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[bpfk] dag-cll git updates for Sun Jan 30 13:21:02 EST 2011
commit fbb8de3c51a9a288dced98a3580bf4d5cd662e92
Merge: b8a1162 4fdc8cb
Author: Robin Lee Powell <rlpowell@digitalkingdom.org>
Date: Sun Jan 30 09:03:20 2011 -0800
Merge commit '4fdc8cb82cf07abea987c808094d446d817855e3' into gh-pages
commit 4fdc8cb82cf07abea987c808094d446d817855e3
Author: Eitan Postavsky <eitanp32@gmail.com>
Date: Thu Jan 6 17:58:43 2011 -0500
Chapter 6 indexterms. Many FIXMEs.
diff --git a/todocbook/6.xml b/todocbook/6.xml
index 1acdbb3..ea9c9ef 100644
--- a/todocbook/6.xml
+++ b/todocbook/6.xml
@@ -16,87 +16,87 @@
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>contrasted with description</secondary></indexterm> In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-VKU6"/>,
<jbophrase>mi</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>le zarci</jbophrase> are the sumti. It is easy to see that these two sumti are not of the same kind:
<jbophrase>mi</jbophrase> is a pro-sumti (the Lojban analogue of a pronoun) referring to the speaker, whereas
<jbophrase>le zarci</jbophrase> is a description which refers to something described as being a market.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>kinds of</secondary></indexterm> There are five kinds of simple sumti provided by Lojban:</para>
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
- <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>le</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gadri</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>descriptions as</secondary></indexterm> descriptions like
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gadri</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>descriptions as</secondary></indexterm> descriptions like
<jbophrase>le zarci</jbophrase>, which usually begin with a descriptor (called a
<jbophrase>gadri</jbophrase> in Lojban) such as
<jbophrase>le</jbophrase>;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
- <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>mi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>pro-sumti as</secondary></indexterm> pro-sumti, such as
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>pro-sumti as</secondary></indexterm> pro-sumti, such as
<jbophrase>mi</jbophrase>;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
- <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>la</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>names as</secondary></indexterm> names, such as
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>names as</secondary></indexterm> names, such as
<jbophrase>la lojban.</jbophrase>, which usually begin with
<jbophrase>la</jbophrase>;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
- <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>zoi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>zo</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>le'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>lu</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>quotations as</secondary></indexterm> quotations, which begin with
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>quotations as</secondary></indexterm> quotations, which begin with
<jbophrase>lu</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>le'u</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>zo</jbophrase>, or
<jbophrase>zoi</jbophrase>;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
- <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>li</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>numbers as</secondary></indexterm> pure numbers, which usually begin with
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>numbers as</secondary></indexterm> pure numbers, which usually begin with
<jbophrase>li</jbophrase>.</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
<para>Here are a few examples of each kind of sumti:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Dx1s">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e1d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>e'osai ko sarji la lojban.</jbo>
<en>Please support Lojban!</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
- <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ko</primary></indexterm>
+ <para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Dx1s"/> exhibits
<jbophrase>ko</jbophrase>, a pro-sumti; and
<jbophrase>la lojban.</jbophrase>, a name.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-v1mS">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e1d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cusku lu e'osai li'u le tcidu</jbo>
<en>I express
<quote>Please!</quote> to-the reader.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
- <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>le</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>li'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>lu</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>mi</primary></indexterm>
+ <para> <!-- FIXME: these three indexterms aren't <jbophrase>d alone --><indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>le</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>li'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>lu</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-v1mS"/> exhibits
<jbophrase>mi</jbophrase>, a pro-sumti;
<jbophrase>lu e'osai li'u</jbophrase>, a quotation; and
<jbophrase>le tcidu</jbophrase>, a description.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-0YaH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e1d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ti mitre li ci</jbo>
<gloss>This measures-in-meters the-number three.</gloss>
<en>This is three meters long.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
- <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>li</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ti</primary></indexterm>
+ <para> <!-- FIXME: this indexterm isn't <jbophrase>d alone --><indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>li</primary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-0YaH"/> exhibits
<jbophrase>ti</jbophrase>, a pro-sumti; and
<jbophrase>li ci</jbophrase>, a number.</para>
<para>Most of this chapter is about descriptions, as they have the most complicated syntax and usage. Some attention is also given to names, which are closely interwoven with descriptions. Pro-sumti, numbers, and quotations are described in more detail in
<xref linkend="chapter-anaphoric-cmavo"/>,
<xref linkend="chapter-mekso"/>, and
<xref linkend="chapter-structure"/> respectively, so this chapter only gives summaries of their forms and uses. See
<xref linkend="section-pro-sumti"/> through
<xref linkend="section-numbers"/> for these summaries.</para>
</section>
@@ -158,44 +158,45 @@
<gloss>One-or-more-specific-things-which-I-describe as <quote>markets</quote> is/are-big.</gloss>
<en>The market is big.</en>
<en>The markets are big.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>plurals</primary><secondary>Lojban contrasted with English in necessity of marking</secondary></indexterm> Note that English-speakers must state whether a reference to markets is to just one (
<quote>the market</quote>) or to more than one (
<quote>the markets</quote>). Lojban requires no such forced choice, so both colloquial translations of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-ULGC"/> are valid. Only the context can specify which is meant. (This rule does not mean that Lojban has no way of specifying the number of markets in such a case: that mechanism is explained in
<xref linkend="section-quantified-descriptions"/>.)</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>The men are women</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> Now consider the following strange-looking example:</para>
+ <para>Now consider the following strange-looking example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PutX">
<title>
+ <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>The men are women</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c6e2d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le nanmu cu ninmu</jbo>
<gloss>One-or-more-specific-things-which-I-describe as <quote>men</quote> are women.</gloss>
<en>The man is a woman.</en>
<en>The men are women.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le</primary><secondary>in false-to-fact descriptions</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-PutX"/> is not self-contradictory in Lojban, because
<jbophrase>le nanmu</jbophrase> merely means something or other which, for my present purposes, I choose to describe as a man, whether or not it really is a man. A plausible instance would be: someone we had assumed to be a man at a distance turned out to be actually a woman on closer observation.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-PutX"/> is what I would say to point out my observation to you.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>descriptions</primary><secondary>specific</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>specific descriptions</primary></indexterm> In all descriptions with
<jbophrase>le</jbophrase>, the listener is presumed to either know what I have in mind or else not to be concerned at present (perhaps I will give more identifying details later). In particular, I might be pointing at the supposed man or men:
<xref linkend="example-random-id-PutX"/> would then be perfectly intelligible, since
<jbophrase>le nanmu</jbophrase> merely clarifies that I am pointing at the supposed man, not at a landscape, or a nose, which happens to lie in the same direction.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>lo</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo</primary><secondary>implications of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>descriptions</primary><secondary>non-specific</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-specific descriptions</primary></indexterm> The second descriptor dealt with in this section is
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo</primary><secondary>implications of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>descriptions</primary><secondary>non-specific</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-specific descriptions</primary></indexterm> The second descriptor dealt with in this section is
<jbophrase>lo</jbophrase>. Unlike
<jbophrase>le</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>lo</jbophrase> is nonspecific:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-t11z">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e2d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo zarci</jbo>
<gloss>one-or-more-of-all-the-things-which-really are-markets</gloss>
@@ -216,38 +217,39 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo nanmu cu ninmu</jbo>
<en>Some man is a woman.</en>
<en>Some men are women.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>must be false in Lojban, given that there are no objects in the real world which are both men and women. Pointing at some specific men or women would not make
<xref linkend="example-random-id-fSxN"/> true, because those specific individuals are no more both-men-and-women than any others. In general,
<jbophrase>lo</jbophrase> refers to whatever individuals meet its description.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>la</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>la</primary><secondary>use with descriptions contrasted with use before Lojbanized names</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le</primary><secondary>compared with la in specificity</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>la</primary><secondary>compared with le in specificity</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>la</primary><secondary>implications of</secondary></indexterm> The last descriptor of this section is
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>la</primary><secondary>use with descriptions contrasted with use before Lojbanized names</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le</primary><secondary>compared with la in specificity</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>la</primary><secondary>compared with le in specificity</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>la</primary><secondary>implications of</secondary></indexterm> The last descriptor of this section is
<jbophrase>la</jbophrase>, which indicates that the selbri which follows it has been dissociated from its normal meaning and is being used as a name. Like
<jbophrase>le</jbophrase> descriptions,
<jbophrase>la</jbophrase> descriptions are implicitly restricted to those I have in mind. (Do not confuse this use of
<jbophrase>la</jbophrase> with its use before regular Lojbanized names, which is discussed in
<xref linkend="section-names"/>.) For example:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PrGp">
<title>
+ <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>bear wrote story</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c6e2d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la cribe pu finti le lisri</jbo>
<gloss>The-one-named
<quote>bear</quote> [past] creates the story.</gloss>
<en>Bear wrote the story.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
- <para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>bear wrote story</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>naming predicate</primary></indexterm> In
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>naming predicate</primary></indexterm> In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-PrGp"/>,
<jbophrase>la cribe</jbophrase> refers to someone whose naming predicate is
<jbophrase>cribe</jbophrase>, i.e.
