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[bpfk] dag-cll git updates for Fri Jan 28 15:21:01 EST 2011
commit 714302516f1cb91022b61c57aea9b0a7875350ea
Merge: bca3c55 e65387d
Author: Robin Lee Powell <rlpowell@digitalkingdom.org>
Date: Fri Jan 28 11:16:08 2011 -0800
Merge commit 'e65387de7dbe64d1aa64fbc461b99cf456fd4f0e' into gh-pages
commit e65387de7dbe64d1aa64fbc461b99cf456fd4f0e
Author: Eitan Postavsky <eitanp32@gmail.com>
Date: Sun Jan 2 22:30:33 2011 -0500
Chapter 4 <jbophrase>s.
diff --git a/todocbook/4.xml b/todocbook/4.xml
index 19bd501..84042e9 100644
--- a/todocbook/4.xml
+++ b/todocbook/4.xml
@@ -13,26 +13,26 @@
<quote>derivational morphology</quote>: the capability of building new words from old words. In addition, the form of words tells us something about their grammatical uses, and sometimes about the means by which they entered the language. Lojban has very orderly rules for the formation of words of various types, both the words that already exist and new words yet to be created by speakers and writers.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>morphology</primary><secondary>conventions for</secondary></indexterm> A stream of Lojban sounds can be uniquely broken up into its component words according to specific rules. These so-called
<quote>morphology rules</quote> are summarized in this chapter. (However, a detailed algorithm for breaking sounds into words has not yet been fully debugged, and so is not presented in this book.) First, here are some conventions used to talk about groups of Lojban letters, including vowels and consonants.</para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry>
<term>1)</term>
<listitem>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>y</primary><secondary>considered not to be a vowel for morphological discussions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>V</primary><secondary>as a symbol for a single vowel</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>morphology</primary><secondary>symbolic conventions for discussing</secondary></indexterm> V represents any single Lojban vowel except
- <jbophrase>y</jbophrase>; that is, it represents
- <quote>a</quote>,
- <jbophrase>e</jbophrase>,
- <jbophrase>i</jbophrase>,
- <quote>o</quote>, or
- <quote>u</quote>.</para>
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">y</jbophrase>; that is, it represents
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">a</jbophrase>,
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">e</jbophrase>,
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">i</jbophrase>,
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">o</jbophrase>, or
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">u</jbophrase>.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>2)</term>
<listitem>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>VV string</primary><secondary>as a symbol for a double vowel</secondary></indexterm> VV represents either a diphthong, one of the following:
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ai ei oi au
</programlisting> or a two-syllable vowel pair with an apostrophe separating the vowels, one of the following:
<cmavo-list>
@@ -71,41 +71,41 @@
<description>u'u</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list></para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>3)</term>
<listitem>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>apostrophe</primary><secondary>as not a consonant for morphological discussions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>syllabic r</primary><secondary>as a consonant for morphological discussions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>syllabic n</primary><secondary>as a consonant for morphological discussions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>syllabic m</primary><secondary>as a consonant for morphological discussions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>syllabic l</primary><secondary>considered as a consonant for morphological discussions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>C string</primary><secondary>as a symbol for a single consonant</secondary></indexterm> C represents a single Lojban consonant, not including the apostrophe, one of
- <quote>b</quote>,
- <quote>c</quote>,
- <quote>d</quote>,
- <quote>f</quote>,
- <jbophrase>g</jbophrase>,
- <quote>j</quote>,
- <quote>k</quote>,
- <quote>l</quote>,
- <quote>m</quote>,
- <quote>n</quote>,
- <quote>p</quote>,
- <quote>r</quote>,
- <quote>s</quote>,
- <quote>t</quote>,
- <quote>v</quote>,
- <quote>x</quote>, or
- <jbophrase>z</jbophrase>. Syllabic
- <quote>l</quote>,
- <quote>m</quote>,
- <quote>n</quote>, and
- <quote>r</quote> always count as consonants for the purposes of this chapter.</para>
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">b</jbophrase>,
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">c</jbophrase>,
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">d</jbophrase>,
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">f</jbophrase>,
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">g</jbophrase>,
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">j</jbophrase>,
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">k</jbophrase>,
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">l</jbophrase>,
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">m</jbophrase>,
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">n</jbophrase>,
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">p</jbophrase>,
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">r</jbophrase>,
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">s</jbophrase>,
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">t</jbophrase>,
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">v</jbophrase>,
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">x</jbophrase>, or
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">z</jbophrase>. Syllabic
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">l</jbophrase>,
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">m</jbophrase>,
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">n</jbophrase>, and
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">r</jbophrase> always count as consonants for the purposes of this chapter.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>4)</term>
<listitem>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>CC string</primary><secondary>as a symbol for a permissible initial consonant pair</secondary></indexterm> CC represents two adjacent consonants of type C which constitute one of the 48 permissible initial consonant pairs:
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
bl br
@@ -124,24 +124,24 @@
zb zd zg zm zv
</programlisting></para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>5)</term>
<listitem>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>C/C string</primary><secondary>as a symbol for a permissible consonant pair</secondary></indexterm> C/C represents two adjacent consonants which constitute one of the permissible consonant pairs (not necessarily a permissible initial consonant pair). The permissible consonant pairs are explained in
<xref linkend="chapter-phonology"/>. In brief, any consonant pair is permissible unless it: contains two identical letters, contains both a voiced (excluding
- <quote>r</quote>,
- <quote>l</quote>,
- <quote>m</quote>,
- <quote>n</quote>) and an unvoiced consonant, or is one of certain specified forbidden pairs.</para>
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">r</jbophrase>,
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">l</jbophrase>,
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">m</jbophrase>,
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">n</jbophrase>) and an unvoiced consonant, or is one of certain specified forbidden pairs.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>6)</term>
<listitem>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>C/CC string</primary><secondary>as a symbol for a consonant triple</secondary></indexterm> C/CC represents a consonant triple. The first two consonants must constitute a permissible consonant pair; the last two consonants must constitute a permissible initial consonant pair.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>brivla</primary><secondary>as one of the 3 basic word classes</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>as one of the 3 basic word classes</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmavo</primary><secondary>as one of the 3 basic word classes</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>parts of speech</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>word classes</primary></indexterm> Lojban has three basic word classes - parts of speech - in contrast to the eight that are traditional in English. These three classes are called cmavo, brivla, and cmene. Each of these classes has uniquely identifying properties - an arrangement of letters that allows the word to be uniquely and unambiguously recognized as a separate word in a string of Lojban, upon either reading or hearing, and as belonging to a specific word-class.</para>
@@ -194,49 +194,49 @@
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>CVV-form ki'a pei mi'o</cmavo>
<selmaho>coi</selmaho>
<description>cu'u</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>In addition, there is the cmavo
<jbophrase>.y.</jbophrase> (remember that
- <jbophrase>y</jbophrase> is not a V), which must have pauses before and after it.</para>
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">y</jbophrase> is not a V), which must have pauses before and after it.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmavo</primary><secondary>lack of relation of form to grammatical use</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>experimental cmavo</primary><secondary>forms for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmavo</primary><secondary>for experimental use</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmavo</primary><secondary>simple</secondary></indexterm> A simple cmavo thus has the property of having only one or two vowels, or of having a single consonant followed by one or two vowels. Words consisting of three or more vowels in a row, or a single consonant followed by three or more vowels, are also of cmavo form, but are reserved for experimental use: a few examples are
+ <!-- FIXME: is this valid="false"? -->
+ <jbophrase>ku'a'e</jbophrase>,
- <quote>ku'a'e</quote>,
-
- <quote>sau'e</quote>, and
- <quote>bai'ai</quote>. All CVV cmavo beginning with the letter
- <quote>x</quote> are also reserved for experimental use. In general, though, the form of a cmavo tells you little or nothing about its grammatical use.</para>
+ <jbophrase>sau'e</jbophrase>, and
+ <jbophrase>bai'ai</jbophrase>. All CVV cmavo beginning with the letter
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">x</jbophrase> are also reserved for experimental use. In general, though, the form of a cmavo tells you little or nothing about its grammatical use.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>experimental cmavo</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmavo</primary><secondary>experimental</secondary></indexterm>
<quote>Experimental use</quote> means that the language designers will not assign any standard meaning or usage to these words, and words and usages coined by Lojban speakers will not appear in official dictionaries for the indefinite future. Experimental-use words provide an escape hatch for adding grammatical mechanisms (as opposed to semantic concepts) the need for which was not foreseen.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmavo</primary><secondary>diphthongs in</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo of VV-form include not only the diphthongs and vowel pairs listed in
<xref linkend="section-introduction"/>, but also the following ten additional diphthongs:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>.ia .ie .ii</cmavo>
<selmaho>.io</selmaho>
<description>.iu</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>.ua .ue .ui</cmavo>
<selmaho>.uo</selmaho>
<description>.uu</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>In addition, cmavo can have the form
<jbophrase role="morphology">Cy</jbophrase>, a consonant followed by the letter
- <jbophrase>y</jbophrase>. These cmavo represent letters of the Lojban alphabet, and are discussed in detail in
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">y</jbophrase>. These cmavo represent letters of the Lojban alphabet, and are discussed in detail in
<xref linkend="chapter-letterals"/>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>compound cmavo</primary><secondary>compared with sequence of simple cmavo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>compound cmavo</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmavo</primary><secondary>compound</secondary></indexterm> Compound cmavo are sequences of cmavo attached together to form a single written word. A compound cmavo is always identical in meaning and in grammatical use to the separated sequence of simple cmavo from which it is composed. These words are written in compound form merely to save visual space, and to ease the reader's burden in identifying when the component cmavo are acting together.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>compound cmavo</primary><secondary>recognition of</secondary></indexterm> Compound cmavo, while not visually short like their components, can be readily identified by two characteristics:</para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry>
<term>1)</term>
<listitem>
<para>They have no consonant pairs or clusters, and</para>
@@ -275,21 +275,21 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ki'e.u'e</jbo>
<en>ki'e .u'e</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pauses</primary><secondary>before vowels</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo
<jbophrase>.u'e</jbophrase> begins with a vowel, and like all words beginning with a vowel, requires a pause (represented by
- <quote>.</quote>) before it. This pause cannot be omitted simply because the cmavo is incorporated into a compound cmavo. On the other hand,</para>
+ <jbophrase>.</jbophrase>) before it. This pause cannot be omitted simply because the cmavo is incorporated into a compound cmavo. On the other hand,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-FDhH">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e2d4"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ki'e'u'e</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is a single cmavo reserved for experimental purposes: it has four vowels.</para>
