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[bpfk] dag-cll git updates for Mon May 14 23:21:03 PDT 2012
commit 62f49bd564aaf76d8b9473e8eca1bddff9180679
Author: Robin Lee Powell <rlpowell@digitalkingdom.org>
Date: Mon May 14 11:09:32 2012 -0700
Made a wrapper for the build process; things should now be much more
reliable.
diff --git a/.gitignore b/.gitignore
index 923fcae..dac4d9b 100644
--- a/.gitignore
+++ b/.gitignore
@@ -9,10 +9,11 @@ xhtml-nochunks/
xhtml-nochunks.done
xhtml_chapters.done
cll.epub
cll.mobi
cll.pdf
cll_processed_pdf.xml
cll_processed_xhtml.xml
xhtml_sections.done
xhtml_sections/
*.*~
+build/chapter-list*
diff --git a/Makefile b/Makefile
deleted file mode 100644
index 4a5b203..0000000
--- a/Makefile
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,128 +0,0 @@
-test =
-chapters = $(if $(CHAPTERS), $(CHAPTERS), chapters/1.xml chapters/2.xml chapters/3.xml chapters/4.xml chapters/5.xml chapters/6.xml chapters/7.xml chapters/8.xml chapters/9.xml chapters/10.xml chapters/11.xml chapters/12.xml chapters/13.xml chapters/14.xml chapters/15.xml chapters/16.xml chapters/17.xml chapters/18.xml chapters/19.xml chapters/20.xml chapters/21.xml)
-
-.PHONY: all
-all: xhtml_web xhtml_sections_web xhtml_nochunks_web pdf_web epub_web mobi_web
-
-.PHONY: clean
-clean:
- -rm -rf cll* xhtml/ xhtml.done xhtml-nochunks/ xhtml-nochunks.done xhtml_chapters/ xhtml_chapters.done xhtml_sections/ xhtml_sections.done
-
-.PHONY: realclean
-realclean: clean
- -rm -rf jbovlaste.xml jbovlaste2.xml
-
-#*******
-# Basic prep
-#*******
-
-cll.xml: $(chapters)
- scripts/merge.sh $(test) $(chapters)
-
-cll_processed_pdf.xml: cll_processed_xhtml.xml xml/latex_preprocess.xsl
- xsltproc --nonet --path . --novalid xml/latex_preprocess.xsl cll_processed_xhtml.xml > cll_processed_pdf.xml
-
-cll_processed_xhtml.xml: cll.xml xml/docbook2html_preprocess.xsl
- xsltproc --stringparam format xhtml --nonet --path . --novalid xml/docbook2html_preprocess.xsl cll.xml > cll_processed_xhtml.xml
-
-#*******
-# Many xhtml files
-#*******
-.PHONY: xhtml_web
-xhtml_web: xhtml.done
- mkdir -p ~/www/media/public/tmp
- rm -rf ~/www/media/public/tmp/cll-xhtml
- cp -pr xhtml ~/www/media/public/tmp/cll-xhtml
- cp $(PWD)/docbook2html.css ~/www/media/public/tmp/cll-xhtml/docbook2html.css
- cp -pr $(PWD)/media ~/www/media/public/tmp/cll-xhtml/
-
-.PHONY: xhtml
-xhtml: xhtml.done
-xhtml.done: cll_processed_xhtml.xml xml/docbook2html_config.xsl
- rm -rf xhtml
- mkdir xhtml
- # FIXME: Consider doing something like this: -x /usr/share/sgml/docbook/xsl-ns-stylesheets-1.76.1/fo/docbook.xsl
- # So we know exactly what stylesheets we're getting
- xmlto -m xml/docbook2html_config_no-sections.xsl -o xhtml/ xhtml cll_processed_xhtml.xml 2>&1 | grep -v 'No localization exists for "jbo" or "". Using default "en".'