<quote>Bear</quote>. In English, most names don't mean anything, or at least not anything obvious. The name
<quote>Frank</quote> coincides with the English word
<quote>frank</quote>, meaning
<quote>honest</quote>, and so one way of translating
<quote>Frank ate some cheese</quote> into Lojban would be:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-yyBX">
@@ -322,21 +324,21 @@
<jbo>lo remna pu finti le lisri</jbo>
<en>A human being wrote the story.</en>
<en>Some human beings wrote the story.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo</primary><secondary>contrasted with le in implications</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le</primary><secondary>contrasted with lo in implications</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qKw7"/> says who the author of the story is: one or more particular human beings that the speaker has in mind. If the topic of conversation is the story, then
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qKw7"/> identifies the author as someone who can be pointed out or who has been previously mentioned; whereas if the topic is a person, then
<jbophrase>le remna</jbophrase> is in effect a shorthand reference to that person.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qKYf"/> merely says that the author is human.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ku</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ku</primary><secondary>uses of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cu</primary><secondary>effect on elidability of ku</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ku</primary><secondary>effect of following selbri on elidability of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ku</primary><secondary>as elidable terminator for descriptions</secondary></indexterm> The elidable terminator for all descriptions is
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ku</primary><secondary>uses of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cu</primary><secondary>effect on elidability of ku</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ku</primary><secondary>effect of following selbri on elidability of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ku</primary><secondary>as elidable terminator for descriptions</secondary></indexterm> The elidable terminator for all descriptions is
<jbophrase>ku</jbophrase>. It can almost always be omitted with no danger of ambiguity. The main exceptions are in certain uses of relative clauses, which are discussed in
<xref linkend="chapter-relative-clauses"/>, and in the case of a description immediately preceding the selbri. In this latter case, using an explicit
<jbophrase>cu</jbophrase> before the selbri makes the
<jbophrase>ku</jbophrase> unnecessary. There are also a few other uses of
<jbophrase>ku</jbophrase>: in the compound negator
<jbophrase>naku</jbophrase> (discussed in
<xref linkend="chapter-negation"/>) and to terminate place-structure, tense, and modal tags that do not have associated sumti (discussed in
<xref linkend="chapter-sumti-tcita"/> and
<xref linkend="chapter-tenses"/>).</para>
</section>
@@ -382,113 +384,118 @@
<para>(Of course the second
<jbophrase>le</jbophrase> should really get the same translation as the first, but I am putting the focus of this discussion on the first
<jbophrase>le</jbophrase>, the one preceding
<jbophrase>prenu</jbophrase>. I will assume that there is only one piano under discussion.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>individual objects</primary><secondary>multiple</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple individual objects</primary><secondary>meaning of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le</primary><secondary>meaning of in the plural</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>plurals with le</primary><secondary>meaning of</secondary></indexterm> Suppose the context of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-mwhq"/> is such that you can determine that I am talking about three persons. What am I claiming? I am claiming that each of the three persons carried the piano. This claim can be true if the persons carried the piano one at a time, or in turns, or in a variety of other ways. But in order for
<xref linkend="example-random-id-mwhq"/> to be true, I must be willing to assert that person 1 carried the piano, and that person 2 carried the piano, and that person 3 carried the piano.</para>
<para>But suppose I am not willing to claim that. For in fact pianos are heavy, and very few persons can carry a piano all by themselves. The most likely factual situation is that person 1 carried one end of the piano, and person 2 the other end, while person 3 either held up the middle or else supervised the whole operation without actually lifting anything. The correct way of expressing such a situation in Lojban is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-eCsh">
<title>
+ <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>piano-moving</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c6e3d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lei prenu cu bevri le pipno</jbo>
<gloss>The-mass-of-one-or-more-of-those-I-describe-as persons carry the piano.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
- <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>lei</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>piano-moving</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mass object</primary><secondary>and logical reasoning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mass object</primary><secondary>properties of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple individual objects</primary><secondary>contrasted with mass object</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mass object</primary><secondary>contrasted with multiple individual objects</secondary></indexterm> Here the same three persons are treated not as individuals, but as a so-called
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mass object</primary><secondary>and logical reasoning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mass object</primary><secondary>properties of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple individual objects</primary><secondary>contrasted with mass object</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mass object</primary><secondary>contrasted with multiple individual objects</secondary></indexterm> Here the same three persons are treated not as individuals, but as a so-called
<quote>mass entity</quote>, or just
<quote>mass</quote>. A mass has the properties of each individual which composes it, and may have other properties of its own as well. This can lead to apparent contradictions. Thus suppose in the piano-moving example above that person 1 has fair skin, whereas person 2 has dark skin. Then it is correct to say that the person-mass has both fair skin and dark skin. Using the mass descriptor
<jbophrase>lei</jbophrase> signals that ordinary logical reasoning is not applicable: contradictions can be maintained, and all sorts of other peculiarities may exist. However, we can safely say that a mass inherits only the component properties that are relevant to it; it would be ludicrous to say that a mass of two persons is of molecular dimensions, simply because some of the parts (namely, the molecules) of the persons are that small.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>lai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>loi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lai</primary><secondary>as mass counterpart of lai</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>loi</primary><secondary>as mass counterpart of lo</secondary></indexterm> The descriptors
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lai</primary><secondary>as mass counterpart of lai</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>loi</primary><secondary>as mass counterpart of lo</secondary></indexterm> The descriptors
<jbophrase>loi</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>lai</jbophrase> are analogous to
<jbophrase>lo</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>la</jbophrase> respectively, but refer to masses either by property (
<jbophrase>loi</jbophrase>) or by name (
<jbophrase>lai</jbophrase>). A classic example of
<jbophrase>loi</jbophrase> use is:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-T1pF">
<title>
+ <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>lions in Africa</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c6e3d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>loi cinfo cu xabju le fi'ortu'a</jbo>
<gloss>Part-of-the-mass-of-those-which-really are-lions dwell in-the African-land.</gloss>
<en>The lion dwells in Africa.</en>
<en>Lions dwell in Africa.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
- <para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>lions in Africa</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>loi</primary><secondary>contrasted with lei in specificity</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lei</primary><secondary>contrasted with loi in specificity</secondary></indexterm> The difference between
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>loi</primary><secondary>contrasted with lei in specificity</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lei</primary><secondary>contrasted with loi in specificity</secondary></indexterm> The difference between
<jbophrase>lei</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>loi</jbophrase> is that
<jbophrase>lei cinfo</jbophrase> refers to a mass of specific individuals which the speaker calls lions, whereas
<jbophrase>loi cinfo</jbophrase> refers to some part of the mass of all those individuals which actually are lions. The restriction to
<quote>some part of the mass</quote> allows statements like
<xref linkend="example-random-id-T1pF"/> to be true even though some lions do not dwell in Africa - they live in various zoos around the world. On the other hand,
<xref linkend="example-random-id-T1pF"/> doesn't actually say that most lions live in Africa: equally true is</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-JzXc">
<title>
+ <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Englishman in Africa</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c6e3d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>loi glipre cu xabju le fi'ortu'a</jbo>
<gloss>Part-of-the-mass-of-those-which-really are-English-persons dwell in-the African-land.</gloss>
<en>The English dwell in Africa.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
- <para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Englishman in Africa</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> since there is at least one English person living there.
