</en>
+ <natlang>I went earlier to the market.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-0f11">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e1d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci pu [ku]</jbo>
<gloss>I go-to the market in-the-past.</gloss>
- <en>I went to the market earlier.</en>
+ <natlang>I went to the market earlier.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>emphasizing by position in sentence</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>effect of different position in sentence</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-nFgv"/> through
<xref linkend="example-random-id-0f11"/> are different only in emphasis. Abnormal order, such as
<xref linkend="example-random-id-5V3Y"/> through
<xref linkend="example-random-id-0f11"/> exhibit, adds emphasis to the words that have been moved; in this case, the tense cmavo
<valsi>pu</valsi>. Words at either end of the sentence tend to be more noticeable.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-spatial-tenses">
@@ -164,21 +164,21 @@
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>temporal tense elision</primary><secondary>compared with spatial tense elision in meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>temporal tense</primary><secondary>compared with spatial tense in elidability</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>spatial tense</primary><secondary>compared with temporal tense in elidability</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>spatial tense</primary><secondary>as optional in English</secondary></indexterm> English doesn't have mandatory spatial tenses. Although there are plenty of ways in English of showing where an event happens, there is absolutely no need to do so. Considering this fact may give the reader a feel for what the optional Lojban time tenses are like. From the Lojban point of view, space and time are interchangeable, although they are not treated identically.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>VA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>FAhA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>spatial tense</primary><secondary>distance</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>distance</primary><secondary>specification with VA</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>VA selma'o</primary><secondary>and distance</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>spatial tense</primary><secondary>as an imaginary journey</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>imaginary journey</primary><secondary>and spatial tense</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>spatial tense</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> Lojban specifies the spatial tense of a bridi (the place at which it occurs) by using words from selma'o FAhA and VA to describe an imaginary journey from the speaker to the place referred to. FAhA cmavo specify the direction taken in the journey, whereas VA cmavo specify the distance gone. For example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hNAJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e2d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu va batci le gerku</jbo>
<gloss>The man [medium distance] bites the dog.</gloss>
- <en>Over there the man is biting the dog.</en>
+ <natlang>Over there the man is biting the dog.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>va</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>spatial tense</primary><secondary>reference frame</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>spatial tense</primary><secondary>referent of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>imaginary journey</primary><secondary>ending point</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>imaginary journey</primary><secondary>starting point</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>man biting dog</primary></indexterm> What is at a medium distance? The event referred to by the bridi: the man biting the dog. What is this event at a medium distance from? The speaker's location. We can understand the
<valsi>va</valsi> as saying:
<quote>If you want to get from the speaker's location to the location of the bridi, journey for a medium distance (in some direction unspecified).</quote> This
<quote>imaginary journey</quote> can be used to understand not only
<xref linkend="example-random-id-hNAJ"/>, but also every other spatial tense construct.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>direction</primary><secondary>specification with FAhA</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>FAhA selma'o</primary><secondary>and direction</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>spatial tense</primary><secondary>direction</secondary></indexterm> Suppose you specify a direction with a FAhA cmavo, rather than a distance with a VA cmavo:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>zu'a</primary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-5Qxr">
@@ -210,34 +210,34 @@
<quote>that-there</quote>, and
<quote>that-yonder</quote>.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>distance</primary><secondary>order of relative to direction in spatial tenses</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>direction</primary><secondary>order of relative to distance in spatial tenses</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>spatial tenses</primary><secondary>order of direction and distance specifications</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>order of distance specification in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>order of direction specification in</secondary></indexterm> What about specifying both a direction and a distance? The rule here is that the direction must come before the distance:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-LEIm">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e2d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu zu'avi batci le gerku</jbo>
<gloss>The man [left] [short distance] bites the dog.</gloss>
- <en>Slightly to my left, the man bites the dog.</en>
+ <natlang>Slightly to my left, the man bites the dog.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>As explained in
<xref linkend="section-tenses-introduction"/>, it would be perfectly correct to use
<valsi>ku</valsi> to move this tense to the beginning or the end of the sentence to emphasize it:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-uCGa">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e2d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>zu'aviku le nanmu cu batci le gerku</jbo>
<gloss>[Left] [short distance] the man bites the dog.</gloss>
- <en>Slightly to my left, the man bites the dog.</en>
+ <natlang>Slightly to my left, the man bites the dog.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-compound-spatial-tenses">
<title>Compound spatial tenses</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>compound tense</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> Humph, says the reader: this talk of
<quote>imaginary journeys</quote> is all very well, but what's the point of it? –
<valsi>zu'a</valsi> means
<quote>on the left</quote> and
<valsi>vi</valsi> means
@@ -266,59 +266,59 @@
<quote>above</quote> occur in reverse order to the Lojban order. This effect is typical of what happens when we
<quote>unfold</quote> Lojban compound tenses into their English equivalents, and shows why it is not very useful to try to memorize a list of Lojban tense constructs and their colloquial English equivalents.</para>
<para>The opposite order also makes sense:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-d1gU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e3d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu zu'a ga'u batci le gerku</jbo>
<gloss>The man [left] [up] bites the dog.</gloss>
- <en>Above a place to the left of me, the man bites the dog.</en>
+ <natlang>Above a place to the left of me, the man bites the dog.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>compound spatial tense</primary><secondary>effect of different ordering</secondary></indexterm> In ordinary space, the result of going up and then to the left is the same as that of going left and then up, but such a simple relationship does not apply in all environments or to all directions: going south, then east, then north may return one to the starting point, if that point is the North Pole.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>compound spatial tense</primary><secondary>with direction and distance</secondary></indexterm> Each direction can have a distance following:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-G9at">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e3d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu zu'avi ga'uvu batci le gerku</jbo>
<gloss>The man [left] [short distance] [up] [long distance] bites the dog.</gloss>
- <en>Far above a place slightly to the left of me, the man bites the dog.</en>
+ <natlang>Far above a place slightly to the left of me, the man bites the dog.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>compound spatial tense</primary><secondary>beginning with distance only</secondary></indexterm> A distance can also come at the beginning of the tense construct, without any specified direction. (
<xref linkend="example-random-id-hNAJ"/>, with VA alone, is really a special case of this rule when no directions at all follow.)</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9Tpz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e3d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu vi zu'a batci le gerku</jbo>
<gloss>The man [short distance] [left] bites the dog.</gloss>
- <en>Left of a place near me, the man bites the dog.</en>
+ <natlang>Left of a place near me, the man bites the dog.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>compound spatial tense</primary><secondary>as direction with-or-without distance</secondary></indexterm> Any number of directions may be used in a compound tense, with or without specified distances for each:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mqTU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e3d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu ca'uvi ni'ava ri'uvu ne'i batci le gerku</jbo>
<gloss>The man [front] [short] [down] [medium] [right] [long] [within] bites the dog.</gloss>
- <en>Within a place a long distance to the right of a place which is a medium distance downward from a place a short distance in front of me, the man bites the dog.</en>
+ <natlang>Within a place a long distance to the right of a place which is a medium distance downward from a place a short distance in front of me, the man bites the dog.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Whew! It's a good thing tense constructs are optional: having to say all that could certainly be painful. Note, however, how much shorter the Lojban version of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-mqTU"/> is than the English version.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-temporal-tenses">
<title>Temporal tenses: PU and ZI</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
@@ -355,21 +355,21 @@
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ZI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>PU selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>temporal tense</primary><secondary>order relative to spatial</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>spatial tense</primary><secondary>order relative to temporal</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>rationale for relative order of temporal and spatial in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>order of temporal and spatial in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ZI selma'o</primary><secondary>compared with VA</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>PU selma'o</primary><secondary>compared with FAhA</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>temporal tenses</primary><secondary>compared with spatial tenses</secondary></indexterm> Now that the reader understands spatial tenses, there are only two main facts to understand about temporal tenses: they work exactly like the spatial tenses, with selma'o PU and ZI standing in for FAhA and VA; and when both spatial and temporal tense cmavo are given in a single tense construct, the temporal tense is expressed first. (If space could be expressed before or after time at will, then certain constructions would be ambiguous.)</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ameb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e4d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu pu batci le gerku</jbo>
<gloss>The man [past] bites the dog.</gloss>
- <en>The man bit the dog.</en>
+ <natlang>The man bit the dog.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means that to reach the dog-biting, you must take an imaginary journey through time, moving towards the past an unspecified distance. (Of course, this journey is even more imaginary than the ones talked about in the previous sections, since time-travel is not an available option.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ba</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ca</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>pu</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>space</primary><secondary>contrasted with time in number of directions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>time</primary><secondary>contrasted with space in number of directions</secondary></indexterm> Lojban recognizes three temporal directions:
<valsi>pu</valsi> for the past,
<valsi>ca</valsi> for the present, and
<valsi>ba</valsi> for the future. (Etymologically, these derive from the corresponding gismu
<valsi>purci</valsi>,
<valsi>cabna</valsi>, and
<valsi>balvi</valsi>. See
@@ -394,67 +394,67 @@
<quote>point-like observer</quote> in the relativistic sense: they do not say anything about physical relationships of relativistic interval, still less about implicit causality. The nature of tense is not only subjective but also observer-based.)</para>
<para>Here are some examples of temporal tenses:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qDsX" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e4d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu puzi batci le gerku</jbo>
<gloss>The man [past] [short distance] bites the dog.</gloss>
- <en>A short time ago, the man bit the dog.</en>
+ <natlang>A short time ago, the man bit the dog.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qDt1" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e4d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu pu pu batci le gerku</jbo>
<gloss>The man [past] [past] bites the dog.</gloss>
<gloss>Earlier than an earlier time than now, the man bit the dog.</gloss>
- <en>The man had bitten the dog.</en>
- <en>The man had been biting the dog.</en>
+ <natlang>The man had bitten the dog.</natlang>
+ <natlang>The man had been biting the dog.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qDtg" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e4d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu ba puzi batci le gerku</jbo>
<gloss>The man [future] [past] [short] bites the dog.</gloss>
<gloss>Shortly earlier than some time later than now, the man will bite the dog.</gloss>
<gloss>Soon before then, the man will have bitten the dog.</gloss>
- <en>The man will have just bitten the dog.</en>
- <en>The man will just have been biting the dog.</en>
+ <natlang>The man will have just bitten the dog.</natlang>
+ <natlang>The man will just have been biting the dog.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>compound temporal tense</primary><secondary>beginning with distance only</secondary></indexterm> What about the analogue of an initial VA without a direction? Lojban does allow an initial ZI with or without following PUs:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qDu0" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e4d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu zi pu batci le gerku</jbo>
<gloss>The man [short] [past] bites the dog.</gloss>
- <en>Before a short time from or before now, the man bit or will bite the dog.</en>
+ <natlang>Before a short time from or before now, the man bit or will bite the dog.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qDw0" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e4d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu zu batci le gerku</jbo>
<gloss>The man [long] bites the dog.</gloss>
- <en>A long time from or before now, the man will bite or bit the dog.</en>
+ <natlang>A long time from or before now, the man will bite or bit the dog.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>unspecified direction</primary><secondary>temporal contrasted with in spatial</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qDu0"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qDw0"/> are perfectly legitimate, but may not be very much used:
<valsi>zi</valsi> by itself signals an event that happens at a time close to the present, but without saying whether it is in the past or the future. A rough translation might be
<quote>about now, but not exactly now</quote>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>nearby in time</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> Because we can move in any direction in space, we are comfortable with the idea of events happening in an unspecified space direction (
<quote>nearby</quote> or
<quote>far away</quote>), but we live only from past to future, and the idea of an event which happens
@@ -462,32 +462,32 @@
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>with both temporal and spatial</secondary></indexterm> Finally, here are examples which combine temporal and spatial tense:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>long ago and far away</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-vtUw">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e4d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu puzu vu batci le gerku</jbo>
<gloss>The man [past] [long time] [long space] bites the dog.</gloss>
- <en>Long ago and far away, the man bit the dog.</en>
+ <natlang>Long ago and far away, the man bit the dog.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Alternatively,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Jsw5">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e4d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu batci le gerku puzuvuku</jbo>
<gloss>The man bites the dog [past] [long time] [long space].</gloss>
- <en>The man bit the dog long ago and far away.</en>
+ <natlang>The man bit the dog long ago and far away.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-interval-sizes">
<title>Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ve'i</cmavo>
@@ -525,131 +525,131 @@
<oldjbophrase>mi vasxu</oldjbophrase> (I breathe) is something which is true during the whole of my life from birth to death, and over the entire part of the earth where I spend my life. The cmavo of VEhA (for space) and ZEhA (for time) can be added to any of the tense constructs we have already studied to specify the size of the space or length of the time over which the bridi is claimed to be true.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Pgzz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e5d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le verba ve'i cadzu le bisli</jbo>
<gloss>The child [small space interval] walks-on the ice.</gloss>
<gloss>In a small space, the child walks on the ice.</gloss>
- <en>The child walks about a small area of the ice.</en>
+ <natlang>The child walks about a small area of the ice.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>child on ice</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> means that her walking was done in a small area. Like the distances, the interval sizes are classified only roughly as
<quote>small, medium, large</quote>, and are relative to the context: a small part of a room might be a large part of a table in that room.</para>
<para>Here is an example using a time interval:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ap7g">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e5d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le verba ze'a cadzu le bisli</jbo>
<gloss>The child [medium time interval] walks-on the ice.</gloss>
- <en>For a medium time, the child walks/walked/will walk on the ice.</en>
+ <natlang>For a medium time, the child walks/walked/will walk on the ice.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>interval</primary><secondary>relative order with direction and distance in tense</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>order of direction</secondary><tertiary>distance and interval in</tertiary></indexterm> Note that with no time direction word,
<xref linkend="example-random-id-ap7g"/> does not say when the walking happened: that would be determined by context. It is possible to specify both directions or distances and an interval, in which case the interval always comes afterward:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gHPI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e5d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le verba pu ze'a cadzu le bisli</jbo>
<gloss>The child [past] [medium time interval] walks-on the ice.</gloss>
<gloss>For a medium time, the child walked on the ice.</gloss>
- <en>The child walked on the ice for a while.</en>
+ <natlang>The child walked on the ice for a while.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>interval direction</primary><secondary>specifying</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ca</primary><secondary>meaning when following interval specification</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>direction</primary><secondary>following interval in tense construct</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>interval</primary><secondary>followed by direction in tense construct</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>specifying relation of interval to point specified by direction and distance</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>interval</primary><secondary>specifying relation to point specified by direction and distance</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>relation of point specified by direction and distance to interval</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>relation of interval to point specified by direction and distance</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>interval</primary><secondary>relation to point specified by direction and distance</secondary></indexterm> In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-gHPI"/>, the relationship of the interval to the specified point in time or space is indeterminate. Does the interval start at the point, end at the point, or is it centered on the point? By adding an additional direction cmavo after the interval, this question can be conclusively answered:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-q4Aw">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e5d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ca ze'ica cusku dei</jbo>
<gloss>I [present] [short time interval - present] express this-utterance.</gloss>
- <en>I am now saying this sentence.</en>
+ <natlang>I am now saying this sentence.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>interval size</primary><secondary>as context-dependent</secondary></indexterm> means that for an interval starting a short time in the past and extending to a short time in the future, I am expressing the utterance which is
<xref linkend="example-random-id-q4Aw"/>. Of course,
<quote>short</quote> is relative, as always in tenses. Even a long sentence takes up only a short part of a whole day; in a geological context, the era of
<emphasis>Homo sapiens</emphasis> would only be a
<valsi>ze'i</valsi> interval.</para>
<para>By contrast,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-imdX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e5d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ca ze'ipu cusku dei</jbo>
<gloss>I [present] [short time interval - past] express this-utterance.</gloss>
- <en>I have just been saying this sentence.</en>
+ <natlang>I have just been saying this sentence.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>imaginary journey</primary><secondary>with interval direction</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pu</primary><secondary>meaning when following interval specification</secondary></indexterm> means that for a short time interval extending from the past to the present I have been expressing
<xref linkend="example-random-id-imdX"/>. Here the imaginary journey starts at the present, lays down one end point of the interval, moves into the past, and lays down the other endpoint. Another example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-AqvW">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e5d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu ze'aba citka le mi sanmi</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] [medium time interval - future] eat my meal.</gloss>
<gloss>For a medium time afterward, I ate my meal.</gloss>
- <en>I ate my meal for a while.</en>
+ <natlang>I ate my meal for a while.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>With
<valsi>ca</valsi> instead of
<valsi>ba</valsi>,
<xref linkend="example-random-id-AqvW"/> becomes
<xref linkend="example-random-id-a5dp"/>,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-a5dp">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e5d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu ze'aca citka le mi sanmi</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] [medium time interval - present] eat my meal.</gloss>
<gloss>For a medium time before and afterward, I ate my meal.</gloss>
- <en>I ate my meal for a while.</en>
+ <natlang>I ate my meal for a while.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>because the interval would then be centered on the past moment rather than oriented toward the future of that moment. The colloquial English translations are the same – English is not well-suited to representing this distinction.</para>
<para>Here are some examples of the use of space intervals with and without specified directions:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>fish on right</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Mrzt">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e5d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta ri'u ve'i finpe</jbo>
<gloss>That-there [right] [short space interval] is-a-fish.</gloss>
- <en>That thing on my right is a fish.</en>
+ <natlang>That thing on my right is a fish.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Mrzt"/>, there is no equivalent in the colloquial English translation of the
<quote>small interval</quote> which the fish occupies. Neither the Lojban nor the English expresses the orientation of the fish. Compare
<xref linkend="example-random-id-AVU3"/>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-AVU3">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e5d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta ri'u ve'ica'u finpe</jbo>
<gloss>That-there [right] [short space interval - front] is-a-fish.</gloss>
- <en>That thing on my right extending forwards is a fish.</en>
+ <natlang>That thing on my right extending forwards is a fish.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the space interval occupied by the fish extends from a point on my right to another point in front of the first point.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-vagueness">
<title>Vague intervals and non-specific tenses</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>interval size</primary><secondary>vague</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>interval size</primary><secondary>unspecified</secondary></indexterm> What is the significance of failing to specify an interval size of the type discussed in
<xref linkend="section-interval-sizes"/>? The Lojban rule is that if no interval size is given, the size of the space or time interval is left vague by the speaker. For example:</para>
@@ -675,21 +675,21 @@
<quote>aorist</quote>, in reference to a similar concept in the tense system of Classical Greek. All of the Lojban tenses have the same property, however:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-xQ0w">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e6d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le tricu ba crino</jbo>
<gloss>The tree [future] is-green.</gloss>
- <en>The tree will be green.</en>
+ <natlang>The tree will be green.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>future event</primary><secondary>possible extension into present</secondary></indexterm> does not imply (as the colloquial English translation does) that the tree is not green now. The vague interval throughout which the tree is, in fact, green may have already started.</para>
<para>This general principle does not mean that Lojban has no way of indicating that a tree will be green but is not yet green. Indeed, there are several ways of expressing that concept: see
<xref linkend="section-event-contours"/> (event contours) and
<xref linkend="section-connected-tenses"/> (logical connection between tenses).</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-dimensionality">
@@ -728,21 +728,21 @@
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Pgzz"/> through
<xref linkend="example-random-id-gHPI"/>? Given the nature of ice, probably the area interpretation is most sensible. I can make this assumption explicit with the appropriate member of selma'o VIhA:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-vKp6">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e7d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le verba ve'a vi'a cadzu le bisli</jbo>
<gloss>The child [medium space interval] [2-dimensional] walks-on the ice.</gloss>
- <en>In a medium-sized area, the child walks on the ice.</en>
+ <natlang>In a medium-sized area, the child walks on the ice.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>vi'a</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>size</primary><secondary>order with dimensionality in spatial tense intervals</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>dimensionality</primary><secondary>order with size in spatial tense intervals</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>spatial tense intervals</primary><secondary>order of size and dimensionality in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>spatial tense intervals</primary><secondary>order of VEhA and VIhA in</secondary></indexterm> Space intervals can contain either VEhA or VIhA or both, but if both, VEhA must come first, as
<xref linkend="example-random-id-vKp6"/> shows.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>dimensionality</primary><secondary>of walking</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>dimensionality of interval</primary><secondary>as subjective</secondary></indexterm> The reader may wish to raise a philosophical point here. (Readers who don't wish to, should skip this paragraph.) The ice may be two-dimensional, or more accurately its surface may be, but since the child is three-dimensional, her walking must also be. The subjective nature of Lojban tense comes to the rescue here: the action is essentially planar, and the third dimension of height is simply irrelevant to walking. Even walking on a mountain could be called
<valsi>vi'a</valsi>, because relatively speaking the mountain is associated with an essentially two-dimensional surface. Motion which is not confined to such a surface (e.g., flying, or walking through a three-dimensional network of tunnels, or climbing among mountains rather than on a single mountain) would be properly described with
<valsi>vi'u</valsi>. So the cognitive, rather than the physical, dimensionality controls the choice of VIhA cmavo.</para>
@@ -775,85 +775,85 @@
<valsi>mo'i</valsi> (of selma'o MOhI) plus a spatial direction and optional distance; the direction now refers to a direction of motion rather than a static direction from the speaker.</para>
<para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>on right</primary><secondary>contrasted with toward right</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>toward right</primary><secondary>contrasted with on right</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-d8yP">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>toward my right</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c10e8d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le verba mo'i ri'u cadzu le bisli</jbo>
<gloss>The child [movement] [right] walks-on the ice.</gloss>
- <en>The child walks toward my right on the ice.</en>
+ <natlang>The child walks toward my right on the ice.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This is quite different from:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-abBF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e8d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le verba ri'u cadzu le bisli</jbo>
<gloss>The child [right] walks-on the ice.</gloss>
- <en>To the right of me, the child walks on the ice.</en>
+ <natlang>To the right of me, the child walks on the ice.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>BAI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ma'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>reference frame</primary><secondary>specifying for direction tenses</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>direction</primary><secondary>reference frame for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>reference frame for directions in tenses</primary></indexterm> In either case, however, the reference frame for defining
<quote>right</quote> and
<quote>left</quote> is the speaker's, not the child's. This can be changed thus:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mfgA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e8d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le verba mo'i ri'u cadzu le bisli ma'i vo'a</jbo>
<gloss>The child [movement] [right] walks on the ice in-reference-frame the-x1-place.</gloss>
- <en>The child walks toward her right on the ice.</en>
+ <natlang>The child walks toward her right on the ice.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>toward her right</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-mfgA"/> is analogous to
<xref linkend="example-random-id-d8yP"/>. The cmavo
<valsi>ma'i</valsi> belongs to selma'o BAI (explained in
<xref linkend="section-BAI"/>), and allows specifying a reference frame.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>order of movement specification in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>movement</primary><secondary>order in tense constructs</secondary></indexterm> Both a regular and a
<valsi>mo'i</valsi>-flagged spatial tense can be combined, with the
<valsi>mo'i</valsi> construct coming last:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-fusc">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e8d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le verba zu'avu mo'i ri'uvi cadzu le bisli</jbo>
<gloss>The child [left] [long] [movement] [right] [short] walks-on the ice.</gloss>
- <en>Far to the left of me, the child walks a short distance toward my right on the ice.</en>
+ <natlang>Far to the left of me, the child walks a short distance toward my right on the ice.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>movement</primary><secondary>with multiple directions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>directions</primary><secondary>multiple with movement</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>complex movements</primary><secondary>expressing</secondary></indexterm> It is not grammatical to use multiple directions like
<oldjbophrase>zu'a ca'u</oldjbophrase> after
<valsi>mo'i</valsi>, but complex movements can be expressed in a separate bridi.</para>
<para>Here is an example of a movement tense on a bridi not inherently involving movement:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Avnq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e8d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi mo'i ca'uvu citka le mi sanmi</jbo>
<gloss>I [movement] [front] [long] eat my meal.</gloss>
- <en>While moving a long way forward, I eat my meal.</en>
+ <natlang>While moving a long way forward, I eat my meal.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>eat in airplane</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> (Perhaps I am eating in an airplane.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>time travel</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>movement</primary><secondary>time</secondary></indexterm> There is no parallel facility in Lojban at present for expressing movement in time – time travel – but one could be added easily if it ever becomes useful.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-interval-properties">
<title>Interval properties: TAhE and
<valsi>roi</valsi></title>
@@ -933,33 +933,33 @@
</cmavo-list>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>TAhE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>intervals</primary><secondary>spread of actions over</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>discrete</primary><secondary>of tense intervals</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>continuous</primary><secondary>of tense intervals</secondary></indexterm> Consider Lojban bridi which express events taking place in time. Whether a very short interval (a point) or a long interval of time is involved, the event may not be spread consistently throughout that interval. Lojban can use the cmavo of selma'o TAhE to express the idea of continuous or non-continuous actions.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-GCXM">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e9d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi puzu ze'u velckule</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] [long distance] [long interval] am-a-school-attendee (pupil).</gloss>
- <en>Long ago I attended school for a long time.</en>
+ <natlang>Long ago I attended school for a long time.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>attend school</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> probably does not mean that I attended school continuously throughout the whole of that long-ago interval. Actually, I attended school every day, except for school holidays. More explicitly,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-JM1W">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e9d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi puzu ze'u di'i velckule</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] [long distance] [long interval] [regularly] am-a-pupil.</gloss>
- <en>Long ago I regularly attended school for a long time.</en>
+ <natlang>Long ago I regularly attended school for a long time.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ta'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>na'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>di'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ru'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>regularly</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>interval spread</primary><secondary>mutually contrasted</secondary></indexterm> The four TAhE cmavo are differentiated as follows:
<valsi>ru'i</valsi> covers the entirety of the interval,
<valsi>di'i</valsi> covers the parts of the interval which are systematically spaced subintervals;
<valsi>na'o</valsi> covers part of the interval, but exactly which part is determined by context;
<valsi>ta'e</valsi> covers part of the interval, selected with reference to the behavior of the actor (who often, but not always, appears in the x1 place of the bridi).</para>
@@ -967,50 +967,50 @@
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>interval spread</primary><secondary>with unspecified interval</secondary></indexterm> Using TAhE does not require being so specific. Either the time direction or the time interval or both may be omitted (in which case they are vague). For example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-eb2h">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e9d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ba ta'e klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [future] [habitually] go-to the market.</gloss>
<gloss>I will habitually go to the market.</gloss>
- <en>I will make a habit of going to the market.</en>
+ <natlang>I will make a habit of going to the market.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>specifies the future, but the duration of the interval is indefinite. Similarly,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-RQTF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e9d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na'o klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [typically] go-to the market.</gloss>
- <en>I typically go/went/will go to the market.</en>
+ <natlang>I typically go/went/will go to the market.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>illustrates an interval property in isolation. There are no distance or direction cmavo, so the point of time is vague; likewise, there is no interval cmavo, so the length of the interval during which these goings-to-the-market take place is also vague. As always, context will determine these vague values.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>nai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>intermittently</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>interval spread</primary><secondary>expressing English "intermittently"</secondary></indexterm>
<quote>Intermittently</quote> is the polar opposite notion to
<quote>continuously</quote>, and is expressed not with its own cmavo, but by adding the negation suffix
<oldjbophrase>-nai</oldjbophrase> (which belongs to selma'o NAI) to
<valsi>ru'i</valsi>. For example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mvdN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e9d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le verba ru'inai cadzu le bisli</jbo>
<gloss>The child [continuously-not] walks-on the ice.</gloss>
- <en>The child intermittently walks on the ice.</en>
+ <natlang>The child intermittently walks on the ice.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>interval spread</primary><secondary>negation with nai</secondary></indexterm> As shown in the cmavo table above, all the cmavo of TAhE may be negated with
<oldjbophrase>-nai</oldjbophrase>;
<oldjbophrase>ru'inai</oldjbophrase> and
<oldjbophrase>di'inai</oldjbophrase> are probably the most useful.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ROI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>roi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>once</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>quantified</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>quantified temporal tense</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> An intermittent event can also be specified by counting the number of times during the interval that it takes place. The cmavo
<valsi>roi</valsi> (which belongs to selma'o ROI) can be appended to a number to make a quantified tense. Quantified tenses are common in English, but not so commonly named: they are exemplified by the adverbs
@@ -1025,59 +1025,59 @@
<quote>too many times</quote>, and so on. All of these are handled in Lojban by a number plus
<oldjbophrase>-roi</oldjbophrase>:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qdW2" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e9d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi paroi klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [one time] go-to the market.</gloss>
- <en>I go to the market once.</en>
+ <natlang>I go to the market once.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qdwP" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e9d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi du'eroi klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [too-many times] go-to the market.</gloss>
- <en>I go to the market too often.</en>
+ <natlang>I go to the market too often.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>temporal tense</primary><secondary>quantified with direction</secondary></indexterm> With the quantified tense alone, we don't know whether the past, the present, or the future is intended, but of course the quantified tense need not stand alone:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-TYve">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e9d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu reroi klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] [two times] go-to the market.</gloss>
- <en>I went to the market twice.</en>
+ <natlang>I went to the market twice.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>quantified temporal tense with direction</primary><secondary>Lojban contrasted with English in implications</secondary></indexterm> The English is slightly over-specific here: it entails that both goings-to-the-market were in the past, which may or may not be true in the Lojban sentence, since the implied interval is vague. Therefore, the interval may start in the past but extend into the present or even the future.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>quantified temporal tense</primary><secondary>negating with nai</secondary></indexterm> Adding
<oldjbophrase>-nai</oldjbophrase> to
<valsi>roi</valsi> is also permitted, and has the meaning
<quote>other than (the number specified)</quote>:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>rat eats cheese</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rXXf">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e9d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ratcu reroinai citka le cirla</jbo>
<gloss>The rat [twice-not] eats the cheese.</gloss>
- <en>The rat eats the cheese other than twice.</en>
+ <natlang>The rat eats the cheese other than twice.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This may mean that the rat eats the cheese fewer times, or more times, or not at all.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ze'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>only once</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>whole time interval</primary><secondary>expressing</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>quantified temporal tenses</primary><secondary>"once" contrasted with "only once"</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>quantified temporal tenses</primary><secondary>caveat on implication of</secondary></indexterm> It is necessary to be careful with sentences like
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qdW2"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-TYve"/>, where a quantified tense appears without an interval. What
<xref linkend="example-random-id-TYve"/> really says is that during an interval of unspecified size, at least part of which was set in the past, the event of my going to the market happened twice. The example says nothing about what happened outside that vague time interval. This is often less than we mean. If we want to nail down that I went to the market once and only once, we can use the cmavo
<valsi>ze'e</valsi> which represents the
@@ -1109,21 +1109,21 @@
<quote>whole of time</quote> interpretation just given. These compound forms make it possible to assert that something has never happened without asserting that it never will.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gA7X">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e9d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ze'epu noroi klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [whole interval] [past] [never] go-to the market.</gloss>
- <en>I have never gone to the market.</en>
+ <natlang>I have never gone to the market.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>says nothing about whether I might go in future.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ve'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>quantified space</primary></indexterm> The space equivalent of
<valsi>ze'e</valsi> is
<valsi>ve'e</valsi>, and it can be used in the same way with a quantified space tense: see
@@ -1215,42 +1215,42 @@
<valsi>pu'o</valsi>,
<valsi>ca'o</valsi>, and
<valsi>ba'o</valsi> (etymologically derived from the PU cmavo) refer to an event that has not yet begun, that is in progress, or that has ended, respectively:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qdwz" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e10d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu'o damba</jbo>
<gloss>I [inchoative] fight.</gloss>
- <en>I'm on the verge of fighting.</en>
+ <natlang>I'm on the verge of fighting.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qdX7" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e10d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la stiv. ca'o bacru</jbo>
<gloss>Steve [continuitive] utters.</gloss>
- <en>Steve continues to talk.</en>
+ <natlang>Steve continues to talk.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qdxB" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e10d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le verba ba'o cadzu le bisli</jbo>
<gloss>The child [perfective] walks-on the ice.</gloss>
- <en>The child is finished walking on the ice.</en>
+ <natlang>The child is finished walking on the ice.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>finished</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>continues</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>on verge</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense direction</primary><secondary>contrasted with event contours in implication of extent</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>event contours</primary><secondary>contrasted with tense direction in implication of extent</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>event contours</primary><secondary>implications on scope of event</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>event contours</primary><secondary>perfective</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>event contours</primary><secondary>continuitive</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>event contours</primary><secondary>inchoative</secondary></indexterm> As discussed in
<xref linkend="section-vagueness"/>, the simple PU cmavo make no assumptions about whether the scope of a past, present, or future event extends into one of the other tenses as well.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qdwz"/> through
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qdxB"/> illustrate that these ZAhO cmavo do make such assumptions possible: the event in 10.1 has not yet begun, definitively; likewise, the event in 10.3 is definitely over.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ba'o</primary><secondary>as futureward of event</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pu'o</primary><secondary>as pastward of event</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ba'o</primary><secondary>explanation of derivation</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pu'o</primary><secondary>explanation of derivation</secondary></indexterm> Note that in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qdwz"/> and
@@ -1280,60 +1280,60 @@
<valsi>co'u</valsi> marks the boundary between the
<valsi>ca'o</valsi> and
<valsi>ba'o</valsi> parts:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qdxH" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e10d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ba co'a citka le mi sanmi</jbo>
<gloss>I [future] [initiative] eat my meal.</gloss>
- <en>I will begin to eat my meal.</en>
+ <natlang>I will begin to eat my meal.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qdY5" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e10d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu co'u citka le mi sanmi</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] [cessitive] eat my meal.</gloss>
- <en>I ceased eating my meal.</en>
+ <natlang>I ceased eating my meal.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Compare
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qdxH"/> with:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ChHI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e10d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ba di'i co'a bajra</jbo>
<gloss>I [future] [regularly] [initiative] run.</gloss>
- <en>I will regularly begin to run.</en>
+ <natlang>I will regularly begin to run.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which illustrates the combination of a TAhE with a ZAhO.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>event contours</primary><secondary>completitive</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>stop</primary><secondary>contrasted with finish</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>finish</primary><secondary>contrasted with stop</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>actual stop</primary><secondary>contrasted with natural end</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>natural end</primary><secondary>contrasted with actual stop</secondary></indexterm> A process can have two end points, one reflecting the
<quote>natural end</quote> (when the process is complete) and the other reflecting the
<quote>actual stopping point</quote> (whether complete or not).
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qdY5"/> may be contrasted with:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3s6c">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e10d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu mo'u citka le mi sanmi</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] [completitive] eat my meal.</gloss>
- <en>I finished eating my meal.</en>
+ <natlang>I finished eating my meal.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-3s6c"/>, the meal has reached its natural end; in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qdY5"/>, the meal has merely ceased, without necessarily reaching its natural end.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>di'a</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>de'a</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>event contours</primary><secondary>resumptive</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>event contours</primary><secondary>pausative</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>event contours</primary><secondary>resumption</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>event contours</primary><secondary>interruption</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>begin</primary><secondary>contrasted with resume</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>resume</primary><secondary>contrasted with begin</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pause</primary><secondary>contrasted with stop</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>stop</primary><secondary>contrasted with pause</secondary></indexterm> A process such as eating a meal does not necessarily proceed uninterrupted. If it is interrupted, there are two more relevant point events: the point just before the interruption, marked by
<valsi>de'a</valsi>, and the point just after the interruption, marked by
@@ -1341,100 +1341,100 @@
<valsi>di'a</valsi>. Some examples:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qdyD" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e10d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu de'a citka le mi sanmi</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] [pausative] eat my meal.</gloss>
- <en>I stopped eating my meal (with the intention of resuming).</en>
+ <natlang>I stopped eating my meal (with the intention of resuming).</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qE08" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e10d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ba di'a citka le mi sanmi</jbo>
<gloss>I [future] [resumptive] eat my meal.</gloss>
- <en>I will resume eating my meal.</en>
+ <natlang>I will resume eating my meal.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>za'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>event contours</primary><secondary>superfective</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>natural end</primary><secondary>continuing beyond</secondary></indexterm> In addition, it is possible for a process to continue beyond its natural end. The span of time between the natural and the actual end points is represented by
<valsi>za'o</valsi>:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>too long</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>kept on too long</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-jSQ4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e10d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ctuca pu za'o ciksi le cmaci seldanfu le tadgri</jbo>
<gloss>The teacher [past] [superfective] explained the mathematics problem to the student-group.</gloss>
- <en>The teacher kept on explaining the mathematics problem to the class too long.</en>
+ <natlang>The teacher kept on explaining the mathematics problem to the class too long.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>That is, the teacher went on explaining after the class already understood the problem.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>co'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>point</primary><secondary>event considered as</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>event contours</primary><secondary>achievative</secondary></indexterm> An entire event can be treated as a single moment using the cmavo
<valsi>co'i</valsi>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-odH5">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e10d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. pu co'i catra la djim</jbo>
<gloss>John [past] [achievative] kills Jim.</gloss>
- <en>John was at the point in time where he killed Jim.</en>
+ <natlang>John was at the point in time where he killed Jim.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ROI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>re'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cycles</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ordinal tense</primary></indexterm> Finally, since an activity is cyclical, an individual cycle can be referred to using a number followed by
<valsi>re'u</valsi>, which is the other cmavo of selma'o ROI:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-msrS">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e10d12"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pare'u klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [first time] go-to the store.</gloss>
- <en>I go to the store for the first time (within a vague interval).</en>
+ <natlang>I go to the store for the first time (within a vague interval).</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note the difference between:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-j3DQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e10d13"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pare'u paroi klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [first time] [one time] go-to the store.</gloss>
- <en>For the first time, I go to the store once.</en>
+ <natlang>For the first time, I go to the store once.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-IBns">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e10d14"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi paroi pare'u klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [one time] [first time] go-to the store.</gloss>
- <en>There is one occasion on which I go to the store for the first time.</en>
+ <natlang>There is one occasion on which I go to the store for the first time.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-fehe">
<title>Space interval modifiers: FEhE</title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>fe'e</cmavo>
<selmaho>FEhE</selmaho>
@@ -1449,62 +1449,62 @@
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qe09" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e11d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ko vi'i fe'e di'i sombo le gurni</jbo>
<gloss>You-imperative [1-dimensional] [space:] [regularly] sow the grain.</gloss>
- <en>Sow the grain in a line and evenly!</en>
+ <natlang>Sow the grain in a line and evenly!</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qe1z" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e11d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi fe'e ciroi tervecnu lo selsalta</jbo>
<gloss>I [space:] [three places] buy those-which-are salad-ingredients.</gloss>
- <en>I buy salad ingredients in three locations.</en>
+ <natlang>I buy salad ingredients in three locations.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>always and everywhere</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>salad ingredients</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>sow grain</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qE1z" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e11d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ze'e roroi ve'e fe'e roroi ku li re su'i re du li vo</jbo>
<gloss>[whole time] [all times] [whole space] [space:] [all places] The-number 2 + 2 = the-number 4. </gloss>
- <en>Always and everywhere, two plus two is four.</en>
+ <natlang>Always and everywhere, two plus two is four.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>As shown in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qE1z"/>, when a tense comes first in a bridi, rather than in its normal position before the selbri (in this case
<valsi>du</valsi>), it is emphasized.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>be'a</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ZAhO selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>fe'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>spatial contours</primary><secondary>expressing</secondary></indexterm> The
<valsi>fe'e</valsi> marker can also be used for the same purpose before members of ZAhO. (The cmavo
<valsi>be'a</valsi> belongs to selma'o FAhA; it is the space direction meaning
<quote>north of</quote>.)</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-L4un">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e11d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>tu ve'abe'a fe'e co'a rokci</jbo>
<gloss>That-yonder [medium space interval - north] [space] [initiative] is-a-rock.</gloss>
<gloss>That is the beginning of a rock extending to my north.</gloss>
- <en>That is the south face of a rock.</en>
+ <natlang>That is the south face of a rock.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>rock face</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>south face</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>event contours</primary><secondary>temporal contrasted with spatial</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>spatial contours</primary><secondary>contrasted with temporal event contours</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>beginning point</primary><secondary>spatial</secondary></indexterm> Here the notion of a
<quote>beginning point</quote> represented by the cmavo
<valsi>co'a</valsi> is transferred from
<quote>beginning in time</quote> to
<quote>beginning in space</quote> under the influence of the
<valsi>fe'e</valsi> flag. Space is not inherently oriented, unlike time, which flows from past to future: therefore, some indication of orientation is necessary, and the
@@ -1523,21 +1523,21 @@
<valsi>ku</valsi>. There is another major use for tenses in Lojban: as sumti tcita, or argument tags. A tense may be used to add spatial or temporal information to a bridi as, in effect, an additional place:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-v761">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e12d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci ca le nu do klama le zdani</jbo>
<gloss>I go-to the market [present] the event-of you go-to the house.</gloss>
- <en>I go to the market when you go to the house.</en>
+ <natlang>I go to the market when you go to the house.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ca</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti tcita</primary><secondary>based on tense direction</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense direction</primary><secondary>as sumti tcita</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ca</primary><secondary>meaning as a sumti tcita</secondary></indexterm> Here
<valsi>ca</valsi> does not appear before the selbri, nor with
<valsi>ku</valsi>; instead, it governs the following sumti, the
<oldjbophrase>le nu</oldjbophrase> construct. What
<xref linkend="example-random-id-v761"/> asserts is that the action of the main bridi is happening at the same time as the event mentioned by that sumti. So
<valsi>ca</valsi>, which means
<quote>now</quote> when used with a selbri, means
<quote>simultaneously-with</quote> when used with a sumti. Consider another example:</para>
@@ -1561,57 +1561,57 @@
I had gone to the market before you went to the house.
</place-structure>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti tcita</primary><secondary>based on tense distance</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense distance</primary><secondary>as sumti tcita</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>spatial tenses</primary><secondary>as sumti tcita</secondary></indexterm> (Other translations are possible, depending on the ever-present context.) Spatial direction and distance sumti tcita are exactly analogous:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qe2C" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e12d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ratcu cu citka le cirla vi le panka</jbo>
<gloss>The rat eats the cheese [short distance] the park.</gloss>
- <en>The rat eats the cheese near the park.</en>
+ <natlang>The rat eats the cheese near the park.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qE2t" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e12d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ratcu cu citka le cirla vi le vu panka</jbo>
<gloss>The rat eats the cheese [short distance] the [long distance] park</gloss>
- <en>The rat eats the cheese near the faraway park.</en>
+ <natlang>The rat eats the cheese near the faraway park.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qe3g" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e12d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ratcu cu citka le cirla vu le vi panka</jbo>
<gloss>The rat eats the cheese [long distance] the [short distance] park</gloss>
- <en>The rat eats the cheese far away from the nearby park.</en>
+ <natlang>The rat eats the cheese far away from the nearby park.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>fe'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>rat eats cheese</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>near the park</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti tcita based on event contours</primary><secondary>relation of main bridi to sumti process in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti tcita</primary><secondary>event contours contrasted with direction/distance as basis for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense direction/distance as sumti tcita</primary><secondary>contrasted with event contours</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>event contours as sumti tcita</primary><secondary>contrasted with direction and distance</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ZAhO selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti tcita</primary><secondary>based on spatial contours</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>spatial contours</primary><secondary>as sumti tcita</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti tcita</primary><secondary>based on event contours</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>event contours</primary><secondary>as sumti tcita</secondary></indexterm> The event contours of selma'o ZAhO (and their space equivalents, prefixed with
<valsi>fe'e</valsi>) are also useful as sumti tcita. The interpretation of ZAhO tcita differs from that of FAhA, VA, PU, and ZI tcita, however. The event described in the sumti is viewed as a process, and the action of the main bridi occurs at the phase of the process which the ZAhO specifies, or at least some part of that phase. The action of the main bridi itself is seen as a point event, so that there is no issue about which phase of the main bridi is intended. For example:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>in the aftermath</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>die after living</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Y2Kb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e12d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi morsi ba'o le nu mi jmive</jbo>
<gloss>I am-dead [perfective] the event-of I live.</gloss>
- <en>I die in the aftermath of my living.</en>
+ <natlang>I die in the aftermath of my living.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the (point-)event of my being dead is the portion of my living-process which occurs after the process is complete. Contrast
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Y2Kb"/> with:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-18dT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e12d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1646,64 +1646,64 @@
<para>Here is an example which mixes temporal ZAhO (as a tense) and spatial ZAhO (as a sumti tcita):</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>too long</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>boat sailed</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PABV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e12d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le bloti pu za'o xelklama fe'e ba'o le lalxu</jbo>
<gloss>The boat [past] [superfective] is-a-transport-mechanism [space] [perfective] the lake.</gloss>
- <en>The boat sailed for too long and beyond the lake.</en>
+ <natlang>The boat sailed for too long and beyond the lake.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Probably it sailed up onto the dock. One point of clarification: although
<oldjbophrase>xelklama</oldjbophrase> appears to mean simply
<quote>is-a-mode-of-transport</quote>, it does not – the bridi of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-PABV"/> has four omitted arguments, and thus has the (physical) journey which goes on too long as part of its meaning.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti tcita based on quantified tenses</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>quantified tenses</primary><secondary>as sumti tcita</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti tcita based on interval properties</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>interval properties</primary><secondary>meaning as sumti tcita</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti tcita based on interval continuousness</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>interval continuousness</primary><secondary>meaning as sumti tcita</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti tcita based on dimension</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>dimension</primary><secondary>meaning as sumti tcita</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti tcita based on interval size</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>interval size</primary><secondary>meaning as sumti tcita</secondary></indexterm> The remaining tense cmavo, which have to do with interval size, dimension, and continuousness (or lack thereof) are interpreted to let the sumti specify the particular interval over which the main bridi operates:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-bLaQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e12d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci reroi le ca djedi</jbo>
<gloss>I go-to the market [twice] the [present] day.</gloss>
- <en>I go/went/will go to the market twice today.</en>
+ <natlang>I go/went/will go to the market twice today.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>twice today</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense inside sumti</primary><secondary>contrasted with tense as sumti tcita</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense as sumti tcita</primary><secondary>contrasted with tense inside sumti</secondary></indexterm> Be careful not to confuse a tense used as a sumti tcita with a tense used within a seltcita sumti:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sTxE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e12d12"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>loi snime cu carvi ze'u le ca dunra</jbo>
<gloss>Some-of-the-mass-of snow rains [long time interval] the [present] winter.</gloss>
- <en>Snow falls during this winter.</en>
+ <natlang>Snow falls during this winter.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>snow falls</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> claims that the interval specified by
<quote>this winter</quote> is long, as events of snowfall go, whereas</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-MXvK">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e12d13"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>loi snime cu carvi ca le ze'u dunra</jbo>
<gloss>Some-of-the-mass-of snow rains [present] the [long time] winter.</gloss>
- <en>Snow falls in the long winter.</en>
+ <natlang>Snow falls in the long winter.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>claims that during some part of the winter, which is long as winters go, snow falls.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-sticky-tenses">
<title>Sticky and multiple tenses: KI</title>
<para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
@@ -1719,21 +1719,21 @@
<quote>unstuck</quote>. In the metaphor of the imaginary journey, the place and time set by a sticky tense may be thought of as a campsite or way-station: it provides a permanent origin with respect to which other tenses are understood. Later imaginary journeys start from that point rather than from the speaker.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>KI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ki</primary></indexterm> To make a tense sticky, suffix
<valsi>ki</valsi> to it:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rIuI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e13d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi puki klama le zarci .i le nanmu cu batci le gerku</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] [sticky] go-to the market. The man bites the dog.</gloss>
- <en>I went to the market. The man bit the dog.</en>
+ <natlang>I went to the market. The man bit the dog.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the use of
<oldjbophrase>puki</oldjbophrase> rather than just
<valsi>pu</valsi> ensures that the tense will affect the next sentence as well. Otherwise, since the second sentence is tenseless, there would be no way of determining its tense; the event of the second sentence might happen before, after, or simultaneously with that of the first sentence.</para>
<para>(The last statement does not apply when the two sentences form part of a narrative. See
<xref linkend="section-story-time"/> for an explanation of
<quote>story time</quote>, which employs a different set of conventions.)</para>
<para>What if the second sentence has a tense anyway?</para>
@@ -1768,61 +1768,61 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>compound tense</primary><secondary>compared with multiple tenses in sentence</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tenses</primary><secondary>multiple in sentence compared with compound tense</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tenses</primary><secondary>multiple in sentence</secondary></indexterm> The point has not been discussed so far, but it is perfectly grammatical to have more than one tense construct in a sentence:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-t7YR">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e13d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>puku mi ba klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>[past] I [future] go-to the market.</gloss>
- <en>Earlier, I was going to go to the market.</en>
+ <natlang>Earlier, I was going to go to the market.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here there are two tenses in the same bridi, the first floating free and specified by
<oldjbophrase>puku</oldjbophrase>, the second in the usual place and specified by
<valsi>ba</valsi>. They are considered cumulative in the same way as the two tenses in separate sentences of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-N5xa"/>.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-t7YR"/> is therefore equivalent in meaning, except for emphasis, to:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mRPV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e13d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi puba klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] [future] go-to the market.</gloss>
- <en>I was going to go to the market.</en>
+ <natlang>I was going to go to the market.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple tenses</primary><secondary>effect of order in sentence</secondary></indexterm> Compare
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qE4G"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qE4m"/>, which have a different meaning from
<xref linkend="example-random-id-t7YR"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-mRPV"/>:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qE4G" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e13d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ba klama le zarci puku</jbo>
<gloss>I [future] go-to the market [past].</gloss>
- <en>I will have gone to the market earlier.</en>
+ <natlang>I will have gone to the market earlier.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qE4m" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e13d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi bapu klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [future] [past] go-to the market.</gloss>
- <en>I will have gone to the market.</en>
+ <natlang>I will have gone to the market.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>So when multiple tense constructs in a single bridi are involved, order counts – the tenses cannot be shifted around as freely as if there were only one tense to worry about.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sticky tenses</primary><secondary>from part of a multiple tense</secondary></indexterm> But why bother to allow multiple tense constructs at all? They specify separate portions of the imaginary journey, and can be useful in order to make part of a tense sticky. Consider
<xref linkend="example-random-id-gg9C"/>, which adds a second bridi and a
<valsi>ki</valsi> to
<xref linkend="example-random-id-t7YR"/>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gg9C">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e13d9"/>
@@ -1842,41 +1842,41 @@
</place-structure>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti with tense</primary><secondary>effect of main bridi tense on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>embedded bridi tenses</primary><secondary>effect of main bridi tense on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense on main bridi</primary><secondary>effect on embedded sumti with tenses</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense on main bridi</primary><secondary>effect on embedded bridi tenses</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>on embedded bridi</secondary></indexterm> Lojban has several ways of embedding a bridi within another bridi: descriptions, abstractors, relative clauses. (Technically, descriptions contain selbri rather than bridi.) Any of the selbri of these subordinate bridi may have tenses attached. These tenses are interpreted relative to the tense of the main bridi:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>former market</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-yxFP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e13d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu klama le ba'o zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] go-to the [perfective] market</gloss>
- <en>I went to the former market.</en>
+ <natlang>I went to the former market.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The significance of the
<valsi>ba'o</valsi> in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-yxFP"/> is that the speaker's destination is described as being
<quote>in the aftermath of being a market</quote>; that is, it is a market no longer. In particular, the time at which it was no longer a market is in the speaker's past, because the
<valsi>ba'o</valsi> is interpreted relative to the
<valsi>pu</valsi> tense of the main bridi.</para>
<para>Here is an example involving an abstraction bridi:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-NfS1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e13d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ca jinvi le du'u mi ba morsi</jbo>
<gloss>I now opine the fact-that I will-be dead.</gloss>
- <en>I now believe that I will be dead.</en>
+ <natlang>I now believe that I will be dead.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the event of being dead is said to be in the future with respect to the opinion, which is in the present.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ki</primary><secondary>with no tense</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sticky tenses</primary><secondary>canceling</secondary></indexterm>
<valsi>ki</valsi> may also be used as a tense by itself. This cancels all stickiness and returns the bridi and all following bridi to the speaker's location in both space and time.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>handling multiple episodes</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>subscripting</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>subscripts</primary><secondary>for sticky tense</secondary></indexterm> In complex descriptions, multiple tenses may be saved and then used by adding a subscript to
<valsi>ki</valsi>. A time made sticky with
<oldjbophrase>kixipa</oldjbophrase> (ki-sub-1) can be returned to by specifying
@@ -1894,84 +1894,84 @@
<quote>what happens next</quote>. In particular, any sticky time setting is advanced by each sentence.</para>
<para>The following mini-story illustrates the important features of story time. A sentence-by-sentence explication follows:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qE94" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e14d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>puzuki ku ne'iki le kevna le ninmu goi ko'a zutse le rokci</jbo>
<gloss>[past] [long] [sticky] [,] [inside] [sticky] the cave, the woman defined-as she-1 sat-on the rock</gloss>
- <en>Long ago, in a cave, a woman sat on a rock.</en>
+ <natlang>Long ago, in a cave, a woman sat on a rock.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qEa4" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e14d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.i ko'a citka loi kanba rectu</jbo>
<gloss>She-1 [tenseless] eat some-of-the-mass-of goat flesh.</gloss>
- <en>She was eating goat's meat.</en>
+ <natlang>She was eating goat's meat.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qEa7" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e14d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.i ko'a pu jukpa ri le mudyfagri</jbo>
<gloss>She [past] cook the-last-mentioned by-method the wood-fire.</gloss>
- <en>She had cooked the meat over a wood fire.</en>
+ <natlang>She had cooked the meat over a wood fire.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qEao" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e14d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.i lei rectu cu zanglare</jbo>
<gloss>The-mass-of flesh is-(favorable)-warm.</gloss>
- <en>The meat was pleasantly warm.</en>
+ <natlang>The meat was pleasantly warm.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qebJ" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e14d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.i le labno goi ko'e bazaki nenri klama le kevna</jbo>
<gloss>The wolf defined-as it-2 [future] [medium] [sticky] within-came to-the cave.</gloss>
- <en>A while later, a wolf came into the cave.</en>
+ <natlang>A while later, a wolf came into the cave.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qebT" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e14d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.i ko'e lebna lei rectu ko'a</jbo>
<gloss>It-2 [tenseless] takes the-mass-of flesh from-her-1.</gloss>
- <en>It took the meat from her.</en>
+ <natlang>It took the meat from her.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qeBW" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e14d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.i ko'e bartu klama</jbo>
<gloss>It-2 out ran</gloss>
- <en>It ran out.</en>
+ <natlang>It ran out.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>cave</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>story tense</primary><secondary>Lojban convention contrasted with English convention</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qE94"/> sets both the time (long ago) and the place (in a cave) using
<valsi>ki</valsi>, just like the sentence sequences in
<xref linkend="section-sticky-tenses"/>. No further space cmavo are used in the rest of the story, so the place is assumed to remain unchanged. The English translation of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qE94"/> is marked for past tense also, as the conventions of English storytelling require: consequently, all other English translation sentences are also in the past tense. (We don't notice how strange this is; even stories about the future are written in past tense!) This conventional use of past tense is not used in Lojban narratives.</para>
<para>
@@ -2105,53 +2105,53 @@
<xref linkend="section-connected-tenses"/>). Here is a convoluted sentence with several nested bridi which uses
<valsi>nau</valsi> at the lowest level:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Yjop">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e15d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. pu cusku le se du'u la .alis pu cusku le se du'u la djordj. pu cusku le se du'u la maris. nau klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>John [past] says the statement-that Alice [past] says the statement-that George [past] says the statement that Mary [now] goes-to the market.</gloss>
- <en>John said that Alice had said that George had earlier said that Mary is now going to the market.</en>
+ <natlang>John said that Alice had said that George had earlier said that Mary is now going to the market.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sticky tenses</primary><secondary>effect of nau on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>nau</primary><secondary>effect on sticky tenses</secondary></indexterm> The use of
<valsi>nau</valsi> does not affect sticky tenses.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-tense-connection">
<title>Tense relations between sentences</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense with sumti tcita</primary><secondary>asymmetry of</secondary></indexterm> The sumti tcita method, explained in
<xref linkend="section-tcita"/>, of asserting a tense relationship between two events suffers from asymmetry. Specifically,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-vreo">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e16d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le verba cu cadzu le bisli zu'a le nu le nanmu cu batci le gerku</jbo>
<gloss>The child walks-on the ice [left] the event-of the man bites the dog.</gloss>
- <en>The child walks on the ice to the left of where the man bites the dog.</en>
+ <natlang>The child walks on the ice to the left of where the man bites the dog.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>bo</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>.i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sentences</primary><secondary>connecting with tense</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>connecting sentences in with</secondary></indexterm> which specifies an imaginary journey leftward from the man biting the dog to the child walking on the ice, claims only that the child walks on the ice. By the nature of
<oldjbophrase>le nu</oldjbophrase>, the man's biting the dog is merely referred to without being claimed. If it seems desirable to claim both, each event can be expressed as a main sentence bridi, with a special form of
<valsi>i</valsi> connecting them:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9Q0x">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e16d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu cu batci le gerku .izu'abo le verba cu cadzu le bisli</jbo>
<gloss>The man bites the dog. [Left] the child walks-on the ice.</gloss>
- <en>The man bites the dog. To the left, the child walks on the ice.</en>
+ <natlang>The man bites the dog. To the left, the child walks on the ice.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<oldjbophrase>.izu'abo</oldjbophrase> is a compound cmavo: the
<valsi>i</valsi> separates the sentences and the
<valsi>zu'a</valsi> is the tense. The
<valsi>bo</valsi> is required to prevent the
<valsi>zu'a</valsi> from gobbling up the following sumti, namely
<oldjbophrase>le verba</oldjbophrase>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>sumti tcita form contrasted with connected sentences</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense connection of sentences</primary><secondary>contrasted with sumti tcita form</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>imaginary journey</primary><secondary>origin of in tense-connected sentences</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense connection of sentences</primary><secondary>order of</secondary></indexterm> Note that the bridi in
@@ -2162,69 +2162,69 @@
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-9Q0x"/> means the same thing as:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Ne2C">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e16d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu cu batci le gerku .i zu'a la'edi'u le verba cu cadzu le bisli</jbo>
<gloss>The man bites the dog. [Left] the-referent-of-the-last-sentence the child walks-on the ice.</gloss>
- <en>The man bites the dog. Left of what I just mentioned, the child walks on the ice.</en>
+ <natlang>The man bites the dog. Left of what I just mentioned, the child walks on the ice.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense connected sentences</primary><secondary>importance of bo in</secondary></indexterm> If the
<valsi>bo</valsi> is omitted in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-9Q0x"/>, the meaning changes:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-jThf">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e16d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu cu batci le gerku .i zu'a le verba cu cadzu le bisli</jbo>
<gloss>The man bites the dog. [Left] the child [something] walks-on the ice.</gloss>
- <en>The man bites the dog. To the left of the child, something walks on the ice.</en>
+ <natlang>The man bites the dog. To the left of the child, something walks on the ice.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the first place of the second sentence is unspecified, because
<valsi>zu'a</valsi> has absorbed the sumti
<oldjbophrase>le verba</oldjbophrase>.</para>
<para>Do not confuse either
<xref linkend="example-random-id-9Q0x"/> or
<xref linkend="example-random-id-jThf"/> with the following:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>separately tensed sentences</primary><secondary>contrasted with tense connected sentences</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense connected sentences</primary><secondary>contrasted with separately tensed sentences</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-MzxF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e16d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu cu batci le gerku .i zu'aku le verba cu cadzu le bisli</jbo>
<gloss>The man bites the dog. [Left] the child walks-on the ice.</gloss>
- <en>The man bites the dog. Left of me, the child walks on the ice.</en>
+ <natlang>The man bites the dog. Left of me, the child walks on the ice.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-MzxF"/>, the origin point is the speaker, as is usual with
<oldjbophrase>zu'aku</oldjbophrase>.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-9Q0x"/> makes the origin point of the tense the event described by the first sentence.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense connected sentences</primary><secondary>forethought mode</secondary></indexterm> Two sentences may also be connected in forethought by a tense relationship. Just like afterthought tense connection, forethought tense connection claims both sentences, and in addition claims that the time or space relationship specified by the tense holds between the events the two sentences describe.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>gi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>imaginary journey</primary><secondary>origin in tense forethought sentence connection</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sentences</primary><secondary>forethought tense connection of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>forethought tense connection of sentences</primary><secondary>order of</secondary></indexterm> The origin sentence is placed first, preceded by a tense plus
<valsi>gi</valsi>. Another
<valsi>gi</valsi> is used to separate the sentences:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9cXU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e16d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>pugi mi klama le zarci gi mi klama le zdani</jbo>
<gloss>[past] I go-to the market [,] I go-to the house.</gloss>
- <en>Before I go to the market, I go to the house.</en>
+ <natlang>Before I go to the market, I go to the house.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>A parallel construction can be used to express a tense relationship between sumti:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>gi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>forethought tense connection of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>imaginary journey</primary><secondary>origin in tense forethought sumti connection</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>forethought tense connection of sumti</primary><secondary>order of</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-o3Yg">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e16d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama pugi le zarci gi le zdani</jbo>
@@ -2242,21 +2242,21 @@
<xref linkend="example-random-id-vSCv"/> is equivalent in meaning to
<xref linkend="example-random-id-9cXU"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-o3Yg"/>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-vSCv">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e16d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pugi klama le zarci gi klama le zdani</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] go-to the market [,] go-to the house.</gloss>
- <en>I, before going to the market, go to the house.</en>
+ <natlang>I, before going to the market, go to the house.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense connection of bridi-tails</primary><secondary>meaning of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense connection of sumti</primary><secondary>meaning of</secondary></indexterm> In both
<xref linkend="example-random-id-o3Yg"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-vSCv"/>, the underlying sentences
<oldjbophrase>mi klama le zarci</oldjbophrase> and
<oldjbophrase>mi klama le zdani</oldjbophrase> are not claimed; only the relationship in time between them is claimed.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense afterthought connection forms</primary><secondary>selma'o allowed</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense forethought connection forms</primary><secondary>selma'o allowed</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense connection</primary><secondary>expansions of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense connection</primary><secondary>equivalent meanings</secondary></indexterm> Both the forethought and the afterthought forms are appropriate with PU, ZI, FAhA, VA, and ZAhO tenses. In all cases, the equivalent forms are (where X and Y stand for sentences, and TENSE for a tense cmavo):</para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry>
@@ -2278,70 +2278,70 @@
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tensed logical connectives</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connectives</primary><secondary>tensed</secondary></indexterm> The Lojban tense system interacts with the Lojban logical connective system. That system is a separate topic, explained in
<xref linkend="chapter-connectives"/> and touched on only in summary here. By the rules of the logical connective system,
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qehB"/> through 17.3 are equivalent in meaning:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qehB" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e17d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la teris. satre le mlatu .ije la teris. satre le ractu</jbo>
- <en>Terry strokes the cat. And Terry strokes the rabbit.</en>
+ <natlang>Terry strokes the cat. And Terry strokes the rabbit.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qEI1" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e17d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la teris. satre le mlatu gi'e satre le ractu</jbo>
- <en>Terry strokes the cat and strokes the rabbit.</en>
+ <natlang>Terry strokes the cat and strokes the rabbit.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qEIm" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e17d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la teris. satre le mlatu .e le ractu</jbo>
- <en>Terry strokes the cat and the rabbit.</en>
+ <natlang>Terry strokes the cat and the rabbit.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>bo</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>stoke cat then rabbit</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>and then</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> Suppose we wish to add a tense relationship to the logical connective
<quote>and</quote>? To say that Terry strokes the cat and later strokes the rabbit, we can combine a logical connective with a tense connective by placing the logical connective first, then the tense, and then the cmavo
<valsi>bo</valsi>, thus:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qEiY" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e17d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la teris. satre le mlatu .ijebabo la teris. satre le ractu</jbo>
- <en>Terry strokes the cat. And then Terry strokes the rabbit.</en>
+ <natlang>Terry strokes the cat. And then Terry strokes the rabbit.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qEjn" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e17d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la teris. satre le mlatu gi'ebabo satre le ractu</jbo>
- <en>Terry strokes the cat, and then strokes the rabbit.</en>
+ <natlang>Terry strokes the cat, and then strokes the rabbit.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qEKa" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e17d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la teris. satre le mlatu .ebabo le ractu</jbo>
- <en>Terry strokes the cat and then the rabbit.</en>
+ <natlang>Terry strokes the cat and then the rabbit.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tensed logically connected sumti</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tensed logically connected bridi-tails</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tensed logically connected sentences</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qEiY"/> through 17.6 are equivalent in meaning. They are also analogous to
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qehB"/> through
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qEIm"/> respectively. The
<valsi>bo</valsi> is required for the same reason as in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-9Q0x"/>: to prevent the
<valsi>ba</valsi> from functioning as a sumti tcita for the following sumti (or, in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qEjn"/>, from being attached to the following selbri).</para>
@@ -2357,186 +2357,186 @@
<oldjbophrase>tu'e ... tu'u</oldjbophrase> for sentences). The logical connective system makes
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qeL4"/> through
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qeLv"/> equivalent in meaning:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qeL4" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e17d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi bevri le dakli .ije tu'e mi bevri le gerku .ija mi bevri le mlatu tu'u</jbo>
<gloss>I carry the sack. And (I carry the dog. And/or I carry the cat).</gloss>
- <en>I carry the sack. And I carry the dog, or I carry the cat, or I carry both.</en>
+ <natlang>I carry the sack. And I carry the dog, or I carry the cat, or I carry both.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qELN" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e17d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi bevri le dakli gi'eke bevri le gerku gi'a bevri le mlatu</jbo>
<gloss>I carry the sack and (carry the dog and/or carry the cat).</gloss>
- <en>I carry the sack, and also carry the dog or carry the cat or carry both.</en>
+ <natlang>I carry the sack, and also carry the dog or carry the cat or carry both.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>carry sack and dog</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qeLv" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e17d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi bevri le dakli .eke le gerku .a le mlatu</jbo>
<gloss>I carry the sack and (the dog or the cat).</gloss>
- <en>I carry the sack and also the dog or the cat or both.</en>
+ <natlang>I carry the sack and also the dog or the cat or both.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note the uniformity of the Lojban, as contrasted with the variety of ways in which the English provides for the correct grouping. In all cases, the meaning is that I carry the sack in any case, and either the cat or the dog or both.</para>
<para>To express that I carry the sack first (earlier in time), and then the dog or the cat or both simultaneously, I can insert tenses to form
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qeLV"/> through
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qEnd"/>:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qeLV" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e17d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi bevri le dakli .ije ba tu'e mi bevri le gerku .ijacabo mi bevri le mlatu tu'u</jbo>
<gloss>I carry the sack. And [future] (I carry the dog. And/or [present] I carry the cat.)</gloss>
- <en>I carry the sack. And then I will carry the dog or I will carry the cat or I will carry both at once.</en>
+ <natlang>I carry the sack. And then I will carry the dog or I will carry the cat or I will carry both at once.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qeMo" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e17d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi bevri le dakli gi'ebake bevri le gerku gi'acabo bevri le mlatu</jbo>
<gloss>I carry the sack and [future] (carry the dog and/or [present] carry the cat).</gloss>
- <en>I carry the sack and then will carry the dog or carry the cat or carry both at once.</en>
+ <natlang>I carry the sack and then will carry the dog or carry the cat or carry both at once.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qEnd" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e17d12"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi bevri le dakli .ebake le gerku .acabo le mlatu</jbo>
<gloss>I carry the sack and [future] (the cat and/or [present] the dog).</gloss>
- <en>I carry the sack, and then the cat or the dog or both at once.</en>
+ <natlang>I carry the sack, and then the cat or the dog or both at once.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tensed logically connected sumti</primary><secondary>with grouping</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tensed logically connected bridi-tails</primary><secondary>with grouping</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tensed logically connected sentences</primary><secondary>with grouping</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qeLV"/> through
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qEnd"/> are equivalent in meaning to each other, and correspond to the tenseless
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qeL4"/> through
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qeLv"/> respectively.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-tense-negation">
<title>Tense negation</title>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>nai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ZAhO selma'o</primary><secondary>contradictory negation of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>FAhA selma'o</primary><secondary>contradictory negation of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>PU selma'o</primary><secondary>contradictory negation of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>negation</primary><secondary>of tenses</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tenses</primary><secondary>negating</secondary></indexterm> Any bridi which involves tenses of selma'o PU, FAhA, or ZAhO can be contradicted by a
<oldjbophrase>-nai</oldjbophrase> suffixed to the tense cmavo. Some examples:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-qXWF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e18d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi punai klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] [not] go-to the market.</gloss>
- <en>I didn't go to the market.</en>
+ <natlang>I didn't go to the market.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>nai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>negation of tenses</primary><secondary>meaning of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tenses</primary><secondary>contradictory negation of with nai</secondary></indexterm> As a contradictory negation,
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qXWF"/> implies that the bridi as a whole is false without saying anything about what is true. When the negated tense is a sumti tcita,
<oldjbophrase>-nai</oldjbophrase> negation indicates that the stated relationship does not hold:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qEnq" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e18d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci canai le nu do klama le zdani</jbo>
<gloss>I go-to the market [present] [not] the event-of you go-to the house.</gloss>
- <en>It is not true that I went to the market at the same time that you went to the house.</en>
+ <natlang>It is not true that I went to the market at the same time that you went to the house.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qeNT" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e18d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu batci le gerku ne'inai le kumfa</jbo>
<gloss>The man bites the dog [within] [not] the room.</gloss>
- <en>The man didn't bite the dog inside the room.</en>
+ <natlang>The man didn't bite the dog inside the room.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qEny" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e18d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi morsi ca'onai le nu mi jmive</jbo>
<gloss>I am-dead [continuitive - negated] the event-of I live.</gloss>
- <en>It is false that I am dead during my life.</en>
+ <natlang>It is false that I am dead during my life.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>NAhE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>contradictory negation contrasted with scalar negation of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>scalar negation contrasted with contradictory negation of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>scalar negation of with NAhE</secondary></indexterm> It is also possible to perform scalar negation of whole tense constructs by placing a member of NAhE before them. Unlike contradictory negation, scalar negation asserts a truth: that the bridi is true with some tense other than that specified. The following examples are scalar negation analogues of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qXWF"/> to
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qeNT"/>:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qEo1" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e18d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na'e pu klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [non-] [past] go-to the market.</gloss>
- <en>I go to the market other than in the past.</en>
+ <natlang>I go to the market other than in the past.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qEoN" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e18d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu batci le gerku to'e ne'i le kumfa</jbo>
<gloss>The man bites the dog [opposite-of] [within] the room.</gloss>
- <en>The man bites the dog outside the room.</en>
+ <natlang>The man bites the dog outside the room.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qEqa" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e18d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci na'e ca le nu do klama le zdani</jbo>
<gloss>I go-to the market [non-] [present] the event-of you go-to the house.</gloss>
- <en>I went to the market at a time other than the time at which you went to the house.</en>
+ <natlang>I went to the market at a time other than the time at which you went to the house.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qeQe" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e18d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi morsi na'e ca'o le nu mi jmive</jbo>
<gloss>I am-dead [non-] [continuitive] the event-of I live.</gloss>
- <en>I am dead other than during my life.</en>
+ <natlang>I am dead other than during my life.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>FAhA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>PU selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>scalar negation of tenses</primary><secondary>selma'o allowed with</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>contradictory negation of tenses</primary><secondary>selma'o allowed with</secondary></indexterm> Unlike
<oldjbophrase>-nai</oldjbophrase> contradictory negation, scalar negation of tenses is not limited to PU and FAhA:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-THJJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e18d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le verba na'e ri'u cadzu le bisli</jbo>
<gloss>The child [non-] [right] walks-on the ice</gloss>
- <en>The child walks on the ice other than to my right.</en>
+ <natlang>The child walks on the ice other than to my right.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ROI selma'o</primary><secondary>scalar negation of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>TAhE selma'o</primary><secondary>scalar negation of</secondary></indexterm> The use of
<oldjbophrase>-nai</oldjbophrase> on cmavo of TAhE and ROI has already been discussed in
<xref linkend="section-interval-properties"/>; this use is also a scalar negation.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-caha">
<title>Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
@@ -2568,130 +2568,130 @@
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>innate capabilities</primary><secondary>expressing implicitly</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>potential events</primary><secondary>expressing implicitly</secondary></indexterm> Lojban bridi without tense markers may not necessarily refer to actual events: they may also refer to capabilities or potential events. For example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-HjjN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e19d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro datka cu flulimna</jbo>
<gloss>All ducks are-float-swimmers.</gloss>
- <en>All ducks swim by floating.</en>
+ <natlang>All ducks swim by floating.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>ducks swim</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>actuality</primary><secondary>Lojban contrasted with English in implying</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>Lojban contrasted with English in implying actuality</secondary></indexterm> is a Lojban truth, even though the colloquial English translation is false or at best ambiguous. This is because the tenseless Lojban bridi doesn't necessarily claim that every duck is swimming or floating now or even at a specific time or place. Even if we add a tense marker to
<xref linkend="example-random-id-HjjN"/>,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-o9Yu">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e19d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro datka ca flulimna</jbo>
<gloss>All ducks [present] are-float-swimmers.</gloss>
- <en>All ducks are now swimming by floating.</en>
+ <natlang>All ducks are now swimming by floating.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>the resulting
<xref linkend="example-random-id-o9Yu"/> might still be considered a truth, even though the colloquial English seems even more likely to be false. All ducks have the potential of swimming even if they are not exercising that potential at present. To get the full flavor of
<quote>All ducks are now swimming</quote>, we must append a marker from selma'o CAhA to the tense, and say:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hXpB">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e19d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro datka ca ca'a flulimna</jbo>
<gloss>All ducks [present] [actual] are-float-swimmers.</gloss>
- <en>All ducks are now actually swimming by floating.</en>
+ <natlang>All ducks are now actually swimming by floating.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ki</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>CAhA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ca'a</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sticky tenses</primary><secondary>and CAhA</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>CAhA selma'o</primary><secondary>making sticky</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>CAhA selma'o</primary><secondary>order in tense construct</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>actual events</primary><secondary>explicitly expressing</secondary></indexterm> A CAhA cmavo is always placed after any other tense cmavo, whether for time or for space. However, a CAhA cmavo comes before
<valsi>ki</valsi>, so that a CAhA condition can be made sticky.</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-hXpB"/> is false in both Lojban and English, since it claims that the swimming is an actual, present fact, true of every duck that exists, whereas in fact there is at least one duck that is not swimming now.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ka'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>innate capability</primary><secondary>expressing explicitly</secondary></indexterm> Furthermore, some ducks are dead (and therefore sink); some ducks have just hatched (and do not know how to swim yet), and some ducks have been eaten by predators (and have ceased to exist as separate objects at all). Nevertheless, all these ducks have the innate capability of swimming – it is part of the nature of duckhood. The cmavo
<valsi>ka'e</valsi> expresses this notion of innate capability:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ApiH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e19d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro datka ka'e flulimna</jbo>
<gloss>All ducks [capable] are-float-swimmers.</gloss>
- <en>All ducks are innately capable of swimming.</en>
+ <natlang>All ducks are innately capable of swimming.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>innate properties</primary><secondary>extension of from mass to individuals</secondary></indexterm> Under some epistemologies, innate capability can be extended in order to apply the innate properties of a mass to which certain individuals belong to the individuals themselves, even if those individuals are themselves not capable of fulfilling the claim of the bridi. For example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ebcg">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e19d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. ka'e viska</jbo>
<gloss>John [capable] sees.</gloss>
<gloss>John is innately capable of seeing.</gloss>
- <en>John can see.</en>
+ <natlang>John can see.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>can see</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>innate properties</primary><secondary>extension to individuals not actually capable</secondary></indexterm> might be true about a human being named John, even though he has been blind since birth, because the ability to see is innately built into his nature as a human being. It is theoretically possible that conditions might occur that would enable John to see (a great medical discovery, for example). On the other hand,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-NC6V">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e19d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le cukta ka'e viska</jbo>
<gloss>The book [capable] sees.</gloss>
- <en>The book can see.</en>
+ <natlang>The book can see.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is not true in most epistemologies, since the ability to see is not part of the innate nature of a book.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>undemonstrated potential</primary><secondary>expressing</secondary></indexterm> Consider once again the newly hatched ducks mentioned earlier. They have the potential of swimming, but have not yet demonstrated that potential. This may be expressed using
<valsi>nu'o</valsi>, the cmavo of CAhA for undemonstrated potential:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sHpR">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e19d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro cifydatka nu'o flulimna</jbo>
<gloss>All infant-ducks [can but has not] are-float-swimmers.</gloss>
<gloss>All infant ducks have an undemonstrated potential for swimming by floating.</gloss>
- <en>Baby ducks can swim but haven't yet.</en>
+ <natlang>Baby ducks can swim but haven't yet.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>nu'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>infant ducks</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>demonstrated potential</primary><secondary>expressing</secondary></indexterm> Contrariwise, if Frank is not blind from birth, then
<valsi>pu'i</valsi> is appropriate:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-VPfM">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e19d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la frank. pu'i viska</jbo>
<gloss>Frank [can and has] sees.</gloss>
<gloss>Frank has demonstrated a potential for seeing.</gloss>
- <en>Frank can see and has seen.</en>
+ <natlang>Frank can see and has seen.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>pu'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>actuality</primary><secondary>expressing in past/future</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>potential</primary><secondary>expressing in past/future</secondary></indexterm> Note that the glosses given at the beginning of this section for
<valsi>ca'a</valsi>,
<valsi>nu'o</valsi>, and
<valsi>pu'i</valsi> incorporate
@@ -2703,33 +2703,33 @@
<oldjbophrase>ca pu'i</oldjbophrase>. However, the CAhA cmavo are perfectly meaningful with other tenses than the present:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qER7" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e19d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu ca'a klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] [actual] go-to the store.</gloss>
- <en>I actually went to the store.</en>
+ <natlang>I actually went to the store.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qera" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e19d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la frank. ba nu'o klama le zdani</jbo>
<gloss>Frank [future] [can but has not] goes-to the store.</gloss>
<gloss>Frank could have, but will not have, gone to the store</gloss>
- <en>(at some understood moment in the future).</en>
+ <natlang>(at some understood moment in the future).</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tenses with elided CAhA</primary><secondary>meaning</secondary></indexterm> As always in Lojban tenses, a missing CAhA can have an indeterminate meaning, or the context can be enough to disambiguate it. Saying</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-IKGW">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e19d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta jelca</jbo>
<gloss>That burns/is-burning/might-burn/will-burn.</gloss>
@@ -2740,86 +2740,86 @@
<quote>That is inflammable.</quote> The first demands immediate action (usually), whereas the second merely demands caution. The two cases can be disambiguated with:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-5tur">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e19d12"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta ca ca'a jelca</jbo>
<gloss>That [present] [actual] burns.</gloss>
- <en>That is on fire.</en>
+ <natlang>That is on fire.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PRrR">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e19d13"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta ka'e jelca</jbo>
<gloss>That [capable] burns.</gloss>
<gloss>That is capable of burning.</gloss>
- <en>That is inflammable.</en>
+ <natlang>That is inflammable.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>observative with elided CAhA</primary><secondary>convention</secondary></indexterm> When no indication is given, as in the simple observative</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-FWoz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e19d14"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>jelca</jbo>
- <en>It burns!</en>
+ <natlang>It burns!</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>the prudent Lojbanist will assume the meaning
<quote>Fire!</quote></para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-connected-tenses">
<title>Logical and non-logical connections between tenses</title>
<para>Like many things in Lojban, tenses may be logically connected; logical connection is explained in more detail in
<xref linkend="chapter-connectives"/>. Some of the terminology in this section will be clear only if you already understand logical connectives.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logically connected tenses</primary><secondary>expansion to sentences</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tenses</primary><secondary>logically connected with JA</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logically connected tenses</primary><secondary>with JA</secondary></indexterm> The appropriate logical connectives belong to selma'o JA. A logical connective between tenses can always be expanded to one between sentences:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-XAj7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e20d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu je ba klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] and [future] go-to the market.</gloss>
- <en>I went and will go to the market.</en>
+ <natlang>I went and will go to the market.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means the same as:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-BWI5">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e20d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu klama le zarci .ije mi ba klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] go-to the market. And I [future] go-to the market.</gloss>
- <en>I went to the market, and I will go to the market.</en>
+ <natlang>I went to the market, and I will go to the market.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tenses</primary><secondary>connected</secondary><tertiary>with negation</tertiary></indexterm> Tense connection and tense negation are combined in:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Tuz1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e20d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi punai je canai je ba klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] [not] and [present] [not] and [future] go-to the market.</gloss>
- <en>I haven't yet gone to the market, but I will in future.</en>
+ <natlang>I haven't yet gone to the market, but I will in future.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Tuz1"/> is far more specific than</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-J5jJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e20d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ba klama le zarci</jbo>
@@ -2831,46 +2831,46 @@
<oldjbophrase>punai</oldjbophrase> or
<oldjbophrase>canai</oldjbophrase>; to compel that interpretation, either a logical connection or a ZAhO is needed.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>connected tenses</primary><secondary>negation of compared with negation in connective</secondary></indexterm> Tense negation can often be removed in favor of negation in the logical connective itself. The following examples are equivalent in meaning:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qErC" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e20d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi mo'izu'anai je mo'iri'u cadzu</jbo>
<gloss>I [motion] [left-not] and [motion] [right] walk.</gloss>
- <en>I walk not leftward but rightward.</en>
+ <natlang>I walk not leftward but rightward.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qeRL" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e20d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi mo'izu'a naje mo'iri'u cadzu</jbo>
<gloss>I [motion] [left] not-and [motion] [right] walk.</gloss>
- <en>I walk not leftward but rightward.</en>
+ <natlang>I walk not leftward but rightward.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tenses</primary><secondary>possible groupings of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tenses</primary><secondary>forethought logical connections</secondary></indexterm> There are no forethought logical connections between tenses allowed by the grammar, to keep tenses simpler. Nor is there any way to override simple left-grouping of the connectives, the Lojban default.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GAhO selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>BIhI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JOI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>intervals</primary><secondary>expressing by endpoints with bi'o</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tenses</primary><secondary>non-logical connection of</secondary></indexterm> The non-logical connectives of selma'o JOI, BIhI, and GAhO are also permitted between tenses. One application is to specify intervals not by size, but by their end-points (
<valsi>bi'o</valsi> belongs to selma'o BIhI, and connects the end-points of an ordered interval, like English
<quote>from ... to</quote>):</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KQUM">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e20d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi puza bi'o bazu vasxu</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] [medium] from ... to [future] [long] breathe.</gloss>
- <en>I breathe from a medium time ago till a long time to come.</en>
+ <natlang>I breathe from a medium time ago till a long time to come.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(It is to be hoped that I have a long life ahead of me.)</para>
<para>One additional use of non-logical connectives within tenses is discussed in
<xref linkend="section-sub-events"/>. Other uses will probably be identified in future.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-sub-events">
<title>Sub-events</title>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>six-shooter</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tenses</primary><secondary>non-logical connection of for sub-events</secondary></indexterm> Another application of non-logical tense connection is to talk about sub-events of events. Consider a six-shooter: a gun which can fire six bullets in succession before reloading. If I fire off the entire magazine twice, I can express the fact in Lojban thus:</para>
@@ -2878,21 +2878,21 @@
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9CqG">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e21d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi reroi pi'u xaroi cecla le seldanti</jbo>
<gloss>I [twice] [cross-product] [six times] shoot the projectile-launcher.</gloss>
- <en>On two occasions, I fire the gun six times.</en>
+ <natlang>On two occasions, I fire the gun six times.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>pi'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>on two occasions</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cross product</primary><secondary>with tenses</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Cartesian product</primary><secondary>with tenses</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pi'u</primary><secondary>use in connecting tenses</secondary></indexterm> It would be confusing, though grammatical, to run the
<oldjbophrase>reroi</oldjbophrase> and the
<oldjbophrase>xaroi</oldjbophrase> directly together. However, the non-logical connective
<valsi>pi'u</valsi> expresses a Cartesian product (also known as a cross product) of two sets. In this case, there is a set of two firings each of which is represented by a set of six shots, for twelve shots in all (hence the name
<quote>product</quote>: the product of 2 and 6 is 12). Its use specifies very precisely what occurs.</para>
@@ -2900,32 +2900,32 @@
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qES9" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e21d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djordj. ca'o co'a ciska</jbo>
<gloss>George [continuitive] [initiative] writes.</gloss>
- <en>George continues to start to write.</en>
+ <natlang>George continues to start to write.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qetE" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e21d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi reroi ca'o xaroi darxi le damri</jbo>
<gloss>I [twice] [continuitive] [six times] hit the drum.</gloss>
- <en>On two occasions, I continue to beat the drum six times.</en>
+ <natlang>On two occasions, I continue to beat the drum six times.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-jai">
<title>Conversion of sumti tcita: JAI</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>jai</cmavo>
<selmaho>JAI</selmaho>
@@ -2959,31 +2959,31 @@
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>jai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>jai with tense</primary><secondary>as equivalent of SE in grammar</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense conversion</primary><secondary>accessing tense of bridi with jai</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>conversion</primary><secondary>accessing tense of bridi with jai</secondary></indexterm> It is also possible to bring a place that is specified by a sumti tcita (for the purposes of this chapter, a tense sumti tcita) to the front, by using
<valsi>jai</valsi> plus the tense as the grammatical equivalent of SE:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qEvD" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e22d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ratcu cu citka le cirla vi le panka</jbo>
<gloss>The rat eats the cheese [short distance] the park.</gloss>
- <en>The rat eats the cheese in the park.</en>
+ <natlang>The rat eats the cheese in the park.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qEWB" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e22d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le panka cu jai vi citka le cirla fai le ratcu</jbo>
<gloss>The park is-the-place-of eating the cheese by-the rat.</gloss>
- <en>The park is where the rat eats the cheese.</en>
+ <natlang>The park is where the rat eats the cheese.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>FA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>fai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>rat eats cheese in park</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense conversion</primary><secondary>accessing original first place with fai</secondary></indexterm> In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qEWB"/>, the construction JAI+tense converts the location sumti into the first place. The previous first place has nowhere to go, since the location sumti is not a numbered place; however, it can be inserted back into the bridi with
<valsi>fai</valsi>, the indefinite member of selma'o FA.</para>
<para>(The other members of FA are used to mark the first, second, etc. places of a bridi explicitly:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-YS3i">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e22d5"/>
</title>
@@ -3030,82 +3030,82 @@
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nSnh">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e22d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi djuno fi le jai ca morsi be fai la djan.</jbo>
<gloss>I know about the [present] is-dead of-the-one-called
<quote>John</quote>.</gloss>
<gloss>I know the time of John's death.</gloss>
- <en>I know when John died.</en>
+ <natlang>I know when John died.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-tenses-vs-modals">
<title>Tenses versus modals</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modals</primary><secondary>contrasted with tenses in semantics</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tenses</primary><secondary>contrasted with modals in semantics</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modals</primary><secondary>compared with tenses in syntax</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tenses</primary><secondary>compared with modals in syntax</secondary></indexterm> Grammatically, every use of tenses seen so far is exactly paralleled by some use of modals as explained in
<xref linkend="chapter-sumti-tcita"/>. Modals and tenses alike can be followed by sumti, can appear before the selbri, can be used in pure and mixed connections, can participate in JAI conversions. The parallelism is perfect. However, there is a deep difference in the semantics of tense constructs and modal constructs, grounded in historical differences between the two forms. Originally, modals and tenses were utterly different things in earlier versions of Loglan; only in Lojban have they become grammatically interchangeable. And even now, differences in semantics continue to be maintained.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modals</primary><secondary>importance of 1st sumti place for sumti tcita use</secondary></indexterm> The core distinction is that whereas the modal bridi</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-YLmV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e23d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci do mu'i le nu do nelci mi</jbo>
<gloss>I like you with-motivation the event-of you like me.</gloss>
- <en>I like you because you like me.</en>
+ <natlang>I like you because you like me.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>places the
<oldjbophrase>le nu</oldjbophrase> sumti in the x1 place of the gismu
<valsi>mukti</valsi> (which underlies the modal
<valsi>mu'i</valsi>), namely the motivating event, the tensed bridi</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-zXi8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e23d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci do ba le nu do nelci mi</jbo>
<gloss>I like you after the event-of you like me.</gloss>
- <en>I like you after you like me.</en>
+ <natlang>I like you after you like me.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tenses</primary><secondary>importance of 2nd sumti place for sumti tcita use</secondary></indexterm> places the
<oldjbophrase>le nu</oldjbophrase> sumti in the x2 place of the gismu
<valsi>balvi</valsi> (which underlies the tense
<valsi>ba</valsi>), namely the point of reference for the future tense. Paraphrases of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-YLmV"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-zXi8"/>, employing the brivla
<valsi>mukti</valsi> and
<valsi>balvi</valsi> explicitly, would be:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-JbEU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e23d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nu do nelci mi cu mukti le nu mi nelci do</jbo>
<gloss>The event-of you like me motivates the event-of I like you.</gloss>
- <en>Your liking me is the motive for my liking you.</en>
+ <natlang>Your liking me is the motive for my liking you.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-8sjA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e23d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nu mi nelci do cu balvi le nu do nelci mi</jbo>
<gloss>The event-of I like you is after the event of you like me.</gloss>
- <en>My liking you follows (in time) your liking me.</en>
+ <natlang>My liking you follows (in time) your liking me.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(Note that the paraphrase is not perfect due to the difference in what is claimed;
<xref linkend="example-random-id-JbEU"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-8sjA"/> claim only the causal and temporal relationships between the events, not the existence of the events themselves.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>afterthought sentence connection</primary><secondary>modal contrasted with tense</secondary></indexterm> As a result, the afterthought sentence-connective forms of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-YLmV"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-zXi8"/> are, respectively:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qewe" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
@@ -3115,21 +3115,21 @@
<jbo>mi nelci do .imu'ibo do nelci mi</jbo>
<gloss>I like you. [That is] Because you like me.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qEWp" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e23d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do nelci mi .ibabo mi nelci do</jbo>
- <en>You like me. Afterward, I like you.</en>
+ <natlang>You like me. Afterward, I like you.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qewe"/>, the order of the two bridi
<oldjbophrase>mi nelci do</oldjbophrase> and
<oldjbophrase>do nelci mi</oldjbophrase> is the same as in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-YLmV"/>. In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qEWp"/>, however, the order is reversed: the origin point
<oldjbophrase>do nelci mi</oldjbophrase> physically appears before the future-time event
<oldjbophrase>mi nelci do</oldjbophrase>. In both cases, the bridi characterizing the event in the x2 place appears before the bridi characterizing the event in the x1 place of
@@ -3138,31 +3138,31 @@
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>afterthought tense connection</primary><secondary>contrasted with forethought in likeness to modal connection</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>forethought tense connection</primary><secondary>contrasted with afterthought in likeness to modal connection</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>forethought connections</primary><secondary>modal compared with tense in semantics</secondary></indexterm> In forethought connections, however, the asymmetry between modals and tenses is not found. The forethought equivalents of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qewe"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qEWp"/> are</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ENKj">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e23d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mu'igi do nelci mi gi mi nelci do</jbo>
- <en>Because you like me, I like you.</en>
+ <natlang>Because you like me, I like you.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-r7KK">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e23d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>bagi do nelci mi gi mi nelci do</jbo>
- <en>After you like me, I like you.</en>
+ <natlang>After you like me, I like you.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>respectively.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal sentence connection</primary><secondary>table of equivalent schemata</secondary></indexterm> The following modal sentence schemata (where X and Y represent sentences) all have the same meaning:</para>
<simplelist>
<member><grammar-template>
X .i BAI bo Y
</grammar-template></member>
<member><grammar-template>
BAI gi Y gi X
@@ -3203,86 +3203,86 @@
<quote>At what place?</quote> In these forms, their Lojban equivalents simply involve a tense plus
<valsi>ma</valsi>, the Lojban sumti question:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qEwW" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e24d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do klama le zdani ca ma</jbo>
<gloss>You go-to the house [present] [what sumti?].</gloss>
<gloss>You go to the house at what time?</gloss>
- <en>When do you go to the house?</en>
+ <natlang>When do you go to the house?</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qEX2" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e24d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le verba vi ma pu cadzu le bisli</jbo>
<gloss>The child [short space] [what sumti?] [past] walks-on the ice.</gloss>
<gloss>The child at/near what place walked on the ice?</gloss>
- <en>Where did the child walk on the ice?</en>
+ <natlang>Where did the child walk on the ice?</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>where</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>when</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal-or-tense question</primary><secondary>with cu'e</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense-or-modal questions</primary><secondary>with cu'e</secondary></indexterm> There is also a non-specific tense and modal question,
<valsi>cu'e</valsi>, belonging to selma'o CUhE. This can be used wherever a tense or modal construct can be used.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4dAJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e24d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu cu'e batci le gerku</jbo>
<gloss>The man [what tense?] bites the dog.</gloss>
- <en>When/Where/How does the man bite the dog?</en>
+ <natlang>When/Where/How does the man bite the dog?</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>when/where/how</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>answers</primary><secondary>to tense-or-modal questions</secondary></indexterm> Possible answers to
<xref linkend="example-random-id-4dAJ"/> might be:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qeya" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e24d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>va</jbo>
<gloss>[medium space].</gloss>
- <en>Some ways from here.</en>
+ <natlang>Some ways from here.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qEYe" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e24d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>puzu</jbo>
<gloss>[past] [long time].</gloss>
- <en>A long time ago.</en>
+ <natlang>A long time ago.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qEyQ" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e24d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>vi le lunra</jbo>
<gloss>[short space] The moon.</gloss>
- <en>On the moon.</en>
+ <natlang>On the moon.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qez6" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e24d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>pu'o</jbo>
<gloss>[inchoative]</gloss>
- <en>He hasn't yet done so.</en>
+ <natlang>He hasn't yet done so.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>or even the modal reply (from selma'o BAI; see
<xref linkend="section-BAI"/>):</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Vqgy">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e24d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>seka'a le briju</jbo>
@@ -3292,35 +3292,35 @@
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal-or-tense questions</primary><secondary>pre-specifying some information</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense-or-modal questions</primary><secondary>pre-specifying some information</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cu'e</primary><secondary>combining with other tense cmavo</secondary></indexterm> The only way to combine
<valsi>cu'e</valsi> with other tense cmavo is through logical connection, which makes a question that pre-specifies some information:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>when else</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>sowed grain</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-QTts">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e24d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do puzi je cu'e sombo le gurni</jbo>
<gloss>You [past] [short] and [when?] sow the grain?</gloss>
- <en>You sowed the grain a little while ago; when else do you sow it?</en>
+ <natlang>You sowed the grain a little while ago; when else do you sow it?</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Additionally, the logical connective itself can be replaced by a question word:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense questions</primary><secondary>by using logical connective question</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-I6xI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e24d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .artr. pu je'i ba nolraitru</jbo>
<gloss>Arthur [past] [which?] [future] is-a-king</gloss>
- <en>Was Arthur a king or will he be?</en>
+ <natlang>Was Arthur a king or will he be?</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Answers to
<xref linkend="example-random-id-I6xI"/> would be logical connectives such as
<valsi>je</valsi>, meaning
<quote>both</quote>,
<oldjbophrase>naje</oldjbophrase> meaning
<quote>the latter</quote>, or
<oldjbophrase>jenai</oldjbophrase> meaning
<quote>the former</quote>.</para>
@@ -3331,21 +3331,21 @@
<quote>termset</quote> is employed. (Termsets are explained further in
<xref linkend="section-termsets"/> and
<xref linkend="section-quantifier-grouping"/>.) It is grammatical for a termset to be placed after a tense or modal tag rather than a sumti, which allows both the origin of the imaginary journey and its distance to be specified. Here is an example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7Lys">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e25d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la frank. sanli zu'a nu'i la djordj. la'u lo mitre be li mu [nu'u]</jbo>
<gloss>Frank stands [left] [start termset] George [quantity] a thing-measuring-in-meters the-number 5 [end termset].</gloss>
- <en>Frank is standing five meters to the left of George.</en>
+ <natlang>Frank is standing five meters to the left of George.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the termset extends from the
<valsi>nu'i</valsi> to the implicit
<valsi>nu'u</valsi> at the end of the sentence, and includes the terms
<oldjbophrase>la djordj.</oldjbophrase>, which is the unmarked origin point, and the tagged sumti
<oldjbophrase>lo mitre be li mu</oldjbophrase>, which the cmavo
<valsi>la'u</valsi> (of selma'o BAI, and meaning
<quote>with quantity</quote>; see
<xref linkend="section-BAI"/>) marks as a quantity. Both terms are governed by the tag
@@ -3356,21 +3356,21 @@
<xref linkend="example-random-id-7Lys"/> is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-RWEE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e25d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la frank. sanli zu'a nu'i la'u lo mitre be li mu</jbo>
<gloss>Frank stands [left] [termset] [quantity] a thing-measuring-in-meters the-number 5.</gloss>
- <en>Frank stands five meters to the left.</en>
+ <natlang>Frank stands five meters to the left.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-exercise">
<title>Finally (an exercise for the much-tried reader)</title>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-NxGB">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c10e26d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
diff --git a/todocbook/11.xml b/todocbook/11.xml
index d4a0507..0efb902 100644
--- a/todocbook/11.xml
+++ b/todocbook/11.xml
@@ -38,21 +38,21 @@
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>and abstractions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstractions</primary><secondary>grammatical uses</secondary></indexterm> The grammatical uses of an abstraction selbri are exactly the same as those of a simple brivla. In particular, abstraction selbri may be used as observatives, as in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Via0"/>, or used in tanru:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-0Ff4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e1d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. cu nu sonci kei djica</jbo>
<gloss>John is-an-(event-of being-a-soldier) type-of desirer.</gloss>
- <en>John wants to be a soldier.</en>
+ <natlang>John wants to be a soldier.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>want to be a soldier</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>descriptions</primary><secondary>and abstractions</secondary></indexterm> Abstraction selbri may also be used in descriptions, preceded by
<valsi>le</valsi> (or any other member of selma'o LE):</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sQ33">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e1d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. cu djica le nu sonci [kei]</jbo>
@@ -88,68 +88,68 @@
<valsi>le</valsi> description built on a
<valsi>nu</valsi> abstraction with ordinary descriptions based on
<valsi>le</valsi> alone. The following sumti are quite distinct:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qF0u" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e2d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le klama</jbo>
- <en>the comer, that which comes</en>
+ <natlang>the comer, that which comes</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qF0U" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e2d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le se klama</jbo>
- <en>the destination</en>
+ <natlang>the destination</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qf11" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e2d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le te klama</jbo>
- <en>the origin</en>
+ <natlang>the origin</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qf22" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e2d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ve klama</jbo>
- <en>the route</en>
+ <natlang>the route</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qf4x" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e2d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le xe klama</jbo>
- <en>the means of transportation</en>
+ <natlang>the means of transportation</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qf97" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e2d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nu klama</jbo>
- <en>the event of someone coming to somewhere from somewhere by some route using some means</en>
+ <natlang>the event of someone coming to somewhere from somewhere by some route using some means</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qF0u"/> through
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qf4x"/> are descriptions that isolate the five individual sumti places of the selbri
<valsi>klama</valsi>.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qf97"/> describes something associated with the bridi as a whole: the event of it.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>events</primary><secondary>duration</secondary></indexterm> In Lojban, the term
<quote>event</quote> is divorced from its ordinary English sense of something that happens over a short period of time. The description:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mxAt">
@@ -182,21 +182,21 @@
<xref linkend="example-random-id-BPcI"/> that ellipsis of sumti is valid in the bridi of abstraction selbri, just as in the main bridi of a sentence. Any sumti may be ellipsized if the listener will be able to figure out from context what the proper value of it is, or else to recognize that the proper value is unimportant. It is extremely common for
<valsi>nu</valsi> abstractions in descriptions to have the x1 place ellipsized:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-FRoP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e2d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci le nu limna</jbo>
<gloss>I like the event-of swimming.</gloss>
- <en>I like swimming.</en>
+ <natlang>I like swimming.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is elliptical, and most probably means:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Ys8w">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e2d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci le nu mi limna</jbo>
<gloss>I like the event-of I swim.</gloss>
@@ -210,38 +210,38 @@
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Ys8w"/>, the appearance of
<oldjbophrase>le se nelci</oldjbophrase> (
<quote>that which is liked</quote>) is in effect an abstraction:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sMsx">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e2d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le se nelci cu cafne</jbo>
<gloss>The liked-thing is-frequent.</gloss>
- <en>The thing which I like happens often.</en>
+ <natlang>The thing which I like happens often.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which in this context means</para>
<place-structure>
My swimming happens often.