@@ -333,34 +333,34 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e2d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>le RE. NANmu</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>since there are no rules forcing stress on either of the first two words; the stress on
<jbophrase>re</jbophrase>, though, demands that a pause separate
<jbophrase>re</jbophrase> from the following syllable
- <quote>nan</quote> to ensure that the stress on
- <quote>nan</quote> is properly heard as a stressed syllable. The alternative pronunciation</para>
+ <jbophrase>nan</jbophrase> to ensure that the stress on
+ <jbophrase>nan</jbophrase> is properly heard as a stressed syllable. The alternative pronunciation</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-bLbf">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e2d9"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>LE re NANmu</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>is also valid; this would apply secondary stress (used for purposes of emphasis, contrast or sentence rhythm) to
- <quote>le</quote>, comparable in rhythmical effect to the English phrase
+ <jbophrase>le</jbophrase>, comparable in rhythmical effect to the English phrase
<quote>THE two men</quote>. In
<xref linkend="example-random-id-dfzc"/>, the secondary stress on
<jbophrase>re</jbophrase> would be similar to that in the English phrase
<quote>the TWO men</quote>.</para>
<para>Both cmavo may also be left unstressed, thus:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sg0p">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e2d10"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -382,38 +382,38 @@
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>flexible vocabulary</primary></indexterm> The same principle allows you, when speaking or writing, to invent new brivla for new concepts
<quote>on the fly</quote>; yet it offers people that you are trying to communicate with a good chance to figure out your meaning. In this way, Lojban has a flexible vocabulary which can be expanded indefinitely.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>brivla</primary><secondary>properties of</secondary></indexterm> All brivla have the following properties:</para>
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para>always end in a vowel;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>always contain a consonant pair in the first five letters, where
- <jbophrase>y</jbophrase> and apostrophe are not counted as letters for this purpose. (See
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">y</jbophrase> and apostrophe are not counted as letters for this purpose. (See
<xref linkend="section-rafsi"/>.)</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>always are stressed on the next-to-the-last (penultimate) syllable; this implies that they have two or more syllables.</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene form</primary><secondary>contrasted with brivla form</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmavo form</primary><secondary>contrasted with brivla form</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>brivla form</primary><secondary>contrasted with cmene form</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>brivla form</primary><secondary>contrasted with cmavo form</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>brivla</primary><secondary>recognition of</secondary></indexterm> The presence of a consonant pair distinguishes brivla from cmavo and their compounds. The final vowel distinguishes brivla from cmene, which always end in a consonant. Thus
<jbophrase>da'amei</jbophrase> must be a compound cmavo because it lacks a consonant pair;
<jbophrase>lojban.</jbophrase> must be a name because it lacks a final vowel.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>consonant pairs</primary><secondary>letter y within</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>y</primary><secondary>letter</secondary><tertiary>between letters of consonant pair</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>consonant pairs</primary><secondary>in brivla</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>brivla</primary><secondary>consonant pairs in</secondary></indexterm> Thus,
<jbophrase>bisycla</jbophrase> has the consonant pair
- <quote>sc</quote> in the first five non-
- <jbophrase>y</jbophrase> letters even though the
- <quote>sc</quote> actually appears in the form of
- <quote>syc</quote>. Similarly, the word
+ <jbophrase role="morphology">sc</jbophrase> in the first five non-
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">y</jbophrase> letters even though the
+ <jbophrase role="morphology">sc</jbophrase> actually appears in the form of
+ <jbophrase>syc</jbophrase>. Similarly, the word
<jbophrase>ro'inre'o</jbophrase> contains
- <quote>nr</quote> in the first five letters because the apostrophes are not counted for this purpose.</para>
+ <jbophrase role="morphology">nr</jbophrase> in the first five letters because the apostrophes are not counted for this purpose.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>brivla</primary><secondary>subtypes of</secondary></indexterm> The three subtypes of brivla are:</para>
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>as a subtype of brivla</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>primitive roots</primary><secondary>gismu as</secondary></indexterm> gismu, the Lojban primitive roots from which all other brivla are built;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>compound of gismu</primary><secondary>lujvo as</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>as a subtype of brivla</secondary></indexterm> lujvo, the compounds of two or more gismu; and</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
@@ -443,21 +443,21 @@
<para>always start with a consonant and end with a single vowel;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>always contain exactly one consonant pair, which is a permissible initial pair (CC) if it's at the beginning of the gismu, but otherwise only has to be a permissible pair (C/C);</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>are always stressed on the first syllable (since that is penultimate).</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>length of</secondary></indexterm> The five letter length distinguishes gismu from lujvo and fu'ivla. In addition, no gismu contains
- <quote>'</quote>.</para>
+ <jbophrase>'</jbophrase>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>conflicts between</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>special</secondary></indexterm> With the exception of five special brivla variables,
<jbophrase>broda</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>brode</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>brodi</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>brodo</jbophrase>, and
<jbophrase>brodu</jbophrase>, no two gismu differ only in the final vowel. Furthermore, the set of gismu was specifically designed to reduce the likelihood that two similar sounding gismu could be confused. For example, because
<jbophrase>gismu</jbophrase> is in the set of gismu,
<jbophrase>kismu</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>xismu</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>gicmu</jbophrase>,
@@ -645,64 +645,64 @@
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e5d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>mampa'u</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>which refers specifically to the concept
<quote>maternal grandfather</quote>. The two gismu that constitute the tanru are represented in
<jbophrase>mampa'u</jbophrase> by the rafsi
- <quote>mam-</quote> and
- <quote>-pa'u</quote>, respectively; these two rafsi are then concatenated together to form
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">mam-</jbophrase> and
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">-pa'u</jbophrase>, respectively; these two rafsi are then concatenated together to form
<jbophrase>mampa'u</jbophrase>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>long rafsi form</primary><secondary>compared with short form in effect on lujvo meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>short rafsi form</primary><secondary>compared with long form in effect on lujvo meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi form</primary><secondary>effect of choice on meaning of lujvo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>multiple forms of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>meaning of</secondary></indexterm> Like gismu, lujvo have only one meaning. When a lujvo is formally entered into a dictionary of the language, a specific definition will be assigned based on one particular interrelationship between the terms. (See
<xref linkend="chapter-lujvo"/> for how this has been done.) Unlike gismu, lujvo may have more than one form. This is because there is no difference in meaning between the various rafsi for a gismu when they are used to build a lujvo. A long rafsi may be used, especially in noisy environments, in place of a short rafsi; the result is considered the same lujvo, even though the word is spelled and pronounced differently. Thus the word
<jbophrase>brivla</jbophrase>, built from the tanru
<jbophrase>bridi valsi</jbophrase>, is the same lujvo as
<jbophrase>brivalsi</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>bridyvla</jbophrase>, and
<jbophrase>bridyvalsi</jbophrase>, each of which uses a different combination of rafsi.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>apostrophe</primary><secondary>and consonant cluster determination in lujvo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>' symbol</primary><secondary>and consonant cluster determination in lujvo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>y-hyphen</primary><secondary>and consonant cluster determination</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>rules for combining to form lujvo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>rules for formation of</secondary></indexterm> When assembling rafsi together into lujvo, the rules for valid brivla must be followed: a consonant cluster must occur in the first five letters (excluding
- <jbophrase>y</jbophrase> and
- <quote>'</quote>), and the lujvo must end in a vowel.</para>
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">y</jbophrase> and
+ <jbophrase>'</jbophrase>), and the lujvo must end in a vowel.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>glue in lujvo</primary><secondary>y-hyphen as</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>y-hyphen</primary><secondary>and stress determination</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>y-hyphen</primary><secondary>use of</secondary></indexterm> A
- <jbophrase>y</jbophrase> (which is ignored in determining stress or consonant clusters) is inserted in the middle of the consonant cluster to glue the word together when the resulting cluster is either not permissible or the word is likely to break up. There are specific rules describing these conditions, detailed in
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">y</jbophrase> (which is ignored in determining stress or consonant clusters) is inserted in the middle of the consonant cluster to glue the word together when the resulting cluster is either not permissible or the word is likely to break up. There are specific rules describing these conditions, detailed in
<xref linkend="section-rafsi"/>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>glue in lujvo</primary><secondary>n-hyphen as</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>n-hyphen</primary><secondary>use of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>glue in lujvo</primary><secondary>r-hyphen as</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>r-hyphen</primary><secondary>use of</secondary></indexterm> An
- <quote>r</quote> (in some cases, an
- <quote>n</quote>) is inserted when a CVV-form rafsi attaches to the beginning of a lujvo in such a way that there is no consonant cluster. For example, in the lujvo</para>
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">r</jbophrase> (in some cases, an
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">n</jbophrase>) is inserted when a CVV-form rafsi attaches to the beginning of a lujvo in such a way that there is no consonant cluster. For example, in the lujvo</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3Qtv">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>field rations</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c4e5d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>soirsai</jbo>
<gloss>sonci sanmi</gloss>
<gloss>soldier meal</gloss>
<en>field rations</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmavo</primary><secondary>contrasted with same-form rafsi in meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>contrasted with same-form cmavo in meaning</secondary></indexterm> the rafsi
- <quote>soi-</quote> and
- <quote>-sai</quote> are joined, with the additional
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">soi-</jbophrase> and
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">-sai</jbophrase> are joined, with the additional
- <quote>r</quote> making up the
- <quote>rs</quote> consonant pair needed to make the word a brivla. Without the
- <quote>r</quote>, the word would break up into
- <quote>soi sai</quote>, two cmavo. The pair of cmavo have no relation to their rafsi lookalikes; they will either be ungrammatical (as in this case), or will express a different meaning from what was intended.</para>
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">r</jbophrase> making up the
+ <jbophrase role="morphology">rs</jbophrase> consonant pair needed to make the word a brivla. Without the
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">r</jbophrase>, the word would break up into
+ <jbophrase>soi sai</jbophrase>, two cmavo. The pair of cmavo have no relation to their rafsi lookalikes; they will either be ungrammatical (as in this case), or will express a different meaning from what was intended.</para>
<para>Learning rafsi and the rules for assembling them into lujvo is clearly seen to be necessary for fully using the potential Lojban vocabulary.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>invention of</secondary></indexterm> Most important, it is possible to invent new lujvo while you speak or write in order to represent a new or unfamiliar concept, one for which you do not know any existing Lojban word. As long as you follow the rules for building these compounds, there is a good chance that you will be understood without explanation.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-rafsi">