- touch xhtml.done
-
-#*******
-# Section xhtml files
-#*******
-.PHONY: xhtml_sections_web
-xhtml_sections_web: xhtml_sections.done
- mkdir -p ~/www/media/public/tmp
- rm -rf ~/www/media/public/tmp/cll-xhtml-sections
- cp -pr xhtml_sections ~/www/media/public/tmp/cll-xhtml-sections
- cp $(PWD)/docbook2html.css ~/www/media/public/tmp/cll-xhtml-sections/docbook2html.css
- cp -pr $(PWD)/media ~/www/media/public/tmp/cll-xhtml-sections/media
-
-.PHONY: xhtml_sections
-xhtml_sections: xhtml_sections.done
-xhtml_sections.done: cll_processed_xhtml.xml xml/docbook2html_config.xsl
- rm -rf xhtml_sections
- mkdir xhtml_sections
- # FIXME: Consider doing something like this: -x /usr/share/sgml/docbook/xsl-ns-stylesheets-1.76.1/fo/docbook.xsl
- # So we know exactly what stylesheets we're getting
- xmlto -m xml/docbook2html_config_sections.xsl -o xhtml_sections/ --stringparam chunk.section.depth=1 --stringparam chunk.first.sections=1 xhtml cll_processed_xhtml.xml 2>&1 | grep -v 'No localization exists for "jbo" or "". Using default "en".'
- touch xhtml_sections.done
-
-#*******
-# One XHTML file
-#*******
-.PHONY: xhtml_nochunks_web
-xhtml_nochunks_web: xhtml-nochunks.done
- mkdir -p ~/www/media/public/tmp/media
- cp $(PWD)/docbook2html.css ~/www/media/public/tmp/docbook2html.css
- cp $(PWD)/xhtml-nochunks/cll_processed_xhtml.html ~/www/media/public/tmp/cll-xhtml-nochunks.html
- cp -pr $(PWD)/media ~/www/media/public/tmp/
-
-.PHONY: xhtml_nochunks
-xhtml_nochunks: xhtml-nochunks.done
-xhtml-nochunks.done: cll_processed_xhtml.xml xml/docbook2html_config.xsl
- rm -rf xhtml-nochunks
- mkdir xhtml-nochunks
- ln -fs $(PWD)/docbook2html.css xhtml-nochunks/
- # FIXME: Consider doing something like this: -x /usr/share/sgml/docbook/xsl-ns-stylesheets-1.76.1/fo/docbook.xsl
- # So we know exactly what stylesheets we're getting
- xmlto -m xml/docbook2html_config.xsl -o xhtml-nochunks/ xhtml-nochunks cll_processed_xhtml.xml 2>&1 | grep -v 'No localization exists for "jbo" or "". Using default "en".'
- touch xhtml-nochunks.done
-
-#*******
-# EPUB
-#*******
-.PHONY: epub
-epub: cll.epub
-cll.epub: xhtml.done
- xvfb-run ebook-convert xhtml/index.html cll.epub
-
-.PHONY: epub_web
-epub_web: epub
- cp cll.epub ~/www/media/public/tmp/cll.epub
-
-#*******
-# MOBI
-#*******
-.PHONY: mobi
-mobi: cll.mobi
-cll.mobi: xhtml.done
- xvfb-run ebook-convert xhtml/index.html cll.mobi
-
-.PHONY: mobi_web
-mobi_web: mobi
- cp cll.mobi ~/www/media/public/tmp/cll.mobi
-
-#*******
-# PDF
-#
-# We actually do need xetex (aka xalatex) here, for the IPA and
-# other utf-8 issues
-#*******
-.PHONY: pdf
-pdf: cll.pdf
-cll.pdf: cll_processed_pdf.xml xml/dblatex_config.xsl
- dblatex -T latex/cll -o cll.pdf -b xetex -p xml/dblatex_config.xsl cll_processed_pdf.xml 2>&1 | grep -v 'default template used in programlisting or screen'
-
-.PHONY: pdf_web
-pdf_web: pdf
- cp cll.pdf ~/www/media/public/tmp/cll.pdf
diff --git a/README b/README
index 56f4449..cf84920 100644
--- a/README
+++ b/README
@@ -1,50 +1,30 @@
To make the XHTML version (ends up in a dir named html/):
- make
+ scripts/build
This takes quite a while. To do it for just one chapter for faster
testing:
- make test="-t" chapters="chapters/5.xml"
+ scripts/build -t chapters/05.xml
This does the whole book but is also much faster:
- make test="-t"
+ scripts/build -t
There are many possible sub-targets as well, such as:
- make test="-t" pdf_web
-
-Also, -t there makes internal links break and strips out the
-glossary; -s only does the former.
-
-Here's a list of all the make targets you care about, as of May
-2012:
-
- all (default)
- clean
- realclean
- xhtml_web
- xhtml
- xhtml_sections_web
- xhtml_sections
- xhtml_nochunks_web
- xhtml_nochunks
- epub
- epub_web
- mobi
- mobi_web
- pdf
- pdf_web
-
-They all have _test versions as well.