</place-structure>
<para>Event descriptions with
<oldjbophrase>le nu</oldjbophrase> are commonly used to fill the
<quote>under conditions...</quote> places, among others, of gismu and lujvo place structures:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Ia6f">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e2d12"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la lojban. cu frili mi le nu mi tadni [kei]</jbo>
<gloss>Lojban is-easy for-me under-conditions-the event-of I study</gloss>
- <en>Lojban is easy for me when I study.</en>
+ <natlang>Lojban is easy for me when I study.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>under conditions</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> (The
<quote>when</quote> of the English would also be appropriate for a construction involving a Lojban tense, but the Lojban sentence says more than that the studying is concurrent with the ease.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>nu</primary><secondary>place structure</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>events</primary><secondary>place structure</secondary></indexterm> The place structure of a
<valsi>nu</valsi> abstraction selbri is simply:</para>
<place-structure>
x1 is an event of (the bridi)
</place-structure>
</section>
@@ -289,70 +289,70 @@
<quote>point-event-of</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nFR1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e3d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le mu'e la djan. catra la djim. cu zekri</jbo>
<gloss>The point-event-of (John kills Jim) is-a-crime.</gloss>
- <en>John's killing Jim (considered as a point in time) is a crime.</en>
+ <natlang>John's killing Jim (considered as a point in time) is a crime.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>pu'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>killing Jim</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstractions</primary><secondary>process</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>process abstractions</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>process abstractor</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>killing Jim</primary></indexterm> An event considered as extended in time, and structured with a beginning, a middle containing one or more stages, and an end, is called a
<quote>process</quote>. The abstractor
<valsi>pu'u</valsi> means
<quote>process-of</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-WaxD">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e3d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ca'o le pu'u le latmo balje'a cu porpi kei so'i je'atru cu selcatra</jbo>
<gloss>[continuitive] the process-of( the Latin great-state breaking-up ) many state-rulers were-killed</gloss>
- <en>During the fall of the Roman Empire, many Emperors were killed.</en>
+ <natlang>During the fall of the Roman Empire, many Emperors were killed.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>zu'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Roman Empire</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstractions</primary><secondary>activity</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>activity abstractions</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>activity abstractor</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Roman Empire</primary></indexterm> An event considered as extended in time and cyclic or repetitive is called an
<quote>activity</quote>. The abstractor
<valsi>zu'o</valsi> means
<quote>activity-of</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-89nw">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e3d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi tatpi ri'a le zu'o mi plipe</jbo>
<gloss>I am-tired because-of the activity-of (I jump).</gloss>
- <en>I am tired because I jump.</en>
+ <natlang>I am tired because I jump.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>za'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstractions</primary><secondary>state</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>state abstractions</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>state abstractor</primary></indexterm> An event considered as something that is either happening or not happening, with sharp boundaries, is called a
<quote>state</quote>. The abstractor
<valsi>za'i</valsi> means
<quote>state-of</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-WztQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e3d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le za'i mi jmive cu ckape do</jbo>
<gloss>The state-of (I am-alive) is-dangerous-to you.</gloss>
- <en>My being alive is dangerous to you.</en>
+ <natlang>My being alive is dangerous to you.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>being alive</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>event types</primary><secondary>described</secondary></indexterm> The abstractors in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-nFR1"/> through
<xref linkend="example-random-id-WztQ"/> could all have been replaced by
<valsi>nu</valsi>, with some loss of precision. Note that Lojban allows every sort of event to be viewed in any of these four ways:</para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>state event</primary><secondary>described</secondary></indexterm> the
@@ -450,67 +450,67 @@
<quote>intensions</quote>. If John has a heart, then
<quote>the property of having a heart</quote> is an abstract object which, when applied to John, is true. In fact,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-YSUx">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e4d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. cu se risna zo'e</jbo>
<gloss>John has-as-heart something-unspecified.</gloss>
- <en>John has a heart.</en>
+ <natlang>John has a heart.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>has a heart</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> has the same truth conditions as</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1PPS">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e4d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. cu ckaji le ka se risna [zo'e] [kei]</jbo>
<gloss>John has-the-property the property-of having-as-heart something.</gloss>
- <en>John has the property of having a heart.</en>
+ <natlang>John has the property of having a heart.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>having</primary><secondary>of properties</secondary></indexterm> (The English word
<quote>have</quote> frequently appears in any discussion of Lojban properties: things are said to
<quote>have</quote> properties, but this is not the same sense of
<quote>have</quote> as in
<quote>I have money</quote>, which is possession.)</para>
<para>Property descriptions, like event descriptions, are often wanted to fill places in brivla place structures:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-v3Ba">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e4d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do cnino mi le ka xunre [kei]</jbo>
<gloss>You are-new to-me in-the-quality-of-the property-of being-red.</gloss>
- <en>You are new to me in redness.</en>
+ <natlang>You are new to me in redness.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>-ity</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>-ness</primary></indexterm> (The English suffix
<quote>-ness</quote> often signals a property abstraction, as does the suffix
<quote>-ity</quote>.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>property description</primary></indexterm> We can also move the property description to the x1 place of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-v3Ba"/>, producing:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-proQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e4d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ka do xunre [kei] cu cnino mi</jbo>
<gloss>The property-of your being-red is-new to me.</gloss>
- <en>Your redness is new to me.</en>
+ <natlang>Your redness is new to me.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>beach</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sunburn</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> It would be suitable to use
<xref linkend="example-random-id-v3Ba"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-proQ"/> to someone who has returned from the beach with a sunburn.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>property abstractions</primary><secondary>specifying determining place by sumti ellipsis</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>property abstractions</primary><secondary>sumti ellipsis in</secondary></indexterm> There are several different properties that can be extracted from a bridi, depending on which place of the bridi is
<quote>understood</quote> as being specified externally. Thus:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-H71J">
@@ -535,32 +535,32 @@
<para>In particular, sentences like
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qfAM"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qfav"/> are quite different in meaning:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qfAM" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e4d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. cu zmadu la djordj. le ka mi prami</jbo>
<gloss>John exceeds George in-the property-of (I love X)</gloss>
- <en>I love John more than I love George.</en>
+ <natlang>I love John more than I love George.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>KOhA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ce'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>love more</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qfav" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e4d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. cu zmadu la djordj. le ka prami mi</jbo>
<gloss>John exceeds George in the property of (X loves me).</gloss>
- <en>John loves me more than George loves me.</en>
+ <natlang>John loves me more than George loves me.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>property abstractions</primary><secondary>specifying determining place with ce'u</secondary></indexterm> The
<quote>X</quote> used in the glosses of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qfAM"/> through
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qfav"/> as a place-holder cannot be represented only by ellipsis in Lojban, because ellipsis means that there must be a specific value that can fill the ellipsis, as mentioned in
<xref linkend="section-events"/>. Instead, the cmavo
<valsi>ce'u</valsi> of selma'o KOhA is employed when an explicit sumti is wanted. (The form
<quote>X</quote> will be used in literal translations.)</para>
@@ -599,33 +599,33 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>giving the horse</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> into</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1vc4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e4d12"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ka ce'u dunda le xirma [zo'e] [kei]</jbo>
<gloss>the property-of (X is-a-giver of-the horse to someone-unspecified)</gloss>
- <en>the property of being a giver of the horse</en>
+ <natlang>the property of being a giver of the horse</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which is the most natural interpretation of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-GiJp"/>, versus</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rDtg">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e4d13"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ka [zo'e] dunda le xirma ce'u [kei]</jbo>
<gloss>the property-of (someone-unspecified is-a-giver of-the horse to X)</gloss>
- <en>the property of being one to whom the horse is given</en>
+ <natlang>the property of being one to whom the horse is given</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which is also a possible interpretation.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>property abstractions</primary><secondary>use of multiple ce'u for relationship abstraction</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relationship abstraction</primary></indexterm> It is also possible to have more than one
<valsi>ce'u</valsi> in a
<valsi>ka</valsi> abstraction, which transforms it from a property abstraction into a relationship abstraction. Relationship abstractions
<quote>package up</quote> a complex relationship for future use; such an abstraction can be translated back into a selbri by placing it in the x2 place of the selbri
@@ -656,21 +656,21 @@
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>Amount abstractions are far more limited than event or property abstractions. They really make sense only if the selbri of the abstracted bridi is subject to measurement of some sort. Thus we can speak of:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-QW2C">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e5d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ni le pixra cu blanu [kei]</jbo>
<gloss>the amount-of (the picture being-blue)</gloss>
- <en>the amount of blueness in the picture</en>
+ <natlang>the amount of blueness in the picture</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>because
<quote>blueness</quote> could be measured with a colorimeter or a similar device. However,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-FyL4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e5d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -686,48 +686,48 @@
<oldjbophrase>le ni</oldjbophrase> is a number; however, it cannot be treated grammatically as a quantifier in Lojban unless prefixed by the mathematical cmavo
<valsi>mo'e</valsi>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-SaTi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e5d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li pa vu'u mo'e le ni le pixra cu blanu [kei]</jbo>
<gloss>the-number 1 minus the-operand the amount-of (the picture being-blue)</gloss>
- <en><inlinemath>1 - B</inlinemath>, where <varname>B</varname> = blueness of the picture</en>
+ <natlang><inlinemath>1 - B</inlinemath>, where <varname>B</varname> = blueness of the picture</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Mathematical Lojban is beyond the scope of this chapter, and is explained more fully in
<xref linkend="chapter-mekso"/>.</para>
<para>There are contexts where either property or amount abstractions make sense, and in such constructions, amount abstractions can make use of
<valsi>ce'u</valsi> just like property abstractors. Thus,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1LtX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e5d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le pixra cu cenba le ka ce'u blanu [kei]</jbo>
<gloss>The picture varies in-the property-of (X is blue).</gloss>
<gloss>The picture varies in being blue.</gloss>
- <en>The picture varies in blueness.</en>
+ <natlang>The picture varies in blueness.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is not the same as</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-QKpo">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e5d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le pixra cu cenba le ni ce'u blanu [kei]</jbo>
<gloss>The picture varies in-the amount-of (X is blue).</gloss>
<gloss>The picture varies in how blue it is.</gloss>
- <en>The picture varies in blueness.</en>
+ <natlang>The picture varies in blueness.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-1LtX"/> conveys that the blueness comes and goes, whereas
<xref linkend="example-random-id-QKpo"/> conveys that its quantity changes over time.</para>
<para>Whenever we talk of measurement of an amount, there is some sort of scale, and so the place structure of
<valsi>ni</valsi> abstraction selbri is:</para>
<place-structure>
ni: x1 is the amount of (the bridi) on scale x2
</place-structure>
@@ -745,47 +745,47 @@
<valsi>jei</valsi>, which is closely related semantically to
<valsi>ni</valsi>. In the simplest cases,
<oldjbophrase>le jei</oldjbophrase> produces not a number but a truth value:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KuTE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e6d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le jei li re su'i re du li vo [kei]</jbo>
<gloss>the truth-value-of the-number 2 + 2 = the-number 4</gloss>
- <en>the truth of 2 + 2 being 4</en>
+ <natlang>the truth of 2 + 2 being 4</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>2 + 2</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> is equivalent to
<quote>truth</quote>, and</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nYY2">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e6d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le jei li re su'i re du li mu [kei]</jbo>
<gloss>the truth-value-of the-number 2 + 2 = the-number 5</gloss>
- <en>the truth of 2 + 2 being 5</en>
+ <natlang>the truth of 2 + 2 being 5</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is equivalent to
<quote>falsehood</quote>.</para>
<para>However, not everything in life (or even in Lojban) is simply true or false. There are shades of gray even in truth value, and
<valsi>jei</valsi> is Lojban's mechanism for indicating the shade of grey intended:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-MRD8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e6d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ba jdice le jei la djordj. cu zekri gasnu [kei]</jbo>
<gloss>I [future] decide the truth-value of (George being-a-(crime doer)).</gloss>
- <en>I will decide whether George is a criminal.</en>
+ <natlang>I will decide whether George is a criminal.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>whether criminal</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>jei</primary><secondary>place structure</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>truth-value abstractions</primary><secondary>place structure</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>legal system</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-MRD8"/> does not imply that George is, or is not, definitely a criminal. Depending on the legal system I am using, I may make some intermediate decision. As a result,
<valsi>jei</valsi> requires an x2 place analogous to that of
<valsi>ni</valsi>:</para>
<place-structure>
jei: x1 is the truth value of (the bridi) under epistemology x2
</place-structure>
@@ -818,118 +818,118 @@
<para>I know that Frank is a fool.</para>
</example>
<para>How's that in Lojban? Let us try:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-brpf">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e7d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo valid="iffy">mi djuno le nu la frank. cu bebna [kei]</jbo>
- <en>I know the event of Frank being a fool.</en>
+ <natlang>I know the event of Frank being a fool.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mental activity</primary></indexterm> Not quite right. Events are actually or potentially physical, and can't be contained inside one's mind, except for events of thinking, feeling, and the like;
<xref linkend="example-random-id-brpf"/> comes close to claiming that Frank's being-a-fool is purely a mental activity on the part of the speaker. (In fact,
<xref linkend="example-random-id-brpf"/> is an instance of improperly marked
<quote>sumti raising</quote>, a concept discussed further in
<xref linkend="section-sumti-raising"/>).</para>
<para>Try again:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-oCgP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e7d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi djuno le jei la frank. cu bebna [kei]</jbo>
- <en>I know the truth-value of Frank being a fool.</en>
+ <natlang>I know the truth-value of Frank being a fool.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Closer.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-oCgP"/> says that I know whether or not Frank is a fool, but doesn't say that he is one, as
<xref linkend="example-random-id-7N2q"/> does. To catch that nuance, we must say:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>NU selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>du'u</primary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-6p1K">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e7d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi djuno le du'u la frank. cu bebna [kei]</jbo>
- <en>I know the predication that Frank is a fool.</en>
+ <natlang>I know the predication that Frank is a fool.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Now we have it. Note that the implied assertion
<quote>Frank is a fool</quote> is not a property of
<oldjbophrase>le du'u</oldjbophrase> abstraction, but of
<valsi>djuno</valsi>; we can only know what is in fact true. (As a result,
<valsi>djuno</valsi> like
<valsi>jei</valsi> has a place for epistemology, which specifies how we know.)
<xref linkend="example-random-id-eYiD"/> has no such implied assertion:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-eYiD">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e7d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi kucli le du'u la frank. cu bebna [kei]</jbo>
- <en>I am curious about whether Frank is a fool.</en>
+ <natlang>I am curious about whether Frank is a fool.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Frank is a fool</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>curious</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>curious</primary></indexterm> and here
<valsi>du'u</valsi> could probably be replaced by
<valsi>jei</valsi> without much change in meaning:</para>
<para>FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-h4De">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e7d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi kucli le jei la frank. cu bebna [kei]</jbo>
- <en>I am curious about how true it is that Frank is a fool.</en>
+ <natlang>I am curious about how true it is that Frank is a fool.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>truth-value abstractions</primary><secondary>place structure</secondary></indexterm> As a matter of convenience rather than logical necessity,
<valsi>du'u</valsi> has been given an x2 place, which is a sentence (piece of language) expressing the bridi:</para>
<place-structure>
du'u: x1 is the predication (the bridi), expressed in sentence x2
</place-structure>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstractions</primary><secondary>speaking</secondary><tertiary>writing, etc.</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>se du'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>linguistic behavior</primary></indexterm> and
<oldjbophrase>le se du'u ...</oldjbophrase> is very useful in filling places of selbri which refer to speaking, writing, or other linguistic behavior regarding bridi:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hzd8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e7d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. cusku le se du'u la djordj. klama le zarci [kei]</jbo>
<gloss>John expresses the sentence-expressing-that George goes-to the store</gloss>
- <en>John says that George goes to the store.</en>
+ <natlang>John says that George goes to the store.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>quotation</primary><secondary>contrasted with sentence abstraction</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstraction of sentences</primary><secondary>contrasted with quotation</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-hzd8"/> differs from</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-AX2I">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e7d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan cusku lu la djordj. klama le zarci li'u</jbo>
<gloss>John expresses, quote, George goes to the store, unquote.</gloss>
- <en>John says
- <quote>George goes to the store</quote>.</en>
+ <natlang>John says
+ <quote>George goes to the store</quote>.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>because
<xref linkend="example-random-id-AX2I"/> claims that John actually said the quoted words, whereas
<xref linkend="example-random-id-hzd8"/> claims only that he said some words or other which were to the same purpose.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>lu'e</primary></indexterm>
<oldjbophrase>le se du'u</oldjbophrase> is much the same as
<oldjbophrase>lu'e le du'u</oldjbophrase>, a symbol for the predication, but
<oldjbophrase>se du'u</oldjbophrase> can be used as a selbri, whereas
<valsi>lu'e</valsi> is ungrammatical in a selbri. (See
@@ -999,23 +999,23 @@
<valsi>da</valsi> or even
<oldjbophrase>la djan.</oldjbophrase>. Using
<oldjbophrase>la djan.</oldjbophrase> would suggest that it was John who I knew had gone to the store, however:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hmDo">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e8d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi djuno le du'u la djan. kau pu klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I know the predication-of/fact-that John [indirect question] [past] going to the store.</gloss>
- <en>I know who went to the store, namely John.</en>
+ <natlang>I know who went to the store, namely John.</natlang>
- <en>I know that it was John who went to the store.</en>
+ <natlang>I know that it was John who went to the store.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Using one of the indefinite pro-sumti such as
<valsi>ma</valsi>,
<valsi>zo'e</valsi>, or
<valsi>da</valsi> does not suggest any particular value.</para>
<para>Why does Lojban require the
<valsi>kau</valsi> marker, rather than using
@@ -1042,35 +1042,35 @@
<valsi>kau</valsi> at all if the indirect question involves a sumti; there is generally a paraphrase of the type:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-b6VT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e8d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi djuno fi le pu klama be le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I know about the [past] goer to-the store.</gloss>
- <en>I know something about the one who went to the store (namely, his identity).</en>
+ <natlang>I know something about the one who went to the store (namely, his identity).</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>because the x3 place of
<valsi>djuno</valsi> is the subject of knowledge, as opposed to the fact that is known. But when the questioned point is not a sumti, but (say) a logical connection, then there is no good alternative to
<valsi>kau</valsi>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2nIX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e8d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ba zgana le du'u la djan. jikau la djordj. cu zvati le panka</jbo>
<gloss>I [future] observe the predication-of/fact-that John [connective indirect question] George is-at the park.</gloss>
- <en>I will see whether John or George (or both) is at the park.</en>
+ <natlang>I will see whether John or George (or both) is at the park.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In addition,
<xref linkend="example-random-id-b6VT"/> is only a loose paraphrase of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-QUxG"/>, because it is left to the listener's insight to realize that what is known about the goer-to-the-store is his identity rather than some other of his attributes.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-minor-abstractions">
<title>Minor abstraction types</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
@@ -1121,21 +1121,21 @@
<valsi>su'u</valsi> is a vague abstractor, whose meaning must be grasped from context:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ycKt">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e9d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ko zgana le su'u le ci smacu cu bajra</jbo>
<gloss>you [imperative] observe the abstract-nature-of the three mice running</gloss>
- <en>See how the three mice run!</en>
+ <natlang>See how the three mice run!</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>mice</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>experience abstractions</primary><secondary>place structure</secondary></indexterm> All three of these abstractors have an x2 place. An experience requires an experiencer, so the place structure of
<valsi>li'i</valsi> is:</para>
<place-structure>
<valsi>li'i</valsi>: x1 is the experience of (the bridi) as experienced by x2
@@ -1174,21 +1174,21 @@
</example>
<para>and there is a book whose title might be rendered in Lojban as:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>bicycle race</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Jesus</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>intersect</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Jesus</primary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-5Kw7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e9d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le su'u la .iecuas. kuctai selcatra kei be lo sa'ordzifa'a ke nalmatma'e sutyterjvi</jbo>
<gloss>the abstract-nature-of (Jesus is-an-intersect-shape type-of-killed-one) of-type a slope-low-direction type-of non-motor-vehicle speed-competition</gloss>
- <en>The Crucifixion of Jesus Considered As A Downhill Bicycle Race</en>
+ <natlang>The Crucifixion of Jesus Considered As A Downhill Bicycle Race</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note the importance of using
<valsi>kei</valsi> after
<valsi>su'u</valsi> when the x2 of
<valsi>su'u</valsi> (or any other abstractor) is being specified; otherwise, the
<oldjbophrase>be lo</oldjbophrase> ends up inside the abstraction bridi.</para>
</section>
@@ -1294,48 +1294,48 @@
<valsi>jai</valsi> (of selma'o JAI). This cmavo has more than one function, discussed in
<xref linkend="section-modal-jai"/> and
<xref linkend="section-jai"/>; for the purposes of this chapter, it operates as a conversion of selbri, similarly to the cmavo of selma'o SE. This conversion changes</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-jAdY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e10d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>tu'a mi rinka le nu do morsi</jbo>
<gloss>something-to-do-with me causes the event-of you are-dead</gloss>
- <en>My action causes your death.</en>
+ <natlang>My action causes your death.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>cause death</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> into</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-R8SN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e10d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi jai rinka le nu do morsi</jbo>
<gloss>I am-associated-with causing the event-of your death.</gloss>
- <en>I cause your death.</en>
+ <natlang>I cause your death.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In English, the subject of
<quote>cause</quote> can either be the actual cause (an event), or else the agent of the cause (a person, typically); not so in Lojban, where the x1 of
<valsi>rinka</valsi> is always an event.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-jAdY"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-R8SN"/> look equally convenient (or inconvenient), but in making descriptions,
<xref linkend="example-random-id-R8SN"/> can be altered to:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Jt1n">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e10d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le jai rinka be le nu do morsi</jbo>
<gloss>that-which-is associated-with causing (the event-of your death)</gloss>
- <en>the one who caused your death</en>
+ <natlang>the one who caused your death</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>because
<valsi>jai</valsi> modifies the selbri and can be incorporated into the description – not so for
<valsi>tu'a</valsi>.</para>
<para>The weakness of
<valsi>jai</valsi> used in descriptions in this way is that it does not specify which argument of the implicit abstraction is being raised into the x1 place of the description selbri. One can be more specific by using the modal form of
<valsi>jai</valsi> explained in
<xref linkend="section-modal-jai"/>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-LPbo">
@@ -1449,21 +1449,21 @@
<jbo>le ka la frank. ciska cu xlali .ije le ni la frank. ciska cu xlali</jbo>
<gloss>The quality-of Frank's writing is bad, and the quantity of Frank's writing is bad.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qFdz" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c11e12d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ka je ni la frank. ciska cu xlali</jbo>
- <en>The quality and quantity of Frank's writing is bad.</en>
+ <natlang>The quality and quantity of Frank's writing is bad.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This feature of Lojban has hardly ever been used, and nobody knows what uses it may eventually have.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-summary">
<title>Table of abstractors</title>
<para>The following table gives each abstractor, an English gloss for it, a Lojban gismu which is connected with it (more or less remotely: the associations between abstractors and gismu are meant more as memory hooks than for any kind of inference), the rafsi associated with it, and (on the following line) its place structure.</para> <!-- WILL the place structure be on the following line? -->
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
diff --git a/todocbook/12.xml b/todocbook/12.xml
index 64ac227..43805f7 100644
--- a/todocbook/12.xml
+++ b/todocbook/12.xml
@@ -378,68 +378,68 @@
</title>
<para><place-structure>z1 is the house dwelt in by dog z2=g1</place-structure></para>
</example>
<para>Informally put, the reason this has happened – and it happens a lot with seltau places – is that the third place was describing not the doghouse, but the dog who lives in it. The sentence</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PI6B">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e6d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la mon. rePOS. gerzda la spat.</jbo>
- <en>Mon Repos is a doghouse of Spot.</en>
+ <natlang>Mon Repos is a doghouse of Spot.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Mon Repos</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> really means</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-73x9">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e6d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la mon. rePOS. zdani la spat. noi gerku</jbo>
- <en>Mon Repos is a house of Spot, who is a dog.</en>
+ <natlang>Mon Repos is a house of Spot, who is a dog.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>since that is the interpretation we have given
<oldjbophrase>gerzda</oldjbophrase>. But that in turn means</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>unspecified breed</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-wc69">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e6d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la mon. rePOS. zdani la spat noi ke'a gerku zo'e</jbo>
- <en>Mon Repos is a house of Spot, who is a dog of unspecified breed.</en>
+ <natlang>Mon Repos is a house of Spot, who is a dog of unspecified breed.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Specifically,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KqrV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e6d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la mon. rePOS. zdani la spat. noi ke'a gerku la sankt. berNARD.</jbo>
- <en>Mon Repos is a house of Spot, who is a dog of breed St. Bernard.</en>
+ <natlang>Mon Repos is a house of Spot, who is a dog of breed St. Bernard.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and in that case, it makes little sense to say</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-yXR0">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e6d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la mon. rePOS. gerzda la spat. noi ke'a gerku la sankt. berNARD. ku'o la sankt. berNARD.</jbo>
- <en>Mon Repos is a doghouse of Spot, who is a dog of breed St. Bernard, of breed St. Bernard.</en>
+ <natlang>Mon Repos is a doghouse of Spot, who is a dog of breed St. Bernard, of breed St. Bernard.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>supplementary information</primary></indexterm> employing the over-ample place structure of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Wx42"/>. The dog breed is redundantly given both in the main selbri and in the relative clause, and (intuitively speaking) is repeated in the wrong place, since the dog breed is supplementary information about the dog, and not about the doghouse.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>beetle</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> As a further example, take
<oldjbophrase>cakcinki</oldjbophrase>, the lujvo for
<quote>beetle</quote>, based on the tanru
<oldjbophrase>calku cinki</oldjbophrase>, or
@@ -838,21 +838,21 @@
<oldjbophrase>zernerkla</oldjbophrase>, meaning
<quote>to sneak in</quote>, almost certainly was formed from the veljvo</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-aXrm">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e11d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>zekri ke nenri klama [ke'e]</jbo>
<gloss>crime ( inside go )</gloss>
- <en>to go within, criminally</en>
+ <natlang>to go within, criminally</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>because the alternative,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-xAYJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e11d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>[ke] zekri nenri [ke'e] klama</jbo>
<gloss>(crime inside) go</gloss>
@@ -1053,21 +1053,21 @@
<para>There is also a rafsi for the cmavo
<valsi>jai</valsi>, namely
<oldjbophrase>jax</oldjbophrase>, which allows sentences like</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-jWYr">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e12d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi jai rinka le nu do morsi</jbo>
<gloss>I am-associated-with causing the event-of your death.</gloss>
- <en>I cause your death.</en>
+ <natlang>I cause your death.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>explained in
<xref linkend="section-sumti-raising"/>, to be rendered with lujvo:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Wrpr">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e12d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi jaxri'a le nu do morsi</jbo>
@@ -1473,42 +1473,42 @@
<oldjbophrase>citno zmadu</oldjbophrase>, meaning
<quote>young more-than</quote>).</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-GDt1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e15d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi citmau do lo nanca be li xa</jbo>
<gloss>I am-younger-than you by-years the-number six.</gloss>
- <en>I am six years younger than you.</en>
+ <natlang>I am six years younger than you.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The place structure for
<oldjbophrase>citmau</oldjbophrase> is</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-I3Uh">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e15d4"/>
</title>
<para><place-structure>z1=c1 is younger than z2=c1 by amount z4</place-structure></para>
</example>
<para>Similarly, in Lojban you can say:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-tJDa">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e15d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do citme'a mi lo nanca be li xa</jbo>
<gloss>You are-less-young-than me by-years the-number six.</gloss>
- <en>You are six years less young than me.</en>
+ <natlang>You are six years less young than me.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In English,
<quote>more</quote> comparatives are easier to make and use than
<quote>less</quote> comparatives, but in Lojban the two forms are equally easy.</para>
<para>Because of their much simpler place structure, lujvo ending in
<rafsi>-mau</rafsi> and
@@ -1585,21 +1585,21 @@
<gloss>I now am-stronger.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which implies that I'm currently stronger than somebody else (the elided occupant of the second or z2 place), but as</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-vR4J">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e15d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ca tsaze'a</jbo>
- <en>I increase in strength.</en>
+ <natlang>I increase in strength.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Finally, lujvo with a tertau of
<valsi>traji</valsi> are used to build superlatives. The place structure of
<valsi>traji</valsi> is</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-N3cU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e15d9"/>
</title>
<para><place-structure>t1 is superlative in property t2, being the t3 extremum (largest by default) of set t4</place-structure></para>
@@ -1640,31 +1640,31 @@
<valsi>traji</valsi> is compared is not the t2 place (which would make the place structure of
<valsi>traji</valsi> fully parallel to that of
<valsi>zmadu</valsi>), but rather the t4 place. Nevertheless, by a special exception to the rules of place ordering, the t4 place of
<valsi>traji</valsi>-based lujvo becomes the second place of the lujvo. Some examples:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qFf1" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e15d13"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djudis. cu citrai lo'i lobypli</jbo>
- <en>Judy is the youngest of all Lojbanists.</en>
+ <natlang>Judy is the youngest of all Lojbanists.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qFf4" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c12e15d14"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .ainctain. cu balrai lo'i skegunka</jbo>
- <en>Einstein was the greatest of all scientists.</en>
+ <natlang>Einstein was the greatest of all scientists.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-gismu-place-structures">
<title>Notes on gismu place structures</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>place structure</primary><secondary>gismu</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>place structures</secondary></indexterm> Unlike the place structures of lujvo, the place structures of gismu were assigned in a far less systematic way through a detailed case-by-case analysis and repeated reviews with associated changes. (The gismu list is now baselined, so no further changes are contemplated.) Nevertheless, certain regularities were imposed both in the choice of places and in the ordering of places which may be helpful to the learner and the lujvo-maker, and which are therefore discussed here.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>place structures</secondary><tertiary>rationale</tertiary></indexterm> The choice of gismu places results from the varying outcome of four different pressures: brevity, convenience, metaphysical necessity, and regularity. (These are also to some extent the underlying factors in the lujvo place structures generated by the methods of this chapter.) The implications of each are roughly as follows:</para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
diff --git a/todocbook/13.xml b/todocbook/13.xml
index fd9b3e7..23023c6 100644
--- a/todocbook/13.xml
+++ b/todocbook/13.xml
@@ -445,21 +445,21 @@
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>Here are some examples:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qFJV" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e2d15"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.ii smacu</jbo>
<gloss>[Fear!] [Observative:] a-mouse</gloss>
- <en>Eek! A mouse!</en>
+ <natlang>Eek! A mouse!</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qfK3" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e2d16"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. .iu klama</jbo>
<gloss>John [love!] is coming.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -575,87 +575,87 @@
<para>Some examples (of a parental kind):</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qfLc" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e3d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.a'a do zgana le veltivni</jbo>
<gloss>[attentive] you observe the television-receiver.</gloss>
- <en>I'm noticing that you are watching the TV.</en>
+ <natlang>I'm noticing that you are watching the TV.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qfMa" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e3d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.a'enai do ranji bacru</jbo>
<gloss>[exhaustion] you continuously utter.</gloss>
- <en>I'm worn out by your continuous talking.</en>
+ <natlang>I'm worn out by your continuous talking.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qFmF" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e3d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.ai mi benji do le ckana</jbo>
<gloss>[intent] I transfer you to-the bed.</gloss>
- <en>I'm putting you to bed.</en>
+ <natlang>I'm putting you to bed.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qfnb" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e3d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.a'i mi ba gasnu le nu do cikna binxo</jbo>
<gloss>[effort] I [future] am-the-actor-in the event-of you awake-ly become.</gloss>
- <en>It'll be hard for me to wake you up.</en>
+ <natlang>It'll be hard for me to wake you up.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qFPm" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e3d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.a'o mi kanryze'a ca le bavlamdei</jbo>
<gloss>[hope] I am-health-increased at-time the future-adjacent-day.</gloss>
- <en>I hope I feel better tomorrow!</en>
+ <natlang>I hope I feel better tomorrow!</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qfPV" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e3d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.au mi sipna</jbo>
<gloss>[desire] I sleep.</gloss>
- <en>I want to sleep.</en>
+ <natlang>I want to sleep.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qFpy" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e3d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.a'ucu'i do pante</jbo>
<gloss>[no interest] you complain</gloss>
- <en>I have no interest in your complaints.</en>
+ <natlang>I have no interest in your complaints.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>.a'ucu'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>.au</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>.a'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>.a'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>.ai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>.a'enai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>.a'a</primary></indexterm> (In a real-life situation, Examples 3.1-3.7 would also be decorated by various pure emotion indicators, certainly including
<oldjbophrase>.oicai</oldjbophrase>, but probably also
<oldjbophrase>.iucai</oldjbophrase>.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>attitudinals</primary><secondary>rationale for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>attitudinals</primary><secondary>contrasted with bridi</secondary></indexterm> Splitting off the attitude into an indicator allows the regular bridi grammar to do what it does best: express the relationships between concepts that are intended, desired, hoped for, or whatever. Rephrasing these examples to express the attitude as the main selbri would make for unacceptably heavyweight grammar.</para>
<para>Here are the propositional attitude indicators beginning with
<letteral>e</letteral>, which stand roughly in the relation to those beginning with
<letteral>a</letteral> as the pure-emotion indicators beginning with
<letteral>o</letteral> do to those beginning with
@@ -696,64 +696,64 @@
</cmavo-list>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>after sleep</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> More examples (after a good night's sleep):</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qFQ7" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e3d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.e'a do sazri le karce</jbo>
<gloss>[permission] You drive the car.</gloss>
- <en>Sure, you can drive the car.</en>
+ <natlang>Sure, you can drive the car.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qFR1" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e3d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.e'e mi lifri tu'a do</jbo>
<gloss>[competence] I experience something-related-to you</gloss>
- <en>I feel up to dealing with you.</en>
+ <natlang>I feel up to dealing with you.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qfS1" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e3d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.ei mi tisygau le karce ctilyvau</jbo>
<gloss>[obligation] I fill the car-type-of petroleum-container.</gloss>
- <en>I should fill the car's gas tank.</en>
+ <natlang>I should fill the car's gas tank.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qfS7" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e3d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.e'o ko ko kurji</jbo>
<gloss>[request] You-imperative of-you-imperative take-care.</gloss>
- <en>Please take care of yourself!</en>
+ <natlang>Please take care of yourself!</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qFSC" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e3d12"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.e'u do klama le panka</jbo>
<gloss>[suggestion] You go to-the park.</gloss>
- <en>I suggest going to the park.</en>
+ <natlang>I suggest going to the park.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>.e'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>.e'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>.ei</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>.e'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>.e'a</primary></indexterm> Finally, the propositional attitude indicators beginning with
<letteral>i</letteral>, which are the overflow from the other sets:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>.ia</cmavo>
<attitudinal-scale point="sai">belief</attitudinal-scale>
<attitudinal-scale point="cu'i">skepticism</attitudinal-scale>
<attitudinal-scale point="nai">disbelief</attitudinal-scale>
@@ -777,72 +777,72 @@
</cmavo-list>
<para>Still more examples (much, much later):</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qfSU" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e3d13"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.ianai do pu pensi le nu tcica mi</jbo>
<gloss>[disbelief] You [past] think the event-of deceiving me.</gloss>
- <en>I can't believe you thought you could fool me.</en>
+ <natlang>I can't believe you thought you could fool me.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qfT6" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e3d14"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do .i'anai na xruti do le zdani</jbo>
<gloss>You [blame] did-not return you to-the house</gloss>
- <en>I blame you for not coming home.</en>
+ <natlang>I blame you for not coming home.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qftC" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e3d15"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.ie mi na cusku lu'e le tcika be le nu xruti</jbo>
<gloss>[agreement] I did-not express a-symbol-for the time-of-day of the event-of (you return)</gloss>
- <en>It's true I didn't tell you when to come back.</en>
+ <natlang>It's true I didn't tell you when to come back.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qFU7" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e3d16"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.i'enai do .i'e zukte</jbo>
<gloss>[disapproval] you [approval] act</gloss>
- <en>I don't approve of what you did, but I approve of you.</en>
+ <natlang>I don't approve of what you did, but I approve of you.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>.i'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>.i'enai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>.ie</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>.i'anai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>.ianai</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qFU7"/> illustrates the use of a propositional attitude indicator,
<valsi>i'e</valsi>, in both the usual sense (at the beginning of the bridi) and as a pure emotion (attached to
<valsi>do</valsi>). The event expressed by the main bridi is disapproved of by the speaker, but the referent of the sumti in the x1 place (namely the listener) is approved of.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>attitudinal</primary><secondary>signaling as non-propositional</secondary></indexterm> To indicate that an attitudinal discussed in this section is not meant to indicate a propositional attitude, the simplest expedient is to split the attitudinal off into a separate sentence. Thus, a version of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qFQ7"/> which actually claimed that the listener was or would be driving the car might be:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-96qq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e3d17"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do sazri le karce .i .e'a</jbo>
<gloss>You drive the car. [Permission].</gloss>
- <en>You're driving (or will drive) the car, and that's fine.</en>
+ <natlang>You're driving (or will drive) the car, and that's fine.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-intensity-scale">
<title>Attitudes as scales</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>attitudinals</primary><secondary>neutral</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>attitudinals</primary><secondary>negative</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>attitudinals</primary><secondary>positive</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>attitudinals</primary><secondary>scale of</secondary></indexterm> In Lojban, all emotions and attitudes are scales. These scales run from some extreme value (which we'll call
<quote>positive</quote>) to an opposite extreme (which we'll call
<quote>negative</quote>). In the tables above, we have seen three points on the scale:
<quote>positive</quote>, neutral, and
<quote>negative</quote>. The terms
@@ -904,73 +904,73 @@
<valsi>pei</valsi> (see
<xref linkend="section-questions-empathy-contours"/>) to indicate that the emotion is not felt.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>attitudinal</primary><secondary>example of scale effect</secondary></indexterm> The following shows the variations resulting from intensity variation:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qfUc" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e4d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.ei</jbo>
- <en>I ought to (a non-specific obligation)</en>
+ <natlang>I ought to (a non-specific obligation)</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qFUR" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e4d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.eicai</jbo>
- <en>I shall/must (an intense obligation or requirement, possibly a formal one)</en>
+ <natlang>I shall/must (an intense obligation or requirement, possibly a formal one)</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qfuy" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e4d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.eisai</jbo>
- <en>I should (a strong obligation or necessity, possibly an implied but not formal requirement)</en>
+ <natlang>I should (a strong obligation or necessity, possibly an implied but not formal requirement)</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qfvL" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e4d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.eiru'e</jbo>
- <en>I might (a weak obligation – in English often mixed with permission and desire)</en>
+ <natlang>I might (a weak obligation – in English often mixed with permission and desire)</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qfvn" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e4d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.eicu'i</jbo>
- <en>No matter (no particular obligation)</en>
+ <natlang>No matter (no particular obligation)</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qFw3" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e4d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.einai</jbo>
- <en>I need not (a non-obligation)</en>
+ <natlang>I need not (a non-obligation)</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>.einai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>.eicu'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>.eiru'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>.eisai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>.eicai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>.ei</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>formal requirement</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>attitudinal scale</primary><secondary>stand-alone usage</secondary></indexterm> You can also utter a scale indicator without a specific emotion. This is often used in the language: in order to emphasize a point about which you feel strongly, you mark what you are saying with the scale indicator
<valsi>cai</valsi>. You could also indicate that you don't care using
<valsi>cu'i</valsi> by itself.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-attitudinal-space">
<title>The space of emotions</title>
@@ -1174,67 +1174,67 @@
<oldjbophrase>doi ga'inai</oldjbophrase>, which can be appended to a statement addressed to a social superior.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Ercd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e7d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ko ga'inai nenri klama le mi zdani</jbo>
<gloss>You-imperative [low-rank!] enter-type-of come-to my house.</gloss>
- <en>I would be honored if you would enter my residence.</en>
+ <natlang>I would be honored if you would enter my residence.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>imperatives</primary><secondary>attitude</secondary></indexterm> Note that imperatives in Lojban need not be imperious! Corresponding examples with
<oldjbophrase>ga'icu'i</oldjbophrase> and
<oldjbophrase>ga'inai</oldjbophrase>:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qfWn" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e7d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ko ga'icu'i nenri klama le mi zdani</jbo>
<gloss>You-imperative [equal-rank!] enter-type-of come-to my house.</gloss>
- <en>Come on in to my place.</en>
+ <natlang>Come on in to my place.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qfwV" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e7d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ko ga'i nenri klama le mi zdani</jbo>
<gloss>You-imperative [high-rank!] enter-type-of come-to my house.</gloss>
- <en>You! Get inside!</en>
+ <natlang>You! Get inside!</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Since
<valsi>ga'i</valsi> expresses the relative rank of the speaker and the referent, it does not make much sense to attach it to
<valsi>mi</valsi>, unless the speaker is using
<valsi>mi</valsi> to refer to a group (as in English
<quote>we</quote>), or a past or future version of himself with a different rank.</para>
<para>It is also possible to attach
<valsi>ga'i</valsi> to a whole bridi, in which case it expresses the speaker's superiority to the event the bridi refers to:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-wgDV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e7d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ga'i le xarju pu citka</jbo>
<gloss>[High-rank!] the pig [past] eats</gloss>
- <en>The pig ate (which is an event beneath my notice).</en>
+ <natlang>The pig ate (which is an event beneath my notice).</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ga'icai</primary></indexterm> When used without being attached to any bridi,
<valsi>ga'i</valsi> expresses the speaker's superiority to things in general, which may represent an absolute social rank:
<oldjbophrase>ga'icai</oldjbophrase> is an appropriate opening word for an emperor's address from the throne.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>le'o</primary></indexterm> The cmavo
<valsi>le'o</valsi> represents the scale of aggressiveness. We seldom overtly recognize that we are feeling aggressive or defensive, but perhaps in counseling sessions, a psychologist might encourage someone to express these feelings on this scale. And football teams could be urged on by their coach using
@@ -1258,31 +1258,31 @@
<valsi>se'i</valsi> expresses the difference between selfishness and generosity, for example (in combination with
<diphthong>.au</diphthong>):</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qFxm" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e7d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.ause'i</jbo>
<gloss>[desire] [self]</gloss>
- <en>I want it!</en>
+ <natlang>I want it!</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qfXq" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e7d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.ause'inai</jbo>
<gloss>[desire] [other]</gloss>
- <en>I want you to have it!</en>
+ <natlang>I want you to have it!</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In both cases, the English
<quote>it</quote> is vague, reflecting the absence of a bridi.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qFxm"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qfXq"/> are pure expressions of attitude. Analogously,
<oldjbophrase>.uuse'i</oldjbophrase> is self-pity, whereas
<oldjbophrase>.uuse'inai</oldjbophrase> is pity for someone else.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ri'e</primary></indexterm> The modifier
@@ -1346,59 +1346,59 @@
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>se'a</primary></indexterm> Lastly, the modifier
<valsi>se'a</valsi> shows whether the feeling is associated with self-sufficiency or with dependence on others.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4S14">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e7d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.e'ese'a</jbo>
<gloss>[I can!] [self-sufficient!]</gloss>
- <en>I can do it all by myself!</en>
+ <natlang>I can do it all by myself!</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is something a Lojban-speaking child might say. On the other hand,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Arv2">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e7d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.e'ese'anai</jbo>
<gloss>[I can!] [dependent]</gloss>
- <en>I can do it if you help me.</en>
+ <natlang>I can do it if you help me.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>from the same child would indicate a (hopefully temporary) loss of self-confidence. It is also possible to negate the
<valsi>e'e</valsi> in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Pwuv"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-K4aV"/>, leading to:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-stdV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e7d12"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.e'enaise'a</jbo>
<gloss>[I can't!] [self-sufficient]</gloss>
- <en>I can't do it if you insist on
- <quote>helping</quote> me!</en>
+ <natlang>I can't do it if you insist on
+ <quote>helping</quote> me!</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-TIjf">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e7d13"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.e'enaise'anai</jbo>
<gloss>[I can't!] [dependent]</gloss>
- <en>I can't do it by myself!</en>
+ <natlang>I can't do it by myself!</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>attitudinals</primary><secondary>complexity</secondary></indexterm> Some of the emotional expressions may seem too complicated to use. They might be for most circumstances. It is likely that most combinations will never get used. But if one person uses one of these expressions, another person can understand (as unambiguously as the expresser intends) what emotion is being expressed. Most probably as the system becomes well-known and internalized by Lojban-speakers, particular attitudinal combinations will come to be standard expressions (if not cliches) of emotion.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-compound-attitudinals">
<title>Compound indicators</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>indicators</primary><secondary>meaning when compounded</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>indicators</primary><secondary>grammar for compounding</secondary></indexterm> The grammar of indicators is quite simple; almost all facets are optional. You can combine indicators in any order, and they are still grammatical. The presumed denotation is additive; thus the whole is the sum of the parts regardless of the order expressed, although the first expressed is presumed most important to the speaker. Every possible string of UI cmavo has some meaning.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ge'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>attitudinal indicator</primary><secondary>unspecified</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>attitudinal indicators</primary><secondary>conventions of interpretation</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>unspecified emotion</primary></indexterm> Within a string of indicators, there will be conventions of interpretation which amount to a kind of second-order grammar. Each of the modifier words is presumed to modify an indicator to the left, if there is one. (There is an
<quote>unspecified emotion</quote> word,
@@ -1537,41 +1537,41 @@
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>attitudinal questions</primary><secondary>asking intensity</secondary></indexterm> Most often, however, the asker will use
<valsi>pei</valsi> as a place holder for an intensity marker. (As a result,
<valsi>pei</valsi> is placed in selma'o CAI, although selma'o UI would have been almost as appropriate. Grammatically, there is no difference between UI and CAI.) Such usage corresponds to a whole range of idiomatic usages in natural languages:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qfXT" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e10d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.iepei</jbo>
<gloss>[agreement] [question]</gloss>
- <en>Do you agree?</en>
+ <natlang>Do you agree?</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qfyA" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e10d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.iare'epei</jbo>
<gloss>[belief] [spiritual] [question]</gloss>
- <en>Are you a Believer?</en>
+ <natlang>Are you a Believer?</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qFYC" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e10d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.aipei</jbo>
<gloss>[intention] [question]</gloss>
- <en>Are you going to do it?</en>
+ <natlang>Are you going to do it?</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qFYC"/> might appear at the end of a command, to which the response</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sKmg">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e10d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.aicai</jbo>
@@ -1580,54 +1580,54 @@
</example>
<para>corresponds to
<quote>Aye! Aye!</quote> (hence the choice of cmavo).</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ugFH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e10d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.e'apei</jbo>
<gloss>[permission] [question]</gloss>
- <en>Please, Mommy! Can I??</en>
+ <natlang>Please, Mommy! Can I??</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>attitudinal questions</primary><secondary>asking about specific attitude</secondary></indexterm> Additionally, when
<valsi>pei</valsi> is used at the beginning of an indicator construct, it asks specifically if that construct reflects the attitude of the respondent, as in (asked of someone who has been ill or in pain):</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qFYU" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e10d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>pei.o'u</jbo>
<gloss>[question] [comfort]</gloss>
- <en>Are you comfortable?</en>
+ <natlang>Are you comfortable?</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qfzc" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e10d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>pei.o'ucu'i</jbo>
<gloss>[question] [comfort] [neutral]</gloss>
- <en>Are you no longer in pain?</en>
+ <natlang>Are you no longer in pain?</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qFzH" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e10d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>pei.o'usai</jbo>
<gloss>[question] [comfort] [strong]</gloss>
- <en>Are you again healthy?</en>
+ <natlang>Are you again healthy?</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>.uuse'inai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>dai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>sympathy</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>empathy</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>attitudes</primary><secondary>empathy contrasted with sympathy</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>attitudinals</primary><secondary>attributing emotion to others</secondary></indexterm> Empathy, which is not really an emotion, is expressed by the indicator
<valsi>dai</valsi>. (Don't confuse empathy with sympathy, which is
<oldjbophrase>.uuse'inai</oldjbophrase>.) Sometimes, as when telling a story, you want to attribute emotion to someone else. You can of course make a bridi claim that so-and-so felt such-and-such an emotion, but you can also make use of the attitudinal system by adding the indicator
@@ -1636,34 +1636,34 @@
<valsi>dai</valsi> conversationally when you empathize, or feel someone else's emotion as if it were your own:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Ny8w">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e10d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.oiro'odai</jbo>
<gloss>[Pain!] [physical] [empathy]</gloss>
- <en>Ouch, that must have hurt!</en>
+ <natlang>Ouch, that must have hurt!</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>It is even possible to
<quote>empathize</quote> with a non-living object:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-M7Xf">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e10d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le bloti .iidai .uu pu klama le xasloi</jbo>
<gloss>The ship [fear!] [empathy] [pity!] [past] goes-to the ocean-floor.</gloss>
- <en>Fearfully the ship, poor thing, sank.</en>
+ <natlang>Fearfully the ship, poor thing, sank.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>ship sank</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> suggesting that the ship felt fear at its impending destruction, and simultaneously reporting the speaker's pity for it.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>attitudinals</primary><secondary>non-speaker attitudes</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>attitudinals</primary><secondary>exceptions</secondary></indexterm> Both
<valsi>pei</valsi> and
<valsi>dai</valsi> represent exceptions to the normal rule that attitudinals reflect the speaker's attitude.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>bu'onai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>bu'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>attitudes</primary><secondary>ceasing</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>attitudes</primary><secondary>beginning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>attitudes</primary><secondary>continuing</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>attitudinals</primary><secondary>contours</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>attitudes</primary><secondary>expressing changes in</secondary></indexterm> Finally, we often want to report how our attitudes are changing. If our attitude has not changed, we can just repeat the attitudinal. (Therefore,
<oldjbophrase>.ui .ui .ui</oldjbophrase> is not the same as
@@ -1678,44 +1678,44 @@
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qfzq" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e10d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.o'onai bu'o</jbo>
<gloss>[Anger!] [start emotion]</gloss>
- <en>I'm getting angry!</en>
+ <natlang>I'm getting angry!</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qg0p" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e10d12"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.iu bu'onai .uinai</jbo>
<gloss>[Love!] [end emotion] [unhappiness!]</gloss>
- <en>I don't love you any more; I'm sad.</en>
+ <natlang>I don't love you any more; I'm sad.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note the difference in effect between
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qg0p"/> and:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-6EiY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e10d13"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ca ba'o prami do ja'e le nu mi badri</jbo>
<gloss>I [present] [cessitive] love you with-result the event-of (I am-sad).</gloss>
- <en>I no longer love you; therefore, I am sad.</en>
+ <natlang>I no longer love you; therefore, I am sad.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which is a straightforward bridi claim.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-6EiY"/> states that you have (or have had) certain emotions;
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qg0p"/> expresses those emotions directly.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-evidentials">
<title>Evidentials</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
@@ -1832,21 +1832,21 @@
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-B87W">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e11d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ba'acu'i le tuple be mi cu se cortu</jbo>
<gloss>[I experience!] The leg of me is-the-locus-of-pain.</gloss>
- <en>My leg hurts.</en>
+ <natlang>My leg hurts.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>su'a</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>induction</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>evidentials</primary><secondary>ja'o contrasted with su'a</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>evidentials</primary><secondary>su'a contrasted with ja'o</secondary></indexterm> A bridi marked by
<valsi>su'a</valsi> is a generalization by the speaker based on other (stated or unstated) information or ideas. The difference between
<valsi>su'a</valsi> and
<valsi>ja'o</valsi> is that
<valsi>ja'o</valsi> suggests some sort of reasoning or deduction (not necessarily rigorous), whereas
<valsi>su'a</valsi> suggests some sort of induction or pattern recognition from existing examples (not necessarily rigorous).</para>
@@ -1869,21 +1869,21 @@
<valsi>ti'e</valsi>, unless we have personal knowledge of the content.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-jiXV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e11d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti'e la .uengas cu zergau</jbo>
<gloss>[I hear!] Wenga is-a-criminal-doer.</gloss>
- <en>I hear that Wenga is a crook.</en>
+ <natlang>I hear that Wenga is a crook.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ka'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>cultural knowledge</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>myth</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> A bridi marked by
<valsi>ka'u</valsi> is one held to be true in the speaker's cultural context, as a matter of myth or custom, for example. Such statements should be agreed on by a community of people – you cannot just make up your own cultural context – although
<quote>objectivity</quote> in the sense of actual correspondence with the facts is certainly not required.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ka'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>se'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>dream</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>revelation</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>evidentials</primary><secondary>ka'u contrasted with se'o</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>evidentials</primary><secondary>se'o contrasted with ka'u</secondary></indexterm> On the other hand,
<valsi>se'o</valsi> marks a bridi whose truth is asserted by the speaker as a result of an internal experience not directly available to others, such as a dream, vision, or personal revelation. In some cultures, the line between
@@ -1900,21 +1900,21 @@
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KEKa">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e11d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>za'a do tatpi</jbo>
<gloss>[I observe!] You are-tired.</gloss>
- <en>I see you are tired.</en>
+ <natlang>I see you are tired.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>pe'ipei</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>pe'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>opinion</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> A bridi marked by
<valsi>pe'i</valsi> is the opinion of the speaker. The form
<oldjbophrase>pe'ipei</oldjbophrase> is common, meaning
<quote>Is this your opinion?</quote>. (Strictly, this should be
@@ -1922,37 +1922,37 @@
<valsi>pe'i</valsi> is not really a scale, there is no real difference between the two orders.)</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-DcAG">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e11d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>pe'i la kartagos. .ei se daspo</jbo>
<gloss>[I opine!] Carthage [obligation] is-destroyed.</gloss>
- <en>In my opinion, Carthage should be destroyed.</en>
+ <natlang>In my opinion, Carthage should be destroyed.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>e'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ru'a</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>assumption</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Carthage destroyed</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>e'u</primary><secondary>compared with ru'a</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ru'a</primary><secondary>compared with e'u</secondary></indexterm> A bridi marked by
<valsi>ru'a</valsi> is an assumption made by the speaker. This is similar to one possible use of
<valsi>e'u</valsi>.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ydRN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e11d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ru'a doi livinston.</jbo>
<gloss>Dr. Livingstone, I presume?</gloss>
- <en>(A rhetorical question: Stanley knew who he was.)</en>
+ <natlang>(A rhetorical question: Stanley knew who he was.)</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ju'apei</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ju'a</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>basis</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Livingston</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> Finally, the evidential
<valsi>ju'a</valsi> is used to avoid stating a specific basis for a statement. It can also be used when the basis for the speaker's statement is not covered by any other evidential. For the most part, using
<valsi>ju'a</valsi> is equivalent to using no evidential at all, but in question form it can be useful:
<oldjbophrase>ju'apei</oldjbophrase> means
@@ -2019,54 +2019,54 @@
<quote>only</quote>, a word difficult to express in pure bridi form:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qG0v" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e12d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi po'o darxi le mi tamne fo le nazbi</jbo>
<gloss>I [only] hit my cousin at-locus the nose.</gloss>
- <en>Only I (nobody else) hit my cousin on his nose.</en>
+ <natlang>Only I (nobody else) hit my cousin on his nose.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qg21" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e12d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi darxi po'o le mi tamne fo le nazbi</jbo>
<gloss>I hit [only] my cousin at-locus the nose.</gloss>
- <en>I only hit my cousin on his nose (I did nothing else to him).</en>
+ <natlang>I only hit my cousin on his nose (I did nothing else to him).</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qg2f" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e12d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi darxi le mi tamne po'o fo le nazbi</jbo>
<gloss>I hit my cousin [only] at-locus the nose.</gloss>
- <en>I hit only my cousin on his nose (no one else).</en>
+ <natlang>I hit only my cousin on his nose (no one else).</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qG42" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e12d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi darxi le mi tamne fo le nazbi po'o</jbo>
<gloss>I hit my cousin at-locus the nose [only].</gloss>
- <en>I hit my cousin only on his nose (nowhere else).</en>
+ <natlang>I hit my cousin only on his nose (nowhere else).</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>hit nose</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>hit cousin</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>po'o</primary><secondary>placement in sentence</secondary></indexterm> Note that
<quote>only</quote> can go before or after what it modifies in English, but
<valsi>po'o</valsi>, as an indicator, always comes afterward.</para>
<para>Next, the
<quote>commentary on words</quote> group:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
@@ -2333,33 +2333,33 @@
<quote>According to the facts</quote>). A common use of
<valsi>da'i</valsi> is to distinguish between:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-v6BU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e12d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ganai da'i do viska le mi citno mensi gi ju'o do djuno le du'u ri pazvau</jbo>
<gloss>If you [hypothetical] see my young sister, then [certain] you know that she is-pregnant.</gloss>
- <en>If you were to see my younger sister, you would certainly know she is pregnant.</en>
+ <natlang>If you were to see my younger sister, you would certainly know she is pregnant.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>pregnant sister</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>sister pregnant</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>hypothetical world</primary><secondary>contrasted with real world</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>real world</primary><secondary>contrasted with hypothetical world</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm> and:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Sach">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e12d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ganai da'inai do viska le mi citno mensi gi ju'o do djuno le du'u ri pazvau</jbo>
<gloss>If you [factual] see my young sister, then [certainty] you know that she is-pregnant.</gloss>
- <en>If you saw my younger sister, you would certainly know she is pregnant.</en>
+ <natlang>If you saw my younger sister, you would certainly know she is pregnant.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>It is also perfectly correct to omit the discursive altogether, and leave the context to indicate which significance is meant. (Chinese always leaves this distinction to the context: the Chinese sentence</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rxfh">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e12d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ru</jbo>
@@ -2422,22 +2422,22 @@
<oldjbophrase>.uanai</oldjbophrase>). The confusion may be about the meaning of a word or of a grammatical construct, or about the referent of a sumti. One of the uses of English
<quote>which</quote> corresponds to
<valsi>ki'a</valsi>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gWFX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e13d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci le ctuca</jbo>
<jbo>.i le ki'a ctuca</jbo>
- <en>I like the teacher</en>
- <en>Which teacher?</en>
+ <natlang>I like the teacher</natlang>
+ <natlang>Which teacher?</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here, the second speaker does not understand the referent of the sumti
<oldjbophrase>le ctuca</oldjbophrase>, and so echoes back the sumti with the confusion marker.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>jo'a</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>na'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>invalid speech</primary><secondary>marking as error with na'i</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>error marking</primary><secondary>metalinguistic</secondary></indexterm> The metalinguistic negation cmavo
<valsi>na'i</valsi> and its opposite
<valsi>jo'a</valsi> are explained in full in
<xref linkend="chapter-negation"/>. In general,
@@ -2494,22 +2494,22 @@
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rXiR">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e13d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska le blanu pe'a zdani</jbo>
<gloss>I see the blue [figurative] house.</gloss>
- <en>I see the
- <quote>blue</quote> house.</en>
+ <natlang>I see the
+ <quote>blue</quote> house.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the house is not blue in the sense of color, but in some other sense, whose meaning is entirely culturally dependent. The use of
<valsi>pe'a</valsi> unambiguously marks a cultural reference:
<valsi>blanu</valsi> in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-rXiR"/> could mean
<quote>sad</quote> (as in English) or something completely different.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>pe'anai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>literally</primary></indexterm> The negated form,
<oldjbophrase>pe'anai</oldjbophrase>, indicates that what has been said is to be interpreted literally, in the usual way for Lojban; natural-language intuition is to be ignored.</para>
@@ -2576,21 +2576,21 @@
<para>This cmavo is explained in detail in
<xref linkend="section-indirect-questions"/>. It marks the word it is attached to as the focus of an indirect question:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-umCQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e13d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi djuno le du'u dakau klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I know the statement-that somebody [indirect ?] goes to-the store.</gloss>
- <en>I know who goes to the store.</en>
+ <natlang>I know who goes to the store.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-vocative-scales">
<title>Vocative scales</title>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>COI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>direct address</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>"la"</primary><secondary>contrasted with vocatives</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vocatives</primary><secondary>contrasted with "la"</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vocatives</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm>
<quote>Vocatives</quote> are words used to address someone directly; they precede and mark a name used in direct address, just as
<valsi>la</valsi> (and the other members of selma'o LA) mark a name used to refer to someone. The vocatives actually are indicators – in fact, discursives – but the need to tie them to names and other descriptions of listeners requires them to be separated from selma'o UI. But like the cmavo of UI, the members of selma'o COI can be
@@ -2876,280 +2876,280 @@
<para>The following dialogue in Lojban illustrates the uses of attitudinals and protocol vocatives in conversation. The phrases enclosed in
<oldjbophrase>sei ... se'u</oldjbophrase> indicate the speaker of each sentence.</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qg4j" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e15d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la rik. .e la .alis. nerkla le kafybarja</jbo>
<gloss>Rick and Alice in-go to-the coffee-bar.</gloss>
- <en>Rick and Alice go into the coffee bar.</en>
+ <natlang>Rick and Alice go into the coffee bar.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qG4V" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e15d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.i sei la rik. cusku se'u ta'a ro zvati be ti mi baza speni ti .iu</jbo>
<gloss>[Comment] Rick says, [end-comment] [Interrupt] all at this-place, I [future] [medium] am-spouse-to this-one [love].</gloss>
- <en>Rick said,
- <quote>Sorry to break in, everybody. Pretty soon I'm getting married to my love here.</quote></en>
+ <natlang>Rick said,
+ <quote>Sorry to break in, everybody. Pretty soon I'm getting married to my love here.</quote></natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qG5K" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e15d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.i sei la djordj. cusku se'u .a'o ko gleki doi ma</jbo>
<gloss>[Comment] George says, [end-comment] [Hope] [You-imperative] are-happy, O [who?].</gloss>
- <en>George said,
- <quote>I hope you'll be happy, um, ...?</quote></en>
+ <natlang>George said,
+ <quote>I hope you'll be happy, um, ...?</quote></natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qG74" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e15d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.i sei la pam. cusku se'u pe'u .alis. xu mi ba terfriti le nunspenybi'o</jbo>
<gloss>[Comment] Pam says, [end-comment] [Please] Alice, [Is it true?] I [future] receive-offer-of the event-of-spouse-becoming?</gloss>
- <en>Pam said,
- <quote>Please, Alice, am I going to be invited to the wedding?</quote></en>
+ <natlang>Pam said,
+ <quote>Please, Alice, am I going to be invited to the wedding?</quote></natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qg8r" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e15d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.i sei la mark. cusku se'u coi baza speni a'o le re do lifri le ka gleki</jbo>
<gloss>[Comment] Mark says, [end-comment] [Greetings] [future] [medium] spouse(s), [Hope] the two of-you experience the-property-of being-happy</gloss>
- <en>Mark said,
- <quote>Hello, spouses-to-be. I hope both of you will be very happy.</quote></en>
+ <natlang>Mark said,
+ <quote>Hello, spouses-to-be. I hope both of you will be very happy.</quote></natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qG8R" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e15d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.i sei la rik. cusku se'u mi'e .rik. doi terpreti</jbo>
<gloss>[Comment] Rick says, [end-comment] [I am] Rick, O questioners.</gloss>
- <en>Rick said,
- <quote>My name is Rick, for those of you who want to know.</quote></en>
+ <natlang>Rick said,
+ <quote>My name is Rick, for those of you who want to know.</quote></natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qg9C" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e15d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.i sei la .alis. cusku se'u nu'e .pam. .o'ero'i do ba zvati</jbo>
<gloss>[Comment] Alice says, [end-comment] [Promise-to] Pam, [closeness] [emotional] you [future] are-at.</gloss>
- <en>Alice said,
- <quote>I promise you'll be there, Pam honey.</quote></en>
+ <natlang>Alice said,
+ <quote>I promise you'll be there, Pam honey.</quote></natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qGad" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e15d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.i sei la fred. cusku se'u .uinaicairo'i mi ji'a prami la .alis. fe'o .rik.</jbo>
<gloss>[Comment] Fred says, [end-comment] [Happy] [not] [emphatic] [emotional] I [additionally] love Alice. [Over and out to] Rick.</gloss>
- <en>
+ <natlang>
<quote>I love Alice too,</quote> said Fred miserably.