<title>rafsi</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>selection considerations in making lujvo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>level of uniqueness of rafsi relating to</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>level of uniqueness of relation to gismu</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>multiplicity of for single gismu</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>uniqueness in gismu referent of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>use of</secondary></indexterm> Every gismu has from two to five rafsi, each of a different form, but each such rafsi represents only one gismu. It is valid to use any of the rafsi forms in building lujvo - whichever the reader or listener will most easily understand, or whichever is most pleasing - subject to the rules of lujvo making. There is a scoring algorithm which is intended to determine which of the possible and legal lujvo forms will be the standard dictionary form (see
<xref linkend="section-lujvo-scoring"/>).</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>unreduced lujvo</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>long rafsi</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>4-letter rafsi</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>5-letter rafsi</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>basic rafsi for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>unreduced</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>long</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>forms of</secondary></indexterm> Each gismu always has at least two rafsi forms; one is the gismu itself (used only at the end of a lujvo), and one is the gismu without its final vowel (used only at the beginning or middle of a lujvo). These forms are represented as CVC/CV or CCVCV (called
<quote>the 5-letter rafsi</quote>), and CVC/C or CCVC (called
@@ -780,24 +780,24 @@
<en>
<quote>evening meal</quote> or
<quote>supper</quote></en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>short rafsi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>short</secondary></indexterm> In addition to these two forms, each gismu may have up to three additional short rafsi, three letters long. All short rafsi have one of the forms CVC, CCV, or CVV. The total number of rafsi forms that are assigned to a gismu depends on how useful the gismu is, or is presumed to be, in making lujvo, when compared to other gismu that could be assigned the rafsi.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>-er</primary><secondary>use of zmadu in forming</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>comparatives</primary><secondary>use of zmadu in forming</secondary></indexterm> For example,
<jbophrase>zmadu</jbophrase> (
<quote>more than</quote>) has the two short rafsi
- <quote>zma</quote> and
- <jbophrase>mau</jbophrase> (in addition to its unreduced rafsi
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">zma</jbophrase> and
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">mau</jbophrase> (in addition to its unreduced rafsi
- <quote>zmad</quote> and
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">zmad</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>zmadu</jbophrase>), because a vast number of lujvo have been created based on
<jbophrase>zmadu</jbophrase>, corresponding in general to English comparative adjectives ending in
<quote>-er</quote> such as
<quote>whiter</quote> (Lojban
<jbophrase>labmau</jbophrase>). On the other hand,
<jbophrase>bakri</jbophrase> (
<quote>chalk</quote>) has no short rafsi and few lujvo.</para>
<para>There are at most one CVC-form, one CCV-form, and one CVV-form rafsi per gismu. In fact, only a tiny handful of gismu have both a CCV-form and a CVV-form rafsi assigned, and still fewer have all three forms of short rafsi. However, gismu with both a CVC-form and another short rafsi are fairly common, partly because more possible CVC-form rafsi exist. Yet CVC-form rafsi, even though they are fairly easy to remember, cannot be used at the end of a lujvo (because lujvo must end in vowels), so justifying the assignment of an additional short rafsi to many gismu.</para>
@@ -837,21 +837,21 @@
<description>-kli-</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>CCV</cmavo>
<selmaho>132</selmaho>
<description>-ska-</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para>(The only actual short rafsi for
<jbophrase>sakli</jbophrase> is
- <quote>-sal-</quote>.)</para>
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">-sal-</jbophrase>.)</para>
<para>For gismu of the form CCVCV, like
<jbophrase>blaci</jbophrase>, the only short rafsi forms that can exist are:</para>
<cmavo-list>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>CVC</cmavo>
<selmaho>134</selmaho>
<description>-bac-</description>
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>CVC</cmavo>
@@ -880,32 +880,32 @@
</cmavo-entry>
<cmavo-entry>
<cmavo>CCV</cmavo>
<selmaho>123</selmaho>
<description>-bla-</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi assignments</primary><secondary>non-reassignability of</secondary></indexterm> (In fact,
<jbophrase>blaci</jbophrase> has none of these short rafsi; they are all assigned to other gismu. Lojban speakers are not free to reassign any of the rafsi; the tables shown here are to help understand how the rafsi were chosen in the first place.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>considerations restricting construction of</secondary></indexterm> There are a few restrictions: a CVV-form rafsi without an apostrophe cannot exist unless the vowels make up one of the four diphthongs
- <jbophrase>ai</jbophrase>,
- <jbophrase>ei</jbophrase>,
- <jbophrase>oi</jbophrase>, or
- <jbophrase>au</jbophrase>; and a CCV-form rafsi is possible only if the two consonants form a permissible initial consonant pair (see
+ <jbophrase role="diphthong">ai</jbophrase>,
+ <jbophrase role="diphthong">ei</jbophrase>,
+ <jbophrase role="diphthong">oi</jbophrase>, or
+ <jbophrase role="diphthong">au</jbophrase>; and a CCV-form rafsi is possible only if the two consonants form a permissible initial consonant pair (see
<xref linkend="section-introduction"/>). Thus
<jbophrase>mamta</jbophrase>, which has the same form as
<jbophrase>salci</jbophrase>, can only have
- <quote>mam</quote>,
- <quote>mat</quote>, and
- <jbophrase>ma'a</jbophrase> as possible rafsi: in fact, only
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">mam</jbophrase>,
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">mat</jbophrase>, and
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">ma'a</jbophrase> as possible rafsi: in fact, only
- <quote>mam</quote> is assigned to it.</para>
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">mam</jbophrase> is assigned to it.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>numbers</primary><secondary>rafsi for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi for numbers</primary></indexterm> Some cmavo also have associated rafsi, usually CVC-form. For example, the ten common numerical digits, which are all CV form cmavo, each have a CVC-form rafsi formed by adding a consonant to the cmavo. Most cmavo that have rafsi are ones used in composing tanru (for a complete list, see
<xref linkend="chapter-lujvo"/>).</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fully reduced lujvo</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>fully reduced</secondary></indexterm> The term for a lujvo made up solely of short rafsi is
<quote>fully reduced lujvo</quote>. Here are some examples of fully reduced lujvo:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qJc2" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e6d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
@@ -981,80 +981,80 @@
<jbophrase>lerfu liste</jbophrase></gloss>
<en>
<quote>letter list</quote> or a
<quote>list of letters</quote></en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>recognizing</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo form</primary><secondary>number of letters in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo form</primary><secondary>consonant cluster requirement in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo form</primary><secondary>final letter of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>summary of form characteristics</secondary></indexterm> As noted above, CVC-form rafsi cannot appear as the final rafsi in a lujvo, because all lujvo must end with one or two vowels. As a brivla, a lujvo must also contain a consonant cluster within the first five letters - this ensures that they cannot be mistaken for compound cmavo. Of course, all lujvo have at least six letters since they have two or more rafsi, each at least three letters long; hence they cannot be confused with gismu.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo form</primary><secondary>requirements for hyphen insertion in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>hyphen letter</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>hyphens</primary><secondary>use of</secondary></indexterm> When attaching two rafsi together, it may be necessary to insert a hyphen letter. In Lojban, the term
<quote>hyphen</quote> always refers to a letter, either the vowel
- <jbophrase>y</jbophrase> or one of the consonants
- <quote>r</quote> and
- <quote>n</quote>. (The letter
- <quote>l</quote> can also be a hyphen, but is not used as one in lujvo.)</para>
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">y</jbophrase> or one of the consonants
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">r</jbophrase> and
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">n</jbophrase>. (The letter
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">l</jbophrase> can also be a hyphen, but is not used as one in lujvo.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo form</primary><secondary>requirements for y-hyphen insertion in</secondary></indexterm> The
- <jbophrase>y</jbophrase>-hyphen is used after a CVC-form rafsi when joining it with the following rafsi could result in an impermissible consonant pair, or when the resulting lujvo could fall apart into two or more words (either cmavo or gismu).</para>
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">y</jbophrase>-hyphen is used after a CVC-form rafsi when joining it with the following rafsi could result in an impermissible consonant pair, or when the resulting lujvo could fall apart into two or more words (either cmavo or gismu).</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>and consonant pairs</secondary></indexterm> Thus, the tanru
<jbophrase>pante tavla</jbophrase> (
<quote>protest talk</quote>) cannot produce the lujvo
- <quote>patta'a</quote>, because
- <quote>tt</quote> is not a permissible consonant pair; the lujvo must be
+ <jbophrase valid="false">patta'a</jbophrase>, because
+ <jbophrase role="morphology" valid="false">tt</jbophrase> is not a permissible consonant pair; the lujvo must be
<jbophrase>patyta'a</jbophrase>. Similarly, the tanru
<jbophrase>mudri siclu</jbophrase> (
<quote>wooden whistle</quote>) cannot form the lujvo
- <quote>mudsiclu</quote>; instead,
+ <jbophrase valid="false">mudsiclu</jbophrase>; instead,
<jbophrase>mudysiclu</jbophrase> must be used. (Remember that
- <jbophrase>y</jbophrase> is not counted in determining whether the first five letters of a brivla contain a consonant cluster: this is why.)</para>
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">y</jbophrase> is not counted in determining whether the first five letters of a brivla contain a consonant cluster: this is why.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>four-letter</secondary><tertiary>requirement for y-hyphen</tertiary></indexterm> The
- <jbophrase>y</jbophrase>-hyphen is also used to attach a 4-letter rafsi, formed by dropping the final vowel of a gismu, to the following rafsi. (This procedure was shown, but not explained, in
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">y</jbophrase>-hyphen is also used to attach a 4-letter rafsi, formed by dropping the final vowel of a gismu, to the following rafsi. (This procedure was shown, but not explained, in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qj84"/> to
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qjbP"/>.)</para>
<para>The lujvo forms
<jbophrase>zunlyjamfu</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>zunlyjma</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>zuljamfu</jbophrase>, and
<jbophrase>zuljma</jbophrase> are all legitimate and equivalent forms made from the tanru
<jbophrase>zunle jamfu</jbophrase> (
<quote>left foot</quote>). Of these,
<jbophrase>zuljma</jbophrase> is the preferred one since it is the shortest; it thus is likely to be the form listed in a Lojban dictionary.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo form</primary><secondary>requirements for n-hyphen insertion in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo form</primary><secondary>requirements for r-hyphen insertion in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>r-hyphen</primary><secondary>use of</secondary></indexterm> The
- <quote>r</quote>-hyphen and its close relative, the
- <quote>n</quote>-hyphen, are used in lujvo only after CVV-form rafsi. A hyphen is always required in a two-part lujvo of the form CVV-CVV, since otherwise there would be no consonant cluster.</para>
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">r</jbophrase>-hyphen and its close relative, the
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">n</jbophrase>-hyphen, are used in lujvo only after CVV-form rafsi. A hyphen is always required in a two-part lujvo of the form CVV-CVV, since otherwise there would be no consonant cluster.</para>
<para>An
- <quote>r-</quote> hyphen or
- <quote>n</quote>-hyphen is also required after the CVV-form rafsi of any lujvo of the form CVV-CVC/CV or CVV-CCVCV since it would otherwise fall apart into a CVV-form cmavo and a gismu. In any lujvo with more than two parts, a CVV-form rafsi in the initial position must always be followed by a hyphen. If the hyphen were to be omitted, the supposed lujvo could be broken into smaller words without the hyphen: because the CVV-form rafsi would be interpreted as a cmavo, and the remainder of the word as a valid lujvo that is one rafsi shorter.</para>
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">r</jbophrase>- hyphen or