+ scripts/build -t pdf_web
+
+You can get a complete list of targets via:
+
+ scripts/build -h
Requirements
------------
Getting this all working is actually a pretty huge undertaking;
you're almost certainly better off asking Robin Lee Powell for an
account on the appropriate server.
General
--------------
diff --git a/build/Makefile b/build/Makefile
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4a5b203
--- /dev/null
+++ b/build/Makefile
@@ -0,0 +1,128 @@
+test =
+chapters = $(if $(CHAPTERS), $(CHAPTERS), chapters/1.xml chapters/2.xml chapters/3.xml chapters/4.xml chapters/5.xml chapters/6.xml chapters/7.xml chapters/8.xml chapters/9.xml chapters/10.xml chapters/11.xml chapters/12.xml chapters/13.xml chapters/14.xml chapters/15.xml chapters/16.xml chapters/17.xml chapters/18.xml chapters/19.xml chapters/20.xml chapters/21.xml)
+
+.PHONY: all
+all: xhtml_web xhtml_sections_web xhtml_nochunks_web pdf_web epub_web mobi_web
+
+.PHONY: clean
+clean:
+ -rm -rf cll* xhtml/ xhtml.done xhtml-nochunks/ xhtml-nochunks.done xhtml_chapters/ xhtml_chapters.done xhtml_sections/ xhtml_sections.done
+
+.PHONY: realclean
+realclean: clean
+ -rm -rf jbovlaste.xml jbovlaste2.xml
+
+#*******
+# Basic prep
+#*******
+
+cll.xml: $(chapters)
+ scripts/merge.sh $(test) $(chapters)
+
+cll_processed_pdf.xml: cll_processed_xhtml.xml xml/latex_preprocess.xsl
+ xsltproc --nonet --path . --novalid xml/latex_preprocess.xsl cll_processed_xhtml.xml > cll_processed_pdf.xml
+
+cll_processed_xhtml.xml: cll.xml xml/docbook2html_preprocess.xsl
+ xsltproc --stringparam format xhtml --nonet --path . --novalid xml/docbook2html_preprocess.xsl cll.xml > cll_processed_xhtml.xml
+
+#*******
+# Many xhtml files
+#*******
+.PHONY: xhtml_web
+xhtml_web: xhtml.done
+ mkdir -p ~/www/media/public/tmp
+ rm -rf ~/www/media/public/tmp/cll-xhtml
+ cp -pr xhtml ~/www/media/public/tmp/cll-xhtml
+ cp $(PWD)/docbook2html.css ~/www/media/public/tmp/cll-xhtml/docbook2html.css
+ cp -pr $(PWD)/media ~/www/media/public/tmp/cll-xhtml/
+
+.PHONY: xhtml
+xhtml: xhtml.done
+xhtml.done: cll_processed_xhtml.xml xml/docbook2html_config.xsl
+ rm -rf xhtml
+ mkdir xhtml
+ # FIXME: Consider doing something like this: -x /usr/share/sgml/docbook/xsl-ns-stylesheets-1.76.1/fo/docbook.xsl
+ # So we know exactly what stylesheets we're getting
+ xmlto -m xml/docbook2html_config_no-sections.xsl -o xhtml/ xhtml cll_processed_xhtml.xml 2>&1 | grep -v 'No localization exists for "jbo" or "". Using default "en".'
+ touch xhtml.done
+
+#*******
+# Section xhtml files
+#*******
+.PHONY: xhtml_sections_web
+xhtml_sections_web: xhtml_sections.done
+ mkdir -p ~/www/media/public/tmp
+ rm -rf ~/www/media/public/tmp/cll-xhtml-sections
+ cp -pr xhtml_sections ~/www/media/public/tmp/cll-xhtml-sections
+ cp $(PWD)/docbook2html.css ~/www/media/public/tmp/cll-xhtml-sections/docbook2html.css
+ cp -pr $(PWD)/media ~/www/media/public/tmp/cll-xhtml-sections/media
+
+.PHONY: xhtml_sections
+xhtml_sections: xhtml_sections.done
+xhtml_sections.done: cll_processed_xhtml.xml xml/docbook2html_config.xsl
+ rm -rf xhtml_sections
+ mkdir xhtml_sections
+ # FIXME: Consider doing something like this: -x /usr/share/sgml/docbook/xsl-ns-stylesheets-1.76.1/fo/docbook.xsl
+ # So we know exactly what stylesheets we're getting
+ xmlto -m xml/docbook2html_config_sections.xsl -o xhtml_sections/ --stringparam chunk.section.depth=1 --stringparam chunk.first.sections=1 xhtml cll_processed_xhtml.xml 2>&1 | grep -v 'No localization exists for "jbo" or "". Using default "en".'