- <quote>Have a nice life, Rick.</quote></en>
+ <quote>Have a nice life, Rick.</quote></natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qGBG" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e15d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.i la fred. cliva</jbo>
<gloss>Fred leaves.</gloss>
- <en>And he left.</en>
+ <natlang>And he left.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qGbn" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e15d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.i sei la rik. cusku se'u fi'i ro zvati ko pinxe pa ckafi fi'o pleji mi</jbo>
<gloss>[Comment] Rick says, [end-comment] [Welcome-to] all at-place, [You-imperative] drink one coffee with-payer me.</gloss>
- <en>Rick said, raising his voice,
- <quote>A cup of coffee for the house, on me.</quote></en>
+ <natlang>Rick said, raising his voice,
+ <quote>A cup of coffee for the house, on me.</quote></natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qGbT" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e15d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.i sei la pam. cusku se'u be'e selfu</jbo>
<gloss>[Comment] Pam says, [end-comment] [Request to speak to] server.</gloss>
- <en>Pam said,
- <quote>Waiter!</quote></en>
+ <natlang>Pam said,
+ <quote>Waiter!</quote></natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qGBz" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e15d12"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.i sei le selfu cu cusku se'u re'i [end-comment]</jbo>
<gloss>[Comment] The server says, [Ready to receive].</gloss>
- <en>The waiter replied,
- <quote>May I help you?</quote></en>
+ <natlang>The waiter replied,
+ <quote>May I help you?</quote></natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qGcT" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e15d13"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.i sei la pam. cusku se'u .e'o ko selfu le traji xamgu ckafi le baza speni fi'o pleji mi</jbo>
<gloss>[Comment] Pam says, [end-comment] [Petition] [You-imperative] serve the (superlatively good) coffee to-the [future] [medium] spouse with-payer me.</gloss>
- <en>Pam said,
- <quote>One Jamaica Blue for the lovebirds here, on my tab.</quote></en>
+ <natlang>Pam said,
+ <quote>One Jamaica Blue for the lovebirds here, on my tab.</quote></natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qgDV" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e15d14"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.i sei le selfu cu cusku se'u vi'o</jbo>
<gloss>[Comment] The server says, [end-comment] [Will comply].</gloss>
- <en>
- <quote>Gotcha</quote>, said the waiter.</en>
+ <natlang>
+ <quote>Gotcha</quote>, said the waiter.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qGdy" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e15d15"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.i sei la rik. cusku se'u ki'e .pam.</jbo>
<gloss>[Comment] Rick says, [end-comment] [Thanks O] Pam.</gloss>
- <en>
- <quote>Thanks, Pam</quote>, said Rick.</en>
+ <natlang>
+ <quote>Thanks, Pam</quote>, said Rick.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qgFH" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e15d16"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.i sei la pam. cusku se'u je'e</jbo>
<gloss>[Comment] Pam says, [end-comment] [Acknowledge].</gloss>
- <en>
- <quote>Sure</quote>, said Pam.</en>
+ <natlang>
+ <quote>Sure</quote>, said Pam.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qGfT" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e15d17"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.i sei la djan. cusku se'u .y. mi .y. mutce spopa .y. le nu le speni si .y. ba speni .y. .y. su .yyyyyy. mu'o</jbo>
<gloss>[Comment] John says, [end-comment] [Uh] I [uh] very [nonexistent gismu] [uh] the event-of the spouse [erase] [uh] [future] spouse [uh] [uh] [erase all] [uh] [over]</gloss>
- <en>John said,
- <quote>I, er, a lotta, uh, marriage, upcoming marriage, .... Oh, forget it. Er, later.</quote></en>
+ <natlang>John said,
+ <quote>I, er, a lotta, uh, marriage, upcoming marriage, .... Oh, forget it. Er, later.</quote></natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qggJ" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e15d18"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.i sei la djordj. cusku se'u ke'o .djan. zo'o</jbo>
<gloss>[Comment] George says, [end-comment] [Repeat O] John [humor].</gloss>
- <en>
- <quote>How's that again, John?</quote> said George.</en>
+ <natlang>
+ <quote>How's that again, John?</quote> said George.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qGGv" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e15d19"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.i sei la pam. cusku se'u ju'i .djordj. .e'unai le kabri bazi farlu</jbo>
<gloss>[Comment] Pam says, [end-comment] [Attention] George, [Warning] the cup [future] [short] falls</gloss>
- <en>
+ <natlang>
<quote>George, watch out!</quote> said Pam.
- <quote>The cup's falling!</quote></en>
+ <quote>The cup's falling!</quote></natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qGgW" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e15d20"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.i le kabri cu je'a farlu</jbo>
<gloss>The cup indeed falls.</gloss>
- <en>The cup fell.</en>
+ <natlang>The cup fell.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qGhc" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e15d21"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.i sei la djan. cusku se'u e'o doi djordj. zo'o rapygau</jbo>
<gloss>[Comment] John says, [end-comment] [Petition] O George [humor] repeat-cause.</gloss>
- <en>John said,
- <quote>Try that again, George!</quote></en>
+ <natlang>John said,
+ <quote>Try that again, George!</quote></natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qGHC" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e15d22"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.i sei la djordj. cusku se'u co'o ro zvati pe secau la djan. ga'i</jbo>
<gloss>[Comment] George says, [end-comment] [Partings] all at-place without John [superiority]</gloss>
- <en>
+ <natlang>
<quote>Goodbye to all of you,</quote> said George sneeringly,
- <quote>except John.</quote></en>
+ <quote>except John.</quote></natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qGhw" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c13e15d23"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.i la djordj. cliva</jbo>
<gloss>George leaves.</gloss>
- <en>George left.</en>
+ <natlang>George left.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-attitudinals-conclusion">
<title>Tentative conclusion</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>indicators</primary><secondary>ramifications</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>aliens</primary><secondary>communication with</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Kzinti</primary><secondary>communication with</secondary></indexterm> The exact ramifications of the indicator system in actual usage are unknown. There has never been anything like it in natural language before. The system provides great potential for emotional expression and transcription, from which significant Sapir-Whorf effects can be anticipated. When communicating across cultural boundaries, where different indicators are often used for the same emotion, accidental offense can be avoided. If we ever ran into an alien race, a culturally neutral language of emotion could be vital. (A classic example, taken from the science fiction of Larry Niven, is to imagine speaking Lojban to the carnivorous warriors called Kzinti, noting that a human smile bares the teeth, and could be seen as an intent to attack.) And for communicating emotions to computers, when we cannot identify all of the signals involved in subliminal human communication (things like body language are also cultural), a system like this is needed.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>indicators</primary><secondary>rationale for selection</secondary></indexterm> We have tried to err on the side of overkill. There are distinctions possible in this system that no one may care to make in any culture. But it was deemed more neutral to overspecify and let usage decide, than to choose a limited set and constrain emotional expression. For circumstances in which even the current indicator set is not enough, it is possible using the cmavo
diff --git a/todocbook/14.xml b/todocbook/14.xml
index d30b75b..1a0f1a6 100644
--- a/todocbook/14.xml
+++ b/todocbook/14.xml
@@ -411,21 +411,21 @@
<para>John is a man or James is a woman, but not both.</para>
</example>
<para>Here is another example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-FXSC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e4d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. nanmu .ijanai la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
<gloss>John is-a-man or James is-not-a-woman.</gloss>
- <en>John is a man if James is a woman.</en>
+ <natlang>John is a man if James is a woman.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>if</primary><secondary>English usage contrasted with Lojban logical connective</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>if</primary><secondary>meaning in logical connections</secondary></indexterm> How's that again? Are those two English sentences in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-FXSC"/> really equivalent? In English, no. The Lojban TTFT truth function can be glossed
<quote>A if B</quote>, but the
<quote>if</quote> does not quite have its English sense.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-FXSC"/> is true so long as John is a man, even if James is not a woman; likewise, it is true just because James is not a woman, regardless of John's gender. This kind of
<quote>if-then</quote> is technically known as a
<quote>material conditional</quote>.</para>
<para>Since James is not a woman (by our assertions in
@@ -433,21 +433,21 @@
<quote>John is a man if James is a woman</quote> seems to be neither true nor false, since it assumes something which is not true. It turns out to be most convenient to treat this
<quote>if</quote> as TTFT, which on investigation means that
<xref linkend="example-random-id-FXSC"/> is true.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-EdY5"/>, however, is equally true:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-EdY5">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e4d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. ninmu .ijanai la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
- <en>John is a woman if James is a woman.</en>
+ <natlang>John is a woman if James is a woman.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>false statement</primary><secondary>implications of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>principle of consistency</primary><secondary>of logical-if statements</secondary></indexterm> This can be thought of as a principle of consistency, and may be paraphrased as follows:
<quote>If a false statement is true, any statement follows from it.</quote> All uses of English
<quote>if</quote> must be considered very carefully when translating into Lojban to see if they really fit this Lojban mold.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>only if</primary><secondary>compared with if … then</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>if … then</primary><secondary>compared with only if</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-9CCS"/>, which uses the TFTT truth function, is subject to the same rules: the stated gloss of TFTT as
<quote>only if</quote> works naturally only when the right-hand bridi is false; if it is true, the left-hand bridi may be either true or false. The last gloss of
@@ -455,35 +455,35 @@
<quote>if ... then</quote> as a more natural substitute for
<quote>only if</quote>.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9CCS">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e4d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. nanmu .inaja la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
<gloss>John is-not-a-man or James is-a-woman.</gloss>
- <en>John is a man only if James is a woman.</en>
- <en>If John is a man, then James is a woman.</en>
+ <natlang>John is a man only if James is a woman.</natlang>
+ <natlang>If John is a man, then James is a woman.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>se</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>se</primary><secondary>in logical connective to exchange sentences</secondary></indexterm> The following example illustrates the use of
<valsi>se</valsi> to, in effect, exchange the two sentences. The normal use of
<valsi>se</valsi> is to (in effect) transpose places of a bridi, as explained in
<xref linkend="section-place-conversion"/>.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-z43X">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e4d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. nanmu .iseju la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
- <en>Whether or not John is a man, James is a woman.</en>
+ <natlang>Whether or not John is a man, James is a woman.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>se</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>nai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>na</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>na</primary><secondary>order in logical connectives with se</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>se</primary><secondary>order in logical connectives with na</secondary></indexterm> If both
<valsi>na</valsi> and
<valsi>se</valsi> are present, which is legal but never necessary,
<valsi>na</valsi> would come before
<valsi>se</valsi>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>I selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ijeks</primary><secondary>syntax of</secondary></indexterm> The full syntax of ijeks, therefore, is:</para>
<grammar-template>
.i [na] [se] JA [nai]
@@ -510,33 +510,33 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is a complete bridi, and adding an afterthought connection to make</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7h3s">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e5d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. nanmu .ija la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
- <en>John is a man or James is a woman (or both)</en>
+ <natlang>John is a man or James is a woman (or both)</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>provides additional information without requiring any change in the form of what has come before; changes which may not be possible or practical, especially in speaking. (The meaning, however, may be changed by the use of a negating connective.) Afterthought connectives make it possible to construct all the important truth-functional relationships in a variety of ways.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>I selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>afterthought bridi connectives</primary><secondary>contrasted with forethought bridi connectives</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>forethought bridi connectives</primary><secondary>contrasted with afterthought bridi connectives</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gek bridi connectives</primary><secondary>contrasted with ijeks</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ijek bridi connectives</primary><secondary>contrasted with geks</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gek</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> In forethought style the speaker decides in advance, before expressing the first bridi, that a logical connection will be expressed. Forethought and afterthought connectives are expressed with separate selma'o. The forethought logical connectives corresponding to afterthought ijeks are geks:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mYeS">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e5d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ga la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
- <en>Either John is a man or James is a woman (or both).</en>
+ <natlang>Either John is a man or James is a woman (or both).</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GA selma'o</primary></indexterm>
<valsi>ga</valsi> is the cmavo which represents the
<phrase role="logical-vowel">A</phrase> truth function in selma'o GA. The word
<valsi>gi</valsi> does not belong to GA at all, but constitutes its own selma'o: it serves only to separate the two bridi without having any content of its own. The English translation of
<oldjbophrase>ga ... gi</oldjbophrase> is
<quote>either ... or</quote>, but in the English form the truth function is specified both by the word
<quote>either</quote> and by the word
<quote>or</quote>: not so in Lojban.</para>
@@ -546,48 +546,48 @@
<para>Some more examples of forethought bridi connection are:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qGLh" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e5d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ge la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
- <en>(It is true that) both John is a man and James is a woman.</en>
+ <natlang>(It is true that) both John is a man and James is a woman.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GU selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>gu</primary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qgMN" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e5d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>gu la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
- <en>It is true that John is a man, whether or not James is a woman.</en>
+ <natlang>It is true that John is a man, whether or not James is a woman.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>It is worth emphasizing that
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qgMN"/> does not assert that James is (or is not) a woman. The
<valsi>gu</valsi> which indicates that
<oldjbophrase>la djeimyz. ninmu</oldjbophrase> may be true or false is unfortunately rather remote from the bridi thus affected.</para>
<para>Perhaps the most important of the truth functions commonly expressed in forethought is TFTT, which can be paraphrased as
<quote>if ... then ...</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Xcg1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e5d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ganai la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
<gloss>Either John is not a man, or James is a woman.</gloss>
- <en>If John is a man, then James is a woman.</en>
+ <natlang>If John is a man, then James is a woman.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ganai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>nai</primary><secondary>placement in afterthought bridi connection contrasted with forethought</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>nai</primary><secondary>placement in forethought bridi connection contrasted with afterthought</secondary></indexterm> Note the placement of the
<valsi>nai</valsi> in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Xcg1"/>. When added to afterthought selma'o such as JA, a following
<valsi>nai</valsi> negates the second bridi, to which it is adjacent. Since GA cmavo precede the first bridi, a following
<valsi>nai</valsi> negates the first bridi instead.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connectives</primary><secondary>negated first sentence as a potential problem for understanding</secondary></indexterm> Why does English insist on forethought in the translation of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Xcg1"/>? Possibly because it would be confusing to seemingly assert a sentence and then make it conditional (which, as the Lojban form shows, involves a negation). Truth functions which involve negating the first sentence may be confusing, even to the Lojbanic understanding, when expressed using afterthought.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>if … then</primary><secondary>logical connectives contrasted with other translations</secondary></indexterm> It must be reiterated here that not every use of English
@@ -614,34 +614,34 @@
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-I2jU"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Tiz6"/> illustrates a truth function, FTTF, which needs to negate either the first or the second bridi. We already understand how to negate the first bridi:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-I2jU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e5d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>gonai la djan. nanmu gi la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
<gloss>John is-not-a-man if-and-only-if James is-a-woman.</gloss>
- <en>Either John is a man or James is a woman but not both.</en>
+ <natlang>Either John is a man or James is a woman but not both.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ginai</primary></indexterm> How can the second bridi be negated? By adding
<oldjbophrase>-nai</oldjbophrase> to the
<valsi>gi</valsi>.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Tiz6">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e5d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>go la djan. nanmu ginai la djeimyz. ninmu</jbo>
<gloss>John is-a-man if-and-only-if James is-not-a-woman.</gloss>
- <en>Either John is a man or James is a woman but not both.</en>
+ <natlang>Either John is a man or James is a woman but not both.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gik</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> A compound cmavo based on
<valsi>gi</valsi> is called a gik; the only giks are
<valsi>gi</valsi> itself and
<oldjbophrase>ginai</oldjbophrase>.</para>
<para>Further examples:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qgmv" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
@@ -676,21 +676,21 @@
<section xml:id="section-sumti-connection">
<title>sumti connection</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi logical connection</primary><secondary>compared with sumti logical connections</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti logical connection</primary><secondary>compared with bridi logical connections</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti logical connection</primary><secondary>rationale for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti logical connection</primary></indexterm> Geks and ijeks are sufficient to state every possible logical connection between two bridi. However, it is often the case that two bridi to be logically connected have one or more portions in common:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Ecnq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e6d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. klama le zarci .ije la .alis. klama le zarci</jbo>
- <en>John goes to the market, and Alice goes to the market.</en>
+ <natlang>John goes to the market, and Alice goes to the market.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here only a single sumti differs between the two bridi. Lojban does not require that both bridi be expressed in full. Instead, a single bridi can be given which contains both of the different sumti and uses a logical connective from a different selma'o to combine the two sumti:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-JTIm">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e6d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan .e la .alis. klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>John and Alice go-to the market.</gloss>
@@ -713,21 +713,21 @@
</example>
<para>leaving the reader uncertain why John is mentioned at all.</para>
<para>Any ek may be used between sumti, even if there is no direct English equivalent:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-BDLS">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e6d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. .o la .alis. klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>John if-and-only-if Alice goes-to the market.</gloss>
- <en>John goes to the market if, and only if, Alice does.</en>
+ <natlang>John goes to the market if, and only if, Alice does.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The second line of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-7KHA"/> is highly stilted English, but the first line (of which it is a literal translation) is excellent Lojban.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>geks</primary><secondary>in forethought sumti connection</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti connection</primary><secondary>forethought</secondary></indexterm> What about forethought sumti connection? As is the case for bridi connection, geks are appropriate. They are not the only selma'o of forethought logical-connectives, but are the most commonly used ones.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-YEa4">
<title>
@@ -742,21 +742,21 @@
<valsi>na</valsi> or
<valsi>se</valsi> is part of an ek, a special writing convention is invoked, as in the following example:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>A selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>na.a</primary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-caoY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e6d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. na.a la .alis. klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>John only if Alice goes-to the market.</gloss>
- <en>John goes to the market only if Alice does.</en>
+ <natlang>John goes to the market only if Alice does.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note the period in
<oldjbophrase>na.a</oldjbophrase>. The cmavo of A begin with vowels, and therefore must always be preceded by a pause. It is conventional to write all connective compounds as single words (with no spaces), but this pause must still be marked in writing as in speech; otherwise, the
<valsi>na</valsi> and
<valsi>a</valsi> would tend to run together.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-more-propositions">
<title>More than two propositions</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connectives</primary><secondary>more than 2 sentences</secondary></indexterm> So far we have seen logical connectives used to connect exactly two sentences. How about connecting three or more? Is this possible in Lojban? The answer is yes, subject to some warnings and some restrictions.</para>
@@ -810,21 +810,21 @@
<xref linkend="example-random-id-3zE1"/> without repeating one of the bridi. See
<xref linkend="example-random-id-KyHw"/>.</para>
<para>There is an additional difficulty with the use of more than two sentences. What is the meaning of:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection of more than 2 sentences</primary><secondary>mixed "and" and "or"</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mLo1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e7d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci la djan. .ije mi nelci la martas. .ija mi nelci la meris.</jbo>
- <en>I like John. And I like Martha. Or I like Mary.</en>
+ <natlang>I like John. And I like Martha. Or I like Mary.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Does this mean:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-BSuT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e7d5"/>
</title>
<para>I like John, and I like either Martha or Mary or both.</para>
</example>
<para>Or is the correct translation:</para>
@@ -836,32 +836,32 @@
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>of more than 2 sentences</secondary><tertiary>forethought</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connectives</primary><secondary>pairing from left</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-dPcI"/> is the correct translation of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-mLo1"/>. The reason is that Lojban logical connectives pair off from the left, like many constructs in the language. This rule, called the left-grouping rule, is easy to forget, especially when intuition pulls the other way. Forethought connectives are not subject to this problem:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-487z">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e7d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ga ge mi nelci la djan. gi mi nelci la martas. gi mi nelci la meris.</jbo>
- <en>Either (Both I like John and I like Martha) or I like Mary.</en>
+ <natlang>Either (Both I like John and I like Martha) or I like Mary.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is equivalent in meaning to
<xref linkend="example-random-id-mLo1"/>, whereas</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1Dd2">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e7d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ge mi nelci la djan. gi ga mi nelci la martas. gi mi nelci la meris.</jbo>
- <en>Both I like John and (Either I like Martha or I like Mary).</en>
+ <natlang>Both I like John and (Either I like Martha or I like Mary).</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is not equivalent to
<xref linkend="example-random-id-mLo1"/>, but is instead a valid translation into Lojban, using forethought, of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-BSuT"/>.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-afterthought-connectives-grouping">
<title>Grouping of afterthought connectives</title>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>BO selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>bo</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bo</primary><secondary>in logical connectives</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>with bo</secondary><tertiary>precedence</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connectives</primary><secondary>grouping with bo</secondary></indexterm> There are several ways in Lojban to render
<xref linkend="example-random-id-BSuT"/> using afterthought only. The simplest method is to make use of the cmavo
@@ -869,21 +869,21 @@
<valsi>bo</valsi> is placed after an ijek, the result is a grammatically distinct kind of ijek which overrides the regular left-grouping rule. Connections marked with
<valsi>bo</valsi> are interpreted before connections not so marked.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Uu7D"/> is equivalent in meaning to
<xref linkend="example-random-id-1Dd2"/>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Uu7D">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e8d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci la djan. .ije mi nelci la martas. .ijabo mi nelci la meris.</jbo>
- <en>I like John, and I like Martha or I like Mary.</en>
+ <natlang>I like John, and I like Martha or I like Mary.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The English translation feebly indicates with a comma what the Lojban marks far more clearly: the
<quote>I like Martha</quote> and
<quote>I like Mary</quote> sentences are joined by
<oldjbophrase>.ija</oldjbophrase> first, before the result is joined to
<quote>I like John</quote> by
<oldjbophrase>.ije</oldjbophrase>.</para>
<para>Eks can have
@@ -940,21 +940,21 @@
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>bo</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>BO selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>complex logical connectives</primary><secondary>grouping with bo</secondary></indexterm> where the semantics tells us that the instances of
<quote>and</quote> are meant to have higher precedence than that of
<quote>if</quote>. If we wish to express
<xref linkend="example-random-id-aqIg"/> in afterthought, we can say:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1PSK">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e8d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cinba do .ije[bo] do cinba mi .ijanai mi prami do .ijebo do prami mi</jbo>
- <en>I kiss you and you kiss me, if I love you and you love me.</en>
+ <natlang>I kiss you and you kiss me, if I love you and you love me.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>marking two of the ijeks with
<valsi>bo</valsi> for high precedence. (The first
<valsi>bo</valsi> is not strictly necessary, because of the left-grouping rule, and is shown here in brackets.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>complex logical connectives</primary><secondary>grouping with parentheses</secondary></indexterm> But it may be clearer to use explicit parenthesis words and say:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-erTb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e8d6"/>
</title>
@@ -1031,21 +1031,21 @@
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>compound bridi</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> Surprise! Lojban provides no logical connective that is designed to handle selbri and nothing else. Instead, selbri connection is provided as part of a more general-purpose mechanism called
<quote>compound bridi</quote>. Compound bridi result from logically connecting sentences that differ in their selbri and possibly some of their sumti.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>compound bridi</primary><secondary>one sumti in common</secondary></indexterm> The simplest cases result when the x1 sumti is the only common point:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-WebJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e9d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci .ije mi nelci la djan.</jbo>
- <en>I go to the market, and I like John.</en>
+ <natlang>I go to the market, and I like John.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is equivalent in meaning to the compound bridi:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9H9e">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e9d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci gi'e nelci la djan.</jbo>
@@ -1189,21 +1189,21 @@
<title>Multiple compound bridi</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>compound bridi</primary><secondary>multiple with bo</secondary></indexterm> Giheks can be combined with
<valsi>bo</valsi> in the same way as eks:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-DpCN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e10d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci la djan. gi'e nelci la martas. gi'abo nelci la meris.</jbo>
- <en>I like John and ( like Martha or like Mary ).</en>
+ <natlang>I like John and ( like Martha or like Mary ).</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>compound bridi</primary><secondary>multiple with ke…ke'e</secondary></indexterm> is equivalent in meaning to
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Uu7D"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-JVhK"/>. Likewise,
<oldjbophrase>ke ... ke'e</oldjbophrase> grouping can be used after giheks:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rH4n">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e10d2"/>
@@ -1261,34 +1261,34 @@
<gloss>To/from John, [if] I owe some currency-units then [I] give or take the book.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>of bridi-tails</secondary><tertiary>forethought</tertiary></indexterm> Finally, what about forethought logical connection of bridi-tails? There is no direct mechanism for the purpose. Instead, Lojban grammar allows a pair of forethought-connected sentences to function as a single bridi-tail, and of course the sentences need not have terms before their selbri. For example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4gJC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e10d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ge klama le zarci gi nelci la djan.</jbo>
- <en>I both go to the market and like John.</en>
+ <natlang>I both go to the market and like John.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is equivalent in meaning to
<xref linkend="example-random-id-9H9e"/>.</para>
<para>Of course, either of the connected sentences may contain giheks:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mInd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e10d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ge klama le zarci gi'e dzukla le zdani gi nelci la djan.</jbo>
- <en>I both ( go to the market and walk to the house ) and like John.</en>
+ <natlang>I both ( go to the market and walk to the house ) and like John.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>negating a forethought-connected bridi-tail pair</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>negating a forethought-connected sentence pair</primary></indexterm> The entire gek-connected sentence pair may be negated as a whole by prefixing
<valsi>na</valsi>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-DzgI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e10d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na ge klama le zarci gi dzukla le zdani</jbo>
@@ -1319,21 +1319,21 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Finally, here is an example of gek-connected sentences with both shared and unshared terms before their selbri:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-eJyK">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e10d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi gonai le zarci cu klama gi le bisli cu dansu</jbo>
<gloss>I either-but-not-both to-the office go or on-the ice dance.</gloss>
- <en>I either go to the office or dance on the ice (but not both).</en>
+ <natlang>I either go to the office or dance on the ice (but not both).</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-termsets">
<title>Termset logical connection</title>
<para>So far we have seen sentences that differ in all components, and require bridi connection; sentences that differ in one sumti only, and permit sumti connection; and sentences that differ in the selbri and possibly one or more sumti, and permit bridi-tail connection. Termset logical connectives are employed for sentences that differ in more than one sumti but not in the selbri, such as:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-G02C">
@@ -1534,33 +1534,33 @@
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>BO selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>bo</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>in tanru</secondary><tertiary>grouping with bo</tertiary></indexterm> It suffices to note here, then, a few purely grammatical points about tanru logical connection.
<valsi>bo</valsi> may be appended to jeks as to eks, with the same rules:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-RNMY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e12d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la teris. cu ricfu je nakni jabo fetsi</jbo>
- <en>Terry is rich and ( male or female ).</en>
+ <natlang>Terry is rich and ( male or female ).</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>KE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ke</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>in tanru</secondary><tertiary>grouping with ke</tertiary></indexterm>
The components of tanru may be grouped with
<valsi>ke</valsi> both before and after a logical connective:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-JdID">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e12d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .teris. cu [ke] ricfu ja pindi [ke'e] je ke nakni ja fetsi [ke'e]</jbo>
- <en>Terry is (rich or poor) and (male or female).</en>
+ <natlang>Terry is (rich or poor) and (male or female).</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where the first
<oldjbophrase>ke ... ke'e</oldjbophrase> pair may be omitted altogether by the rule of left-grouping, but is optionally permitted. In any case, the last instance of
<valsi>ke'e</valsi> may be elided.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>nai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>se</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>na</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>jeks</primary><secondary>syntax of</secondary></indexterm> The syntax of jeks is:</para>
<grammar-template>
[na] [se] JA [nai]
</grammar-template>
<para>parallel to eks and giheks.</para>
@@ -1574,21 +1574,21 @@
</grammar-template>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>of tanru as opposed to bridi-tail</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>of bridi-tail as opposed to tanru</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>guheks for tanru connection</primary><secondary>rationale</secondary></indexterm> Using guheks in tanru connection (rather than geks) resolves what would otherwise be an unacceptable ambiguity between bridi-tail and tanru connection:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mjog">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e12d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .alis. gu'e ricfu gi fetsi</jbo>
- <en>Alice is both rich and female.</en>
+ <natlang>Alice is both rich and female.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GUhA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru connection grouping</primary><secondary>guheks unmarked tanru</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru grouping</primary><secondary>guheks compared with jeks</secondary></indexterm>
Note that giks are used with guheks in exactly the same way they are used with geks. Like jeks, guheks bind more closely than unmarked tanru grouping does:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Gyrc">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e12d11"/>
</title>
@@ -1599,42 +1599,42 @@
</example>
<para>is the forethought version of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-DG5K"/>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti logical connection</primary><secondary>contrasted with tanru logical connection</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru logical connection</primary><secondary>contrasted with sumti logical connection</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>reducing logically connected sumti to</secondary><tertiary>caveat</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>of tanru</secondary><tertiary>caveat</tertiary></indexterm> A word of caution about the use of logically connected tanru within descriptions. English-based intuition can lead the speaker astray. In correctly reducing</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-8wbd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e12d12"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska pa nanmu .ije mi viska pa ninmu</jbo>
- <en>I see a man, and I see a woman.</en>
+ <natlang>I see a man, and I see a woman.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>to</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-qf3n">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e12d13"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska pa nanmu .e pa ninmu</jbo>
- <en>I see a man and a woman.</en>
+ <natlang>I see a man and a woman.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>there is a great temptation to reduce further to:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>man-woman</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ag8r">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e12d14"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska pa nanmu je ninmu</jbo>
- <en>I see a man and woman.</en>
+ <natlang>I see a man and woman.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>But
<xref linkend="example-random-id-ag8r"/> means that you see one thing which is both a man and a woman simultaneously! A
<oldjbophrase>nanmu je ninmu</oldjbophrase> is a manwoman, a presumably non-existent creature who is both a
<valsi>nanmu</valsi> and a
<valsi>ninmu</valsi>.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-truth-and-connective-questions">
<title>Truth questions and connective questions</title>
@@ -1677,32 +1677,32 @@
<oldjbophrase>nago'i</oldjbophrase>. (The reasons for this rule are explained in
<xref linkend="section-ri-gohi-series"/>.) In answer to
<xref linkend="example-random-id-gKaM"/>, the possible answers are:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-XSmq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>go'i</jbo>
- <en>Fido is a dog.</en>
+ <natlang>Fido is a dog.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-WI3P">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>nago'i</jbo>
- <en>Fido is not a dog.</en>
+ <natlang>Fido is not a dog.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>truth questions</primary><secondary>contrasted with connection questions</secondary></indexterm> Some English questions seemingly have the same form as the truth questions so far discussed. Consider</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>dog or cat</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-mftC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d5"/>
</title>
<para>Is Fido a dog or a cat?</para>
</example>
@@ -1783,65 +1783,65 @@
<gloss>Alice is-a-dog [truth function?] is-a-cat?</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here are some plausible answers:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qGPp" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>nagi'e</jbo>
- <en>Alice is not a dog and is a cat.</en>
+ <natlang>Alice is not a dog and is a cat.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qGPq" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>gi'enai</jbo>
- <en>Alice is a dog and is not a cat.</en>
+ <natlang>Alice is a dog and is not a cat.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qgrw" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>nagi'enai</jbo>
- <en>Alice is not a dog and is not a cat.</en>
+ <natlang>Alice is not a dog and is not a cat.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qGRz" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d12"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>nagi'o</jbo>
<jbo>gi'onai</jbo>
- <en>Alice is a dog or is a cat but not both (I'm not saying which).</en>
+ <natlang>Alice is a dog or is a cat but not both (I'm not saying which).</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qGRz"/> is correct but uncooperative.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>afterthought connectives</primary><secondary>as complete grammatical utterance</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>connectives</primary><secondary>as complete grammatical utterance</secondary></indexterm> As usual, Lojban questions are answered by filling in the blank left by the question. Here the blank is a logical connective, and therefore it is grammatical in Lojban to utter a bare logical connective without anything for it to connect.</para>
<para>The answer
<valsi>gi'e</valsi>, meaning that Alice is a dog and is a cat, is impossible in the real world, but for:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-xtIf">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d13"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do djica tu'a loi ckafi ji loi tcati</jbo>
<gloss>You desire something-about a-mass-of coffee [truth function?] a-mass-of tea?</gloss>
- <en>Do you want coffee or tea?</en>
+ <natlang>Do you want coffee or tea?</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>coffee or tea</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> the answer
<valsi>e</valsi>, meaning that I want both, is perfectly plausible, if not necessarily polite.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>afterthought connection</primary><secondary>contrasted with forethought for grammatical utterances</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>forethought connection</primary><secondary>contrasted with afterthought for grammatical utterances</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>forethought connectives</primary><secondary>as ungrammatical utterance</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>connectives</primary><secondary>as ungrammatical utterance</secondary></indexterm> The forethought questions
<valsi>ge'i</valsi> and
<valsi>gu'i</valsi> are used like the others, but ambiguity forbids the use of isolated forethought connectives as answers – they sound like the start of forethought-connected bridi. So although
@@ -1888,21 +1888,21 @@
<valsi>ko</valsi>, which means
<quote>you</quote> but marks the sentence as a command) is true if the command is obeyed, and false otherwise. A request of Abraham Lincoln's may be translated thus:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-BPv0">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e13d17"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ganai ti ckafi gi ko bevri loi tcati mi .ije ganai ti tcati gi ko bevri loi ckafi mi</jbo>
<gloss>If this is-coffee then [you!] bring a-mass-of tea to-me, and if this is-tea then [you!] bring a-mass-of coffee to-me.</gloss>
- <en>If this is coffee, bring me tea; but if this is tea, bring me coffee.</en>
+ <natlang>If this is coffee, bring me tea; but if this is tea, bring me coffee.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>UI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ku'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>and</primary><secondary>compared with but</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>but</primary><secondary>compared with and</secondary></indexterm> In logical terms, however,
<quote>but</quote> is the same as
<quote>and</quote>; the difference is that the sentence after a
<quote>but</quote> is felt to be in tension or opposition to the sentence before it. Lojban represents this distinction by adding the discursive cmavo
<valsi>ku'i</valsi> (of selma'o UI), which is explained in
<xref linkend="section-discursives"/>, to the logical
<oldjbophrase>.ije</oldjbophrase>.)</para>
@@ -1968,21 +1968,21 @@
<valsi>joi</valsi> has the connotation
<quote>mixed with</quote>, as in the following example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Xxp2">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti blanu joi xunre bolci</jbo>
<gloss>This is-a-(blue mixed-with red) ball.</gloss>
- <en>This is a blue and red ball.</en>
+ <natlang>This is a blue and red ball.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the ball is neither wholly blue nor wholly red, but partly blue and partly red. Its blue/redness is a mass property. (Just how blue something has to be to count as
<quote>wholly blue</quote> is an unsettled question, though. A
<oldjbophrase>blanu zdani</oldjbophrase> may be so even though not every part of it is blue.)</para>
<para>There are several other cmavo in selma'o JOI which can be used in the same grammatical constructions. Not all of them are well-defined as yet in all contexts. All have clear definitions as sumti connectives; those definitions are shown in the following table:</para>
<informaltable>
<tgroup cols="2">
<colspec colnum="1" colname="col1"/>
@@ -2037,38 +2037,38 @@
</informaltable>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JOI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>se</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>sepi'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>pi'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ku'a</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>jo'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>sefa'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>fa'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>jo'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>sece'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ce'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ce</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>joi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JOI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>joiks</primary><secondary>use of "se" in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>se</primary><secondary>as grammatical in JOI compounds</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo
<valsi>se</valsi> is grammatical before any JOI cmavo, but only useful with those that have inherent order. Here are some examples of joiks:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-cwG8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cuxna la .alis. la frank. ce la .alis. ce la djeimyz.</jbo>
<gloss>I choose Alice from Frank and-member Alice and-member James.</gloss>
- <en>I choose Alice from among Frank, Alice, and James.</en>
+ <natlang>I choose Alice from among Frank, Alice, and James.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>choose from</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mass</primary><secondary>contrasted with set in distribution of properties</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>set</primary><secondary>contrasted with mass in distribution of properties</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>set</primary><secondary>as specified by members</secondary></indexterm> The x3 place of
<valsi>cuxna</valsi> is a set from which the choice is being made. A set is an abstract object which is determined by specifying its members. Unlike those of a mass, the properties of a set are unrelated to its members' properties: the set of all rats is large (since many rats exist), but the rats themselves are small. This chapter does not attempt to explain set theory (the mathematical study of sets) in detail: explaining propositional logic is quite enough for one chapter!</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ce</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>set</primary><secondary>by listing members with ce</secondary></indexterm> In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-cwG8"/> we specify that set by listing the members with
<valsi>ce</valsi> joining them.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Emw0">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti liste mi ce'o do ce'o la djan.</jbo>
<gloss>This is-a-list-of me and-sequence you and-sequence John.</gloss>
- <en>This is a list of you, me, and John.</en>
+ <natlang>This is a list of you, me, and John.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>list</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>set</primary><secondary>contrasted with ordered sequence</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mass</primary><secondary>contrasted with ordered sequence</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ordered sequence</primary><secondary>contrasted with mass</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ordered sequence</primary><secondary>contrasted with set</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ordered sequence</primary><secondary>by listing members</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sequence</primary><secondary>as an abstract list</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>list</primary><secondary>as a physical object</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sequence</primary><secondary>contrasted with list</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>list</primary><secondary>contrasted with sequence</secondary></indexterm> The x2 place of
<valsi>liste</valsi> is a sequence of the things which are mentioned in the list. (It is worth pointing out that
<oldjbophrase>lo liste</oldjbophrase> means a physical object such as a grocery list: a purely abstract list is
<oldjbophrase>lo porsi</oldjbophrase>, a sequence.) Here the three sumti connected by
<valsi>ce'o</valsi> are in a definite order, not just lumped together in a set or a mass.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>jo'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>jo'u</primary><secondary>result of connection with</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>jo'u</primary><secondary>contrasted with ce'o</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>jo'u</primary><secondary>contrasted with ce</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>jo'u</primary><secondary>contrasted with joi</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>individuals into set</primary><secondary>by non-logical connection</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>individuals into mass</primary><secondary>by non-logical connection</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-logical connection</primary><secondary>of individuals into set</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-logical connection</primary><secondary>of individuals into mass</secondary></indexterm> So
<valsi>joi</valsi>,
@@ -2134,45 +2134,45 @@
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>fa'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>respectively</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>respectively</primary><secondary>specifying with fa'u</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>connection</primary><secondary>non-distributed</secondary></indexterm> Likewise,
<valsi>fa'u</valsi> can be used to put two individuals together where order matters. Typically, there will be another
<valsi>fa'u</valsi> somewhere else in the same bridi:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-MBsp">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d12"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djeimyz. fa'u la djordj. prami la meris. fa'u la martas.</jbo>
<gloss>James jointly-in-order-with George loves Mary jointly-in-order-with Martha.</gloss>
- <en>James and George love Mary and Martha, respectively.</en>
+ <natlang>James and George love Mary and Martha, respectively.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>.e</primary><secondary>contrasted with fa'u</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fa'u</primary><secondary>contrasted with .e</secondary></indexterm> Here the information carried by the English adverb
<quote>respectively</quote>, namely that James loves Mary and George loves Martha, is divided between the two occurrences of
<valsi>fa'u</valsi>. If both uses of
<valsi>fa'u</valsi> were to be changed to
<valsi>e</valsi>, we would get:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7bv3">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d13"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djeimyz. .e la djordj. prami la meris. .e la martas.</jbo>
- <en>James and George love Mary and Martha.</en>
+ <natlang>James and George love Mary and Martha.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which can be transformed to four bridi:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-I3gH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d14"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djeimyz. prami la meris. .ije la djordj. prami la meris. .ije la djeimyz. prami la martas. .ije la djordj. prami la martas.</jbo>
- <en>James loves Mary, and George loves Mary, and James loves Martha, and George loves Martha.</en>
+ <natlang>James loves Mary, and George loves Mary, and James loves Martha, and George loves Martha.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which represents quite a different state of affairs from
<xref linkend="example-random-id-MBsp"/>. The meaning of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-MBsp"/> can also be conveyed by a termset:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nER7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e14d15"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -2315,40 +2315,40 @@
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>respectively</primary><secondary>with different relationships</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tagged sumti termsets</primary><secondary>connecting with non-logical forethought connectives</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-logical forethought termsets</primary><secondary>connecting tagged sumti</secondary></indexterm> Non-logical forethought termsets are also useful when the things to be non-logically connected are sumti preceded with tense or modal (BAI) tags:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-wVSG">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e15d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. fa'u la frank. cusku nu'i bau la lojban. nu'u fa'u bai tu'a la djordj. [nu'u]</jbo>
<gloss>John respectively-with Frank express [start termset] in-language Lojban [joint] respectively-with under-compulsion-by George.</gloss>
- <en>John and Frank speak in Lojban and under George's compulsion, respectively.</en>
+ <natlang>John and Frank speak in Lojban and under George's compulsion, respectively.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-wVSG"/> associates speaking in Lojban with John, and speaking under George's compulsion with Frank. We do not know what language Frank uses, or whether John speaks under anyone's compulsion.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JOI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>I selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sequence of events</primary><secondary>expressing non-time-related sequences</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ice'o</primary><secondary>contrasted with .ibabo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sentences</primary><secondary>connecting non-logically</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-logical connectives</primary><secondary>sentence</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ijoik</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> Joiks may be prefixed with
<valsi>i</valsi> to produce ijoiks, which serve to non-logically connect sentences. The ijoik
<oldjbophrase>.ice'o</oldjbophrase> indicates that the event of the second bridi follows that of the first bridi in some way other than a time relationship (which is handled with a tense):</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-27xU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e15d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ba gasnu la'edi'e .i tu'e kanji lo ni cteki .ice'o lumci le karce .ice'o dzukansa le gerku tu'u</jbo>
<gloss>I [future] do the-referent-of-the-following: ( Compute the quantity of taxes. And-then wash the car. And-then walkingly-accompany the dog. )</gloss>
- <en>List of things to do: Figure taxes. Wash car. Walk dog.</en>
+ <natlang>List of things to do: Figure taxes. Wash car. Walk dog.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>tu'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>tu'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>di'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>TUhU selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>TUhE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>list of things to do</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>to-do list</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tu'e</primary><secondary>use in lists</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tu'e</primary><secondary>effect on di'e</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>di'e</primary><secondary>effect of tu'e/tu'u on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lists</primary><secondary>use of tu'e/tu'u in</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-27xU"/> represents a list of things to be done in priority order. The order is important, hence the need for a sequence connective, but does not necessarily represent a time order (the dog may end up getting walked first). Note the use of
<valsi>tu'e</valsi> and
<valsi>tu'u</valsi> as general brackets around the whole list. This is related to, but distinct from, their use in
<xref linkend="section-afterthought-connectives-grouping"/>, because there is no logical connective between the introductory phrase
<oldjbophrase>mi ba gasnu la'edi'e</oldjbophrase> and the rest. The brackets effectively show how large an utterance the word
<valsi>di'e</valsi>, which means
@@ -2377,32 +2377,32 @@
<valsi>joi</valsi> would be the correct connective.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>connective answers</primary><secondary>non-logical</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>connective questions</primary><secondary>non-logical</secondary></indexterm> There is no joik question cmavo as such; however, joiks and ijoiks may be uttered in isolation in response to a logical connective question, as in the following exchange:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qGSm" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e15d12"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do djica tu'a loi ckafi ji loi tcati</jbo>
<gloss>You desire something-about a-mass-of coffee [what connective?] a-mass-of tea?</gloss>
- <en>Do you want coffee or tea?</en>
+ <natlang>Do you want coffee or tea?</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qgsp" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e15d13"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>joi</jbo>
<gloss>Mixed-mass-and.</gloss>
- <en>Both as a mass (i.e, mixed together).</en>
+ <natlang>Both as a mass (i.e, mixed together).</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>ugh</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>coffee mixed with tea</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> Ugh. (Or in Lojban: <oldjbophrase>.a'unaisairo'o</oldjbophrase>.)</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-non-logical-continued-continued">
<title>Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection</title>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>mi'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>bi'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>bi'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>BIhI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>intervals</primary><secondary>expressed as endpoints</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-logical connectives</primary><secondary>intervals</secondary></indexterm> In addition to the non-logical connectives of selma'o JOI explained in
<xref linkend="section-non-logical-connectives"/> and
<xref linkend="section-non-logical-continued"/>, there are three other connectives which can appear in joiks:
@@ -2417,39 +2417,39 @@
<para>An example of
<valsi>bi'i</valsi> in sumti connection:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sHhA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e16d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ca sanli la drezdn. bi'i la frankfurt.</jbo>
<gloss>I [present] stand-on-surface Dresden [interval] Frankfurt.</gloss>
- <en>I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt.</en>
+ <natlang>I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>bi'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>between Dresden and Frankfurt</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-logical connectives</primary><secondary>un-ordered intervals</secondary></indexterm> In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-sHhA"/>, it is all the same whether I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt or between Frankfurt and Dresden, so
<valsi>bi'i</valsi> is the appropriate interval connective. The sumti
<oldjbophrase>la drezdn. bi'i la frankfurt.</oldjbophrase> falls into the x2 place of
<valsi>sanli</valsi>, which is the surface I stand on; the interval specifies that surface by its limits. (Obviously, I am not standing on the whole of the interval; the x2 place of
<valsi>sanli</valsi> specifies a surface which is typically larger in extent than just the size of the stander's feet.)</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rYv4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e16d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cadzu ca la pacac. bi'o la recac.</jbo>
<gloss>I walk simultaneous-with First-hour [ordered-interval] Second-hour.</gloss>
- <en>I walk from one o'clock to two o'clock.</en>
+ <natlang>I walk from one o'clock to two o'clock.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>bi'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>from one to two o'clock</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-logical connectives</primary><secondary>ordered intervals</secondary></indexterm> In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-rYv4"/>, on the other hand, it is essential that
<oldjbophrase>la pacac.</oldjbophrase> comes before
<oldjbophrase>la recac.</oldjbophrase>; otherwise we have an 11-hour (or 23-hour) interval rather than a one-hour interval. In this use of an interval, the whole interval is probably intended, or at least most of it.</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-rYv4"/> is equivalent to:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>sebi'o</primary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-qqIr">
@@ -2470,69 +2470,69 @@
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>bomb destroyed fifty miles</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-wm5E">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e16d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le jbama pu daspo la .uacintyn. mi'i lo minli be li muno</jbo>
<gloss>The bomb [past] destroys Washington [center] what-is measured-in-miles by 50.</gloss>
- <en>The bomb destroyed Washington and fifty miles around.</en>
+ <natlang>The bomb destroyed Washington and fifty miles around.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here we have an interval whose center is Washington and whose distance, or radius, is fifty miles.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GAhO selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ke'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ga'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>endpoints</primary><secondary>inclusion in interval</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>interval</primary><secondary>inclusion of endpoints</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>interval</primary><secondary>open</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>interval</primary><secondary>closed</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>open interval</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>closed interval</primary></indexterm> In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-sHhA"/>, is it possible that I am standing in Dresden (or Frankfurt) itself? Yes. The connectives of selma'o BIhI are ambiguous about whether the endpoints themselves are included in or excluded from the interval. Two auxiliary cmavo
<valsi>ga'o</valsi> and
<valsi>ke'i</valsi> (of cmavo GAhO) are used to indicate the status of the endpoints:
<valsi>ga'o</valsi> means that the endpoint is included,
<valsi>ke'i</valsi> that it is excluded:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qGTc" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e16d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ca sanli la drezdn. ga'o bi'i ga'o la frankfurt.</jbo>
<gloss>I [present] stand Dresden [inclusive] [interval] [inclusive] Frankfurt.</gloss>
- <en>I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt, inclusive of both.</en>
+ <natlang>I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt, inclusive of both.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qGtv" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e16d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ca sanli la drezdn. ga'o bi'i ke'i la frankfurt.</jbo>
<gloss>I [present] stand Dresden [inclusive] [interval] [exclusive] Frankfurt.</gloss>
- <en>I am standing between Dresden (inclusive) and Frankfurt (exclusive).</en>
+ <natlang>I am standing between Dresden (inclusive) and Frankfurt (exclusive).</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qgUo" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e16d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ca sanli la drezdn. ke'i bi'i ga'o la frankfurt.</jbo>
<gloss>I [present] stand Dresden [exclusive] [interval] [inclusive] Frankfurt.</gloss>
- <en>I am standing between Dresden (exclusive) and Frankfurt (inclusive).</en>
+ <natlang>I am standing between Dresden (exclusive) and Frankfurt (inclusive).</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qGvB" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e16d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ca sanli la drezdn. ke'i bi'i ke'i la frankfurt.</jbo>
<gloss>I [present] stand Dresden [exclusive] [interval] [exclusive] Frankfurt.</gloss>
- <en>I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt, exclusive of both.</en>
+ <natlang>I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt, exclusive of both.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>between Dresden and Frankfurt</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>GAhO selma'o</primary><secondary>grammar of</secondary></indexterm> As these examples should make clear, the GAhO cmavo that applies to a given endpoint is the one that stands physically adjacent to it: the left-hand endpoint is referred to by the first GAhO, and the right-hand endpoint by the second GAhO. It is ungrammatical to have just one GAhO.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ke'i</primary><secondary>etymology of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ga'o</primary><secondary>etymology of</secondary></indexterm> (Etymologically,
<valsi>ga'o</valsi> is derived from
<valsi>ganlo</valsi>, which means
<quote>closed</quote>, and
<valsi>ke'i</valsi> from
<valsi>kalri</valsi>, which means
@@ -2543,21 +2543,21 @@
<oldjbophrase>-nai</oldjbophrase> following the BIhI cmavo, indicate an interval that includes everything but what is between the endpoints (with respect to some understood scale):</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>except from 10 to 12</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-39EI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e16d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do dicra .e'a mi ca la daucac. bi'onai la gaicac.</jbo>
<gloss>You disturb (allowed) me at 10 not-from ... to 12</gloss>
- <en>You can contact me except from 10 to 12.</en>
+ <natlang>You can contact me except from 10 to 12.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The complete syntax of joiks is:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GAhO selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>BIhI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JOI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>nai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>se</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>joiks</primary><secondary>syntax of</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<grammar-template>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>
[se] JOI [nai]
@@ -2627,21 +2627,21 @@
<valsi>gi</valsi> is the regular gik that separates the two things being connected in all forethought forms.</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qGtv"/> can be expressed in forethought as:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-u51K">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e16d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ca sanli ke'i bi'i ga'o gi la drezdn. gi la frankfurt.</jbo>
<gloss>I [present] stand [exclusive] between [inclusive] Dresden and Frankfurt.</gloss>
- <en>I am standing between Dresden (exclusive) and Frankfurt (inclusive).</en>
+ <natlang>I am standing between Dresden (exclusive) and Frankfurt (inclusive).</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>between Dresden and Frankfurt</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>GAhO position in forethought intervals</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>forethought intervals</primary><secondary>GAhO position</secondary></indexterm> In forethought, unfortunately, the GAhOs become physically separated from the endpoints, but the same rule applies: the first GAhO refers to the first endpoint.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-mekso-connections">
<title>Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mathematical expressions</primary><secondary>connectives in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-logical connection</primary><secondary>in mathematical expressions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>in mathematical expressions</secondary></indexterm> Lojban has a separate grammar embedded within the main grammar for representing mathematical expressions (or mekso in Lojban) such as
<quote>2 + 2</quote>. Mathematical expressions are explained fully in
<xref linkend="chapter-mekso"/>. The basic components of mekso are operands, like
@@ -2687,48 +2687,48 @@
<valsi>ve'o</valsi> parentheses when used as a quantifier. The right parenthesis mark,
<valsi>ve'o</valsi>, is an elidable terminator.</para>
<para>Simple examples of logical connection between operators are hard to come by. A contrived example is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-dCxf">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e17d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li re su'i je pi'i re du li vo</jbo>
<gloss>The-number 2 plus and times 2 equals the-number 4.</gloss>
- <en><inlinemath>2 + 2 = 4</inlinemath> and <inlinemath>2 x 2 = 4</inlinemath>.</en>
+ <natlang><inlinemath>2 + 2 = 4</inlinemath> and <inlinemath>2 x 2 = 4</inlinemath>.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The forethought form of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-dCxf"/> is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-YBD6">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e17d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li re ge su'i gi pi'i re du li vo</jbo>
<gloss>The-number two both plus and times two equals the-number four.</gloss>
- <en>Both <inlinemath>2 + 2 = 4</inlinemath> and <inlinemath>2 x 2 = 4</inlinemath>.</en>
+ <natlang>Both <inlinemath>2 + 2 = 4</inlinemath> and <inlinemath>2 x 2 = 4</inlinemath>.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ke'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ga'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>bi'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mathematical intervals</primary></indexterm> Non-logical connection with joiks or joigiks is also permitted between operands and between operators. One use for this construct is to connect operands with
<valsi>bi'i</valsi> to create mathematical intervals:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-z2oF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e17d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li no ga'o bi'i ke'i pa</jbo>
<gloss>the-number zero (inclusive) from-to (exclusive) one</gloss>
<math>[0,1)</math>
- <en>the numbers from zero to one, including zero but not including one</en>
+ <natlang>the numbers from zero to one, including zero but not including one</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ce'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>zero to one</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>compound subscript</primary></indexterm> You can also combine two operands with
<valsi>ce'o</valsi>, the sequence connective of selma'o JOI, to make a compound subscript:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-8rEL">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e17d6"/>
@@ -2759,48 +2759,48 @@
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logically connected tenses</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>interaction with tenses</secondary></indexterm> The two types of interaction between tenses and logical connectives are logically connected tenses and tensed logical connections. The former are fairly simple. Jeks may be used between tense cmavo to specify two connected bridi that differ only in tense:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-g6iT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e18d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .artr. pu nolraitru .ije la .artr. ba nolraitru</jbo>
<gloss>Arthur [past] is-a-noblest-governor. And Arthur [future] is-a-noblest-governor.</gloss>
- <en>Arthur was a king, and Arthur will be a king.</en>
+ <natlang>Arthur was a king, and Arthur will be a king.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>once and future king</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> can be reduced to:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PLgw">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e18d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .artr. pu je ba nolraitru</jbo>
<gloss>Arthur [past] and [future] is-a-noblest-governor.</gloss>
- <en>Arthur was and will be king.</en>
+ <natlang>Arthur was and will be king.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-g6iT"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-PLgw"/> are equivalent in meaning; neither says anything about whether Arthur is king now.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-logically connected tenses</primary></indexterm> Non-logical connection with joiks is also possible between tenses:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>breathe</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Mcsi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e18d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu bi'o ba vasxu</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] from ... to [future] breathe.</gloss>
- <en>I breathe from a past time until a future time.</en>
+ <natlang>I breathe from a past time until a future time.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The full tense system makes more interesting tense intervals expressible, such as
<quote>from a medium time ago until a long time from now</quote>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tenses</primary><secondary>grouping of connectives in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>grouping</primary><secondary>of connection in tenses</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tenses</primary><secondary>forethought connection in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>forethought connection</primary><secondary>in tenses</secondary></indexterm> No forethought connections between tenses are permitted by the grammar, nor is there any way to override the default left-grouping rule; these limitations are imposed to keep the tense grammar simpler. Whatever can be said with tenses or modals can be said with subordinate bridi stating the time, place, or mode explicitly, so it is reasonable to try to remove at least some complications.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tensed logical connection</primary></indexterm> Tensed logical connections are both more complex and more important than logical connections between tenses. Consider the English sentence:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>went and bought</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
@@ -2852,96 +2852,96 @@
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>BO selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>A selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tensed logical connectives</primary><secondary>in ek…bo</secondary></indexterm> Adding tense or modal information to a logical connective is permitted only in the following situations:</para>
<para>Between an ek (or joik) and
<valsi>bo</valsi>, as in:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-129L">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e18d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .djan .ecabo la .alis. klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>John and [simultaneous] Alice go-to the market.</gloss>
- <en>John and Alice go to the market simultaneously.</en>
+ <natlang>John and Alice go to the market simultaneously.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>KE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JOI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>KE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>A selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>simultaneously</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tensed logical connectives</primary><secondary>in joik…ke</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tensed logical connectives</primary><secondary>in ek…ke</secondary></indexterm> Between an ek (or joik) and
<valsi>ke</valsi>, as in:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nydK">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e18d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi dzukla le zarci .epuke le zdani .a le ckule [ke'e]</jbo>
<gloss>I walk-to the market and [earlier] ( the house or the school ).</gloss>
- <en>I walk to the market and, before that, to the house or the school.</en>
+ <natlang>I walk to the market and, before that, to the house or the school.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>BO selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GIhA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>and earlier</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tensed logical connectives</primary><secondary>in gihek…bo</secondary></indexterm> Between a gihek and
<valsi>bo</valsi>, as in:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-APPE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e18d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi dunda le cukta gi'ebabo lebna lo rupnu vau do</jbo>
<gloss>I give the book and [later] take some currency-units from/to you.</gloss>
- <en>I give you the book and then take some dollars (pounds, yen) from you.</en>
+ <natlang>I give you the book and then take some dollars (pounds, yen) from you.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>KE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GIhA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>and then</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tensed logical connectives</primary><secondary>in gihek…ke</secondary></indexterm> Between a gihek and
<valsi>ke</valsi>, as in:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-A0yC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e18d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi dzukla le zarci gi'ecake cusku zo'e la djan. [ke'e]</jbo>
<gloss>I walk-to the market and [simultaneous] express something to-John.</gloss>
- <en>I walk to the market and at the same time talk to John.</en>
+ <natlang>I walk to the market and at the same time talk to John.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>BO selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>I selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>and simultaneously</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tensed logical connectives</primary><secondary>in ijoik…bo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tensed logical connectives</primary><secondary>in ijek…bo</secondary></indexterm> Between an ijek (or ijoik) and
<valsi>bo</valsi>, as in:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-AhnP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e18d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska pa nanmu .ijebabo mi viska pa ninmu</jbo>
<gloss>I see a man. And [later] I see a woman.</gloss>
- <en>I see a man, and then I see a woman.</en>
+ <natlang>I see a man, and then I see a woman.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>TUhE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>I selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JOI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>and then</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tensed logical connectives</primary><secondary>in ijoik…tu'e</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tensed logical connectives</primary><secondary>in ijek…tu'e</secondary></indexterm> Between an ijek (or ijoik) and
<valsi>tu'e</valsi>, as in:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-GBgP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e18d12"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska pa nanmu .ijebatu'e mi viska pa ninmu [tu'u]</jbo>
<gloss>I see a man. And [later] I see a woman.</gloss>
- <en>I see a man, and then I see a woman.</en>
+ <natlang>I see a man, and then I see a woman.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>BO selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JOI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>and then</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tensed logical connectives</primary><secondary>in joik…bo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tensed logical connectives</primary><secondary>in jek…bo</secondary></indexterm> And finally, between a jek (or joik) and
<valsi>bo</valsi>, as in:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Ce09">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e18d13"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi mikce jebabo ricfu</jbo>
<gloss>I-am-a doctor and [later] rich</gloss>
- <en>I am a doctor and future rich person.</en>
+ <natlang>I am a doctor and future rich person.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>tu'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ke</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>bo</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>TUhE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>KE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>BO selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>doctor and then rich</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tu'e</primary><secondary>contrasted with bo for tensed logical connection</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bo</primary><secondary>contrasted with tu'e for tensed logical connection</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ke</primary><secondary>contrasted with bo for tensed logical connection</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bo</primary><secondary>contrasted with ke for tensed logical connection</secondary></indexterm> As can be seen from
<xref linkend="example-random-id-AhnP"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-GBgP"/>, the choice between
<valsi>bo</valsi> and
<valsi>ke</valsi> (or
<valsi>tu'e</valsi>) is arbitrary when there are only two things to be connected. If there were no tense information to include, of course neither would be required; it is only the rule that tense information must always be sandwiched between the logical connective and a following
<valsi>bo</valsi>,
<valsi>ke</valsi>, or
@@ -2952,34 +2952,34 @@
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mathematical expressions</primary><secondary>tensed connection in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tensed connectives</primary><secondary>in mathematical expressions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tensed non-logical connectives</primary><secondary>forethought</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tensed logical connectives</primary><secondary>forethought</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>forethought connectives</primary><secondary>with tense</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tensed non-logical connectives</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-logical connectives</primary><secondary>including tense</secondary></indexterm> Non-logical connectives with
<valsi>bo</valsi> and
<valsi>ke</valsi> can include tense information in exactly the same way as logical connectives. Forethought connectives, however (except as noted below) are unable to do so, as are termsets or tense connectives. Mathematical operands and operators can also include tense information in their logical connectives as a result of their close parallelism with sumti and tanru components respectively:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sgUo">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e18d14"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>vei ci .ebabo vo [ve'o] tadni cu zvati le kumfa</jbo>
<gloss>( 3 and [future] 4 ) students are-at the room.</gloss>
- <en>Three and, later, four students were in the room.</en>
+ <natlang>Three and, later, four students were in the room.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>forethought bridi-tail connection</primary><secondary>special rule for tense</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>in forethought bridi-tail connection</secondary><tertiary>special rule</tertiary></indexterm> is a simple example. There is a special grammatical rule for use when a tense applies to both of the selbri in a forethought bridi-tail connection: the entire forethought construction can just be preceded by a tense. For example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-DxuA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e18d15"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu ge klama le zarci gi tervecnu lo cidja</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] both go-to the market and buy some food</gloss>
- <en>I went to the market and bought some food.</en>
+ <natlang>I went to the market and bought some food.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>pu ge</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>went and bought</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-DxuA"/> is similar to
<xref linkend="example-random-id-PMTu"/>. There is no time relationship specified between the going and the buying; both are simply set in the past.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-abstractors">
<title>Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions</title>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>NU selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>jeks</primary><secondary>connecting abstractors</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstractions</primary><secondary>logical connection of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection of abstractors</primary></indexterm> Last and (as a matter of fact) least: a logical connective is allowed between abstraction markers of selma'o NU. As usual, the connection can be expanded to a bridi connection between two bridi which differ only in abstraction marker. Jeks are the appropriate connective.