+ <para>since there is at least one English person living there.
<xref linkend="section-sets"/> explains another method of saying what is usually meant by
<quote>The lion lives in Africa</quote> which does imply that living in Africa is normal, not exceptional, for lions.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mass objects</primary><secondary>peculiarities of English translation of</secondary></indexterm> Note that the Lojban mass articles are sometimes translated by English plurals (the most usual case), sometimes by English singulars (when the singular is used to express typicalness or abstraction), and sometimes by singulars with no article:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-yDCF">
<title>
+ <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>butter is soft</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c6e3d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>loi matne cu ranti</jbo>
<gloss>Part-of-the-mass-of-that-which-really is-a-quantity-of-butter is-soft.</gloss>
<en>Butter is soft.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
- <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>matne</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>butter is soft</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mass object</primary><secondary>as dependent on intention</secondary></indexterm> Of course, some butter is hard (for example, if it is frozen butter), so the
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mass object</primary><secondary>as dependent on intention</secondary></indexterm> Of course, some butter is hard (for example, if it is frozen butter), so the
<quote>part-of</quote> implication of
<jbophrase>loi</jbophrase> becomes once again useful. The reason this mechanism works is that the English words like
<quote>butter</quote>, which are seen as already describing masses, are translated in Lojban by non-mass forms. The place structure of
<jbophrase>matne</jbophrase> is
<quote>x1 is a quantity of butter from source x2</quote>, so the single English word
<quote>butter</quote> is translated as something like
<quote>a part of the mass formed from all the quantities of butter that exist</quote>. (Note that the operation of forming a mass entity does not imply, in Lojban, that the components of the mass are necessarily close to one another or even related in any way other than conceptually. Masses are formed by the speaker's intention to form a mass, and can in principle contain anything.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mass name</primary><secondary>use of</secondary></indexterm> The mass name descriptor
<jbophrase>lai</jbophrase> is used in circumstances where we wish to talk about a mass of things identified by a name which is common to all of them. It is not used to identify a mass by a single name peculiar to it. Thus the mass version of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-fSxN"/>,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-H8z5">
<title>
+ <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Bears wrote book</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c6e3d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lai cribe pu finti le vi cukta</jbo>
<gloss>The-mass-of-those-named
<quote>bear</quote> [past] creates the nearby book.</gloss>
<en>The Bears wrote this book.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
- <para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Bears wrote book</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lai</primary><secondary>contrasted with la in implications</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>la</primary><secondary>contrasted with lai in implications</secondary></indexterm> in a context where
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lai</primary><secondary>contrasted with la in implications</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>la</primary><secondary>contrasted with lai in implications</secondary></indexterm> in a context where
<jbophrase>la cribe</jbophrase> would be understood as plural, would mean that either Tom Bear or Fred Bear (to make up some names) might have written the book, or that Tom and Fred might have written it as collaborators. Using
<jbophrase>la</jbophrase> instead of
<jbophrase>lai</jbophrase> in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-H8z5"/> would give the implication that each of Tom and Fred, considered individually, had written it.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-sets">
<title>Masses and sets</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
@@ -502,78 +509,79 @@
<selmaho>LE</selmaho>
<description>the set of those which really are</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>la'i</cmavo>
<selmaho>LA</selmaho>
<description>the set of those named</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mass</primary><secondary>compared with set as abstract of multiple individuals</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>set</primary><secondary>compared with mass as abstract of multiple individuals</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mass</primary><secondary>contrasted with set in attribution of component properties</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>set</primary><secondary>contrasted with mass in attribution of component properties</secondary></indexterm> Having said so much about masses, let us turn to sets. Sets are easier to understand than masses, but are more rarely used. Like a mass, a set is an abstract object formed from a number of individuals; however, the properties of a set are not derived from any of the properties of the individuals that compose it.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>la'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>lo'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>le'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>la'i</primary><secondary>as set counterpart of lai</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo'i</primary><secondary>as set counterpart of loi</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le'i</primary><secondary>as set counterpart of lei</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sets</primary><secondary>properties of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cardinality</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cardinality</primary><secondary>property of sets</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>membership</primary><secondary>property of sets</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>inclusion</primary><secondary>property of sets</secondary></indexterm> Sets have properties like cardinality (how many elements in the set), membership (the relationship between a set and its elements), and set inclusion (the relationship between two sets, one of which - the superset – contains all the elements of the other - the subset). The set descriptors
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>la'i</primary><secondary>as set counterpart of lai</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo'i</primary><secondary>as set counterpart of loi</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le'i</primary><secondary>as set counterpart of lei</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sets</primary><secondary>properties of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cardinality</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cardinality</primary><secondary>property of sets</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>membership</primary><secondary>property of sets</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>inclusion</primary><secondary>property of sets</secondary></indexterm> Sets have properties like cardinality (how many elements in the set), membership (the relationship between a set and its elements), and set inclusion (the relationship between two sets, one of which - the superset – contains all the elements of the other - the subset). The set descriptors
<jbophrase>le'i</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>lo'i</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>la'i</jbophrase> correspond exactly to the mass descriptors
<jbophrase>lei</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>loi</jbophrase>, and
<jbophrase>lai</jbophrase> except that normally we talk of the whole of a set, not just part of it. Here are some examples contrasting
<jbophrase>lo</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>loi</jbophrase>, and
<jbophrase>lo'i</jbophrase>:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qL1E" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
+ <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>rats are brown</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c6e4d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo ratcu cu bunre</jbo>
<gloss>One-or-more-of-those-which-really-are rats are-brown.</gloss>
<en>Some rats are brown.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qL2Y" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e4d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>loi ratcu cu cmalu</jbo>
<gloss>Part-of-the-mass-of-those-which-really-are rats are-small.</gloss>
<en>Rats are small.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
-<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>rats are brown</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo'i</primary><secondary>contrasted with lo and loi</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>loi</primary><secondary>contrasted with lo and lo'i</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo</primary><secondary>contrasted with loi and lo'i</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
+<para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo'i</primary><secondary>contrasted with lo and loi</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>loi</primary><secondary>contrasted with lo and lo'i</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo</primary><secondary>contrasted with loi and lo'i</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qL3V" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e4d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo'i ratcu cu barda</jbo>
<gloss>The-set-of rats is-large.</gloss>
<en>There are a lot of rats.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The mass of rats is small because at least one rat is small; the mass of rats is also large; the set of rats, though, is unquestionably large - it has billions of members. The mass of rats is also brown, since some of its components are; but it would be incorrect to call the set of rats brown - brown-ness is not the sort of property that sets possess.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sets</primary><secondary>use in Lojban place structure</secondary></indexterm> Lojban speakers should generally think twice before employing the set descriptors. However, certain predicates have places that require set sumti to fill them. For example, the place structure of
<jbophrase>fadni</jbophrase> is:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
x1 is ordinary/common/typical/usual in property x2 among the members of set x3
</programlisting>
<para>Why is it necessary for the x3 place of
<jbophrase>fadni</jbophrase> to be a set? Because it makes no sense for an individual to be typical of another individual: an individual is typical of a group. In order to make sure that the bridi containing
<jbophrase>fadni</jbophrase> is about an entire group, its x3 place must be filled with a set:</para>
-<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>typical Lojban user</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-xIXo">
<title>
+ <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>typical Lojban user</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c6e4d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi fadni zo'e lo'i lobypli</jbo>