+ touch xhtml_sections.done
+
+#*******
+# One XHTML file
+#*******
+.PHONY: xhtml_nochunks_web
+xhtml_nochunks_web: xhtml-nochunks.done
+ mkdir -p ~/www/media/public/tmp/media
+ cp $(PWD)/docbook2html.css ~/www/media/public/tmp/docbook2html.css
+ cp $(PWD)/xhtml-nochunks/cll_processed_xhtml.html ~/www/media/public/tmp/cll-xhtml-nochunks.html
+ cp -pr $(PWD)/media ~/www/media/public/tmp/
+
+.PHONY: xhtml_nochunks
+xhtml_nochunks: xhtml-nochunks.done
+xhtml-nochunks.done: cll_processed_xhtml.xml xml/docbook2html_config.xsl
+ rm -rf xhtml-nochunks
+ mkdir xhtml-nochunks
+ ln -fs $(PWD)/docbook2html.css xhtml-nochunks/
+ # FIXME: Consider doing something like this: -x /usr/share/sgml/docbook/xsl-ns-stylesheets-1.76.1/fo/docbook.xsl
+ # So we know exactly what stylesheets we're getting
+ xmlto -m xml/docbook2html_config.xsl -o xhtml-nochunks/ xhtml-nochunks cll_processed_xhtml.xml 2>&1 | grep -v 'No localization exists for "jbo" or "". Using default "en".'
+ touch xhtml-nochunks.done
+
+#*******
+# EPUB
+#*******
+.PHONY: epub
+epub: cll.epub
+cll.epub: xhtml.done
+ xvfb-run ebook-convert xhtml/index.html cll.epub
+
+.PHONY: epub_web
+epub_web: epub
+ cp cll.epub ~/www/media/public/tmp/cll.epub
+
+#*******
+# MOBI
+#*******
+.PHONY: mobi
+mobi: cll.mobi
+cll.mobi: xhtml.done
+ xvfb-run ebook-convert xhtml/index.html cll.mobi
+
+.PHONY: mobi_web
+mobi_web: mobi
+ cp cll.mobi ~/www/media/public/tmp/cll.mobi
+
+#*******
+# PDF
+#
+# We actually do need xetex (aka xalatex) here, for the IPA and
+# other utf-8 issues
+#*******
+.PHONY: pdf
+pdf: cll.pdf
+cll.pdf: cll_processed_pdf.xml xml/dblatex_config.xsl
+ dblatex -T latex/cll -o cll.pdf -b xetex -p xml/dblatex_config.xsl cll_processed_pdf.xml 2>&1 | grep -v 'default template used in programlisting or screen'
+
+.PHONY: pdf_web
+pdf_web: pdf
+ cp cll.pdf ~/www/media/public/tmp/cll.pdf
diff --git a/chapters/01.xml b/chapters/01.xml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2857811
--- /dev/null
+++ b/chapters/01.xml
@@ -0,0 +1,370 @@
+<chapter xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"; xml:id="chapter-about">
+ <title>Lojban As We Mangle It In Lojbanistan: About This Book</title>
+ <mediaobject xml:id="chapter-about-picture">
+ <alt>The picture for chapter 1</alt>
+ <imageobject>
+ <imagedata fileref="media/chapter-about.gif" />
+ </imageobject>
+ </mediaobject>
+
+ <section xml:id="section-what-is-lojban">
+ <title>What is Lojban?</title>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Logical Language Group</primary><secondary>relation to Lojban</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Lojban</primary><secondary>history of</secondary></indexterm> Lojban (pronounced
+ <quote>LOZH-bahn</quote>) is a constructed language. Previous versions of the language were called
+ <quote>Loglan</quote> by Dr. James Cooke Brown, who founded the Loglan Project and started the development of the language in 1955. The goals for the language were first described in the open literature in the article
+
+
+ <quote><citetitle pubwork="article">Loglan</citetitle></quote>, published in
+ <citetitle pubwork="journal">Scientific American</citetitle>, June, 1960. Made well-known by that article and by occasional references in science fiction (most notably in Robert Heinlein's novel
+
+ <citetitle pubwork="book">The Moon Is A Harsh Mistress</citetitle>) and computer publications, Loglan and Lojban have been built over four decades by dozens of workers and hundreds of supporters, led since 1987 by The Logical Language Group (who are the publishers of this book).</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Lojban</primary><secondary>features of</secondary></indexterm> There are thousands of artificial languages (of which Esperanto is the best-known), but Loglan/Lojban has been engineered to make it unique in several ways. The following are the main features of Lojban:</para>
+ <itemizedlist>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>Lojban is designed to be used by people in communication with each other, and possibly in the future with computers.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>Lojban is designed to be neutral between cultures.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>Lojban grammar is based on the principles of predicate logic.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>Lojban has an unambiguous yet flexible grammar.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>Lojban has phonetic spelling, and unambiguously resolves its sounds into words.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>Lojban is simple compared to natural languages; it is easy to learn.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>Lojban's 1300 root words can be easily combined to form a vocabulary of millions of words.