@@ -2994,34 +2994,34 @@
<jbo>le ka la frank. ciska cu xlali .ije le ni la frank. ciska cu xlali</jbo>
<gloss>The quality-of Frank's writing is bad, and the quantity of Frank's writing is bad.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qgVR" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e19d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ka je ni la frank. ciska cu xlali</jbo>
- <en>The quality and quantity of Frank's writing is bad.</en>
+ <natlang>The quality and quantity of Frank's writing is bad.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>quality and quantity</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstractions</primary><secondary>grouping of connectives in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>grouping</primary><secondary>of connection in abstractions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstractions</primary><secondary>forethought connection in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>forethought connection</primary><secondary>in abstractions</secondary></indexterm> As with tenses and modals, there is no forethought and no way to override the left-grouping rule.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>inside abstractions</secondary><tertiary>contrasted with outside</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>in abstractions</secondary><tertiary>inner bridi contrasted with outer bridi</tertiary></indexterm> Logical connectives and abstraction are related in another way as well, though. Since an abstraction contains a bridi, the bridi may have a logical connection inside it. Is it legitimate to split the outer bridi into two, joined by the logical connection? Absolutely not. For example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-f1uT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e19d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi jinvi le du'u loi jmive cu zvati gi'onai na zvati vau la .iupiter.</jbo>
<gloss>I opine the fact-that a-mass-of living-things (is-at or-else isn't-at) Jupiter.</gloss>
- <en>I believe there either is or isn't life on Jupiter.</en>
+ <natlang>I believe there either is or isn't life on Jupiter.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Jupiter life</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> is true, since the embedded sentence is a tautology, but:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-X69J">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c14e19d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi jinvi le du'u loi jmive cu zvati la .iupiter. .ijonai mi jinvi le du'u loi jmive cu zvati la .iupiter.</jbo>
<gloss>I opine the fact-that a-mass-of living-things is-at Jupiter or-else I opine the fact-that a-mass-of living-things isn't-at Jupiter</gloss>
diff --git a/todocbook/15.xml b/todocbook/15.xml
index 1f6c413..ee86de8 100644
--- a/todocbook/15.xml
+++ b/todocbook/15.xml
@@ -154,41 +154,41 @@
<para>Because of the ambiguity of English
<quote>not</quote>, we will use
<quote>[false]</quote> in the translation of Lojban examples to remind the reader that we are expressing a contradictory negation. Here are more examples of bridi negation:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qgzz" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi [cu] na ca klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [false] now am-a-go-er to the market.</gloss>
- <en>I am not going to the market now.</en>
+ <natlang>I am not going to the market now.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qh10" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu na krecau</jbo>
<gloss>The-actual present noblest-governor of the French country [false] is-hair-without.</gloss>
- <en>The current king of France isn't bald.</en>
+ <natlang>The current king of France isn't bald.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qh2i" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti na barda prenu co melbi mi</jbo>
<gloss>This [false] is a big-person of-type (beautiful to me).</gloss>
- <en>This isn't a big person who is beautiful to me.</en>
+ <natlang>This isn't a big person who is beautiful to me.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Although there is this fundamental difference between Lojban's internal bridi negation and English negation, we note that in many cases, especially when there are no existential or quantified variables (the cmavo
<valsi>da</valsi>,
<valsi>de</valsi>, and
<valsi>di</valsi> of selma'o KOhA, explained in
<xref linkend="chapter-quantifiers"/>) in the bridi, you can indeed translate Lojban
@@ -200,44 +200,44 @@
<para>In Lojban, there are several structures that implicitly contain bridi, so that Lojban sentences may contain more than one occurrence of
<valsi>na</valsi>. For example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-WU9u">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na gleki le nu na klama le nu dansu</jbo>
<gloss>I [false] am-happy-about the event-of ([false] going-to the event-of dancing).</gloss>
<gloss>It is not the case that I am happy about it not being the case that I am going to the dance.</gloss>
- <en>I am not happy about not going to the dance.</en>
+ <natlang>I am not happy about not going to the dance.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In the previous example, we used internal negations in abstraction bridi; bridi negation may also be found in descriptions within sumti. For example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-N65f">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci le na melbi</jbo>
<gloss>I am fond of the-one-described-as ([false] beautiful).</gloss>
- <en>I am fond of the one who isn't beautiful.</en>
+ <natlang>I am fond of the one who isn't beautiful.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>A more extreme (and more indefinite) example is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-eQaI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci lo na ca nolraitru be le frasygu'e</jbo>
<gloss>I am-fond-of one-who-is ([false] the current king of the French-country).</gloss>
- <en>I am fond of one who isn't the current king of France.</en>
+ <natlang>I am fond of one who isn't the current king of France.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The claim of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-eQaI"/> could apply to anyone except a person who is fond of no one at all, since the relation within the description is false for everyone. You cannot readily express these situations in colloquial English.</para>
<para>Negation with
<valsi>na</valsi> applies to an entire bridi, and not to just part of a selbri. Therefore, you won't likely have reason to put
<valsi>na</valsi> inside a tanru. In fact, the grammar currently does not allow you to do so (except in a lujvo and in elaborate constructs involving GUhA, the forethought connector for selbri). Any situation where you might want to do so can be expressed in a less-compressed non-tanru form. This grammatical restriction helps ensure that bridi negation is kept separate from other forms of negation.</para>
<para>The grammar of
@@ -264,21 +264,21 @@
</example>
<para>When a selbri is tagged with a tense or a modal, negation with
<valsi>na</valsi> is permitted in two positions: before or after the tag. No semantic difference between these forms has yet been defined, but this is not finally determined, since the interactions between tenses/modals and bridi negation have not been fully explored. In particular, it remains to be seen whether sentences using less familiar tenses, such as:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-fgmv">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d13"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi [cu] ta'e klama le zarci</jbo>
- <en>I habitually go to the market.</en>
+ <natlang>I habitually go to the market.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>mean the same thing with
<valsi>na</valsi> before the
<valsi>ta'e</valsi>, as when the negation occurs afterwards; we'll let future, Lojban-speaking, logicians decide on how they relate to each other.</para>
<para>A final caution on translating English negations into Lojban: if you translate the English literally, you'll get the wrong one. With English causal statements, and other statements with auxiliary clauses, this problem is more likely.</para>
<para>Thus, if you translate the English:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-hEa7">
<title>
@@ -288,35 +288,35 @@
</example>
<para>as:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-q8su">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d15"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na klama le zarci ki'u lenu le karce cu spofu</jbo>
<gloss>I [false] go-to the market because the car is broken.</gloss>
- <en>It is false that:
- <quote>I go to the market because the car is broken.</quote></en>
+ <natlang>It is false that:
+ <quote>I go to the market because the car is broken.</quote></natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>you end up negating too much.</para>
<para>Such mistranslations result from the ambiguity of English compounded by the messiness of natural language negation. A correct translation of the normal interpretation of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-hEa7"/> is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-R3GU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d16"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lenu mi na klama le zarci cu se krinu lenu le karce cu spofu</jbo>
<gloss>The event-of (my [false] going-to the market) is justified by the event-of (the car being broken).</gloss>
- <en>My not going to the market is because the car is broken.</en>
+ <natlang>My not going to the market is because the car is broken.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-R3GU"/>, the negation is clearly confined to the event abstraction in the x1 sumti, and does not extend to the whole sentence. The English could also have been expressed by two separate sentences joined by a causal connective (which we'll not go into here).</para>
<para>The problem is not confined to obvious causals. In the English:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-MGvB">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e2d17"/>
@@ -506,21 +506,21 @@
<para>All the scalar negations illustrated in
<xref linkend="section-scalar-negation"/> are expressed in Lojban using the cmavo
<valsi>na'e</valsi> (of selma'o NAhE). The most common use of
<valsi>na'e</valsi> is as a prefix to the selbri:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qh42" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci</jbo>
- <en>I go to the market.</en>
+ <natlang>I go to the market.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qH4n" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na'e klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I non-go to the market.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -740,45 +740,45 @@
<quote>non-</quote>, we've translated the Lojban as if the selbri were a noun. Since Lojban
<valsi>klama</valsi> is indifferently a noun, verb, or adjective, the difference is purely a translation change, not a true change in meaning. The English difference seems significant, though, due to the strongly different English grammatical forms and the ambiguity of English negation.</para>
<para>Consider the following highly problematic sentence:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-GFFo">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d15"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu krecau</jbo>
<gloss>An-actual currently noblest-governor of the French country is-hair-without.</gloss>
- <en>The current King of France is bald.</en>
+ <natlang>The current King of France is bald.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The selbri
<oldjbophrase>krecau</oldjbophrase> negates with
<valsi>na'e</valsi> as:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2maY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d16"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu na'e krecau</jbo>
<gloss>An-actual currently noblest-governor of the French country is-other-than hair-without.</gloss>
- <en>The current King of France is other-than-bald.</en>
+ <natlang>The current King of France is other-than-bald.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>or, as a lujvo:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-wGXL">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d17"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu nalkrecau</jbo>
<gloss>An-actual currently noblest-governor of the French country is-non-hair-without.</gloss>
- <en>The current King of France is a non-bald-one.</en>
+ <natlang>The current King of France is a non-bald-one.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-2maY"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-wGXL"/> express the predicate negation forms using a negation word (
<valsi>na'e</valsi>) or rafsi (
<rafsi>-nal-</rafsi>); yet they make positive assertions about the current King of France; ie., that he is other-than-bald or non-bald. This follows from the close binding of
<valsi>na'e</valsi> to the brivla. The lujvo form makes this overt by absorbing the negative marker into the word.</para>
@@ -787,21 +787,21 @@
<para>Since there is no current King of France, it is false to say that he is bald, or non-bald, or to make any other affirmative claim about him. Any sentence about the current King of France containing only a selbri negation is as false as the sentence without the negation. No amount of selbri negations have any effect on the truth value of the sentence, which is invariably
<quote>false</quote>, since no affirmative statement about the current King of France can be true. On the other hand, bridi negation does produce a truth:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Bwdy">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e4d18"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu na krecau</jbo>
<gloss>An-actual current noblest-governor of the French Country [false] is-hair-without.</gloss>
- <en>It is false that the current King of France is bald.</en>
+ <natlang>It is false that the current King of France is bald.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note:
<valsi>lo</valsi> is used in these sentences because negation relates to truth conditions. To meaningfully talk about truth conditions in sentences carrying a description, it must be clear that the description actually applies to the referent. A sentence using
<valsi>le</valsi> instead of
<valsi>lo</valsi> can be true even if there is no current king of France, as long as the speaker and the listener agree to describe something as the current king of France. (See the explanations of
<valsi>le</valsi> in
<xref linkend="section-basic-descriptors"/>.)</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-scales-negation">
@@ -927,41 +927,41 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qh9U" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e5d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta na'e melbi</jbo>
<gloss>That is-non-beautiful.</gloss>
<gloss>That is other than beautiful.</gloss>
- <en>That is ugly [in one sense].</en>
+ <natlang>That is ugly [in one sense].</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qhAI" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e5d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta no'e melbi</jbo>
<gloss>That is-neutrally beautiful.</gloss>
- <en>That is plain/ordinary-looking (neither ugly nor beautiful).</en>
+ <natlang>That is plain/ordinary-looking (neither ugly nor beautiful).</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qHAV" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e5d12"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta to'e melbi</jbo>
<gloss>That is-opposite-of beautiful.</gloss>
- <en>That is ugly/very ugly/repulsive.</en>
+ <natlang>That is ugly/very ugly/repulsive.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The cmavo
<valsi>to'e</valsi> has the assigned rafsi
<rafsi>-tol-</rafsi> and
<oldjbophrase>-to'e-</oldjbophrase>; the cmavo
<valsi>no'e</valsi> has the assigned rafsi
<rafsi>-nor-</rafsi> and
<rafsi>-no'e-</rafsi>. The selbri in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qh9U"/> through
@@ -986,55 +986,55 @@
<oldjbophrase>na'ebo</oldjbophrase> forms a scalar negation.</para>
<para>Let us show examples of each.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PL1E">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e6d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>no lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu krecau</jbo>
<gloss>Zero of those who are currently noblest-governors of the French country are-hair-without.</gloss>
- <en>No current king of France is bald.</en>
+ <natlang>No current king of France is bald.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Is
<xref linkend="example-random-id-PL1E"/> true? Yes, because it merely claims that of the current Kings of France, however many there may be, none are bald, which is plainly true, since there are no such current Kings of France.</para>
<para>Now let us look at the same sentence using
<oldjbophrase>na'ebo</oldjbophrase> negation:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-LebJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e6d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>na'ebo lo ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e cu krecau</jbo>
<gloss>[Something] other-than-(the-current-noblest-governor of the French country) is-hair-without.</gloss>
- <en>Something other than the current King of France is bald.</en>
+ <natlang>Something other than the current King of France is bald.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-LebJ"/> is true provided that something reasonably describable as
<quote>other than a current King of France</quote>, such as the King of Saudi Arabia, or a former King of France, is in fact bald.</para>
<para>In place of
<oldjbophrase>na'ebo</oldjbophrase>, you may also use
<oldjbophrase>no'ebo</oldjbophrase> and
<oldjbophrase>to'ebo</oldjbophrase>, to be more specific about the sumti which would be appropriate in place of the stated sumti. Good examples are hard to come by, but here's a valiant try:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-S4AU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e6d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama to'ebo la bastn.</jbo>
<gloss>I go to the-opposite-of Boston.</gloss>
- <en>I go to Perth.</en>
+ <natlang>I go to Perth.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(Boston and Perth are nearly, but not quite, antipodal cities. In a purely United States context, San Francisco might be a better
<quote>opposite</quote>.) Coming up with good examples is difficult, because attaching
<oldjbophrase>to'ebo</oldjbophrase> to a description sumti is usually the same as attaching
<valsi>to'e</valsi> to the selbri of the description.</para>
<para>It is not possible to transform sumti negations of either type into bridi negations or scalar selbri negations. Negations of sumti will be used in Lojban conversation. The inability to manipulate these negations logically will, it is hoped, prevent the logical errors that result when natural languages attempt corresponding manipulations.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-other-negation">
<title>Negation of minor grammatical constructs</title>
@@ -1050,32 +1050,32 @@
<oldjbophrase>punai</oldjbophrase> as a tense inflection means
<quote>not-in-the-past</quote>, or
<quote>not-previously</quote>, without making any implication about any other time period unless explicitly stated. As a result,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PprX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e7d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na pu klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [false] [past] go-to the store.</gloss>
- <en>I didn't go to the store.</en>
+ <natlang>I didn't go to the store.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-0hv2">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e7d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi punai klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [past-not] go-to the store.</gloss>
- <en>I didn't go to the store.</en>
+ <natlang>I didn't go to the store.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>mean exactly the same thing, although there may be a difference of emphasis.</para>
<para>Tenses and modals can be logically connected, with the logical connectives containing contradictory negations; this allows negated tenses and modals to be expressed positively using logical connectives. Thus
<oldjbophrase>punai je ca</oldjbophrase> means the same thing as
<oldjbophrase>pu naje ca</oldjbophrase>.</para>
<para>As a special case, a
<oldjbophrase>-nai</oldjbophrase> attached to the interval modifiers of selma'o TAhE, ROI, or ZAhO (explained in
<xref linkend="chapter-tenses"/>) signals a scalar negation:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4YYQ">
@@ -1143,32 +1143,32 @@
<valsi>na</valsi> immediately after the
<valsi>cu</valsi> (and before any tense/modal):</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-DMAd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e8d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>na go'i</jbo>
<gloss>[false] [repeat previous]</gloss>
- <en>No.</en>
+ <natlang>No.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which means</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mQSJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e8d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. [cu] na pu klama la paris. .e la rom.</jbo>
<gloss>John [false] previously went-to [both] Paris and Rome.</gloss>
- <en>It's not true that John went to Paris and Rome.</en>
+ <natlang>It's not true that John went to Paris and Rome.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The respondent can change the tense, putting the
<valsi>na</valsi> in either before or after the new tense:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rii2">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e8d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>na ba go'i</jbo>
@@ -1176,21 +1176,21 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>meaning</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Fn2c">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e8d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. [cu] na ba klama la paris. .e la rom.</jbo>
<gloss>John [false] later-will-go-to [both] Paris and Rome.</gloss>
- <en>It is false that John will go to Paris and Rome.</en>
+ <natlang>It is false that John will go to Paris and Rome.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>or alternatively</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-acM9">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e8d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ba na go'i</jbo>
<gloss>[false] [future] [repeat previous]</gloss>
@@ -1261,21 +1261,21 @@
<gloss>Is it true that: John [false] previously-went-to [both] Paris and Rome.]</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The obvious, but incorrect, positive response to this negative question is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-F3LE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e9d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>go'i</jbo>
- <en>[repeat previous]</en>
+ <natlang>[repeat previous]</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>A plain
<valsi>go'i</valsi> does not mean
<quote>Yes it is</quote>; it merely abbreviates repeating the previous statement unmodified, including any negators present; and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-F3LE"/> actually states that it is false that John went to both Paris and Rome.</para>
<para>When considering:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Pgrw">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e9d4"/>
@@ -1305,21 +1305,21 @@
</example>
<para>
<valsi>ja'a</valsi> can replace
<valsi>na</valsi> in a similar manner wherever the latter is used:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mrtu">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e9d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ja'a klama le zarci</jbo>
- <en>I indeed go to the store.</en>
+ <natlang>I indeed go to the store.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<valsi>je'a</valsi> can replace
<valsi>na'e</valsi> in exactly the same way, stating that scalar negation does not apply, and that the relation indeed holds as stated. In the absence of a negation context, it emphasizes the positive:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-toQK">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e9d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1523,40 +1523,40 @@
<gloss>Have you ceased the activity of repeat-hitting your female-spouse?</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Responses could include:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qHJJ" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d16"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>na'i go'i</jbo>
- <en>The bridi as a whole is inappropriate in some way.</en>
+ <natlang>The bridi as a whole is inappropriate in some way.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qHKe" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d17"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>go'i na'i</jbo>
- <en>The selbri (<valsi>sisti</valsi>) is inappropriate in some way.</en>
+ <natlang>The selbri (<valsi>sisti</valsi>) is inappropriate in some way.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>One can also specifically qualify the metalinguistic negation, by explicitly repeating the erroneous portion of the bridi to be metalinguistically negated, or adding on of the selma'o BAI qualifiers mentioned above:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ANpd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c15e10d18"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>go'i ji'una'iku</jbo>
- <en>Some presupposition is wrong with the previous bridi.</en>
+ <natlang>Some presupposition is wrong with the previous bridi.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Finally, one may metalinguistically affirm a bridi with
<valsi>jo'a</valsi>, another cmavo of selma'o UI. A common use for
<valsi>jo'a</valsi> might be to affirm that a particular construction, though unusual or counterintuitive, is in fact correct; another usage would be to disagree with – by overriding – a respondent's metalinguistic negation.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-are-all-questions-answered">
<title>Summary – Are All Possible Questions About Negation Now Answered?</title>
diff --git a/todocbook/16.xml b/todocbook/16.xml
index e337987..1d30ee5 100644
--- a/todocbook/16.xml
+++ b/todocbook/16.xml
@@ -71,21 +71,21 @@
<quote>logical</quote>. In particular, the use of
<valsi>le</valsi> is incompatible with logical reasoning based on the description selbri, because that selbri may not truthfully apply: you cannot conclude from my statement that</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4J5Y">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e1d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska le nanmu</jbo>
<gloss>I see the-one-I-refer-to-as-the man.</gloss>
- <en>I see the man/men.</en>
+ <natlang>I see the man/men.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>that there really is a man; the only thing you can conclude is that there is one thing (or more) that I choose to refer to as a man. You cannot even tell which man is meant for sure without asking me (although communication is served if you already know from the context).</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>attitudinals</primary><secondary>and logic</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logic</primary><secondary>and attitudinals</secondary></indexterm> In addition, the use of attitudinals (see
<xref linkend="chapter-attitudinals"/>) often reduces or removes the ability to make deductions about the bridi to which those attitudinals are applied. From the fact that I hope George will win the election, you can conclude nothing about George's actual victory or defeat.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-da-and-zohu">
<title>Existential claims, prenexes, and variables</title>
<para>Let us consider, to begin with, a sentence that is not in the dialogue:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>something sees me</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
@@ -142,21 +142,21 @@
<quote>Z</quote> respectively. By analogy to the terminology of symbolic logic, these cmavo are called
<quote>variables</quote>.</para>
<para>Here is an example of a prenex with two variables:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-t4qI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e2d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>da de zo'u da prami de</jbo>
<gloss>There-is-an-X there-is-a-Y such that X loves Y.</gloss>
- <en>Somebody loves somebody.</en>
+ <natlang>Somebody loves somebody.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>somebody loves somebody</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical variables</primary><secondary>effect of using multiple different</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>somebody</primary><secondary>contrasted with somebody else</secondary></indexterm> In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-t4qI"/>, the literal interpretation of the two variables
<valsi>da</valsi> and
<valsi>de</valsi> as
<quote>there-is-an-X</quote> and
<quote>there-is-a-Y</quote> tells us that there are two things which stand in the relationship that one loves the other. It might be the case that the supposed two things are really just a single thing that loves itself; nothing in the Lojban version of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-t4qI"/> rules out that interpretation, which is why the colloquial translation does not say
<quote>Somebody loves somebody else.</quote> The things referred to by different variables may be different or the same. (We use
@@ -164,21 +164,21 @@
<quote>something</quote> for naturalness; lovers and beloveds are usually persons, though the Lojban does not say so.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical variables</primary><secondary>with multiple appearances in bridi</secondary></indexterm> It is perfectly all right for the variables to appear more than once in the main bridi:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-wBYE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e2d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>da zo'u da prami da</jbo>
<gloss>There-is-an-X such that X loves X</gloss>
- <en>Somebody loves himself/herself.</en>
+ <natlang>Somebody loves himself/herself.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>somebody loves self</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>da prami de</primary><secondary>contrasted with da prami da</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>da prami da</primary><secondary>contrasted with da prami de</secondary></indexterm> What
<xref linkend="example-random-id-wBYE"/> claims is fundamentally different from what
<xref linkend="example-random-id-t4qI"/> claims, because
<oldjbophrase>da prami da</oldjbophrase> is not structurally the same as
<oldjbophrase>da prami de</oldjbophrase>. However,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3QV5">
<title>
@@ -192,34 +192,34 @@
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical variables</primary><secondary>effect of global substitution</secondary></indexterm> means exactly the same thing as
<xref linkend="example-random-id-wBYE"/>; it does not matter which variable is used as long as they are used consistently.</para>
<para>It is not necessary for a variable to be a sumti of the main bridi directly:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ArXX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e2d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>da zo'u le da gerku cu viska mi</jbo>
<gloss>There-is-an-X such-that the of-X dog sees me</gloss>
- <en>Somebody's dog sees me</en>
+ <natlang>Somebody's dog sees me</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>somebody's dog</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> is perfectly correct even though the
<valsi>da</valsi> is used only in a possessive construction. (Possessives are explained in
<xref linkend="section-possessive-sumti"/>.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical variables</primary><secondary>when not in main bridi</secondary></indexterm> It is very peculiar, however, even if technically grammatical, for the variable not to appear in the main bridi at all:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mE4m">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e2d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>da zo'u la ralf. gerku</jbo>
- <en>There is something such that Ralph is a dog.</en>
+ <natlang>There is something such that Ralph is a dog.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Ralph</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> has a variable bound in a prenex whose relevance to the claim of the following bridi is completely unspecified.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-universal-claims">
<title>Universal claims</title>
<para>What happens if we substitute
<quote>everything</quote> for
<quote>something</quote> in
@@ -253,21 +253,21 @@
<quote>everything</quote> on faith.</para>
<para>Here is a universal claim with two variables:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>everything loves everything</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-jSrU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e3d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro da ro de zo'u da prami de</jbo>
<gloss>For-every X, for-every Y : X loves Y.</gloss>
- <en>Everything loves everything.</en>
+ <natlang>Everything loves everything.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Again, X and Y can represent the same thing, so
<xref linkend="example-random-id-jSrU"/> does not mean
<quote>Everything loves everything else.</quote> Furthermore, because the claim is universal, it is about every thing, not merely every person, so we cannot use
<quote>everyone</quote> or
<quote>everybody</quote> in the translation.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>universal</primary><secondary>mixed claim with existential</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>existential</primary><secondary>mixed claim with universal</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mixed claim</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> Note that
<valsi>ro</valsi> appears before both
<valsi>da</valsi> and
@@ -275,31 +275,31 @@
<valsi>ro</valsi> is omitted before either variable, we get a mixed claim, partly existential like those of
<xref linkend="section-da-and-zohu"/>, partly universal.</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qHKm" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e3d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro da de zo'u da viska de</jbo>
<gloss>For-every X, there-is-a-Y : X sees Y.</gloss>
- <en>Everything sees something.</en>
+ <natlang>Everything sees something.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qHKo" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e3d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>da ro de zo'u da viska de</jbo>
<gloss>There-is-an-X such-that-for-every-Y : X sees Y.</gloss>
- <en>Something sees everything.</en>
+ <natlang>Something sees everything.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>something sees everything</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>everything sees something</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical variables</primary><secondary>effect of order in prenex</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qHKm"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qHKo"/> mean completely different things.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qHKm"/> says that for everything, there is something which it sees, not necessarily the same thing seen for every seer.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qHKo"/>, on the other hand, says that there is a particular thing which can see everything that there is (including itself). Both of these are fairly silly, but they are different kinds of silliness.</para>
<para>There are various possible translations of universal claims in English: sometimes we use
@@ -326,32 +326,32 @@
<valsi>poi</valsi> followed by a bridi (often just a selbri) terminated with
<valsi>ku'o</valsi> or
<valsi>vau</valsi> (which can usually be elided). Consider the difference between</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-NPX7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e4d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>da zo'u da viska la djim.</jbo>
<gloss>There-is-an-X : X sees Jim.</gloss>
- <en>Something sees Jim.</en>
+ <natlang>Something sees Jim.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-I8AF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e4d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>da poi prenu zo'u da viska la djim.</jbo>
<gloss>There-is-an-X which is-a-person : X sees Jim.</gloss>
- <en>Someone sees Jim.</en>
+ <natlang>Someone sees Jim.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>something</primary><secondary>contrasted with someone</secondary></indexterm> In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-NPX7"/>, the variable
<valsi>da</valsi> can refer to any object whatever; there are no restrictions on it. In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-I8AF"/>,
<valsi>da</valsi> is restricted by the
<oldjbophrase>poi prenu</oldjbophrase> relative clause to persons only, and so
<oldjbophrase>da poi prenu</oldjbophrase> translates as
<quote>someone.</quote> (The difference between
@@ -360,36 +360,36 @@
<xref linkend="example-random-id-I8AF"/> is true, then
<xref linkend="example-random-id-NPX7"/> must be true, but not necessarily vice versa.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>universal claims</primary><secondary>restricting</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>use in restricting universal claims</secondary></indexterm> Universal claims benefit even more from the existence of relative clauses. Consider</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-DFen">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e4d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro da zo'u da vasxu</jbo>
<gloss>For-every X : X breathes</gloss>
- <en>Everything breathes</en>
+ <natlang>Everything breathes</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>everything breathes</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> and</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-njh0">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e4d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro da poi gerku zo'u da vasxu</jbo>
<gloss>For-every X which is-a-dog : X breathes.</gloss>
<gloss>Every dog breathes.</gloss>
<gloss>Each dog breathes.</gloss>
- <en>All dogs breathe.</en>
+ <natlang>All dogs breathe.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>dog breathes</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-DFen"/> is a silly falsehood, but
<xref linkend="example-random-id-njh0"/> is an important truth (at least if applied in a timeless or potential sense: see
<xref linkend="section-caha"/>). Note the various colloquial translations
<quote>every dog</quote>,
<quote>each dog</quote>, and
<quote>all dogs</quote>. They all come to the same thing in Lojban, since what is true of every dog is true of all dogs.
@@ -397,51 +397,51 @@
<para>If we make an existential claim about dogs rather than a universal one, we get:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4BTd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e4d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>da poi gerku zo'u da vasxu</jbo>
<gloss>There-is-an-X which is-a-dog : X breathes.</gloss>
- <en>Some dog breathes.</en>
+ <natlang>Some dog breathes.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-prenex-elision">
<title>Dropping the prenex</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>prenex</primary><secondary>considerations for dropping</secondary></indexterm> It isn't really necessary for every Lojban bridi involving variables to have a prenex on the front. In fact, none of the examples we've seen so far required prenexes at all! The rule for dropping the prenex is simple: if the variables appear in the same order within the bridi as they did in the prenex, then the prenex is superfluous. However, any
<valsi>ro</valsi> or
<valsi>poi</valsi> appearing in the prenex must be transferred to the first occurrence of the variable in the main part of the bridi. Thus,
<xref linkend="example-random-id-jjLd"/> becomes just:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9zAo">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e5d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>da viska mi</jbo>
<gloss>There-is-an-X-which sees me.</gloss>
- <en>Something sees me.</en>
+ <natlang>Something sees me.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-njh0"/> becomes:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-na9C">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e5d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro da poi gerku cu vasxu</jbo>
<gloss>For-every X which is-a-dog, it-breathes.</gloss>
- <en>Every dog breathes.</en>
+ <natlang>Every dog breathes.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>prenex</primary><secondary>effect of order of variables in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>prenex</primary><secondary>purpose of</secondary></indexterm> You might well suppose, then, that the purpose of the prenex is to allow the variables in it to appear in a different order than the bridi order, and that would be correct. Consider</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>everyone bitten by dog</primary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Cfnb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e5d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -462,21 +462,21 @@
</example>
<para>If we tried to omit the prenex and move the
<valsi>ro</valsi> and the relative clauses into the main bridi, we would get:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-c9bq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e5d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>de poi gerku cu batci ro da poi prenu</jbo>
<gloss>There-is-a-Y which is-a-dog which-bites every X which is-a-person</gloss>
- <en>Some dog bites everyone.</en>
+ <natlang>Some dog bites everyone.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>dog bites</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Fido</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> which has the structure of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qHKo"/>: it says that there is a dog (call him Fido) who bites, has bitten, or will bite every person that has ever existed! We can safely rule out Fido's existence, and say that
<xref linkend="example-random-id-c9bq"/> is false, while agreeing to
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Cfnb"/>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>universal claims</primary><secondary>dangers of using</secondary></indexterm> Even so,
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Cfnb"/> is most probably false, since some people never experience dogbite. Examples like 5.3 and 4.4 (might there be some dogs which never have breathed, because they died as embryos?) indicate the danger in Lojban of universal claims even when restricted. In English we are prone to say that
@@ -510,21 +510,21 @@
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>poi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ro</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>poi</primary><secondary>dropping from multiple appearances on logical variables</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ro</primary><secondary>dropping from multiple appearances on logical variables</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical variables</primary><secondary>with poi</secondary><tertiary>in multiple appearances</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical variables</primary><secondary>with ro</secondary><tertiary>in multiple appearances</tertiary></indexterm> If a variable occurs more than once, then any
<valsi>ro</valsi> or
<valsi>poi</valsi> decorations are moved only to the first occurrence of the variable when the prenex is dropped. For example,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4nqt">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e5d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>di poi prenu zo'u ti xarci di di</jbo>
<gloss>There-is-a-Z which is-a-person : this-thing is-a-weapon for-use-against-Z by-Z</gloss>
- <en>This is a weapon for someone to use against himself/herself.</en>
+ <natlang>This is a weapon for someone to use against himself/herself.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>weapon against self</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> (in which
<valsi>di</valsi> is used rather than
<valsi>da</valsi> just for variety) loses its prenex as follows:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-CseH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e5d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -552,38 +552,38 @@
<xref linkend="example-random-id-jjLd"/> again, this time with an explicit
<valsi>su'o</valsi>:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>su'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>something sees me</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>something</primary><secondary>expressing using "su'o"</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-TI8K">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e6d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>su'o da zo'u da viska mi</jbo>
<gloss>For-at-least-one X : X sees me.</gloss>
- <en>Something sees me.</en>
+ <natlang>Something sees me.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>From this version of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-jjLd"/>, we understand the speaker's claim to be that of all the things that there are, at least one of them sees him or her. The corresponding universal claim,
<xref linkend="example-random-id-nraD"/>, says that of all the things that exist, every one of them can see the speaker.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>numbers</primary><secondary>on logical variables</secondary></indexterm> Any other number can be used instead of
<valsi>ro</valsi> or
<valsi>su'o</valsi> to precede a variable. Then we get claims like:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3C69">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e6d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>re da zo'u da viska mi</jbo>
<gloss>For-two-Xes : X sees me.</gloss>
- <en>Two things see me.</en>
+ <natlang>Two things see me.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>numbers</primary><secondary>English contrasted with Lojban on exactness</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>numbers</primary><secondary>Lojban contrasted with English on exactness</secondary></indexterm> This means that exactly two things, no more or less, saw the speaker on the relevant occasion. In English, we might take
<quote>Two things see me</quote> to mean that at least two things see the speaker, but there might be more; in Lojban, though, that claim would have to be made as:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mSzo">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e6d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>su'ore da zo'u da viska mi</jbo>
@@ -600,21 +600,21 @@
<xref linkend="section-approximation"/>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>prenex</primary><secondary>removing when numeric quantifiers present</secondary></indexterm> The prenex may be removed from
<xref linkend="example-random-id-3C69"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-mSzo"/> as from the others, leading to:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2r5v">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e6d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>re da viska mi</jbo>
- <en>Two Xes see me.</en>
+ <natlang>Two Xes see me.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-GWoD">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e6d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>su'ore da viska mi</jbo>
<gloss>At-least-two Xes see me.</gloss>
@@ -639,21 +639,21 @@
<valsi>da</valsi>,
<valsi>de</valsi>, and
<valsi>di</valsi> have been used up, it does not matter, for there are ways of getting more variables, discussed in
<xref linkend="section-notes-on-variables"/>.) So in fact</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Kr4S">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e6d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>re prenu cu viska mi</jbo>
- <en>Two persons see me.</en>
+ <natlang>Two persons see me.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is short for</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-E6wI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e6d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>re da poi prenu cu viska mi</jbo>
<gloss>Two Xes which are-persons see me.</gloss>
@@ -676,21 +676,21 @@
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>distribution of quantified sumti</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>indefinite sumti</primary><secondary>multiple in sentence</secondary></indexterm> Let us consider a sentence containing two quantifier expressions neither of which is
<valsi>ro</valsi> or
<valsi>su'o</valsi> (remembering that
<valsi>su'o</valsi> is implicit where no explicit quantifier is given):</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Uovr">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e7d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ci gerku cu batci re nanmu</jbo>
- <en>Three dogs bite two men.</en>
+ <natlang>Three dogs bite two men.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>dogs bite</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>three dogs bite two men</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple indefinite sumti</primary><secondary>meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>indefinite sumti</primary><secondary>meaning when multiple in sentence</secondary></indexterm> The question raised by
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Uovr"/> is, does each of the dogs bite the same two men, or is it possible that there are two different men per dog, for six men altogether? If the former interpretation is taken, the number of men involved is fixed at two; but if the latter, then the speaker has to be taken as saying that there might be any number of men between two and six inclusive. Let us transform
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Uovr"/> step by step as we did with
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Kr4S"/>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-neNT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e7d2"/>
</title>
@@ -781,21 +781,21 @@
<para>Anyone who goes to the store, walks across the field.</para>
</example>
<para>Using the facilities already discussed, a plausible translation might be</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7Kn8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e8d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo valid="iffy">ro da poi klama le zarci cu cadzu le foldi</jbo>
<gloss>All X such-that-it goes-to the store walks-on the field.</gloss>
- <en>Everyone who goes to the store walks across the field.</en>
+ <natlang>Everyone who goes to the store walks across the field.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>everyone</primary><secondary>contrasted with anyone in assumption of existence</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>anyone</primary><secondary>contrasted with everyone in assumption of existence</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>any</primary><secondary>as a restricted universal claim</secondary></indexterm> But there is a subtle difference between
<xref linkend="example-random-id-R4mX"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-7Kn8"/>.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-7Kn8"/> tells us that, in fact, there are people who go to the store, and that they walk across the field. A sumti of the type
<oldjbophrase>ro da poi klama</oldjbophrase> requires that there are things which
<valsi>klama</valsi>: Lojban universal claims always imply the corresponding existential claims as well.
@@ -913,21 +913,21 @@
<xref linkend="section-bridi-negation"/>, the negation of a bridi is usually accomplished by inserting
<valsi>na</valsi> at the beginning of the selbri:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hBRH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e9d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [false] go-to the store.</gloss>
<gloss>It is false that I go to the store.</gloss>
- <en>I don't go to the store.</en>
+ <natlang>I don't go to the store.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>naku</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>na</primary></indexterm> The other form of bridi negation is expressed by using the compound cmavo
<oldjbophrase>naku</oldjbophrase> in the prenex, which is identified and compounded by the lexer before looking at the sentence grammar. In Lojban grammar,
<oldjbophrase>naku</oldjbophrase> is then treated like a sumti. In a prenex,
<oldjbophrase>naku</oldjbophrase> means precisely the same thing as the logician's
<quote>it is not the case that</quote> in a similar English context. (Outside of a prenex,
<oldjbophrase>naku</oldjbophrase> is also grammatically treated as a single entity – the equivalent of a sumti – but does not have this exact meaning; we'll discuss these other situations in
<xref linkend="section-na-outside-prenex"/>.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>external bridi negation</primary><secondary>compared to internal bridi negation</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>internal bridi negation</primary><secondary>compared to external bridi negation</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>internal bridi negation</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>external bridi negation</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi negation</primary><secondary>na before selbri compared to naku in prenex</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi negation</primary><secondary>naku in prenex compared to na before selbri</secondary></indexterm> To represent a bridi negation using a prenex, remove the
@@ -940,211 +940,211 @@
<valsi>na</valsi>. The prenex version of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-hBRH"/> is</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-IH8J">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e9d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>naku zo'u la djan. klama</jbo>
<gloss>It is not the case that: John comes.</gloss>
- <en>It is false that: John comes.</en>
+ <natlang>It is false that: John comes.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>negation in prenex</primary><secondary>effects of position</secondary></indexterm> However,
<oldjbophrase>naku</oldjbophrase> can appear at other points in the prenex as well. Compare</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-cy6j">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e9d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>naku de zo'u de zutse</jbo>
<gloss>It is not the case that: for some Y, Y sits.</gloss>
<gloss>It is false that: for at least one Y, Y sits.</gloss>
<gloss>It is false that something sits.</gloss>
- <en>Nothing sits.</en>
+ <natlang>Nothing sits.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>nothing sits</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> with</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2Fw3">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e9d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>su'ode naku zo'u de zutse</jbo>
<gloss>For at least one Y, it is false that: Y sits.</gloss>
- <en>There is something that doesn't sit.</en>
+ <natlang>There is something that doesn't sit.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The relative position of negation and quantification terms within a prenex has a drastic effect on meaning. Starting without a negation, we can have:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-21Y5">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e9d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>roda su'ode zo'u da prami de</jbo>
<gloss>For every X, there is a Y, such that X loves Y.</gloss>
- <en>Everybody loves at least one thing (each, not necessarily the same thing).</en>
+ <natlang>Everybody loves at least one thing (each, not necessarily the same thing).</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>everybody loves something</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> or:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>something is loved by everybody</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Tj99">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e9d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>su'ode roda zo'u da prami de</jbo>
<gloss>There is a Y, such that for each X, X loves Y.</gloss>
- <en>There is at least one particular thing that is loved by everybody.</en>
+ <natlang>There is at least one particular thing that is loved by everybody.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The simplest form of bridi negation to interpret is one where the negation term is at the beginning of the prenex:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1LqV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e9d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>naku roda su'ode zo'u da prami de</jbo>
<gloss>It is false that: for every X, there is a Y, such that: X loves Y.</gloss>
<gloss>It is false that: everybody loves at least one thing.</gloss>
- <en>(At least) someone doesn't love anything.</en>
+ <natlang>(At least) someone doesn't love anything.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>the negation of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-21Y5"/>, and</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-u1jY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e9d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>naku su'ode roda zo'u da prami de</jbo>
<gloss>It is false that: there is a Y such that for each X, X loves Y.</gloss>
<gloss>It is false that: there is at least one thing that is loved by everybody.</gloss>
- <en>There isn't any one thing that everybody loves.</en>
+ <natlang>There isn't any one thing that everybody loves.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>the negation of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Tj99"/>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>inversion of quantifiers</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>inversion of quantifiers</primary><secondary>in moving negation boundary</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>negation boundary</primary><secondary>effect of moving</secondary></indexterm> The rules of formal logic require that, to move a negation boundary within a prenex, you must
<quote>invert any quantifier</quote> that the negation boundary passes across. Inverting a quantifier means that any
<valsi>ro</valsi> (all) is changed to
<valsi>su'o</valsi> (at least one) and vice versa. Thus,
<xref linkend="example-random-id-1LqV"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-u1jY"/> can be restated as, respectively:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-cJLQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e9d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>su'oda naku su'ode zo'u da prami de</jbo>
<gloss>For some X, it is false that: there is a Y such that: X loves Y.</gloss>
- <en>There is somebody who doesn't love anything.</en>
+ <natlang>There is somebody who doesn't love anything.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hBXT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e9d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>rode naku roda zo'u da prami de</jbo>
<gloss>For every Y, it is false that: for every X, X loves Y.</gloss>
- <en>For each thing, it is not true that everybody loves it.</en>
+ <natlang>For each thing, it is not true that everybody loves it.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Another movement of the negation boundary produces:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-w6XF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e9d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>su'oda rode naku zo'u da prami de</jbo>
<gloss>There is an X such that, for every Y, it is false that X loves Y.</gloss>
- <en>There is someone who, for each thing, doesn't love that thing.</en>
+ <natlang>There is someone who, for each thing, doesn't love that thing.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-JY08">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e9d12"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>rode su'oda naku zo'u da prami de</jbo>
<gloss>For every Y, there is an X, such that it is false that: X loves Y.</gloss>
- <en>For each thing there is someone who doesn't love it.</en>
+ <natlang>For each thing there is someone who doesn't love it.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>inversion of quantifiers on passing negation boundary</primary><secondary>rationale for</secondary></indexterm> Investigation will show that, indeed, each transformation preserves the meanings of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-1LqV"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-u1jY"/>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>negation boundary</primary><secondary>and zero</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>zero</primary><secondary>relation to negation boundary</secondary></indexterm> The quantifier
<valsi>no</valsi> (meaning
<quote>zero of</quote>) also involves a negation boundary. To transform a bridi containing a variable quantified with
<valsi>no</valsi>, we must first expand it. Consider</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-qCph">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e9d13"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>noda rode zo'u da prami de</jbo>
<gloss>There is no X, for every Y, such that X loves Y.</gloss>
- <en>Nobody loves everything.</en>
+ <natlang>Nobody loves everything.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which is negated by:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-fpeW">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e9d14"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>naku noda rode zo'u da prami de</jbo>
<gloss>It is false that: there is no X that, for every Y, X loves Y.</gloss>
- <en>It is false that there is nobody who loves everything.</en>
+ <natlang>It is false that there is nobody who loves everything.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>naku su'oda</primary><secondary>as expansion of noda</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>noda</primary><secondary>expanding to naku su'oda</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>"no" quantifier</primary><secondary>expanding</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>expanding "no" quantifier</primary></indexterm> We can simplify
<xref linkend="example-random-id-fpeW"/> by transforming the prenex. To move the negation phrase within the prenex, we must first expand the
<valsi>no</valsi> quantifier. Thus
<quote>for no x</quote> means the same thing as
<quote>it is false for some x</quote>, and the corresponding Lojban
<oldjbophrase>noda</oldjbophrase> can be replaced by
<oldjbophrase>naku su'oda</oldjbophrase>. Making this substitution, we get:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-xTie">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e9d15"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>naku naku su'oda rode zo'u da prami de</jbo>
- <en>It is false that it is false that: for an X, for every Y: X loves Y.</en>
+ <natlang>It is false that it is false that: for an X, for every Y: X loves Y.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Adjacent pairs of negation boundaries in the prenex can be dropped, so this means the same as:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-y7NU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e9d16"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>su'oda rode zo'u da prami de</jbo>
<gloss>There is an X such that, for every Y, X loves Y.</gloss>
- <en>At least one person loves everything.</en>
+ <natlang>At least one person loves everything.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which is clearly the desired contradiction of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qCph"/>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>double negatives</primary><secondary>effect of interactions between quantifiers and negation on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>interactions between quantifiers and negation</primary><secondary>effect</secondary></indexterm> The interactions between quantifiers and negation mean that you cannot eliminate double negatives that are not adjacent. You must first move the negation phrases so that they are adjacent, inverting any quantifiers they cross, and then the double negative can be eliminated.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-connectives">
@@ -1199,82 +1199,82 @@
<valsi>na</valsi> negates the first or left-hand sumti or bridi, and
<valsi>nai</valsi> negates the second or right-hand one.</para>
<para>Whenever a logical connective occurs in a sentence, that sentence can be expanded into two sentences by repeating the common terms and joining the sentences by a logical connective beginning with
<valsi>i</valsi>. Thus the following sentence:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-jmDS">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e10d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi .e do klama ti</jbo>
- <en>I and you come here.</en>
+ <natlang>I and you come here.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>can be expanded to:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KTQH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e10d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama ti .ije do klama ti</jbo>
- <en>I come here, and, you come here.</en>
+ <natlang>I come here, and, you come here.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The same type of expansion can be performed for any logical connective, with any valid combination of
<valsi>na</valsi> or
<valsi>nai</valsi> attached. No change in meaning occurs under such a transformation.</para>
<para>Clearly, if we know what negation means in the expanded sentence forms, then we know what it means in all of the other forms. But what does negation mean between sentences?</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>negation between sentences</primary><secondary>meaning of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi negation</primary><secondary>compared with negation between sentences</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>negation between sentences</primary><secondary>compared with bridi negation</secondary></indexterm> The mystery is easily solved. A negation in a logical expression is identical to the corresponding bridi negation, with the negator placed at the beginning of the prenex. Thus:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pLiB">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e10d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi .enai do prami roda</jbo>
- <en>I, and not you, love everything.</en>
+ <natlang>I, and not you, love everything.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>expands to:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-h6Wz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e10d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi prami roda .ijenai do prami roda</jbo>
<gloss>I love everything, and-not, you love everything.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and then into prenex form as:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-JxDJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e10d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>roda zo'u mi prami da .ije naku zo'u do prami da</jbo>
- <en>For each thing: I love it, and it is false that you love (the same) it.</en>
+ <natlang>For each thing: I love it, and it is false that you love (the same) it.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>quantifier scope</primary><secondary>in multiple connected sentences</secondary></indexterm> By the rules of predicate logic, the
<valsi>ro</valsi> quantifier on
<valsi>da</valsi> has scope over both sentences. That is, once you've picked a value for
<valsi>da</valsi> for the first sentence, it stays the same for both sentences. (The
<valsi>da</valsi> continues with the same fixed value until a new paragraph or a new prenex resets the meaning.)</para>
<para>Thus the following example has the indicated translation:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-yCA1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e10d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>su'oda zo'u mi prami da .ije naku zo'u do prami da</jbo>
<gloss>For at least one thing: I love that thing. And it is false that: you love that (same) thing.</gloss>
- <en>There is something that I love that you don't.</en>
+ <natlang>There is something that I love that you don't.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>prenex manipulation</primary><secondary>rules</secondary></indexterm> If you remember only two rules for prenex manipulation of negations, you won't go wrong:</para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>prenex manipulation</primary><secondary>moving naku past bound variable</secondary></indexterm> Within a prenex, whenever you move
<oldjbophrase>naku</oldjbophrase> past a bound variable (da, de, di, etc.), you must invert the quantifier.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
@@ -1309,73 +1309,73 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>when converted to the external negation form produces:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nGTc">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e11d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>naku zo'u su'oda poi verba cu klama su'ode poi ckule</jbo>
<gloss>It is false that some which are children go-to some which are schools.</gloss>
- <en>All children don't go to some school (not just some children).</en>
+ <natlang>All children don't go to some school (not just some children).</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>contradictory negation</primary><secondary>using naku before selbri</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>naku</primary><secondary>outside of prenex</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>negation</primary><secondary>form for emulating natural language negation</secondary></indexterm> Lojban provides a negation form which more closely emulates natural language negation. This involves putting
<oldjbophrase>naku</oldjbophrase> before the selbri, instead of a
<valsi>na</valsi>.
<oldjbophrase>naku</oldjbophrase> is clearly a contradictory negation, given its parallel with prenex bridi negation. Using
<oldjbophrase>naku</oldjbophrase>,
<xref linkend="example-random-id-hp0j"/> can be expressed as:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nvtf">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e11d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>su'oda poi verba naku klama su'ode poi ckule</jbo>
<gloss>Some which-are children don't go-to some which-are schools.</gloss>
- <en>Some children don't go to a school.</en>
+ <natlang>Some children don't go to a school.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>naku</primary><secondary>compared with sumti in grammar</secondary></indexterm> Although it is not technically a sumti,
<oldjbophrase>naku</oldjbophrase> can be used in most of the places where a sumti may appear. We'll see what this means in a moment.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>inverting quantifiers</primary><secondary>with movement relative to naku</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>quantifiers</primary><secondary>effect of moving naku</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>naku</primary><secondary>effect on moving quantifiers</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>naku</primary><secondary>as creating a negation boundary</secondary></indexterm> When you use
<oldjbophrase>naku</oldjbophrase> within a bridi, you are explicitly creating a negation boundary. As explained in
<xref linkend="section-negation-boundaries"/>, when a prenex negation boundary expressed by
<oldjbophrase>naku</oldjbophrase> moves past a quantifier, the quantifier has to be inverted. The same is true for
<oldjbophrase>naku</oldjbophrase> in the bridi proper. We can move
<oldjbophrase>naku</oldjbophrase> to any place in the sentence where a sumti can go, inverting any quantifiers that the negation boundary crosses. Thus, the following are equivalent to
<xref linkend="example-random-id-nvtf"/> (no good English translations exist):</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qhLG" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e11d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>su'oda poi verba cu klama rode poi ckule naku</jbo>
- <en>For some children, for every school, they don't go to it.</en>
+ <natlang>For some children, for every school, they don't go to it.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qhnP" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e11d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>su'oda poi verba cu klama naku su'ode poi ckule</jbo>
- <en>Some children don't go to (some) school(s).</en>
+ <natlang>Some children don't go to (some) school(s).</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qhoH" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e11d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>naku roda poi verba cu klama su'ode poi ckule</jbo>
- <en>It is false that all children go to some school(s).</en>
+ <natlang>It is false that all children go to some school(s).</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qhLG"/>, we moved the negation boundary rightward across the quantifier of
<valsi>de</valsi>, forcing us to invert it. In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qhoH"/> we moved the negation boundary across the quantifier of
<valsi>da</valsi>, forcing us to invert it instead.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qhnP"/> merely switched the selbri and the negation boundary, with no effect on the quantifiers.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>inverting quantifiers</primary><secondary>with movement relative to fixed negation</secondary></indexterm> The same rules apply if you rearrange the sentence so that the quantifier crosses an otherwise fixed negation. You can't just convert the selbri of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-nvtf"/> and rearrange the sumti to produce</para>
@@ -1441,21 +1441,21 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>from which we can restore the quantified variables to the sentence, giving:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Awc0">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e11d12"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>naku zo'u roda poi verba cu klama su'ode poi ckule</jbo>
- <en>It is not the case that all children go to some school.</en>
+ <natlang>It is not the case that all children go to some school.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>or more briefly</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-msIC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e11d13"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro verba cu na klama su'o ckule</jbo>
<gloss>All children [false] go-to some school(s).</gloss>
@@ -1653,21 +1653,21 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which is the same as</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-jYWu">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e12d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ganai la djein. le zarci cu dzukla ginai la djein. le zarci cu bajrykla</jbo>
<gloss>If Jane to-the market walks, then Jane to-the market [false] runs.</gloss>
- <en>If Jane walks to the market, then she doesn't run.</en>
+ <natlang>If Jane walks to the market, then she doesn't run.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which then condenses down to
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qHQ2"/>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>DeMorgan's Law</primary><secondary>and internal naku negations</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>internal naku negations</primary><secondary>and DeMorgan's Law</secondary></indexterm> DeMorgan's Law must also be applied to internal
<oldjbophrase>naku</oldjbophrase> negations:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qhQP" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e12d10"/>
</title>
@@ -1708,21 +1708,21 @@
<valsi>bu'i</valsi> with F, G, and H respectively.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gEWB">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e13d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>su'o bu'a zo'u la djim. bu'a la djan.</jbo>
<gloss>For-at-least-one relationship-F : Jim stands-in-relationship-F to-John.</gloss>
- <en>There's some relationship between Jim and John.</en>
+ <natlang>There's some relationship between Jim and John.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>some relationship</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri variables</primary><secondary>prenex form as indefinite description</secondary></indexterm> The translations of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-gEWB"/> show how unidiomatic selbri variables are in English; Lojban sentences like
<xref linkend="example-random-id-gEWB"/> need to be totally reworded in English. Furthermore, when a selbri variable appears in the prenex, it is necessary to precede it with a quantifier such as
<valsi>su'o</valsi>; it is ungrammatical to just say
<oldjbophrase>bu'a zo'u</oldjbophrase>. This rule is necessary because only sumti can appear in the prenex, and
<oldjbophrase>su'o bu'a</oldjbophrase> is technically a sumti – in fact, it is an indefinite description like
@@ -1743,21 +1743,21 @@
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri variables</primary><secondary>quantified</secondary></indexterm> As a result, if the number before the variable is anything but
<valsi>su'o</valsi>, the prenex is required:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-L068">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e13d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro bu'a zo'u la djim. bu'a la djan.</jbo>
<gloss>For-every relationship-F : Jim stands-in-relationship-F to-John.</gloss>
- <en>Every relationship exists between Jim and John.</en>
+ <natlang>Every relationship exists between Jim and John.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-gEWB"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-XxgT"/> are almost certainly true: Jim and John might be brothers, or might live in the same city, or at least have the property of being jointly human.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-L068"/> is palpably false, however; if Jim and John were related by every possible relationship, then they would have to be both brothers and father-and-son, which is impossible.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-notes-on-variables">
@@ -1803,21 +1803,21 @@
<xref linkend="section-subscripts-general"/>, but in general consist of the cmavo
<valsi>xi</valsi> (of selma'o XI) followed by a number, one or more lerfu words forming a single string, or a general mathematical expression enclosed in parentheses.</para>
<para>A quantifier can be prefixed to a variable that has already been bound either in a prenex or earlier in the bridi, thus:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-6gyb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c16e14d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ci da poi prenu cu se ralju pa da</jbo>
<gloss>Three Xs which are-persons are-led-by one-of X</gloss>
- <en>Three people are led by one of them.</en>
+ <natlang>Three people are led by one of them.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The
<oldjbophrase>pa da</oldjbophrase> in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-6gyb"/> does not specify the number of things to which
<valsi>da</valsi> refers, as the preceding
<oldjbophrase>ci da</oldjbophrase> does. Instead, it selects one of them for use in this sumti only. The number of referents of
<valsi>da</valsi> remains three, but a single one (there is no way of knowing which one) is selected to be the leader.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-logic-conclusion">
diff --git a/todocbook/17.xml b/todocbook/17.xml
index 7404945..69387bb 100644
--- a/todocbook/17.xml
+++ b/todocbook/17.xml
@@ -157,41 +157,41 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy.
<oldjbophrase>.y'y</oldjbophrase>. The vowel lerfu words, on the other hand, are compound cmavo, made from a single vowel cmavo plus the cmavo
<valsi>bu</valsi> (which belongs to its own selma'o, BU). All of the vowel cmavo have other meanings in Lojban (logical connectives, sentence separator, hesitation noise), but those meanings are irrelevant when
<valsi>bu</valsi> follows.</para>
<para>Here are some illustrations of common Lojban words spelled out using the alphabet above:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qHRb" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e2d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ty. .abu ny. ry. .ubu</jbo>
- <en>
+ <natlang>
<quote>t</quote>
<quote>a</quote>
<quote>n</quote>
<quote>r</quote>
<quote>u</quote>
- </en>
+ </natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qhrx" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e2d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ky. .obu .y'y. .abu</jbo>
- <en>
+ <natlang>
<quote>k</quote>
<quote>o</quote>
<quote>'</quote>
<quote>a</quote>
- </en>
+ </natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu words</primary><secondary>effect of systematic formulation</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>spelling out words</primary><secondary>Lojban contrasted with English in usefulness</secondary></indexterm> Spelling out words is less useful in Lojban than in English, for two reasons: Lojban spelling is phonemic, so there can be no real dispute about how a word is spelled; and the Lojban lerfu words sound more alike than the English ones do, since they are made up systematically. The English words
<quote>fail</quote> and
<quote>vale</quote> sound similar, but just hearing the first lerfu word of either, namely
<quote>eff</quote> or
<quote>vee</quote>, is enough to discriminate easily between them – and even if the first lerfu word were somehow confused, neither
<quote>vail</quote> nor
<quote>fale</quote> is a word of ordinary English, so the rest of the spelling determines which word is meant. Still, the capability of spelling out words does exist in Lojban.</para>
@@ -200,54 +200,54 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qHRb"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qhrx"/>) with pauses after them. It is not strictly necessary to pause after such lerfu words, but failure to do so can in some cases lead to ambiguities:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-6dMS">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e2d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cy. claxu</jbo>
<gloss>I lerfu-
<quote>c</quote> without</gloss>
- <en>I am without (whatever is referred to by) the letter
- <quote>c</quote>.</en>
+ <natlang>I am without (whatever is referred to by) the letter
+ <quote>c</quote>.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>without a pause after
<oldjbophrase glossary="false">cy</oldjbophrase> would be interpreted as:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-qBLA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e2d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>micyclaxu</jbo>
<gloss>(Observative:) doctor-without</gloss>
- <en>Something unspecified is without a doctor.</en>
+ <natlang>Something unspecified is without a doctor.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>A safe guideline is to pause after any cmavo ending in
<letteral>y</letteral> unless the next word is also a cmavo ending in
<letteral>y</letteral>. The safest and easiest guideline is to pause after all of them.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-upper-case">
<title>Upper and lower cases</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lower case letters</primary><secondary>use in Lojban</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>capital letters</primary><secondary>use in Lojban</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>stress</primary><secondary>irregular marked with upper-case</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lower-case letters</primary><secondary>English usage contrasted with Lojban</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lower-case letters</primary><secondary>Lojban usage contrasted with English</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>upper-case letters</primary><secondary>English usage contrasted with Lojban</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>upper-case letters</primary><secondary>Lojban usage contrasted with English</secondary></indexterm> Lojban doesn't use lower-case (small) letters and upper-case (capital) letters in the same way that English does; sentences do not begin with an upper-case letter, nor do names. However, upper-case letters are used in Lojban to mark irregular stress within names, thus:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Fam2">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e3d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.iVAN.</jbo>
- <en>the name
- <quote>Ivan</quote> in Russian/Slavic pronunciation.</en>
+ <natlang>the name
+ <quote>Ivan</quote> in Russian/Slavic pronunciation.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>to'a</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ga'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>case</primary><secondary>upper/lower specification</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lower-case</primary><secondary>lerfu word for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>upper-case</primary><secondary>lerfu word for</secondary></indexterm> It would require far too many cmavo to assign one for each upper-case and one for each lower-case lerfu, so instead we have two special cmavo
<valsi>ga'e</valsi> and
<valsi>to'a</valsi> representing upper case and lower case respectively. They belong to the same selma'o as the basic lerfu words, namely BY, and they may be freely interspersed with them.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ga'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lower-case word</primary><secondary>effect on following lerfu words</secondary></indexterm> The effect of
@@ -284,31 +284,31 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy.
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qhS7" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e3d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>tau sy.</jbo>
<gloss>[single shift] S</gloss>
- <en>S (chemical symbol for sulfur)</en>
+ <natlang>S (chemical symbol for sulfur)</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qhsD" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e3d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>tau sy. .ibu</jbo>
<gloss>[single shift] S i</gloss>
- <en>Si (chemical symbol for silicon)</en>
+ <natlang>Si (chemical symbol for silicon)</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>single-letter shift</primary><secondary>as toggle</secondary></indexterm> If a shift to upper-case is in effect when
<valsi>tau</valsi> appears, it shifts the next lerfu word only to lower case, reversing its usual effect.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-bu">
<title>The universal
<valsi>bu</valsi></title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu word set extension</primary><secondary>with bu</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bu</primary><secondary>for extension of lerfu word set</secondary></indexterm> So far we have seen
@@ -331,22 +331,22 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy.
<valsi>fa'o</valsi> may not have
<valsi>bu</valsi> attached, because they are interpreted before
<valsi>bu</valsi> detection is done; in particular,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-WvFu">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e4d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>zo bu</jbo>
- <en>the word
- <quote>bu</quote></en>
+ <natlang>the word
+ <quote>bu</quote></natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>bubu</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>word "bu"</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>pause requirement in lerfu words</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bu</primary><secondary>effect of multiple</secondary></indexterm> is needed when discussing
<valsi>bu</valsi> in Lojban. It is also illegal to attach
<valsi>bu</valsi> to itself, but more than one
<valsi>bu</valsi> may be attached to a word; thus
<oldjbophrase>.abubu</oldjbophrase> is legal, if ugly. (Its meaning is not defined, but it is presumably different from
<oldjbophrase>.abu</oldjbophrase>.) It does not matter if the word is a cmavo, a cmene, or a brivla. All such words suffixed by
<valsi>bu</valsi> are treated grammatically as if they were cmavo belonging to selma'o BY. However, if the word is a cmene it is always necessary to precede and follow it by a pause, because otherwise the cmene may absorb preceding or following words.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>happy face</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>smiley face</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logograms</primary><secondary>words for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>smiley face</primary><secondary>word for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>unusual characters</primary><secondary>words for</secondary></indexterm> The ability to attach
@@ -419,27 +419,27 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy.
</variablelist>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>quack</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> As an example, the English word
<quote>quack</quote> would be spelled in Lojban thus:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-0oAR">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e5d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ky.bu .ubu .abu cy. ky.</jbo>
- <en>
+ <natlang>
<quote>q</quote>
<quote>u</quote>
<quote>a</quote>
<quote>c</quote>
<quote>k</quote>
- </en>
+ </natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>letters</primary><secondary>symbol contrasted with sound for spelling</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>letters</primary><secondary>sound contrasted with symbol for spelling</secondary></indexterm> Note that the fact that the letter
<quote>c</quote> in this word has nothing to do with the sound of the Lojban letter
<letteral>c</letteral> is irrelevant; we are spelling an English word and English rules control the choice of letters, but we are speaking Lojban and Lojban rules control the pronunciations of those letters.</para>
<para>A few more possibilities for Latin-alphabet letters used in languages other than English:</para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry>
<term><oldjbophrase>ty.bu</oldjbophrase></term><listitem><para>þ (thorn)</para></listitem>
@@ -495,46 +495,46 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy.
<valsi>zai</valsi> (of selma'o LAU) is used to create shift words to still other alphabets. The BY word which must follow any LAU cmavo would typically be a name representing the alphabet with
<valsi>bu</valsi> suffixed:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qHT3" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e5d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>zai .devanagar. bu</jbo>
- <en>Devanagari (Hindi) alphabet</en>
+ <natlang>Devanagari (Hindi) alphabet</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qhTV" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e5d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>zai .katakan. bu</jbo>
- <en>Japanese katakana syllabary</en>
+ <natlang>Japanese katakana syllabary</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qhud" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e5d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>zai .xiragan. bu</jbo>
- <en>Japanese hiragana syllabary</en>
+ <natlang>Japanese hiragana syllabary</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Japanese hiragana</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>hiragana</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Japanese katakana</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>katakana</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Devanagari</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>language shift</primary><secondary>standardization of</secondary></indexterm> Unlike the cmavo above, these shift words have not been standardized and probably will not be until someone actually has a need for them. (Note the
<letteral>.</letteral> characters marking leading and following pauses.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>LAU selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ce'a</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>bold</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>italic</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>shift words</primary><secondary>for face</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>shift words</primary><secondary>for font</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>face</primary><secondary>specifying for letters</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>font</primary><secondary>specifying for letters</secondary></indexterm> In addition, there may be multiple visible representations within a single alphabet for a given letter: roman vs. italics, handwriting vs. print, Bodoni vs. Helvetica. These traditional
@@ -543,33 +543,33 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy.
<valsi>ce'a</valsi> (of selma'o LAU) and a following BY word:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qhV0" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e5d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ce'a .xelveticas. bu</jbo>
- <en>Helvetica font</en>
+ <natlang>Helvetica font</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qhv2" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e5d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ce'a .xancisk. bu</jbo>
- <en>handwriting</en>
+ <natlang>handwriting</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qhVb" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e5d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ce'a .pavrel. bu</jbo>
@@ -610,24 +610,24 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy.
<valsi>foi</valsi> (of selma'o FOI) must be used. These cmavo are always used in pairs; any number of lerfu words may appear between them, and the whole is treated as a single compound lerfu word. The French word
<quote>été</quote>, with acute accent marks on both
<quote>e</quote> lerfu, could be spelled as:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-NQgb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e6d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>tei .ebu .akut. bu foi ty. tei .akut. bu .ebu foi</jbo>
- <en>(
+ <natlang>(
<quote>e</quote> acute )
<quote>t</quote> ( acute
- <quote>e</quote>)</en>
+ <quote>e</quote>)</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>ete</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>accent mark</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>diacritical marks</primary><secondary>order of specification within tei…foi</secondary></indexterm> and it does not matter whether
<oldjbophrase>akut. bu</oldjbophrase> appears before or after
<oldjbophrase>.ebu</oldjbophrase>; the
<oldjbophrase>tei ... foi</oldjbophrase> grouping guarantees that the acute accent is associated with the correct lerfu. Of course, the level of precision represented by
<xref linkend="example-random-id-NQgb"/> would rarely be required: it might be needed by a Lojban-speaker when spelling out a French word for exact transcription by another Lojban-speaker who did not know French.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>diacritical marks</primary><secondary>problem with multiple on one lerfu</secondary></indexterm> This system breaks down in languages which use more than one accent mark on a single lerfu; some other convention must be used for showing which accent marks are written where in that case. The obvious convention is to represent the mark nearest the basic lerfu by the lerfu word closest to the word representing the basic lerfu. Any remaining ambiguities must be resolved by further conventions not yet established.</para>
@@ -692,58 +692,58 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy.
<quote>han
<superscript>4</superscript> zi
<superscript>4</superscript></quote> is conventionally written with two characters, but it may be spelled out as:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-fBfe">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e8d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.y'y.bu .abu ny. vo zy. .ibu vo</jbo>
- <en>
+ <natlang>
<quote>h</quote>
<quote>a</quote>
<quote>n</quote>
4
<quote>z</quote>
<quote>i</quote>
4
- </en>
+ </natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>han^{4}zi^{4}</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu words with numeric digits</primary><secondary>grammar considerations</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>numeric digits in lerfu words</primary><secondary>grammar considerations</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo
<valsi>vo</valsi> is the Lojban digit
<quote>4</quote>. It is grammatical to intersperse digits (of selma'o PA) into a string of lerfu words; as long as the first cmavo is a lerfu word, the whole will be interpreted as a string of lerfu words. In Chinese, the digits can be used to represent tones. Pinyin is more usually written using accent marks, the mechanism for which was explained in
<xref linkend="section-accents"/>.</para>
<para>The Japanese company named
<quote>Mitsubishi</quote> in English is spelled the same way in romaji, and could be spelled out in Lojban thus:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pLUV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e8d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>my. .ibu ty. sy. .ubu by. .ibu sy. .y'y.bu .ibu</jbo>
- <en>
+ <natlang>
<quote>m</quote>
<quote>i</quote>
<quote>t</quote>
<quote>s</quote>
<quote>u</quote>
<quote>b</quote>
<quote>i</quote>
<quote>s</quote>
<quote>h</quote>
<quote>i</quote>
- </en>
+ </natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Mitsubishi</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>kanji</primary><secondary>representing based on strokes</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Chinese characters</primary><secondary>representing based on strokes</secondary></indexterm> Alternatively, a really ambitious Lojbanist could assign lerfu words to the individual strokes used to write Chinese characters (there are about seven or eight of them if you are a flexible human being, or about 40 if you are a rigid computer program), and then represent each character with a
<valsi>tei</valsi>, the stroke lerfu words in the order of writing (which is standardized for each character), and a
<valsi>foi</valsi>. No one has as yet attempted this project.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-lerfu-pro-sumti">
@@ -755,49 +755,49 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy.
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu string</primary><secondary>as pro-sumti</secondary></indexterm> A lerfu string may be used as a pro-sumti (a sumti which refers to some previous sumti), just like the pro-sumti
<valsi>ko'a</valsi>,
<valsi>ko'e</valsi>, and so on:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>A loves B</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2wo8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e9d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.abu prami by.</jbo>
- <en>A loves B</en>
+ <natlang>A loves B</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-2wo8"/>,
<oldjbophrase>.abu</oldjbophrase> and
<oldjbophrase>by.</oldjbophrase> represent specific sumti, but which sumti they represent must be inferred from context.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>goi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu string</primary><secondary>as pro-sumti assigned by goi</secondary></indexterm> Alternatively, lerfu strings may be assigned by
<valsi>goi</valsi>, the regular pro-sumti assignment cmavo:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-i7Ny">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e9d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le gerku goi gy. cu xekri .i gy. klama le zdani</jbo>
- <en>The dog, or G, is black. G goes to the house.</en>
+ <natlang>The dog, or G, is black. G goes to the house.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu string</primary><secondary>as pro-sumti</secondary><tertiary>assumption of reference</tertiary></indexterm> There is a special rule that sometimes makes lerfu strings more advantageous than the regular pro-sumti cmavo. If no assignment can be found for a lerfu string (especially a single lerfu word), it can be assumed to refer to the most recent sumti whose name or description begins in Lojban with that lerfu. So
<xref linkend="example-random-id-i7Ny"/> can be rephrased:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7hVs">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e9d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le gerku cu xekri. .i gy. klama le zdani</jbo>
- <en>The dog is black. G goes to the house.</en>
+ <natlang>The dog is black. G goes to the house.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(A less literal English translation would use
<quote>D</quote> for
<quote>dog</quote> instead.)</para>
<para>Here is an example using two names and longer lerfu strings:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Alexander Pavlovitch Kuznetsov</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Steven Mark Jones</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-uAAF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e9d4"/>
@@ -813,50 +813,50 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy.
<para>Perhaps Alexander's name should be given as
<oldjbophrase>ru'o.abupyky</oldjbophrase> instead.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu strings</primary><secondary>as pro-sumti</secondary><tertiary>for multiple sumti separated by boi</tertiary></indexterm> What about</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>A gives BC</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gJFz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e9d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.abu dunda by. cy.</jbo>
- <en>A gives B C</en>
+ <natlang>A gives B C</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>BOI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>boi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>boi</primary><secondary>eliding from lerfu strings</secondary></indexterm> Does this mean that A gives B to C? No.
<oldjbophrase>by. cy.</oldjbophrase> is a single lerfu string, although written as two words, and represents a single pro-sumti. The true interpretation is that A gives BC to someone unspecified. To solve this problem, we need to introduce the elidable terminator
<valsi>boi</valsi> (of selma'o BOI). This cmavo is used to terminate lerfu strings and also strings of numerals; it is required when two of these appear in a row, as here. (The other reason to use
<valsi>boi</valsi> is to attach a free modifier – subscript, parenthesis, or what have you – to a lerfu string.) The correct version is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Hdwz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e9d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>.abu [boi] dunda by. boi cy. [boi]</jbo>
- <en>A gives B to C</en>
+ <natlang>A gives B to C</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>A gives B to C</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> where the two occurrences of
<valsi>boi</valsi> in brackets are elidable, but the remaining occurrence is not. Likewise:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-L9op">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e9d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xy. boi ro [boi] prenu cu prami</jbo>
<gloss>X all persons loves.</gloss>
- <en>X loves everybody.</en>
+ <natlang>X loves everybody.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>lerfu strings</secondary><tertiary>interaction with quantifiers and boi</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>boi</primary><secondary>required between pro-sumti lerfu string and quantifier</secondary></indexterm> requires the first
<valsi>boi</valsi> to separate the lerfu string
<oldjbophrase>xy.</oldjbophrase> from the digit string
<valsi>ro</valsi>.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-meho">
<title>References to lerfu</title>
@@ -875,36 +875,36 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy.
<oldjbophrase>.abu</oldjbophrase> refers to. The solution to this problem makes use of the cmavo
<valsi>me'o</valsi> of selma'o LI, which makes a lerfu string into a sumti representing that very string of lerfu. This use of
<valsi>me'o</valsi> is a special case of its mathematical use, which is to introduce a mathematical expression used literally rather than for its value.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>"a" is letteral</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Yy32">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e10d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>me'o .abu cu lerfu</jbo>
- <en>The-expression
- <quote>a</quote> is-a-letteral.</en>
+ <natlang>The-expression
+ <quote>a</quote> is-a-letteral.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Now we can translate
<xref linkend="example-random-id-tvHm"/> into Lojban:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>four "e"s</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-UT1J">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e10d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>dei vasru vo lerfu po'u me'o .ebu</jbo>
<gloss>this-sentence contains four letterals which-are the-expression <quote>e</quote>.</gloss>
- <en>This sentence contains four
- <quote>e</quote> s.</en>
+ <natlang>This sentence contains four
+ <quote>e</quote> s.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Since the Lojban sentence has only four
<letteral>e</letteral> lerfu rather than fourteen, the translation is not a literal one – but
<xref linkend="example-random-id-pbDf"/> is a Lojban truth just as
<xref linkend="example-random-id-tvHm"/> is an English truth. Coincidentally, the colloquial English translation of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-pbDf"/> is also true!</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>la'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>lu</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>me'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>la'e lu</primary><secondary>compared with me'o</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>me'o</primary><secondary>compared with la'e lu</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>representing lerfu</primary><secondary>lu contrasted with me'o</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lu</primary><secondary>contrasted with me'o for representing lerfu</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>me'o</primary><secondary>contrasted with lu…li'u for representing lerfu</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>me'o</primary><secondary>contrasted with quotation for representing lerfu</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>quotation</primary><secondary>contrasted with me'o for representing lerfu</secondary></indexterm> The reader might be tempted to use quotation with
<oldjbophrase>lu ... li'u</oldjbophrase> instead of
<valsi>me'o</valsi>, producing:</para>
@@ -951,21 +951,21 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy.
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mathematical variables</primary><secondary>lerfu strings as</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu string</primary><secondary>as mathematical variable</secondary></indexterm> A lerfu string as mathematical variable:</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1Nuz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e11d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li .abu du li by. su'i cy.</jbo>
<gloss>the-number a equals the-number b plus c</gloss>
- <en>a = b + c</en>
+ <natlang>a = b + c</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>function name</primary><secondary>lerfu string as</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu string</primary><secondary>as function name</secondary></indexterm> A lerfu string as function name (preceded by
<valsi>ma'o</valsi> of selma'o MAhO):</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>function f of x</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
@@ -989,37 +989,37 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy.
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri</primary><secondary>lerfu string as</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu string</primary><secondary>as selbri</secondary></indexterm> A lerfu string as selbri (followed by a cmavo of selma'o MOI):</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-X4KM">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e11d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le vi ratcu ny.moi le'i mi ratcu</jbo>
<gloss>the here rat is-nth-of the-set-of my rats</gloss>
- <en>This rat is my Nth rat.</en>
+ <natlang>This rat is my Nth rat.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Nth rat</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>utterance ordinal</primary><secondary>lerfu string as</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu string</primary><secondary>as utterance ordinal</secondary></indexterm> A lerfu string as utterance ordinal (followed by a cmavo of selma'o MAI):</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Jw40">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e11d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ny.mai</jbo>
- <en>Nthly</en>
+ <natlang>Nthly</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Nthly</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>subscripts</primary><secondary>lerfu string as</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu string</primary><secondary>as subscript</secondary></indexterm> A lerfu string as subscript (preceded by
<valsi>xi</valsi> of selma'o XI):</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-oTgS">
@@ -1088,88 +1088,88 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy.
<quote>sequel</quote>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu words</primary><secondary>as a basis for acronym names</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>acronyms</primary><secondary>using names based on lerfu words</secondary></indexterm> In Lojban, a name can be almost any sequence of sounds that ends in a consonant and is followed by a pause. The easiest way to Lojbanize acronym names is to glue the lerfu words together, using
<letteral>'</letteral> wherever two vowels would come together (pauses are illegal in names) and adding a final consonant:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-736i">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e12d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la dyny'abub. .i la ny'abuty'obub. .i la cy'ibu'abub. .i la sykybulyl. .i la .ibubymym. .i la ny'ybucyc.</jbo>
- <en>DNA. NATO. CIA. SQL. IBM. NYC.</en>
+ <natlang>DNA. NATO. CIA. SQL. IBM. NYC.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>NYC</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>SQL</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>NATO</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>IBM</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>CIA</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>DNA</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>acronym names from lerfu words</primary><secondary>assigning final consonant</secondary></indexterm> There is no fixed convention for assigning the final consonant. In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-736i"/>, the last consonant of the lerfu string has been replicated into final position.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bu</primary><secondary>omitting in acronyms names based on lerfu words</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>acronyms names based on lerfu words</primary><secondary>omitting bu</secondary></indexterm> Some compression can be done by leaving out
<valsi>bu</valsi> after vowel lerfu words (except for
<oldjbophrase>.y.bu</oldjbophrase>, wherein the
<valsi>bu</valsi> cannot be omitted without ambiguity). Compression is moderately important because it's hard to say long names without introducing an involuntary (and illegal) pause:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-0sin">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e12d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la dyny'am. .i la ny'aty'om. .i la cy'i'am. .i la sykybulym. .i la .ibymym. .i la ny'ybucym.</jbo>
- <en>DNA. NATO. CIA. SQL. IBM. NYC.</en>
+ <natlang>DNA. NATO. CIA. SQL. IBM. NYC.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-0sin"/>, the final consonant
<letteral>m</letteral> stands for
<valsi>merko</valsi>, indicating the source culture of these acronyms.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>"z" instead of "'"</primary><secondary>in acronyms names based on lerfu words</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>acronyms names based on lerfu words</primary><secondary>using "z" instead of "'" in</secondary></indexterm> Another approach, which some may find easier to say and which is compatible with older versions of the language that did not have a
<letteral>'</letteral> character, is to use the consonant
<letteral>z</letteral> instead of
<letteral>'</letteral>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Js6m">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e12d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la dynyzaz. .i la nyzatyzoz. .i la cyzizaz. .i la sykybulyz. .i la .ibymyz. .i la nyzybucyz.</jbo>
- <en>DNA. NATO. CIA. SQL. IBM. NYC.</en>
+ <natlang>DNA. NATO. CIA. SQL. IBM. NYC.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>me</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>acronyms</primary><secondary>as lerfu strings using "me"</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu strings</primary><secondary>as acronyms using "me"</secondary></indexterm> One more alternative to these lengthy names is to use the lerfu string itself prefixed with
<valsi>me</valsi>, the cmavo that makes sumti into selbri:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-iMRB">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e12d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la me dy ny. .abu</jbo>
- <en>that-named what-pertains-to
+ <natlang>that-named what-pertains-to
<quote>d</quote>
<quote>n</quote>
- <quote>a</quote></en>
+ <quote>a</quote></natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This works because
<valsi>la</valsi>, the cmavo that normally introduces names used as sumti, may also be used before a predicate to indicate that the predicate is a (meaningful) name:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7KLi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e12d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la cribe cu ciska</jbo>
<gloss>That-named
<quote>Bear</quote> writes.</gloss>
- <en>Bear is a writer.</en>
+ <natlang>Bear is a writer.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-7KLi"/> does not of course refer to a bear (
<oldjbophrase>le cribe</oldjbophrase> or
<oldjbophrase>lo cribe</oldjbophrase>) but to something else, probably a person, named
<quote>Bear</quote>. Similarly,
<oldjbophrase>me dy ny. .abu</oldjbophrase> is a predicate which can be used as a name, producing a kind of acronym which can have pauses between the individual lerfu words.</para>
</section>
@@ -1185,25 +1185,25 @@ ty. .ubu vy. xy. .ybu zy.