<gloss>I am-ordinary among the-set-of Lojban-users.</gloss>
<en>I am a typical Lojban user.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>Note that the x2 place has been omitted; I am not specifying in exactly which way I am typical - whether in language knowledge, or age, or interests, or something else. If
@@ -592,87 +600,90 @@
<selmaho>LE</selmaho>
<description>the typical</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>le'e</cmavo>
<selmaho>LE</selmaho>
<description>the stereotypical</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
- <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>lo'e</primary></indexterm> As promised in
+ <para>As promised in
<xref linkend="section-masses"/>, Lojban has a method for discriminating between
<quote>the lion</quote> who lives in Africa and
<quote>the Englishman</quote> who, generally speaking, doesn't live in Africa even though some Englishmen do. The descriptor
<jbophrase>lo'e</jbophrase> means
<quote>the typical</quote>, as in</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-AJKt">
<title>
+ <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>lion in Africa</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c6e5d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo'e cinfo cu xabju le fi'ortu'a</jbo>
<gloss>The-typical lion dwells-in the African-land.</gloss>
<en>The lion dwells in Africa.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
- <para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>lion in Africa</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>typical objects</primary><secondary>and instantiation</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>typical objects</primary><secondary>determining characteristics of</secondary></indexterm> What is this
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>typical objects</primary><secondary>and instantiation</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>typical objects</primary><secondary>determining characteristics of</secondary></indexterm> What is this
<quote>typical lion</quote>? Surely it is not any particular lion, because no lion has all of the
<quote>typical</quote> characteristics, and (worse yet) some characteristics that all real lions have can't be viewed as typical. For example, all real lions are either male or female, but it would be bizarre to suppose that the typical lion is either one. So the typical lion has no particular sex, but does have a color (golden brown), a residence (Africa), a diet (game), and so on. Likewise we can say that</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-8PoG">
<title>
+ <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>typical Englishman</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c6e5d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo'e glipre cu xabju le fi'ortu'a na.e le gligugde</jbo>
<gloss>The-typical English-person dwells-in the African-land (Not!) and the English-country.</gloss>
<en>The typical English person dwells not in Africa but in England.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
- <para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>typical Englishman</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le'i</primary><secondary>relationship to le'e</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le'e</primary><secondary>relationship to le'i</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo'i</primary><secondary>relationship to lo'e</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo'e</primary><secondary>relationship to lo'i</secondary></indexterm> The relationship between
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le'i</primary><secondary>relationship to le'e</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le'e</primary><secondary>relationship to le'i</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo'i</primary><secondary>relationship to lo'e</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo'e</primary><secondary>relationship to lo'i</secondary></indexterm> The relationship between
<jbophrase>lo'e cinfo</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>lo'i cinfo</jbophrase> may be explained thus: the typical lion is an imaginary lion-abstraction which best exemplifies the set of lions. There is a similar relationship between
<jbophrase>le'e</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>le'i</jbophrase>:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-D88V">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e5d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le'e xelso merko cu gusta ponse</jbo>
<gloss>The-stereotypical Greek-type-of American is-a-restaurant-type-of owner.</gloss>
<en>Lots of Greek-Americans own restaurants.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
- <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>le'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>stereotypical</primary><secondary>compared with typical</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>typical</primary><secondary>compared with stereotypical</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>stereotypical</primary><secondary>as not derogatory in Lojban</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Greek-Americans own restaurants</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>stereotypical objects</primary></indexterm> Here we are concerned not with the actual set of Greek-Americans, but with the set of those the speaker has in mind, which is typified by one (real or imaginary) who owns a restaurant. The word
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>stereotypical</primary><secondary>compared with typical</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>typical</primary><secondary>compared with stereotypical</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>stereotypical</primary><secondary>as not derogatory in Lojban</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Greek-Americans own restaurants</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>stereotypical objects</primary></indexterm> Here we are concerned not with the actual set of Greek-Americans, but with the set of those the speaker has in mind, which is typified by one (real or imaginary) who owns a restaurant. The word
<quote>stereotypical</quote> is often derogatory in English, but
<jbophrase>le'e</jbophrase> need not be derogatory in Lojban: it simply suggests that the example is typical in the speaker's imagination rather than in some objectively agreed-upon way. Of course, different speakers may disagree about what the features of
<quote>the typical lion</quote> are (some would include having a short intestine, whereas others would know nothing of lions' intestines), so the distinction between
<jbophrase>lo'e cinfo</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>le'e cinfo</jbophrase> may be very fine.</para>
<para>Furthermore,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-NVFy">
<title>
+ <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Hollywood</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c6e5d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le'e skina cu se finti ne'i la xali,uyd.</jbo>
<gloss>The-stereotypical movie is-invented in Hollywood.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
- <para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Hollywood</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> is probably true to an American, but might be false (not the stereotype) to someone living in India or Russia.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>typical Smith</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>name equivalent for <quote>typical</quote></primary><secondary>rationale for lack of</secondary></indexterm> Note that there is no naming equivalent of
+ <para>is probably true to an American, but might be false (not the stereotype) to someone living in India or Russia.</para>
+ <para><!-- FIXME: this indexterm has nowhere to go --><indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>typical Smith</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>name equivalent for <quote>typical</quote></primary><secondary>rationale for lack of</secondary></indexterm> Note that there is no naming equivalent of
<jbophrase>lo'e</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>le'e</jbophrase>, because there is no need, as a rule, for a
<quote>typical George</quote> or a
<quote>typical Smith</quote>. People or things who share a common name do not, in general, have any other common attributes worth mentioning.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-quantified-sumti">
<title>Quantified sumti</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<cmavo-list>
@@ -791,21 +802,21 @@
<anchor xml:id="c6e6d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cusku ro lu do cadzu le bisli li'u</jbo>
<en>I express all-of [quote] you walk-on the ice [unquote].</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>the meaning would be something like
<quote>I say every occurrence of the sentence 'You walk on the ice'</quote>. Of course I don't say every occurrence of it, only some occurrences. One might suppose that
<xref linkend="example-random-id-3eMo"/> means that I express exactly one occurrence, but it is more Lojbanic to leave the number unspecified, as with other sumti. We can say definitely, however, that I say it at least once.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>su'o</primary></indexterm> The Lojban cmavo meaning
+ <para>The Lojban cmavo meaning
<quote>at least</quote> is
<jbophrase>su'o</jbophrase>, and if no ordinary number follows,
<jbophrase>su'o</jbophrase> means
<quote>at least once</quote>. (See
<xref linkend="example-random-id-gLpy"/> for the use of
<jbophrase>su'o</jbophrase> with an ordinary number). Therefore, the explicitly quantified version of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-3eMo"/> is</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>implicit quantifier</primary><secondary>for quotations</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>quotations</primary><secondary>implicit quantifier for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>su'o</primary><secondary>as implicit quantifier for quotations</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-P558">
<title>
@@ -840,29 +851,30 @@
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>piro</cmavo>
<selmaho>PA</selmaho>
<description>the whole of</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>quantification</primary><secondary>before description sumti compared with before non-description sumti</secondary></indexterm> Like other sumti, descriptions can be quantified. When a quantifier appears before a description, it has the same meaning as one appearing before a non-description sumti: it specifies how many things, of all those referred to by the description, are being talked about in this particular bridi. Suppose that context tells us that
<jbophrase>le gerku</jbophrase> refers to three dogs. Then we can say that exactly two of them are white as follows:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-WtUh">
<title>
+ <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>two dogs are white</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c6e7d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>re le gerku cu blabi</jbo>
<gloss>Two-of the dogs are-white.</gloss>
<en>Two of the dogs are white.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
- <para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>two dogs are white</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>inner quantifier</primary><secondary>effect of on meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>outer quantifier</primary><secondary>effect of on meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>inner quantifier</primary><secondary>contrasted with outer quantifier</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>outer quantifier</primary><secondary>contrasted with inner quantifier</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>inner quantifier</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>outer quantifier</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> When discussing descriptions, this ordinary quantifier is called an