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>Lojban is regular; the rules of the language are without exceptions.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>Lojban attempts to remove restrictions on creative and clear thought and communication.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>Lojban has a variety of uses, ranging from the creative to the scientific, from the theoretical to the practical.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>Lojban has been demonstrated in translation and in original works of prose and poetry.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </itemizedlist>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-what-is-cll">
+ <title>What is this book?</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>goal of this book</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>this book</primary><secondary>goal of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>reference grammar</primary></indexterm> This book is what is called a
+ <quote>reference grammar</quote>. It attempts to expound the whole Lojban language, or at least as much of it as is understood at present. Lojban is a rich language with many features, and an attempt has been made to discover the functions of those features. The word
+
+ <quote>discover</quote> is used advisedly; Lojban was not
+ <quote>invented</quote> by any one person or committee. Often, grammatical features were introduced into the language long before their usage was fully understood. Sometimes they were introduced for one reason, only to prove more useful for other reasons not recognized at the time.</para>
+ <para>By intention, this book is complete in description but not in explanation. For every rule in the formal Lojban grammar (given in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-grammars"/>), there is a bit of explanation and an example somewhere in the book, and often a great deal more than a bit. In essence,
+ <xref linkend="chapter-tour"/> gives a brief overview of the language,
+ <xref linkend="chapter-grammars"/> gives the formal structure of the language, and the chapters in between put semantic flesh on those formal bones. I hope that eventually more grammatical material founded on (or even correcting) the explanations in this book will become available.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>linguistic drift</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Lojban</primary><secondary>stability of</secondary></indexterm> Nevertheless, the publication of this book is, in one sense, the completion of a long period of language evolution. With the exception of a possible revision of the language that will not even be considered until five years from publication date, and any revisions of this book needed to correct outright errors, the language described in this book will not be changing by deliberate act of its creators any more. Instead, language change will take place in the form of new vocabulary – Lojban does not yet have nearly the vocabulary it needs to be a fully usable language of the modern world, as
+ <xref linkend="chapter-lujvo"/> explains – and through the irregular natural processes of drift and (who knows?) native-speaker evolution. (Teach your children Lojban!) You can learn the language described here with assurance that (unlike previous versions of Lojban and Loglan, as well as most other artificial languages) it will not be subject to further fiddling by language-meisters.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>this book</primary><secondary>structure of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>structure of this book</primary></indexterm> It is probably worth mentioning that this book was written somewhat piecemeal. Each chapter began life as an explication of a specific Lojban topic; only later did these begin to clump together into a larger structure of words and ideas. Therefore, there are perhaps not as many cross-references as there should be. However, I have attempted to make the index as comprehensive as possible.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>chapter titles</primary><secondary>intent of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>jokes</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Lojbanistan</primary></indexterm> Each chapter has a descriptive title, often involving some play on words; this is an attempt to make the chapters more memorable. The title of
+ <xref linkend="chapter-about"/> (which you are now reading), for example, is an allusion to the book
+ <citetitle pubwork="book">English As We Speak It In Ireland</citetitle>, by P. W. Joyce, which is a sort of informal reference grammar of Hiberno-English.