<valsi>se'e</valsi> (of selma'o BY). This cmavo is conventionally followed by digit cmavo of selma'o PA representing the character code, and the whole string indicates a single character in some computerized character set:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-r2jv">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c17e13d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>me'o se'ecixa cu lerfu la .asycy'i'is. loi merko rupnu</jbo>
<gloss>The-expression [code] 36 is-a-letteral in-set ASCII for-the-mass-of American currency-units.</gloss>
- <en>The character code 36 in ASCII represents American dollars.</en>
+ <natlang>The character code 36 in ASCII represents American dollars.</natlang>
- <en>
- <quote>$</quote> represents American dollars.</en>
+ <natlang>
+ <quote>$</quote> represents American dollars.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>$</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>American dollars</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ASCII</primary><secondary>application to lerfu words</secondary></indexterm> Understanding
<xref linkend="example-random-id-r2jv"/> depends on knowing the value in the ASCII character set (one of the simplest and oldest) of the
<quote>$</quote> character. Therefore, the
<valsi>se'e</valsi> convention is only intelligible to those who know the underlying character set. For precisely specifying a particular character, however, it has the advantages of unambiguity and (relative) cultural neutrality, and therefore Lojban provides a means for those with access to descriptions of such character sets to take advantage of them.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>peace symbol</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Unicode</primary></indexterm> As another example, the Unicode character set (also known as ISO 10646) represents the international symbol of peace, an inverted trident in a circle, using the base-16 value 262E. In a suitable context, a Lojbanist may say:</para>
diff --git a/todocbook/18.xml b/todocbook/18.xml
index dd7f438..77fabe1 100644
--- a/todocbook/18.xml
+++ b/todocbook/18.xml
@@ -96,44 +96,44 @@
</cmavo-list>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>PA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>hundred</primary><secondary>expressing as number</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ten</primary><secondary>expressing as number</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>numbers</primary><secondary>as compound cmavo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>digits</primary><secondary>cmavo for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>numbers</primary><secondary>expressing simple</secondary></indexterm> The simplest kind of mekso are numbers, which are cmavo or compound cmavo. There are cmavo for each of the 10 decimal digits, and numbers greater than 9 are made by stringing together the cmavo. Some examples:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-LmPr">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e2d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>pa re ci</jbo>
<gloss>one two three</gloss>
<math>123</math>
- <en>one hundred and twenty three</en>
+ <natlang>one hundred and twenty three</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-TNjj">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e2d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>pa no</jbo>
<gloss>one zero</gloss>
<math>10</math>
- <en>ten</en>
+ <natlang>ten</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gjzw">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e2d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>pa re ci vo mu xa ze bi so no</jbo>
<gloss>one two three four five six seven eight nine zero</gloss>
<math>1234567890</math>
- <en>one billion, two hundred and thirty-four million, five hundred and sixty-seven thousand, eight hundred and ninety.</en>
+ <natlang>one billion, two hundred and thirty-four million, five hundred and sixty-seven thousand, eight hundred and ninety.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>123</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>numbers</primary><secondary>greater than 9</secondary></indexterm> Therefore, there are no separate cmavo for
<quote>ten</quote>,
<quote>hundred</quote>, etc.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>number words</primary><secondary>pattern in</secondary></indexterm> There is a pattern to the digit cmavo (except for
<valsi>no</valsi>, 0) which is worth explaining. The cmavo from 1 to 5 end in the vowels
<letteral>a</letteral>,
@@ -382,51 +382,51 @@
<jbo>ma'u ci'i</jbo>
<math>+∞</math>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k2VC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e4d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ci ka'o re</jbo>
- <en>3i2 (a complex number equivalent to <inlinemath>3 + 2i</inlinemath>) </en>
+ <natlang>3i2 (a complex number equivalent to <inlinemath>3 + 2i</inlinemath>) </natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ka'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ci'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>infinity</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ka'o</primary><secondary>as special number compared with as numerical punctuation</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>complex numbers</primary><secondary>expressing</secondary></indexterm> Note that
<valsi>ka'o</valsi> is both a special number (meaning
<quote>i</quote>) and a number punctuation mark (separating the real and the imaginary parts of a complex number).</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k32m">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e4d3"/>
<indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ci'i</primary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>aleph null</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>transfinite cardinal</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ci'i no</jbo>
- <en>infinity zero</en>
- <en><inlinemath>ℵ<subscript>0</subscript></inlinemath> (a transfinite cardinal) </en>
+ <natlang>infinity zero</natlang>
+ <natlang><inlinemath>ℵ<subscript>0</subscript></inlinemath> (a transfinite cardinal) </natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The special numbers
<valsi>pai</valsi> and
<valsi>te'o</valsi> are mathematically important, which is why they are given their own cmavo:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k356">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e4d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>pai</jbo>
- <en><inlinemath>pi</inlinemath>, <inlinemath>π</inlinemath> </en>
+ <natlang><inlinemath>pi</inlinemath>, <inlinemath>π</inlinemath> </natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k36i">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e4d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>te'o</jbo>
<math>e </math>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -528,36 +528,36 @@
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>li</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>numbers</primary><secondary>using for quantification contrasted with talking about</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>numbers</primary><secondary>talking about contrasted with using for quantification</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>number article</primary><secondary>explanation of use</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>the</primary><secondary>for talking about numbers themselves</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>article</primary><secondary>number</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo
<valsi>li</valsi> is the number article. It is required whenever a sentence talks about numbers as numbers, as opposed to using numbers to quantify things. For example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nSU9">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e5d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ci prenu</jbo>
- <en>the three persons</en>
+ <natlang>the three persons</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>requires no
<valsi>li</valsi> article, because the
<valsi>ci</valsi> is being used to specify the number of
<valsi>prenu</valsi>. However, the sentence</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-BNFi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e5d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>levi sfani cu grake li ci</jbo>
<gloss>This fly masses-in-grams the-number three.</gloss>
- <en>This fly has a mass of 3 grams.</en>
+ <natlang>This fly has a mass of 3 grams.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>3 grams</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>units of measurement</primary><secondary>expressing</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>measurements</primary><secondary>expressing</secondary></indexterm> requires
<valsi>li</valsi> because
<valsi>ci</valsi> is being used as a sumti. Note that this is the way in which measurements are stated in Lojban: all the predicates for units of length, mass, temperature, and so on have the measured object as the first place and a number as the second place. Using
<valsi>li</valsi> for
<valsi>le</valsi> in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-nSU9"/> would produce</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gJe1">
@@ -1252,21 +1252,21 @@
<quote>all but one</quote>, or in ordinal contexts
<quote>all but the last</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3z2U">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d13"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro ratcu ka'e citka da'a ratcu</jbo>
<gloss>All rats can eat all-but-one rats.</gloss>
- <en>All rats can eat all other rats.</en>
+ <natlang>All rats can eat all other rats.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>eat themselves</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> (The use of
<valsi>da'a</valsi> means that
<xref linkend="example-random-id-3z2U"/> does not require that all rats can eat themselves, but does allow it. Each rat has one rat it cannot eat, but that one might be some rat other than itself. Context often dictates that
<quote>itself</quote> is, indeed, the
<quote>other</quote> rat.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ni'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ma'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ni'u</primary><secondary>with elided number</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ma'u</primary><secondary>with elided number</secondary></indexterm> As mentioned in
<xref linkend="section-signs-punctuation"/>,
@@ -1338,33 +1338,33 @@
<quote>a sufficient part of.</quote></para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>definite numbers</primary><secondary>combined with indefinite</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>indefinite numbers</primary><secondary>combined with definite</secondary></indexterm> Another possibility is that of combining definite and indefinite numbers into a single number. This usage implies that the two kinds of numbers have the same value in the given context:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qibb" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d18"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska le rore gerku</jbo>
<gloss>I saw the all-of/two dogs.</gloss>
- <en>I saw both dogs.</en>
+ <natlang>I saw both dogs.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qIBi" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e8d19"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi speni so'ici prenu</jbo>
<gloss>I am-married-to many/three persons.</gloss>
- <en>I am married to three persons (which is
- <quote>many</quote> in the circumstances).</en>
+ <natlang>I am married to three persons (which is
+ <quote>many</quote> in the circumstances).</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>both dogs</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qIBi"/> assumes a mostly monogamous culture by stating that three is
<quote>many</quote>.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-approximation">
<title>Approximation and inexact numbers</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
@@ -1401,72 +1401,72 @@
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ji'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ji'i</primary><secondary>effect of placement</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>approximate numbers</primary><secondary>expressing</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo
<valsi>ji'i</valsi> (of selma'o PA) is used in several ways to indicate approximate or rounded numbers. If it appears at the beginning of a number, the whole number is approximate:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-YLcy">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e9d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ji'i vo no</jbo>
<gloss>approximation four zero</gloss>
- <en>approximately 40</en>
+ <natlang>approximately 40</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>approximately 40</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>approximate numbers</primary><secondary>expressing some exactness of</secondary></indexterm> If
<valsi>ji'i</valsi> appears in the middle of a number, all the digits following it are approximate:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-BANC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e9d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>vo no ji'i mu no</jbo>
<gloss>four zero approximation five zero</gloss>
- <en>roughly 4050 (where the
+ <natlang>roughly 4050 (where the
<quote>four thousand</quote> is exact, but the
- <quote>fifty</quote> is approximate)</en>
+ <quote>fifty</quote> is approximate)</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rounded numbers</primary><secondary>expressing</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>truncation of number</primary><secondary>expressing</secondary></indexterm> If
<valsi>ji'i</valsi> appears at the end of a number, it indicates that the number has been rounded. In addition, it can then be followed by a sign cmavo (
<valsi>ma'u</valsi> or
<valsi>ni'u</valsi>), which indicate truncation towards positive or negative infinity respectively.</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qIc5" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e9d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>re pi ze re ji'i</jbo>
<gloss>two point seven two approximation</gloss>
- <en>2.72 (rounded)</en>
+ <natlang>2.72 (rounded)</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qicz" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e9d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>re pi ze re ji'i ma'u</jbo>
<gloss>two point seven two approximation positive-sign</gloss>
- <en>2.72 (rounded up)</en>
+ <natlang>2.72 (rounded up)</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qiDE" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e9d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>re pi ze pa ji'i ni'u</jbo>
<gloss>two point seven one approximation negative-sign</gloss>
- <en>2.71 (rounded down)</en>
+ <natlang>2.71 (rounded down)</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>rounded down</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>rounded up</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ji'i</primary><secondary>with elided number</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qIc5"/> through
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qiDE"/> are all approximations to
<valsi>te'o</valsi> (exponential e).
<valsi>ji'i</valsi> can also appear by itself, in which case it means
<quote>approximately the typical value in this context</quote>.</para>
@@ -1735,21 +1735,21 @@
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>base</primary><secondary>vague</secondary></indexterm>
<valsi>pi'e</valsi> is also used where the base of each digit is vague, as in the numbering of the examples in this chapter:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-U161">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e10d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>dei jufra panopi'epapamoi</jbo>
<gloss>This-utterance is-a-sentence-type-of 10;11th-thing.</gloss>
- <en>This is Sentence 10.11.</en>
+ <natlang>This is Sentence 10.11.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-mekso-selbri">
<title>Special mekso selbri</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>mei</cmavo>
<selmaho>MOI</selmaho>
@@ -1807,21 +1807,21 @@
<para>Some examples:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>three rats</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ujSA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e11d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lei mi ratcu cu cimei</jbo>
<gloss>Those-I-describe-as-the-mass-of my rats are-a-threesome.</gloss>
<gloss>My rats are three.</gloss>
- <en>I have three rats.</en>
+ <natlang>I have three rats.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here, the mass of my rats is said to have three components; that is, I have three rats.</para>
<para>Another example, with one element this time:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>singular me</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>individual</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1Pen">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e11d2"/>
@@ -1844,39 +1844,39 @@
</place-structure>
<para>An example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-GJsg">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e11d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lei ratcu poi zvati le panka cu so'umei fo lo'i ratcu</jbo>
<gloss>The-mass-of rats which are-in the park are a-fewsome with-respect-to the-set-of rats.</gloss>
- <en>The rats in the park are a small number of all the rats there are.</en>
+ <natlang>The rats in the park are a small number of all the rats there are.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>lo'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>set of all rats</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>rats in park</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>fewsome</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo'i</primary><secondary>with elided quantifiers</secondary></indexterm> In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-GJsg"/>, the x2 and x3 places are vacant, and the x4 place is filled by
<oldjbophrase>lo'i ratcu</oldjbophrase>, which (because no quantifiers are explicitly given) means
<quote>the whole of the set of all those things which are rats</quote>, or simply
<quote>the set of all rats.</quote></para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>manysome</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-n52D">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e11d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le'i ratcu poi zvati le panka cu se so'imei</jbo>
<gloss>The-set-of rats which-are in the park is-a manysome.</gloss>
- <en>There are many rats in the park.</en>
+ <natlang>There are many rats in the park.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-n52D"/>, the conversion cmavo
<valsi>se</valsi> swaps the x1 and the x2 places, so that the new x1 is the set. The x4 set is unspecified, so the implication is that the rats are
<quote>many</quote> with respect to some unspecified comparison set.</para>
<para>More explanations about the interrelationship of sets, masses, and individuals can be found in
<xref linkend="section-masses"/>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>moi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ordinal selbri</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ordinal selbri</primary><secondary>place structure</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo
@@ -1886,32 +1886,32 @@
x1 is the (n)th member of set x2 when ordered by rule x3
</place-structure>
<para>Some examples:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qiHw" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e11d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti pamoi le'i mi ratcu</jbo>
<gloss>This-one is the first-of the rats associated-with me.</gloss>
- <en>This is my first rat.</en>
+ <natlang>This is my first rat.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qii2" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e11d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta romoi le'i mi ratcu</jbo>
<gloss>That is-the-allth-of the rats associated-with me.</gloss>
- <en>That is my last rat.</en>
+ <natlang>That is my last rat.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qIiA" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e11d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi raumoi le velskina porsi</jbo>
<gloss>I am-enough-th-in the movie-audience sequence</gloss>
@@ -1929,21 +1929,21 @@
x1 is an (n)th portion of mass x2
</place-structure>
<para>Some examples:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-i8r4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e11d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>levi sanmi cu fi'ucisi'e lei mi djedi cidja</jbo>
<gloss>This-here meal is-a-slash-three-portion-of my day-food.</gloss>
- <en>This meal is one-third of my daily food.</en>
+ <natlang>This meal is one-third of my daily food.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>cu'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>probability selbri</primary><secondary>place structure</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>probability selbri</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>one-third of food</primary></indexterm> The cmavo
<valsi>cu'o</valsi> creates probability selbri. The place structure is:</para>
<place-structure>
event x1 has probability (n) of occurring under conditions x2
</place-structure>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>probability selbri</primary><secondary>values</secondary></indexterm> The number must be between 0 and 1 inclusive. For example:</para>
@@ -1969,39 +1969,39 @@
<oldjbophrase>cifi'uxa</oldjbophrase> (3/6) may be used; in this case, 3/6 is not the same as 1/2, because the third position on a scale of six positions is not the same as the first position on a scale of two positions. Here is an example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-XiTd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e11d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le vi rozgu cu sofi'upanova'e xunre</jbo>
<gloss>This rose is 9/10-scale red.</gloss>
<gloss>This rose is 9 out of 10 on the scale of redness.</gloss>
- <en>This rose is very red.</en>
+ <natlang>This rose is very red.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>mo'a</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>du'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>rau</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>scale of redness</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>8 out of ten</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>scale selbri</primary><secondary>place structure effect from subjective numbers</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>probability selbri</primary><secondary>place structure effect from subjective numbers</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>portion selbri</primary><secondary>place structure effect from subjective numbers</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ordinal selbri</primary><secondary>place structure effect from subjective numbers</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cardinal selbri</primary><secondary>place structure effect from subjective numbers</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>subjective numbers</primary><secondary>effect on place structure for scale selbri</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>subjective numbers</primary><secondary>effect on place structure for probability selbri</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>subjective numbers</primary><secondary>effect on place structure for portion selbri</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>subjective numbers</primary><secondary>effect on place structure for ordinal selbri</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>subjective numbers</primary><secondary>effect on place structure for cardinal selbri</secondary></indexterm> When the quantifier preceding any MOI cmavo includes the subjective numbers
<valsi>rau</valsi>,
<valsi>du'e</valsi>, or
<valsi>mo'a</valsi> (enough, too many, too few) then an additional place is added for
<quote>by standard</quote>. For example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-aGLh">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e11d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lei ratcu poi zvati le panka cu du'emei fo mi</jbo>
<gloss>The-mass-of rats which-are in the park are too-many by-standard me.</gloss>
- <en>There are too many rats in the park for me.</en>
+ <natlang>There are too many rats in the park for me.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>subjective numbers</primary><secondary>rationale for effect on place structure</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>too many rats</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> The extra place (which for
<oldjbophrase>-mei</oldjbophrase> is the x4 place labeled by
<valsi>fo</valsi>) is provided rather than using a BAI tag such as
<valsi>ma'i</valsi> because a specification of the standard for judgment is essential to the meaning of subjective words like
<quote>enough</quote>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>subjective numbers</primary><secondary>specifying standard for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>standard for subjective numbers</primary><secondary>specifying</secondary></indexterm> This place is not normally explicit when using one of the subjective numbers directly as a number. Therefore,
@@ -2010,21 +2010,21 @@
<quote>too many rats</quote> without specifying any standard.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu strings</primary><secondary>with numerical selbri</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>numerical selbri</primary><secondary>special</secondary><tertiary>with lerfu strings</tertiary></indexterm> It is also grammatical to substitute a lerfu string for a number:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-cyLo">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e11d12"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta ny.moi le'i mi ratcu</jbo>
<gloss>That is-nth-of the-set-of my rats.</gloss>
- <en>That is my nth rat.</en>
+ <natlang>That is my nth rat.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>nth rat</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>numerical selbri</primary><secondary>restriction on numbers used for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>numerical selbri</primary><secondary>grammar</secondary></indexterm> More complex mekso cannot be placed directly in front of MOI, due to the resulting grammatical ambiguities. Instead, a somewhat artificial form of expression is required.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>me'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ME selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>me</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>numerical selbri</primary><secondary>alternative to compensate for restriction on numbers</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>"me"</primary><secondary>effect of MOI on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>numerical selbri</primary><secondary>complex</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>numerical selbri</primary><secondary>use of "me" with</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo
<valsi>me</valsi> (of selma'o ME) has the function of making a sumti into a selbri. A whole
<valsi>me</valsi> construction can have a member of MOI added to the end to create a complex mekso selbri:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>(n+1)-th rat</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-xaYd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e11d13"/>
@@ -2048,21 +2048,21 @@
<valsi>me</valsi> and before a member of MOI, producing strange results indeed:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-enCe">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e11d14"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nu mi nolraitru cu me le'e snime bolci be vi la xel. cu'o</jbo>
<gloss>The event-of me being-a-nobly-superlative-ruler has-the-stereotypical snow type-of-ball at Hell probability.</gloss>
- <en>I have a snowball's chance in Hell of being king.</en>
+ <natlang>I have a snowball's chance in Hell of being king.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>PA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>MOI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>boi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>me'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>snowball's chance</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>boi</primary><secondary>effect on elidability of me'u</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>MOI selma'o</primary><secondary>use of boi before</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>PA selma'o</primary><secondary>exception on use of boi with MOI</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>boi</primary><secondary>exception before MOI</secondary></indexterm> Note: the elidable terminator
<valsi>boi</valsi> is not used between a number and a member of MOI. As a result, the
<valsi>me'u</valsi> in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-xaYd"/> could also be replaced by a
<valsi>boi</valsi>, which would serve the same function of preventing the
<valsi>pa</valsi> and
<valsi>moi</valsi> from joining into a compound.</para>
@@ -2083,21 +2083,21 @@
<xref linkend="section-questions-and-answers"/> for more on Lojban questions.)</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qIiE" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e12d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li re su'i re du li xo</jbo>
<gloss>The-number 2 plus 2 equals the-number what?</gloss>
- <en>What is 2 + 2?</en>
+ <natlang>What is 2 + 2?</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qiIQ" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e12d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le xomoi prenu cu darxi do</jbo>
<gloss>The what-number-th person hit you?</gloss>
<gloss>Which person [as in a police lineup] hit you?</gloss>
@@ -2593,21 +2593,21 @@
</example>
<para>Here is a classic example of operand logical connection:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k36J">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e17d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>go li .abu bi'epi'i vei xy. te'a re ve'o su'i by. bi'epi'i xy. su'i cy. du li no gi li xy. du li vei va'a by. ku'e su'i ja vu'u fe'a vei by. bi'ete'a re vu'u vo bi'epi'i .abu bi'epi'i cy. ve'o [ku'e] ve'o fe'i re bi'epi'i .abu</jbo>
<gloss>If-and-only-if the-number <quote>a</quote>-times-(<quote>x</quote> power two ) plus <quote>b</quote>-times- <quote>x</quote> plus <quote>c</quote> equals the-number zero then the-number x equals the-number [ the-negation-of( b ) plus or minus the-root-of (<quote>b</quote>-power-2 minus four-times- <quote>a</quote>-times- <quote>c</quote> ) ] divided-by two-times- <quote>a</quote>.</gloss>
- <en>Iff ax <superscript>2</superscript> + bx + c = 0, then x = -b ± √ <!--sqrt-->(b <superscript>2</superscript> − 4ac) <!-- fraction bar --> 2a</en>
+ <natlang>Iff ax <superscript>2</superscript> + bx + c = 0, then x = -b ± √ <!--sqrt-->(b <superscript>2</superscript> − 4ac) <!-- fraction bar --> 2a</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>quadratic formula</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>infix notation mixed with Polish</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Polish notation mixed with infix</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>infix notation mixed with Polish</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Polish notation mixed with infix</primary></indexterm> Note the mixture of styles in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-k36J"/>: the negation of b and the square root are represented by forethought and most of the operator precedence by prefixed
<valsi>bi'e</valsi>, but explicit parentheses had to be added to group the numerator properly. In addition, the square root parentheses cannot be removed here in favor of simple
<valsi>fe'a</valsi> and
<valsi>ku'e</valsi> bracketing, because infix operators are present in the operand. Getting
<xref linkend="example-random-id-k36J"/> to parse perfectly using the current parser took several tries: a more relaxed style would dispense with most of the
@@ -2616,21 +2616,21 @@
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>BIhI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JOI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-logical connection</primary><secondary>of operators</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-logical connection</primary><secondary>of operands</secondary></indexterm> Non-logical connection with JOI and BIhI is also permitted between operands and between operators. One use for this construct is to connect operands with
<valsi>bi'o</valsi> to create intervals:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Bzf6">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e17d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li no ga'o bi'o ke'i pa</jbo>
<gloss>the-number zero (inclusive) from-to (exclusive) one</gloss>
<math>[0,1)</math>
- <en>the numbers from zero to one, including zero but not including one</en>
+ <natlang>the numbers from zero to one, including zero but not including one</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>mi'i</primary></indexterm> Intervals defined by a midpoint and range rather than beginning and end points can be expressed by
<valsi>mi'i</valsi>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-LvBT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e17d8"/>
</title>
@@ -2764,21 +2764,21 @@
<quote>a pride of lions</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-D4y4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e18d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska vei mo'e lo'e lanzu ve'o cinfo</jbo>
<gloss>I see ( the-typical family )-number-of lions.</gloss>
- <en>I see a pride of lions.</en>
+ <natlang>I see a pride of lions.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-other-mekso-uses">
<title>Other uses of mekso</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>me'o</cmavo>
@@ -2829,21 +2829,21 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>but false that:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Shbg">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e19d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>me'o re su'i re du me'o vo</jbo>
<gloss>The-mekso two plus two equals the-mekso four.</gloss>
- <en><quote>2 + 2</quote>=<quote>4</quote></en>
+ <natlang><quote>2 + 2</quote>=<quote>4</quote></natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>me'o</primary><secondary>relation to li compared with la/zo relation</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>li</primary><secondary>relation to me'o compared with la/zo relation</secondary></indexterm> since the expressions
<quote>2 + 2</quote> and
<quote>4</quote> are not the same. The relationship between
<valsi>li</valsi> and
<valsi>me'o</valsi> is related to that between
<oldjbophrase>la djan.</oldjbophrase>, the person named John, and
<oldjbophrase>zo .djan.</oldjbophrase>, the name
<quote>John</quote></para>
@@ -2880,21 +2880,21 @@
<gloss>The-number two what-operator? two equals the-number four.</gloss>
<math>2 ? 2 = 4</math>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qILi" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e19d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>nu'a su'i</jbo>
- <en>plus</en>
+ <natlang>plus</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qIKp"/>,
<oldjbophrase>na'u mo</oldjbophrase> is an operator question, because
<valsi>mo</valsi> is the selbri question cmavo and
<valsi>na'u</valsi> makes the selbri into an operator.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qILi"/> makes the true answer
<valsi>su'i</valsi> into a selbri (which is a legal utterance) with the inverse cmavo
<valsi>nu'a</valsi>. Mechanically speaking, inserting
@@ -2916,59 +2916,59 @@
<quote>firstly</quote>,
<quote>secondly</quote>, and so on, can be created by suffixing a member of selma'o MAI to a digit string or a lerfu string. (Digit strings are compound cmavo beginning with a cmavo of selma'o PA, and containing only cmavo of PA or BY; lerfu strings begin with a cmavo of selma'o BY, and likewise contain only PA or BY cmavo.) Here are some examples:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qimN" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e19d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>pamai</jbo>
- <en>firstly</en>
+ <natlang>firstly</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qiMz" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e19d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>remai</jbo>
- <en>secondly</en>
+ <natlang>secondly</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qInd" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e19d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>romai</jbo>
<gloss>all-ly</gloss>
- <en>lastly</en>
+ <natlang>lastly</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qIoY" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e19d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ny.mai</jbo>
- <en>nth-ly</en>
+ <natlang>nth-ly</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qiPq" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e19d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>pasomo'o</jbo>
- <en>nineteenthly (higher order)</en>
+ <natlang>nineteenthly (higher order)</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>MAI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>mo'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>firstly</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>chapter numbering</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mo'o</primary><secondary>contrasted with mai</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mai</primary><secondary>contrasted with mo'o</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>text</primary><secondary>division numbering with -mai</secondary></indexterm> The difference between
<valsi>mai</valsi> and
<valsi>mo'o</valsi> is that
<valsi>mo'o</valsi> enumerates larger subdivisions of a text. Each
<valsi>mo'o</valsi> subdivision can then be divided into pieces and internally numbered with
<valsi>mai</valsi>. If this chapter were translated into Lojban, each section would be numbered with
<valsi>mo'o</valsi>. (See
<xref linkend="section-utterance-ordinals"/> for more on these words.)</para>
@@ -3007,21 +3007,21 @@
<para>A few other points:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>se</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>se</primary><secondary>use with operators</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>conversion</primary><secondary>of operator places</secondary></indexterm>
<valsi>se</valsi> can be used to convert an operator as if it were a selbri, so that its arguments are exchanged. For example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-NwYJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e21d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li ci se vu'u vo du li pa</jbo>
<gloss>The-number three (inverse) minus four equals the-number one.</gloss>
- <en>3 subtracted from 4 equals 1.</en>
+ <natlang>3 subtracted from 4 equals 1.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>SE selma'o</primary></indexterm> The other converters of selma'o SE can also be used on operators with more than two operands, and they can be compounded to create (probably unintelligible) operators as needed.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>NAhE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>negation</primary><secondary>of operator</secondary></indexterm> Members of selma'o NAhE are also legal on an operator to produce a scalar negation of it. The implication is that some other operator would apply to make the bridi true:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qIPR" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e21d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li ci na'e su'i vo du li pare</jbo>
@@ -3047,32 +3047,32 @@
<valsi>lu'e</valsi> can be used on operands with the usual semantics to get the referent of or a symbol for an operand. Likewise, a member of selma'o NAhE followed by
<valsi>bo</valsi> serves to scalar-negate an operand, implying that some other operand would make the bridi true:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3het">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e21d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li re su'i re du li na'ebo mu</jbo>
<gloss>The-number 2 plus 2 equals the-number non-5.</gloss>
- <en>2 + 2 = something other than 5.</en>
+ <natlang>2 + 2 = something other than 5.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>digits</primary><secondary>names from</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>digits</primary><secondary>rafsi for</secondary></indexterm> The digits 0-9 have rafsi, and therefore can be used in making lujvo. Additionally, all the rafsi have CVC form and can stand alone or together as names:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hvGK">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e21d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la zel. poi gunta la tebes. pu nanmu</jbo>
<gloss>Those-named <quote>Seven</quote> who attack that-named <quote>Thebes</quote> [past] are-men.</gloss>
- <en>The Seven Against Thebes were men.</en>
+ <natlang>The Seven Against Thebes were men.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Of course, there is no guarantee that the name
<oldjbophrase>zel.</oldjbophrase> is connected with the number rafsi: an alternative which cannot be misconstrued is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pf3n">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c18e21d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la zemei poi gunta la tebes. pu nanmu</jbo>
diff --git a/todocbook/19.xml b/todocbook/19.xml
index c8316f7..8a2a236 100644
--- a/todocbook/19.xml
+++ b/todocbook/19.xml
@@ -147,35 +147,35 @@
<description>topic/comment separator</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>The normal Lojban sentence is just a bridi, parallel to the normal English sentence which has a subject and a predicate:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4WsN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e4d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci</jbo>
- <en>I went to the market</en>
+ <natlang>I went to the market</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>topic-comment</primary><secondary>description</secondary></indexterm> In Chinese, the normal sentence form is different: a topic is stated, and a comment about it is made. (Japanese also has the concept of a topic, but indicates it by attaching a suffix; other languages also distinguish topics in various ways.) The topic says what the sentence is about:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ovFJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e4d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<foreign xml:lang="zh">
zhe<superscript>4</superscript> xiao<superscript>1</superscript>xi<superscript>2</superscript> wo<superscript>3</superscript> zhi<superscript>1</superscript>dao le
</foreign> <!-- FIXME: instead of three spaces, why not a colon? -->
<gloss>this news I know [perfective]</gloss>
- <en>As for this news, I knew it.</en>
- <en>I've heard this news already.</en>
+ <natlang>As for this news, I knew it.</natlang>
+ <natlang>I've heard this news already.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ZOhU selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>zo'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>news</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> The wide space in the first two versions of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-ovFJ"/> separate the topic (
<quote>this news</quote>) from the comment (
<quote>I know already</quote>).</para>
<para>Lojban uses the cmavo
<valsi>zo'u</valsi> (of selma'o ZOhU) to separate topic (a sumti) from comment (a bridi):</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-p4ww">
@@ -233,48 +233,48 @@
<valsi>zo'u</valsi>: to separate a quantifying section from a bridi containing quantified variables. This usage belongs to a discussion of quantifier logic in Lojban (see
<xref linkend="section-da-and-zohu"/>), but an example would be:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-6yRx">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e4d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>roda poi prenu ku'o su'ode zo'u de patfu da</jbo>
<gloss>For-all X which-are-persons, there-exists-a-Y such-that Y is the father of X.</gloss>
- <en>Every person has a father.</en>
+ <natlang>Every person has a father.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The string of sumti before
<valsi>zo'u</valsi> (called the
<quote>prenex</quote>: see
<xref linkend="section-da-and-zohu"/>) may contain both a topic and bound variables:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ggMy">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e4d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>loi patfu roda poi prenu ku'o su'ode zo'u de patfu da</jbo>
<gloss>For-the-mass-of fathers for-all X which-are-persons, there-exists-a-Y such-that Y is the father of X.</gloss>
- <en>As for fathers, every person has one.</en>
+ <natlang>As for fathers, every person has one.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>topic/comment</primary><secondary>multiple sentence</secondary></indexterm> To specify a topic which affects more than one sentence, wrap the sentences in
<oldjbophrase>tu'e ... tu'u</oldjbophrase> brackets and place the topic and the
<valsi>zo'u</valsi> directly in front. This is the exception to the rule that a topic attaches directly to a sentence:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mK5Y">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e4d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>loi jdini zo'u tu'e do ponse .inaja do djica [tu'u]</jbo>
<gloss>The-mass-of money : ( [if] you possess, then you want )</gloss>
- <en>Money: if you have it, you want it.</en>
+ <natlang>Money: if you have it, you want it.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note: In Lojban, you do not
<quote>want money</quote>; you
<quote>want to have money</quote> or something of the sort, as the x2 place of
<valsi>djica</valsi> demands an event. As a result, the straightforward rendering of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-ggMy"/> without a topic is not:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Mdjd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e4d10"/>
@@ -389,143 +389,143 @@
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>UI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>xu</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>questions</primary><secondary>truth</secondary></indexterm> Lojban questions are not at all like English questions. There are two basic types: truth questions, of the form
<quote>Is it true that ...</quote>, and fill-in-the-blank questions. Truth questions are marked by preceding the bridi, or following any part of it specifically questioned, with the cmavo
<valsi>xu</valsi> (of selma'o UI):</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2t28">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e5d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xu do klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>[True or false?] You go to the store</gloss>
- <en>Are you going to the store/Did you go to the store?</en>
+ <natlang>Are you going to the store/Did you go to the store?</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(Since the Lojban is tenseless, either colloquial translation might be correct.) Truth questions are further discussed in
<xref linkend="section-truth-questions"/>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>questions</primary><secondary>fill-in-the-blank</secondary></indexterm> Fill-in-the-blank questions have a cmavo representing some Lojban word or phrase which is not known to the questioner, and which the answerer is to supply. There are a variety of cmavo belonging to different selma'o which provide different kinds of blanks.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>KOhA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ma</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>questions</primary><secondary>sumti</secondary></indexterm> Where a sumti is not known, a question may be formed with
<valsi>ma</valsi> (of selma'o KOhA), which is a kind of pro-sumti:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Pqzy">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e5d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ma klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>[What sumti?] goes-to the store</gloss>
- <en>Who is going to the store?</en>
+ <natlang>Who is going to the store?</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Of course, the
<valsi>ma</valsi> need not be in the x1 place:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-oAJT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e5d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do klama ma</jbo>
<gloss>You go-to [what sumti?]</gloss>
- <en>Where are you going?</en>
+ <natlang>Where are you going?</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The answer is a simple sumti:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-WUvX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e5d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le zarci</jbo>
- <en>The store.</en>
+ <natlang>The store.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>A sumti, then, is a legal utterance, although it does not by itself constitute a bridi – it does not claim anything, but merely completes the open-ended claim of the previous bridi.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>questions</primary><secondary>multiple</secondary></indexterm> There can be two
<valsi>ma</valsi> cmavo in a single question:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Cx50">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e5d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ma klama ma</jbo>
- <en>Who goes where?</en>
+ <natlang>Who goes where?</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and the answer would be two sumti, which are meant to fill in the two
<valsi>ma</valsi> cmavo in order:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-t39K">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e5d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi le zarci</jbo>
- <en>I, to the store.</en>
+ <natlang>I, to the store.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JOI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>fa'u</primary></indexterm> An even more complex example, depending on the non-logical connective
<valsi>fa'u</valsi> (of selma'o JOI), which is like the English
<quote>and ... respectively</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nDeV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e5d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ma fa'u ma klama ma fa'u ma</jbo>
- <en>Who and who goes where and where, respectively?</en>
+ <natlang>Who and who goes where and where, respectively?</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>An answer might be</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-yGYX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e5d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. la marcas. le zarci le briju</jbo>
<gloss>John, Marsha, the store, the office.</gloss>
- <en>John and Marsha go to the store and the office, respectively.</en>
+ <natlang>John and Marsha go to the store and the office, respectively.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(Note: A mechanical substitution of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-yGYX"/> into
<xref linkend="example-random-id-nDeV"/> produces an ungrammatical result, because
<oldjbophrase valid="false">* ... le zarci fa'u le briju</oldjbophrase> is ungrammatical Lojban: the first
<oldjbophrase>le zarci</oldjbophrase> has to be closed with its proper terminator
<valsi>ku</valsi>, for reasons explained in
<xref linkend="section-non-logical-connectives"/>. This effect is not important: Lojban behaves as if all elided terminators have been supplied in both question and answer before inserting the latter into the former. The exchange is grammatical if question and answer are each separately grammatical.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GOhA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>mo</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>questions</primary><secondary>selbri</secondary></indexterm> Questions to be answered with a selbri are expressed with
<valsi>mo</valsi> of selma'o GOhA, which is a kind of pro-bridi:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-uVCW">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e5d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la lojban. mo</jbo>
<gloss>Lojban [what selbri?]</gloss>
- <en>What is Lojban?</en>
+ <natlang>What is Lojban?</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>predicate answers</primary></indexterm> Here the answerer is to supply some predicate which is true of Lojban. Such questions are extremely open-ended, due to the enormous range of possible predicate answers. The answer might be just a selbri, or might be a full bridi, in which case the sumti in the answer override those provided by the questioner. To limit the range of a
<valsi>mo</valsi> question, make it part of a tanru.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>questions</primary><secondary>number</secondary></indexterm> Questions about numbers are expressed with
<valsi>xo</valsi> of selma'o PA:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pdeh">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e5d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do viska xo prenu</jbo>
<gloss>You saw [what number?] persons.</gloss>
- <en>How many people did you see?</en>
+ <natlang>How many people did you see?</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The answer would be a simple number, another kind of non-bridi utterance:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-zjVx">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e5d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>vomu</jbo>
<gloss>Forty-five.</gloss>
@@ -879,63 +879,63 @@
<quote>how the speaker knows</quote>). Most of these words belong to selma'o UI; the intensity markers belong to selma'o CAI for historical reasons, but the two selma'o are grammatically identical. The individual cmavo of UI and CAI are discussed in
<xref linkend="chapter-attitudinals"/>; only the rules for applying them in discourse are presented here.</para>
<para>Normally, an attitudinal applies to the preceding word only. However, if the preceding word is a structural cmavo which begins or ends a whole construction, then that whole construction is affected by the attitudinal:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qiQv" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e8d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska le blanu .ia zdani [ku]</jbo>
<gloss>I see the blue [belief] house.</gloss>
- <en>I see the house, which I believe to be blue.</en>
+ <natlang>I see the house, which I believe to be blue.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qIRG" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e8d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska le blanu zdani .ia [ku]</jbo>
<gloss>I see the blue house [belief].</gloss>
- <en>I see the blue thing, which I believe to be a house.</en>
+ <natlang>I see the blue thing, which I believe to be a house.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qIs0" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e8d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska le .ia blanu zdani [ku]</jbo>
<gloss>I see the [belief] blue house</gloss>
- <en>I see what I believe to be a blue house.</en>
+ <natlang>I see what I believe to be a blue house.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qISf" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e8d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska le blanu zdani ku .ia</jbo>
<gloss>I see (the blue house) [belief]</gloss>
- <en>I see what I believe to be a blue house.</en>
+ <natlang>I see what I believe to be a blue house.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>An attitudinal meant to cover a whole sentence can be attached to the preceding
<valsi>i</valsi>, expressed or understood:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-tqGf">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e8d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>[.i] .ia mi viska le blanu zdani</jbo>
<gloss>[belief] I see the blue house.</gloss>
- <en>I believe I see a blue house.</en>
+ <natlang>I believe I see a blue house.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>or to an explicit
<valsi>vau</valsi> placed at the end of a bridi.</para>
<para>Likewise, an attitudinal meant to cover a whole paragraph can be attached to
<valsi>ni'o</valsi> or
<valsi>no'i</valsi>. An attitudinal at the beginning of a text applies to the whole text.</para>
<para>However, sometimes it is necessary to be more specific about the range of one or more attitudinals, particularly if the range crosses the boundaries of standard Lojban syntactic constructions. The cmavo
<valsi>fu'e</valsi> (of selma'o FUhE) and
@@ -947,21 +947,21 @@
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-0vML">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e8d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska le fu'e .ia blanu zdani fu'o ponse</jbo>
<gloss>I see the [start] [belief] blue house [end] possessor</gloss>
- <en>I see the owner of what I believe to be a blue house.</en>
+ <natlang>I see the owner of what I believe to be a blue house.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here, only the
<oldjbophrase>blanu zdani</oldjbophrase> portion of the three-part tanru
<oldjbophrase>blanu zdani ponse</oldjbophrase> is marked as a belief of the speaker. Naturally, the attitudinal scope markers do not affect the rules for interpreting multi-part tanru:
<oldjbophrase>blanu zdani</oldjbophrase> groups first because tanru group from left to right unless overridden with
<valsi>ke</valsi> or
<valsi>bo</valsi>.</para>
<para>Other attitudinals of more local scope can appear after attitudinals marked by FUhE; these attitudinals are added to the globally active attitudinals rather than superseding them.</para>
</section>
@@ -992,22 +992,22 @@
</cmavo-list>
<para>Grammatically, quotations are very simple in Lojban: all of them are sumti, and they all mean something like
<quote>the piece of text here quoted</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-6SBj">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e9d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu cusku lu mi'e djan [li'u]</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] express [quote] I-am John [unquote]</gloss>
- <en>I said,
- <quote>I'm John</quote>.</en>
+ <natlang>I said,
+ <quote>I'm John</quote>.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>But in fact there are four different flavors of quotation in the language, involving six cmavo of six different selma'o. This being the case, quotation deserves some elaboration.</para>
<para>The simplest kind of quotation, exhibited in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-6SBj"/>, uses the cmavo
<valsi>lu</valsi> (of selma'o LU) as the opening quotation mark, and the cmavo
<valsi>li'u</valsi> (of selma'o LIhU) as the closing quotation mark. The text between
<valsi>lu</valsi> and
<valsi>li'u</valsi> must be a valid, parseable Lojban text. If the quotation is ungrammatical, so is the surrounding expression. The cmavo
@@ -1031,58 +1031,58 @@
<xref linkend="example-random-id-IUz8"/> is grammatical even though the embedded quotation is not. Similarly,
<valsi>lo'u</valsi> quotation can quote fragments of a text which themselves do not constitute grammatical utterances:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-EXeq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e9d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lu le mlatu cu viska le finpe li'u zo'u lo'u viska le le'u cu selbasti .ei lo'u viska lo le'u</jbo>
<gloss>[quote] <oldjbophrase>le mlatu cu viska le finpe</oldjbophrase> [unquote] : [quote] <oldjbophrase>viska le</oldjbophrase> [unquote] is-replaced-by [obligation!] [quote] <oldjbophrase>viska lo</oldjbophrase> [unquote].</gloss>
- <en>In the sentence
+ <natlang>In the sentence
<oldjbophrase>le mlatu viska le finpe</oldjbophrase>,
<oldjbophrase>viska le</oldjbophrase> should be replaced by
- <oldjbophrase>viska lo</oldjbophrase>.</en>
+ <oldjbophrase>viska lo</oldjbophrase>.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note the topic-comment formulation (
<xref linkend="section-topic-comments"/>) and the indicator applying to the selbri only (
<xref linkend="section-attitudinal-scope"/>). Neither
<oldjbophrase>viska le</oldjbophrase> nor
<oldjbophrase>viska lo</oldjbophrase> is a valid Lojban utterance, and both require
<valsi>lo'u</valsi> quotation.</para>
<para>Additionally, pro-sumti or pro-bridi in the quoting sentence can refer to words appearing in the quoted sentence when
<oldjbophrase>lu ... li'u</oldjbophrase> is used, but not when
<oldjbophrase>lo'u ... le'u</oldjbophrase> is used:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-x8XL">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e9d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la tcarlis. cusku lu le ninmu cu morsi li'u .iku'i ri jmive</jbo>
<gloss>Charlie says [quote] the woman is-dead [unquote]. However, the-last-mentioned is-alive.</gloss>
- <en>Charlie says <quote>The woman is dead</quote>, but she is alive.</en>
+ <natlang>Charlie says <quote>The woman is dead</quote>, but she is alive.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-x8XL"/>,
<valsi>ri</valsi> is a pro-sumti which refers to the most recent previous sumti, namely
<oldjbophrase>le ninmu</oldjbophrase>. Compare:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hvhb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e9d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la tcarlis. cusku lo'u le ninmu cu morsi le'u .iku'i ri jmive</jbo>
<gloss>Charlie says [quote] <oldjbophrase>le ninmu cu morsi</oldjbophrase> [unquote]. However, the-last-mentioned is-alive.</gloss>
- <en>Charlie says <oldjbophrase>le ninmu cu morsi</oldjbophrase>, but he is alive.</en>
+ <natlang>Charlie says <oldjbophrase>le ninmu cu morsi</oldjbophrase>, but he is alive.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-hvhb"/>,
<valsi>ri</valsi> cannot refer to the referent of the alleged sumti
<oldjbophrase>le ninmu</oldjbophrase>, because
<oldjbophrase>le ninmu cu morsi</oldjbophrase> is a mere uninterpreted sequence of Lojban words. Instead,
<valsi>ri</valsi> ends up referring to the referent of the sumti
<oldjbophrase>la tcarlis.</oldjbophrase>, and so it is Charlie who is alive.</para>
@@ -1128,40 +1128,40 @@
<para>The cmavo
<valsi>zo</valsi> (of selma'o ZO) is a strong quotation mark for the single following word, which can be any Lojban word whatsoever. Among other uses,
<valsi>zo</valsi> allows a metalinguistic word to be referenced without having it act on the surrounding text. The word must be a morphologically legal (but not necessarily meaningful) single Lojban word; compound cmavo are not permitted. For example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-qxjF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e10d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>zo si cu lojbo valsi</jbo>
- <en>
- <valsi>si</valsi> is a Lojbanic word.</en>
+ <natlang>
+ <valsi>si</valsi> is a Lojbanic word.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Since
<valsi>zo</valsi> acts on a single word only, there is no corresponding terminator. Brevity, then, is a great advantage of
<valsi>zo</valsi>, since the terminators for other kinds of quotation are rarely or never elidable.</para>
<para>The cmavo
<valsi>zoi</valsi> (of selma'o ZOI) is a quotation mark for quoting non-Lojban text. Its syntax is
<oldjbophrase>zoi X. text .X</oldjbophrase>, where X is a Lojban word (called the delimiting word) which is separated from the quoted text by pauses, and which is not found in the written text or spoken phoneme stream. It is common, but not required, to use the lerfu word (of selma'o BY) which corresponds to the Lojban name of the language being quoted:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-wYzm">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e10d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>zoi gy. John is a man .gy. cu glico jufra</jbo>
- <en>
- <quote>John is a man</quote> is an English sentence.</en>
+ <natlang>
+ <quote>John is a man</quote> is an English sentence.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where
<oldjbophrase>gy</oldjbophrase> stands for
<valsi>glico</valsi>. Other popular choices of delimiting words are
<oldjbophrase>.kuot.</oldjbophrase>, a Lojban name which sounds like the English word
<quote>quote</quote>, and the word
<valsi>zoi</valsi> itself. Another possibility is a Lojban word suggesting the topic of the quotation.</para>
<para>Within written text, the Lojban written word used as a delimiting word may not appear, whereas within spoken text, the sound of the delimiting word may not be uttered. This leads to occasional breakdowns of audio-visual isomorphism:
@@ -1169,73 +1169,73 @@
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qIsv"/> is fine in speech but ungrammatical as written, whereas
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qIsx"/> is correct when written but ungrammatical in speech.</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qIsv" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e10d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi djuno fi le valsi po'u zoi gy. gyrations .gy.</jbo>
- <en>I know about the word which-is
- <quote>gyrations</quote>.</en>
+ <natlang>I know about the word which-is
+ <quote>gyrations</quote>.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qIsx" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e10d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi djuno fi le valsi po'u zoi jai. gyrations .jai</jbo>
- <en>I know about the word which-is
- <quote>gyrations</quote>.</en>
+ <natlang>I know about the word which-is
+ <quote>gyrations</quote>.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The text
<oldjbophrase>gy</oldjbophrase> appears in the written word
<quote>gyrations</quote>, whereas the sound represented in Lojban by
<valsi>jai</valsi> appears in the spoken word
<quote>gyrations</quote>. Such borderline cases should be avoided as a matter of good style.</para>
<para>It should be noted particularly that
<valsi>zoi</valsi> quotation is the only way to quote rafsi, specifically CCV rafsi, because they are not Lojban words, and
<valsi>zoi</valsi> quotation is the only way to quote things which are not Lojban words. (CVC and CVV rafsi look like names and cmavo respectively, and so can be quoted using other methods.) For example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Eeya">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e10d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>zoi ry. sku .ry. cu rafsi zo cusku</jbo>
- <en>
+ <natlang>
<rafsi>sku</rafsi> is a rafsi of
- <valsi>cusku</valsi>.</en>
+ <valsi>cusku</valsi>.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(A minor note on interaction between
<oldjbophrase>lo'u ... le'u</oldjbophrase> and
<valsi>zoi</valsi>: The text between
<valsi>lo'u</valsi> and
<valsi>le'u</valsi> should consist of Lojban words only. In fact, non-Lojban material in the form of a
<valsi>zoi</valsi> quotation may also appear. However, if the word
<valsi>le'u</valsi> is used either as the delimiting word for the
<valsi>zoi</valsi> quotation, or within the quotation itself, the outer
<valsi>lo'u</valsi> quotation will be prematurely terminated. Therefore,
<valsi>le'u</valsi> should be avoided as the delimiting word in any
<valsi>zoi</valsi> quotation.)</para>
<para>Lojban strictly avoids any confusion between things and the names of things:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-56m5">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e10d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>zo .bab. cmene la bab.</jbo>
- <en>The-word
- <quote>Bob</quote> is-the-name-of the-one-named Bob.</en>
+ <natlang>The-word
+ <quote>Bob</quote> is-the-name-of the-one-named Bob.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-56m5"/>,
<oldjbophrase>zo .bab.</oldjbophrase> is the word, whereas
<oldjbophrase>la bab.</oldjbophrase> is the thing named by the word. The cmavo
<valsi>la'e</valsi> and
<valsi>lu'e</valsi> (of selma'o LAhE) convert back and forth between references and their referents:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qITB" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
@@ -1260,21 +1260,21 @@
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-56m5"/> through
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qiTd"/> all mean approximately the same thing, except for differences in emphasis.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-3yXJ"/> is different:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3yXJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e10d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo valid="iffy">la bab. cmene la bab.</jbo>
- <en>Bob is the name of Bob.</en>
+ <natlang>Bob is the name of Bob.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and says that Bob is both the name and the thing named, an unlikely situation. People are not names.</para>
<para>(In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-56m5"/> through
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qITB"/>, the name
<oldjbophrase>bab.</oldjbophrase> was separated from a preceding
<valsi>zo</valsi> by a pause, thus:
<oldjbophrase>zo .bab.</oldjbophrase>. The reason for this extra pause is that all Lojban names must be separated by pause from any preceding word other than
<valsi>la</valsi>,
@@ -1291,21 +1291,21 @@
<quote>Goethe</quote>, can also appear in Lojban text with
<valsi>la'o</valsi>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Sn3u">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e10d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la'o dy. Goethe .dy. cu me la'o ly. Homo sapiens .ly.</jbo>
- <en>Goethe is a Homo sapiens.</en>
+ <natlang>Goethe is a Homo sapiens.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Using
<valsi>la'o</valsi> for all names rather than Lojbanizing, however, makes for very cumbersome text. A rough equivalent of
<valsi>la'o</valsi> might be
<oldjbophrase>la me zoi</oldjbophrase>.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-bahe">
@@ -1352,58 +1352,58 @@
<para>In Lojban, the cmavo
<valsi>ba'e</valsi> (of selma'o BAhE) precedes a single word which is to be emphasized:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-8SVn">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e11d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska la ba'e .djordj.</jbo>
<gloss>I saw the-one-named [emphasis]
<quote>George</quote>.</gloss>
- <en>I saw <emphasis>George</emphasis>.</en>
+ <natlang>I saw <emphasis>George</emphasis>.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note the pause before the name
<oldjbophrase>djordj.</oldjbophrase>, which serves to separate it unambiguously from the
<valsi>ba'e</valsi>. Alternatively, the
<valsi>ba'e</valsi> can be moved to a position before the
<valsi>la</valsi>, which in effect emphasizes the whole construct
<oldjbophrase>la djordj.</oldjbophrase>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ud6w">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e11d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska ba'e la djordj.</jbo>
<gloss>I saw [emphasis] the-one-named
<quote>George</quote>.</gloss>
- <en>I saw <emphasis>George</emphasis>.</en>
+ <natlang>I saw <emphasis>George</emphasis>.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Marking a word with a cmavo of BAhE does not change the word's grammar in any way. Any word in a bridi can receive contrastive emphasis marking:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qiTM" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e11d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ba'e mi viska la djordj.</jbo>
- <en>I, no one else, saw George.</en>
+ <natlang>I, no one else, saw George.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qIty" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e11d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ba'e viska la djordj.</jbo>
- <en>I saw (not heard or smelled) George.</en>
+ <natlang>I saw (not heard or smelled) George.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Emphasis on one of the structural components of a Lojban bridi can also be achieved by rearranging it into an order that is not the speaker's or writer's usual order. Any sumti moved out of place, or the selbri when moved out of place, is emphatic to some degree.</para>
<para>For completeness, the cmavo
<valsi>za'e</valsi> should be mentioned, also of selma'o BAhE. It marks a word as possibly irregular, non-standard, or nonce (created for the occasion):</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-XtRW">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e11d8"/>
</title>
@@ -1451,21 +1451,21 @@
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>TOI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>toi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>TO selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>to</primary></indexterm> The cmavo
<valsi>to</valsi> and
<valsi>toi</valsi> are discursive (non-mathematical) parentheses, for inserting parenthetical remarks. Any text whatsoever can go within the parentheses, and it is completely invisible to its context. It can, however, refer to the context by the use of pro-sumti and pro-bridi: any that have been assigned in the context are still assigned in the parenthetical remarks, but the reverse is not true.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-FHJi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e12d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>doi lisas. mi djica le nu to doi frank. ko sisti toi do viska le mlatu</jbo>
<gloss>O Lisa, I desire the event-of (O Frank, [imperative] stop!) you see the cat.</gloss>
- <en>Lisa, I want you to (Frank! Stop!) see the cat.</en>
+ <natlang>Lisa, I want you to (Frank! Stop!) see the cat.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-FHJi"/> implicitly redefines
<valsi>do</valsi> within the parentheses: the listener is changed by
<oldjbophrase>doi frank.</oldjbophrase> When the context sentence resumes, however, the old listener, Lisa, is automatically restored.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>TO selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>to'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>editorial commentary</primary></indexterm> There is another cmavo of selma'o TO:
<valsi>to'i</valsi>. The difference between
<valsi>to</valsi> and
<valsi>to'i</valsi> is the difference between parentheses and square brackets in English prose. Remarks within
@@ -1500,48 +1500,48 @@
<quote>metalinguistic</quote> is used throughout this chapter, and is not to be confused with the sense
<quote>language for expressing other languages</quote>.</para>
<para>When marked with
<valsi>sei</valsi>, a metalinguistic utterance can be embedded in another utterance as a discursive. In this way, discursives which do not have cmavo assigned in selma'o UI can be expressed:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-jA1T">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e12d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la frank. prami sei la frank. gleki la djein.</jbo>
- <en>Frank loves (Frank is happy) Jane.</en>
+ <natlang>Frank loves (Frank is happy) Jane.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Using the happiness attitudinal,
<diphthong>.ui</diphthong>, would imply that the speaker was happy. Instead, the speaker attributes happiness to Frank. It would probably be safe to elide the one who is happy, and say:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-vago">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e12d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la frank. prami sei gleki la djein.</jbo>
- <en>Frank loves (he is happy) Jane.</en>
+ <natlang>Frank loves (he is happy) Jane.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The grammar of the bridi following
<valsi>sei</valsi> has an unusual limitation: the sumti must either precede the selbri, or must be glued into the selbri with
<valsi>be</valsi> and
<valsi>bei</valsi>:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Susan</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sz7v">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e12d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la frank. prami sei gleki be fa la suzn. la djein.</jbo>
- <en>Frank loves (Susan is happy) Jane.</en>
+ <natlang>Frank loves (Susan is happy) Jane.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This restriction allows the terminator cmavo
<valsi>se'u</valsi> to almost always be elided.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>reference</primary><secondary>and discursive utterances</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>and discursive utterances</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>metalinguistic levels or reference</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>metalinguistic levels</primary></indexterm> Since a discursive utterance is working at a
<quote>higher</quote> level of abstraction than a non-discursive utterance, a non-discursive utterance cannot refer to a discursive utterance. Specifically, the various back-counting, reciprocal, and reflexive constructs in selma'o KOhA ignore the utterances at
<quote>higher</quote> metalinguistic levels in determining their referent. It is possible, and sometimes necessary, to refer to lower metalinguistic levels. For example, the English
@@ -1564,45 +1564,45 @@
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-b7Fi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e12d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lu mi klama le zarci seisa'a la djan. cusku be dei li'u</jbo>
<gloss>
<quote>I go to-the store (John expresses this-sentence)</quote>
</gloss>
- <en>
- <quote>I go to the store</quote>, said John.</en>
+ <natlang>
+ <quote>I go to the store</quote>, said John.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>And of course other orders are possible:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qIUa" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e12d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lu seisa'a la djan. cusku be dei mi klama le zarci</jbo>
- <en>John said,
- <quote>I go to the store</quote>.</en>
+ <natlang>John said,
+ <quote>I go to the store</quote>.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qIuI" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c19e12d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lu mi klama seisa'a la djan cusku le zarci</jbo>
- <en>
+ <natlang>
<quote>I go</quote>, John said,
- <quote>to the store</quote>.</en>
+ <quote>to the store</quote>.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note the
<valsi>sa'a</valsi> following each
<valsi>sei</valsi>, marking the
<valsi>sei</valsi> and its attached bridi as an editorial insert, not part of the quotation. In a more relaxed style, these
<valsi>sa'a</valsi> cmavo would probably be dropped.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>SEhU selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>se'u</primary></indexterm> The elidable terminator for
diff --git a/todocbook/2.xml b/todocbook/2.xml
index abc38e4..5d2fa7b 100644
--- a/todocbook/2.xml
+++ b/todocbook/2.xml
@@ -368,92 +368,92 @@
<anchor xml:id="c2e5d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<sumti>mi</sumti>
<selbri>tavla</selbri>
<sumti>do</sumti>
<sumti>zo'e</sumti>
<sumti>zo'e</sumti>
</jbo>
- <en>I talk to you about something in some language.</en>
+ <natlang>I talk to you about something in some language.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k02u">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e5d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<sumti>do</sumti>
<selbri>tavla</selbri>
<sumti>mi</sumti>
<sumti>ta</sumti>
<sumti>zo'e</sumti>
</jbo>
- <en>You talk to me about that thing in a language.</en>
+ <natlang>You talk to me about that thing in a language.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k03n">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e5d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<sumti>mi</sumti>
<selbri>tavla</selbri>
<sumti>zo'e</sumti>
<sumti>tu</sumti>
<sumti>ti</sumti>
</jbo>
- <en>I talk to someone about that thing yonder in this language.</en>
+ <natlang>I talk to someone about that thing yonder in this language.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(
<xref linkend="example-random-id-k03n"/> is a bit unusual, as there is no easy way to point to a language; one might point to a copy of this book, and hope the meaning gets across!)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>zo'e</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ellipsis</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> When there are one or more occurrences of the cmavo
<valsi>zo'e</valsi> at the end of a bridi, they may be omitted, a process called
<quote>ellipsis</quote>.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-k02C"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-k02u"/> may be expressed thus:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k04J">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e5d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<sumti>mi</sumti>
<selbri>tavla</selbri>
<sumti>do</sumti>
</jbo>
- <en>I talk to you (about something in some language).</en>
+ <natlang>I talk to you (about something in some language).</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k05i">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e5d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<sumti>do</sumti>
<selbri>tavla</selbri>
<sumti>mi</sumti>
<sumti>ta</sumti>
</jbo>
- <en>You talk to me about that thing (in some language).</en>
+ <natlang>You talk to me about that thing (in some language).</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that
<xref linkend="example-random-id-k03n"/> is not subject to ellipsis by this direct method, as the
<valsi>zo'e</valsi> in it is not at the end of the bridi.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-variant-bridi-structure">
<title>Variant bridi structure</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti placement</primary><secondary>variant</secondary><tertiary>quick-tour version</tertiary></indexterm> Consider the sentence</para>
@@ -514,21 +514,21 @@
<sumti>buyer-x3</sumti>
</gloss>
<gloss>
<sumti>I</sumti>
<sumti>this</sumti>
<sumti>sell</sumti>
<sumti>to that.</sumti>
<comment>translates as stilted or poetic English</comment>
</gloss>
- <en>I this thing do sell to that buyer.</en>
+ <natlang>I this thing do sell to that buyer.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0Bm">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e6d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<sumti>mi</sumti>
<sumti>ti</sumti>
@@ -542,21 +542,21 @@
<sumti>buyer-x3</sumti>
<selbri>sells</selbri>
</gloss>
<gloss>
<sumti>I</sumti>
<sumti>this</sumti>
<sumti>to that</sumti>
<sumti>sell.</sumti>
<comment>translates as stilted or poetic English</comment>
</gloss>
- <en>I this thing to that buyer do sell.</en>
+ <natlang>I this thing to that buyer do sell.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-k068"/> through
<xref linkend="example-random-id-k0Bm"/> mean the same thing. Usually, placing more than one sumti before the selbri is done for style or for emphasis on the sumti that are out-of-place from their normal position. (Native speakers of languages other than English may prefer such orders.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>observatives</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> If there are no sumti before the selbri, then it is understood that the x1 sumti value is equivalent to
<valsi>zo'e</valsi>; i.e. unimportant or obvious, and therefore not given. Any sumti after the selbri start counting from x2.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0br">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e6d4"/>
@@ -569,42 +569,42 @@
</jbo>
<gloss>
<sumti>object/idea-x1</sumti>
<selbri>is-beautiful</selbri>
<comment>to someone by some standard</comment>
</gloss>
<gloss>
<sumti>That/Those</sumti>
<selbri>is/are beautiful.</selbri>
</gloss>
- <en>That is beautiful.</en>
- <en>Those are beautiful.</en>
+ <natlang>That is beautiful.</natlang>
+ <natlang>Those are beautiful.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>when the x1 is omitted, becomes:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0Ch">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e6d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<sumti glossary="false">________</sumti>
<elidable>cu</elidable>
<selbri>melbi</selbri>
</jbo>
<gloss>
<sumti>unspecified-x1</sumti>
<selbri>is-beautiful</selbri>
<comment>to someone by some standard</comment>
</gloss>
- <en>Beautiful!</en>
- <en>It's beautiful!</en>
+ <natlang>Beautiful!</natlang>
+ <natlang>It's beautiful!</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Omitting the x1 adds emphasis to the selbri relation, which has become first in the sentence. This kind of sentence is termed an observative, because it is often used when someone first observes or takes note of the relationship, and wishes to quickly communicate it to someone else. Commonly understood English observatives include
<quote>Smoke!</quote> upon seeing smoke or smelling the odor, or
<quote>Car!</quote> to a person crossing the street who might be in danger. Any Lojban selbri can be used as an observative if no sumti appear before the selbri.</para>
<para>The word
<valsi>cu</valsi> does not occur in an observative;
@@ -623,67 +623,67 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e7d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<sumti>mi</sumti>
<selbri>tavla</selbri>
<sumti>do</sumti>
<sumti>ti</sumti>
</jbo>
- <en>I talk to you about this.</en>
+ <natlang>I talk to you about this.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>has the same meaning as</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0eV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e7d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<sumti>do</sumti>
<selbri>se tavla</selbri>
<sumti>mi</sumti>
<sumti>ti</sumti>
</jbo>
- <en>You are talked to by me about this.</en>
+ <natlang>You are talked to by me about this.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>te</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo
<valsi>te</valsi>, when used in the same location, switches the meanings of the first and the third sumti places.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0FJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e7d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<sumti>mi</sumti>
<selbri>tavla</selbri>
<sumti>do</sumti>
<sumti>ti</sumti>
</jbo>
- <en>I talk to you about this.</en>
+ <natlang>I talk to you about this.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>has the same meaning as</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0fo">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e7d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<sumti>ti</sumti>
<selbri>te tavla</selbri>
<sumti>do</sumti>
<sumti>mi</sumti>
</jbo>
- <en>This is talked about to you by me.</en>
+ <natlang>This is talked about to you by me.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that only the first and third sumti have switched places; the second sumti has remained in the second place.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>xe</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ve</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo
<valsi>ve</valsi> and
<valsi>xe</valsi> switch the first and fourth sumti places, and the first and fifth sumti places, respectively. These changes in the order of places are known as
<quote>conversions</quote>, and the
<valsi>se</valsi>,
<valsi>te</valsi>,
<valsi>ve</valsi>, and
@@ -759,43 +759,43 @@
<para>That is, it is a shoe that is worn by a fast talker rather than a shoe that is fast and is also worn by a talker.</para>
<para>Note especially the use of
<quote>type-of</quote> as a mechanism for connecting the English translations of the two or more gismu; this convention helps the learner understand each tanru in its context. Creative interpretations are also possible, however:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-jE94">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e9d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>bajra cutci</jbo>
- <en>runner shoe</en>
+ <natlang>runner shoe</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>runner shoe</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> most probably refers to shoes suitable for runners, but might be interpreted in some imaginative instances as
<quote>shoes that run (by themselves?)</quote>. In general, however, the meaning of a tanru is determined by the literal meaning of its components, and not by any connotations or figurative meanings. Thus</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-HcV5">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e9d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>sutra tavla</jbo>
- <en>fast-talker</en>
+ <natlang>fast-talker</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>would not necessarily imply any trickery or deception, unlike the English idiom, and a</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-8umU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e9d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>jikca toldi</jbo>
- <en>social butterfly</en>
+ <natlang>social butterfly</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Lepidoptera</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>butterfly</primary><secondary>social</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>social butterfly</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> must always be an insect with large brightly-colored wings, of the family
<emphasis>Lepidoptera</emphasis>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>place structure of</secondary><tertiary>quick-tour version</tertiary></indexterm> The place structure of a tanru is always that of the final component of the tanru. Thus, the following has the place structure of
<valsi>klama</valsi>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0FP">
@@ -1173,21 +1173,21 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<sumti>ta</sumti>
<elidable>cu</elidable>
<selbri>go'i</selbri>
</jbo>
<gloss>
<sumti>That</sumti>
<selbri>too/same-as-last selbri.</selbri>
</gloss>
- <en>That (is spaghetti), too.</en>
+ <natlang>That (is spaghetti), too.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-dihu-and-lahe-dihu">
<title>The sumti
<valsi>di'u</valsi> and
<oldjbophrase>la'e di'u</oldjbophrase></title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>reference</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> In English, I might say
<quote>The dog is beautiful</quote>, and you might reply
@@ -1199,68 +1199,68 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e12d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<sumti>le gerku</sumti>
<elidable>ku</elidable>
<elidable elidable="false">cu</elidable>
<selbri>melbi</selbri>
</jbo>
- <en>The dog is beautiful.</en>
+ <natlang>The dog is beautiful.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The following three sentences all might translate as
<quote>This pleases me.</quote></para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0wS">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e12d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<sumti>ti</sumti>
<elidable>cu</elidable>
<selbri>pluka</selbri>
<sumti>mi</sumti>
</jbo>
- <en>This (the dog) pleases me.</en>
+ <natlang>This (the dog) pleases me.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0yC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e12d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<sumti>di'u</sumti>
<elidable>cu</elidable>
<selbri>pluka</selbri>
<sumti>mi</sumti>
</jbo>
- <en>This (the last sentence) pleases me (perhaps because it is grammatical or sounds nice).</en>
+ <natlang>This (the last sentence) pleases me (perhaps because it is grammatical or sounds nice).</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0YS">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e12d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<sumti>la'e di'u</sumti>
<elidable>cu</elidable>
<selbri>pluka</selbri>
<sumti>mi</sumti>
</jbo>
- <en>This (the meaning of the last sentence; i.e. that the dog is beautiful) pleases me.</en>
+ <natlang>This (the meaning of the last sentence; i.e. that the dog is beautiful) pleases me.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>la'edi'u</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>di'u</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pleases</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-k0YS"/> uses one sumti to point to or refer to another by inference. It is common to write
<oldjbophrase>la'edi'u</oldjbophrase> as a single word; it is used more often than
<valsi>di'u</valsi> by itself.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-possession">
@@ -1276,21 +1276,21 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<sumti>le mi gerku</sumti>
<elidable elidable="false">cu</elidable>
<selbri>sutra</selbri>
</jbo>
<gloss>
<sumti>The of-me dog</sumti>
<selbri>is fast.</selbri>
</gloss>
- <en>My dog is fast.</en>
+ <natlang>My dog is fast.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>possession not ownership</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> In Lojban, possession doesn't necessarily mean ownership: one may
<quote>possess</quote> a chair simply by sitting on it, even though it actually belongs to someone else. English uses possession casually in the same way, but also uses it to refer to actual ownership or even more intimate relationships:
<quote>my arm</quote> doesn't mean
<quote>some arm I own</quote> but rather
<quote>the arm that is part of my body</quote>. Lojban has methods of specifying all these different kinds of possession precisely and easily.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-vocatives-and-commands">
<title>Vocatives and commands</title>
@@ -1320,30 +1320,30 @@
<quote>hello</quote> and
<valsi>co'o</valsi> means
<quote>good-bye</quote>. Either word may stand alone, they may follow one another, or either may be followed by a pause and a name. (Vocative phrases with
<valsi>doi</valsi> do not need a pause before the name.)</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qIWX" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e14d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>coi. djan.</jbo>
- <en>Hello, John.</en>
+ <natlang>Hello, John.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qIxE" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e14d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>co'o. djan.</jbo>
- <en>Good-bye, John.</en>
+ <natlang>Good-bye, John.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>imperatives</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>commands</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> Commands are expressed in Lojban by a simple variation of the main bridi structure. If you say</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k11I">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e14d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<sumti>do</sumti>
@@ -1374,38 +1374,38 @@
<quote>Talk!</quote> Other examples:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k13h">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e14d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<sumti>ko</sumti>
<selbri>sutra</selbri>
</jbo>
- <en>Be fast!</en>
+ <natlang>Be fast!</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The
<valsi>ko</valsi> need not be in the x1 place, but rather can occur anywhere a sumti is allowed, leading to possible Lojban commands that are very unlike English commands:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k14j">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e14d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<sumti>mi</sumti>
<selbri>tavla</selbri>
<sumti>ko</sumti>
</jbo>
- <en>Be talked to by me.</en>
- <en>Let me talk to you.</en>
+ <natlang>Be talked to by me.</natlang>
+ <natlang>Let me talk to you.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The cmavo
<valsi>ko</valsi> can fill any appropriate sumti place, and can be used as often as is appropriate for the selbri:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k14X">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e14d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
@@ -1457,31 +1457,31 @@
<selbri>tavla</selbri>
<sumti>do</sumti>
<sumti>mi</sumti>
</jbo>
<gloss>
<sumti>Who?</sumti>
<selbri>talks</selbri>
<sumti>to-you</sumti>
<sumti>about-me.</sumti>
</gloss>
- <en>Who is talking to you about me?</en>
+ <natlang>Who is talking to you about me?</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The listener can reply by simply stating a sumti:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1Aa">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e15d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo> <sumti>la djan.</sumti> </jbo>
- <en>John (is talking to you about me).</en>
+ <natlang>John (is talking to you about me).</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Like
<valsi>ko</valsi>,
<valsi>ma</valsi> can occur in any position where a sumti is allowed, not just in the first position:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1aE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e15d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1548,35 +1548,35 @@
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1DR">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e15d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<sumti>mi</sumti>
<elidable>cu</elidable>
<selbri>melbi</selbri>
</jbo>
- <en>I am beautiful.</en>
+ <natlang>I am beautiful.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>or:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1gh">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e15d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<sumti>mi</sumti>
<elidable>cu</elidable>
<selbri>tavla</selbri>
</jbo>
- <en>I talk.</en>
+ <natlang>I talk.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>speaker-listener cooperation</primary></indexterm> Clearly,
<valsi>mo</valsi> requires some cooperation between the speaker and the respondent to ensure that the right question is being answered. If context doesn't make the question specific enough, the speaker must ask the question more specifically using a more complex construction such as a tanru (see
<xref linkend="section-basic-tanru"/>).</para>
<para>It is perfectly permissible for the respondent to fill in other unspecified places in responding to a
<valsi>mo</valsi> question. Thus, the respondent in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-k1gh"/> could have also specified an audience, a topic, and/or a language in the response.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>yes/no questions</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> Finally, we must consider questions that can be answered
<quote>Yes</quote> or
@@ -1628,83 +1628,83 @@
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1gU">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e15d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<cmavo>xu</cmavo>
<sumti>do</sumti>
<selbri>kanro</selbri>
</jbo>
- <en>Are you healthy?</en>
+ <natlang>Are you healthy?</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>healthy</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> can be answered with</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1iE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e15d12"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<sumti>mi</sumti>
<selbri>kanro</selbri>
</jbo>
- <en>I am healthy.</en>
+ <natlang>I am healthy.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>or</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1JT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e15d13"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<selbri>go'i</selbri>
</jbo>
- <en>I am healthy.</en>
+ <natlang>I am healthy.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
(Note that
<valsi>do</valsi> to the questioner is
<valsi>mi</valsi> to the respondent.)
</para>
<para>or</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1jY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e15d14"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<sumti>le tavla</sumti>
<elidable elidable="false">cu</elidable>
<selbri>kanro</selbri>
</jbo>
- <en>The talker is healthy.</en>
+ <natlang>The talker is healthy.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>or</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1LE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e15d15"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<sumti>le tavla</sumti>
<elidable elidable="false">cu</elidable>
<selbri>go'i</selbri>
</jbo>
- <en>The talker is healthy.</en>
+ <natlang>The talker is healthy.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>nago'i</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>negative answer</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> A general negative answer may be given by
<oldjbophrase>na go'i</oldjbophrase>.