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>inner quantifier</primary><secondary>effect of on meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>outer quantifier</primary><secondary>effect of on meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>inner quantifier</primary><secondary>contrasted with outer quantifier</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>outer quantifier</primary><secondary>contrasted with inner quantifier</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>inner quantifier</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>outer quantifier</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> When discussing descriptions, this ordinary quantifier is called an
<quote>outer quantifier</quote>, since it appears outside the description. But there is another possible location for a quantifier: between the descriptor and the selbri. This quantifier is called an
<quote>inner quantifier</quote>, and its meaning is quite different: it tells the listener how many objects the description selbri characterizes.</para>
<para>For example, the context of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-WtUh"/> supposedly told us that
<jbophrase>le gerku</jbophrase> referred to some three specific dogs. This assumption can be made certain with the use of an explicit inner quantifier:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-X3iY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e7d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -978,29 +990,29 @@
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le-series cmavo</primary><secondary>rule for implicit inner quantifier</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo-series cmavo</primary><secondary>rule for implicit inner quantifier</secondary></indexterm> The rule for the inner quantifier is very simple: the lo-series cmavo (namely,
<jbophrase>lo</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>loi</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>lo'i</jbophrase>, and
<jbophrase>lo'e</jbophrase>) all have an implicit inner quantifier of
<jbophrase>ro</jbophrase>, whereas the le-series cmavo all have an implicit inner quantifier of
<jbophrase>su'o</jbophrase>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le-series cmavo</primary><secondary>rationale for implicit inner quantifier</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo-series cmavo</primary><secondary>rationale for implicit inner quantifier</secondary></indexterm> Why? Because lo-series descriptors always refer to all of the things which really fit into the x1 place of the selbri. They are not restricted by the speaker's intention. Descriptors of the le-series, however, are so restricted, and therefore talk about some number, definite or indefinite, of objects the speaker has in mind - but never less than one.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>piro</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>masses</primary><secondary>rule for implicit outer quantifier</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sets</primary><secondary>rule for implicit outer quantifier</secondary></indexterm> Understanding the implicit outer quantifier requires rules of greater subtlety. In the case of mass and set descriptors, a single rule suffices for each: reference to a mass is implicitly a reference to some part of the mass; reference to a set is implicitly a reference to the whole set. Masses and sets are inherently singular objects: it makes no sense to talk about two distinct masses with the same components, or two distinct sets with the same members. Therefore, the largest possible outer quantifier for either a set description or a mass description is
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>masses</primary><secondary>rule for implicit outer quantifier</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sets</primary><secondary>rule for implicit outer quantifier</secondary></indexterm> Understanding the implicit outer quantifier requires rules of greater subtlety. In the case of mass and set descriptors, a single rule suffices for each: reference to a mass is implicitly a reference to some part of the mass; reference to a set is implicitly a reference to the whole set. Masses and sets are inherently singular objects: it makes no sense to talk about two distinct masses with the same components, or two distinct sets with the same members. Therefore, the largest possible outer quantifier for either a set description or a mass description is
<jbophrase>piro</jbophrase>, the whole of it.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>plural masses</primary><secondary>possible use for</secondary></indexterm> (Pedantically, it is possible that the mass of water molecules composing an ice cube might be thought of as different from the same mass of water molecules in liquid form, in which case we might talk about
<jbophrase>re lei djacu</jbophrase>, two masses of the water-bits I have in mind.)</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>pi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pisu'o</primary><secondary>explanation of meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>piro</primary><secondary>explanation of meaning</secondary></indexterm> Why
- <quote>pi-</quote>? It is the Lojban cmavo for the decimal point. Just as
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pisu'o</primary><secondary>explanation of meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>piro</primary><secondary>explanation of meaning</secondary></indexterm> Why
+ <jbophrase>pi</jbophrase>? It is the Lojban cmavo for the decimal point. Just as
<jbophrase>pimu</jbophrase> means
- <quote>.5</quote>, and when used as a quantifier specifies a portion consisting of five tenths of a thing,
+ <quote><inlineequation><mathphrase>.5</mathphrase></inlineequation></quote>, and when used as a quantifier specifies a portion consisting of five tenths of a thing,
<jbophrase>piro</jbophrase> means a portion consisting of the all-ness – the entirety - of a thing. Similarly,
<jbophrase>pisu'o</jbophrase> specifies a portion consisting of at least one part of a thing, i.e. some of it.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>portion</primary><secondary>on set contrasted with on individual</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>outer quantifiers</primary><secondary>for expressing subsets</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>subsets</primary><secondary>expressing with outer quantifiers</secondary></indexterm> Smaller quantifiers are possible for sets, and refer to subsets. Thus
<jbophrase>pimu le'i nanmu</jbophrase> is a subset of the set of men I have in mind; we don't know precisely which elements make up this subset, but it must have half the size of the full set. This is the best way to say
<quote>half of the men</quote>; saying
<jbophrase>pimu le nanmu</jbophrase> would give us a half-portion of one of them instead! Of course, the result of
<jbophrase>pimu le'i nanmu</jbophrase> is still a set; if you need to refer to the individuals of the subset, you must say so (see
<jbophrase>lu'a</jbophrase> in
@@ -1120,49 +1132,51 @@
<section xml:id="section-sumti-based-descriptions">
<title>sumti-based descriptions</title>
<para>As stated in
<xref linkend="section-basic-descriptors"/>, most descriptions consist of just a descriptor and a selbri. (In this chapter, the selbri have always been single gismu, but of course any selbri, however complex, can be employed in a description. The syntax and semantics of selbri are explained in
<xref linkend="chapter-selbri"/>.) In the intervening sections, inner and outer quantifiers have been added to the syntax. Now it is time to discuss a description of a radically different kind: the sumti-based description.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti-based description</primary><secondary>outer quantifier on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti-based description</primary><secondary>inner quantifier on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti-based description</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> A sumti-based description has a sumti where the selbri would normally be, and the inner quantifier is required - it cannot be implicit. An outer quantifier is permitted but not required.</para>
<para>A full theory of sumti-based descriptions has yet to be worked out. One common case, however, is well understood. Compare the following:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qLaQ" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
+ <title> <!-- FIXME: this indexterm matches two examples -->
+ <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>the two of you</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c6e9d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>re do cu nanmu</jbo>
<gloss>Two-of you are-men.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qLAr" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e9d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le re do cu nanmu</jbo>
<gloss>The two-of you are men.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
- <para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>the two of you</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <para>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qLaQ"/> simply specifies that of the group of listeners, size unknown, two are men.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qLAr"/>, which has the sumti-based description
<jbophrase>le re do</jbophrase>, says that of the two listeners, all (the implicit outer quantifier
<jbophrase>ro</jbophrase>) are men. So in effect the inner quantifier
<jbophrase>re</jbophrase> gives the number of individuals which the inner sumti
<jbophrase>do</jbophrase> refers to.</para>
<para>Here is another group of examples:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qLbf" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
+ <title> <!-- FIXME: this indexterm matches three examples -->
+ <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>three bears</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c6e9d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>re le ci cribe cu bunre</jbo>
<gloss>Two-of the three bears are-brown.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qLbh" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
@@ -1177,21 +1191,21 @@
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qLBq" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e9d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>pa le re le ci cribe cu bunre</jbo>
<gloss>One-of the two-of the three bears are-brown.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
- <para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>three bears</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti-based descriptions with le</primary><secondary>as increasing restricting to in-mind</secondary></indexterm> In each case,
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti-based descriptions with le</primary><secondary>as increasing restricting to in-mind</secondary></indexterm> In each case,
<jbophrase>le ci cribe</jbophrase> restricts the bears (or alleged bears) being talked of to some group of three which the speaker has in mind.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qLbf"/> says that two of them (which two is not stated) are brown.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qLbh"/> says that a specific pair of them are brown.