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">n</jbophrase>-hyphen is also required after the CVV-form rafsi of any lujvo of the form CVV-CVC/CV or CVV-CCVCV since it would otherwise fall apart into a CVV-form cmavo and a gismu. In any lujvo with more than two parts, a CVV-form rafsi in the initial position must always be followed by a hyphen. If the hyphen were to be omitted, the supposed lujvo could be broken into smaller words without the hyphen: because the CVV-form rafsi would be interpreted as a cmavo, and the remainder of the word as a valid lujvo that is one rafsi shorter.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>r-hyphen</primary><secondary>contrasted with "n"-hyphen in requirements for use</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>n-hyphen</primary><secondary>contrasted with "r"-hyphen in requirements for use</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>n-hyphen</primary><secondary>use of</secondary></indexterm> An
- <quote>n</quote>-hyphen is only used in place of an
- <quote>r</quote>-hyphen when the following rafsi begins with
- <quote>r</quote>. For example, the tanru
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">n</jbophrase>-hyphen is only used in place of an
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">r</jbophrase>-hyphen when the following rafsi begins with
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">r</jbophrase>. For example, the tanru
<jbophrase>rokci renro</jbophrase> (
<quote>rock throw</quote>) cannot be expressed as
- <jbophrase>ro'ire'o</jbophrase> (which breaks up into two cmavo), nor can it be
- <quote>ro'irre'o</quote> (which has an impermissible double consonant); the
- <quote>n</quote>-hyphen is required, and the correct form of the hyphenated lujvo is
+ <jbophrase valid="false">ro'ire'o</jbophrase> (which breaks up into two cmavo), nor can it be
+ <jbophrase valid="false">ro'irre'o</jbophrase> (which has an impermissible double consonant); the
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">n</jbophrase>-hyphen is required, and the correct form of the hyphenated lujvo is
<jbophrase>ro'inre'o</jbophrase>. The same lujvo could also be expressed without hyphenation as
<jbophrase>rokre'o</jbophrase>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ZEI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>zei</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>with zei</secondary></indexterm> There is also a different way of building lujvo, or rather phrases which are grammatically and semantically equivalent to lujvo. You can make a phrase containing any desired words, joining each pair of them with the special cmavo
- <quote>zei</quote>. Thus,</para>
+ <jbophrase>zei</jbophrase>. Thus,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-VeGL">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e6d12"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>bridi zei valsi</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmavo without rafsi</primary><secondary>method of including in lujvo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>method of including in lujvo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>method of including in lujvo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>lack of</secondary><tertiary>effect on forming lujvo</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>from cmavo with no rafsi</secondary></indexterm> is the exact equivalent of
<jbophrase>brivla</jbophrase> (but not necessarily the same as the underlying tanru
<jbophrase>bridi valsi</jbophrase>, which could have other meanings.) Using
- <quote>zei</quote> is the only way to get a cmavo lacking a rafsi, a cmene, or a fu'ivla into a lujvo:</para>
+ <jbophrase>zei</jbophrase> is the only way to get a cmavo lacking a rafsi, a cmene, or a fu'ivla into a lujvo:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qJe1" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>X-ray</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c4e6d13"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>xy. zei kantu</jbo>
<en>X ray</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1096,60 +1096,60 @@
<jbo>.cerman. zei jamkarce</jbo>
<gloss>Sherman war-car</gloss>
<en>Sherman tank</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para><xref linkend="example-random-id-qJef"/> is particularly noteworthy because the phrase that would be produced by removing the
- <quote>zei</quote> s from it doesn't end with a brivla, and in fact is not even grammatical. As written, the example is a tanru with two components, but by adding a
- <quote>zei</quote> between
+ <jbophrase>zei</jbophrase> s from it doesn't end with a brivla, and in fact is not even grammatical. As written, the example is a tanru with two components, but by adding a
+ <jbophrase>zei</jbophrase> between
<jbophrase>by.</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>livgyterbilma</jbophrase> to produce</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Wnaz">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>hepatitis</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c4e6d17"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>na'e zei .a zei na'e zei by. zei livgyterbilma</jbo>
<en>non-A-non-B-hepatitis</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>the whole phrase would become a single lujvo. The longer lujvo of
<xref linkend="example-random-id-Wnaz"/> may be preferable, because its place structure can be built from that of
<jbophrase>bilma</jbophrase>, whereas the place structure of a lujvo without a brivla must be constructed ad hoc.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmavo</primary><secondary>contrasted with rafsi in usage</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>contrasted with cmavo in usage</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>contrasted with words</secondary></indexterm> Note that rafsi may not be used in
- <quote>zei</quote> phrases, because they are not words. CVV rafsi look like words (specifically cmavo) but there can be no confusion between the two uses of the same letters, because cmavo appear only as separate words or in compound cmavo (which are really just a notation for writing separate but closely related words as if they were one); rafsi appear only as parts of lujvo.</para>
+ <jbophrase>zei</jbophrase> phrases, because they are not words. CVV rafsi look like words (specifically cmavo) but there can be no confusion between the two uses of the same letters, because cmavo appear only as separate words or in compound cmavo (which are really just a notation for writing separate but closely related words as if they were one); rafsi appear only as parts of lujvo.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-fuhivla">
<title>fu'ivla</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>unsuitability of for concrete/specific terms and jargon</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>food</primary><secondary>use of fu'ivla for specific</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>animals</primary><secondary>use of fu'ivla for specific</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>plants</primary><secondary>use of fu'ivla for specific</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>jargon</primary><secondary>use of fu'ivla for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>specific terms</primary><secondary>use of fu'ivla for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>concrete terms</primary><secondary>use of fu'ivla for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>use of</secondary></indexterm> The use of tanru or lujvo is not always appropriate for very concrete or specific terms (e.g.
<quote>brie</quote> or
<quote>cobra</quote>), or for jargon words specialized to a narrow field (e.g.
<quote>quark</quote>,
<quote>integral</quote>, or
<quote>iambic pentameter</quote>). These words are in effect names for concepts, and the names were invented by speakers of another language. The vast majority of words referring to plants, animals, foods, and scientific terminology cannot be easily expressed as tanru. They thus must be borrowed (actually
<quote>copied</quote>) into Lojban from the original language.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>la'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>borrowings</primary><secondary>Stage 1</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>borrowings</primary><secondary>using foreign-language name</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>borrowing</primary><secondary>four stages of</secondary></indexterm> There are four stages of borrowing in Lojban, as words become more and more modified (but shorter and easier to use). Stage 1 is the use of a foreign name quoted with the cmavo
- <quote>la'o</quote> (explained in full in
+ <jbophrase>la'o</jbophrase> (explained in full in
<xref linkend="chapter-structure"/>):</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-QpNm">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e7d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>me la'o ly. spaghetti .ly.</jbo>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
@@ -1174,70 +1174,70 @@
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>as Stage 4 borrowings</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>borrowings</primary><secondary>Stage 4</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>borrowings</primary><secondary>fu'ivla form without categorizing rafsi</secondary></indexterm> Finally, Stage 4 fu'ivla do not have any rafsi classifier, and are used where a fu'ivla has become so common or so important that it must be made as short as possible. (See
<xref linkend="section-rafsi-fuhivla"/> for a proposal concerning Stage 4 fu'ivla.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>form of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>construction of</secondary></indexterm> The form of a fu'ivla reliably distinguishes it from both the gismu and the cmavo. Like cultural gismu, fu'ivla are generally based on a word from a single non-Lojban language. The word is
<quote>borrowed</quote> (actually
<quote>copied</quote>, hence the Lojban tanru
<jbophrase>fukpi valsi</jbophrase>) from the other language and Lojbanized - the phonemes are converted to their closest Lojban equivalent and modifications are made as necessary to make the word a legitimate Lojban fu'ivla-form word. All fu'ivla:</para>
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>initial consonant cluster in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>rules for formation of</secondary></indexterm> must contain a consonant cluster in the first five letters of the word; if this consonant cluster is at the beginning, it must either be a permissible initial consonant pair, or a longer cluster such that each pair of adjacent consonants in the cluster is a permissible initial consonant pair:
- <quote>spraile</quote> is acceptable, but not
- <quote>ktraile</quote> or
- <quote>trkaile</quote>;</para>
+ <jbophrase>spraile</jbophrase> is acceptable, but not
+ <jbophrase valid="false">ktraile</jbophrase> or
+ <jbophrase valid="false">trkaile</jbophrase>;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>must end in one or more vowels;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>slinku'i test</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> must not be gismu or lujvo, or any combination of cmavo, gismu, and lujvo; furthermore, a fu'ivla with a CV cmavo joined to the front of it must not have the form of a lujvo (the so-called
<quote>slinku'i test</quote>, not discussed further in this book);</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><!-- FIXME: this indexterm fits with five different examples (further down); should it go in all five or just the first? --><indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>syllabic pronunciations of consonants</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>y</primary><secondary>letter</secondary><tertiary>prohibition from fu'ivla</tertiary></indexterm> cannot contain
- <jbophrase>y</jbophrase>, although they may contain syllabic pronunciations of Lojban consonants;</para>
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">y</jbophrase>, although they may contain syllabic pronunciations of Lojban consonants;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>stress in</secondary></indexterm> like other brivla, are stressed on the penultimate syllable.</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>consonant clusters in</secondary></indexterm> Note that consonant triples or larger clusters that are not at the beginning of a fu'ivla can be quite flexible, as long as all consonant pairs are permissible. There is no need to restrict fu'ivla clusters to permissible initial pairs except at the beginning.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>borrowings</primary><secondary>Stage 3 contrasted with Stage 4 in ease of construction</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>categorized contrasted with uncategorized in ease of construction</secondary></indexterm> This is a fairly liberal definition and allows quite a lot of possibilities within
<jbophrase>fu'ivla space</jbophrase>. Stage 3 fu'ivla can be made easily on the fly, as lujvo can, because the procedure for forming them always guarantees a word that cannot violate any of the rules. Stage 4 fu'ivla require running tests that are not simple to characterize or perform, and should be made only after deliberation and by someone knowledgeable about all the considerations that apply.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>algorithm for constructing</secondary></indexterm> Here is a simple and reliable procedure for making a non-Lojban word into a valid Stage 3 fu'ivla:</para>
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Eliminate all double consonants and silent letters.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Convert all sounds to their closest Lojban equivalents. Lojban
- <jbophrase>y</jbophrase>, however, may not be used in any fu'ivla.</para>
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">y</jbophrase>, however, may not be used in any fu'ivla.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>If the last letter is not a vowel, modify the ending so that the word ends in a vowel, either by removing a final consonant or by adding a suggestively chosen final vowel.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>If the first letter is not a consonant, modify the beginning so that the word begins with a consonant, either by removing an initial vowel or adding a suggestively chosen initial consonant.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla categorizer</primary><secondary>selection consideration for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>l-hyphen</primary><secondary>use of</secondary></indexterm> Prefix the result of steps 1-5 with a 4-letter rafsi that categorizes the fu'ivla into a