<valsi>na</valsi> may be placed before any selbri (but after the
<valsi>cu</valsi>). It is equivalent to stating
<quote>It is not true that ...</quote> before the bridi. It does not imply that anything else is true or untrue, only that that specific bridi is not true. More details on negative statements are available in
<xref linkend="chapter-negation"/>.</para>
@@ -1725,42 +1725,42 @@
<cmavo>.ie</cmavo>
<sumti>mi</sumti>
<elidable>cu</elidable>
<selbri>klama</selbri>
</jbo>
<gloss>
<cmavo>Agreement!</cmavo>
<sumti>I</sumti>
<selbri>go.</selbri>
</gloss>
- <en>Yep! I'll go.</en>
+ <natlang>Yep! I'll go.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1mS">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e16d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
<cmavo>.ei</cmavo>
<sumti>mi</sumti>
<elidable>cu</elidable>
<selbri>klama</selbri>
</jbo>
<gloss>
<cmavo>Obligation!</cmavo>
<sumti>I</sumti>
<selbri>go.</selbri>
</gloss>
- <en>I should go.</en>
+ <natlang>I should go.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1pF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c2e16d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>
@@ -2045,21 +2045,21 @@
<jbo>
<sumti>le vi bajra </sumti>
<elidable>ku</elidable>
<elidable elidable="false">cu</elidable>
<selbri>tavla</selbri>
</jbo>
<gloss>
<sumti>The nearby runner</sumti>
<selbri>talks.</selbri>
</gloss>
- <en>This runner talks.</en>
+ <natlang>This runner talks.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Do not confuse the use of
<valsi>vi</valsi> in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-k28N"/> with the cmavo
<valsi>ti</valsi>, which also means
<quote>this</quote>, but in the sense of
<quote>this thing</quote>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti with tenses</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> Furthermore, a tense tag can appear both on the selbri and within a description, as in the following example (where
<valsi>ba</valsi> is the tag for future time):</para>
@@ -2071,22 +2071,22 @@
<jbo>
<sumti>le vi tavla </sumti>
<elidable>ku</elidable>
<elidable elidable="false">cu</elidable>
<selbri>ba klama</selbri>
</jbo>
<gloss>
<sumti>The here talker</sumti>
<selbri>[future] goes.</selbri>
</gloss>
- <en>The talker who is here will go.</en>
- <en>This talker will go.</en>
+ <natlang>The talker who is here will go.</natlang>
+ <natlang>This talker will go.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-terms">
<title>Lojban grammatical terms</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>grammatical terms</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> Here is a review of the Lojban grammatical terms used in this chapter, plus some others used throughout this book. Only terms that are themselves Lojban words are included: there are of course many expressions like
<quote>indicator</quote> in
<xref linkend="chapter-quantifiers"/> that are not explained here. See the Index for further help with these.</para>
diff --git a/todocbook/3.xml b/todocbook/3.xml
index 5197699..774d911 100644
--- a/todocbook/3.xml
+++ b/todocbook/3.xml
@@ -346,21 +346,21 @@
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>period</primary><secondary>example of</secondary></indexterm> Here is a somewhat artificial example of the difference in pronunciation between periods, commas and apostrophes. In the English song about Old MacDonald's Farm, the vowel string which is written as
<quote>ee-i-ee-i-o</quote> in English could be Lojbanized with periods as:</para>
<example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k2B4">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Old McDonald</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c3e3d1"/>
</title>
<pronunciation>
<jbo>.i.ai.i.ai.o</jbo>
<ipa>[ʔi ʔaj ʔi ʔaj ʔo]</ipa>
- <en>Ee! Eye! Ee! Eye! Oh!</en>
+ <natlang>Ee! Eye! Ee! Eye! Oh!</natlang>
</pronunciation>
</example>
<para>However, this would sound clipped, staccato, and unmusical compared to the English. Furthermore, although
<xref linkend="example-random-id-k2B4"/> is a string of meaningful Lojban words, as a sentence it makes very little sense. (Note the use of periods embedded within the written word.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>comma</primary><secondary>example of</secondary></indexterm> If commas were used instead of periods, we could represent the English string as a Lojbanized name, ending in a consonant:</para>
<example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k2b9">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c3e3d2"/>
</title>
<pronunciation>
@@ -762,21 +762,21 @@
<letteral>y</letteral> can be inserted to break up the pair:
</para>
<example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k2cK">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>James</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c3e6d1"/>
</title>
<pronunciation>
<jbo>djeimyz.</jbo>
<ipa>[dʒɛj məzʔ]</ipa>
- <en>James</en>
+ <natlang>James</natlang>
</pronunciation>
</example>
<para>The regular English pronunciation of
<quote>James</quote>, which is
<phrase role="IPA">[dʒɛjmz]</phrase>, would Lojbanize as
<oldjbophrase valid="false">djeimz.</oldjbophrase>, which contains a forbidden consonant pair.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-initial-pairs">
<title>Initial Consonant Pairs</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>consonant pairs</primary><secondary>initial</secondary></indexterm> The set of consonant pairs that may appear at the beginning of a word (excluding Lojbanized names) is far more restricted than the fairly large group of permissible consonant pairs described in
diff --git a/todocbook/4.xml b/todocbook/4.xml
index 9c2e7db..0f8d2d8 100644
--- a/todocbook/4.xml
+++ b/todocbook/4.xml
@@ -442,84 +442,84 @@
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>source of</secondary></indexterm> Almost all Lojban gismu are constructed from pieces of words drawn from other languages, specifically Chinese, English, Hindi, Spanish, Russian, and Arabic, the six most widely spoken natural languages. For a given concept, words in the six languages that represent that concept were written in Lojban phonetics. Then a gismu was selected to maximize the recognizability of the Lojban word for speakers of the six languages by weighting the inclusion of the sounds drawn from each language by the number of speakers of that language. See
<xref linkend="section-gismu-making"/> for a full explanation of the algorithm.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>examples of</secondary></indexterm> Here are a few examples of gismu, with rough English equivalents (not definitions):</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qJ0x" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e4d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>creka</jbo>
- <en>shirt</en>
+ <natlang>shirt</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qj4M" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e4d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lijda</jbo>
- <en>religion</en>
+ <natlang>religion</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qJ4M" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e4d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>blanu</jbo>
- <en>blue</en>
+ <natlang>blue</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qJ5Y" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e4d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mamta</jbo>
- <en>mother</en>
+ <natlang>mother</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qj6K" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e4d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>cukta</jbo>
- <en>book</en>
+ <natlang>book</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qJ6R" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e4d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>patfu</jbo>
- <en>father</en>
+ <natlang>father</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qJ6y" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e4d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>nanmu</jbo>
- <en>man</en>
+ <natlang>man</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qj71" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e4d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ninmu</jbo>
- <en>woman</en>
+ <natlang>woman</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>A small number of gismu were formed differently; see
<xref linkend="section-cultural-gismu"/> for a list.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-lujvo">
<title>lujvo</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modifying brivla (see also seltau)</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>seltau</primary><secondary>compared with English adverb</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>seltau</primary><secondary>compared with English adjective</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>explanation of</secondary></indexterm> When specifying a concept that is not found among the gismu (or, more specifically, when the relevant gismu seems too general in meaning), a Lojbanist generally attempts to express the concept as a tanru. Lojban tanru are an elaboration of the concept of
<quote>metaphor</quote> used in English. In Lojban, any brivla can be used to modify another brivla. The first of the pair modifies the second. This modification is usually restrictive – the modifying brivla reduces the broader sense of the modified brivla to form a more narrow, concrete, or specific concept. Modifying brivla may thus be seen as acting like English adverbs or adjectives. For example,</para>
@@ -600,21 +600,21 @@
<para>Such a brivla, built from the rafsi which represent its component words, is called a
<valsi>lujvo</valsi>. Another example, corresponding to the tanru of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-oLE3"/>, would be:</para>
<example role="lujvo-example" xml:id="example-random-id-aiAR">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e5d6"/>
</title>
<lujvo-making>
<jbo>bralo'i</jbo>
<gloss>big-boat</gloss>
- <en>ship</en>
+ <natlang>ship</natlang>
</lujvo-making>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>construction of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>unambiguous decomposition of</secondary></indexterm> The lujvo representing a given tanru is built from units representing the component gismu. These units are called
<valsi>rafsi</valsi> in Lojban. Each rafsi represents only one gismu. The rafsi are attached together in the order of the words in the tanru, occasionally inserting so-called
<quote>hyphen</quote> letters to ensure that the pieces stick together as a single word and cannot accidentally be broken apart into cmavo, gismu, or other word forms. As a result, each lujvo can be readily and accurately recognized, allowing a listener to pick out the word from a string of spoken Lojban, and if necessary, unambiguously decompose the word to a unique source tanru, thus providing a strong clue to its meaning.</para>
<para>The lujvo that can be built from the tanru
<oldjbophrase>mamta patfu</oldjbophrase> in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-KQ4s"/> is</para>
<example role="lujvo-example" xml:id="example-random-id-TCUH">
@@ -653,21 +653,21 @@
<letteral>n</letteral>) is inserted when a CVV-form rafsi attaches to the beginning of a lujvo in such a way that there is no consonant cluster. For example, in the lujvo</para>
<example role="lujvo-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3Qtv">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>field rations</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c4e5d8"/>
</title>
<lujvo-making>
<jbo>soirsai</jbo>
<veljvo>sonci sanmi</veljvo>
<gloss>soldier meal</gloss>
- <en>field rations</en>
+ <natlang>field rations</natlang>
</lujvo-making>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmavo</primary><secondary>contrasted with same-form rafsi in meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>contrasted with same-form cmavo in meaning</secondary></indexterm> the rafsi
<rafsi>soi-</rafsi> and
<rafsi>-sai</rafsi> are joined, with the additional
<letteral>r</letteral> making up the
<morphology>rs</morphology> consonant pair needed to make the word a brivla. Without the
<letteral>r</letteral>, the word would break up into
<oldjbophrase>soi sai</oldjbophrase>, two cmavo. The pair of cmavo have no relation to their rafsi lookalikes; they will either be ungrammatical (as in this case), or will express a different meaning from what was intended.</para>
@@ -690,66 +690,66 @@
<para>Some examples of unreduced lujvo forms are:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qj84" role="lujvo-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e6d1"/>
</title>
<lujvo-making>
<jbo>mamtypatfu</jbo>
<veljvo>mamta patfu</veljvo>
<gloss><quote>mother father</quote></gloss>
- <en>or <quote>maternal grandfather</quote></en>
+ <natlang>or <quote>maternal grandfather</quote></natlang>
</lujvo-making>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qj99" role="lujvo-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e6d2"/>
</title>
<lujvo-making>
<jbo>lerfyliste</jbo>
<veljvo>lerfu liste</veljvo>
<gloss><quote>letter list</quote> or a <quote>list of letters</quote></gloss>
- <en>(letters of the alphabet)</en>
+ <natlang>(letters of the alphabet)</natlang>
</lujvo-making>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qj9G" role="lujvo-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e6d3"/>
</title>
<lujvo-making>
<jbo>nancyprali</jbo>
<veljvo>nanca prali</veljvo>
<gloss><quote>year profit</quote></gloss>
- <en>or <quote>annual profit</quote></en>
+ <natlang>or <quote>annual profit</quote></natlang>
</lujvo-making>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qJbi" role="lujvo-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e6d4"/>
</title>
<lujvo-making>
<jbo>prunyplipe</jbo>
<veljvo>pruni plipe</veljvo>
<gloss><quote>elastic (springy) leap</quote></gloss>
- <en>or <quote>spring</quote> (the verb)</en>
+ <natlang>or <quote>spring</quote> (the verb)</natlang>
</lujvo-making>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qjbP" role="lujvo-example">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>supper</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c4e6d5"/>
</title>
<lujvo-making>
<jbo>vancysanmi</jbo>
<veljvo>vanci sanmi</veljvo>
<gloss><quote>evening meal</quote></gloss>
- <en>or <quote>supper</quote></en>
+ <natlang>or <quote>supper</quote></natlang>
</lujvo-making>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>short rafsi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>short</secondary></indexterm> In addition to these two forms, each gismu may have up to three additional short rafsi, three letters long. All short rafsi have one of the forms CVC, CCV, or CVV. The total number of rafsi forms that are assigned to a gismu depends on how useful the gismu is, or is presumed to be, in making lujvo, when compared to other gismu that could be assigned the rafsi.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>-er</primary><secondary>use of zmadu in forming</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>comparatives</primary><secondary>use of zmadu in forming</secondary></indexterm> For example,
<valsi>zmadu</valsi> (
<quote>more than</quote>) has the two short rafsi
<rafsi>zma</rafsi> and
<rafsi>mau</rafsi> (in addition to its unreduced rafsi
@@ -921,21 +921,21 @@
</example>
<para>In addition, the unreduced forms in <xref linkend="example-random-id-qj84"/> and <xref linkend="example-random-id-qj99"/> may be fully reduced to:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qjdE" role="lujvo-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e6d10"/>
</title>
<lujvo-making>
<jbo>mampa'u</jbo>
<veljvo>mamta patfu</veljvo>
<gloss><quote>mother father</quote></gloss>
- <en>or <quote>maternal grandfather</quote></en>
+ <natlang>or <quote>maternal grandfather</quote></natlang>
</lujvo-making>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qJDg" role="lujvo-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e6d11"/>
</title>
<lujvo-making>
<jbo>lerste</jbo>
<veljvo>lerfu liste</veljvo>
<gloss><quote>letter list</quote> or a <quote>list of letters</quote></gloss>
@@ -1005,71 +1005,71 @@
<oldjbophrase>brivla</oldjbophrase> (but not necessarily the same as the underlying tanru
<oldjbophrase>bridi valsi</oldjbophrase>, which could have other meanings.) Using
<valsi>zei</valsi> is the only way to get a cmavo lacking a rafsi, a cmene, or a fu'ivla into a lujvo:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qJe1" role="lujvo-example">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>X-ray</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c4e6d13"/>
</title>
<lujvo-making>
<jbo>xy. zei kantu</jbo>
- <en>X ray</en>
+ <natlang>X ray</natlang>
</lujvo-making>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qJeE" role="lujvo-example">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Persian rug</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>rug</primary><secondary>Persian</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c4e6d14"/>
</title>
<lujvo-making>
<jbo>kulnr,farsi zei lolgai</jbo>
<gloss>Farsi floor-cover</gloss>
- <en>Persian rug</en>
+ <natlang>Persian rug</natlang>
</lujvo-making>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qJef" role="lujvo-example">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>hepatitis</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c4e6d15"/>
</title>
<lujvo-making>
<jbo>na'e zei .a zei na'e zei by. livgyterbilma</jbo>
<gloss>non-A, non-B liver-disease</gloss>
- <en>non-A, non-B hepatitis</en>
+ <natlang>non-A, non-B hepatitis</natlang>
</lujvo-making>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qJEh" role="lujvo-example">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Sherman tank</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>tank</primary><secondary>Sherman</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c4e6d16"/>
</title>
<lujvo-making>
<jbo>.cerman. zei jamkarce</jbo>
<gloss>Sherman war-car</gloss>
- <en>Sherman tank</en>
+ <natlang>Sherman tank</natlang>
</lujvo-making>
</example>
<para><xref linkend="example-random-id-qJef"/> is particularly noteworthy because the phrase that would be produced by removing the
<valsi>zei</valsi>s from it doesn't end with a brivla, and in fact is not even grammatical. As written, the example is a tanru with two components, but by adding a
<valsi>zei</valsi> between
<oldjbophrase>by.</oldjbophrase> and
<oldjbophrase>livgyterbilma</oldjbophrase> to produce</para>
<example role="lujvo-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Wnaz">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>hepatitis</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c4e6d17"/>
</title>
<lujvo-making>
<jbo>na'e zei .a zei na'e zei by. zei livgyterbilma</jbo>
- <en>non-A-non-B-hepatitis</en>
+ <natlang>non-A-non-B-hepatitis</natlang>
</lujvo-making>
</example>
<para>the whole phrase would become a single lujvo. The longer lujvo of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Wnaz"/> may be preferable, because its place structure can be built from that of
<valsi>bilma</valsi>, whereas the place structure of a lujvo without a brivla must be constructed ad hoc.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmavo</primary><secondary>contrasted with rafsi in usage</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>contrasted with cmavo in usage</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>contrasted with words</secondary></indexterm> Note that rafsi may not be used in
<valsi>zei</valsi> phrases, because they are not words. CVV rafsi look like words (specifically cmavo) but there can be no confusion between the two uses of the same letters, because cmavo appear only as separate words or in compound cmavo (which are really just a notation for writing separate but closely related words as if they were one); rafsi appear only as parts of lujvo.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-fuhivla">
<title>fu'ivla</title>
@@ -1333,62 +1333,62 @@
<valsi>tarmi</valsi> mean
<quote>building</quote> and
<quote>form</quote> respectively.</para>
<para>Here are some fu'ivla representing cultures and related things, shown with more than one rafsi prefix:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qJG8" role="lojbanization-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e7d9"/>
</title>
<lojbanization>
<jbo role="pronunciation">bang,r,blgaria</jbo>
- <en>Bulgarian <comment>in language</comment></en>
+ <natlang>Bulgarian <comment>in language</comment></natlang>
</lojbanization>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qJga" role="lojbanization-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e7d10"/>
</title>
<lojbanization>
<jbo role="pronunciation">kuln,r,blgaria</jbo>
- <en>Bulgarian <comment>in culture</comment></en>
+ <natlang>Bulgarian <comment>in culture</comment></natlang>
</lojbanization>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qjGf" role="lojbanization-example">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Bulgarian</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c4e7d11"/>
</title>
<lojbanization>
<jbo role="pronunciation">gugd,r,blgaria</jbo>
- <en>Bulgaria <comment>the country</comment></en>
+ <natlang>Bulgaria <comment>the country</comment></natlang>
</lojbanization>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qJGv" role="lojbanization-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e7d12"/>
</title>
<lojbanization>
<jbo role="pronunciation">bang,r,kore,a</jbo>
- <en>Korean <comment>the language</comment></en>
+ <natlang>Korean <comment>the language</comment></natlang>
</lojbanization>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qjh0" role="lojbanization-example">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Korean</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c4e7d13"/>
</title>
<lojbanization>
<jbo role="pronunciation">kuln,r,kore,a</jbo>
- <en>Korean <comment>the culture</comment></en>
+ <natlang>Korean <comment>the culture</comment></natlang>
</lojbanization>
</example>
<para><!-- FIXME: there's nowhere for this indexterm to go --><indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Navajo</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>considerations for choosing basis word</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>with invalid diphthongs</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>invalid diphthongs</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla</secondary></indexterm> Note the commas in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qJGv"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qjh0"/>, used because
<diphthong>ea</diphthong> is not a valid diphthong in Lojban. Arguably, some form of the native name
<quote>Chosen</quote> should have been used instead of the internationally known
<quote>Korea</quote>; this is a recurring problem in all borrowings. In general, it is better to use the native name unless using it will severely impede understanding:
@@ -1402,102 +1402,102 @@
<valsi>cmene</valsi>, are very much like their counterparts in other languages. They are labels applied to things (or people) to stand for them in descriptions or in direct address. They may convey meaning in themselves, but do not necessarily do so.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>rationale for lojbanizing</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>rationale for lojbanizing</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>and analyzability of speech stream</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>examples of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>examples of</secondary></indexterm> Because names are often highly personal and individual, Lojban attempts to allow native language names to be used with a minimum of modification. The requirement that the Lojban speech stream be unambiguously analyzable, however, means that most names must be modified somewhat when they are Lojbanized. Here are a few examples of English names and possible Lojban equivalents:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qjhN" role="lojbanization-example">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Jim</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c4e8d1"/>
</title>
<lojbanization>
<jbo>djim.</jbo>
- <en>Jim</en>
+ <natlang>Jim</natlang>
</lojbanization>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qjHo" role="lojbanization-example">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Jane</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c4e8d2"/>
</title>
<lojbanization>
<jbo>djein.</jbo>
- <en>Jane</en>
+ <natlang>Jane</natlang>
</lojbanization>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qjIj" role="lojbanization-example">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Arnold</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c4e8d3"/>
</title>
<lojbanization>
<jbo>.arnold.</jbo>
- <en>Arnold</en>
+ <natlang>Arnold</natlang>
</lojbanization>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qjim" role="lojbanization-example">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Pete</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c4e8d4"/>
</title>
<lojbanization>
<jbo>pit.</jbo>
- <en>Pete</en>
+ <natlang>Pete</natlang>
</lojbanization>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qjin" role="lojbanization-example">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Katrina</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c4e8d5"/>
</title>
<lojbanization>
<jbo>katrinas.</jbo>
- <en>Katrina</en>
+ <natlang>Katrina</natlang>
</lojbanization>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qjIq" role="lojbanization-example">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Catherine</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c4e8d6"/>
</title>
<lojbanization>
<jbo>kat,r,in.</jbo>
- <en>Catherine</en>
+ <natlang>Catherine</natlang>
</lojbanization>
</example>
<para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>syllabic consonant</primary><secondary>effect on stress determination</secondary></indexterm> (Note that syllabic
<letteral>r</letteral> is skipped in determining the stressed syllable, so
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qjIq"/> is stressed on the
<valsi>ka</valsi>.)</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qJiv" role="lojbanization-example">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Cathy</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c4e8d7"/>
</title>
<lojbanization>
<jbo>katis.</jbo>
- <en>Cathy</en>
+ <natlang>Cathy</natlang>
</lojbanization>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qjIy" role="lojbanization-example">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Kate</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c4e8d8"/>
</title>
<lojbanization>
<jbo>keit.</jbo>
- <en>Kate</en>
+ <natlang>Kate</natlang>
</lojbanization>
</example>
<para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>unusual stress in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>unusual stress in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>stress in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>stress in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>rules for formation</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>rules for formation</secondary></indexterm> Names may have almost any form, but always end in a consonant, and are followed by a pause. They are penultimately stressed, unless unusual stress is marked with capitalization. A name may have multiple parts, each ending with a consonant and pause, or the parts may be combined into a single word with no pause. For example,</para>
<example role="lojbanization-example" xml:id="example-random-id-43uP">
<title>
<!-- FIXME: these two indexterms match two different examples; should they go in both or just the first? -->
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>John Brown</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Brown</primary><secondary>John</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
@@ -1567,55 +1567,55 @@
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>from Lojban words</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>from Lojban words</secondary></indexterm> Names meeting these criteria may be invented, Lojbanized from names in other languages, or formed by appending a consonant onto a cmavo, a gismu, a fu'ivla or a lujvo. Some cmene built from Lojban words are:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qjj1" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>One</primary><secondary>the</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c4e8d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>pav.</jbo>
- <en>the One</en>
+ <natlang>the One</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>from the cmavo <valsi>pa</valsi>, with rafsi <rafsi>pav</rafsi>, meaning <quote>one</quote></para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qjjN" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Sun</primary><secondary>the</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c4e8d12"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>sol.</jbo>
- <en>the Sun</en>
+ <natlang>the Sun</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>from the gismu <valsi>solri</valsi>, meaning <quote>solar</quote>, or actually <quote>pertaining to the Sun</quote></para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qjJz" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Chief</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c4e8d13"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ralj.</jbo>
- <en>Chief <comment>as a title</comment></en>
+ <natlang>Chief <comment>as a title</comment></natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>from the gismu <valsi>ralju</valsi>, meaning <quote>principal</quote>.</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qJKt" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Lord</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Lady</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c4e8d14"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>nol.</jbo>
- <en>Lord/Lady</en>
+ <natlang>Lord/Lady</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>from the gismu <valsi>nobli</valsi>, with rafsi <rafsi>nol</rafsi>, meaning <quote>noble</quote>.</para>
<para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>algorithm for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>algorithm for</secondary></indexterm> To Lojbanize a name from the various natural languages, apply the following rules:</para>
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Eliminate double consonants and silent letters.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Add a final
@@ -3125,33 +3125,33 @@
<valsi>zei</valsi> mechanism was devised instead.)</para>
<para>The first part of the proposal is uncontroversial and involves no change to the language mechanisms. All valid Type 4 fu'ivla of the form CCVVCV would be reserved for cultural brivla analogous to those described in
<xref linkend="section-cultural-gismu"/>. For example,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PMb2">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Chilean desert</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c4e16d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo valid="false">tci'ile</jbo>
- <en>Chilean</en>
+ <natlang>Chilean</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> is of the appropriate form, and passes all tests required of a Stage 4 fu'ivla. No two fu'ivla of this form would be allowed to coexist if they differed only in the final vowel; this rule was applied to gismu, but does not apply to other fu'ivla or to lujvo.</para>
<para>The second, and fully experimental, part of the proposal is to allow rafsi to be formed from these cultural fu'ivla by removing the final vowel and treating the result as a 4-letter rafsi (although it would contain five letters, not four). These rafsi could then be used on a par with all other rafsi in forming lujvo. The tanru</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hcR6">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e16d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo valid="false">tci'ile ke canre tutra</jbo>
<gloss>Chilean type-of <comment>sand territory</comment></gloss>
- <en>Chilean desert</en>
+ <natlang>Chilean desert</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>could be represented by the lujvo</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-0rzn">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e16d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo valid="false">tci'ilykemcantutra</jbo>
diff --git a/todocbook/5.xml b/todocbook/5.xml
index 439f832..8220688 100644
--- a/todocbook/5.xml
+++ b/todocbook/5.xml
@@ -4,69 +4,69 @@
<section xml:id="section-content-words-brivla">
<title>Lojban content words: brivla</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi</primary><secondary>relation to selbri</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri</primary><secondary>relation to bridi</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> At the center, logically and often physically, of every Lojban bridi is one or more words which constitute the selbri. A bridi expresses a relationship between things: the selbri specifies which relationship is referred to. The difference between:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-do-mamta-mi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e1d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do mamta mi</jbo>
<gloss>You are-a-mother-of me</gloss>
- <en>You are my mother</en>
+ <natlang>You are my mother</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-B0aR">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e1d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do patfu mi</jbo>
<gloss>You are-a-father-of me.</gloss>
- <en>You are my father.</en>
+ <natlang>You are my father.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>lies in the different selbri.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>brivla</primary><secondary>types</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>brivla as selbri</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri</primary><secondary>brivla as</secondary></indexterm> The simplest kind of selbri is a single Lojban content word: a brivla. There are three different varieties of brivla: those which are built into the language (the gismu), those which are derived from combinations of the gismu (the lujvo), and those which are taken (usually in a modified form) from other languages (the fu'ivla). In addition, there are a few cmavo that can act like brivla; these are mentioned in
<xref linkend="section-cmavo-selbri"/>, and discussed in full in
<xref linkend="chapter-anaphoric-cmavo"/>.</para>
<para>For the purposes of this chapter, however, all brivla are alike. For example,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-483c">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e1d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta bloti</jbo>
<gloss>That is-a-boat.</gloss>
- <en>That is a boat.</en>
+ <natlang>That is a boat.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mdxB">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e1d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta brablo</jbo>
<gloss>That is-a-large-boat.</gloss>
- <en>That is a ship.</en>
+ <natlang>That is a ship.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-UMjE">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>schooner</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c5e1d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta blotrskunri</jbo>
<gloss>That is-a-(boat)-schooner.</gloss>
- <en>That is a schooner.</en>
+ <natlang>That is a schooner.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> illustrate the three types of brivla (gismu, lujvo, and fu'ivla respectively), but in each case the selbri is composed of a single word whose meaning can be learned independent of its origins.</para>
<para>The remainder of this chapter will mostly use gismu as example brivla, because they are short. However, it is important to keep in mind that wherever a gismu appears, it could be replaced by any other kind of brivla.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-simple-tanru">
<title>Simple tanru</title>
@@ -89,42 +89,42 @@
<quote>adverb</quote>. English words belonging to any of these categories are translated by simple brivla in Lojban. Here are some examples of tanru:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-lemon-tree">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>lemon tree</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c5e2d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>tu pelnimre tricu</jbo>
<gloss>That-yonder is-a-(lemon tree).</gloss>
- <en>That is a lemon tree.</en>
+ <natlang>That is a lemon tree.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-qHNA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e2d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. barda nanla</jbo>
<gloss>That-named John is-a-big boy.</gloss>
- <en>John is a big boy.</en>
+ <natlang>John is a big boy.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-eD63">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>quick runner</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c5e2d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi sutra bajra</jbo>
<gloss>I quick run</gloss>
- <en>I quickly run./I run quickly.</en>
+ <natlang>I quickly run./I run quickly.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that
<oldjbophrase>pelnimre</oldjbophrase> is a lujvo for
<quote>lemon</quote>; it is derived from the gismu
<valsi>pelxu</valsi>, yellow, and
<valsi>nimre</valsi>, citrus. Note also that
<valsi>sutra</valsi> can mean
<quote>fast/quick</quote> or
<quote>quickly</quote> depending on its use:</para>
@@ -378,21 +378,21 @@
<title>Complex tanru grouping</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru grouping</primary><secondary>complex</secondary></indexterm> If one element of a tanru can be another tanru, why not both elements?</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-m5SD">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e4d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do mutce bo barda gerku bo kavbu</jbo>
<gloss>You are-a-(very type-of large) (dog type-of capturer).</gloss>
- <en>You are a very large dog-catcher.</en>
+ <natlang>You are a very large dog-catcher.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-m5SD"/>, the selbri is a tanru with seltau
<oldjbophrase>mutce bo barda</oldjbophrase> and tertau
<oldjbophrase>gerku bo kavbu</oldjbophrase>. It is worth emphasizing once again that this tanru has the same fundamental ambiguity as all other Lojban tanru: the sense in which the
<quote>dog type-of capturer</quote> is said to be
<quote>very type-of large</quote> is not precisely specified. Presumably it is his body which is large, but theoretically it could be one of his other properties.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pretty</primary><secondary>English ambiguity of</secondary></indexterm> We will now justify the title of this chapter by exploring the ramifications of the phrase
<quote>pretty little girls' school</quote>, an expansion of the tanru used in
@@ -405,51 +405,51 @@
<valsi>melbi</valsi> is not subject to this ambiguity: it means only
<quote>beautiful</quote>.)</para>
<para>Here are four ways to group this phrase:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qjmr" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e4d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta melbi cmalu nixli ckule</jbo>
<gloss>That is-a-((pretty type-of little) type-of girl) type-of school.</gloss>
- <en>That is a school for girls who are beautifully small.</en>
+ <natlang>That is a school for girls who are beautifully small.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qjNi" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e4d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta melbi cmalu nixli bo ckule</jbo>
<gloss>That is-a-(pretty type-of little) (girl type-of school).</gloss>
- <en>That is a girls' school which is beautifully small.</en>
+ <natlang>That is a girls' school which is beautifully small.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qjog" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e4d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta melbi cmalu bo nixli ckule</jbo>
<gloss>That is-a-(pretty type-of (little type-of girl)) type-of school.</gloss>
- <en>That is a school for small girls who are beautiful.</en>
+ <natlang>That is a school for small girls who are beautiful.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qjop" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e4d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta melbi cmalu bo nixli bo ckule</jbo>
<gloss>That is-a-pretty type-of (little type-of (girl type-of school)).</gloss>
- <en>That is a small school for girls which is beautiful.</en>
+ <natlang>That is a small school for girls which is beautiful.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bo</primary><secondary>for right-grouping in tanru</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru grouping</primary><secondary>with bo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>right-grouping in tanru</primary><secondary>with bo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>right-grouping rule</primary><secondary>definition of</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qjop"/> uses a construction which has not been seen before:
<oldjbophrase>cmalu bo nixli bo ckule</oldjbophrase>, with two consecutive uses of
<valsi>bo</valsi> between brivla. The rule for multiple
<valsi>bo</valsi> constructions is the opposite of the rule when no
<valsi>bo</valsi> is present at all: the last two are grouped together. Not surprisingly, this is called the
<quote>right-grouping rule</quote>, and it is associated with every use of
@@ -559,21 +559,21 @@
<xref linkend="example-random-id-AUdM"/> as terse as
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qjNi"/>.</para>
<para>Now how about that fifth grouping? It is</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-tz0L">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e5d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta melbi ke cmalu nixli ckule [ke'e]</jbo>
<gloss>That is-a-pretty type-of ( ( little type-of girl ) type-of school ).</gloss>
- <en>That is a beautiful school for small girls.</en>
+ <natlang>That is a beautiful school for small girls.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-tz0L"/> is distinctly different in meaning from any of Examples 4.2 through 4.5. Note that within the
<oldjbophrase>ke ... ke'e</oldjbophrase> parentheses, the left-grouping rule is applied to
<oldjbophrase>cmalu nixli ckule</oldjbophrase>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru grouping</primary><secondary>with ke and bo</secondary></indexterm>
It is perfectly all right to mix
<valsi>bo</valsi> and
<oldjbophrase>ke ... ke'e</oldjbophrase> in a single selbri. For instance,
@@ -687,21 +687,21 @@
<oldjbophrase>ke ... ke'e</oldjbophrase> associates brivla more closely than
<valsi>je</valsi> does:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-LES9">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e6d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>barda je pelxu bo xunre gerku</jbo>
<jbo>barda je ke pelxu xunre ke'e gerku</jbo>
<gloss>(big and (yellow type-of red)) dog</gloss>
- <en>big yellowish-red dog</en>
+ <natlang>big yellowish-red dog</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>With no grouping indicators, we get:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-fuhg">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e6d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo valid="iffy">barda je pelxu xunre gerku</jbo>
<gloss>((big and yellow) type-of red) type-of dog</gloss>
@@ -783,51 +783,51 @@
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connectives in tanru</primary><secondary>effect on formal logical manipulations</secondary></indexterm> In general, logical connectives within tanru cannot undergo the formal manipulations that are possible with the related logical connectives that exist outside tanru; see
<xref linkend="section-tanru"/> for further details.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>JA selma'o</primary></indexterm> The logical connective
<valsi>je</valsi> is only one of the fourteen logical connectives that Lojban provides. Here are a few examples of some of the others:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qJse" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e6d13"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le bajra cu jinga ja te jinga</jbo>
- <en>the runner(s) is/are winner(s) or loser(s).</en>
+ <natlang>the runner(s) is/are winner(s) or loser(s).</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qJsg" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e6d14"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>blanu naja lenku skapi</jbo>
<gloss>(blue only-if cold) skin</gloss>
- <en>skin which is blue only if it is cold</en>
+ <natlang>skin which is blue only if it is cold</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qjsy" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e6d15"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xamgu jo tordu nuntavla</jbo>
<gloss>(good if-and-only-if short) speech</gloss>
- <en>speech which is good if (and only if) it is short</en>
+ <natlang>speech which is good if (and only if) it is short</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qjtD" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e6d16"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>vajni ju pluka nuntavla</jbo>
<gloss>(important whether-or-not pleasing) event-of-talking</gloss>
- <en>speech which is important, whether or not it is pleasing</en>
+ <natlang>speech which is important, whether or not it is pleasing</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qJse"/>,
<valsi>ja</valsi> is grammatically equivalent to
<valsi>je</valsi> but means
<quote>or</quote> (more precisely,
<quote>and/or</quote>). Likewise,
<oldjbophrase>naja</oldjbophrase> means
<quote>only if</quote> in
@@ -895,21 +895,21 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The ball described is neither solely red nor solely blue, but probably striped or in some other way exhibiting a combination of the two colors.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Hr1L"/> is distinct from:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-NAhT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e6d21"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti blanu xunre bolci</jbo>
- <en>This is a bluish-red ball</en>
+ <natlang>This is a bluish-red ball</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which would be a ball whose color is some sort of purple tending toward red, since
<valsi>xunre</valsi> is the more important of the two components. On the other hand,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-78C3">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e6d22"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti blanu je xunre bolci</jbo>
@@ -946,21 +946,21 @@
<valsi>gi</valsi>, logical connections are taken to be wider in scope than the
<oldjbophrase>gu'e ... gi</oldjbophrase>, which has in effect the same scope as
<valsi>bo</valsi>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ETVe">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e6d24"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>gu'e barda je xunre gi gerku ja mlatu</jbo>
<gloss>(both (big and red) and dog) or cat</gloss>
- <en>something which is either big, red, and a dog, or else a cat</en>
+ <natlang>something which is either big, red, and a dog, or else a cat</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>leaves
<valsi>mlatu</valsi> outside the
<oldjbophrase>gu'e ... gi</oldjbophrase> construction. The scope of the
<valsi>gi</valsi> arm extends only to a single brivla or to two or more brivla connected with
<valsi>bo</valsi> or
<oldjbophrase>ke ... ke'e</oldjbophrase>.</para>
</section>
@@ -1003,34 +1003,34 @@
<para> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-tffW">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>good house</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c5e7d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti xamgu zdani</jbo>
<gloss>This is-a-good house.</gloss>
- <en>This is a good (for someone, by some standard) house.</en>
+ <natlang>This is a good (for someone, by some standard) house.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Since
<valsi>xamgu</valsi> has three places (x1, the good thing; x2, the person for whom it is good; and x3, the standard of goodness),
<xref linkend="example-random-id-tffW"/> necessarily omits information about the last two: there is no room for them. Room can be made, however!</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Uuio">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e7d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti xamgu be do bei mi [be'o] zdani</jbo>
<gloss>This is-a-good (for you by-standard me) house.</gloss>
- <en>This is a house that is good for you by my standards.</en>
+ <natlang>This is a house that is good for you by my standards.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>BEhO selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>be'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>BEI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>bei</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>BE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>be</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>linked sumti</primary><secondary>in tanru</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>seltau</primary><secondary>filling sumti places in</secondary></indexterm> Here, the gismu
<valsi>xamgu</valsi> has been followed by the cmavo
<valsi>be</valsi> (of selma'o BE), which signals that one or more sumti follows. These sumti are not part of the overall bridi place structure, but fill the places of the brivla they are attached to, starting with x2. If there is more than one sumti, they are separated by the cmavo
<valsi>bei</valsi> (of selma'o BEI), and the list of sumti is terminated by the elidable terminator
<valsi>be'o</valsi> (of selma'o BEhO).</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>linked sumti</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> Grammatically, a brivla with sumti linked to it in this fashion plays the same role in tanru as a simple brivla. To illustrate, here is a fully fleshed-out version of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-nwuU"/>, with all places filled in:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7vxB">
@@ -1082,21 +1082,21 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>place structures of</secondary></indexterm> No matter how complex a tanru gets, the last brivla always dictates the place structure: the place structure of</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Twmx">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e7d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>melbi je cmalu nixli bo ckule</jbo>
<gloss>a (pretty and little) (girl school)</gloss>
- <en>a school for girls which is both beautiful and small</en>
+ <natlang>a school for girls which is both beautiful and small</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is simply that of
<valsi>ckule</valsi>. (The sole exception to this rule is discussed in
<xref linkend="section-co-inversion"/>.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>FA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>FA tags and linked sumti</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>linked sumti and FA tags</primary></indexterm> It is possible to precede linked sumti by the place structure ordering tags
<valsi>fe</valsi>,
<valsi>fi</valsi>,
<valsi>fo</valsi>, and
@@ -1122,46 +1122,46 @@
<valsi>fe</valsi> tells us that
<valsi>do</valsi> is the x2 place). Changing the order of sumti is often done to match the order of another language, or for emphasis or rhythm.</para>
<para>Of course, using FA cmavo makes it easy to specify one place while omitting a previous place:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9b37">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e7d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti xamgu be fi mi [be'o] zdani</jbo>
<gloss>This is-a-good (by-standard me) house.</gloss>
- <en>This is a good house by my standards.</en>
+ <natlang>This is a good house by my standards.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti tcita and tense tags</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense tags and sumti tcita</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti tcita and modal tags</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal tags and sumti tcita</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti tcita and linked sumti</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>linked sumti and sumti tcita</primary></indexterm> Similarly, sumti labeled by modal or tense tags can be inserted into strings of linked sumti just as they can into bridi:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-GstI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e7d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta blanu be ga'a mi [be'o] zdani</jbo>
<gloss>That is-a-blue (to-observer me) house.</gloss>
- <en>That is a blue, as I see it, house.</en>
+ <natlang>That is a blue, as I see it, house.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The meaning of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-GstI"/> is slightly different from:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-63c5">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e7d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta blanu zdani ga'a mi</jbo>
<gloss>That is-a-blue house to-observer me.</gloss>
- <en>That is a blue house, as I see it.</en>
+ <natlang>That is a blue house, as I see it.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>See discussions in
<xref linkend="chapter-sumti-tcita"/> of modals and in
<xref linkend="chapter-tenses"/> of tenses for more explanations.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>be'o</primary><secondary>effect of relative clauses on elidability of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>effect on elidability of be'o</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>be'o</primary><secondary>elidability of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>elidability of be'o</primary></indexterm> The terminator
<valsi>be'o</valsi> is almost always elidable: however, if the selbri belongs to a description, then a relative clause following it will attach to the last linked sumti unless
<valsi>be'o</valsi> is used, in which case it will attach to the outer description:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qJTI" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
@@ -1223,31 +1223,31 @@
<valsi>co</valsi>.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qjtV"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qjty"/> mean exactly the same thing:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qjtV" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e8d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta blanu zdani</jbo>
<gloss>That is-a-blue type-of-house.</gloss>
- <en>That is a blue house.</en>
+ <natlang>That is a blue house.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qjty" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e8d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta zdani co blanu</jbo>
<gloss>That is-a-house of-type blue.</gloss>
- <en>That is a blue house.</en>
+ <natlang>That is a blue house.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>seltau</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tertau</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru inversion</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> This change is called
<quote>tanru inversion</quote>. In tanru inversion, the element before
<valsi>co</valsi> (
<valsi>zdani</valsi> in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qjty"/>) is the tertau, and the element following
<valsi>co</valsi> (
<valsi>blanu</valsi>) in
@@ -1259,33 +1259,33 @@
<oldjbophrase>be ... bei ... be'o</oldjbophrase>, and in fact
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qjuc"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qjVx"/> have the same meaning:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qjuc" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e8d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama be le zarci bei le zdani be'o troci</jbo>
<gloss>I am-a-(goer to the market from the house) type-of trier.</gloss>
- <en>I try to go to the market from the house.</en>
+ <natlang>I try to go to the market from the house.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qjVx" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>try to go</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c5e8d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi troci co klama le zarci le zdani</jbo>
<gloss>I am-a-trier of-type (goer to-the market from-the house).</gloss>
- <en>I try to go to the market from the house.</en>
+ <natlang>I try to go to the market from the house.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qjVx"/> is a less deeply nested construction, requiring fewer cmavo. As a result it is probably easier to understand.</para>
<para> Note that in Lojban
<quote>trying to go</quote> is expressed using
<valsi>troci</valsi> as the tertau. The reason is that
<quote>trying to go</quote> is a
<quote>going type of trying</quote>, not a
@@ -1304,57 +1304,57 @@
<quote>sumti of the bridi</quote> at all.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru inversion</primary><secondary>where allowed</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru inversion</primary><secondary>in complex tanru</secondary></indexterm> When inverting a more complex tanru, it is possible to invert it only at the most general modifier-modified pair. The only possible inversion of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-nwuU"/>, for instance, is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7uS2">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e8d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta nixli [bo] ckule co cmalu</jbo>
<gloss>That (is-a-girl type-of school) of-type little.</gloss>
- <en>That's a girls' school which is small.</en>
+ <natlang>That's a girls' school which is small.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru grouping</primary><secondary>effect of tanru inversion on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru inversion</primary><secondary>effect on tanru grouping</secondary></indexterm>
Note that the
<valsi>bo</valsi> of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-nwuU"/> is optional in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-7uS2"/>, because
<valsi>co</valsi> groups more loosely than any other cmavo used in tanru, including none at all. Not even
<oldjbophrase>ke ... ke'e</oldjbophrase> parentheses can encompass a
<valsi>co</valsi>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-y501">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e8d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e] co melbi</jbo>
<gloss>That is-a-(little type-of (girl type-of school)) of-type pretty.</gloss>
- <en>That's a small school for girls which is beautiful.</en>
+ <natlang>That's a small school for girls which is beautiful.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru inversion</primary><secondary>rule for removing</secondary></indexterm> In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-y501"/>, the
<valsi>ke'e</valsi> is automatically inserted before the
<valsi>co</valsi> rather than at its usual place at the end of the selbri. As a result, there is a simple and mechanical rule for removing
<valsi>co</valsi> from any selbri: change
<oldjbophrase>A co B</oldjbophrase> to
<oldjbophrase>ke B ke'e A</oldjbophrase>. (At the same time, any sumti following the selbri must be transformed into
<oldjbophrase>be ... bei ... be'o</oldjbophrase> form and attached following B.) Therefore,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4c0A">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e8d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ckule co melbi nixli</jbo>
<gloss>school of-type pretty girl</gloss>
- <en>school for beautiful girls</en>
+ <natlang>school for beautiful girls</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means the same as:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-w5cI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e8d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ke melbi nixli ke'e ckule</jbo>
<gloss>(pretty girl) school</gloss>
@@ -1385,45 +1385,45 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which by the left-grouping rule is simply</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-LGRz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e8d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>cmalu nixli ckule</jbo>
<gloss>little girl school</gloss>
- <en>school for little girls</en>
+ <natlang>school for little girls</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>As stated above, the selbri places, other than the first, of</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Qcwd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e8d12"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama co sutra</jbo>
<gloss>I am-a-goer of-type quick</gloss>
- <en>I go quickly</en>
+ <natlang>I go quickly</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>cannot be filled by placing sumti after the selbri, because any sumti in that position fill the places of
<valsi>sutra</valsi>, the seltau. However, the tertau places (which means in effect the selbri places) can be filled with
<valsi>be</valsi>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PDAh">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e8d13"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama be le zarci be'o co sutra</jbo>
<gloss>I am-a-goer (to the store) of-type quick.</gloss>
- <en>I go to the store quickly.</en>
+ <natlang>I go to the store quickly.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-cmavo-selbri">
<title>Other kinds of simple selbri</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>go'i</cmavo>
@@ -1480,21 +1480,21 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>go'i</primary></indexterm> you may retort:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-EvoD">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e9d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. go'i troci</jbo>
<gloss>John [repeat last] are-a-tryer</gloss>
- <en>John tries to.</en>
+ <natlang>John tries to.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-EvoD"/> is short for:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nKQ3">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e9d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. klama be le zarci be'o troci</jbo>
@@ -1528,64 +1528,64 @@
</example>
<para>A possible tanru example might be:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-K7yz">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>addition problems</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c5e9d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi jimpe tu'a loi nu'a su'i nabmi</jbo>
<gloss>I understand something-about the-mass-of is-the-sum-of problems.</gloss>
- <en>I understand addition problems.</en>
+ <natlang>I understand addition problems.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>MOI selma'o</primary></indexterm> More usefully, it is possible to combine a mathematical expression with a cmavo of selma'o MOI to create one of various numerical selbri. Details are available in
<xref linkend="section-mekso-selbri"/>. Here are a few tanru:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qjWh" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Preem Palver</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c5e9d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la prim. palvr. pamoi cusku</jbo>
<gloss>Preem Palver is-the-1-th speaker.</gloss>
- <en>Preem Palver is the first speaker.</en>
+ <natlang>Preem Palver is the first speaker.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qJwU" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>two brothers</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c5e9d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la an,iis. joi la .asun. bruna remei</jbo>
<gloss>Anyi massed-with Asun are-a-brother type-of-twosome.</gloss>
- <en>Anyi and Asun are two brothers.</en>
+ <natlang>Anyi and Asun are two brothers.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>KEI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>NU selma'o</primary></indexterm> Finally, an important type of simple selbri which is not a brivla is the abstraction. Grammatically, abstractions are simple: a cmavo of selma'o NU, followed by a bridi, followed by the elidable terminator
<valsi>kei</valsi> of selma'o KEI. Semantically, abstractions are an extremely subtle and powerful feature of Lojban whose full ramifications are documented in
<xref linkend="chapter-abstractions"/>. A few examples:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-5szz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e9d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti nu zdile kei kumfa</jbo>
<gloss>This is-an-event-of amusement room.</gloss>
- <en>This is an amusement room.</en>
+ <natlang>This is an amusement room.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstraction bridi</primary><secondary>contrasted with component non-abstraction bridi in meaning</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-5szz"/> is quite distinct in meaning from:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-yNSI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e9d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti zdile kumfa</jbo>
@@ -1617,95 +1617,95 @@
<place-structure>x1 is one of the referents of <quote>[the sumti]</quote></place-structure>
<para>which is true of the thing, or things, that are the referents of the sumti, and not of anything else. For example, consider the sumti</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-v6QW">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Three Kings</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c5e10d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ci nolraitru</jbo>
<gloss>the three noblest-governors</gloss>
- <en>the three kings</en>
+ <natlang>the three kings</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> If these are understood to be the Three Kings of Christian tradition, who arrive every year on January 6, then we may say:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-99r3">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e10d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la BALtazar. cu me le ci nolraitru</jbo>
<gloss>Balthazar is one-of-the-referents-of
<quote>the three kings</quote>.</gloss>
- <en>Balthazar is one of the three kings.</en>
+ <natlang>Balthazar is one of the three kings.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and likewise</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gPnL">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e10d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la kaspar. cu me le ci nolraitru</jbo>
- <en>Caspar is one of the three kings.</en>
+ <natlang>Caspar is one of the three kings.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4827">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e10d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la melxi,or. cu me le ci nolraitru</jbo>
- <en>Melchior is one of the three kings.</en>
+ <natlang>Melchior is one of the three kings.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>du</primary><secondary>compared with me in effect</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>me</primary><secondary>compared with du in effect</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>me/du equivalence</primary></indexterm> If the sumti refers to a single object, then the effect of
<valsi>me</valsi> is much like that of
<valsi>du</valsi>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-HMHc">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e10d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do du la djan.</jbo>
<gloss>You are-identical-with the-one-called <quote>John</quote>.</gloss>
- <en>You are John.</en>
+ <natlang>You are John.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means the same as</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-GMCc">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e10d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do me la djan.</jbo>
<gloss>You are-the-referent-of
<quote>the-one-called <quote>John</quote></quote>.</gloss>
- <en>You are John.</en>
+ <natlang>You are John.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>me</primary><secondary>used with names</secondary></indexterm> It is common to use
<valsi>me</valsi> selbri, especially those based on name sumti using
<valsi>la</valsi>, as seltau. For example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-raQG">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Chrysler</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c5e10d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta me lai kraislr. [me'u] karce</jbo>
<gloss>That (is-a-referent of
<quote>the-mass-called <quote>Chrysler</quote></quote>) car.</gloss>
- <en>That is a Chrysler car.</en>
+ <natlang>That is a Chrysler car.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connectives</primary><secondary>relative precedence with me'u</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>me'u</primary><secondary>relative precedence with logical connectives</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>elidability of me'u</primary></indexterm> The elidable terminator
<valsi>me'u</valsi> can usually be omitted. It is absolutely required only if the
<valsi>me</valsi> selbri is being used in an indefinite description (a type of sumti explained in
<xref linkend="section-indefinite-descriptions"/>), and if the indefinite description is followed by a relative clause (explained in
@@ -1713,62 +1713,62 @@
<xref linkend="chapter-relative-clauses"/>) or a sumti logical connective (explained in
<xref linkend="section-sumti-connection"/>). Without a
<valsi>me'u</valsi>, the relative clause or logical connective would appear to belong to the sumti embedded in the
<valsi>me</valsi> expression. Here is a contrasting pair of sentences:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qJyi" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e10d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>re me le ci nolraitru .e la djan. [me'u] cu blabi</jbo>
- <en>Two of the group
- <quote>the three kings and John</quote> are white.</en>
+ <natlang>Two of the group
+ <quote>the three kings and John</quote> are white.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qJyK" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e10d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>re me le ci nolraitru me'u .e la djan. cu blabi</jbo>
- <en>Two of the three kings, and John, are white.</en>
+ <natlang>Two of the three kings, and John, are white.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qJyi"/> the
<valsi>me</valsi> selbri covers the three kings plus John, and the indefinite description picks out two of them that are said to be white: we cannot say which two. In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qJyK"/>, though, the
<valsi>me</valsi> selbri covers only the three kings: two of them are said to be white, and so is John.</para>
<para>Finally, here is another example requiring
<valsi>me'u</valsi>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ygzq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e10d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta me la'e le se cusku be do me'u cukta</jbo>
<gloss>That is-a-(what-you-said) type of book.</gloss>
- <en>That is the kind of book you were talking about.</en>
+ <natlang>That is the kind of book you were talking about.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>There are other sentences where either
<valsi>me'u</valsi> or some other elidable terminator must be expressed:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-8yDj">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e10d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le me le ci nolraitru [ku] me'u nunsalci</jbo>
<gloss>the (the three kings) type-of-event-of-celebrating</gloss>
- <en>the Three Kings celebration</en>
+ <natlang>the Three Kings celebration</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>requires either
<valsi>ku</valsi> or
<valsi>me'u</valsi> to be explicit, and (as with
<valsi>be'o</valsi> in
<xref linkend="section-be-sumti"/>) the
<valsi>me'u</valsi> leaves no doubt which cmavo it is paired with.</para>
</section>
@@ -1777,47 +1777,47 @@
<title>Conversion of simple selbri</title>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>xe</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ve</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>te</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>se</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>SE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>place structure</primary><secondary>re-ordering by conversion</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>conversion</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru and conversion</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>conversion and tanru</primary></indexterm> Conversion is the process of changing a selbri so that its places appear in a different order. This is not the same as labeling the sumti with the cmavo of FA, as mentioned in
<xref linkend="section-be-sumti"/>, and then rearranging the order in which the sumti are spoken or written. Conversion transforms the selbri into a distinct, though closely related, selbri with renumbered places.</para>
<para>In Lojban, conversion is accomplished by placing a cmavo of selma'o SE before the selbri:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-29Gu">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e11d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi prami do</jbo>
- <en>I love you.</en>
+ <natlang>I love you.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is equivalent in meaning to:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-DWcN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e11d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do se prami mi</jbo>
<gloss>You [swap x1 and x2] love me.</gloss>
- <en>You are loved by me.</en>
+ <natlang>You are loved by me.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Conversion is fully explained in
<xref linkend="section-SE"/>. For the purposes of this chapter, the important point about conversion is that it applies only to the following simple selbri. When trying to convert a tanru, therefore, it is necessary to be careful! Consider
<xref linkend="example-random-id-mPX8"/>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mPX8">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>walk to market</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c5e11d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .alis. cu cadzu klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>Alice is-a-walker type-of goer to-the market.</gloss>
<gloss>Alice walkingly goes to the market.</gloss>
- <en>Alice walks to the market.</en>
+ <natlang>Alice walks to the market.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>To convert this sentence so that
<oldjbophrase>le zarci</oldjbophrase> is in the x1 place, one correct way is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4mbn">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e11d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le zarci cu se ke cadzu klama [ke'e] la .alis.</jbo>
@@ -1876,133 +1876,133 @@
<xref linkend="chapter-negation"/>. In brief, there are two main types of negation in Lojban. This section is concerned with so-called
<quote>scalar negation</quote>, which is used to state that a true relation between the sumti is something other than what the selbri specifies. Scalar negation is expressed by cmavo of selma'o NAhE:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4oxH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e12d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .alis. cu na'e ke cadzu klama [ke'e] le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>Alice non- (walkingly goes) to-the market.</gloss>
<gloss>Alice other-than (walkingly goes) to-the market.</gloss>
- <en>Alice doesn't walk to the market.</en>
+ <natlang>Alice doesn't walk to the market.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ke</primary><secondary>for expanding scope of scalar negation</secondary></indexterm> meaning that Alice's relationship to the market is something other than that of walking there. But if the
<valsi>ke</valsi> were omitted, the result would be:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-NL2Y">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e12d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .alis. cu na'e cadzu klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>Alice non- walkingly goes to-the market.</gloss>
- <en>Alice doesn't walk to the market.</en>
+ <natlang>Alice doesn't walk to the market.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>meaning that Alice does go there in some way (
<valsi>klama</valsi> is not negated), but by a means other than that of walking.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-4oxH"/> negates both
<valsi>cadzu</valsi> and
<valsi>klama</valsi>, suggesting that Alice's relation to the market is something different from walkingly-going; it might be walking without going, or going without walking, or neither.</para>
<para>Of course, any of the simple selbri types explained in
<xref linkend="section-cmavo-selbri"/> may be used in place of brivla in any of these examples:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-YB00">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e12d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djonz. cu na'e pamoi cusku</jbo>
<gloss>Jones is non-1st speaker</gloss>
- <en>Jones is not the first speaker.</en>
+ <natlang>Jones is not the first speaker.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Since only
<oldjbophrase>pamoi</oldjbophrase> is negated, an appropriate inference is that he is some other kind of speaker.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>negation</primary><secondary>complex examples</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>complex negation</primary><secondary>examples</secondary></indexterm> Here is an assortment of more complex examples showing the interaction of scalar negation with
<valsi>bo</valsi> grouping,
<valsi>ke</valsi> and
<valsi>ke'e</valsi> grouping, logical connection, and sumti linked with
<valsi>be</valsi> and
<valsi>bei</valsi>:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>na'e</primary><secondary>contrasted with na'e ke</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-I1Rd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e12d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na'e sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I ( (non-quickly) ( walking using the arms) ) go-to the market.</gloss>
- <en>I go to the market, walking using my arms other than quickly.</en>
+ <natlang>I go to the market, walking using my arms other than quickly.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-I1Rd"/>,
<valsi>na'e</valsi> negates only
<valsi>sutra</valsi>. Contrast
<xref linkend="example-random-id-KcK8"/>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KcK8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e12d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka [be'o] ke'e klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I non- ( quickly (walking using the arms) ) go-to the market.</gloss>
- <en>I go to the market, other than by walking quickly on my arms.</en>
+ <natlang>I go to the market, other than by walking quickly on my arms.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Now consider
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qjyW"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qjyy"/>, which are equivalent in meaning, but use
<valsi>ke</valsi> grouping and
<valsi>bo</valsi> grouping respectively:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qjyW" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e12d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o je masno klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I (quickly – (walking using the arms) and slowly) go-to the market.</gloss>
- <en>I go to the market, both quickly walking using my arms and slowly.</en>
+ <natlang>I go to the market, both quickly walking using my arms and slowly.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qjyy" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e12d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka [be'o] ke'e je masno klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I ( (quickly (walking using the arms) ) and slowly) go-to the market.</gloss>
- <en>I go to the market, both quickly walking using my arms and slowly.</en>
+ <natlang>I go to the market, both quickly walking using my arms and slowly.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>However, if we place a
<valsi>na'e</valsi> at the beginning of the selbri in both
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qjyW"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qjyy"/>, we get different results:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qjyz" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e12d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na'e sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o je masno klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I ( (non- quickly) - (walking using the arms) and slowly) go-to the market.</gloss>
- <en>I go to the market, both walking using my arms other than quickly, and also slowly.</en>
+ <natlang>I go to the market, both walking using my arms other than quickly, and also slowly.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qJzr" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e12d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka [be'o] ke'e je masno klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I (non-(quickly (walking using the arms) ) and slowly) go-to the market.</gloss>
- <en>I go to the market, both other than quickly walking using my arms, and also slowly.</en>
+ <natlang>I go to the market, both other than quickly walking using my arms, and also slowly.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The difference arises because the
<valsi>na'e</valsi> in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qJzr"/> negates the whole construction from
<valsi>ke</valsi> to
<valsi>ke'e</valsi>, whereas in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qjyz"/> it negates
<valsi>sutra</valsi> alone.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>perils of omitting terminators</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>omitting terminators</primary><secondary>perils of</secondary></indexterm> Beware of omitting terminators in these complex examples! If the explicit
@@ -2010,34 +2010,34 @@
<valsi>ke'e</valsi> is left out in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qJzr"/>, it is transformed into:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Y53U">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e12d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o je masno klama [ke'e] le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I non-(quickly ( (walking using the arms) ) and slowly) go-to) the market.</gloss>
<gloss>I do something other than quickly both going to the market walking</gloss>
- <en>using my arms and slowly going to the market.</en>
+ <natlang>using my arms and slowly going to the market.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>And if both
<valsi>ke'e</valsi> and
<valsi>be'o</valsi> are omitted, the results are even sillier:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-0WLq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e12d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka je masno klama [be'o] [ke'e] le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I non-(quickly walk on my (arm-type and slow) goers) on the market.</gloss>
- <en>I do something other than quickly walking using the goers, both arm-type and slow, relative-to the market.</en>
+ <natlang>I do something other than quickly walking using the goers, both arm-type and slow, relative-to the market.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-0WLq"/>, everything after
<valsi>be</valsi> is a linked sumti, so the place structure is that of
<valsi>cadzu</valsi>, whose x2 place is the surface walked upon. It is less than clear what an
<quote>arm-type goer</quote> might be. Furthermore, since the x3 place has been occupied by the linked sumti, the
<oldjbophrase>le zarci</oldjbophrase> following the selbri falls into the nonexistent x4 place of
@@ -2050,87 +2050,87 @@
<section xml:id="section-bridi-negation-tenses">
<title>Tenses and bridi negation</title>
<para>A bridi can have cmavo associated with it which specify the time, place, or mode of action. For example, in</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-uz13">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e13d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] go to-the market.</gloss>
- <en>I went to the market.</en>
+ <natlang>I went to the market.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>the cmavo
<valsi>pu</valsi> specifies that the action of the speaker going to the market takes place in the past. Tenses are explained in full detail in
<xref linkend="chapter-tenses"/>. Tense is semantically a property of the entire bridi; however, the usual syntax for tenses attaches them at the front of the selbri, as in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-uz13"/>. There are alternative ways of expressing tense information as well. Modals, which are explained in
<xref linkend="chapter-sumti-tcita"/>, behave in the same way as tenses.</para>
<para>Similarly, a bridi may have the particle
<valsi>na</valsi> (of selma'o NA) attached to the beginning of the selbri to negate the bridi. A negated bridi expresses what is false without saying anything about what is true. Do not confuse this usage with the scalar negation of
<xref linkend="section-selbri-scalar-negation"/>. For example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PYSP">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e13d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djonz. na pamoi cusku</jbo>
<gloss>Jones (Not!) is-the-first speaker</gloss>
<gloss>It is not true that Jones is the first speaker.</gloss>
- <en>Jones isn't the first speaker.</en>
+ <natlang>Jones isn't the first speaker.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Jones may be the second speaker, or not a speaker at all;
<xref linkend="example-random-id-PYSP"/> doesn't say. There are other ways of expressing bridi negation as well; the topic is explained fully in
<xref linkend="chapter-negation"/>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi negation</primary><secondary>relative order with tense</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>relative order with bridi negation</secondary></indexterm> Various combinations of tense and bridi negation cmavo are permitted. If both are expressed, either order is permissible with no change in meaning:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-RV4C">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e13d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na pu klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>mi pu na klama le zarci</gloss>
<gloss>It is false that I went to the market.</gloss>
- <en>I didn't go to the market.</en>
+ <natlang>I didn't go to the market.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>na</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi negation</primary><secondary>multiple</secondary></indexterm> It is also possible to have more than one
<valsi>na</valsi>, in which case pairs of
<valsi>na</valsi> cmavo cancel out:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-TuP7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e13d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na na klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>It is false that it is false that I go to the market.</gloss>
- <en>I go to the market.</en>
+ <natlang>I go to the market.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense and na</primary><secondary>multiple</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>na and tense</primary><secondary>multiple</secondary></indexterm> It is even possible, though somewhat pointless, to have multiple
<valsi>na</valsi> cmavo and tense cmavo mixed together, subject to the limitation that two adjacent tense cmavo will be understood as a compound tense, and must fit the grammar of tenses as explained in
<xref linkend="chapter-tenses"/>.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hw6g">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e13d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi na pu na ca klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>I [not] [past] [not] [present] go to-the market</gloss>
<gloss>It is not the case that in the past it was not the case that in the present I went to the market.</gloss>
<gloss>I didn't not go to the market.</gloss>
- <en>I went to the market.</en>
+ <natlang>I went to the market.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>negation cmavo</primary><secondary>position relative to selbri</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal cmavo</primary><secondary>position relative to selbri</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense cmavo</primary><secondary>position relative to selbri</secondary></indexterm> Tense, modal, and negation cmavo can appear only at the beginning of the selbri. They cannot be embedded within it.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-asymmetric-tanru">
<title>Some types of asymmetrical tanru</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>asymmetrical</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru</primary></indexterm> This section and
@@ -3846,51 +3846,51 @@
<oldjbophrase>naja</oldjbophrase> or
<valsi>jo</valsi> or most of the other logical connectives, the meanings would become distinct.</para>
<para>It must be emphasized that, because of the ambiguity of all tanru, the English translations are by no means definitive – they represent only one possible interpretation of the corresponding Lojban sentence.</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qjzw" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e16d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>melbi cmalu nixli ckule</jbo>
<gloss>((pretty type-of little) type-of girl) type-of school</gloss>
- <en>school for girls who are beautifully small</en>
+ <natlang>school for girls who are beautifully small</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qK2W" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e16d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>melbi je cmalu nixli ckule</jbo>
<gloss>((pretty and little) type-of girl) type-of school</gloss>
- <en>school for girls who are beautiful and small</en>
+ <natlang>school for girls who are beautiful and small</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qK2x" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e16d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>melbi bo cmalu je nixli ckule</jbo>
<gloss>((pretty type-of little) and girl) type-of school</gloss>
- <en>school for girls and for beautifully small things</en>
+ <natlang>school for girls and for beautifully small things</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qK5r" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e16d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ke melbi cmalu nixli ke'e je ckule</jbo>
<gloss>((pretty type-of little) type-of girl) and school</gloss>
- <en>thing which is a school and a beautifully small girl</en>
+ <natlang>thing which is a school and a beautifully small girl</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qK5Y" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e16d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>melbi je cmalu je nixli ckule</jbo>
<gloss>((pretty and little) and girl) type-of school</gloss>
<gloss>school for things which are beautiful, small, and girls</gloss>
@@ -3908,360 +3908,360 @@
<para>Note: same as <xref linkend="example-random-id-qKdY"/></para>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qK90" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e16d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ke melbi je cmalu nixli ke'e je ckule</jbo>
<gloss>((pretty and little) type-of girl) and school</gloss>
- <en>thing which is a school and a girl who is both beautiful and small</en>
+ <natlang>thing which is a school and a girl who is both beautiful and small</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qKAG" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e16d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>melbi je cmalu je nixli je ckule</jbo>
<gloss>((pretty and little) and girl) and school</gloss>
- <en>thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school</en>
+ <natlang>thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qKaM" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e16d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>melbi cmalu nixli bo ckule</jbo>
<gloss>(pretty type-of little) type-of (girl type-of school)</gloss>
- <en>girls' school which is beautifully small</en>
+ <natlang>girls' school which is beautifully small</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qKat" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e16d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>melbi je cmalu nixli bo ckule</jbo>
<gloss>(pretty and little) type-of (girl type-of school)</gloss>
- <en>girls' school which is beautiful and small</en>
+ <natlang>girls' school which is beautiful and small</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qKBQ" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e16d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>melbi cmalu nixli je ckule</jbo>
<gloss>(pretty type-of little) type-of (girl and school)</gloss>
- <en>something which is a girl and a school which is beautifully small</en>
+ <natlang>something which is a girl and a school which is beautifully small</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qKBy" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e16d12"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>melbi bo cmalu je nixli bo ckule</jbo>
<gloss>(pretty type-of little) and (girl type-of school)</gloss>
- <en>something which is beautifully small and a girls' school</en>
+ <natlang>something which is beautifully small and a girls' school</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qKcH" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e16d13"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>melbi je cmalu nixli je ckule</jbo>
<gloss>(pretty and little) type-of (girl and school)</gloss>
- <en>a pretty and little type of thing which is both a girl and a school</en>
+ <natlang>a pretty and little type of thing which is both a girl and a school</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qKdY" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e16d14"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>melbi bo cmalu je nixli jebo ckule</jbo>
<gloss>(pretty type-of little) and (girl and school)</gloss>
- <en>thing which is beautifully small, a school, and a girl</en>
+ <natlang>thing which is beautifully small, a school, and a girl</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note: same as <xref linkend="example-random-id-qK7I"/></para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qKEI" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e16d15"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>melbi jebo cmalu je nixli bo ckule</jbo>
<gloss>(pretty and little) and (girl type-of school)</gloss>
- <en>thing which is beautiful and small and a girl's school</en>
+ <natlang>thing which is beautiful and small and a girl's school</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note: same as <xref linkend="example-random-id-qKpm"/></para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qKFA" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e16d16"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>melbi jebo cmalu je nixli jebo ckule</jbo>
<gloss>(pretty and little) and (girl and school)</gloss>
- <en>thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school</en>
+ <natlang>thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qKfX" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e16d17"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>melbi cmalu bo nixli ckule</jbo>
<gloss>(pretty type-of (little type-of girl)) type-of school</gloss>
- <en>school for beautiful girls who are small</en>
+ <natlang>school for beautiful girls who are small</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qKGW" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e16d18"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>melbi cmalu je nixli ckule</jbo>
<gloss>(pretty type-of (little and girl)) type-of school</gloss>
- <en>school for beautiful things which are small and are girls</en>
+ <natlang>school for beautiful things which are small and are girls</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qKHA" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e16d19"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>melbi je cmalu bo nixli ckule</jbo>
<gloss>(pretty and (little type-of girl)) type-of school</gloss>
- <en>school for things which are beautiful and are small girls</en>
+ <natlang>school for things which are beautiful and are small girls</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qKjJ" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e16d20"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ke melbi cmalu bo nixli ke'e je ckule</jbo>
<jbo>melbi bo cmalu bo nixli je ckule</jbo>
<gloss>(pretty type-of (little type-of girl)) and school</gloss>
- <en>thing which is a school and a small girl who is beautiful</en>
+ <natlang>thing which is a school and a small girl who is beautiful</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qKjr" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e16d21"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>melbi je cmalu jebo nixli ckule</jbo>
<gloss>(pretty and (little and girl)) type-of school</gloss>
- <en>school for things which are beautiful, small, and girls</en>
+ <natlang>school for things which are beautiful, small, and girls</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note: same as <xref linkend="example-random-id-qK5Y"/></para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qKKM" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e16d22"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>melbi je cmalu bo nixli je ckule</jbo>
<gloss>(pretty and (little type-of girl)) and school</gloss>
- <en>thing which is beautiful, a small girl, and a school</en>
+ <natlang>thing which is beautiful, a small girl, and a school</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note: same as <xref linkend="example-random-id-qKsA"/></para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qKLi" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e16d23"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ke melbi cmalu je nixli ke'e je ckule</jbo>
<gloss>(pretty type-of (little and girl)) and school</gloss>
- <en>thing which is beautifully small, a beautiful girl, and a school</en>
+ <natlang>thing which is beautifully small, a beautiful girl, and a school</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qKLN" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e16d24"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>melbi je cmalu jebo nixli je ckule</jbo>
<gloss>(pretty and (little and girl)) and school</gloss>
- <en>thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school</en>
+ <natlang>thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qKmg" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e16d25"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>melbi cmalu bo nixli bo ckule</jbo>
<jbo>melbi ke cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e] [ke'e]</jbo>
<gloss>pretty type-of (little type-of (girl type-of school))</gloss>
- <en>small school for girls which is beautiful</en>
+ <natlang>small school for girls which is beautiful</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qKn8" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e16d26"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>melbi ke cmalu nixli je ckule [ke'e]</jbo>
<gloss>pretty type-of (little type-of (girl and school))</gloss>
- <en>small thing, both a girl and a school, which is beautiful</en>
+ <natlang>small thing, both a girl and a school, which is beautiful</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qKNY" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e16d27"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>melbi cmalu je nixli bo ckule</jbo>
<gloss>pretty type-of (little and (girl type-of school))</gloss>
- <en>thing which is beautifully small and a girls' school that is beautiful</en>
+ <natlang>thing which is beautifully small and a girls' school that is beautiful</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qKp6" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e16d28"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>melbi je cmalu bo nixli bo ckule</jbo>
<jbo>melbi je ke cmalu nixli bo ckule [ke'e]</jbo>
<jbo>melbi je ke cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e] [ke'e]</jbo>
<gloss>pretty and (little type-of (girl type-of school))</gloss>
- <en>thing which is beautiful and a small type of girls' school</en>
+ <natlang>thing which is beautiful and a small type of girls' school</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qKp9" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e16d29"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>melbi cmalu je nixli jebo ckule</jbo>
<gloss>melbi cmalu je ke nixli je ckule [ke'e]</gloss>
<gloss>pretty type-of (little and (girl and school))</gloss>
- <en>thing which is beautifully small, a beautiful girl, and a beautiful school</en>
+ <natlang>thing which is beautifully small, a beautiful girl, and a beautiful school</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note: same as <xref linkend="example-random-id-qKR5"/></para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qKpm" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e16d30"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>melbi je cmalu jebo nixli bo ckule</jbo>
<jbo>melbi je ke cmalu je nixli bo ckule [ke'e]</jbo>
<gloss>pretty and (little and (girl type-of school))</gloss>
- <en>thing which is beautiful, small and a girls' school</en>
+ <natlang>thing which is beautiful, small and a girls' school</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note: same as <xref linkend="example-random-id-qKEI"/></para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qKPn" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e16d31"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>melbi je ke cmalu nixli je ckule [ke'e]</jbo>
<gloss>pretty and (little type-of (girl and school))</gloss>
- <en>beautiful thing which is a small girl and a small school</en>
+ <natlang>beautiful thing which is a small girl and a small school</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qKpo" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e16d32"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>melbi jebo cmalu jebo nixli jebo ckule</jbo>
<gloss>pretty and (little and (girl and school))</gloss>
- <en>thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school</en>
+ <natlang>thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qKPQ" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e16d33"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>melbi ke cmalu nixli ckule [ke'e]</jbo>
<gloss>pretty type-of ((little type-of girl) type-of school)</gloss>
- <en>beautiful school for small girls</en>
+ <natlang>beautiful school for small girls</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qKpX" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e16d34"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>melbi ke cmalu je nixli ckule [ke'e]</jbo>
<gloss>pretty type-of ((little and girl) type-of school</gloss>
- <en>beautiful school for things which are small and are girls</en>
+ <natlang>beautiful school for things which are small and are girls</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qKPz" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e16d35"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>melbi ke cmalu bo nixli je ckule [ke'e]</jbo>
<gloss>pretty type-of ((little type-of girl) and school)</gloss>
- <en>beautiful thing which is a small girl and a school</en>
+ <natlang>beautiful thing which is a small girl and a school</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qKQ3" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e16d36"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>melbi je ke cmalu nixli ckule [ke'e]</jbo>
<gloss>pretty and ((little type-of girl) type-of school)</gloss>
- <en>thing which is beautiful and a school for small girls</en>
+ <natlang>thing which is beautiful and a school for small girls</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qKR5" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e16d37"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>melbi cmalu je nixli je ckule</jbo>
<gloss>pretty type-of ((little and girl) and school)</gloss>
- <en>thing which is beautifully small, a beautiful girl, and a beautiful school</en>
+ <natlang>thing which is beautifully small, a beautiful girl, and a beautiful school</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note: same as <xref linkend="example-random-id-qKp9"/></para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qKsA" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e16d38"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>melbi je ke cmalu bo nixli je ckule [ke'e]</jbo>
<gloss>pretty and ((little type-of girl) and school)</gloss>
- <en>thing which is beautiful, a small girl and a school</en>
+ <natlang>thing which is beautiful, a small girl and a school</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note: same as <xref linkend="example-random-id-qKKM"/></para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qKSK" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e16d39"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>melbi je ke cmalu je nixli ckule [ke'e]</jbo>
<gloss>pretty and ((little and girl) type-of school)</gloss>
- <en>thing which is beautiful and is a small school and a girls' school</en>
+ <natlang>thing which is beautiful and is a small school and a girls' school</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qKU6" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c5e16d40"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>melbi je ke cmalu je nixli je ckule [ke'e]</jbo>
<gloss>pretty and ((little and girl) and school)</gloss>
- <en>thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school</en>
+ <natlang>thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
</chapter>
diff --git a/todocbook/6.xml b/todocbook/6.xml
index dc130e1..1a7a80a 100644
--- a/todocbook/6.xml
+++ b/todocbook/6.xml
@@ -50,50 +50,50 @@
<valsi>li</valsi>.</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
<para>Here are a few examples of each kind of sumti:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Dx1s">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e1d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>e'osai ko sarji la lojban.</jbo>
- <en>Please support Lojban!</en>
+ <natlang>Please support Lojban!</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Dx1s"/> exhibits
<valsi>ko</valsi>, a pro-sumti; and
<oldjbophrase>la lojban.</oldjbophrase>, a name.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-v1mS">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e1d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cusku lu e'osai li'u le tcidu</jbo>
- <en>I express
- <quote>Please!</quote> to-the reader.</en>
+ <natlang>I express
+ <quote>Please!</quote> to-the reader.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <!-- FIXME: these three indexterms aren't <oldjbophrase>d alone --><indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>le</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>li'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>lu</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-v1mS"/> exhibits
<valsi>mi</valsi>, a pro-sumti;
<oldjbophrase>lu e'osai li'u</oldjbophrase>, a quotation; and
<oldjbophrase>le tcidu</oldjbophrase>, a description.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-0YaH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e1d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti mitre li ci</jbo>
<gloss>This measures-in-meters the-number three.</gloss>
- <en>This is three meters long.</en>
+ <natlang>This is three meters long.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <!-- FIXME: this indexterm isn't <oldjbophrase>d alone --><indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>li</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-0YaH"/> exhibits
<valsi>ti</valsi>, a pro-sumti; and
<oldjbophrase>li ci</oldjbophrase>, a number.</para>
<para>Most of this chapter is about descriptions, as they have the most complicated syntax and usage. Some attention is also given to names, which are closely interwoven with descriptions. Pro-sumti, numbers, and quotations are described in more detail in
<xref linkend="chapter-anaphoric-cmavo"/>,
<xref linkend="chapter-mekso"/>, and
<xref linkend="chapter-structure"/> respectively, so this chapter only gives summaries of their forms and uses. See
@@ -128,61 +128,61 @@
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>LA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>LE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri</primary><secondary>as part of description</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>descriptor</primary><secondary>as part of description</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>descriptions</primary><secondary>components of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>descriptions</primary><secondary>types of</secondary></indexterm> The syntax of descriptions is fairly complex, and not all of it can be explained within the confines of this chapter: relative clauses, in particular, are discussed in
<xref linkend="chapter-relative-clauses"/>. However, most descriptions have just two components: a descriptor belonging to selma'o LE or LA, and a selbri. (The difference between selma'o LE and selma'o LA is not important until
<xref linkend="section-names"/>.) Furthermore, the selbri is often just a single brivla. Here is an elementary example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rBuQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e2d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>one-or-more-specific-things-each-of-which-I-describe-as being-a-market</gloss>
- <en>the market</en>
+ <natlang>the market</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le</primary><secondary>compared with English the</secondary></indexterm> The long gloss for
<valsi>le</valsi> is of course far too long to use most of the time, and in fact
<valsi>le</valsi> is quite close in meaning to English
<quote>the</quote>. It has particular implications, however, which
<quote>the</quote> does not have.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>descriptions</primary><secondary>importance of selbri first place in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>descriptors</primary><secondary>purpose of</secondary></indexterm> The general purpose of all descriptors is to create a sumti which might occur in the x1 place of the selbri belonging to the description. Thus
<oldjbophrase>le zarci</oldjbophrase> conveys something which might be found in the x1 place of
<valsi>zarci</valsi>, namely a market.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le</primary><secondary>and truth of selbri</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le</primary><secondary>and specificity</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le</primary><secondary>implications of</secondary></indexterm> The specific purpose of
<valsi>le</valsi> is twofold. First, it indicates that the speaker has one or more specific markets in mind (whether or not the listener knows which ones they are). Second, it also indicates that the speaker is merely describing the things he or she has in mind as markets, without being committed to the truth of that description.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ULGC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e2d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le zarci cu barda</jbo>
<gloss>One-or-more-specific-things-which-I-describe as <quote>markets</quote> is/are-big.</gloss>
- <en>The market is big.</en>
- <en>The markets are big.</en>
+ <natlang>The market is big.</natlang>
+ <natlang>The markets are big.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>plurals</primary><secondary>Lojban contrasted with English in necessity of marking</secondary></indexterm> Note that English-speakers must state whether a reference to markets is to just one (
<quote>the market</quote>) or to more than one (
<quote>the markets</quote>). Lojban requires no such forced choice, so both colloquial translations of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-ULGC"/> are valid. Only the context can specify which is meant. (This rule does not mean that Lojban has no way of specifying the number of markets in such a case: that mechanism is explained in
<xref linkend="section-quantified-descriptions"/>.)</para>
<para>Now consider the following strange-looking example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PutX">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>The men are women</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c6e2d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu cu ninmu</jbo>
<gloss>One-or-more-specific-things-which-I-describe as <quote>men</quote> are women.</gloss>
- <en>The man is a woman.</en>
- <en>The men are women.</en>
+ <natlang>The man is a woman.</natlang>
+ <natlang>The men are women.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le</primary><secondary>in false-to-fact descriptions</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-PutX"/> is not self-contradictory in Lojban, because
<oldjbophrase>le nanmu</oldjbophrase> merely means something or other which, for my present purposes, I choose to describe as a man, whether or not it really is a man. A plausible instance would be: someone we had assumed to be a man at a distance turned out to be actually a woman on closer observation.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-PutX"/> is what I would say to point out my observation to you.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>descriptions</primary><secondary>specific</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>specific descriptions</primary></indexterm> In all descriptions with
@@ -193,38 +193,38 @@
<valsi>lo</valsi>. Unlike
<valsi>le</valsi>,
<valsi>lo</valsi> is nonspecific:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-t11z">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e2d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo zarci</jbo>
<gloss>one-or-more-of-all-the-things-which-really are-markets</gloss>
- <en>a market</en>
- <en>some markets</en>
+ <natlang>a market</natlang>
+ <natlang>some markets</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo</primary><secondary>and truth of selbri</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo</primary><secondary>contrasted with le in truth requirement</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le</primary><secondary>contrasted with lo in truth requirement</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le</primary><secondary>contrasted with lo in specificity</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo</primary><secondary>contrasted with le in specificity</secondary></indexterm> Again, there are two colloquial English translations. The effect of using
<valsi>lo</valsi> in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-t11z"/> is to refer generally to one or more markets, without being specific about which. Unlike
<oldjbophrase>le zarci</oldjbophrase>,
<oldjbophrase>lo zarci</oldjbophrase> must refer to something which actually is a market (that is, which can appear in the x1 place of a truthful bridi whose selbri is
<valsi>zarci</valsi>). Thus</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-fSxN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e2d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo nanmu cu ninmu</jbo>
- <en>Some man is a woman.</en>
- <en>Some men are women.</en>
+ <natlang>Some man is a woman.</natlang>
+ <natlang>Some men are women.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>must be false in Lojban, given that there are no objects in the real world which are both men and women. Pointing at some specific men or women would not make
<xref linkend="example-random-id-fSxN"/> true, because those specific individuals are no more both-men-and-women than any others. In general,
<valsi>lo</valsi> refers to whatever individuals meet its description.</para>
<para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>la</primary><secondary>use with descriptions contrasted with use before Lojbanized names</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le</primary><secondary>compared with la in specificity</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>la</primary><secondary>compared with le in specificity</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>la</primary><secondary>implications of</secondary></indexterm> The last descriptor of this section is
<valsi>la</valsi>, which indicates that the selbri which follows it has been dissociated from its normal meaning and is being used as a name. Like
<valsi>le</valsi> descriptions,
<valsi>la</valsi> descriptions are implicitly restricted to those I have in mind. (Do not confuse this use of
@@ -232,21 +232,21 @@
<xref linkend="section-names"/>.) For example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PrGp">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>bear wrote story</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c6e2d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la cribe pu finti le lisri</jbo>
<gloss>The-one-named
<quote>bear</quote> [past] creates the story.</gloss>
- <en>Bear wrote the story.</en>
+ <natlang>Bear wrote the story.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>naming predicate</primary></indexterm> In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-PrGp"/>,
<oldjbophrase>la cribe</oldjbophrase> refers to someone whose naming predicate is
<valsi>cribe</valsi>, i.e.