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qLBq"/> says that of a specific pair chosen from the original three, one or the other of that pair is brown.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-sumti-qualifiers">
<title>sumti qualifiers</title>
<para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti qualifiers</primary><secondary>list of</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<cmavo-list>
@@ -1250,35 +1264,36 @@
<selmaho>NAhE+BO</selmaho>
<description>that which indeed is</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>lu'u</cmavo>
<selmaho>LUhU</selmaho>
<description>elidable terminator for LAhE and NAhE+BO</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>Well, that's quite a list of cmavo. What are they all about?</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>lu'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>BO selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lu'u</primary><secondary>as elidable terminator for qualified sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti qualifiers</primary><secondary>elidable terminator for qualified sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti qualifiers</primary><secondary>external syntax of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti qualifiers</primary><secondary>internal syntax of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>NAhE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>LAhE selma'o</primary></indexterm> The above cmavo and compound cmavo are called the
+ <para><indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>BO selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lu'u</primary><secondary>as elidable terminator for qualified sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti qualifiers</primary><secondary>elidable terminator for qualified sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti qualifiers</primary><secondary>external syntax of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti qualifiers</primary><secondary>internal syntax of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>NAhE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>LAhE selma'o</primary></indexterm> The above cmavo and compound cmavo are called the
<quote>sumti qualifiers</quote>. All of them are either single cmavo of selma'o LAhE, or else compound cmavo involving a scalar negation cmavo of selma'o NAhE immediately followed by
<jbophrase>bo</jbophrase> of selma'o BO. Syntactically, you can prefix a sumti qualifier to any sumti and produce another simple sumti. (You may need to add the elidable terminator
<jbophrase>lu'u</jbophrase> to show where the qualified sumti ends.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti qualifiers</primary><secondary>as short forms for common special cases</secondary></indexterm> Semantically, sumti qualifiers represent short forms of certain common special cases. Suppose you want to say
<quote>I see 'The Red Pony'</quote>, where
<quote>The Red Pony</quote> is the title of a book. How about:</para>
-<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Red Pony</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>unqualified sumti</primary><secondary>contrasted with qualified sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>qualified sumti</primary><secondary>contrasted with unqualified sumti</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
+<para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>unqualified sumti</primary><secondary>contrasted with qualified sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>qualified sumti</primary><secondary>contrasted with unqualified sumti</secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-6W3v">
- <title>
+ <title> <!-- FIXME: this indexterm matches two examples -->
+ <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Red Pony</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c6e10d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u</jbo>
<gloss>I see [quote] the red small-horse [unquote].</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>But
<xref linkend="example-random-id-6W3v"/> doesn't work: it says that you see a piece of text
<quote>The Red Pony</quote>. That might be all right if you were looking at the cover of the book, where the words
@@ -1307,53 +1322,54 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e10d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska la'e lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u [lu'u]</jbo>
<gloss>I see the-referent-of [quote] the red small-horse [unquote].</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
- <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>la'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>referent</primary><secondary>referring to with la'e</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>la'e</primary><secondary>effect of on meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>dereferencing a pointer</primary><secondary>with la'e</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>la'e</primary><secondary>as short for <jbophrase>le selsinxa be</jbophrase></secondary></indexterm> So when
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>referent</primary><secondary>referring to with la'e</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>la'e</primary><secondary>effect of on meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>dereferencing a pointer</primary><secondary>with la'e</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>la'e</primary><secondary>as short for <jbophrase>le selsinxa be</jbophrase></secondary></indexterm> So when
<jbophrase>la'e</jbophrase> is prefixed to a sumti referring to a symbol, it produces a sumti referring to the referent of that symbol. (In computer jargon,
<jbophrase>la'e</jbophrase> dereferences a pointer.)</para>
<para>By introducing a sumti qualifier, we correct a false sentence (
<xref linkend="example-random-id-6W3v"/>), which too closely resembles its literal English equivalent, into a true sentence (
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Ajty"/>), without having to change it overmuch; in particular, the structure remains the same. Most of the uses of sumti qualifiers are of this general kind.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>lu'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>symbol</primary><secondary>referring to with lu'e</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lu'e</primary><secondary>effect of on meaning</secondary></indexterm> The sumti qualifier
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>symbol</primary><secondary>referring to with lu'e</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lu'e</primary><secondary>effect of on meaning</secondary></indexterm> The sumti qualifier
<jbophrase>lu'e</jbophrase> provides the converse operation: it can be prefixed to a sumti referring to some thing to produce a sumti referring to a sign or symbol for the thing. For example,</para>
-<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>title of book</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lu'e</primary><secondary>as short for <jbophrase>le sinxa be</jbophrase></secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
+<para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lu'e</primary><secondary>as short for <jbophrase>le sinxa be</jbophrase></secondary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7ytm">
- <title>
+ <title><!-- FIXME: this indexterm matches two examples -->
+ <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>title of book</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c6e10d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu cusku lu'e le vi cukta</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] express a-symbol-for the nearby book.</gloss>
<en>I said the title of this book.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>The equivalent form not using a sumti qualifier would be:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-aC9Q">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e10d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi pu cusku le sinxa be le vi cukta</jbo>
<gloss>I [past] express the symbol-for the nearby book.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which is equivalent to
<xref linkend="example-random-id-7ytm"/>, but longer.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>vu'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>lu'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>lu'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>lu'a</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>tu'a</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sequence</primary><secondary>contrasted with set</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vu'i</primary><secondary>use for creating sequence</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tu'a</primary><secondary>use for forming abstractions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vu'i</primary><secondary>effect of on meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lu'o</primary><secondary>effect of on meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lu'i</primary><secondary>effect of on meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lu'a</primary><secondary>effect of on meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tu'a</primary><secondary>effect of on meaning</secondary></indexterm> The other sumti qualifiers follow the same rules. The cmavo
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sequence</primary><secondary>contrasted with set</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vu'i</primary><secondary>use for creating sequence</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tu'a</primary><secondary>use for forming abstractions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vu'i</primary><secondary>effect of on meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lu'o</primary><secondary>effect of on meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lu'i</primary><secondary>effect of on meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lu'a</primary><secondary>effect of on meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tu'a</primary><secondary>effect of on meaning</secondary></indexterm> The other sumti qualifiers follow the same rules. The cmavo
<jbophrase>tu'a</jbophrase> is used in forming abstractions, and is explained more fully in
<xref linkend="chapter-abstractions"/>. The triplet
<jbophrase>lu'a</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>lu'i</jbophrase>, and
<jbophrase>lu'o</jbophrase> convert between individuals, sets, and masses;
<jbophrase>vu'i</jbophrase> belongs to this group as well, but creates a sequence, which is similar to a set but has a definite order. (The set of John and Charles is the same as the set of Charles and John, but the sequences are different.) Here are some examples:</para>
@@ -1367,21 +1383,22 @@
<en>I try (to open) the door.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tu'a</primary><secondary>as being deliberately vague</secondary></indexterm>
<xref linkend="example-random-id-ioCu"/> might mean that I try to do something else involving the door; the form is deliberately vague.</para>
<para>Most of the following examples make use of the cmavo
<jbophrase>ri</jbophrase>, belonging to selma'o KOhA. This cmavo means
<quote>the thing last mentioned</quote>; it is equivalent to repeating the immediately previous sumti (but in its original context). It is explained in more detail in
<xref linkend="chapter-anaphoric-cmavo"/>.</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qLbv" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