<quote>topic area</quote>. It is only safe to use a 4-letter rafsi; short rafsi sometimes produce invalid fu'ivla. Hyphenate the rafsi to the rest of the fu'ivla with an
- <quote>r</quote>-hyphen; if that would produce a double
- <quote>r</quote>, use an
- <quote>n</quote>-hyphen instead; if the rafsi ends in
- <quote>r</quote> and the rest of the fu'ivla begins with
- <quote>n</quote> (or vice versa), or if the rafsi ends in "r" and the rest of the fu'ivla begins with "tc", "ts", "dj", or "dz" (using "n" would result in a phonotactically impermissible cluster), use an
- <quote>l</quote>-hyphen. (This is the only use of
- <quote>l</quote>-hyphen in Lojban.)</para>
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">r</jbophrase>-hyphen; if that would produce a double
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">r</jbophrase>, use an
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">n</jbophrase>-hyphen instead; if the rafsi ends in
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">r</jbophrase> and the rest of the fu'ivla begins with
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">n</jbophrase> (or vice versa), or if the rafsi ends in "r" and the rest of the fu'ivla begins with "tc", "ts", "dj", or "dz" (using "n" would result in a phonotactically impermissible cluster), use an
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">l</jbophrase>-hyphen. (This is the only use of
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">l</jbophrase>-hyphen in Lojban.)</para>
<para>Alternatively, if a CVC-form short rafsi is available it can be used instead of the long rafsi.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Remember that the stress necessarily appears on the penultimate (next-to-the-last) syllable.</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
<para> In this section, the hyphen is set off with commas in the examples, but these commas are not required in writing, and the hyphen need not be pronounced as a separate syllable.</para>
<para>Here are a few examples:</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ufin">
@@ -1249,21 +1249,21 @@
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>spaghetti (from English or Italian)</jbo>
<gloss>spageti (Lojbanize)</gloss>
<gloss>cidj,r,spageti (prefix long rafsi)</gloss>
<en>dja,r,spageti (prefix short rafsi)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> where
- <quote>cidj-</quote> is the 4-letter rafsi for
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">cidj-</jbophrase> is the 4-letter rafsi for
<jbophrase>cidja</jbophrase>, the Lojban gismu for
<quote>food</quote>, thus categorizing
<jbophrase>cidjrspageti</jbophrase> as a kind of food. The form with the short rafsi happens to work, but such good fortune cannot be relied on: in any event, it means the same thing.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pzXe">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>maple trees</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Acer</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>maple sugar</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c4e7d4"/>
</title>
@@ -1271,22 +1271,22 @@
<jbo>Acer (the scientific name of maple trees)</jbo>
<gloss>acer (Lojbanize)</gloss>
<gloss>xaceru (add initial consonant and final vowel)</gloss>
<gloss>tric,r,xaceru (prefix rafsi)</gloss>
<en>ric,r,xaceru (prefix short rafsi)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where
- <quote>tric-</quote> and
- <quote>ric-</quote> are rafsi for
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">tric-</jbophrase> and
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">ric-</jbophrase> are rafsi for
<jbophrase>tricu</jbophrase>, the gismu for
<quote>tree</quote>. Note that by the same principles,
<quote>maple sugar</quote> could get the fu'ivla
<jbophrase>saktrxaceru</jbophrase>, or could be represented by the tanru
<jbophrase>tricrxaceru sakta</jbophrase>. Technically,
<jbophrase>ricrxaceru</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>tricrxaceru</jbophrase> are distinct fu'ivla, but they would surely be given the same meanings if both happened to be in use.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-C0YS">
<title>
@@ -1294,96 +1294,97 @@
<anchor xml:id="c4e7d5"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>brie (from French)</jbo>
<gloss>bri (Lojbanize)</gloss>
<en>cirl,r,bri (prefix rafsi)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> where
- <quote>cirl-</quote> represents
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">cirl-</jbophrase> represents
<jbophrase>cirla</jbophrase> (
<quote>cheese</quote>).</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-DQju">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>cobra</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c4e7d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>cobra</jbo>
<gloss>kobra (Lojbanize)</gloss>
<en>sinc,r,kobra (prefix rafsi)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> where
- <quote>sinc-</quote> represents
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">sinc-</jbophrase> represents
<jbophrase>since</jbophrase> (
<quote>snake</quote>).</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-TFzH">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>quark</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c4e7d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>quark</jbo>
<gloss>kuark (Lojbanize)</gloss>
<gloss>kuarka (add final vowel)</gloss>
<en>sask,r,kuarka (prefix rafsi)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>allowable diphthongs</primary><secondary>in gismu and lujvo contrasted with in fu'ivla</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>allowable diphthongs</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla contrasted with in gismu and lujvo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>diphthongs</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>diphthongs in</secondary></indexterm> where
- <quote>sask-</quote> represents
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">sask-</jbophrase> represents
<jbophrase>saske</jbophrase> (
<quote>science</quote>). Note the extra vowel
- <quote>a</quote> added to the end of the word, and the diphthong
- <jbophrase>ua</jbophrase>, which never appears in gismu or lujvo, but may appear in fu'ivla.</para>
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">a</jbophrase> added to the end of the word, and the diphthong
+ <jbophrase role="diphthong">ua</jbophrase>, which never appears in gismu or lujvo, but may appear in fu'ivla.</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-FTfQ">
<title>
<anchor xml:id="c4e7d8"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
+ <!-- FIXME: non-lojban-non-english component of example; how do we mark this? <nonen>? <foreign>? -->
<jbo>자모 (from Korean)</jbo>
<gloss>djamo (Lojbanize)</gloss>
<gloss>lerf,r,djamo (prefix rafsi)</gloss>
<en>ler,l,djamo (prefix rafsi)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para>where
- <quote>ler-</quote> represents
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">ler-</jbophrase> represents
<jbophrase>lerfu</jbophrase> (
<quote>letter</quote>). Note the l-hyphen in "lerldjamo", since "lerndjamo" contains the forbidden cluster "ndj".</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla categorizer</primary><secondary>for distinguishing fu'ivla form</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>disambiguation of</secondary></indexterm> The use of the prefix helps distinguish among the many possible meanings of the borrowed word, depending on the field. As it happens,
- <quote>spageti</quote> and
+ <jbophrase>spageti</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>kuarka</jbophrase> are valid Stage 4 fu'ivla, but
- <quote>xaceru</quote> looks like a compound cmavo, and
- <jbophrase>kobra</jbophrase> like a gismu.</para>
+ <jbophrase valid="false">xaceru</jbophrase> looks like a compound cmavo, and
+ <jbophrase valid="false">kobra</jbophrase> like a gismu.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla categorizer</primary><secondary>for distinguishing specialized meanings</secondary></indexterm> For another example,
<quote>integral</quote> has a specific meaning to a mathematician. But the Lojban fu'ivla
- <quote>integrale</quote>, which is a valid Stage 4 fu'ivla, does not convey that mathematical sense to a non-mathematical listener, even one with an English-speaking background; its source - the English word
+ <jbophrase>integrale</jbophrase>, which is a valid Stage 4 fu'ivla, does not convey that mathematical sense to a non-mathematical listener, even one with an English-speaking background; its source - the English word
<quote>integral</quote>- has various other specialized meanings in other fields.</para>
<para>Left uncontrolled,
- <quote>integrale</quote> almost certainly would eventually come to mean the same collection of loosely related concepts that English associates with
+ <jbophrase>integrale</jbophrase> almost certainly would eventually come to mean the same collection of loosely related concepts that English associates with
<quote>integral</quote>, with only the context to indicate (possibly) that the mathematical term is meant.</para>
<para> <!-- FIXME: there's nowhere for these two indexterms to go --><indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>integral</primary><secondary>architectural concept</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>integral</primary><secondary>mathematical concept</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm> The prefix method would render the mathematical concept as
<jbophrase>cmacrntegrale</jbophrase>, if the
- <jbophrase>i</jbophrase> of
- <quote>integrale</quote> is removed, or something like
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">i</jbophrase> of
+ <jbophrase>integrale</jbophrase> is removed, or something like
<jbophrase>cmacrnintegrale</jbophrase>, if a new consonant is added to the beginning;
- <quote>cmac-</quote> is the rafsi for
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">cmac-</jbophrase> is the rafsi for
<jbophrase>cmaci</jbophrase> (
<quote>mathematics</quote>). The architectural sense of
<quote>integral</quote> might be conveyed with
<jbophrase>djinrnintegrale</jbophrase> or
<jbophrase>tarmrnintegrale</jbophrase>, where
<jbophrase>dinju</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>tarmi</jbophrase> mean
<quote>building</quote> and
<quote>form</quote> respectively.</para>
@@ -1435,21 +1436,21 @@
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>kuln,r,kore,a</jbo>
<en>Korean (the culture)</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para><!-- FIXME: there's nowhere for this indexterm to go --><indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Navajo</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>considerations for choosing basis word</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>with invalid diphthongs</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>invalid diphthongs</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla</secondary></indexterm> Note the commas in
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qJGv"/> and
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qjh0"/>, used because
- <quote>ea</quote> is not a valid diphthong in Lojban. Arguably, some form of the native name
+ <jbophrase role="diphthong" valid="false">ea</jbophrase> is not a valid diphthong in Lojban. Arguably, some form of the native name
<quote>Chosen</quote> should have been used instead of the internationally known
<quote>Korea</quote>; this is a recurring problem in all borrowings. In general, it is better to use the native name unless using it will severely impede understanding:
<quote>Navajo</quote> is far more widely known than
<quote>Dine'e</quote>.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-cmene">
<title>cmene</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names in Lojban (see also cmene)</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>purpose of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>purpose of</secondary></indexterm> Lojbanized names, called
@@ -1514,25 +1515,25 @@
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Catherine</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c4e8d6"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>kat,r,in.</jbo>
<en>Catherine</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
<para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>syllabic consonant</primary><secondary>effect on stress determination</secondary></indexterm> (Note that syllabic
- <quote>r</quote> is skipped in determining the stressed syllable, so
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">r</jbophrase> is skipped in determining the stressed syllable, so
<xref linkend="example-random-id-qjIq"/> is stressed on the
- <quote>ka</quote>.)</para>
+ <jbophrase>ka</jbophrase>.)</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qJiv" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Cathy</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c4e8d7"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>katis.</jbo>
<en>Cathy</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
@@ -1573,214 +1574,198 @@
<para>are both valid Lojbanizations of
<quote>John Jones</quote>.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>authority for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>authority for</secondary></indexterm> The final arbiter of the correct form of a name is the person doing the naming, although most cultures grant people the right to determine how they want their own name to be spelled and pronounced. The English name
<quote>Mary</quote> can thus be Lojbanized as
<jbophrase>meris.</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>maris.</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>meiris.</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>merix.</jbophrase>, or even
<jbophrase>marys.</jbophrase>. The last alternative is not pronounced much like its English equivalent, but may be desirable to someone who values spelling over pronunciation. The final consonant need not be an
- <quote>s</quote>; there must, however, be some Lojban consonant at the end.</para>
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">s</jbophrase>; there must, however, be some Lojban consonant at the end.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>restrictions on form of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>restrictions on form of</secondary></indexterm> Names are not permitted to have the sequences
- <quote>la</quote>,
- <quote>lai</quote>, or
+ <jbophrase>la</jbophrase>,