<quote>Bear</quote>. In English, most names don't mean anything, or at least not anything obvious. The name
<quote>Frank</quote> coincides with the English word
<quote>frank</quote>, meaning
@@ -267,32 +267,32 @@
<quote>the honest one</quote>.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>la</primary><secondary>contrasted with le in implications</secondary></indexterm> It is important to note the differences between
<xref linkend="example-random-id-PrGp"/> and the following:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nXyo">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e2d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le cribe pu finti le lisri</jbo>
<gloss>One-or-more-specific-things-which-I-describe-as a-bear [past] creates the story.</gloss>
- <en>The bear(s) wrote the story.</en>
+ <natlang>The bear(s) wrote the story.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-93Yv">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e2d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo cribe pu finti le lisri</jbo>
<gloss>One-or-more-of-the-things-which-really are-bears [past] creates the story.</gloss>
- <en>A bear wrote the story.</en>
- <en>Some bears wrote the story.</en>
+ <natlang>A bear wrote the story.</natlang>
+ <natlang>Some bears wrote the story.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>la</primary><secondary>contrasted with lo in implications</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-nXyo"/> is about a specific bear or bearlike thing(s), or thing(s) which the speaker (perhaps whimsically or metaphorically) describes as a bear (or more than one);
<xref linkend="example-random-id-93Yv"/> is about one or more of the really existing, objectively defined bears. In either case, though, each of them must have contributed to the writing of the story, if more than one bear (or
<quote>bear</quote>) is meant.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>descriptions with lo</primary><secondary>teddy bear contrasted with real bear</secondary></indexterm> (The notion of a
<quote>really existing, objectively defined bear</quote> raises certain difficulties. Is a panda bear a
<quote>real bear</quote>? How about a teddy bear? In general, the answer is
<quote>yes</quote>. Lojban gismu are defined as broadly as possible, allowing tanru and lujvo to narrow down the definition. There probably are no necessary and sufficient conditions for defining what is and what is not a bear that can be pinned down with complete precision: the real world is fuzzy. In borderline cases,
@@ -306,31 +306,31 @@
<xref linkend="example-random-id-93Yv"/> is certainly false.</para>
<para>Similarly, compare the following two examples, which are analogous to
<xref linkend="example-random-id-nXyo"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-93Yv"/> respectively:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qKw7" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e2d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le remna pu finti le lisri</jbo>
- <en>The human being(s) wrote the story.</en>
+ <natlang>The human being(s) wrote the story.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qKYf" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e2d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo remna pu finti le lisri</jbo>
- <en>A human being wrote the story.</en>
- <en>Some human beings wrote the story.</en>
+ <natlang>A human being wrote the story.</natlang>
+ <natlang>Some human beings wrote the story.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo</primary><secondary>contrasted with le in implications</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le</primary><secondary>contrasted with lo in implications</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qKw7"/> says who the author of the story is: one or more particular human beings that the speaker has in mind. If the topic of conversation is the story, then
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qKw7"/> identifies the author as someone who can be pointed out or who has been previously mentioned; whereas if the topic is a person, then
<oldjbophrase>le remna</oldjbophrase> is in effect a shorthand reference to that person.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qKYf"/> merely says that the author is human.</para>
<para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ku</primary><secondary>uses of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cu</primary><secondary>effect on elidability of ku</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ku</primary><secondary>effect of following selbri on elidability of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ku</primary><secondary>as elidable terminator for descriptions</secondary></indexterm> The elidable terminator for all descriptions is
<valsi>ku</valsi>. It can almost always be omitted with no danger of ambiguity. The main exceptions are in certain uses of relative clauses, which are discussed in
<xref linkend="section-descriptors"/>, and in the case of a description immediately preceding the selbri. In this latter case, using an explicit
@@ -370,21 +370,21 @@
<xref linkend="section-simple-sumti-kinds"/> and
<xref linkend="section-basic-descriptors"/> refer to individuals, whether one or more than one. Consider the following example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mwhq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e3d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le prenu cu bevri le pipno</jbo>
<gloss>One-or-more-of-those-I-describe-as persons carry the piano.</gloss>
- <en>The person(s) carry the piano.</en>
+ <natlang>The person(s) carry the piano.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(Of course the second
<valsi>le</valsi> should really get the same translation as the first, but I am putting the focus of this discussion on the first
<valsi>le</valsi>, the one preceding
<valsi>prenu</valsi>. I will assume that there is only one piano under discussion.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>individual objects</primary><secondary>multiple</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple individual objects</primary><secondary>meaning of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le</primary><secondary>meaning of in the plural</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>plurals with le</primary><secondary>meaning of</secondary></indexterm> Suppose the context of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-mwhq"/> is such that you can determine that I am talking about three persons. What am I claiming? I am claiming that each of the three persons carried the piano. This claim can be true if the persons carried the piano one at a time, or in turns, or in a variety of other ways. But in order for
<xref linkend="example-random-id-mwhq"/> to be true, I must be willing to assert that person 1 carried the piano, and that person 2 carried the piano, and that person 3 carried the piano.</para>
@@ -414,59 +414,59 @@
<valsi>lai</valsi>). A classic example of
<valsi>loi</valsi> use is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-T1pF">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>lions in Africa</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c6e3d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>loi cinfo cu xabju le fi'ortu'a</jbo>
<gloss>Part-of-the-mass-of-those-which-really are-lions dwell in-the African-land.</gloss>
- <en>The lion dwells in Africa.</en>
- <en>Lions dwell in Africa.</en>
+ <natlang>The lion dwells in Africa.</natlang>
+ <natlang>Lions dwell in Africa.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>loi</primary><secondary>contrasted with lei in specificity</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lei</primary><secondary>contrasted with loi in specificity</secondary></indexterm> The difference between
<valsi>lei</valsi> and
<valsi>loi</valsi> is that
<oldjbophrase>lei cinfo</oldjbophrase> refers to a mass of specific individuals which the speaker calls lions, whereas
<oldjbophrase>loi cinfo</oldjbophrase> refers to some part of the mass of all those individuals which actually are lions. The restriction to
<quote>some part of the mass</quote> allows statements like
<xref linkend="example-random-id-T1pF"/> to be true even though some lions do not dwell in Africa – they live in various zoos around the world. On the other hand,
<xref linkend="example-random-id-T1pF"/> doesn't actually say that most lions live in Africa: equally true is</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-JzXc">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Englishman in Africa</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c6e3d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>loi glipre cu xabju le fi'ortu'a</jbo>
<gloss>Part-of-the-mass-of-those-which-really are-English-persons dwell in-the African-land.</gloss>
- <en>The English dwell in Africa.</en>
+ <natlang>The English dwell in Africa.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>since there is at least one English person living there.
<xref linkend="section-sets"/> explains another method of saying what is usually meant by
<quote>The lion lives in Africa</quote> which does imply that living in Africa is normal, not exceptional, for lions.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mass objects</primary><secondary>peculiarities of English translation of</secondary></indexterm> Note that the Lojban mass articles are sometimes translated by English plurals (the most usual case), sometimes by English singulars (when the singular is used to express typicalness or abstraction), and sometimes by singulars with no article:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-yDCF">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>butter is soft</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c6e3d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>loi matne cu ranti</jbo>
<gloss>Part-of-the-mass-of-that-which-really is-a-quantity-of-butter is-soft.</gloss>
- <en>Butter is soft.</en>
+ <natlang>Butter is soft.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mass object</primary><secondary>as dependent on intention</secondary></indexterm> Of course, some butter is hard (for example, if it is frozen butter), so the
<quote>part-of</quote> implication of
<valsi>loi</valsi> becomes once again useful. The reason this mechanism works is that the English words like
<quote>butter</quote>, which are seen as already describing masses, are translated in Lojban by non-mass forms. The place structure of
<valsi>matne</valsi> is
<quote>x1 is a quantity of butter from source x2</quote>, so the single English word
<quote>butter</quote> is translated as something like
@@ -478,21 +478,21 @@
<xref linkend="example-random-id-fSxN"/>,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-H8z5">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Bears wrote book</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c6e3d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lai cribe pu finti le vi cukta</jbo>
<gloss>The-mass-of-those-named
<quote>bear</quote> [past] creates the nearby book.</gloss>
- <en>The Bears wrote this book.</en>
+ <natlang>The Bears wrote this book.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lai</primary><secondary>contrasted with la in implications</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>la</primary><secondary>contrasted with lai in implications</secondary></indexterm> in a context where
<oldjbophrase>la cribe</oldjbophrase> would be understood as plural, would mean that either Tom Bear or Fred Bear (to make up some names) might have written the book, or that Tom and Fred might have written it as collaborators. Using
<valsi>la</valsi> instead of
<valsi>lai</valsi> in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-H8z5"/> would give the implication that each of Tom and Fred, considered individually, had written it.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-sets">
@@ -530,62 +530,62 @@
<valsi>loi</valsi>, and
<valsi>lo'i</valsi>:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qL1E" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>rats are brown</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c6e4d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo ratcu cu bunre</jbo>
<gloss>One-or-more-of-those-which-really-are rats are-brown.</gloss>
- <en>Some rats are brown.</en>
+ <natlang>Some rats are brown.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qL2Y" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e4d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>loi ratcu cu cmalu</jbo>
<gloss>Part-of-the-mass-of-those-which-really-are rats are-small.</gloss>
- <en>Rats are small.</en>
+ <natlang>Rats are small.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo'i</primary><secondary>contrasted with lo and loi</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>loi</primary><secondary>contrasted with lo and lo'i</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo</primary><secondary>contrasted with loi and lo'i</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qL3V" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e4d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo'i ratcu cu barda</jbo>
<gloss>The-set-of rats is-large.</gloss>
- <en>There are a lot of rats.</en>
+ <natlang>There are a lot of rats.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The mass of rats is small because at least one rat is small; the mass of rats is also large; the set of rats, though, is unquestionably large – it has billions of members. The mass of rats is also brown, since some of its components are; but it would be incorrect to call the set of rats brown – brown-ness is not the sort of property that sets possess.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sets</primary><secondary>use in Lojban place structure</secondary></indexterm> Lojban speakers should generally think twice before employing the set descriptors. However, certain predicates have places that require set sumti to fill them. For example, the place structure of
<valsi>fadni</valsi> is:</para>
<place-structure>x1 is ordinary/common/typical/usual in property x2 among the members of set x3</place-structure>
<para>Why is it necessary for the x3 place of
<valsi>fadni</valsi> to be a set? Because it makes no sense for an individual to be typical of another individual: an individual is typical of a group. In order to make sure that the bridi containing
<valsi>fadni</valsi> is about an entire group, its x3 place must be filled with a set:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-xIXo">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>typical Lojban user</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c6e4d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi fadni zo'e lo'i lobypli</jbo>
<gloss>I am-ordinary among the-set-of Lojban-users.</gloss>
- <en>I am a typical Lojban user.</en>
+ <natlang>I am a typical Lojban user.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that the x2 place has been omitted; I am not specifying in exactly which way I am typical – whether in language knowledge, or age, or interests, or something else. If
<valsi>lo'i</valsi> were changed to
<valsi>lo</valsi> in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-xIXo"/>, the meaning would be something like
<quote>I am typical of some Lojban user</quote>, which is nonsense.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-typicals">
@@ -612,51 +612,51 @@
<valsi>lo'e</valsi> means
<quote>the typical</quote>, as in</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-AJKt">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>lion in Africa</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c6e5d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo'e cinfo cu xabju le fi'ortu'a</jbo>
<gloss>The-typical lion dwells-in the African-land.</gloss>
- <en>The lion dwells in Africa.</en>
+ <natlang>The lion dwells in Africa.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>typical objects</primary><secondary>and instantiation</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>typical objects</primary><secondary>determining characteristics of</secondary></indexterm> What is this
<quote>typical lion</quote>? Surely it is not any particular lion, because no lion has all of the
<quote>typical</quote> characteristics, and (worse yet) some characteristics that all real lions have can't be viewed as typical. For example, all real lions are either male or female, but it would be bizarre to suppose that the typical lion is either one. So the typical lion has no particular sex, but does have a color (golden brown), a residence (Africa), a diet (game), and so on. Likewise we can say that</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-8PoG">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>typical Englishman</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c6e5d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo'e glipre cu xabju le fi'ortu'a na.e le gligugde</jbo>
<gloss>The-typical English-person dwells-in the African-land (Not!) and the English-country.</gloss>
- <en>The typical English person dwells not in Africa but in England.</en>
+ <natlang>The typical English person dwells not in Africa but in England.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le'i</primary><secondary>relationship to le'e</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le'e</primary><secondary>relationship to le'i</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo'i</primary><secondary>relationship to lo'e</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo'e</primary><secondary>relationship to lo'i</secondary></indexterm> The relationship between
<oldjbophrase>lo'e cinfo</oldjbophrase> and
<oldjbophrase>lo'i cinfo</oldjbophrase> may be explained thus: the typical lion is an imaginary lion-abstraction which best exemplifies the set of lions. There is a similar relationship between
<valsi>le'e</valsi> and
<valsi>le'i</valsi>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-D88V">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e5d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le'e xelso merko cu gusta ponse</jbo>
<gloss>The-stereotypical Greek-type-of American is-a-restaurant-type-of owner.</gloss>
- <en>Lots of Greek-Americans own restaurants.</en>
+ <natlang>Lots of Greek-Americans own restaurants.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>stereotypical</primary><secondary>compared with typical</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>typical</primary><secondary>compared with stereotypical</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>stereotypical</primary><secondary>as not derogatory in Lojban</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Greek-Americans own restaurants</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>stereotypical objects</primary></indexterm> Here we are concerned not with the actual set of Greek-Americans, but with the set of those the speaker has in mind, which is typified by one (real or imaginary) who owns a restaurant. The word
<quote>stereotypical</quote> is often derogatory in English, but
<valsi>le'e</valsi> need not be derogatory in Lojban: it simply suggests that the example is typical in the speaker's imagination rather than in some objectively agreed-upon way. Of course, different speakers may disagree about what the features of
<quote>the typical lion</quote> are (some would include having a short intestine, whereas others would know nothing of lions' intestines), so the distinction between
<oldjbophrase>lo'e cinfo</oldjbophrase> and
<oldjbophrase>le'e cinfo</oldjbophrase> may be very fine.</para>
@@ -780,35 +780,35 @@
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>implicit quantifier</primary><secondary>on quotations</secondary><tertiary>discussion of</tertiary></indexterm> Not all sumti have
<valsi>ro</valsi> as the implicit quantifier, however. Consider the quotation in:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3eMo">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e6d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cusku lu do cadzu le bisli li'u</jbo>
<gloss>I express [quote] you walk-on the ice [unquote].</gloss>
- <en>I say,
- <quote>You walk on the ice.</quote></en>
+ <natlang>I say,
+ <quote>You walk on the ice.</quote></natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>What is the implicit quantifier of the quotation
<oldjbophrase>lu do cadzu le bisli li'u</oldjbophrase>? Surely not
<valsi>ro</valsi>. If
<valsi>ro</valsi> were supplied explicitly, thus:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-h4SJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e6d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cusku ro lu do cadzu le bisli li'u</jbo>
- <en>I express all-of [quote] you walk-on the ice [unquote].</en>
+ <natlang>I express all-of [quote] you walk-on the ice [unquote].</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>the meaning would be something like
<quote>I say every occurrence of the sentence 'You walk on the ice'</quote>. Of course I don't say every occurrence of it, only some occurrences. One might suppose that
<xref linkend="example-random-id-3eMo"/> means that I express exactly one occurrence, but it is more Lojbanic to leave the number unspecified, as with other sumti. We can say definitely, however, that I say it at least once.</para>
<para>The Lojban cmavo meaning
<quote>at least</quote> is
<valsi>su'o</valsi>, and if no ordinary number follows,
<valsi>su'o</valsi> means
<quote>at least once</quote>. (See
@@ -818,22 +818,22 @@
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>implicit quantifier</primary><secondary>for quotations</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>quotations</primary><secondary>implicit quantifier for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>su'o</primary><secondary>as implicit quantifier for quotations</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-P558">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e6d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cusku su'o lu do cadzu le bisli li'u</jbo>
<gloss>I express at-least-one-of [quote] you walk-on the ice [unquote].</gloss>
<gloss>I say one or more instances of
<quote>You walk on the ice</quote>.</gloss>
- <en>I say
- <quote>You walk on the ice</quote>.</en>
+ <natlang>I say
+ <quote>You walk on the ice</quote>.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>If an explicit ordinary number such as
<valsi>re</valsi> were to appear, it would have to convey an exact expression, so</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-59dF">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e6d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cusku re lu do cadzu le bisli li'u</jbo>
@@ -855,51 +855,51 @@
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>quantification</primary><secondary>before description sumti compared with before non-description sumti</secondary></indexterm> Like other sumti, descriptions can be quantified. When a quantifier appears before a description, it has the same meaning as one appearing before a non-description sumti: it specifies how many things, of all those referred to by the description, are being talked about in this particular bridi. Suppose that context tells us that
<oldjbophrase>le gerku</oldjbophrase> refers to three dogs. Then we can say that exactly two of them are white as follows:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-WtUh">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>two dogs are white</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c6e7d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>re le gerku cu blabi</jbo>
<gloss>Two-of the dogs are-white.</gloss>
- <en>Two of the dogs are white.</en>
+ <natlang>Two of the dogs are white.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>inner quantifier</primary><secondary>effect of on meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>outer quantifier</primary><secondary>effect of on meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>inner quantifier</primary><secondary>contrasted with outer quantifier</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>outer quantifier</primary><secondary>contrasted with inner quantifier</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>inner quantifier</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>outer quantifier</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> When discussing descriptions, this ordinary quantifier is called an
<quote>outer quantifier</quote>, since it appears outside the description. But there is another possible location for a quantifier: between the descriptor and the selbri. This quantifier is called an
<quote>inner quantifier</quote>, and its meaning is quite different: it tells the listener how many objects the description selbri characterizes.</para>
<para>For example, the context of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-WtUh"/> supposedly told us that
<oldjbophrase>le gerku</oldjbophrase> referred to some three specific dogs. This assumption can be made certain with the use of an explicit inner quantifier:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-X3iY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e7d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>re le ci gerku cu blabi</jbo>
<gloss>Two-of the three dogs are-white.</gloss>
- <en>Two of the three dogs are white.</en>
+ <natlang>Two of the three dogs are white.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(As explained in the discussion of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-gLpy"/>, simple numbers like those in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-X3iY"/> must be exact: it therefore follows that the third dog cannot be white.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>inner quantifier</primary><secondary>explicit</secondary></indexterm> You may also specify an explicit inner quantifier and leave the outer quantifier implicit:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-JxzV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e7d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ci gerku cu blabi</jbo>
<gloss>The three dogs are-white.</gloss>
- <en>The three dogs are white.</en>
+ <natlang>The three dogs are white.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>outer quantifier</primary><secondary>implicit on descriptors</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>inner quantifier</primary><secondary>implicit on descriptors</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>descriptors</primary><secondary>implicit quantifiers for</secondary></indexterm> There are rules for each of the 11 descriptors specifying what the implicit values for the inner and outer quantifiers are. They are meant to provide sensible default values when context is absent, not necessarily to prescribe hard and fast rules. The following table lists the implicit values:</para>
<informaltable>
<tgroup cols="3">
<colspec colnum="1" colname="col1"/>
<colspec colnum="2" colname="col2"/>
<colspec colnum="3" colname="col3"/>
<tbody>
@@ -1015,33 +1015,33 @@
<valsi>su'o</valsi> is the appropriate implicit quantifier, just as for quotations.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo</primary><secondary>contrasted with le in implicit quantification</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le</primary><secondary>contrasted with lo in implicit quantification</secondary></indexterm> From the English-speaking point of view, the difference in structure between the following example using
<valsi>le</valsi>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-f643">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e7d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>[ro] le ci gerku cu blabi</jbo>
<gloss>[All-of] those-described-as three dogs are-white.</gloss>
- <en>The three dogs are white.</en>
+ <natlang>The three dogs are white.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and the corresponding form with
<valsi>lo</valsi>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gr7Y">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e7d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ci lo [ro] gerku cu blabi</jbo>
<gloss>Three-of those-which-are [all] dogs are-white.</gloss>
- <en>Three dogs are white.</en>
+ <natlang>Three dogs are white.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>looks very peculiar. Why is the number
<valsi>ci</valsi> found as an inner quantifier in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-f643"/> and as an outer quantifier in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-gr7Y"/>? The number of dogs is the same in either case. The answer is that the
<valsi>ci</valsi> in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-f643"/> is part of the specification: it tells us the actual number of dogs in the group that the speaker has in mind. In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-gr7Y"/>, however, the dogs referred to by
<oldjbophrase>... lo gerku</oldjbophrase> are all the dogs that exist: the outer quantifier then restricts the number to three; which three, we cannot tell. The implicit quantifiers are chosen to avoid claiming too much or too little: in the case of
@@ -1074,21 +1074,21 @@
<title>Indefinite descriptions</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>descriptors</primary><secondary>omission of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo</primary><secondary>omission of</secondary></indexterm> By a quirk of Lojban syntax, it is possible to omit the descriptor
<valsi>lo</valsi>, but never any other descriptor, from a description like that of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-gr7Y"/>; namely, one which has an explicit outer quantifier but no explicit inner quantifier. The following example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-EsVd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e8d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ci gerku [ku] cu blabi</jbo>
- <en>Three dogs are white.</en>
+ <natlang>Three dogs are white.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>indefinite description</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>omission of descriptor</primary><secondary>effect on ku</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ku</primary><secondary>effect on of omitting descriptor</secondary></indexterm> is equivalent in meaning to
<xref linkend="example-random-id-gr7Y"/>. Even though the descriptor is not present, the elidable terminator
<valsi>ku</valsi> may still be used. The name
<quote>indefinite description</quote> for this syntactic form is historically based: of course, it is no more and no less indefinite than its counterpart with an explicit
<valsi>lo</valsi>. Indefinite descriptions were introduced into the language in order to imitate the syntax of English and other natural languages.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>inner quantifier</primary><secondary>in indefinite description</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>outer quantifier</primary><secondary>in indefinite description</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>indefinite description</primary><secondary>as prohibiting explicit inner quantifier</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>indefinite description</primary><secondary>as needing explicit outer quantifier</secondary></indexterm> Indefinite descriptions must fit this mold exactly: there is no way to make one which does not have an explicit outer quantifier (thus
@@ -1102,21 +1102,21 @@
<oldjbophrase>su'o ci cutci</oldjbophrase>; another version of that example using an explicit
<valsi>lo</valsi> would be:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-SMvA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e8d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ponse su'o ci lo cutci</jbo>
<gloss>I possess at-least three things-which-really-are shoes</gloss>
- <en>I own three (or more) shoes.</en>
+ <natlang>I own three (or more) shoes.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-sumti-based-descriptions">
<title>sumti-based descriptions</title>
<para>As stated in
<xref linkend="section-basic-descriptors"/>, most descriptions consist of just a descriptor and a selbri. (In this chapter, the selbri have always been single gismu, but of course any selbri, however complex, can be employed in a description. The syntax and semantics of selbri are explained in
<xref linkend="chapter-selbri"/>.) In the intervening sections, inner and outer quantifiers have been added to the syntax. Now it is time to discuss a description of a radically different kind: the sumti-based description.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti-based description</primary><secondary>outer quantifier on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti-based description</primary><secondary>inner quantifier on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti-based description</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> A sumti-based description has a sumti where the selbri would normally be, and the inner quantifier is required – it cannot be implicit. An outer quantifier is permitted but not required.</para>
@@ -1324,21 +1324,21 @@
<valsi>lu'e</valsi> provides the converse operation: it can be prefixed to a sumti referring to some thing to produce a sumti referring to a sign or symbol for the thing. For example,</para>
<para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lu'e</primary><secondary>as short for <oldjbophrase>le sinxa be</oldjbophrase></secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7ytm">
<title><!-- FIXME: this indexterm matches two examples -->
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>title of book</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c6e10d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu cusku lu'e le vi cukta</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] express a-symbol-for the nearby book.</gloss>
- <en>I said the title of this book.</en>
+ <natlang>I said the title of this book.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The equivalent form not using a sumti qualifier would be:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-aC9Q">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e10d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu cusku le sinxa be le vi cukta</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] express the symbol-for the nearby book.</gloss>
@@ -1357,62 +1357,62 @@
<valsi>vu'i</valsi> belongs to this group as well, but creates a sequence, which is similar to a set but has a definite order. (The set of John and Charles is the same as the set of Charles and John, but the sequences are different.) Here are some examples:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ioCu">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e10d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi troci tu'a le vorme</jbo>
<gloss>I try some-abstraction-about the door.</gloss>
- <en>I try (to open) the door.</en>
+ <natlang>I try (to open) the door.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tu'a</primary><secondary>as being deliberately vague</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-ioCu"/> might mean that I try to do something else involving the door; the form is deliberately vague.</para>
<para>Most of the following examples make use of the cmavo
<valsi>ri</valsi>, belonging to selma'o KOhA. This cmavo means
<quote>the thing last mentioned</quote>; it is equivalent to repeating the immediately previous sumti (but in its original context). It is explained in more detail in
<xref linkend="section-ri-gohi-series"/>.</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qLbv" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title> <!-- FIXME: this indexterm matches three examples -->
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>set of rats</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c6e10d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo'i ratcu cu barda .iku'i lu'a ri cmalu</jbo>
<gloss>The-set-of rats is-large. But some-members-of it-last-mentioned is-small.</gloss>
- <en>The set of rats is large, but some of its members are small.</en>
+ <natlang>The set of rats is large, but some of its members are small.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qLCP" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e10d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo ratcu cu cmalu .iku'i lu'i ri barda</jbo>
<gloss>Some rats are-small. But the-set-of them-last-mentioned is-large.</gloss>
- <en>Some rats are small, but the set of rats is large.</en>
+ <natlang>Some rats are small, but the set of rats is large.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qLcy" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e10d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ce do girzu .i lu'o ri gunma .i vu'i ri porsi</jbo>
<gloss>I in-a-set-with you are-a-set. The-mass-of it-last-mentioned is-a-mass. The-sequence-of it-last-mentioned is-a-sequence</gloss>
- <en>The set of you and me is a set. The mass of you and me is a mass. The sequence of you and me is a sequence.</en>
+ <natlang>The set of you and me is a set. The mass of you and me is a mass. The sequence of you and me is a sequence.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(Yes, I know these examples are a bit silly. This set was introduced for completeness, and practical examples are as yet hard to come by.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>negation sumti qualifiers</primary><secondary>meanings of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti qualifiers</primary><secondary>for negation</secondary></indexterm> Finally, the four sumti qualifiers formed from a cmavo of NAhE and
<valsi>bo</valsi> are all concerned with negation, which is discussed in detail in
<xref linkend="chapter-negation"/>. Here are a few examples of negation sumti qualifiers:</para>
<para> <!-- FIXME: this indexterm isn't <oldjbophrase>d alone --><indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>na'ebo</primary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4Mte">
<title>
@@ -1429,21 +1429,21 @@
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-JwCb">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>lukewarm food</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c6e10d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci loi glare cidja .ije do nelci to'ebo ri .ije la djein. nelci no'ebo ra</jbo>
<gloss>I like part-of-the-mass-of hot-type-of food. And you like the-opposite-of the-last-mentioned. And Jane likes the-neutral-value-of something-mentioned.</gloss>
- <en>I like hot food, and you like cold food, and Jane likes lukewarm food.</en>
+ <natlang>I like hot food, and you like cold food, and Jane likes lukewarm food.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-JwCb"/>, the sumti
<valsi>ra</valsi> refers to some previously mentioned sumti other than that referred to by
<valsi>ri</valsi>. We cannot use
<valsi>ri</valsi> here, because it would signify
<oldjbophrase>la djein.</oldjbophrase>, that being the most recent sumti available to
<valsi>ri</valsi>. See more detailed explanations in
@@ -1459,93 +1459,93 @@
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>DOI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>COI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vocative phrase</primary><secondary>purpose of</secondary></indexterm> The purpose of a vocative phrase is to indicate who is being addressed, or to indicate to that person that he or she ought to be listening. A vocative phrase begins with a cmavo of selma'o COI or DOI, all of which are explained in more detail in
<xref linkend="section-vocative-scales"/>. Sometimes that is all there is to the phrase:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qLE3" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e11d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>coi</jbo>
<gloss>[greetings]</gloss>
- <en>Hello.</en>
+ <natlang>Hello.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qLeB" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e11d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>je'e</jbo>
<gloss>[acknowledgement]</gloss>
- <en>Uh-huh.</en>
- <en>Roger!</en>
+ <natlang>Uh-huh.</natlang>
+ <natlang>Roger!</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vocative word</primary><secondary>phrase following</secondary></indexterm> In these cases, the person being addressed is obvious from the context. However, a vocative word (more precisely, one or more cmavo of COI, possibly followed by
<valsi>doi</valsi>, or else just
<valsi>doi</valsi> by itself) can be followed by one of several kinds of phrases, all of which are intended to indicate the addressee. The most common case is a name:</para>
<para> <!-- FIXME: this indexterm isn't <oldjbophrase>d alone --><indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>coi</primary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Bega">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e11d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>coi. djan.</jbo>
- <en>Hello, John.</en>
+ <natlang>Hello, John.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>A pause is required (for morphological reasons) between a member of COI and a name. You can use
<valsi>doi</valsi> instead of a pause:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-QmzB">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e11d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>coi doi djan.</jbo>
- <en>Hello, John.</en>
+ <natlang>Hello, John.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <!-- FIXME: this indexterm isn't <oldjbophrase>d alone --><indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>doi</primary></indexterm> means exactly the same thing and does not require a pause. Using
<valsi>doi</valsi> by itself is like just saying someone's name to attract his or her attention:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ULHn">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e11d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>doi djan.</jbo>
- <en>John!</en>
+ <natlang>John!</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vocative phrase</primary><secondary>implicit descriptor on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vocative phrase</primary><secondary>with sumti without descriptor</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vocative phrase</primary><secondary>forms of</secondary></indexterm> In place of a name, a description may appear, lacking its descriptor, which is understood to be
<valsi>le</valsi>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-V530">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e11d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>coi xunre pastu nixli</jbo>
<gloss>Hello, (red-type-of dress)-type-of girl.</gloss>
- <en>Hello, girl with the red dress!</en>
+ <natlang>Hello, girl with the red dress!</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vocative phrase</primary><secondary>explicit quantifiers prohibited on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vocative phrase</primary><secondary>implicit quantifiers on</secondary></indexterm> The listener need not really be a
<oldjbophrase>xunre pastu nixli</oldjbophrase>, as long as she understands herself correctly from the description. (Actually, only a bare selbri can appear; explicit quantifiers are forbidden in this form of vocative, so the implicit quantifiers
<oldjbophrase>su'o le ro</oldjbophrase> are in effect.)</para>
<para>Finally, a complete sumti may be used, the most general case.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-tBTa">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e11d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>co'o la bab. .e la noras.</jbo>
- <en>Goodbye, Bob and Nora.</en>
+ <natlang>Goodbye, Bob and Nora.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vocative phrase</primary><secondary>with complete sumti</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-V530"/> is thus the same as:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3Qac">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e11d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>coi le xunre pastu nixli</jbo>
@@ -1573,77 +1573,77 @@
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vocative phrase</primary><secondary>effect of position on meaning</secondary></indexterm> The meaning of a vocative phrase that is within a sentence is not affected by its position in the sentence: thus
<xref linkend="example-random-id-bx2C"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qLFi"/> mean the same thing:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qLFi" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e11d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>doi djan. ko klama mi</jbo>
- <en>John, come to me!</en>
+ <natlang>John, come to me!</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qLGC" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e11d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ko klama mi doi djan.</jbo>
- <en>Come to me, John!</en>
+ <natlang>Come to me, John!</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>As usual for this chapter, the full syntax of vocative phrases has not been explained: relative clauses, discussed in
<xref linkend="chapter-relative-clauses"/>, make for more possibilities.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-names">
<title>Lojban names</title>
<para>Names have been used freely as sumti throughout this chapter without too much explanation. The time for the explanation has now come.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>name words</primary><secondary>recognition of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>two kinds of</secondary></indexterm> First of all, there are two different kinds of things usually called
<oldjbophrase>names</oldjbophrase> when talking about Lojban. The naming predicates of
<xref linkend="section-basic-descriptors"/> are just ordinary predicates which are being used in a special sense. In addition, though, there is a class of Lojban words which are used only to name things: these can be recognized by the fact that they end in a consonant followed by a pause. Some examples:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-u0zY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e12d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>djan. meris. djein. .alis.</jbo>
- <en>John. Mary. Jane. Alice.</en>
+ <natlang>John. Mary. Jane. Alice.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(Note that
<oldjbophrase>.alis.</oldjbophrase> begins as well as ends with a pause, because all Lojban words beginning with a vowel must be preceded by a pause. See
<xref linkend="chapter-morphology"/> for more information.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>with LA descriptor</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>in vocative phrase</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>uses of</secondary></indexterm> Names of this kind have two basic uses in Lojban: when used in a vocative phrase (see
<xref linkend="section-vocative-syntax"/>) they indicate who the listener is or should be. When used with a descriptor of selma'o LA, namely
<valsi>la</valsi>,
<valsi>lai</valsi>, or
<valsi>la'i</valsi>, they form sumti which refer to the persons or things known by the name.</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qLgw" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e12d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djonz. klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>Jones goes to-the store.</gloss>
- <en>The Joneses go to-the store.</en>
+ <natlang>The Joneses go to-the store.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qLHn" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e12d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lai djonz. klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>The-mass-of Joneses go to-the store.</gloss>
- <en>The Joneses go to the store.</en>
+ <natlang>The Joneses go to the store.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qLgw"/>, the significance is that all the persons (perhaps only one) I mean to refer to by the name
<oldjbophrase>djonz.</oldjbophrase> are going to the store. In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qLHn"/>, the Joneses are massified, and only some part of them needs to be going. Of course, by
<oldjbophrase>djonz.</oldjbophrase> I can mean whomever I want: that person need not use the name
<oldjbophrase>djonz.</oldjbophrase> at all.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>LA selma'o</primary><secondary>contrasted with LE in use of name-words</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>LE selma'o</primary><secondary>contrasted with LA in use of name-words</secondary></indexterm> The sumti in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qLgw"/> and
@@ -1661,48 +1661,48 @@
<valsi>la</valsi>,
<valsi>lai</valsi>,
<valsi>la'i</valsi>, or
<valsi>doi</valsi> must be preceded by a pause instead:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qLiB" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e12d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>coi .djan.</jbo>
- <en>Hello, John.</en>
+ <natlang>Hello, John.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qLIJ" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e12d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>zo .djan. cmene mi</jbo>
<gloss>The-word <quote>John</quote> is-the-name-of me.</gloss>
- <en>My name is John.</en>
+ <natlang>My name is John.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qLiB"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qLIJ"/>,
<oldjbophrase>.djan.</oldjbophrase> appears with a pause before it as well as after it, because the preceding word is not one of the four special cases. These rules force names to always be separable from the general word-stream.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>multiple</secondary></indexterm> Unless some other rule prevents it (such as the rule that
<valsi>zo</valsi> is always followed by a single word, which is quoted), multiple names may appear wherever one name is permitted, each with its terminating pause:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-cw3p">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Newport News</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>John Paul Jones</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c6e12d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>doi djan. pol. djonz. le bloti cu klama fi la niuport. niuz.</jbo>
- <en>John Paul Jones, the boat comes (to somewhere) from Newport News.</en>
+ <natlang>John Paul Jones, the boat comes (to somewhere) from Newport News.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>name-words</primary><secondary>permissible consonant combinations</secondary></indexterm> A name may not contain any consonant combination that is illegal in Lojban words generally: the
<quote>impermissible consonant clusters</quote> of Lojban morphology (explained in
<xref linkend="section-clusters"/>). Thus
<oldjbophrase valid="false">djeimz.</oldjbophrase> is not a valid version of
@@ -1746,21 +1746,21 @@
<rafsi>loj-</rafsi> for
<valsi>logji</valsi> (logical) and
<rafsi>ban-</rafsi> for
<valsi>bangu</valsi> (language) unite to form the name of this language:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-uXAY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e12d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lojban.</jbo>
- <en>Lojban</en>
+ <natlang>Lojban</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names from vowel-final base</primary><secondary>commonly used consonant endings</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>borrowing from other languages</secondary></indexterm> When borrowing names from another language which end in a vowel, or when turning a Lojban brivla (all of which end in vowels) into a name, the vowel may be removed or an arbitrary consonant added. It is common (but not required) to use the consonants
<rafsi>s</rafsi> or
<rafsi>n</rafsi> when borrowing vowel-final names from English; speakers of other languages may wish to use other consonant endings.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names with la</primary><secondary>implicit quantifier for</secondary></indexterm> The implicit quantifier for name sumti of the form
<valsi>la</valsi> followed by a name is
<valsi>su'o</valsi>, just as for
@@ -1784,21 +1784,21 @@
<valsi>do'o</valsi>,
<valsi>ko</valsi>) refer to the speaker or the listener or both, with or without third parties:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PHPi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e13d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi prami do</jbo>
- <en>I love you.</en>
+ <natlang>I love you.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>personal pro-sumti</primary><secondary>implicit quantifier for</secondary></indexterm> The personal pro-sumti may be interpreted in context as either representing individuals or masses, so the implicit quantifier may be
<oldjbophrase>pisu'o</oldjbophrase> rather than
<valsi>ro</valsi>: in particular,
<valsi>mi'o</valsi>,
<valsi>mi'a</valsi>,
@@ -1819,35 +1819,35 @@
<valsi>fo'o</valsi>,
<valsi>fo'u</valsi>) refer to whatever the speaker has explicitly made them refer to. This reference is accomplished with
<valsi>goi</valsi> (of selma'o GOI), which means
<quote>defined-as</quote>.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-8whK">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e13d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le cribe goi ko'a cu xekri .i ko'a citka le smacu</jbo>
- <en>The bear defined-as it-1 is-black. It-1 eats the mouse.</en>
+ <natlang>The bear defined-as it-1 is-black. It-1 eats the mouse.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>quantificational pro-sumti</primary></indexterm> Quantificational pro-sumti (
<valsi>da</valsi>,
<valsi>de</valsi>,
<valsi>di</valsi>) are used as variables in bridi involving predicate logic:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-FVj8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e13d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ro da poi prenu cu prami pa de poi finpe</jbo>
<gloss>All somethings-1 which-are persons love one something-2 which-is a-fish.</gloss>
- <en>All persons love a fish (each his/her own).</en>
+ <natlang>All persons love a fish (each his/her own).</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>quantificational pro-sumti</primary><secondary>implicit quantification rules</secondary></indexterm> (This is not the same as
<quote>All persons love a certain fish</quote>; the difference between the two is one of quantifier order.) The implicit quantification rules for quantificational pro-sumti are particular to them, and are discussed in detail in
<xref linkend="chapter-quantifiers"/>. Roughly speaking, the quantifier is
<valsi>su'o</valsi> (at least one) when the pro-sumti is first used, and
<valsi>ro</valsi> (all) thereafter.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>reflexive pro-sumti</primary></indexterm> Reflexive pro-sumti (
<valsi>vo'a</valsi>,
@@ -1855,35 +1855,35 @@
<valsi>vo'i</valsi>,
<valsi>vo'o</valsi>,
<valsi>vo'u</valsi>) refer to the same referents as sumti filling other places in the same bridi, with the effect that the same thing is referred to twice:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nMse">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e13d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le cribe cu batci vo'a</jbo>
<gloss>The bear bites what-is-in-the-x1-place.</gloss>
- <en>The bear bites itself.</en>
+ <natlang>The bear bites itself.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>back-counting pro-sumti</primary></indexterm> Back-counting pro-sumti (
<valsi>ri</valsi>,
<valsi>ra</valsi>,
<valsi>ru</valsi>) refer to the referents of previous sumti counted backwards from the pro-sumti:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-cjTj">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e13d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama la frankfurt. ri</jbo>
<gloss>I go to-Frankfurt from-the-referent-of-the-last-sumti</gloss>
- <en>I go from Frankfurt to Frankfurt (by some unstated route).</en>
+ <natlang>I go from Frankfurt to Frankfurt (by some unstated route).</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>indefinite pro-sumti</primary></indexterm> Indefinite pro-sumti (
<valsi>zo'e</valsi>,
<valsi>zu'i</valsi>,
<valsi>zi'o</valsi>) refer to something which is unspecified:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-d5Ee">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e13d6"/>
@@ -1903,21 +1903,21 @@
<valsi>ti</valsi>,
<valsi>ta</valsi>,
<valsi>tu</valsi>) refer to things pointed at by the speaker, or when pointing is not possible, to things near or far from the speaker:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-aqfJ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e13d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ko muvgau ti ta tu</jbo>
<gloss>You [imperative] move this-thing from-that-nearby-place to-that-further-away-place.</gloss>
- <en>Move this from there to over there!</en>
+ <natlang>Move this from there to over there!</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>metalinguistic pro-sumti</primary></indexterm> Metalinguistic pro-sumti (
<valsi>di'u</valsi>,
<valsi>de'u</valsi>,
<valsi>da'u</valsi>,
<valsi>di'e</valsi>,
@@ -1944,34 +1944,34 @@
<valsi>ke'a</valsi>) is used within relative clauses (see
<xref linkend="chapter-relative-clauses"/> for a discussion of relative clauses) to refer to whatever sumti the relative clause is attached to.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sf2T">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e13d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska le mlatu ku poi zo'e zbasu ke'a loi slasi</jbo>
<gloss>I see the cat(s) such-that something-unspecified makes it/them (the cats) from-a-mass-of plastic.</gloss>
- <en>I see the cat(s) made of plastic.</en>
+ <natlang>I see the cat(s) made of plastic.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>question pro-sumti</primary></indexterm> The question pro-sumti (
<valsi>ma</valsi>) is used to ask questions which request the listener to supply a sumti which will make the question into a truth:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9tSb">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e13d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do klama ma</jbo>
<gloss>You go to-what-sumti?</gloss>
- <en>Where are you going?</en>
+ <natlang>Where are you going?</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>question pro-sumti</primary><secondary>implicit quantifier for</secondary></indexterm> The implicit quantifier for the question pro-sumti is
<valsi>su'o</valsi> (at least one), because the listener is only being asked to supply a single answer, not all correct answers.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>definable pro-sumti</primary><secondary>sequences of lerfu words as</secondary></indexterm> In addition, sequences of lerfu words (of selma'o BY and related selma'o) can also be used as definable pro-sumti.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-quotation">
<title>Quotation summary</title>
@@ -1979,58 +1979,58 @@
<para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>text quotation</primary><secondary>as internally grammatical</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>text quotation</primary><secondary>syntax of</secondary></indexterm> Text quotations are preceded by
<valsi>lu</valsi> and followed by
<valsi>li'u</valsi>, and are an essential part of the surrounding text: they must be grammatical Lojban texts.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-v1DE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e14d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cusku lu mi'e djan. li'u</jbo>
<gloss>I say the-text [quote] I-am John [unquote].</gloss>
- <en>I say <quote>I'm John</quote>.</en>
+ <natlang>I say <quote>I'm John</quote>.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>word quotation</primary><secondary>internal grammar of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>word quotation</primary><secondary>as morphologically valid</secondary></indexterm> Words quotations are quotations of one or more Lojban words. The words need not mean anything, but they must be morphologically valid so that the end of the quotation can be discerned.</para>
<para> <!-- FIXME: these indexterms aren't <oldjbophrase>d alone --><indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>le'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>lo'u</primary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-UMDQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e14d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cusku lo'u li mi le'u</jbo>
<gloss>I say the-words [quote] <jbophrase>li mi</jbophrase> [unquote].</gloss>
- <en>I say <quote><jbophrase>li mi</jbophrase></quote>.</en>
+ <natlang>I say <quote><jbophrase>li mi</jbophrase></quote>.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that the translation of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-UMDQ"/> does not translate the Lojban words, because they are not presumed to have any meaning (in fact, they are ungrammatical).</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>single-word quotation</primary></indexterm> Single-word quotation quotes a single Lojban word. Compound cmavo are not allowed.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-XqKv">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e14d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cusku zo .ai</jbo>
- <en>I say the-word
- <valsi>ai</valsi>.</en>
+ <natlang>I say the-word
+ <valsi>ai</valsi>.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-Lojban quotation</primary></indexterm> Non-Lojban quotation can quote anything, Lojban or not, even non-speech such as drum talk, whistle words, music, or belching. A Lojban word which does not appear within the quotation is used before and after it to set it off from the surrounding Lojban text.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1Uey">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e14d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cusku zoi kuot. I'm John .kuot</jbo>
- <en>I say
- <quote>I'm John</quote>.</en>
+ <natlang>I say
+ <quote>I'm John</quote>.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>quotation</primary><secondary>implicit quantifier for</secondary></indexterm> The implicit quantifier for all types of quotation is
<valsi>su'o</valsi> (at least one), because quotations are analogous to
<valsi>lo</valsi> descriptions: they refer to things which actually are words or sequences of words.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-number-summary">
<title>Number summary</title>
<para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>number sumti</primary><secondary>with li</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>number sumti</primary><secondary>syntax of</secondary></indexterm> The sumti which refer to numbers consist of the cmavo
<valsi>li</valsi> (of selma'o LI) followed by an arbitrary Lojban mekso, or mathematical expression. This can be anything from a simple number up to the most complicated combination of numbers, variables, operators, and so on. Much more information on numbers is given in
@@ -2071,32 +2071,32 @@
<valsi>me'o</valsi> refer to the actual expression, rather than its value. Thus
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qLIm"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qLis"/> above have the same meaning, the number four, whereas</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sW7u">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e15d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>me'o vo</jbo>
<gloss>the-expression four</gloss>
- <en><quote><inlinemath>4</inlinemath></quote></en>
+ <natlang><quote><inlinemath>4</inlinemath></quote></natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3s82">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e15d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>me'o re su'i re</jbo>
<gloss>the-expression two plus two</gloss>
- <en><quote><inlinemath>2+2</inlinemath></quote></en>
+ <natlang><quote><inlinemath>2+2</inlinemath></quote></natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>refer to different pieces of text.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mathematical expressions</primary><secondary>implicit quantifier for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>numbers</primary><secondary>implicit quantifier for</secondary></indexterm> The implicit quantifier for numbers and mathematical expressions is
<valsi>su'o</valsi>, because these sumti are analogous to
<valsi>lo</valsi> descriptions: they refer to things which actually are numbers or pieces of text. In the case of numbers (with
<valsi>li</valsi>), this is a distinction without a difference, as there is only one number which is 4; but there are many texts
<quote>4</quote>, as many as there are documents in which that numeral appears.</para>
</section>
diff --git a/todocbook/7.xml b/todocbook/7.xml
index e661b2f..e5909ae 100644
--- a/todocbook/7.xml
+++ b/todocbook/7.xml
@@ -113,22 +113,22 @@
<valsi>mi'e</valsi> assigns
<valsi>mi</valsi>, whereas all of the other vocatives assign
<valsi>do</valsi>.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4dna">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e2d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi'e djan. doi frank. mi cusku lu mi bajra li'u do</jbo>
<gloss>I-am John, O Frank, I express [quote] I run [unquote] to-you</gloss>
- <en>I am John, Frank; I tell you
- <quote>I run</quote>.</en>
+ <natlang>I am John, Frank; I tell you
+ <quote>I run</quote>.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>do'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ma'a</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>mi'a</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>mi'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>for listeners and/or speakers and/or others</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo
<valsi>mi'o</valsi>,
<valsi>mi'a</valsi>,
<valsi>ma'a</valsi>, and
<valsi>do'o</valsi> express various combinations of the speaker and/or the listener and/or other people:</para>
@@ -188,53 +188,53 @@
</example>
<para>becomes:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-uwDI">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e2d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ko klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>You [imperative] go to-the store.</gloss>
<gloss>Make <quote>you go to the store</quote> true!</gloss>
- <en>Go to the store!</en>
+ <natlang>Go to the store!</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ko</primary><secondary>in later selbri place in imperative</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>imperatives</primary><secondary>English contrasted with Lojban in presence of subject of command</secondary></indexterm> In English, the subject of a command is omitted, but in Lojban, the word
<valsi>ko</valsi> must be used. However,
<valsi>ko</valsi> does not have to appear in the x1 place:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-5Jbi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e2d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska ko</jbo>
<gloss>I see you [imperative]</gloss>
<gloss>Make
<quote>I see you</quote> true!</gloss>
- <en>Be seen by me!</en>
+ <natlang>Be seen by me!</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ko</primary><secondary>in sub-clause of main bridi</secondary></indexterm> In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-5Jbi"/>, it is necessary to make the verb passive in English in order to convey the effect of
<valsi>ko</valsi> in the x2 place. Indeed,
<valsi>ko</valsi> does not even have to be a sumti of the main bridi:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-VTRG">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e2d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska le prenu poi prami ko</jbo>
<gloss>I see the person that loves you [imperative]</gloss>
<gloss>Make
<quote>I see the person that loves you</quote> true!</gloss>
<gloss>Be such that the person who loves you is seen by me!</gloss>
- <en>Show me the person who loves you!</en>
+ <natlang>Show me the person who loves you!</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mi-series pro-sumti</primary><secondary>lack of pro-bridi equivalent</secondary></indexterm> As mentioned in
<xref linkend="section-anaphoric-cmavo-introduction"/>, some pro-sumti series have corresponding pro-bridi series. However, there is no equivalent of the mi-series among pro-bridi, since a person isn't a relationship.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-ti-series">
<title>Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
@@ -305,21 +305,21 @@
<quote>the boat associated with this thing</quote>, as explained in
<xref linkend="section-possessive-sumti"/>. A correct Lojban translation of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-IWi7"/> is</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rfUc">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e3d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le vi bloti</jbo>
<gloss>the here boat</gloss>
- <en>the nearby boat</en>
+ <natlang>the nearby boat</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>using a spatial tense before the selbri
<valsi>bloti</valsi> to express that the boat is near the speaker. (Tenses are explained in full in
<xref linkend="chapter-tenses"/>.) Another correct translation would be:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pRLq">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e3d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -435,88 +435,88 @@
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-erEL">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Simon says</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c7e4d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la saimn. cusku di'e</jbo>
<gloss>Simon expresses the-following-utterance.</gloss>
- <en>Simon says:</en>
+ <natlang>Simon says:</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-erEL"/> would typically be followed by a quotation. Note that although presumably the quotation is of something Simon has said in the past, the quotation utterance itself would appear after
<xref linkend="example-random-id-erEL"/>, and so
<valsi>di'e</valsi> is appropriate.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>do'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>dei</primary></indexterm> The remaining two cmavo,
<valsi>dei</valsi> and
<valsi>do'i</valsi>, refer respectively to the very utterance that the speaker is uttering, and to some vague or unspecified utterance uttered by someone at some time:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qLmA" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e4d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>dei jetnu jufra</jbo>
<gloss>This-utterance is-a-true-sentence.</gloss>
- <en>What I am saying (at this moment) is true.</en>
+ <natlang>What I am saying (at this moment) is true.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qLmV" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e4d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do'i jetnu jufra</jbo>
<gloss>Some-utterance is-a-true-sentence.</gloss>
- <en>That's true (where
- <quote>that</quote> is not necessarily what was just said).</en>
+ <natlang>That's true (where
+ <quote>that</quote> is not necessarily what was just said).</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The cmavo of the di'u-series have a meaning that is relative to the context. The referent of
<valsi>dei</valsi> in the current utterance is the same as the referent of
<valsi>di'u</valsi> in the next utterance. The term
<quote>utterance</quote> is used rather than
<quote>sentence</quote> because the amount of speech or written text referred to by any of these words is vague. Often, a single bridi is intended, but longer utterances may be thus referred to.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>la'edi'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>LAhE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>la'e</primary></indexterm> Note one very common construction with
<valsi>di'u</valsi> and the cmavo
<valsi>la'e</valsi> (of selma'o LAhE; see
<xref linkend="section-sumti-qualifiers"/>) which precedes a sumti and means
<quote>the thing referred to by (the sumti)</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-MsUd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e4d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi prami la djein. .i mi nelci la'e di'u</jbo>
<gloss>I love Jane. And I like the-referent-of the-last-utterance.</gloss>
- <en>I love Jane, and I like that.</en>
+ <natlang>I love Jane, and I like that.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>la'edi'u</primary><secondary>contrasted with di'u</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>di'u</primary><secondary>contrasted with la'edi'u</secondary></indexterm> The effect of
<oldjbophrase>la'e di'u</oldjbophrase> in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-MsUd"/> is that the speaker likes, not the previous sentence, but rather the state of affairs referred to by the previous sentence, namely his loving Jane. This cmavo compound is often written as a single word:
<oldjbophrase>la'edi'u</oldjbophrase>. It is important not to mix up
<valsi>di'u</valsi> and
<oldjbophrase>la'edi'u</oldjbophrase>, or the wrong meaning will generally result:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-68ru">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e4d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi prami la djein. .i mi nelci di'u</jbo>
- <en>I love Jane. And I like the-last-utterance.</en>
+ <natlang>I love Jane. And I like the-last-utterance.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>says that the speaker likes one of his own sentences.</para>
<para>There are no pro-bridi corresponding to the di'u-series.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-koha-broda-series">
<title>Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series</title>
<para>The following cmavo and gismu are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
@@ -638,21 +638,21 @@
<quote>he</quote> can refer only to males,
<quote>she</quote> only to females (and ships and a few other things),
<quote>it</quote> only to inanimate things, and
<quote>they</quote> only to plurals; the cmavo of the ko'a-series have no restrictions at all. Therefore, it is almost impossible to guess from the context what ko'a-series cmavo might refer to if they are just used freely:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-qdCR">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e5d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .alis. klama le zarci .i ko'a blanu</jbo>
- <en>Alice goes-to the store. It-1 is-blue.</en>
+ <natlang>Alice goes-to the store. It-1 is-blue.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The English gloss
<quote>it-1</quote>, plus knowledge about the real world, would tend to make English-speakers believe that
<valsi>ko'a</valsi> refers to the store; in other words, that its antecedent is
<oldjbophrase>le zarci</oldjbophrase>. To a Lojbanist, however,
<oldjbophrase>la .alis.</oldjbophrase> is just as likely an antecedent, in which case
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qdCR"/> means that Alice, not the store, is blue.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>goi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ko'a-series pro-sumti</primary><secondary>assigning with goi</secondary></indexterm> To avoid this pitfall, Lojban employs special syntax, using the cmavo
@@ -706,21 +706,21 @@
<xref linkend="example-random-id-1FJV"/>. This last form is reminiscent of legal jargon: <quote>The party of the first part, hereafter known as Buyer, ...</quote>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-bridi</primary><secondary>as abbreviation for bridi</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>broda-series for pro-bridi</primary><secondary>compared with ko'a-series for pro-sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ko'a-series for pro-sumti</primary><secondary>compared with broda-series for pro-bridi</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-bridi</primary><secondary>broda-series</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>broda-series pro-bridi</primary></indexterm> Just as the ko'a-series of pro-sumti allows a substitute for a sumti which is long or complex, or which for some other reason we do not want to repeat, so the broda-series of pro-bridi allows a substitute for a selbri or even a whole bridi:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-yXYT">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>thingy</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c7e5d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti slasi je mlatu bo cidja lante gacri cei broda .i le crino broda cu barda .i le xunre broda cu cmalu</jbo>
- <en>These are plastic cat-food can covers or thingies. The green thingy is large. The red thingy is small.</en>
+ <natlang>These are plastic cat-food can covers or thingies. The green thingy is large. The red thingy is small.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>cei</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>broda</primary></indexterm><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>broda-series pro-bridi</primary><secondary>word-form rationale</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cei</primary><secondary>for broda-series pro-bridi assignment</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>broda-series pro-bridi</primary><secondary>assigning with cei</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>goi for ko'a-series assignment</primary><secondary>compared with cei for broda-series assignment</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cei for broda-series assignment</primary><secondary>compared with goi for ko'a-series assignment</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>antecedent</primary><secondary>for pro-bridi</secondary></indexterm> The pro-bridi
<valsi>broda</valsi> has as its antecedent the selbri
<oldjbophrase>slasi je mlatu bo cidja lante gacri</oldjbophrase>. The cmavo
<valsi>cei</valsi> performs the role of
<valsi>goi</valsi> in assigning
<valsi>broda</valsi> to this long phrase, and
<valsi>broda</valsi> can then be used just like any other brivla. (In fact,
@@ -730,21 +730,21 @@
<valsi>brode</valsi> is the whole bridi
<oldjbophrase>mi klama le zarci</oldjbophrase>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-UFJf">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e5d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama cei brode le zarci .i do brode</jbo>
<gloss>I go-to (which-is claim-1) the store. You claim-1.</gloss>
- <en>I go to the store. You, too.</en>
+ <natlang>I go to the store. You, too.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-bridi</primary><secondary>overriding sumti of antecedent bridi for</secondary></indexterm> In the second bridi,
<oldjbophrase>do brode</oldjbophrase> means
<oldjbophrase>do klama le zarci</oldjbophrase>, because
<valsi>brode</valsi> carries the x2 sumti of
<oldjbophrase>mi klama le zarci</oldjbophrase> along with it. It also potentially carries the x1 sumti as well, but the explicit x1 sumti
<valsi>do</valsi> overrides the
<valsi>mi</valsi> of the antecedent bridi. Similarly, any tense or negation that is present in the antecedent is also carried, and can be overridden by explicit tense or negation cmavo on the pro-bridi. These rules hold for all pro-bridi that have antecedents.</para>
@@ -788,21 +788,21 @@
<valsi>goi</valsi> can be used to make an explicit assignment.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>assigning with goi</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>goi</primary><secondary>use in assigning name</secondary></indexterm> Furthermore,
<valsi>goi</valsi> can even be used to assign a name:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rbPr">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e5d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ninmu goi la sam. cu klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>The woman also-known-as Sam goes to-the store.</gloss>
- <en>The woman, whom I'll call Sam, goes to the store.</en>
+ <natlang>The woman, whom I'll call Sam, goes to the store.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This usage does not imply that the woman's name is Sam, or even that the speaker usually calls the woman
<quote>Sam</quote>.