+ <title> <!-- FIXME: this indexterm matches three examples -->
+ <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>set of rats</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c6e10d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lo'i ratcu cu barda .iku'i lu'a ri cmalu</jbo>
<gloss>The-set-of rats is-large. But some-members-of it-last-mentioned is-small.</gloss>
<en>The set of rats is large, but some of its members are small.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1400,52 +1417,53 @@
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qLcy" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e10d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi ce do girzu .i lu'o ri gunma .i vu'i ri porsi</jbo>
<gloss>I in-a-set-with you are-a-set. The-mass-of it-last-mentioned is-a-mass. The-sequence-of it-last-mentioned is-a-sequence</gloss>
<en>The set of you and me is a set. The mass of you and me is a mass. The sequence of you and me is a sequence.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
- <para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>set of rats</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> (Yes, I know these examples are a bit silly. This set was introduced for completeness, and practical examples are as yet hard to come by.)</para>
+ <para>(Yes, I know these examples are a bit silly. This set was introduced for completeness, and practical examples are as yet hard to come by.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>negation sumti qualifiers</primary><secondary>meanings of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti qualifiers</primary><secondary>for negation</secondary></indexterm> Finally, the four sumti qualifiers formed from a cmavo of NAhE and
<jbophrase>bo</jbophrase> are all concerned with negation, which is discussed in detail in
<xref linkend="chapter-negation"/>. Here are a few examples of negation sumti qualifiers:</para>
-<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>na'ebo</primary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
+<para> <!-- FIXME: this indexterm isn't <jbophrase>d alone --><indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>na'ebo</primary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4Mte">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e10d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi viska na'ebo le gerku</jbo>
<gloss>I see something-other-than the dog.</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>This compound,
<jbophrase>na'ebo</jbophrase>, is the most common of the four negation sumti qualifiers. The others usually only make sense in the context of repeating, with modifications, something already referred to:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-JwCb">
<title>
+ <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>lukewarm food</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c6e10d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi nelci loi glare cidja .ije do nelci to'ebo ri .ije la djein. nelci no'ebo ra</jbo>
<gloss>I like part-of-the-mass-of hot-type-of food. And you like the-opposite-of the-last-mentioned. And Jane likes the-neutral-value-of something-mentioned.</gloss>
<en>I like hot food, and you like cold food, and Jane likes lukewarm food.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
- <para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>lukewarm food</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> (In
+ <para>(In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-JwCb"/>, the sumti
<jbophrase>ra</jbophrase> refers to some previously mentioned sumti other than that referred to by
<jbophrase>ri</jbophrase>. We cannot use
<jbophrase>ri</jbophrase> here, because it would signify
<jbophrase>la djein.</jbophrase>, that being the most recent sumti available to
<jbophrase>ri</jbophrase>. See more detailed explanations in
<xref linkend="chapter-anaphoric-cmavo"/>.)</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-vocatives">
<title>The syntax of vocative phrases</title>
@@ -1475,42 +1493,42 @@
<jbo>je'e</jbo>
<gloss>[acknowledgement]</gloss>
<en>Uh-huh.</en>
<en>Roger!</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vocative word</primary><secondary>phrase following</secondary></indexterm> In these cases, the person being addressed is obvious from the context. However, a vocative word (more precisely, one or more cmavo of COI, possibly followed by
<jbophrase>doi</jbophrase>, or else just
<jbophrase>doi</jbophrase> by itself) can be followed by one of several kinds of phrases, all of which are intended to indicate the addressee. The most common case is a name:</para>
-<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>coi</primary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
+<para> <!-- FIXME: this indexterm isn't <jbophrase>d alone --><indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>coi</primary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Bega">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e11d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>coi. djan.</jbo>
<en>Hello, John.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>A pause is required (for morphological reasons) between a member of COI and a name. You can use
<jbophrase>doi</jbophrase> instead of a pause:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-QmzB">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e11d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>coi doi djan.</jbo>
<en>Hello, John.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
- <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>doi</primary></indexterm> means exactly the same thing and does not require a pause. Using
+ <para> <!-- FIXME: this indexterm isn't <jbophrase>d alone --><indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>doi</primary></indexterm> means exactly the same thing and does not require a pause. Using
<jbophrase>doi</jbophrase> by itself is like just saying someone's name to attract his or her attention:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ULHn">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e11d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>doi djan.</jbo>
<en>John!</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1554,21 +1572,21 @@
<xref linkend="example-random-id-ULHn"/> is the same as:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-bx2C">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e11d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>doi la djan.</jbo>
<gloss>The-one-named John!</gloss>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
- <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>DOhU selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>do'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vocative phrase terminator</primary><secondary>elidability of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vocative phrase</primary><secondary>elidable terminator for</secondary></indexterm> Finally, the elidable terminator for vocative phrases is
+ <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>DOhU selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vocative phrase terminator</primary><secondary>elidability of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vocative phrase</primary><secondary>elidable terminator for</secondary></indexterm> Finally, the elidable terminator for vocative phrases is
<jbophrase>do'u</jbophrase> (of selma'o DOhU), which is rarely needed except when a simple vocative word is being placed somewhere within a bridi. It may also be required when a vocative is placed between a sumti and its relative clause, or when there are a sequence of so-called
<quote>free modifiers</quote> (vocatives, subscripts, utterance ordinals - see
<xref linkend="chapter-mekso"/>- metalinguistic comments - see
<xref linkend="chapter-structure"/>- or reciprocals - see
<xref linkend="chapter-structure"/>) which must be properly separated.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vocative phrase</primary><secondary>effect of position on meaning</secondary></indexterm> The meaning of a vocative phrase that is within a sentence is not affected by its position in the sentence: thus
@@ -1622,21 +1640,20 @@
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qLgw" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e12d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>la djonz. klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>Jones goes to-the store.</gloss>
<en>The Joneses go to-the store.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
-<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>lai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>la</primary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qLHn" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e12d3"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lai djonz. klama le zarci</jbo>
<gloss>The-mass-of Joneses go to-the store.</gloss>
<en>The Joneses go to the store.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1647,21 +1664,21 @@
<jbophrase>djonz.</jbophrase> I can mean whomever I want: that person need not use the name
<jbophrase>djonz.</jbophrase> at all.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>LA selma'o</primary><secondary>contrasted with LE in use of name-words</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>LE selma'o</primary><secondary>contrasted with LA in use of name-words</secondary></indexterm> The sumti in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qLgw"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qLHn"/> operate exactly like the similar uses of
<jbophrase>la</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>lai</jbophrase> in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-PrGp"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-H8z5"/> respectively. The only difference is that these descriptors are followed by Lojban name-words. And in fact, the only difference between descriptors of selma'o LA (these three) and of selma'o LE (all the other descriptors) is that the former can be followed by name-words, whereas the latter cannot.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>la'i</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>lai</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>la</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>LA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>doi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>doi</primary><secondary>effect on necessity for pause before name-word</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>LA selma'o</primary><secondary>effect on necessity for pause before name-word</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>name-words</primary><secondary>pause requirements before</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>name-words</primary><secondary>limitations on</secondary></indexterm> There are certain limitations on the form of name-words in Lojban. In particular, they cannot contain the letter-sequences (or sound-sequences)
+ <para><indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>LA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>doi</primary><secondary>effect on necessity for pause before name-word</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>LA selma'o</primary><secondary>effect on necessity for pause before name-word</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>name-words</primary><secondary>pause requirements before</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>name-words</primary><secondary>limitations on</secondary></indexterm> There are certain limitations on the form of name-words in Lojban. In particular, they cannot contain the letter-sequences (or sound-sequences)