+ <jbophrase>lai</jbophrase>, or
<jbophrase>doi</jbophrase> embedded in them, unless the sequence is immediately preceded by a consonant. These minor restrictions are due to the fact that all Lojban cmene embedded in a speech stream will be preceded by one of these words or by a pause. With one of these words embedded, the cmene might break up into valid Lojban words followed by a shorter cmene. However, break-up cannot happen after a consonant, because that would imply that the word before the
- <quote>la</quote>, or whatever, ended in a consonant without pause, which is impossible.</para>
+ <jbophrase>la</jbophrase>, or whatever, ended in a consonant without pause, which is impossible.</para>
<para> <!-- FIXME: there's nowhere for these two indexterms to go --><indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Nederlands</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Laplace</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> For example, the invalid name
<jbophrase>laplas.</jbophrase> would look like the Lojban words
<jbophrase>la plas.</jbophrase>, and
<jbophrase>ilanas.</jbophrase> would be misunderstood as
<jbophrase>.i la nas.</jbophrase>. However,
- <quote>NEderlants.</quote> cannot be misheard as
- <quote>NEder lants.</quote>, because
- <quote>NEder</quote> with no following pause is not a possible Lojban word.</para>
+ <jbophrase role="pronuncation">NEderlants.</jbophrase> cannot be misheard as
+ <jbophrase role="pronuncation">NEder lants.</jbophrase>, because
+ <jbophrase role="pronuncation">NEder</jbophrase> with no following pause is not a possible Lojban word.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>alternatives for restricted sequences in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>alternatives for restricted sequences in</secondary></indexterm> There are close alternatives to these forbidden sequences that can be used in Lojbanizing names, such as
<jbophrase>ly</jbophrase>,
- <quote>lei</quote>, and
+ <jbophrase>lei</jbophrase>, and
<jbophrase>dai</jbophrase> or
<jbophrase>do'i</jbophrase>, that do not cause these problems.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>rules for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>rules for</secondary></indexterm> Lojban cmene are identifiable as word forms by the following characteristics:</para>
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>consonant clusters permitted in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>final letter in</secondary></indexterm> They must end in one or more consonants. There are no rules about how many consonants may appear in a cluster in cmene, provided that each consonant pair (whether standing by itself, or as part of a larger cluster) is a permissible pair.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>diphthongs</primary><secondary>specific to cmene</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>diphthongs</primary><secondary>specific to names</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>uy diphthong</primary><secondary>in cmene</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>iy diphthong</primary><secondary>in cmene</secondary></indexterm> They may contain the letter y as a normal, non-hyphenating vowel. They are the only kind of Lojban word that may contain the two diphthongs
- <quote>iy</quote> and
- <quote>uy</quote>.</para>
+ <jbophrase role="diphthong">iy</jbophrase> and
+ <jbophrase role="diphthong">uy</jbophrase>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>requirement for pause after</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>requirement for pause after</secondary></indexterm> They are always followed in speech by a pause after the final consonant, written as
- <quote>.</quote>.</para>
+ <jbophrase>.</jbophrase>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>capitalization</primary><secondary>use of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>capitalization</primary><secondary>for unusual stress in names</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>capitalization</primary><secondary>use in names</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>stress in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>stress in</secondary></indexterm> They may be stressed on any syllable; if this syllable is not the penultimate one, it must be capitalized when writing. Neither names nor words that begin sentences are capitalized in Lojban, so this is the only use of capital letters.</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>from Lojban words</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>from Lojban words</secondary></indexterm> Names meeting these criteria may be invented, Lojbanized from names in other languages, or formed by appending a consonant onto a cmavo, a gismu, a fu'ivla or a lujvo. Some cmene built from Lojban words are:</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qjj1" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>One</primary><secondary>the</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c4e8d11"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>pav.</jbo>
<gloss>the One</gloss>
- <en>from the cmavo
- <jbophrase>pa</jbophrase>, with rafsi
- <quote>pav</quote>, meaning
- <quote>one</quote></en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
+ <para>from the cmavo <jbophrase>pa</jbophrase>, with rafsi <jbophrase role="rafsi">pav</jbophrase>, meaning <quote>one</quote></para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qjjN" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Sun</primary><secondary>the</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c4e8d12"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>sol.</jbo>
<gloss>the Sun</gloss>
-
- <en>from the gismu
- <jbophrase>solri</jbophrase>, meaning
- <quote>solar</quote>, or actually
- <quote>pertaining to the Sun</quote></en>
-
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
+ <para>from the gismu <jbophrase>solri</jbophrase>, meaning <quote>solar</quote>, or actually <quote>pertaining to the Sun</quote></para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qjJz" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Chief</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c4e8d13"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>ralj.</jbo>
<gloss>Chief (as a title)</gloss>
-
- <en>from the gismu
- <jbophrase>ralju</jbophrase>, meaning
- <quote>principal</quote>.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
+ <para>from the gismu <jbophrase>ralju</jbophrase>, meaning <quote>principal</quote>.</para>
<example xml:id="example-random-id-qJKt" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Lord</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Lady</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c4e8d14"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>nol.</jbo>
<gloss>Lord/Lady</gloss>
-
-
- <en>from the gismu
- <jbophrase>nobli</jbophrase>, with rafsi
- <jbophrase>nol</jbophrase>, meaning
- <quote>noble</quote>.</en>
</interlinear-gloss>
</example>
+ <para>from the gismu <jbophrase>nobli</jbophrase>, with rafsi <jbophrase role="rafsi">nol</jbophrase>, meaning <quote>noble</quote>.</para>
<para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>algorithm for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>algorithm for</secondary></indexterm> To Lojbanize a name from the various natural languages, apply the following rules:</para>
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Eliminate double consonants and silent letters.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Add a final
- <quote>s</quote> or
- <quote>n</quote> (or some other consonant that sounds good) if the name ends in a vowel.</para>
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">s</jbophrase> or
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">n</jbophrase> (or some other consonant that sounds good) if the name ends in a vowel.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Convert all sounds to their closest Lojban equivalents.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>If possible and acceptable, shift the stress to the penultimate (next-to-the-last) syllable. Use commas and capitalization in written Lojban when it is necessary to preserve non-standard syllabication or stress. Do not capitalize names otherwise.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>avoiding impermissible consonant clusters in</secondary></indexterm> If the name contains an impermissible consonant pair, insert a vowel between the consonants:
- <jbophrase>y</jbophrase> is recommended.</para>
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">y</jbophrase> is recommended.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>proscribed syllables in</secondary></indexterm> No cmene may have the syllables
- <quote>la</quote>,
- <quote>lai</quote>, or
+ <jbophrase>la</jbophrase>,
+ <jbophrase>lai</jbophrase>, or
<jbophrase>doi</jbophrase> in them, unless immediately preceded by a consonant. If these combinations are present, they must be converted to something else. Possible substitutions include
<jbophrase>ly</jbophrase>,
- <quote>ly'i</quote>, and
+ <jbophrase>ly'i</jbophrase>, and
<jbophrase>dai</jbophrase> or
<jbophrase>do'i</jbophrase>, respectively.</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>scientific names</primary><secondary>rules for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Linnaean names</primary><secondary>rules for</secondary></indexterm> There are some additional rules for Lojbanizing the scientific names (technically known as
<quote>Linnaean binomials</quote> after their inventor) which are internationally applied to each species of animal or plant. Where precision is essential, these names need not be Lojbanized, but can be directly inserted into Lojban text using the cmavo
- <quote>la'o</quote>, explained in
+ <jbophrase>la'o</jbophrase>, explained in
<xref linkend="chapter-structure"/>. Using this cmavo makes the already lengthy Latinized names at least four syllables longer, however, and leaves the pronunciation in doubt. The following suggestions, though incomplete, will assist in converting Linnaean binomals to valid Lojban names. They can also help to create fu'ivla based on Linnaean binomials or other words of the international scientific vocabulary. The term
<quote>back vowel</quote> in the following list refers to any of the letters
- <quote>a</quote>,
- <quote>o</quote>, or
- <quote>u</quote>; the term
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">a</jbophrase>,
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">o</jbophrase>, or
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">u</jbophrase>; the term
<quote>front vowel</quote> correspondingly refers to any of the letters
- <jbophrase>e</jbophrase>,
- <jbophrase>i</jbophrase>, or
- <jbophrase>y</jbophrase>.</para>
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">e</jbophrase>,
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">i</jbophrase>, or
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">y</jbophrase>.</para>
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Change double consonants other than
- <quote>cc</quote> to single consonants.</para>
+ <jbophrase>cc</jbophrase> to single consonants.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Change
- <quote>cc</quote> before a front vowel to
- <quote>kc</quote>, but otherwise to
- <quote>k</quote>.</para>
+ <jbophrase role="morphology" valid="false">cc</jbophrase> before a front vowel to
+ <jbophrase role="morphology">kc</jbophrase>, but otherwise to
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">k</jbophrase>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Change
- <quote>c</quote> before a back vowel and final
- <quote>c</quote> to
- <quote>k</quote>.</para>
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">c</jbophrase> before a back vowel and final
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">c</jbophrase> to
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">k</jbophrase>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Change
- <quote>ng</quote> before a consonant (other than
- <quote>h</quote>) and final
- <quote>ng</quote> to
- <quote>n</quote>.</para>
+ <jbophrase role="morphology">ng</jbophrase> before a consonant (other than
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">h</jbophrase>) and final
+ <jbophrase role="morphology">ng</jbophrase> to
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">n</jbophrase>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Change
- <quote>x</quote> to
- <jbophrase>z</jbophrase> initially, but otherwise to
- <quote>ks</quote>.</para>
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">x</jbophrase> to
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">z</jbophrase> initially, but otherwise to
+ <jbophrase role="morphology">ks</jbophrase>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Change
- <quote>pn</quote> to
- <quote>n</quote> initially.</para>
+ <jbophrase role="morphology">pn</jbophrase> to
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">n</jbophrase> initially.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Change final
- <jbophrase>ie</jbophrase> and
- <jbophrase>ii</jbophrase> to
- <jbophrase>i</jbophrase>.</para>
+ <jbophrase role="diphthong">ie</jbophrase> and
+ <jbophrase role="diphthong">ii</jbophrase> to
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">i</jbophrase>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Make the following idiosyncratic substitutions:
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
aa a
ae e
ch k
ee i
eigh ei
ew u
@@ -1791,27 +1776,27 @@
ph f
q k
sc sk
w u
y i
</programlisting> However, the diphthong substitutions should not be done if the two vowels are in two different syllables.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Change
<quote>h</quote> between two vowels to
- <quote>'</quote>, but otherwise remove it completely. If preservation of the
+ <jbophrase>'</jbophrase>, but otherwise remove it completely. If preservation of the
<quote>h</quote> seems essential, change it to
- <quote>x</quote> instead.</para>
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">x</jbophrase> instead.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Place
- <quote>'</quote> between any remaining vowel pairs that do not form Lojban diphthongs.</para>
+ <jbophrase>'</jbophrase> between any remaining vowel pairs that do not form Lojban diphthongs.</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
<para>Some further examples of Lojbanized names are:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
English
<quote>Mary</quote> meris.
or meiris.
English
<quote>Smith</quote> smit.