<quote>Sam</quote> is simply a name chosen, as if at random, for use in the current context only.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-ri-gohi-series">
<title>Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
@@ -898,71 +898,71 @@
<para>The cmavo
<valsi>ri</valsi> is the simplest of these; it has the same referent as the last complete sumti appearing before the
<valsi>ri</valsi>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3som">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e6d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .alis. sipna le ri kumfa</jbo>
<gloss>Alice sleeps-in the of-[repeat last sumti] room.</gloss>
- <en>Alice sleeps in her room.</en>
+ <natlang>Alice sleeps in her room.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The
<valsi>ri</valsi> in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-3som"/> is equivalent to repeating the last sumti, which is
<oldjbophrase>la .alis.</oldjbophrase>, so
<xref linkend="example-random-id-3som"/> is equivalent to:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-bs5R">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e6d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .alis. sipna le la .alis. kumfa</jbo>
<gloss>Alice sleeps-in the of-Alice room.</gloss>
- <en>Alice sleeps in Alice's room.</en>
+ <natlang>Alice sleeps in Alice's room.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that
<valsi>ri</valsi> does not repeat
<oldjbophrase>le ri kumfa</oldjbophrase>, because that sumti is not yet complete when
<valsi>ri</valsi> appears. This prevents
<valsi>ri</valsi> from getting entangled in paradoxes of self-reference. (There are plenty of other ways to do that!) Note also that sumti within other sumti, as in quotations, abstractions, and the like, are counted in the order of their beginnings; thus a lower level sumti like
<oldjbophrase>la alis.</oldjbophrase> in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-bs5R"/> is considered to be more recent than a higher level sumti that contains it.</para>
<para>Certain sumti are ignored by
<valsi>ri</valsi>; specifically, most of the other cmavo of KOhA, and the almost-grammatically-equivalent lerfu words of selma'o BY. It is simpler just to repeat these directly:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-CVmN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e6d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi prami mi</jbo>
<gloss>I love me.</gloss>
- <en>I love myself.</en>
+ <natlang>I love myself.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>However, the cmavo of the ti-series can be picked up by
<valsi>ri</valsi>, because you might have changed what you are pointing at, so repeating
<valsi>ti</valsi> may not be effective. Likewise,
<valsi>ri</valsi> itself (or rather its antecedent) can be repeated by a later
<valsi>ri</valsi>; in fact, a string of
<valsi>ri</valsi> cmavo with no other intervening sumti always all repeat the same sumti:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-eXsN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e6d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. viska le tricu .i ri se jadni le ri jimca</jbo>
<gloss>John sees the tree. [repeat last] is-adorned-by the of-[repeat last] branch.</gloss>
- <en>John sees the tree. It is adorned by its branches.</en>
+ <natlang>John sees the tree. It is adorned by its branches.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the second
<valsi>ri</valsi> has as antecedent the first
<valsi>ri</valsi>, which has as antecedent
<oldjbophrase>le tricu</oldjbophrase>. All three refer to the same thing: a tree.</para>
<para>To refer to the next-to-last sumti, the third-from-last sumti, and so on,
<valsi>ri</valsi> may be subscripted (subscripts are explained in
<xref linkend="section-subscripts-general"/>):</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Lc2y">
@@ -1051,31 +1051,31 @@
<valsi>ru</valsi>, except that they are pro-bridi, and therefore repeat bridi, not sumti – specifically, main sentence bridi. Any bridi that are embedded within other bridi, such as relative clauses or abstractions, are not counted. Like the cmavo of the broda-series, the cmavo of the go'i-series copy all sumti with them. This makes
<valsi>go'i</valsi> by itself convenient for answering a question affirmatively, or for repeating the last bridi, possibly with new sumti:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qLN4" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e6d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xu zo djan. cmene do .i go'i</jbo>
<gloss>[True-false?] The-word
<quote>John</quote> is-the-name of you? [repeat last bridi].</gloss>
- <en>Is John your name? Yes.</en>
+ <natlang>Is John your name? Yes.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qLn5" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e6d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci .i do go'i</jbo>
<gloss>I go-to the store. You [repeat last bridi].</gloss>
- <en>I go to the store. You, too.</en>
+ <natlang>I go to the store. You, too.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>cei</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>go'i-series pro-bridi</primary><secondary>assigning for permanent reference</secondary></indexterm> Note that
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qLn5"/> means the same as
<xref linkend="example-random-id-UFJf"/>, but without the bother of assigning an actual broda-series word to the first bridi. For long-term reference, use
<oldjbophrase>go'i cei broda</oldjbophrase> or the like, analogously to
<oldjbophrase>ri goi ko'a</oldjbophrase> in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-xIRG"/>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>go'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>go'ixire</primary></indexterm> The remaining four cmavo of the go'i-series are provided for convenience or for achieving special effects. The cmavo
@@ -1084,21 +1084,21 @@
<oldjbophrase>go'ixire</oldjbophrase>: it repeats the last bridi but one. This is useful in conversation:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9hf5">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e6d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>A: mi ba klama le zarci B: mi nelci le si'o mi go'i A: do go'e</jbo>
<gloss>A: I [future] go-to the store. B: I like the concept-of I [repeat last bridi]. A: You [repeat last bridi but one].</gloss>
- <en>A: I am going to the store. B: I like the idea of my going. A: You'll go, too.</en>
+ <natlang>A: I am going to the store. B: I like the idea of my going. A: You'll go, too.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here B's sentence repeats A's within an abstraction (explained in <xref linkend="chapter-abstractions"/>):
<oldjbophrase>le si'o mi go'i</oldjbophrase> means
<oldjbophrase>le si'o mi klama le zarci</oldjbophrase>. Why must B use the word
<valsi>mi</valsi> explicitly to replace the x1 of
<oldjbophrase>mi klama le zarci</oldjbophrase>, even though it looks like
<valsi>mi</valsi> is replacing
<valsi>mi</valsi>? Because B's
<valsi>mi</valsi> refers to B, whereas A's
@@ -1122,21 +1122,21 @@
<valsi>go'e</valsi>.</para>
<para>Descriptions based on go'i-series cmavo can be very useful for repeating specific sumti of previous bridi:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hwau">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e6d12"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le xekri mlatu cu klama le zarci .i le go'i cu cadzu le bisli</jbo>
<gloss>The black cat goes-to the store. That-described-as-the-x1-place-of [repeat last bridi] walks-on the ice.</gloss>
- <en>The black cat goes to the store. It walks on the ice.</en>
+ <natlang>The black cat goes to the store. It walks on the ice.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the
<valsi>go'i</valsi> repeats
<oldjbophrase>le xekri mlatu cu klama le zarci</oldjbophrase>, and since
<valsi>le</valsi> makes the x1 place into a description, and the x1 place of this bridi is
<oldjbophrase>le xekri mlatu</oldjbophrase>,
<oldjbophrase>le go'i</oldjbophrase> means
<oldjbophrase>le xekri mlatu</oldjbophrase>.</para>
@@ -1149,84 +1149,84 @@
<valsi>no'a</valsi>, unlike the other members of the go'i- series, can repeat non-sentence bridi). Here are a few examples:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-EUmV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e6d13"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nupre le nu mi go'o .i ba dunda le djini le bersa .i ba dunda le zdani le tixnu</jbo>
<gloss>I promise the event-of I [repeat future bridi] [Future] give the money to-the son [Future] give the house to-the daughter</gloss>
- <en>I promise to do the following: Give the money to my son. Give the house to my daughter.</en>
+ <natlang>I promise to do the following: Give the money to my son. Give the house to my daughter.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>(Note: The Lojban does not contain an equivalent of the
<oldjbophrase>my</oldjbophrase> in the colloquial English; it leaves the fact that it is the speaker's son and daughter that are referred to implicit. To make the fact explicit, use
<oldjbophrase>le bersa</oldjbophrase>/<oldjbophrase>tixnu be mi</oldjbophrase>.)</para>
<para>For good examples of
<valsi>nei</valsi> and
<valsi>no'a</valsi>, we need nested bridi contexts:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qLo1" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e6d14"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi se pluka le nu do pensi le nu nei kei pu le nu do zukte</jbo>
<gloss>I am-pleased-by the event-of (you think-about (the event-of [main bridi]) before the-event of (your acting).</gloss>
- <en>I am pleased that you thought about whether I would be pleased (about ...) before you acted.</en>
+ <natlang>I am pleased that you thought about whether I would be pleased (about ...) before you acted.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qLop" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e6d15"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ba klama ca le nu do no'a</jbo>
<gloss>I [future] go [present] the event-of you [repeats outer bridi]</gloss>
- <en>I will go when you do.</en>
+ <natlang>I will go when you do.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>go'i ra'o</primary><secondary>contrasted with go'i</secondary></indexterm> Finally,
<valsi>ra'o</valsi> is a cmavo that can be appended to any go'i-series cmavo, or indeed any cmavo of selma'o GOhA, to signal that pro-sumti or pro-bridi cmavo in the antecedent are to be repeated literally and reinterpreted in their new context. Normally, any pro-sumti used within the antecedent of the pro-bridi keep their meanings intact. In the presence of
<valsi>ra'o</valsi>, however, their meanings must be reinterpreted with reference to the new environment. If someone says to you:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9Uq6">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e6d16"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ba lumci lemi karce</jbo>
- <en>I will wash my car.</en>
+ <natlang>I will wash my car.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>you might reply either:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1fK3">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e6d17"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi go'i</jbo>
- <en>I will wash your car.</en>
+ <natlang>I will wash your car.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>or:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-qW1B">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e6d18"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi go'i ra'o</jbo>
- <en>I will wash my car.</en>
+ <natlang>I will wash my car.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The
<valsi>ra'o</valsi> forces the second
<valsi>mi</valsi> from the original bridi to mean the new speaker rather than the former speaker. This means that
<oldjbophrase>go'e ra'o</oldjbophrase> would be an acceptable alternative to
<oldjbophrase>do go'e</oldjbophrase> in B's statement in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-9hf5"/>.</para>
@@ -1236,21 +1236,21 @@
<oldjbophrase>ri-</oldjbophrase>series or
<oldjbophrase>go'a-</oldjbophrase>series reference within a quotation can refer to something mentioned in an earlier quotation if the two quotations are closely related in time and context. This allows a quotation to be broken up by narrative material without interfering with the pro-sumti within it. Here's an example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-LWyE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e6d19"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. cusku lu mi klama le zarci li'u .i la .alis. cusku lu mi go'i li'u</jbo>
<gloss>John says [quote] I go-to the store [unquote]. Alice says [quote] I [repeat] [unquote].</gloss>
- <en>John says, <quote>I am going to the store.</quote> Alice says, <quote>Me too.</quote></en>
+ <natlang>John says, <quote>I am going to the store.</quote> Alice says, <quote>Me too.</quote></natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>go'i-series pro-bridi</primary><secondary>in narrative about quotation</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ri-series pro-sumti</primary><secondary>in narrative about quotation</secondary></indexterm> Of course, there is no problem with narrative material referring to something within a quotation: people who quote, unlike people who are quoted, are aware of what they are doing.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-zohe-cohe-series">
<title>Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
@@ -1359,51 +1359,51 @@
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>zi'o</primary><secondary>as creating new selbri</secondary></indexterm> Note: The use of
<valsi>zi'o</valsi> to block up, as it were, one place of a selbri actually creates a new selbri with a different place structure. Consider the following examples:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qLoY" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e7d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi zbasu le dinju loi mudri</jbo>
<gloss>I make the building from-some-of-the-mass-of wood.</gloss>
- <en>I make the building out of wood.</en>
+ <natlang>I make the building out of wood.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qLPI" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e7d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>zi'o zbasu le dinju loi mudri</jbo>
<gloss>[without-maker] makes the building from-some-of-the-mass-of wood.</gloss>
- <en>The building is made out of wood.</en>
+ <natlang>The building is made out of wood.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qLpy" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e7d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi zbasu zi'o loi mudri</jbo>
<gloss>I make [without-thing-made] from-some-of-the-mass-of wood.</gloss>
- <en>I build using wood.</en>
+ <natlang>I build using wood.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qLqE" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e7d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi zbasu le dinju zi'o</jbo>
<gloss>I make the building [without-material].</gloss>
- <en>I make the building.</en>
+ <natlang>I make the building.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>If
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qLoY"/> is true, then
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qLPI"/> through
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qLqE"/> must be true also. However,
<xref linkend="example-random-id-xxm1"/> does not correspond to any sentence with three regular (non-
<valsi>zi'o</valsi>) sumti.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>co'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>co'e</primary><secondary>as selbri place-holder</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri</primary><secondary>omitting with co'e</secondary></indexterm> The pro-bridi
<valsi>co'e</valsi> (which by itself constitutes the co'e-series of selma'o GOhA) represents the elliptical selbri. Lojban grammar does not allow the speaker to merely omit a selbri from a bridi, although any or all sumti may be freely omitted. Being vague about a relationship requires the use of
@@ -1411,21 +1411,21 @@
<valsi>co'e</valsi> as a selbri place-holder:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-uy9R">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e7d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi troci le nu mi co'e le vorme</jbo>
<gloss>I try the event-of my [doing-the-obvious-action] to-the door.</gloss>
- <en>I try the door.</en>
+ <natlang>I try the door.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The English version means, and the Lojban version probably means, that I try to open the door, but the relationship of opening is not actually specified; the Lojbanic listener must guess it from context. Lojban, unlike English, makes it clear that there is an implicit action that is not being expressed.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>co'e</primary><secondary>rationale for word form</secondary></indexterm> The form of
<valsi>co'e</valsi> was chosen to resemble
<valsi>zo'e</valsi>; the cmavo
<valsi>do'e</valsi> of selma'o BAI (see
@@ -1489,53 +1489,53 @@
</cmavo-list>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>reciprocal pro-sumti</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>reflexive pro-sumti</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>referring to place of same bridi with vo'a-series</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>vo'a-series</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>anaphora</primary><secondary>pro-sumti vo'a-series as</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo of the vo'a-series are pro-sumti anaphora, like those of the ri-series, but have a specific function. These cmavo refer to the other places of the same bridi; the five of them represent up to five places. The same vo'a-series cmavo mean different things in different bridi. Some examples:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qLqT" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>wash self</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c7e8d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi lumci vo'a</jbo>
- <en>I wash myself</en>
+ <natlang>I wash myself</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qLqV" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e8d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama le zarci vo'e</jbo>
- <en>I go to the store from itself [by some route unspecified].</en>
+ <natlang>I go to the store from itself [by some route unspecified].</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>vo'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>vo'a</primary></indexterm><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>referring to place of different bridi with go'i-series</secondary></indexterm> To refer to places of neighboring bridi, constructions like
<oldjbophrase>le se go'i ku</oldjbophrase> do the job: this refers to the 2nd place of the previous main bridi, as explained in
<xref linkend="section-ri-gohi-series"/>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>SOI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>soi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vice versa</primary><secondary>English</secondary><tertiary>expressing with vo'a-series pro-sumti and soi</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vo'a-series pro-sumti</primary><secondary>use in expressing reciprocity with soi</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>soi</primary><secondary>use in expressing reciprocity with vo'a-series pro-sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>reciprocity</primary><secondary>expressing with vo'a-series pro-sumti and soi</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo of the vo'a-series are also used with
<valsi>soi</valsi> (of selma'o SOI) to precisely express reciprocity, which in English is imprecisely expressed with a discursive phrase like
<quote>vice versa</quote>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-vpb3">
<title><!-- FIXME: this indexterm goes in multiple examples -->
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>vice versa</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c7e8d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi prami do soi vo'a vo'e</jbo>
<gloss>I love you [reciprocity] [x1 of this bridi] [x2 of this bridi].</gloss>
- <en>I love you and vice versa (swapping
+ <natlang>I love you and vice versa (swapping
<quote>I</quote> and
- <quote>you</quote>).</en>
+ <quote>you</quote>).</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>soi with one following sumti</primary><secondary>convention</secondary></indexterm> The significance of
<oldjbophrase>soi vo'a vo'e</oldjbophrase> is that the bridi is still true even if the x1 (specified by
<valsi>vo'a</valsi>) and the x2 (specified by
<valsi>vo'e</valsi>) places are interchanged. If only a single sumti follows
<valsi>soi</valsi>, then the sumti immediately preceding
<valsi>soi</valsi> is understood to be one of those involved:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-CMQ1">
<title>
@@ -1569,21 +1569,21 @@
<valsi>soi</valsi> are free modifiers, and as such can go almost anywhere. Here is an example where
<valsi>se'u</valsi> is required:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-RFBV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e8d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi bajykla ti soi vo'i se'u ta</jbo>
<gloss>I runningly-go to-this [reciprocity] [x3 of this bridi] from-that</gloss>
- <en>I run to this from that and vice versa.</en>
+ <natlang>I run to this from that and vice versa.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-sumti-and-bridi-questions">
<title>sumti and bridi questions:
<valsi>ma</valsi> and
<valsi>mo</valsi></title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
@@ -1603,51 +1603,51 @@
<valsi>ma</valsi> and
<valsi>mo</valsi> are listed in this chapter for completeness. The cmavo
<valsi>ma</valsi> asks for a sumti to make the bridi true:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Csod">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e9d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do klama ma</jbo>
<gloss>You go to-what-destination?</gloss>
- <en>Where are you going?</en>
+ <natlang>Where are you going?</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>mo</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>go'i</primary><secondary>compared with mo in overriding of arguments</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mo</primary><secondary>compared with go'i in overriding of arguments</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>questions</primary><secondary>selbri</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mo</primary><secondary>as selbri question</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo
<valsi>mo</valsi>, on the other hand, asks for a selbri which makes the question bridi true. If the answer is a full bridi, then the arguments of the answer override the arguments in the question, in the same manner as the go'i-series cmavo. A simple example is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Ih10">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e9d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do mo</jbo>
<gloss>What predicate is true as applied to you?</gloss>
- <en>How are you?</en>
- <en>What are you doing?</en>
- <en>What are you?</en>
+ <natlang>How are you?</natlang>
+ <natlang>What are you doing?</natlang>
+ <natlang>What are you?</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-8HKo"/> is a truly pregnant question that will have several meanings depending on context.</para>
<para>(One thing it probably does not mean is
<quote>Who are you?</quote> in the sense
<quote>What is your name/identity?</quote>, which is better expressed by:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-8HKo">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>what is your name</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c7e9d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ma cmene do</jbo>
<gloss>What sumti is-the-name-of you?</gloss>
- <en>What is your name?</en>
+ <natlang>What is your name?</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>or even</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-y4Yi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e9d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>doi ma</jbo>
<gloss>O [what sumti?]</gloss>
@@ -1658,34 +1658,34 @@
<para>A further example of
<valsi>mo</valsi>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PP7r">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e9d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo mo prenu cu darxi do .i barda</jbo>
<gloss>A [what selbri?] type-of person hit you? (Observative:) A big thing.</gloss>
- <en>Which person hit you? The big one.</en>
+ <natlang>Which person hit you? The big one.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple mo</primary><secondary>as multiple questions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple ma</primary><secondary>as multiple questions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple questions in one bridi</primary><secondary>expressing</secondary></indexterm> When
<valsi>ma</valsi> or
<valsi>mo</valsi> is repeated, multiple questions are being asked simultaneously:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2KPQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e9d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ma djuno ma</jbo>
<gloss>[What sumti] knows [what sumti]?</gloss>
- <en>Who knows what?</en>
+ <natlang>Who knows what?</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-keha">
<title>Relativized pro-sumti:
<valsi>ke'a</valsi></title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>ke'a</cmavo>
@@ -1697,34 +1697,34 @@
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ke'a</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>use of ke'a for referral to relativized sumti in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ke'a</primary><secondary>for relativized sumti in relative clauses</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>for relativized sumti in relative clauses</secondary></indexterm> This pro-sumti is used in relative clauses (explained in
<xref linkend="chapter-relative-clauses"/>) to indicate how the sumti being relativized fits within the clause. For example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-UNBb">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>cat of plastic</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c7e10d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi catlu lo mlatu poi [zo'e] zbasu ke'a lei slasi</jbo>
<gloss>I see a cat such-that something-unspecified makes the-thing-being-relativized [the cat] from-some-mass-of plastic.</gloss>
- <en>I see a cat made of plastic.</en>
+ <natlang>I see a cat made of plastic.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ke'a</primary><secondary>ambiguity when omitted</secondary></indexterm> If
<valsi>ke'a</valsi> were omitted from
<xref linkend="example-random-id-UNBb"/>, it might be confused with:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-0EWp">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e10d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi catlu lo mlatu poi [ke'a] zbasu lei slasi</jbo>
<gloss>I see a cat such-that the-thing-being-relativized [the cat] makes a-mass-of plastic</gloss>
- <en>I see a cat that makes plastic.</en>
+ <natlang>I see a cat that makes plastic.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ri</primary><secondary>contrasted with ke'a in relative clauses</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ke'a</primary><secondary>contrasted with ri in relative clauses</secondary></indexterm> The anaphora cmavo
<valsi>ri</valsi> cannot be used in place of
<valsi>ke'a</valsi> in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-UNBb"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-0EWp"/>, because the relativized sumti is not yet complete when the
<valsi>ke'a</valsi> appears.</para>
@@ -1756,33 +1756,33 @@
<valsi>ce'u</valsi>. This convention enables us to distinguish clearly between:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ELxF">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>happiness</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c7e11d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ka ce'u gleki</jbo>
<gloss>the property-of (X being-happy)</gloss>
<gloss>the property of being happy</gloss>
- <en>happiness</en>
+ <natlang>happiness</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>and</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-VSw3">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e11d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ka gleki ce'u</jbo>
<gloss>the property-of (being-happy about-X)</gloss>
- <en>the property of being that which someone is happy about</en>
+ <natlang>the property of being that which someone is happy about</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-da-buha-series">
<title>Bound variable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the da-series and the bu'a-series</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>da</cmavo>
<selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
@@ -1826,21 +1826,21 @@
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bu'a-series pro-sumti</primary><secondary>for bound variables</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>da-series pro-sumti</primary><secondary>for bound variables</secondary></indexterm> Bound variables belong to the predicate-logic part of Lojban, and are listed here for completeness only. Their semantics is explained in
<xref linkend="chapter-quantifiers"/>. It is worth mentioning that the Lojban translation of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-VISf"/> is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-6vxz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c7e12d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. cu lafti da poi grana ku'o gi'e desygau da</jbo>
<gloss>John raised something-1 which is-a-stick and shake-did something-1.</gloss>
- <en>John picked up a stick and shook it.</en>
+ <natlang>John picked up a stick and shook it.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-daho">
<title>Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>da'o</cmavo>
diff --git a/todocbook/8.xml b/todocbook/8.xml
index f91dde9..3d9ea97 100644
--- a/todocbook/8.xml
+++ b/todocbook/8.xml
@@ -55,72 +55,72 @@
<quote>relativized sumti</quote>). Here are some examples before we go any further:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qLt8" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e1d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti poi ke'a prenu ku'o cu barda</jbo>
<gloss>This-thing such-that-(IT is-a-person) is-large.</gloss>
<gloss>This thing which is a person is big.</gloss>
- <en>This person is big.</en>
+ <natlang>This person is big.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qLtX" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e1d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti poi ke'a nazbi ku'o cu barda</jbo>
<gloss>This-thing such-that-(IT is-a-nose) is-large.</gloss>
<gloss>This thing which is a nose is big.</gloss>
- <en>This nose is big.</en>
+ <natlang>This nose is big.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qLuj" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e1d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti poi ke'a nazbi kapkevna ku'o cu barda</jbo>
<gloss>This-thing such-that-(IT is-a-nose-type-of skin-hole) is-big.</gloss>
<gloss>These things which are nose-pores are big.</gloss>
- <en>These nose-pores are big.</en>
+ <natlang>These nose-pores are big.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>big nose-pores</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>big nose</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>big person</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>IT</primary><secondary>as notation convention in relative clause chapter</secondary></indexterm> In the literal translations throughout this chapter, the word
<quote>IT</quote>, capitalized, is used to represent the cmavo
<valsi>ke'a</valsi>. In each case, it serves to represent the sumti (in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qLt8"/> through
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qLuj"/>, the cmavo
<valsi>ti</valsi>) to which the relative clause is attached.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ke'a</primary><secondary>non-initial place use in relative clause</secondary></indexterm> Of course, there is no reason why
<valsi>ke'a</valsi> needs to appear in the x1 place of a relative clause bridi; it can appear in any place, or indeed even in a sub-bridi within the relative clause bridi. Here are two more examples:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qLUV" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e1d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>tu poi le mlatu pu lacpu ke'a ku'o cu ratcu</jbo>
<gloss>That-distant-thing such-that (the cat [past] drags IT) is-a-rat.</gloss>
<gloss>That thing which the cat dragged is a rat.</gloss>
- <en>What the cat dragged is a rat.</en>
+ <natlang>What the cat dragged is a rat.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qLxF" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e1d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ta poi mi djica le nu mi ponse ke'a [kei] ku'o cu bloti</jbo>
<gloss>That-thing such-that( I desire the event-of( I own IT ) ) is-a-boat.</gloss>
- <en>That thing that I want to own is a boat.</en>
+ <natlang>That thing that I want to own is a boat.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qLxF"/>,
<valsi>ke'a</valsi> appears in an abstraction clause (abstractions are explained in
<xref linkend="chapter-abstractions"/>) within a relative clause.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clause</primary><secondary>effect of omission of <valsi>ke'a</valsi> on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ke'a</primary><secondary>effect of omission of</secondary></indexterm> Like any sumti,
<valsi>ke'a</valsi> can be omitted. The usual presumption in that case is that it then falls into the x1 place:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sMHH">
<title>
@@ -149,21 +149,21 @@
<valsi>ku'o</valsi> is an elidable terminator, and in fact it is almost always elidable. Throughout the rest of this chapter,
<valsi>ku'o</valsi> will not be written in any of the examples unless it is absolutely required: thus,
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qLt8"/> can be written:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-MtNs">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e1d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti poi prenu cu barda</jbo>
<gloss>That which is-a-person is-big.</gloss>
- <en>That person is big.</en>
+ <natlang>That person is big.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>poi</primary><secondary>discussion of translation</secondary></indexterm> without any change in meaning. Note that
<valsi>poi</valsi> is translated
<quote>which</quote> rather than
<quote>such-that</quote> when
<valsi>ke'a</valsi> has been omitted from the x1 place of the relative clause bridi. The word
<quote>which</quote> is used in English to introduce English relative clauses: other words that can be used are
<quote>who</quote> and
<quote>that</quote>, as in:</para>
@@ -209,31 +209,31 @@
<para>Consider the following examples:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qLXK" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e2d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le gerku poi blanu cu barda</jbo>
<gloss>The dog which is-blue is-large.</gloss>
- <en>The dog which is blue is large.</en>
+ <natlang>The dog which is blue is large.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qLys" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e2d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le gerku noi blanu cu barda</jbo>
<gloss>The dog incidentally-which is-blue is-large.</gloss>
- <en>The dog, which is blue, is large.</en>
+ <natlang>The dog, which is blue, is large.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qLXK"/>, the information conveyed by
<oldjbophrase>poi blanu</oldjbophrase> is essential to identifying the dog in question: it restricts the possible referents from dogs in general to dogs that are blue. This is why
<valsi>poi</valsi> relative clauses are called restrictive. In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qLys"/>, on the other hand, the dog which is referred to has presumably already been identified clearly, and the relative clause
<oldjbophrase>noi blanu</oldjbophrase> just provides additional information about it. (If in fact the dog hasn't been identified clearly, then the relative clause does not help identify it further.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>incidental relative clause</primary><secondary>as a parenthetical device</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>comma</primary><secondary>effect on relative clause in English</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>effect of commas in English</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>restricted contrasted with incidental in English expression</secondary></indexterm> In English, the distinction between restrictive and incidental relative clauses is expressed in writing by surrounding incidental, but not restrictive, clauses with commas. These commas are functioning as parentheses, because incidental relative clauses are essentially parenthetical. This distinction in punctuation is represented in speech by a difference in tone of voice. In addition, English restrictive relative clauses can be introduced by
@@ -245,64 +245,64 @@
<valsi>poi</valsi> and
<valsi>noi</valsi> rather than punctuation or intonation to make the distinction.</para>
<para>Here are more examples of incidental relative clauses:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-WxJo">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e2d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi noi jdice cu zvati</jbo>
<gloss>I who-incidentally am-a-judge am-at [some-place].</gloss>
- <en>I, a judge, am present.</en>
+ <natlang>I, a judge, am present.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In this example,
<valsi>mi</valsi> is already sufficiently restricted, and the additional information that I am a judge is being provided solely for the listener's edification.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pR53">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e2d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xu do viska le mi karce noi blabi</jbo>
<gloss>[True?] You see my car incidentally-which is-white.</gloss>
- <en>Do you see my car, which is white?</en>
+ <natlang>Do you see my car, which is white?</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-pR53"/>, the speaker is presumed to have only one car, and is providing incidental information that it is white. (Alternatively, he or she might have more than one car, since
<oldjbophrase>le karce</oldjbophrase> can be plural, in which case the incidental information is that each of them is white.) Contrast
<xref linkend="example-random-id-0qU1"/> with a restrictive relative clause:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-0qU1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e2d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xu do viska le mi karce poi blabi</jbo>
<gloss>[True?] You see my car which is-white.</gloss>
<gloss>Do you see my car that is white?</gloss>
- <en>Do you see my white car?</en>
+ <natlang>Do you see my white car?</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clause</primary><secondary>compared with tanru</secondary></indexterm> Here the speaker probably has several cars, and is restricting the referent of the sumti
<oldjbophrase>le mi karce</oldjbophrase> (and thereby the listener's attention) to the white one only.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-0qU1"/> means much the same as
<xref linkend="example-random-id-zsQ6"/>, which does not use a relative clause:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-zsQ6">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e2d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xu do viska le mi blabi karce</jbo>
<gloss>[True?] You see my white car.</gloss>
- <en>Do you see my car, the white one?</en>
+ <natlang>Do you see my car, the white one?</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clause</primary><secondary>contrasted with tanru</secondary></indexterm> So a restrictive relative clause attached to a description can often mean the same as a description involving a tanru. However,
<oldjbophrase>blabi karce</oldjbophrase>, like all tanru, is somewhat vague: in principle, it might refer to a car which carries white things, or even express some more complicated concept involving whiteness and car-ness; the restrictive relative clause of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-0qU1"/> can only refer to a car which is white, not to any more complex or extended concept.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-relative-phrases">
<title>Relative phrases</title>
@@ -354,21 +354,21 @@
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GOI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative phrase</primary><secondary>as an abbreviation of a common relative clause</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative phrase</primary><secondary>syntax of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative phrase</primary><secondary>rationale for</secondary></indexterm> There are types of relative clauses (those which have a certain selbri) which are frequently wanted in Lojban, and can be expressed using a shortcut called a relative phrase. Relative phrases are introduced by cmavo of selma'o GOI, and consist of a GOI cmavo followed by a single sumti.</para>
<para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>loose association</primary><secondary>expressing with pe</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pe</primary><secondary>as loose association</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pe</primary><secondary>compared with <oldjbophrase>poi ke'a srana</oldjbophrase></secondary></indexterm> Here is an example of
<valsi>pe</valsi>, plus an equivalent sentence using a relative clause:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qM04" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e3d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le stizu pe mi cu blanu</jbo>
<gloss>The chair associated-with me is-blue.</gloss>
- <en>My chair is blue.</en>
+ <natlang>My chair is blue.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qM1W" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e3d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le stizu poi ke'a srana mi cu blanu</jbo>
<gloss>The chair such-that( IT is-associated-with me) is-blue.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -518,52 +518,52 @@
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qM8u"/>, the listener is presumed not to understand which dog is meant by
<oldjbophrase>le gerku</oldjbophrase>, so the speaker adds a relative phrase clarifying that it is the particular dog which is the speaker's friend.</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-wARJ"/>, however, assumes that the listener does not know which of the speaker's friends is referred to, and specifies that it is the friend that is the dog (which dog is taken to be obvious). Here is another example of the same contrast:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qMAd" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e3d12"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le tcadu po'u la nu,iork</jbo>
- <en>The city of New York [not another city]</en>
+ <natlang>The city of New York [not another city]</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qmaY" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e3d13"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la nu,iork po'u le tcadu</jbo>
- <en>New York the city (not the state or some other New York)</en>
+ <natlang>New York the city (not the state or some other New York)</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>New York state</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>New York city</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>possessed in relative phrases</primary><secondary>compared with possessor</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>possessor in relative phrases</primary><secondary>compared with possessed</secondary></indexterm> The principle that the possessor and the possessed may change places applies to all the GOI cmavo, and allows for the possibility of odd effects:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qMb2" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e3d14"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le kabri pe le mi pendo cu cmalu</jbo>
<gloss>The cup associated-with my friend is small.</gloss>
- <en>My friend's cup is small</en>
+ <natlang>My friend's cup is small</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qmbn" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e3d15"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le mi pendo pe le kabri cu cmalu</jbo>
<gloss>My friend associated-with the cup is small.</gloss>
- <en>My friend, the one with the cup, is small.</en>
+ <natlang>My friend, the one with the cup, is small.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>cup's friend</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>friend's cup</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qMb2"/> is useful in a context which is about my friend, and states that his or her cup is small, whereas
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qmbn"/> is useful in a context that is primarily about a certain cup, and makes a claim about
<quote>my friend of the cup</quote>, as opposed to some other friend of mine. Here the cup appears to
<quote>possess</quote> the person! English can't even express this relationship with a possessive –
<quote>the cup's friend of mine</quote> looks like nonsense – but Lojban has no trouble doing so.</para>
<para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>incidental identification</primary><secondary>expressing with no'u</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>incidental association</primary><secondary>expressing with ne</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>po'u</primary><secondary>compared with no'u</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pe</primary><secondary>compared with ne</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>no'u</primary><secondary>compared with po'u</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ne</primary><secondary>compared with pe</secondary></indexterm> Finally, the cmavo
@@ -574,49 +574,49 @@
<valsi>po'u</valsi>, respectively, as
<valsi>noi</valsi> does to
<oldjbophrase>poi-</oldjbophrase> they provide incidental information:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Arj8">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e3d16"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le blabi gerku ne mi cu batci do</jbo>
<gloss>The white dog, incidentally-associated-with me, bites you.</gloss>
- <en>The white dog, which is mine, bites you.</en>
+ <natlang>The white dog, which is mine, bites you.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Arj8"/>, the white dog is already fully identified (after all, presumably the listener knows which dog bit him or her!). The fact that it is yours is merely incidental to the main bridi claim.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>po'u</primary><secondary>contrasted with no'u</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>no'u</primary><secondary>contrasted with po'u</secondary></indexterm> Distinguishing between
<valsi>po'u</valsi> and
<valsi>no'u</valsi> can be a little tricky. Consider a room with several men in it, one of whom is named Jim. If you don't know their names, I might say:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-DSf4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e3d17"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu no'u la djim. cu terpemci</jbo>
<gloss>The man, incidentally-who-is Jim, is-a-poet.</gloss>
- <en>The man, Jim, is a poet.</en>
+ <natlang>The man, Jim, is a poet.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here I am saying that one of the men is a poet, and incidentally telling you that he is Jim. But if you do know the names, then</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-y8nH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e3d18"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu po'u la djim. cu terpemci</jbo>
<gloss>The man who-is Jim is-a-poet.</gloss>
- <en>The man Jim is a poet.</en>
+ <natlang>The man Jim is a poet.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is appropriate. Now I am using the fact that the man I am speaking of is Jim in order to pick out which man I mean.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>possession</primary><secondary>Lojban usage compared with French and German in omission/inclusion</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>possession</primary><secondary>Lojban usage contrasted with English in omission/inclusion</secondary></indexterm> It is worth mentioning that English sometimes over-specifies possession from the Lojban point of view (and the point of view of many other languages, including ones closely related to English). The idiomatic English sentence</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-GXyS">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e3d19"/>
</title>
<para>The man put his hands in his pockets.</para>
</example>
@@ -648,88 +648,88 @@
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ZIhE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple relative clauses</primary><secondary>attaching with zi'e</secondary></indexterm> Sometimes it is necessary or useful to attach more than one relative clause to a sumti. This is made possible in Lojban by the cmavo
<valsi>zi'e</valsi> (of selma'o ZIhE), which is used to join one or more relative clauses together into a single unit, thus making them apply to the same sumti. For example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-HBMR">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e4d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le gerku poi blabi zi'e poi batci le nanmu cu klama</jbo>
- <en>The dog which is white and which bites the man goes.</en>
+ <natlang>The dog which is white and which bites the man goes.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>zi'e</primary><secondary>compared with English <quote>and</quote></secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>zi'e</primary><secondary>contrasted with logical connectives</secondary></indexterm> The most usual translation of
<valsi>zi'e</valsi> in English is
<quote>and</quote>, but
<valsi>zi'e</valsi> is not really a logical connective: unlike most of the true logical connectives (which are explained in
<xref linkend="chapter-connectives"/>), it cannot be converted into a logical connection between sentences.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative phrase</primary><secondary>connecting to relative clause with zi'e</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clause</primary><secondary>connecting to relative phrase with zi'e</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple relative clauses</primary><secondary>connecting different kinds with zi'e</secondary></indexterm> It is perfectly correct to use
<valsi>zi'e</valsi> to connect relative clauses of different kinds:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Vbm7">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e4d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le gerku poi blabi zi'e noi le mi pendo cu ponse ke'a cu klama</jbo>
<gloss>The dog that-is (white) and incidentally-such-that (my friend owns IT) goes.</gloss>
- <en>The dog that is white, which my friend owns, is going.</en>
+ <natlang>The dog that is white, which my friend owns, is going.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Vbm7"/>, the restrictive clause
<oldjbophrase>poi blabi</oldjbophrase> specifies which dog is referred to, but the incidental clause
<oldjbophrase>noi le mi pendo cu ponse</oldjbophrase> is mere incidental information: the listener is supposed to already have identified the dog from the
<oldjbophrase>poi blabi</oldjbophrase>. Of course, the meaning (though not necessarily the emphasis) is the same if the incidental clause appears first.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>zi'e</primary><secondary>use in connecting relative phrase/clause to relative phrase/clause</secondary></indexterm> It is also possible to connect relative phrases with
<valsi>zi'e</valsi>, or a relative phrase with a relative clause:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-36tm">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e4d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le botpi po mi zi'e poi blanu cu spofu</jbo>
<gloss>The bottle specific-to me and which-is blue is-broken.</gloss>
- <en>My blue bottle is broken.</en>
+ <natlang>My blue bottle is broken.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that if the colloquial translation of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-36tm"/> were
<quote>My bottle, which is blue, is broken</quote>, then
<valsi>noi</valsi> rather than
<valsi>poi</valsi> would have been correct in the Lojban version, since that version of the English implies that you do not need to know the bottle is blue. As written,
<xref linkend="example-random-id-36tm"/> suggests that I probably have more than one bottle, and the one in question needs to be picked out as the blue one.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-FapT">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e4d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ba zutse le stizu pe mi zi'e po do zi'e poi xunre</jbo>
<gloss>I [future] sit-in the chair associated-with me and specific-to you and which-is red.</gloss>
- <en>I will sit in my chair (really yours), the red one.</en>
+ <natlang>I will sit in my chair (really yours), the red one.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>my chair</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-FapT"/> illustrates that more than two relative phrases or clauses can be connected with
<valsi>zi'e</valsi>. It almost defies colloquial translation because of the very un-English contrast between
<oldjbophrase>pe mi</oldjbophrase>, implying that the chair is temporarily connected with me, and
<oldjbophrase>po do</oldjbophrase>, implying that the chair has a more permanent association with you. (Perhaps I am a guest in your house, in which case the chair would naturally be your property.)</para>
<para>Here is another example, mixing a relative phrase and two relative clauses, a restrictive one and a non-restrictive one:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-erma">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e4d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ba citka le dembi pe mi zi'e poi cpana le mi palta zi'e noi do dunda ke'a mi</jbo>
<gloss>I [future] eat the beans associated-with me and which are-upon my plate and which-incidentally you gave IT to-me.</gloss>
- <en>I'll eat my beans that are on my plate, the ones you gave me.</en>
+ <natlang>I'll eat my beans that are on my plate, the ones you gave me.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-voi">
<title>Non-veridical relative clauses:
<valsi>voi</valsi></title>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>voi</cmavo>
@@ -770,22 +770,22 @@
<valsi>voi</valsi> is like
<valsi>le</valsi>; the speaker's intention determines the meaning.</para>
<para>As a result, the following two sentences</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qMCc" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e5d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu cu ninmu</jbo>
<gloss>That-which-I-describe-as a-man is-a-woman.</gloss>
- <en>The
- <quote>guy</quote> is actually a gal.</en>
+ <natlang>The
+ <quote>guy</quote> is actually a gal.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qmcE" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e5d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti voi nanmu cu ninmu</jbo>
<gloss>This-thing which-I-describe-as a-man is-a-woman.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -805,21 +805,21 @@
<valsi>ku</valsi>. The relative clauses attached to descriptors that we have seen have occupied the second position. Thus
<xref linkend="example-random-id-pcvP"/>, if written out with all elidable terminators, would appear as:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-UmLX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e6d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le gerku poi blabi ku'o ku cu klama vau</jbo>
<gloss>The (dog which (is-white) ) goes.</gloss>
- <en>The dog which is white is going.</en>
+ <natlang>The dog which is white is going.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here
<valsi>ku'o</valsi> is the terminator paired with
<valsi>poi</valsi> and
<valsi>ku</valsi> with
<valsi>le</valsi>, and
<valsi>vau</valsi> is the terminator of the whole bridi.</para>
<para>When a simple descriptor using
<valsi>le</valsi>, like
@@ -855,59 +855,59 @@
<xref linkend="section-quantified-descriptions"/>, two different numbers (known as the
<quote>inner quantifier</quote> and the
<quote>outer quantifier</quote>) can be attached to a description. The inner quantifier specifies how many things the descriptor refers to: it appears between the descriptor and the description selbri. The outer quantifier appears before the descriptor, and specifies how many of the things referred to by the descriptor are involved in this particular bridi. In the following example,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3nJN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e6d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>re le mu prenu cu klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>Two-of the five persons go to-the market.</gloss>
- <en>Two of the five people [that I have in mind] are going to the market.</en>
+ <natlang>Two of the five people [that I have in mind] are going to the market.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<valsi>mu</valsi> is the inner quantifier and
<valsi>re</valsi> is the outer quantifier. Now what is meant by attaching a relative clause to the sumti
<oldjbophrase>re le mu prenu</oldjbophrase>? Suppose the relative clause is
<oldjbophrase>poi ninmu</oldjbophrase> (meaning
<quote>who are women</quote>). Now the three possible attachment points discussed previously take on significance.</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qMdb" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e6d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>re le poi ninmu ku'o mu prenu cu klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>Two of the such-that([they] are-women) five persons go to-the market.</gloss>
- <en>Two women out of the five persons go to the market.</en>
+ <natlang>Two women out of the five persons go to the market.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qmDo" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e6d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>re le mu prenu poi ninmu [ku] cu klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>Two of the (five persons which are-women) go to-the market.</gloss>
- <en>Two of the five women go to the market.</en>
+ <natlang>Two of the five women go to the market.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qMDQ" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e6d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>re le mu prenu ku poi ninmu cu klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>(Two of the five persons) which are-women go to-the market.</gloss>
- <en>Two women out of the five persons go to the market.</en>
+ <natlang>Two women out of the five persons go to the market.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>As the parentheses show,
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qmDo"/> means that all five of the persons are women, whereas
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qMDQ"/> means that the two who are going to the market are women. How do we remember which is which? If the relative clause comes after the explicit
<valsi>ku</valsi>, as in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qMDQ"/>, then the sumti as a whole is qualified by the relative clause. If there is no
<valsi>ku</valsi>, or if the relative clause comes before an explicit
<valsi>ku</valsi>, then the relative clause is understood to apply to everything which the underlying selbri applies to.</para>
<para>What about
@@ -924,31 +924,31 @@
<quote>all of the things I refer to as dogs</quote>, possibly all one of them. In that case, there is no difference between a relative clause after the
<valsi>ku</valsi> or before it. However, if the descriptor is
<valsi>lo</valsi>, the difference is quite important:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qmDS" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e6d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo prenu ku noi blabi cu klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>(Some persons) incidentally-which are-white go to-the market.</gloss>
- <en>Some people, who are white, go to the market.</en>
+ <natlang>Some people, who are white, go to the market.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qmdX" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e6d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo prenu noi blabi [ku] cu klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>Some (persons incidentally-which are-white) go to-the market.</gloss>
- <en>Some of the people, who by the way are white, go to the market.</en>
+ <natlang>Some of the people, who by the way are white, go to the market.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Both
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qmDS"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qmdX"/> tell us that one or more persons are going to the market. However, they make very different incidental claims. Now, what does
<oldjbophrase>lo prenu noi blabi</oldjbophrase> mean? Well, the default inner quantifier is
<valsi>ro</valsi> (meaning
<quote>all</quote>), and the default outer quantifier is
<valsi>su'o</valsi> (meaning
<quote>at least one</quote>). Therefore, we must first take all persons, then choose at least one of them. That one or more people will be going.</para>
@@ -967,34 +967,34 @@
<valsi>ku</valsi>, whether before or after the selbri, is reckoned part of the name; a relative clause outside the
<valsi>ku</valsi> is not. Therefore,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-JYj4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e6d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska la nanmu poi terpa le ke'a xirma [ku]</jbo>
<gloss>I see that-named (
<quote>man which fears the of-IT horse</quote>).</gloss>
- <en>I see Man Afraid Of His Horse.</en>
+ <natlang>I see Man Afraid Of His Horse.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>afraid of horse</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> says that the speaker sees a person with a particular name, who does not necessarily fear any horses, whereas</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9GWR">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e6d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska la nanmu ku poi terpa le ke'a xirma.</jbo>
<gloss>I see that-named(
<quote>Man</quote>) which fears the of-IT horse.</gloss>
- <en>I see the person named
- <quote>Man</quote> who is afraid of his horse.</en>
+ <natlang>I see the person named
+ <quote>Man</quote> who is afraid of his horse.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>refers to one (or more) of those named
<quote>Man</quote>, namely the one(s) who are afraid of their horses.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses and indefinite sumti</primary><secondary>placement considerations</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>impact of indefinite sumti on placement</secondary></indexterm> Finally, so-called indefinite sumti like
<oldjbophrase>re karce</oldjbophrase>, which means almost the same as
<oldjbophrase>re lo karce</oldjbophrase> (which in turn means the same as
<oldjbophrase>re lo ro karce</oldjbophrase>), can have relative clauses attached; these are taken to be of the outside-the-
@@ -1076,36 +1076,36 @@
<xref linkend="chapter-sumti"/>.</para>
<para>Here is an example of a description used in a possessive sumti:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rBmw">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e7d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le le nanmu ku karce cu blanu</jbo>
<gloss>The (associated-with-the man) car is blue.</gloss>
- <en>The man's car is blue.</en>
+ <natlang>The man's car is blue.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>possessive sumti</primary><secondary>effect on elidability of ku</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ku</primary><secondary>effect of possessive sumti on elidability of</secondary></indexterm> Note the explicit
<valsi>ku</valsi> at the end of the possessor sumti, which prevents the selbri of the possessor sumti from merging with the selbri of the main description sumti. Because of the need for this
<valsi>ku</valsi>, the most common kind of possessor sumti are pro-sumti, especially personal pro-sumti, which require no elidable terminator. Descriptions are more likely to be attached with relative phrases.</para>
<para>And here is a number used as a possessor sumti:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pYfN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e7d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le li mu jdice se bende</jbo>
<gloss>The of-the-number-five judging team-member</gloss>
- <en>Juror number 5</en>
+ <natlang>Juror number 5</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>juror 5</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> which is not quite the same as
<quote>the fifth juror</quote>; it simply indicates a weak association between the particular juror and the number 5.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>possessive sumti with relative clauses</primary><secondary>effect of placement</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses with possessive sumti</primary><secondary>effect of placement</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>possessive sumti</primary><secondary>with relative clauses on possessive sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>possessive sumti</primary><secondary>relative clauses on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>on possessive sumti</secondary></indexterm> A possessive sumti may also have regular relative clauses attached to it. This would need no comment if it were not for the following special rule: a relative clause immediately following the possessor sumti is understood to affect the possessor sumti, not the possessive. For example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-cVjs">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e7d6"/>
</title>
@@ -1145,51 +1145,51 @@
</cmavo-list>
<para>Normally, relative clauses attach only to simple sumti or parts of sumti: pro-sumti, names and descriptions, pure numbers, and quotations. An example of a relative clause attached to a pure number is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sfHA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e8d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li pai noi na'e frinu namcu</jbo>
<gloss>The-number pi, incidentally-which is-a-non- fraction number</gloss>
- <en>The irrational number pi</en>
+ <natlang>The irrational number pi</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>irrational number</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>on quotation</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>on number</secondary></indexterm> And here is an incidental relative clause attached to a quotation:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-WuBh">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e8d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lu mi klama le zarci li'u noi mi cusku ke'a cu jufra</jbo>
<gloss>[quote] I go to-the market [unquote] incidentally-which-(I express IT) is-a-sentence.</gloss>
- <en>
- <quote>I'm going to the market</quote>, which I'd said, is a sentence.</en>
+ <natlang>
+ <quote>I'm going to the market</quote>, which I'd said, is a sentence.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which may serve to identify the author of the quotation or some other relevant, but subsidiary, fact about it. All such relative clauses appear only after the simple sumti, never before it.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>NAhE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>LAhE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>NAhE selma'o</primary><secondary>effect of relative clause placement with</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>LAhE selma'o</primary><secondary>effect of relative clause placement with</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses and NAhE</primary><secondary>placement considerations</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>impact of NAhE on placement</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses and LAhE</primary><secondary>placement considerations</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>impact of LAhE on placement</secondary></indexterm> In addition, sumti with attached sumti qualifiers of selma'o LAhE or NAhE+BO (which are explained in detail in
<xref linkend="section-sumti-qualifiers"/>) can have a relative clause appearing after the qualifier and before the qualified sumti, as in:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4sqi">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e8d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la'e poi tolcitno vau lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u cu zvati le vu kumfa</jbo>
<gloss>A-referent-of (which is-old) [quote] The Red Small-horse [unquote] is-at the [far distance] room.</gloss>
- <en>An old
- <quote>The Red Pony</quote> is in the far room.</en>
+ <natlang>An old
+ <quote>The Red Pony</quote> is in the far room.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para><indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>red pony</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-4sqi"/> is a bit complex, and may need some picking apart. The quotation
<oldjbophrase>lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u</oldjbophrase> means the string of words
<quote>The Red Pony</quote>. If the
<valsi>la'e</valsi> at the beginning of the sentence were omitted,
<xref linkend="example-random-id-4sqi"/> would claim that a certain string of words is in a room distant from the speaker. But obviously a string of words can't be in a room! The effect of the
@@ -1213,39 +1213,39 @@
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>on connected sumti</secondary></indexterm> Sometimes, however, it is important to make a relative clause apply to the whole of a more complex sumti, one which involves logical or non-logical connection (explained in
<xref linkend="chapter-connectives"/>). For example,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-EYgE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e8d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la frank. .e la djordj. noi nanmu cu klama le zdani</jbo>
<gloss>Frank and George incidentally-who is-a-man go to-the house.</gloss>
- <en>Frank and George, who is a man, go to the house.</en>
+ <natlang>Frank and George, who is a man, go to the house.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The incidental claim in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-EYgE"/> is not that Frank and George are men, but only that George is a man, because the incidental relative clause attaches only to
<oldjbophrase>la djordj</oldjbophrase>, the immediately preceding simple sumti.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>VUhO selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clause scope</primary><secondary>extending to preceding sumti with vu'o</secondary></indexterm> To make a relative clause attach to both parts of the logically connected sumti in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-EYgE"/>, a new cmavo is needed,
<valsi>vu'o</valsi> (of selma'o VUhO). It is placed between the sumti and the relative clause, and extends the sphere of influence of that relative clause to the entire preceding sumti, including however many logical or non-logical connectives there may be.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9XPz">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e8d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la frank. .e la djordj. vu'o noi nanmu cu klama le zdani</jbo>
<gloss>Frank and George incidentally-who are-men go to-the house.</gloss>
- <en>Frank and George, who are men, go to the house.</en>
+ <natlang>Frank and George, who are men, go to the house.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The presence of
<valsi>vu'o</valsi> here means that the relative clause
<oldjbophrase>noi nanmu</oldjbophrase> extends to the entire logically connected sumti
<oldjbophrase>la frank. .e la djordj.</oldjbophrase>; in other words, both Frank and George are claimed to be men, as the colloquial translation shows.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses on complex sumti</primary><secondary>Lojban contrasted with English</secondary></indexterm> English is able to resolve the distinction correctly in the case of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-EYgE"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-9XPz"/> by making use of number:
<quote>who is</quote> rather than
@@ -1259,67 +1259,67 @@
<quote>is-a-man</quote>) were replaced with
<oldjbophrase>pu bajra</oldjbophrase> (
<quote>ran</quote>), English would have to make the distinction some other way:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qmeb" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e8d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la frank. .e la djordj. noi pu bajra cu klama le zdani</jbo>
<gloss>Frank and (George who [past] runs) go to-the house.</gloss>
- <en>Frank and George, who ran, go to the house.</en>
+ <natlang>Frank and George, who ran, go to the house.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qmEt" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e8d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la frank. .e la djordj. vu'o noi pu bajra cu klama le zdani</jbo>
<gloss>(Frank and George) who [past] run go to-the house.</gloss>
- <en>Frank and George, who ran, go to the house.</en>
+ <natlang>Frank and George, who ran, go to the house.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In spoken English, tone of voice would serve; in written English, one or both sentences would need rewriting.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-relative-clauses-and-vocatives">
<title>Relative clauses in vocative phrases</title>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>DOI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>COI selma'o</primary></indexterm> Vocative phrases are explained in more detail in
<xref linkend="section-vocative-syntax"/>. Briefly, they are a method of indicating who a sentence or discourse is addressed to: of identifying the intended listener. They take three general forms, all beginning with cmavo from selma'o COI or DOI (called
<quote>vocative words</quote>; there can be one or many), followed by either a name, a selbri, or a sumti. Here are three examples:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qMG8" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e9d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>coi. frank.</jbo>
- <en>Hello, Frank.</en>
+ <natlang>Hello, Frank.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qMGj" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e9d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>co'o xirma</jbo>
- <en>Goodbye, horse.</en>
+ <natlang>Goodbye, horse.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qmgM" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e9d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>fi'i la frank. .e la djordj.</jbo>
- <en>Welcome, Frank and George!</en>
+ <natlang>Welcome, Frank and George!</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qMGj"/> says farewell to something which doesn't really have to be a horse, something that the speaker simply thinks of as being a horse, or even might be something (a person, for example) who is named
<quote>Horse</quote>. In a sense,
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qMGj"/> is ambiguous between
<oldjbophrase>co'o le xirma</oldjbophrase> and
<oldjbophrase>co'o la xirma</oldjbophrase>, a relatively safe semantic ambiguity, since names are ambiguous in general: saying
<quote>George</quote> doesn't distinguish between the possible Georges.</para>
<para>Similarly,
@@ -1338,36 +1338,36 @@
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qMG8"/> to
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qmgM"/>, as sentences by themselves.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vocative phrase with name</primary><secondary>placement of relative clause on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>placement with vocative phrases</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vocative phrases</primary><secondary>relative clauses on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>on vocative phrases</secondary></indexterm> As can be seen, the form of vocative phrases is similar to that of sumti, and as you might expect, vocative phrases allow relative clauses in various places. In vocative phrases which are simple names (after the vocative words), any relative clauses must come just after the names:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-xECX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e9d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>coi. frank. poi xunre se bende</jbo>
<gloss>Hello, Frank who is-a-red team-member</gloss>
- <en>Hello, Frank from the Red Team!</en>
+ <natlang>Hello, Frank from the Red Team!</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The restrictive relative clause in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-xECX"/> suggests that there is some other Frank (perhaps on the Green Team) from whom this Frank, the one the speaker is greeting, must be distinguished.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vocative phrase with selbri</primary><secondary>placement of relative clause on</secondary></indexterm> A vocative phrase containing a selbri can have relative clauses either before or after the selbri; both forms have the same meaning. Here are some examples:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qmgV" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e9d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>co'o poi mi zvati ke'a ku'o xirma</jbo>
<gloss>Goodbye, such-that-(I am-at IT) horse</gloss>
- <en>Goodbye, horse where I am!</en>
+ <natlang>Goodbye, horse where I am!</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qMHc" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e9d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>co'o xirma poi mi zvati</jbo>
<gloss>Goodbye, horse such-that-(I am-at-it).</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1391,21 +1391,21 @@
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ke'a with subscript</primary><secondary>use for outer sumti reference</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>subscripts</primary><secondary>use with ke'a for outer sumti reference</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>inner sumti</primary><secondary>referring to from within relative clause within relative clause</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>outer sumti</primary><secondary>referring to from within relative clause within relative clause</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relativized sumti</primary><secondary>in relative clauses within relative clauses</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ke'a</primary><secondary>meaning in relative clause inside relative clause</secondary></indexterm> However, an ambiguity can exist if
<valsi>ke'a</valsi> is used in a relative clause within a relative clause: does it refer to the outermost sumti, or to the sumti within the outer relative clause to which the inner relative clause is attached? The latter. To refer to the former, use a subscript on
<valsi>ke'a</valsi>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-8RdM">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c8e10d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le prenu poi zvati le kumfa poi ke'axire zbasu ke'a cu masno</jbo>
<gloss>The person who is-in the room which IT-sub-2 built IT is-slow.</gloss>
- <en>The person who is in the room which he built is slow.</en>
+ <natlang>The person who is in the room which he built is slow.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para><indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>room which he built</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> Here, the meaning of
<quote>IT-sub-2</quote> is that sumti attached to the second relative clause, counting from the innermost, is used. Therefore,
<oldjbophrase>ke'axipa</oldjbophrase> (IT-sub-1) means the same as plain
<valsi>ke'a</valsi>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>prenex</primary><secondary>use for outer sumti reference</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>outer sumti</primary><secondary>prenex for referring to from within relative clause within relative clause</secondary></indexterm> Alternatively, you can use a prenex (explained in full in
<xref linkend="chapter-quantifiers"/>), which is syntactically a series of sumti followed by the special cmavo
diff --git a/todocbook/9.xml b/todocbook/9.xml
index ed10fee..8149bba 100644
--- a/todocbook/9.xml
+++ b/todocbook/9.xml
@@ -114,21 +114,21 @@
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi</primary><secondary>selbri-first as exceptional</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri-first bridi</primary><secondary>effect on sumti places</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>omitted first place in selbri-first bridi</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>order in selbri-first bridi</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>order in selbri</secondary></indexterm> The general rule, then, is that the selbri may occur anywhere in the bridi as long as the sumti maintain their order. The only exception (and it is an important one) is that if the selbri appears first, the x1 sumti is taken to have been omitted:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-aQtM">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e2d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>klama la bastn. la .atlantas. le dargu le karce</jbo>
<gloss>A-goer to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the road using-the car.</gloss>
<gloss>Goes to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the road using-the car.</gloss>
- <en>Look: a goer to Boston from Atlanta via the road using the car!</en>
+ <natlang>Look: a goer to Boston from Atlanta via the road using the car!</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>command</primary><secondary>contrasted with observative form</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>observative form</primary><secondary>contrasted with command</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>observative</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi</primary><secondary>exception to sumti place structure in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi</primary><secondary>omitting the first sumti place</secondary></indexterm> Here the x1 place is empty: the listener must guess from context who is going to Boston. In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-aQtM"/>,
<valsi>klama</valsi> is glossed
<quote>a goer</quote> rather than
<quote>go</quote> because
<quote>Go</quote> at the beginning of an English sentence would suggest a command:
<quote>Go to Boston!</quote>.
@@ -224,21 +224,21 @@
<valsi>fi</valsi>,
<valsi>fo</valsi>, and
<valsi>fu</valsi> may be inserted just before the sumti in the x1 to x5 places respectively:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-yLop">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e3d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>fa mi cu klama fe la bastn. fi la .atlantas. fo le dargu fu le karce</jbo>
<gloss>x1= I go x2= Boston x3= Atlanta x4= the road x5= the car.</gloss>
- <en>I go to Boston from Atlanta via the road using the car.</en>
+ <natlang>I go to Boston from Atlanta via the road using the car.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>FA selma'o</primary><secondary>for accessing a selbri place explicitly by relative number</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>explicitly mapping into place structure with FA</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>place structure</primary><secondary>explicitly mapping sumti to place with FA</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>place structure</primary><secondary>effect of FA on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>FA selma'o</primary><secondary>effect on place structure</secondary></indexterm> In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-yLop"/>, the tag
<valsi>fu</valsi> before
<oldjbophrase>le karce</oldjbophrase> clarifies that
<oldjbophrase>le karce</oldjbophrase> occupies the x5 place of
<valsi>klama</valsi>. The use of
@@ -297,94 +297,94 @@
<valsi>fi</valsi> tag serves to remind the hearer that what follows is in the x3 place of
<valsi>klama</valsi>; after listening to the complex sumti occupying the x2 place, it's easy to get lost.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>re-ordering with FA</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri-first bridi</primary><secondary>specifying first sumti place in with fa</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>place structure order</primary><secondary>effect of FA on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>FA selma'o</primary><secondary>effect on place structure order</secondary></indexterm> Of course, once the sumti have been tagged, the order in which they are specified no longer carries the burden of distinguishing the places. Therefore, it is perfectly all right to scramble them into any order desired, and to move the selbri to anywhere in the bridi, even the beginning:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-YmN2">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e3d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>klama fa mi fi la .atlantas. fu le karce fe la bastn. fo le dargu</jbo>
<gloss>go x1= I x3= Atlanta x5= the car x2= Boston x4= the road.</gloss>
- <en>Go I from Atlanta using the car to Boston via the road.</en>
+ <natlang>Go I from Atlanta using the car to Boston via the road.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri-first bridi</primary><secondary>effect on use of cu</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cu</primary><secondary>effect of selbri-first bridi on</secondary></indexterm> Note that no
<valsi>cu</valsi> is permitted before the selbri in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-YmN2"/>, because
<valsi>cu</valsi> separates the selbri from any preceding sumti, and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-YmN2"/> has no such sumti.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-fG8R">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e3d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>fu le karce fo le dargu fi la .atlantas. fe la bastn. cu klama fa mi</jbo>
<gloss>x5= the car x4= the road x3= Atlanta x2= Boston go x1=I</gloss>
- <en>Using the car, via the road, from Atlanta to Boston go I.</en>
+ <natlang>Using the car, via the road, from Atlanta to Boston go I.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-fG8R"/> exhibits the reverse of the standard bridi form seen in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Ji94"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-yLop"/>, but still means exactly the same thing. If the FA tags were left out, however, producing:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-j7Nu">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e3d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le karce le dargu la .atlantas. la bastn. cu klama mi</jbo>
<gloss>The car to-the road from-Atlanta via-Boston goes using-me.</gloss>
- <en>The car goes to the road from Atlanta, with Boston as the route, using me as a means of transport.</en>
+ <natlang>The car goes to the road from Atlanta, with Boston as the route, using me as a means of transport.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>the meaning would be wholly changed, and in fact nonsensical.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>zo'e</primary><secondary>compared with FA for omitting places</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>FA selma'o</primary><secondary>compared with zo'e for omitting places</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>place structures</primary><secondary>omitting places with FA</secondary></indexterm> Tagging places with FA cmavo makes it easy not only to reorder the places but also to omit undesirable ones, without any need for
<valsi>zo'e</valsi> or special rules about the x1 place:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-brGX">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e3d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>klama fi la .atlantas. fe la bastn. fu le karce</jbo>
<gloss>A-goer x3= Atlanta x2= Boston x5 = the car.</gloss>
- <en>A goer from Atlanta to Boston using the car.</en>
+ <natlang>A goer from Atlanta to Boston using the car.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the x1 and x4 places are empty, and so no sumti are tagged with
<valsi>fa</valsi> or
<valsi>fo</valsi>; in addition, the x2 and x3 places appear in reverse order.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>FA selma'o</primary><secondary>effect on subsequent non-tagged places</secondary></indexterm> What if some sumti have FA tags and others do not? The rule is that after a FA-tagged sumti, any sumti following it occupy the places numerically succeeding it, subject to the proviso that an already-filled place is skipped:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-oDES">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e3d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>klama fa mi la bastn. la .atlantas. le dargu le karce</jbo>
<gloss>Go x1= I x2= Boston x3= Atlanta x4= the road x5= the car.</gloss>
- <en>Go I to Boston from Atlanta via the road using the car.</en>
+ <natlang>Go I to Boston from Atlanta via the road using the car.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-oDES"/>, the
<valsi>fa</valsi> causes
<valsi>mi</valsi> to occupy the x1 place, and then the following untagged sumti occupy in order the x2 through x5 places. This is the mechanism by which Lojban allows placing the selbri first while specifying a sumti for the x1 place.</para>
<para>Here is a more complex (and more confusing) example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-q8is">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e3d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi klama fi la .atlantas. le dargu fe la bastn. le karce</jbo>
<gloss>I go x3= Atlanta, the road x2= Boston, the car.</gloss>
- <en>I go from Atlanta via the road to Boston using the car.</en>
+ <natlang>I go from Atlanta via the road to Boston using the car.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-q8is"/>,
<valsi>mi</valsi> occupies the x1 place because it is the first sumti in the sentence (and is before the selbri). The second sumti,
<oldjbophrase>la .atlantas.</oldjbophrase>, occupies the x3 place by virtue of the tag
<valsi>fi</valsi>, and
<oldjbophrase>le dargu</oldjbophrase> occupies the x4 place as a result of following
<oldjbophrase>la .atlantas.</oldjbophrase>. Finally,
@@ -411,21 +411,21 @@
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-GnTu">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e3d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>fi'a do dunda [fe] le vi rozgu</jbo>
<gloss>[what place]? you give x2= the nearby rose</gloss>
<gloss>In what way are you involved in the giving of this rose?</gloss>
- <en>Are you the giver or the receiver of this rose?</en>
+ <natlang>Are you the giver or the receiver of this rose?</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-GnTu"/>, the speaker uses the selbri
<valsi>dunda</valsi>, whose place structure is:</para>
<place-structure>
<valsi>dunda</valsi>: x1 gives x2 to x3
</place-structure>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>answers</primary><secondary>to place structure questions</secondary></indexterm> The tagged sumti
<oldjbophrase>fi'a do</oldjbophrase> indicates that the speaker wishes to know whether the sumti
@@ -498,31 +498,31 @@
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>SE selma'o</primary><secondary>effect on place structure numbering</secondary></indexterm> Note that the place structure numbers in each case continue to be listed in the usual order, x1 to x5.</para>
<para>Consider the following pair of examples:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qmHh" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e4d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la bastn. cu se klama mi</jbo>
<gloss>Boston is-the-destination of-me.</gloss>
<gloss>Boston is my destination.</gloss>
- <en>Boston is gone to by me.</en>
+ <natlang>Boston is gone to by me.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qMHH" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e4d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>fe la bastn. cu klama fa mi</jbo>
<gloss>x2 = Boston go x1=I.</gloss>
- <en>To Boston go I.</en>
+ <natlang>To Boston go I.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>converted selbri</primary><secondary>as resetting standard order</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>FA in selbri</primary><secondary>compared with converted selbri in meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>converted selbri</primary><secondary>compared with selbri with FA in meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>FA in selbri</primary><secondary>contrasted converted selbri with in structure</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>converted selbri</primary><secondary>contrasted with selbri with FA in structure</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qmHh"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qMHH"/> mean the same thing, in the sense that there is a relationship of going with the speaker as the agent and Boston as the destination (and with unspecified origin, route, and means). Structurally, however, they are quite different.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qmHh"/> has
<oldjbophrase>la bastn.</oldjbophrase> in the x1 place and
<valsi>mi</valsi> in the x2 place of the selbri
<oldjbophrase>se klama</oldjbophrase>, and uses standard bridi order;
@@ -546,51 +546,51 @@
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>the go-er</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>converted selbri</primary><secondary>to access non-first place in description</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>descriptions</primary><secondary>use of SE in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>descriptions</primary><secondary>as based on first place of following selbri</secondary></indexterm> In every case, the description is about something which fits into the x1 place of the selbri. In order to get a description of a destination (that is, something fitting the x2 place of
<valsi>klama</valsi>), we must convert the selbri to
<oldjbophrase>se klama</oldjbophrase>, whose x1 place is a destination. The result is</para>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>the destination</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-brDN">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e4d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le se klama</jbo>
- <en>the destination gone to by someone</en>
+ <natlang>the destination gone to by someone</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Likewise, we can create three more converted descriptions:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qMIQ" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e4d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le te klama</jbo>
- <en>the origin of someone's going</en>
+ <natlang>the origin of someone's going</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qMjE" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e4d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le ve klama</jbo>
- <en>the route of someone's going</en>
+ <natlang>the route of someone's going</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qmji" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e4d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le xe klama</jbo>
- <en>the means by which someone goes</en>
+ <natlang>the means by which someone goes</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>pluta</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ve klama</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Mars road</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pluta</primary><secondary>contrasted with ve klama</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ve klama</primary><secondary>contrasted with pluta</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>converted selbri</primary><secondary>retention of basic meaning in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>converted selbri</primary><secondary>contrasted with other similar selbri</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qMjE"/> does not mean
<quote>the route</quote> plain and simple: that is
<oldjbophrase>le pluta</oldjbophrase>, using a different selbri. It means a route that is used by someone for an act of
<valsi>klama</valsi>; that is, a journey with origin and destination. A
<quote>road</quote> on Mars, on which no one has traveled or is ever likely to, may be called
@@ -684,21 +684,21 @@
<quote>I see you with the left eye.</quote> There is no place in the place structure of
<valsi>viska</valsi> such as
<quote>with eye x4</quote> or the like. Lojban allows you to solve the problem by adding a new place, changing the relationship:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-BSAc">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e5d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska do fi'o kanla [fe'u] le zunle</jbo>
<gloss>I see you [modal] eye: the left-thing</gloss>
- <en>I see you with the left eye.</en>
+ <natlang>I see you with the left eye.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fi'o with selbri</primary><secondary>meaning of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal tag</primary><secondary>fi'o with selbri as</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fi'o</primary><secondary>effect on following selbri</secondary></indexterm> The three-place relation
<valsi>viska</valsi> has now acquired a fourth place specifying the eye used for seeing. The combination of the cmavo
<valsi>fi'o</valsi> (of selma'o FIhO) followed by a selbri, in this case the gismu
<valsi>kanla</valsi>, forms a tag which is prefixed to the sumti filling the new place, namely
<oldjbophrase>le zunle</oldjbophrase>. The semantics of
<oldjbophrase>fi'o kanla le zunle</oldjbophrase> is that
<oldjbophrase>le zunle</oldjbophrase> fills the x1 place of
<valsi>kanla</valsi>, whose place structure is</para>
@@ -732,21 +732,21 @@
</place-structure>
<para>and we can rewrite
<xref linkend="example-random-id-BSAc"/> as</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Lu15">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e5d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska do fi'o se pilno le zunle kanla</jbo>
<gloss>I see you [modal] [conversion] use: the left eye.</gloss>
- <en>I see you using my left eye.</en>
+ <natlang>I see you using my left eye.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the selbri belonging to the modal is
<oldjbophrase>se pilno</oldjbophrase>. The conversion of
<valsi>pilno</valsi> is necessary in order to get the
<quote>tool</quote> place into x1, since only x1 can be the modal sumti. The
<quote>tool user</quote> place is the x2 of
<oldjbophrase>se pilno</oldjbophrase> (because it is the x1 of
@@ -775,21 +775,21 @@
<oldjbophrase>pilno-</oldjbophrase> the tool, not the tool user – the grammar allows a BAI cmavo to be converted using a SE cmavo.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Lu15"/> may therefore be rewritten as:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-N32m">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e6d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska do sepi'o le zunle kanla</jbo>
<gloss>I see you with-tool: the left eye</gloss>
- <en>I see you using my left eye.</en>
+ <natlang>I see you using my left eye.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The compound cmavo
<oldjbophrase>sepi'o</oldjbophrase> is much shorter than
<oldjbophrase>fi'o se pilno [fe'u]</oldjbophrase> and can be thought of as a single word meaning
<quote>with-tool</quote>. The modal tag
<valsi>pi'o</valsi>, with no
<valsi>se</valsi>, similarly means
@@ -826,85 +826,85 @@
<para>Any of these tags may be used to provide modal places for bridi, as in the following examples:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-r0QA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e6d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la .eivn. cu vecnu loi flira cinta ka'a mi</jbo>
<gloss>Avon sells a-mass-of face paint with-goer me.</gloss>
- <en>I am a traveling cosmetics salesperson for Avon.</en>
+ <natlang>I am a traveling cosmetics salesperson for Avon.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Avon</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>traveling salesperson</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> (
<xref linkend="example-random-id-r0QA"/> may seem a bit strained, but it illustrates the way in which an existing selbri,
<valsi>vecnu</valsi> in this case, may have a place added to it which might otherwise seem utterly unrelated.)</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qmJM" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e6d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cadzu seka'a la bratfyd.</jbo>
<gloss>I walk with-destination Bradford.</gloss>
- <en>I am walking to Bradford.</en>
+ <natlang>I am walking to Bradford.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qMjz" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e6d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>bloti teka'a la nu,IORK.</jbo>
<gloss>[Observative:] is-a-boat with-origin New York</gloss>
- <en>A boat from New York!</en>
+ <natlang>A boat from New York!</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qmLX" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e6d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do bajra veka'a lo djine</jbo>
<gloss>You run with-route a circle.</gloss>
- <en>You are running in circles.</en>
+ <natlang>You are running in circles.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qMMX" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e6d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi citka xeka'a le vinji</jbo>
<gloss>I eat with-means-of-transport the airplane.</gloss>
- <en>I eat in the airplane.</en>
+ <natlang>I eat in the airplane.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>English prepositions</primary><secondary>contrasted with modal tags in preciseness</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal tags</primary><secondary>contrasted with English prepositions in preciseness</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>BAI cmavo</primary><secondary>rationale for selection</secondary></indexterm> There are sixty-odd cmavo of selma'o BAI, based on selected gismu that seemed useful in a variety of settings. The list is somewhat biased toward English, because many of the cmavo were selected on the basis of corresponding English prepositions and preposition compounds such as <quote>with</quote>,
<quote>without</quote>, and
<quote>by means of</quote>. The BAI cmavo, however, are far more precise than English prepositions, because their meanings are fixed by the place structures of the corresponding gismu.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>BAI selma'o</primary><secondary>form of cmavo in</secondary></indexterm> All BAI cmavo have the form CV'V or CVV. Most of them are CV'V, where the C is the first consonant of the corresponding gismu and the two Vs are the two vowels of the gismu. The table in
<xref linkend="section-irregular-BAI"/> shows the exceptions.</para>
<para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vague relationship</primary><secondary>modal tag for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal tag</primary><secondary>for vague relationship</secondary></indexterm> There is one additional BAI cmavo that is not derived from a gismu:
<valsi>do'e</valsi>. This cmavo is used when an extra place is needed, but it seems useful to be vague about the semantic implications of the extra place:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2vMd">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e6d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo nanmu be do'e le berti cu klama le tcadu</jbo>
<gloss>Some man [related to] the north came to-the city.</gloss>
- <en>A man of the north came to the city.</en>
+ <natlang>A man of the north came to the city.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para><!-- FIXME: what to do with these "s? --><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal place</primary><secondary>on description selbri</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>"of"</primary><secondary>in English</secondary><tertiary>compared with do'e</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>do'e</primary><secondary>compared with English "of"</secondary></indexterm> Here
<oldjbophrase>le berti</oldjbophrase> is provided as a modal place of the selbri
<valsi>nanmu</valsi>, but its exact significance is vague, and is paralleled in the colloquial translation by the vague English preposition
<quote>of</quote>.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-2vMd"/> also illustrates a modal place bound into a selbri with
<valsi>be</valsi>. This construction is useful when the selbri of a description requires a modal place; this and other uses of
<valsi>be</valsi> are more fully explained in
<xref linkend="section-be-sumti"/>.</para>
@@ -981,55 +981,55 @@
<valsi>ni'i</valsi> respectively. Using these gismu and these modals, we can create various causal sentences with different implications:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qmMz" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e7d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le spati cu banro ri'a le nu do djacu dunda fi le spati</jbo>
<gloss>The plant grows with-physical-cause the event-of you water give to the plant.</gloss>
- <en>The plant grows because you water it.</en>
+ <natlang>The plant grows because you water it.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qmN2" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e7d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djan. cpacu le pamoi se jinga ki'u le nu la djan. jinga</jbo>
<gloss>John gets the first prize with-justification the event-of John wins.</gloss>
- <en>John got the first prize because he won.</en>
+ <natlang>John got the first prize because he won.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qMN7" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e7d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi lebna le cukta mu'i le nu mi viska le cukta</jbo>
<gloss>I took the book with-motivation the event-of I saw the book.</gloss>
- <en>I took the book because I saw it.</en>
+ <natlang>I took the book because I saw it.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qMNc" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e7d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la sokrates. morsi binxo ni'i le nu la sokrates. remna</jbo>
<gloss>Socrates dead-became with-logical-justification Socrates is-human.</gloss>
- <en>Socrates died because Socrates is human.</en>
+ <natlang>Socrates died because Socrates is human.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Socrates</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>plant grows</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>"because"</primary><secondary>English word</secondary><tertiary>four varieties of</tertiary></indexterm> In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qmMz"/> through
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qMNc"/>, the same English word
<quote>because</quote> is used to translate all four modals, but the types of cause being expressed are quite different. Let us now focus on
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qmMz"/>, and explore some variations on it.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>causals</primary><secondary>claiming the relation contrasted with claiming cause and/or effect and/or relation</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstraction bridi</primary><secondary>effect on claim of bridi</secondary></indexterm> As written,
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qmMz"/> claims that the plant grows, but only refers to the event of watering it in an abstraction bridi (abstractions are explained in
@@ -1037,81 +1037,81 @@
<xref linkend="chapter-abstractions"/>) without actually making a claim. If I express
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qmMz"/>, I have said that the plant in fact grows, but I have not said that you actually water it, merely that there is a causal relationship between watering and growing. This is semantically asymmetrical. Suppose I wanted to claim that the plant was being watered, and only mention its growth as ancillary information? Then we could reverse the main bridi and the abstraction bridi, saying:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ibro">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e7d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do djacu dunda fi le spati seri'a le nu ri banro</jbo>
<gloss>You water-give to the plant with-physical-effect it grows.</gloss>
- <en>You water the plant; therefore, it grows.</en>
+ <natlang>You water the plant; therefore, it grows.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>with the
<valsi>ri'a</valsi> changed to
<oldjbophrase>seri'a</oldjbophrase>. In addition, there are also symmetrical forms:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1YHv">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e7d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nu do djacu dunda fi le spati cu rinka le nu le spati cu banro</jbo>
<gloss>The event-of (you water-give to the plant) causes the event-of (the plant grows).</gloss>
- <en>Your watering the plant causes its growth. If you water the plant, then it grows.</en>
+ <natlang>Your watering the plant causes its growth. If you water the plant, then it grows.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>does not claim either event, but asserts only the causal relationship between them. So in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-1YHv"/>, I am not saying that the plant grows nor that you have in fact watered it. The second colloquial translation shows a form of
<quote>if-then</quote> in English quite distinct from the logical connective
<quote>if-then</quote> explained in
<xref linkend="chapter-connectives"/>.</para>
<para>Suppose we wish to claim both events as well as their causal relationship? We can use one of two methods:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qMnX" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e7d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le spati cu banro .iri'abo do djacu dunda fi le spati</jbo>
<gloss>The plant grows. Because you water-give to the plant.</gloss>
- <en>The plant grows because you water it.</en>
+ <natlang>The plant grows because you water it.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal sentence connection</primary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qMPn" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e7d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>do djacu dunda fi le spati .iseri'abo le spati cu banro</jbo>
<gloss>You water-give to the plant. Therefore it grows.</gloss>
- <en>You water the plant; therefore, it grows.</en>
+ <natlang>You water the plant; therefore, it grows.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The compound cmavo
<oldjbophrase>.iri'abo</oldjbophrase> and
<oldjbophrase>.iseri'abo</oldjbophrase> serve to connect two bridi, as the initial
<valsi>i</valsi> indicates. The final
<valsi>bo</valsi> is necessary to prevent the modal from
<quote>taking over</quote> the following sumti. If the
<valsi>bo</valsi> were omitted from
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qMnX"/> we would have:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Wo6K">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e7d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le spati cu banro .i ri'a do djacu dunda fi le spati</jbo>
<gloss>The plant grows. Because of you, [something] water-gives to the plant.</gloss>
- <en>The plant grows. Because of you, water is given to the plant.</en>
+ <natlang>The plant grows. Because of you, water is given to the plant.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Because
<oldjbophrase>ri'a do</oldjbophrase> is a modal sumti in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Wo6K"/>, there is no longer an explicit sumti in the x1 place of
<oldjbophrase>djacu dunda</oldjbophrase>, and the translation must be changed.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal sentence connection</primary><secondary>relation to modal of second sentence in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal sentence connection</primary><secondary>relation to modal of first sentence in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal sentence connection</primary><secondary>effect on modal</secondary></indexterm> The effect of sentences like
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qMnX"/> and
@@ -1130,42 +1130,42 @@
<xref linkend="chapter-connectives"/> for a more detailed discussion of Lojban connectives.)
<xref linkend="section-causals"/> exemplifies only afterthought modal connection, illustrated here by:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2D4c">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e8d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi jgari lei djacu .iri'abo mi jgari le kabri</jbo>
<gloss>I grasp the-mass-of water with-physical-cause I grasp the cup.</gloss>
<gloss>Causing the mass of water to be grasped by me, I grasped the cup.</gloss>
- <en>I grasp the water because I grasp the cup.</en>
+ <natlang>I grasp the water because I grasp the cup.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>grasp water</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>forethought connection</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>afterthought connection</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> An afterthought connection is one that is signaled only by a cmavo (or a compound cmavo, in this case) between the two constructs being connected. Forethought connection uses a signal both before the first construct and between the two: the use of
<quote>both</quote> and
<quote>and</quote> in the first half of this sentence represents a forethought connection (though not a modal one).</para>
<para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal sentence connection</primary><secondary>forethought</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>forethought modal sentence connection</primary></indexterm> To make forethought modal sentence connections in Lojban, place the modal plus
<valsi>gi</valsi> before the first bridi, and
<valsi>gi</valsi> between the two. No
<valsi>i</valsi> is used within the construct. The forethought equivalent of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-2D4c"/> is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-d2b9">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e8d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ri'agi mi jgari le kabri gi mi jgari lei djacu</jbo>
<gloss>With-physical-cause I grasp the cup, I grasp the-mass-of water.</gloss>
- <en>Because I grasp the cup, I grasp the water.</en>
+ <natlang>Because I grasp the cup, I grasp the water.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>forethought modal sentence connection</primary><secondary>relation to modal of second bridi in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>forethought modal sentence connection</primary><secondary>relation to modal of first bridi in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>forethought modal sentence connection for causals</primary><secondary>order of cause and effect</secondary></indexterm> Note that the cause, the x1 of
<valsi>rinka</valsi> is now placed first. To keep the two bridi in the original order of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-2D4c"/>, we could say:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rQ77">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e8d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1198,21 +1198,21 @@
<xref linkend="example-random-id-rQ77"/>, but there is no idiomatic English translation that will distinguish it from them.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>termset modal connection</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modals</primary><secondary>termset connection</secondary></indexterm> If the two connected bridi are different in more than one sumti, then a termset may be employed. Termsets are explained more fully in
<xref linkend="section-termsets"/>, but are essentially a mechanism for creating connections between multiple sumti simultaneously.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-LetE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e8d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi dunda le cukta la djan. .imu'ibo la djan. dunda lei jdini mi</jbo>
<gloss>I gave the book to John. Motivated-by John gave the-mass-of money to-me.</gloss>
- <en>I gave the book to John, because John gave money to me.</en>
+ <natlang>I gave the book to John, because John gave money to me.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>means the same as:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>nu'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>nu'i</primary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-tFSC">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e8d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>nu'i mu'igi la djan. lei jdini mi gi mi le cukta la djan. nu'u dunda</jbo>
@@ -1262,32 +1262,32 @@
<para>which doesn't require the extra
<valsi>vau</valsi>; all sumti before a conjunction of bridi-tails are shared.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>operand modal connection</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal operand connection</primary></indexterm> Finally, mathematical operands can be modally connected.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-J2T5">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e8d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li ny. du li vo .ini'ibo li ny. du li re su'i re</jbo>
<gloss>the number n = the-number 4. Entailed-by the-number n = the-number 2 + 2.</gloss>
- <en>n = 4 because n = 2 + 2.</en>
+ <natlang>n = 4 because n = 2 + 2.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>can be reduced to:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Mfe4">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e8d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li ny. du li ni'igi vei re su'i re [ve'o] gi vo</jbo>
<gloss>the-number n = the-number because ( 2 + 2 ) therefore 4.</gloss>
- <en>n is 2 + 2, and is thus 4.</en>
+ <natlang>n is 2 + 2, and is thus 4.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The cmavo
<valsi>vei</valsi> and
<valsi>ve'o</valsi> represent mathematical parentheses, and are required so that
<oldjbophrase>ni'igi</oldjbophrase> affects more than just the immediately following operand, namely the first
<valsi>re</valsi>. (The right parenthesis,
<valsi>ve'o</valsi>, is an elidable terminator.) As usual, no English translation does
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Mfe4"/> justice.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal connectives</primary><secondary>fi'o prohibited in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fi'o</primary><secondary>restriction on use</secondary></indexterm> Note: Due to restrictions on the Lojban parsing algorithm, it is not possible to form modal connectives using the
@@ -1299,21 +1299,21 @@
<section xml:id="section-modal-selbri">
<title>Modal selbri</title>
<para>Consider the example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-bT4c">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e9d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi tavla bau la lojban. bai tu'a la frank.</jbo>
<gloss>I speak in-language Lojban with-compeller some-act-by Frank.</gloss>
- <en>I speak in Lojban, under compulsion by Frank.</en>
+ <natlang>I speak in Lojban, under compulsion by Frank.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>bai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>under compulsion</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal sumti</primary><secondary>unspecified</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal sumti</primary><secondary>leaving vague</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-bT4c"/> has two modal sumti, using the modals
<valsi>bau</valsi> and
<valsi>bai</valsi>. Suppose we wanted to specify the language explicitly but be vague about who's doing the compelling. We can simplify
<xref linkend="example-random-id-bT4c"/> to:</para>
@@ -1384,34 +1384,34 @@
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fi'o modal followed by selbri</primary><secondary>effect on eliding fe'u</secondary></indexterm> If the modal preceding a selbri is constructed using
<valsi>fi'o</valsi>, then
<valsi>fe'u</valsi> is required to prevent the main selbri and the modal selbri from colliding:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-SfwV">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e9d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi fi'o kanla fe'u viska do</jbo>
<gloss>I with-eye see you.</gloss>
- <en>I see you with my eye(s).</en>
+ <natlang>I see you with my eye(s).</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>bai ke</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>see with eye</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modals</primary><secondary>expanding scope over inner modal connection</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modals</primary><secondary>expanding scope over non-logical connection</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modals</primary><secondary>expanding scope over logical connection with ke ... ke'e</secondary></indexterm> There are two other uses of modals. A modal can be attached to a pair of bridi-tails that have already been connected by a logical, non-logical, or modal connection (see
<xref linkend="chapter-connectives"/> for more on logical and non-logical connections):</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-vCzL">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e9d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi bai ke ge klama le zarci gi cadzu le bisli [ke'e]</jbo>
<gloss>I under-compulsion (both go to-the market and walk on-the ice).</gloss>
- <en>Under compulsion, I both go to the market and walk on the ice.</en>
+ <natlang>Under compulsion, I both go to the market and walk on the ice.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Here the
<valsi>bai</valsi> is spread over both
<oldjbophrase>klama le zarci</oldjbophrase> and
<oldjbophrase>cadzu le bisli</oldjbophrase>, and the
<oldjbophrase>ge ... gi</oldjbophrase> represents the logical connection
<quote>both-and</quote> between the two.</para>
<para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modals</primary><secondary>expanding scope over multiple sentences with tu'e…tu'u</secondary></indexterm> Similarly, a modal can be attached to multiple sentences that have been combined with
<valsi>tu'e</valsi> and
@@ -1580,37 +1580,37 @@
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
<para>Here are some examples:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Jr4V">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e10d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la frank. nelci la betis. ne semau la meiris.</jbo>
<gloss>Frank likes Betty, which-is more-than Mary.</gloss>
- <en>Frank likes Betty more than (he likes) Mary.</en>
+ <natlang>Frank likes Betty more than (he likes) Mary.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>likes more than</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Jr4V"/> requires that Frank likes Betty, but adds the information that his liking for Betty exceeds his liking for Mary. The modal appears in the form
<oldjbophrase>semau</oldjbophrase> because the x2 place of
<valsi>zmadu</valsi> is the basis for comparison: in this case, Frank's liking for Mary.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ecf1">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e10d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la frank. nelci la meiris. ne seme'a la betis.</jbo>
<gloss>Frank likes Mary, which-is less-than Betty.</gloss>
- <en>Frank likes Mary less than (he likes) Betty.</en>
+ <natlang>Frank likes Mary less than (he likes) Betty.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>me'a</primary><secondary>avoiding in favor of semau</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mau</primary><secondary>avoiding in favor of seme'a</secondary></indexterm> Here we are told that Frank likes Mary less than he likes Betty; the information about the comparison is the same. It would be possible to rephrase
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Jr4V"/> using
<valsi>me'a</valsi> rather than
<oldjbophrase>semau</oldjbophrase>, and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-ecf1"/> using
<valsi>mau</valsi> rather than
@@ -1630,21 +1630,21 @@
<oldjbophrase>la meiris.</oldjbophrase> and
<oldjbophrase>la betis.</oldjbophrase> respectively) would become attached to the bridi as a whole, producing a very different translation.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-ecf1"/> would become:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-5QHA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e10d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la frank. nelci la meiris. seme'a la betis.</jbo>
<gloss>Frank likes Mary is-less-than Betty.</gloss>
- <en>Frank's liking Mary is less than Betty.</en>
+ <natlang>Frank's liking Mary is less than Betty.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which compares a liking with a person, and is therefore nonsense.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi-based comparison</primary><secondary>contrasted with comparison with relative phrase</secondary><tertiary>in claims about parts</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>comparison with relative phrase</primary><secondary>contrasted with bridi-based comparison</secondary><tertiary>in claims about parts</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>comparison</primary><secondary>claims related to based on form</secondary></indexterm> Pure comparison, which states only the comparative information but says nothing about whether Frank actually likes either Mary or Betty (he may like neither, but dislike Betty less), would be expressed differently, as:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-AAQp">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e10d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1715,65 +1715,65 @@
<oldjbophrase>mi nelci do</oldjbophrase> and
<oldjbophrase>mi nelci la djein.</oldjbophrase> differ only in the final sumti, we can transform
<xref linkend="example-random-id-W3Le"/> into a mixed sumti connection:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gE1z">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e11d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci do .eki'ubo la djein.</jbo>
- <en>I like you and/because Jane.</en>
+ <natlang>I like you and/because Jane.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mixed modal connection</primary><secondary>as proscribed in forethought</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mixed modal connection</primary><secondary>afterthought</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mixed modal connection</primary><secondary>of sumti</secondary></indexterm> Note that this connection is an afterthought one. Mixed connectives are always afterthought; forethought connectives must be either logical or modal.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mixed modal connection</primary><secondary>of bridi-tails</secondary></indexterm> There are numerous other afterthought logical and non-logical connectives that can have modal information planted within them. For example, a bridi-tail connected version of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-gE1z"/> would be:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7LmA">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e11d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci do gi'eki'ubo nelci la djein.</jbo>
- <en>I like you and/because like Jane.</en>
+ <natlang>I like you and/because like Jane.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The following three complex examples all mean the same thing.</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qMRB" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e11d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi bevri le dakli .ijeseri'abo tu'e mi bevri le gerku .ijadu'ibo mi bevri le mlatu [tu'u]</jbo>
<gloss>I carry the sack. And [effect] (I carry the dog. And/or [equal] I carry the cat.)</gloss>
- <en>I carry the sack. As a result I carry the dog or I carry the cat, equally.</en>
+ <natlang>I carry the sack. As a result I carry the dog or I carry the cat, equally.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qmRL" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e11d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi bevri le dakli gi'eseri'ake bevri le gerku gi'adu'ibo bevri le mlatu [ke'e]</jbo>
<gloss>I carry the sack and [effect] (carry the dog and/or [equal] carry the cat).</gloss>
- <en>I carry the sack and as a result carry the dog or carry the cat equally.</en>
+ <natlang>I carry the sack and as a result carry the dog or carry the cat equally.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qMSb" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e11d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi bevri le dakli .eseri'ake le gerku .adu'ibo le mlatu [ke'e]</jbo>
<gloss>I carry the sack and [effect] (the cat and/or [equal] the dog).</gloss>
- <en>I carry the sack, and as a result the cat or the dog equally.</en>
+ <natlang>I carry the sack, and as a result the cat or the dog equally.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ke'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ke</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>tu'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>tu'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>carry sack</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qMRB"/>, the
<oldjbophrase>tu'e ... tu'u</oldjbophrase> brackets are the equivalent of the
<oldjbophrase>ke ... ke'e</oldjbophrase> brackets in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qmRL"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qMSb"/>, because
<oldjbophrase>ke ... ke'e</oldjbophrase> cannot extend across more than one sentence. It would also be possible to change the
<oldjbophrase>.ijeseri'abo</oldjbophrase> to
@@ -1847,31 +1847,31 @@
<valsi>jai</valsi> by itself is to send the x1 place, which should be an abstraction, into the
<valsi>fai</valsi> position, and to raise one of the sumti from the abstract sub-bridi into the x1 place of the main bridi. This feature is discussed in more detail in
<xref linkend="section-sumti-raising"/>. The following two examples mean the same thing:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qMsd" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e12d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nu mi lebna le cukta cu se krinu le nu mi viska le cukta</jbo>
<gloss>The event-of (I take the book) is-justified-by the event-of (I see the book).</gloss>
- <en>My taking the book is justified by my seeing it.</en>
+ <natlang>My taking the book is justified by my seeing it.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qMse" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e12d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi jai se krinu le nu mi viska le cukta kei [fai le nu mi lebna le cukta]</jbo>
<gloss>I am-justified by the event-of (I see the book) [namely, the event-of (I take the book)]</gloss>
- <en>I am justified in taking the book by seeing the book.</en>
+ <natlang>I am justified in taking the book by seeing the book.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal conversion without modal</primary><secondary>as vague</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qMse"/>, with the bracketed part omitted, allows us to say that
<quote>I am justified</quote> whereas in fact it is my action that is justified. This construction is vague, but useful in representing natural-language methods of expression.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fi'o</primary><secondary>and modal conversion</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal conversion with fi'o</primary></indexterm> Note: The uses of modals discussed in this section are applicable both to BAI modals and to
<oldjbophrase>fi'o-</oldjbophrase>plus-selbri modals.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-modal-negation">
<title>Modal negation</title>
@@ -1881,21 +1881,21 @@
<quote>John went to (somewhere) other than Paris</quote> (scalar negation).</para>
<para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modals</primary><secondary>contradictory negation of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>negation of modals</primary><secondary>contradictory</secondary></indexterm> Contradictory negation involving BAI cmavo is performed by appending
<oldjbophrase>-nai</oldjbophrase> (of selma'o NAI) to the BAI. A common use of modals with
<oldjbophrase>-nai</oldjbophrase> is to deny a causal relationship:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ej84">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e13d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci do mu'inai le nu do nelci mi</jbo>
- <en>I like you, but not because you like me.</en>
+ <natlang>I like you, but not because you like me.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>contradictory negation of modals</primary><secondary>explanation of meaning</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-ej84"/> denies that the relationship between my liking you (which is asserted) and your liking me (which is not asserted) is one of motivation. Nothing is said about whether you like me or not, merely that that hypothetical liking is not the motivation for my liking you.</para>
<para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modals</primary><secondary>scalar negation of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>negation of modals</primary><secondary>scalar</secondary></indexterm> Scalar negation is achieved by prefixing
<valsi>na'e</valsi> (of selma'o NAhE), or any of the other cmavo of NAhE, to the BAI cmavo.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9WC5">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e13d2"/>
</title>
@@ -1952,51 +1952,51 @@
<oldjbophrase>BAI ki ku</oldjbophrase>, which stops any modal value for the specified BAI from being passed to the next bridi. To cancel stickiness for all modals simultaneously, and also for any sticky tenses that exist (
<valsi>ki</valsi> is used for both modals and tenses), use
<valsi>ki</valsi> by itself, either before the selbri or (in the form
<oldjbophrase>ki ku</oldjbophrase>) anywhere in the bridi:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sYdo">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e14d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ki tavla</jbo>
- <en>I speak (no implication about language or compulsion).</en>
+ <natlang>I speak (no implication about language or compulsion).</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fi'o</primary><secondary>proscribed for sticky modals</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sticky modals</primary><secondary>fi'o proscribed from</secondary></indexterm> Note: Modals made with
<valsi>fi'o</valsi>-plus-selbri cannot be made sticky. This is an unfortunate, but unavoidable, restriction.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-connected-modals">
<title>Logical and non-logical connection of modals</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-logical connection</primary><secondary>of modals</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>of modals</secondary></indexterm> Logical and non-logical connectives are explained in detail in
<xref linkend="chapter-connectives"/>. For the purposes of this chapter, it suffices to point out that a logical (or non-logical) connection between two bridi which differ only in a modal can be reduced to a single bridi with a connective between the modals. As a result,
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qMsx"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qMte"/> mean the same thing:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qMsx" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e15d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la frank. bajra seka'a le zdani .ije la frank. bajra teka'a le zdani</jbo>
<gloss>Frank runs with-destination the house. And Frank runs with-origin the house.</gloss>
- <en>Frank runs to the house, and Frank runs from the house.</en>
+ <natlang>Frank runs to the house, and Frank runs from the house.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qMte" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e15d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la frank. bajra seka'a je teka'a le zdani</jbo>
<gloss>Frank runs with-destination and with-origin the house.</gloss>
- <en>Frank runs to and from the house.</en>
+ <natlang>Frank runs to and from the house.</natlang>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para><indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>je</primary></indexterm> Neither example implies whether a single act, or two acts, of running is referred to. To compel the sentence to refer to a single act of running, you can use the form:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-b0LW">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c9e15d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la frank. bajra seka'a le zdani ce'e teka'a le zdani</jbo>
<gloss>Frank runs with-destination the house [joined-to] with-origin the-house.</gloss>
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