+
+ <quote>Lojbanistan</quote> is both an imaginary country where Lojban is the native language, and a term for the actual community of Lojban-speakers, scattered over the world. Why
+
+ <quote>mangle</quote>? As yet, nobody in the real Lojbanistan speaks the language at all well, by the standards of the imaginary Lojbanistan; that is one of the circumstances this book is meant to help remedy.</para>
+
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-conventions">
+ <title>What are the typographical conventions of this book?</title>
+
+ <para>Each chapter is broken into numbered sections; each section contains a mixture of expository text, numbered examples, and possibly tables.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>this book</primary><secondary>examples of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>examples in this book</primary></indexterm> The reader will notice a certain similarity in the examples used throughout the book. One chapter after another rings the changes on the self-same sentences:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hrtj">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>go to the store</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c1e3d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi klama le zarci</jbo>
+ <gloss>I go-to that-which-I-describe-as-a store.</gloss>
+ <natlang>I go to the store.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> will become wearisomely familiar before
+ <xref linkend="chapter-grammars"/> is reached. This method is deliberate; I have tried to use simple and (eventually) familiar examples wherever possible, to avoid obscuring new grammatical points with new vocabulary. Of course, this is not the method of a textbook, but this book is not a textbook (although people have learned Lojban from it and its predecessors). Rather, it is intended both for self-learning (of course, at present would-be Lojban teachers must be self-learners) and to serve as a reference in the usual sense, for looking up obscure points about the language.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>examples</primary><secondary>structure of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>structure of examples</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>example of examples</primary></indexterm> It is useful to talk further about
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-hrtj"/> for what it illustrates about examples in this book. Examples usually occupy three lines. The first of these is in Lojban, the second in a word-by-word literal translation of the Lojban into English, and the third in colloquial English. The second and third lines are sometimes called the
+
+ <quote>literal translation</quote> and the
+ <quote>colloquial translation</quote> respectively. Sometimes, when clarity is not sacrificed thereby, one or both are omitted. If there is more than one Lojban sentence, it generally means that they have the same meaning.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>square brackets</primary><secondary>use of in notation</secondary></indexterm> Words are sometimes surrounded by square brackets. In Lojban texts, these enclose optional grammatical particles that may (in the context of the particular example) be either omitted or included. In literal translations, they enclose words that are used as conventional translations of specific Lojban words, but don't have exactly the meanings or uses that the English word would suggest. In
+
+ <xref linkend="chapter-phonology"/>, square brackets surround phonetic representations in the International Phonetic Alphabet.</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>grammatical categories</primary><secondary>use of upper case for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tables</primary><secondary>format of</secondary></indexterm> Many of the tables, especially those placed at the head of various sections, are in three columns. The first column contains Lojban words discussed in that section; the second column contains the grammatical category (represented by an UPPER CASE Lojban word) to which the word belongs, and the third column contains a brief English gloss, not necessarily or typically a full explanation. Other tables are explained in context.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>technical terms</primary></indexterm> A few Lojban words are used in this book as technical terms. All of these are explained in
+
+ <xref linkend="chapter-tour"/>, except for a few used only in single chapters, which are explained in the introductory sections of those chapters.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-disclaimers">
+ <title>Disclaimers</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>disclaimers</primary></indexterm> It is necessary to add, alas, that the examples used in this book do not refer to any existing person, place, or institution, and that any such resemblance is entirely coincidental and unintentional, and not intended to give offense.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>dictionary</primary><secondary>superior authority of</secondary></indexterm> When definitions and place structures of gismu, and especially of lujvo, are given in this book, they may differ from those given in the English-Lojban dictionary (which, as of this writing, is not yet published). If so, the information given in the dictionary supersedes whatever is given here.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="credits">
+ <title>Acknowledgements and Credits</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>LLG</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>this book</primary><secondary>author of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>author of this book</primary></indexterm> Although the bulk of this book was written for the Logical Language Group (LLG) by John Cowan, who is represented by the occasional authorial