@@ -1879,23 +1864,23 @@
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pause</primary><secondary>between words</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pause</primary><secondary>proscribed within words</secondary></indexterm> Any two words may have a pause between them; it is always illegal to pause in the middle of a word, because that breaks up the word into two words.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pause</primary><secondary>and consonant-final words</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>consonant-final words</primary><secondary>necessity for pause after</secondary></indexterm> Every word ending in a consonant must be followed by a pause. Necessarily, all such words are cmene.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pause</primary><secondary>and vowel-initial words</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vowel-initial words</primary><secondary>necessity for pause before</secondary></indexterm> Every word beginning with a vowel must be preceded by a pause. Such words are either cmavo, fu'ivla, or cmene; all gismu and lujvo begin with consonants.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pause</primary><secondary>and cmene</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>rules for pause before</secondary></indexterm> Every cmene must be preceded by a pause, unless the immediately preceding word is one of the cmavo
- <quote>la</quote>,
- <quote>lai</quote>,
- <quote>la'i</quote>, or
+ <jbophrase>la</jbophrase>,
+ <jbophrase>lai</jbophrase>,
+ <jbophrase>la'i</jbophrase>, or
<jbophrase>doi</jbophrase> (which is why those strings are forbidden in cmene). However, the situation triggering this rule rarely occurs.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pause</primary><secondary>and final-syllable stress</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>final syllable stress</primary><secondary>rules for pause after</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>stress</primary><secondary>final syllable</secondary><tertiary>rules for pause after</tertiary></indexterm> If the last syllable of a word bears the stress, and a brivla follows, the two must be separated by a pause, to prevent confusion with the primary stress of the brivla. In this case, the first word must be either a cmavo or a cmene with unusual stress (which already ends with a pause, of course).</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pause</primary><secondary>and Cy-form cmavo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmavo</primary><secondary>rules for pause after Cy-form</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Cy-form cmavo</primary><secondary>rules for pause after</secondary></indexterm> A cmavo of the form
<jbophrase role="morphology">Cy</jbophrase> must be followed by a pause unless another
<jbophrase role="morphology">Cy</jbophrase>-form cmavo follows.</para>
</listitem>
@@ -1912,21 +1897,21 @@
<xref linkend="section-lujvo-making"/>.</para>
<para>In building a lujvo, the first step is to replace each gismu with a rafsi that uniquely represents that gismu. These rafsi are then attached together by fixed rules that allow the resulting compound to be recognized as a single word and to be analyzed in only one way.</para>
<para>There are three other complications; only one is serious.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>multiple for each gismu</secondary></indexterm> The first is that there is usually more than one rafsi that can be used for each gismu. The one to be used is simply whichever one sounds or looks best to the speaker or writer. There are usually many valid combinations of possible rafsi. They all are equally valid, and all of them mean exactly the same thing. (The scoring algorithm given in
<xref linkend="section-lujvo-scoring"/> is used to choose the standard form of the lujvo - the version which would be entered into a dictionary.)</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>linguistic drift in Lojban</primary><secondary>possible source of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>consideration in choosing meaning for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>unambiguity of</secondary></indexterm> The second complication is the serious one. Remember that a tanru is ambiguous - it has several possible meanings. A lujvo, or at least one that would be put into the dictionary, has just a single meaning. Like a gismu, a lujvo is a predicate which encompasses one area of the semantic universe, with one set of places. Hopefully the meaning chosen is the most useful of the possible semantic spaces. A possible source of linguistic drift in Lojban is that as Lojbanic society evolves, the concept that seems the most useful one may change.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>za'e</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>za'e</primary><secondary>use to avoid lujvo misunderstandings</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>meaning drift of</secondary></indexterm> You must also be aware of the possibility of some prior meaning of a new lujvo, especially if you are writing for posterity. If a lujvo is invented which involves the same tanru as one that is in the dictionary, and is assigned a different meaning (or even just a different place structure), linguistic drift results. This isn't necessarily bad. Every natural language does it. But in communication, when you use a meaning different from the dictionary definition, someone else may use the dictionary and therefore misunderstand you. You can use the cmavo
- <quote>za'e</quote> (explained in
+ <jbophrase>za'e</jbophrase> (explained in
<xref linkend="chapter-structure"/>) before a newly coined lujvo to indicate that it may have a non-dictionary meaning.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>ultimate guideline for choice of meaning/place-structure</secondary></indexterm> The essential nature of human communication is that if the listener understands, then all is well. Let this be the ultimate guideline for choosing meanings and place structures for invented lujvo.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>dropping elements of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Zipf's Law</primary></indexterm> The third complication is also simple, but tends to scare new Lojbanists with its implications. It is based on Zipf's Law, which says that the length of words is inversely proportional to their usage. The shortest words are those which are used more; the longest ones are used less. Conversely, commonly used concepts will be tend to be abbreviated. In English, we have abbreviations and acronyms and jargon, all of which represent complex ideas that are used often by small groups of people, so they shortened them to convey more information more rapidly.</para>
<para>Therefore, given a complicated tanru with grouping markers, abstraction markers, and other cmavo in it to make it syntactically unambiguous, the psychological basis of Zipf's Law may compel the lujvo-maker to drop some of the cmavo to make a shorter (technically incorrect) tanru, and then use that tanru to make the lujvo.</para>
@@ -1967,75 +1952,75 @@
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>4)</term>
<listitem>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>hyphens in lujvo</primary><secondary>proscribed where not required</secondary></indexterm> Add hyphen letters where necessary. It is illegal to add a hyphen at a place that is not required by this algorithm. Right-to-left tests are recommended, for reasons discussed below.
<variablelist>
<varlistentry>
<term>4a)</term>
<listitem>
<para>If there are more than two words in the tanru, put an
- <quote>r</quote>-hyphen (or an
- <quote>n</quote>-hyphen) after the first rafsi if it is CVV-form. If there are exactly two words, then put an
- <quote>r</quote>-hyphen (or an
- <quote>n</quote>-hyphen) between the two rafsi if the first rafsi is CVV-form, unless the second rafsi is CCV-form (for example,
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">r</jbophrase>-hyphen (or an
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">n</jbophrase>-hyphen) after the first rafsi if it is CVV-form. If there are exactly two words, then put an
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">r</jbophrase>-hyphen (or an
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">n</jbophrase>-hyphen) between the two rafsi if the first rafsi is CVV-form, unless the second rafsi is CCV-form (for example,
<jbophrase>saicli</jbophrase> requires no hyphen). Use an
- <quote>r</quote>-hyphen unless the letter after the hyphen is
- <quote>r</quote>, in which case use an
- <quote>n</quote>-hyphen. Never use an
- <quote>n</quote>-hyphen unless it is required.</para>
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">r</jbophrase>-hyphen unless the letter after the hyphen is
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">r</jbophrase>, in which case use an
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">n</jbophrase>-hyphen. Never use an
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">n</jbophrase>-hyphen unless it is required.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>4b)</term>
<listitem>
<para>Put a
- <jbophrase>y</jbophrase>-hyphen between the consonants of any impermissible consonant pair. This will always appear between rafsi.</para>
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">y</jbophrase>-hyphen between the consonants of any impermissible consonant pair. This will always appear between rafsi.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>4c)</term>
<listitem>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tosmabru test</primary></indexterm> Put a
- <jbophrase>y</jbophrase>-hyphen after any 4-letter rafsi form.</para>
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">y</jbophrase>-hyphen after any 4-letter rafsi form.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist></para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>5)</term>
<listitem>
<para>Test all forms with one or more initial CVC-form rafsi - with the pattern
- <quote>CVC ... CVC + X</quote>- for
+ <quote>CVC ... CVC + X</quote> - for
<jbophrase>tosmabru failure</jbophrase>. X must either be a CVCCV long rafsi that happens to have a permissible initial pair as the consonant cluster, or is something which has caused a
- <jbophrase>y</jbophrase>-hyphen to be installed between the previous CVC and itself by one of the above rules.</para>
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">y</jbophrase>-hyphen to be installed between the previous CVC and itself by one of the above rules.</para>
<para>The test is as follows:</para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry>
<term>5a)</term>
<listitem>
- <para>Examine all the C/C consonant pairs up to the first <jbophrase>y</jbophrase>-hyphen, or up to the end of the word in case there are no <jbophrase>y</jbophrase>-hyphens.</para>
+ <para>Examine all the C/C consonant pairs up to the first <jbophrase role="letteral">y</jbophrase>-hyphen, or up to the end of the word in case there are no <jbophrase role="letteral">y</jbophrase>-hyphens.</para>
<para>These consonant pairs are called "joints”.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>5b)</term>
<listitem>
<para>If all of those joints are permissible initials, then the trial word will break up into a cmavo and a shorter brivla. If not, the word will not break up, and no further hyphens are needed.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>5c)</term>
<listitem>
- <para>Install a <jbophrase>y</jbophrase>-hyphen at the first such joint.</para>
+ <para>Install a <jbophrase role="letteral">y</jbophrase>-hyphen at the first such joint.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>selection of best form of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>scoring of</secondary></indexterm> Note that the
<quote>tosmabru test</quote> implies that the algorithm will be more efficient if rafsi junctures are tested for required hyphens from right to left, instead of from left to right; when the test is required, it cannot be completed until hyphenation to the right has been determined.</para>
@@ -2056,23 +2041,23 @@
<term>2)</term>
<listitem>
<para>Count the number of apostrophes; call it
<quote>A</quote>.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>3)</term>
<listitem>
<para>Count the number of
- <jbophrase>y</jbophrase>-,
- <quote>r</quote>-, and
- <quote>n</quote>-hyphens; call it
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">y</jbophrase>-,
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">r</jbophrase>-, and
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">n</jbophrase>-hyphens; call it
<quote>H</quote>.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>4)</term>
<listitem>
<para>For each rafsi, find the value in the following table. Sum this value over all rafsi; call it
<quote>R</quote>:
<cmavo-list>
@@ -2118,21 +2103,21 @@
<description>8</description>
</cmavo-entry>
</cmavo-list></para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>5)</term>
<listitem>
<para>Count the number of vowels, not including
- <jbophrase>y</jbophrase>; call it
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">y</jbophrase>; call it
<quote>V</quote>.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo form</primary><secondary>hierarchy of priorities for selection of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>hierarchy of priorities for selecting lujvo form</primary></indexterm> The score is then:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
(1000 * L) - (500 * A) + (100 * H) - (10 * R) - V
</programlisting>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>scored examples of</secondary></indexterm> In case of ties, there is no preference. This should be rare. Note that the algorithm essentially encodes a hierarchy of priorities: short words are preferred (counting apostrophes as half a letter), then words with fewer hyphens, words with more pleasing rafsi (this judgment is subjective), and finally words with more vowels are chosen. Each decision principle is applied in turn if the ones before it have failed to choose; it is possible that a lower-ranked principle might dominate a higher-ranked one if it is ten times better than the alternative.</para>
@@ -2199,103 +2184,103 @@
<jbophrase>gerku</jbophrase> are:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
-ger-, -ge'u-, -gerk-, -gerku
</programlisting>
<para>The rafsi for
<jbophrase>zdani</jbophrase> are:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
-zda-, -zdan-, -zdani.