<jbophrase>la</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>lai</jbophrase>, or
<jbophrase>doi</jbophrase> unless a consonant immediately precedes within the name. Reciprocally, every name not preceded by
<jbophrase>la</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>lai</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>la'i</jbophrase>, or
<jbophrase>doi</jbophrase> must be preceded by a pause instead:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qLiB" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
@@ -1683,30 +1700,32 @@
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qLiB"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qLIJ"/>,
<jbophrase>.djan.</jbophrase> appears with a pause before it as well as after it, because the preceding word is not one of the four special cases. These rules force names to always be separable from the general word-stream.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>multiple</secondary></indexterm> Unless some other rule prevents it (such as the rule that
<jbophrase>zo</jbophrase> is always followed by a single word, which is quoted), multiple names may appear wherever one name is permitted, each with its terminating pause:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-cw3p">
<title>
+ <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Newport News</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>John Paul Jones</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c6e12d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>doi djan. pol. djonz. le bloti cu klama fi la niuport. niuz.</jbo>
<en>John Paul Jones, the boat comes (to somewhere) from Newport News.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
- <para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>John Paul Jones</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Newport News</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>name-words</primary><secondary>permissible consonant combinations</secondary></indexterm> A name may not contain any consonant combination that is illegal in Lojban words generally: the
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>name-words</primary><secondary>permissible consonant combinations</secondary></indexterm> A name may not contain any consonant combination that is illegal in Lojban words generally: the
<quote>impermissible consonant clusters</quote> of Lojban morphology (explained in
<xref linkend="chapter-phonology"/>). Thus
<jbophrase valid="false">djeimz.</jbophrase> is not a valid version of
<jbophrase>James</jbophrase> (because
<jbophrase role="morphology" valid="false">mz</jbophrase> is invalid):
<jbophrase>djeimyz</jbophrase> will suffice. Similarly,
<jbophrase>la</jbophrase> may be replaced by
<jbophrase>ly</jbophrase>,
@@ -1727,21 +1746,21 @@
<cmavo>Lyra</cmavo>
<selmaho>*lairas</selmaho>
<description>ly'iras</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>Lottie</cmavo>
<selmaho>*latis</selmaho>
<description>LYtis. or lotis.</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
- <para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Doyle</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Lyra</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Lottie</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>using rafsi</secondary></indexterm> Names may be borrowed from other languages or created arbitrarily. Another common practice is to use one or more rafsi, arranged to end with a consonant, to form a name: thus the rafsi
+ <para><!-- FIXME: these indexterms have nowhere to go --><indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Doyle</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Lyra</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Lottie</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>using rafsi</secondary></indexterm> Names may be borrowed from other languages or created arbitrarily. Another common practice is to use one or more rafsi, arranged to end with a consonant, to form a name: thus the rafsi
<quote>loj-</quote> for
<jbophrase>logji</jbophrase> (logical) and
<quote>ban-</quote> for
<jbophrase>bangu</jbophrase> (language) unite to form the name of this language:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-uXAY">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e12d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>lojban.</jbo>
@@ -1755,21 +1774,21 @@
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names with la</primary><secondary>implicit quantifier for</secondary></indexterm> The implicit quantifier for name sumti of the form
<jbophrase>la</jbophrase> followed by a name is
<jbophrase>su'o</jbophrase>, just as for
<jbophrase>la</jbophrase> followed by a selbri.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-pro-sumti">
<title>Pro-sumti summary</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>classes of</secondary></indexterm> The Lojban pro-sumti are the cmavo of selma'o KOhA. They fall into several classes: personal, definable, quantificational, reflexive, back-counting, indefinite, demonstrative, metalinguistic, relative, question. More details are given in
<xref linkend="chapter-anaphoric-cmavo"/>; this section mostly duplicates information found there, but adds material on the implicit quantifier of each pro-sumti.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ro</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>implicit quantifier for</secondary></indexterm> The following examples illustrate each of the classes. Unless otherwise noted below, the implicit quantification for pro-sumti is
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>implicit quantifier for</secondary></indexterm> The following examples illustrate each of the classes. Unless otherwise noted below, the implicit quantification for pro-sumti is
<jbophrase>ro</jbophrase> (all). In the case of pro-sumti which refer to other sumti, the
<jbophrase>ro</jbophrase> signifies
<quote>all of those referred to by the other sumti</quote>: thus it is possible to restrict, but not to extend, the quantification of the other sumti.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>personal pro-sumti</primary></indexterm> Personal pro-sumti (
<jbophrase>mi</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>do</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>mi'o</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>mi'a</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>ma'a</jbophrase>,
@@ -1961,35 +1980,35 @@
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>question pro-sumti</primary><secondary>implicit quantifier for</secondary></indexterm> The implicit quantifier for the question pro-sumti is
<jbophrase>su'o</jbophrase> (at least one), because the listener is only being asked to supply a single answer, not all correct answers.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>definable pro-sumti</primary><secondary>sequences of lerfu words as</secondary></indexterm> In addition, sequences of lerfu words (of selma'o BY and related selma'o) can also be used as definable pro-sumti.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-quotation">
<title>Quotation summary</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>quotation</primary><secondary>four kinds</secondary></indexterm> There are four kinds of quotation in Lojban: text quotation, words quotation, single-word quotation, non-Lojban quotation. More information is provided in <xref linkend="chapter-structure"/>.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>li'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>lu</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>text quotation</primary><secondary>as internally grammatical</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>text quotation</primary><secondary>syntax of</secondary></indexterm> Text quotations are preceded by
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>text quotation</primary><secondary>as internally grammatical</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>text quotation</primary><secondary>syntax of</secondary></indexterm> Text quotations are preceded by
<jbophrase>lu</jbophrase> and followed by
<jbophrase>li'u</jbophrase>, and are an essential part of the surrounding text: they must be grammatical Lojban texts.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-v1DE">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e14d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cusku lu mi'e djan. li'u</jbo>
<gloss>I say the-text [quote] I-am John [unquote].</gloss>
<en>I say <quote>I'm John</quote>.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>word quotation</primary><secondary>internal grammar of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>word quotation</primary><secondary>as morphologically valid</secondary></indexterm> Words quotations are quotations of one or more Lojban words. The words need not mean anything, but they must be morphologically valid so that the end of the quotation can be discerned.</para>
-<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>le'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>lo'u</primary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
+<para> <!-- FIXME: these indexterms aren't <jbophrase>d alone --><indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>le'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>lo'u</primary></indexterm> FIXME: TAG SPOT</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-UMDQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e14d2"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mi cusku lo'u li mi le'u</jbo>
<gloss>I say the-words [quote] <jbophrase>li mi</jbophrase> [unquote].</gloss>
<en>I say <jbophrase>li mi</jbophrase>.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -2017,21 +2036,21 @@
<en>I say
<quote>I'm John</quote>.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>quotation</primary><secondary>implicit quantifier for</secondary></indexterm> The implicit quantifier for all types of quotation is
<jbophrase>su'o</jbophrase> (at least one), because quotations are analogous to
<jbophrase>lo</jbophrase> descriptions: they refer to things which actually are words or sequences of words.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-numbers">
<title>Number summary</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>li</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>number sumti</primary><secondary>with li</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>number sumti</primary><secondary>syntax of</secondary></indexterm> The sumti which refer to numbers consist of the cmavo
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>number sumti</primary><secondary>with li</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>number sumti</primary><secondary>syntax of</secondary></indexterm> The sumti which refer to numbers consist of the cmavo
<jbophrase>li</jbophrase> (of selma'o LI) followed by an arbitrary Lojban mekso, or mathematical expression. This can be anything from a simple number up to the most complicated combination of numbers, variables, operators, and so on. Much more information on numbers is given in
<xref linkend="chapter-mekso"/>. Here are a few examples of increasing complexity:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qLIm" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c6e15d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>li vo</jbo>
<gloss>the-number four</gloss>
<en><inlineequation><mathphrase>4</mathphrase></inlineequation></en>
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