</programlisting>
<para>Step 1 of the algorithm directs us to use
- <quote>-ger-</quote>,
- <quote>-ge'u-</quote> and
- <quote>-gerk-</quote> as possible rafsi for
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">-ger-</jbophrase>,
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">-ge'u-</jbophrase> and
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">-gerk-</jbophrase> as possible rafsi for
<jbophrase>gerku</jbophrase>; Step 2 directs us to use
- <quote>-zda-</quote> and
- <quote>-zdani</quote> as possible rafsi for
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">-zda-</jbophrase> and
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">-zdani</jbophrase> as possible rafsi for
<jbophrase>zdani</jbophrase>. The six possible forms of the lujvo are then:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
ger-zda
ger-zdani
ge'u-zda
ge'u-zdani
gerk-zda
gerk-zdani
</programlisting>
<para>We must then insert appropriate hyphens in each case. The first two forms need no hyphenation:
- <quote>ge</quote> cannot fall off the front, because the following word would begin with
- <quote>rz</quote>, which is not a permissible initial consonant pair. So the lujvo forms are
+ <jbophrase>ge</jbophrase> cannot fall off the front, because the following word would begin with
+ <jbophrase role="morphology" valid="false">rz</jbophrase>, which is not a permissible initial consonant pair. So the lujvo forms are
<jbophrase>gerzda</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>gerzdani</jbophrase>.</para>
<para>The third form,
- <quote>ge'u-zda</quote>, needs no hyphen, because even though the first rafsi is CVV, the second one is CCV, so there is a consonant cluster in the first five letters. So
+ <jbophrase>ge'u-zda</jbophrase>, needs no hyphen, because even though the first rafsi is CVV, the second one is CCV, so there is a consonant cluster in the first five letters. So
<jbophrase>ge'uzda</jbophrase> is this form of the lujvo.</para>
<para>The fourth form,
- <quote>ge'u-zdani</quote>, however, requires an
- <quote>r</quote>-hyphen; otherwise, the
- <quote>ge'u-</quote> part would fall off as a cmavo. So this form of the lujvo is
+ <jbophrase valid="false">ge'u-zdani</jbophrase>, however, requires an
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">r</jbophrase>-hyphen; otherwise, the
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">ge'u-</jbophrase> part would fall off as a cmavo. So this form of the lujvo is
<jbophrase>ge'urzdani</jbophrase>.</para>
<para>The last two forms require
- <jbophrase>y</jbophrase>-hyphens, as all 4-letter rafsi do, and so are
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">y</jbophrase>-hyphens, as all 4-letter rafsi do, and so are
<jbophrase>gerkyzda</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>gerkyzdani</jbophrase> respectively.</para>
<para> <!-- FIXME: there's nowhere for this indexterm to go --><indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>boat class</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> The scoring algorithm is heavily weighted in favor of short lujvo, so we might expect that
<jbophrase>gerzda</jbophrase> would win. Its L score is 6, its A score is 0, its H score is 0, its R score is 12, and its V score is 3, for a final score of 5878. The other forms have scores of 7917, 6367, 9506, 8008, and 10047 respectively. Consequently, this lujvo would probably appear in the dictionary in the form
<jbophrase>gerzda</jbophrase>.</para>
<para>For the next example, we will use the tanru
<jbophrase>bloti klesi</jbophrase> (
<quote>boat class</quote>) presumably referring to the category (rowboat, motorboat, cruise liner) into which a boat falls. We will omit the long rafsi from the process, since lujvo containing long rafsi are almost never preferred by the scoring algorithm when there are short rafsi available.</para>
<para>The rafsi for
<jbophrase>bloti</jbophrase> are
- <quote>-lot-</quote>,
- <quote>-blo-</quote>, and
- <quote>-lo'i-</quote>; for
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">-lot-</jbophrase>,
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">-blo-</jbophrase>, and
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">-lo'i-</jbophrase>; for
<jbophrase>klesi</jbophrase> they are
- <quote>-kle-</quote> and
- <quote>-lei-</quote>. Both these gismu are among the handful which have both CVV-form and CCV-form rafsi, so there is an unusual number of possibilities available for a two-part tanru:</para>
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">-kle-</jbophrase> and
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">-lei-</jbophrase>. Both these gismu are among the handful which have both CVV-form and CCV-form rafsi, so there is an unusual number of possibilities available for a two-part tanru:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
lotkle blokle lo'ikle
<!-- not a cmavo list -->
lotlei blolei lo'irlei
</programlisting>
<para>Only
<jbophrase>lo'irlei</jbophrase> requires hyphenation (to avoid confusion with the cmavo sequence
- <quote>lo'i lei</quote>). All six forms are valid versions of the lujvo, as are the six further forms using long rafsi; however, the scoring algorithm produces the following results:</para>
+ <jbophrase>lo'i lei</jbophrase>). All six forms are valid versions of the lujvo, as are the six further forms using long rafsi; however, the scoring algorithm produces the following results:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
lotkle 5878 blokle 5858 lo'ikle 6367
<!-- not a cmavo list -->
lotlei 5867 blolei 5847 lo'irlei 7456
</programlisting>
<para> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Logical Language Group</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> So the form
<jbophrase>blolei</jbophrase> is preferred, but only by a tiny margin over
<jbophrase>blokle</jbophrase>; "lotlei" and "lotkle" are only slightly worse;
<jbophrase>lo'ikle</jbophrase> suffers because of its apostrophe, and
<jbophrase>lo'irlei</jbophrase> because of having both apostrophe and hyphen.</para>
<para>Our third example will result in forming both a lujvo and a name from the tanru
<jbophrase>logji bangu girzu</jbophrase>, or
<quote>logical-language group</quote> in English. (
<quote>The Logical Language Group</quote> is the name of the publisher of this book and the organization for the promotion of Lojban.)</para>
<para>The available rafsi are
- <quote>-loj-</quote> and
- <quote>-logj-</quote>;
- <quote>-ban-</quote>,
- <quote>-bau-</quote>, and
- <quote>-bang-</quote>; and
- <quote>-gri-</quote> and
- <quote>-girzu</quote>, and (for name purposes only)
- <quote>-gir-</quote> and
- <quote>-girz-</quote>. The resulting 12 lujvo possibilities are:</para>
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">-loj-</jbophrase> and
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">-logj-</jbophrase>;
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">-ban-</jbophrase>,
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">-bau-</jbophrase>, and
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">-bang-</jbophrase>; and
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">-gri-</jbophrase> and
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">-girzu</jbophrase>, and (for name purposes only)
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">-gir-</jbophrase> and
+ <jbophrase role="rafsi">-girz-</jbophrase>. The resulting 12 lujvo possibilities are:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
loj-ban-gri loj-bau-gri loj-bang-gri
<!-- not a cmavo list -->
logj-ban-gri logj-bau-gri logj-bang-gri
loj-ban-girzu loj-bau-girzu loj-bang-girzu
logj-ban-girzu logj-bau-girzu logj-bang-girzu
</programlisting>
<para>and the 12 name possibilities are:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
loj-ban-gir. loj-bau-gir. loj-bang-gir.
@@ -2320,57 +2305,57 @@
<para> <!-- FIXME: there's nowhere for these two indexterms to go --><indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>sexual teacher</primary><secondary>male</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>male sexual teacher</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> The only fully reduced lujvo forms are
<jbophrase>lojbangri</jbophrase> and
<jbophrase>lojbaugri</jbophrase>, of which the latter has a slightly lower score: 8827 versus 8796, respectively. However, for the name of the organization, we chose to make sure the name of the language was embedded in it, and to use the clearer long-form rafsi for
<jbophrase>girzu</jbophrase>, producing
<jbophrase>lojbangirz.</jbophrase></para>
<para>Finally, here is a four-part lujvo with a cmavo in it, based on the tanru
<jbophrase>nakni ke cinse ctuca</jbophrase> or
<quote>male (sexual teacher)</quote>. The
- <quote>ke</quote> cmavo ensures the interpretation
+ <jbophrase>ke</jbophrase> cmavo ensures the interpretation
<quote>teacher of sexuality who is male</quote>, rather than
<quote>teacher of male sexuality</quote>. Here are the possible forms of the lujvo, both before and after hyphenation:</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
nak-kem-cin-ctu nakykemcinctu
nak-kem-cin-ctuca nakykemcinctuca
nak-kem-cins-ctu nakykemcinsyctu
nak-kem-cins-ctuca nakykemcinsyctuca
nakn-kem-cin-ctu naknykemcinctu
nakn-kem-cin-ctuca naknykemcinctuca
nakn-kem-cins-ctu naknykemcinsyctu
nakn-kem-cins-ctuca naknykemcinsyctuca
</programlisting>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>algorithm for</secondary></indexterm> Of these forms,
<jbophrase>nakykemcinctu</jbophrase> is the shortest and is preferred by the scoring algorithm. On the whole, however, it might be better to just make a lujvo for
<jbophrase>cinse ctuca</jbophrase> (which would be
<jbophrase>cinctu</jbophrase>) since the sex of the teacher is rarely important. If there was a reason to specify
<quote>male</quote>, then the simpler tanru
<jbophrase>nakni cinctu</jbophrase> (
<quote>male sexual-teacher</quote>) would be appropriate. This tanru is actually shorter than the four-part lujvo, since the
- <quote>ke</quote> required for grouping need not be expressed.</para>
+ <jbophrase>ke</jbophrase> required for grouping need not be expressed.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-gismu-making">
<title>The gismu creation algorithm</title>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>source languages</primary><secondary>use in creating gismu</secondary></indexterm> The gismu were created through the following process:</para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry>
<term>1)</term>
<listitem>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>creation</secondary><tertiary>scoring rules</tertiary></indexterm> At least one word was found in each of the six source languages (Chinese, English, Hindi, Spanish, Russian, Arabic) corresponding to the proposed gismu. This word was rendered into Lojban phonetics rather liberally: consonant clusters consisting of a stop and the corresponding fricative were simplified to just the fricative (
- <quote>tc</quote> became
- <quote>c</quote>,
- <quote>dj</quote> became
- <quote>j</quote>) and non-Lojban vowels were mapped onto Lojban ones. Furthermore, morphological endings were dropped. The same mapping rules were applied to all six languages for the sake of consistency.</para>
+ <jbophrase role="morphology">tc</jbophrase> became
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">c</jbophrase>,
+ <jbophrase role="morphology">dj</jbophrase> became
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">j</jbophrase>) and non-Lojban vowels were mapped onto Lojban ones. Furthermore, morphological endings were dropped. The same mapping rules were applied to all six languages for the sake of consistency.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>2)</term>
<listitem>
<para>All possible gismu forms were matched against the six source-language forms. The matches were scored as follows:
<variablelist>
<varlistentry>
<term>2a)</term>
<listitem>
@@ -2458,22 +2443,22 @@
<jbophrase>bradi</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>bredi</jbophrase>,
<jbophrase>bridi</jbophrase>, and
<jbophrase>brodi</jbophrase> (but fortunately not
<jbophrase>brudi</jbophrase>) are all existing gismu.</para>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-cultural-gismu">
<title>Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu</title>
<para>The following gismu were not made by the gismu creation algorithm. They are, in effect, coined words similar to fu'ivla. They are exceptions to the otherwise mandatory gismu creation algorithm where there was sufficient justification for such exceptions. Except for the small metric prefixes and the assignable predicates beginning with
- <quote>brod-</quote>, they all end in the letter
- <quote>o</quote>, which is otherwise a rare letter in Lojban gismu.</para>
+ <jbophrase>brod-</jbophrase>, they all end in the letter
+ <jbophrase role="letteral">o</jbophrase>, which is otherwise a rare letter in Lojban gismu.</para>
<para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>scientific-mathematical</secondary></indexterm> The following gismu represent concepts that are sufficiently unique to Lojban that they were either coined from combining forms of other gismu, or else made up out of whole cloth. These gismu are thus conceptually similar to lujvo even though they are only five letters long; however, unlike lujvo, they have rafsi assigned to them for use in building more complex lujvo. Assigning gismu to these concepts helps to keep the resulting lujvo reasonably short.</para>
<programlisting xml:space="preserve">
broda 1st assignable predicate
brode 2nd assignable predicate
brodi 3rd assignable predicate
brodo 4th assignable predicate
brodu 5th assignable predicate
cmavo structure word (from
<jbophrase>cmalu valsi</jbophrase>)
lojbo Lojbanic (from
@@ -2640,21 +2625,21 @@
slovo Slavic
xispo Hispanic (New World Spanish)
</programlisting>
</section>
<section xml:id="section-rafsi-fuhivla">
<title>rafsi fu'ivla: a proposal</title>
<para>The list of cultures represented by gismu, given in
<xref linkend="section-cultural-gismu"/>, is unavoidably controversial. Much time has been spent debating whether this or that culture
<quote>deserves a gismu</quote> or
<quote>must languish in fu'ivla space</quote>. To help defuse this argument, a last-minute proposal was made when this book was already substantially complete. I have added it here with experimental status: it is not yet a standard part of Lojban, since all its implications have not been tested in open debate, and it affects a part of the language (lujvo-making) that has long been stable, but is known to be fragile in the face of small changes. (Many attempts were made to add general mechanisms for making lujvo that contained fu'ivla, but all failed on obvious or obscure counterexamples; finally the general
- <quote>zei</quote> mechanism was devised instead.)</para>
+ <jbophrase>zei</jbophrase> mechanism was devised instead.)</para>
<para>The first part of the proposal is uncontroversial and involves no change to the language mechanisms. All valid Type 4 fu'ivla of the form CCVVCV would be reserved for cultural brivla analogous to those described in
<xref linkend="section-cultural-gismu"/>. For example,</para>
<example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PMb2">
<title>
<indexterm type="example-imported"><primary>Chilean desert</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
<anchor xml:id="c4e16d1"/>
</title>
<interlinear-gloss>
<jbo>tci'ile</jbo>
<en>Chilean</en>
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