+
+ <quote>I</quote>, certain chapters were first written by others and then heavily edited by me to fit into this book.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>this book</primary><secondary>contributors to</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>contributors to this book</primary></indexterm> In particular:
+ <xref linkend="chapter-tour"/> is a fusion of originally separate documents, one by Athelstan, and one by Nora Tansky LeChevalier and Bob LeChevalier;
+ <xref linkend="chapter-phonology"/> and
+ <xref linkend="chapter-morphology"/> were originally written by Bob LeChevalier with contributions by Chuck Barton;
+ <xref linkend="chapter-lujvo"/> was originally written (in much longer form) by Nick Nicholas; the dialogue near the end of
+ <xref linkend="chapter-attitudinals"/> was contributed by Nora Tansky LeChevalier;
+ <xref linkend="chapter-negation"/> and parts of
+ <xref linkend="chapter-quantifiers"/> were originally by Bob LeChevalier; and the YACC grammar in
+
+ <xref linkend="chapter-grammars"/> is the work of several hands, but is primarily by Bob LeChevalier and Jeff Taylor. The BNF grammar, which is also in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-grammars"/>, was originally written by me, then rewritten by Clark Nelson, and finally touched up by me again.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>this book</primary><secondary>credits for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>credits for this book</primary></indexterm> The research into natural languages from which parts of
+ <xref linkend="chapter-selbri"/> draw their material was performed by Ivan Derzhanski. LLG acknowledges his kind permission to use the fruits of his research.</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pictures</primary><secondary>credits for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>credits for pictures</primary></indexterm> The pictures in this book were drawn by Nora Tansky LeChevalier, except for the picture appearing in
+
+ <xref linkend="chapter-morphology"/>, which is by Sylvia Rutiser Rissell.</para>
+ <para>The index was made by Nora Tansky LeChevalier.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>this book</primary><secondary>reviewers of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>reviewers of this book</primary></indexterm> I would like to thank the following people for their detailed reviews, suggestions, comments, and early detection of my embarrassing errors in Lojban, logic, English, and cross-references: Nick Nicholas, Mark Shoulson, Veijo Vilva, Colin Fine, And Rosta, Jorge Llambias, Iain Alexander, Paulo S. L. M. Barreto, Robert J. Chassell, Gale Cowan, Karen Stein, Ivan Derzhanski, Jim Carter, Irene Gates, Bob LeChevalier, John Parks-Clifford (also known as
+ <quote>pc</quote>), and Nora Tansky LeChevalier.</para>
+ <para>Nick Nicholas (NSN) would like to thank the following Lojbanists: Mark Shoulson, Veijo Vilva, Colin Fine, And Rosta, and Iain Alexander for their suggestions and comments; John Cowan, for his extensive comments, his exemplary trailblazing of Lojban grammar, and for solving the
+ <valsi>manskapi</valsi> dilemma for NSN; Jorge Llambias, for his even more extensive comments, and for forcing NSN to think more than he was inclined to; Bob LeChevalier, for his skeptical overview of the issue, his encouragement, and for scouring all Lojban text his computer has been burdened with for lujvo; Nora Tansky LeChevalier, for writing the program converting old rafsi text to new rafsi text, and sparing NSN from embarrassing errors; and Jim Carter, for his dogged persistence in analyzing lujvo algorithmically, which inspired this research, and for first identifying the three lujvo classes.</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Brown</primary><secondary>James Cooke</secondary></indexterm> Of course, the entire Loglan Project owes a considerable debt to James Cooke Brown as the language inventor, and also to several earlier contributors to the development of the language. Especially noteworthy are Doug Landauer, Jeff Prothero, Scott Layson, Jeff Taylor, and Bob McIvor. Final responsibility for the remaining errors and infelicities is solely mine.</para>
+
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-bibliography">
+ <title>Informal Bibliography</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Loglan</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bibliography</primary></indexterm> The founding document for the Loglan Project, of which this book is one of the products, is
+ <citetitle pubwork="book">Loglan 1: A Logical Language</citetitle> by James Cooke Brown (4th ed. 1989, The Loglan Institute, Gainesville, Florida, U.S.A.). The language described therein is not Lojban, but is very close to it and may be considered an ancestral version. It is regrettably necessary to state that nothing in this book has been approved by Dr. Brown, and that the very existence of Lojban is disapproved of by him.</para>
+
+ <para>The logic of Lojban, such as it is, owes a good deal to the American philosopher W. v.O. Quine, especially
+ <citetitle pubwork="book">Word and Object</citetitle> (1960, M.I.T. Press). Much of Quine's philosophical writings, especially on observation sentences, reads like a literal translation from Lojban.</para>
+
+ <para>The theory of negation expounded in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-negation"/> is derived from a reading of Laurence Horn's work
+ <citetitle pubwork="book">A Natural History of Negation</citetitle>.</para>
+ <para>Of course, neither Brown nor Quine nor Horn is in any way responsible for the uses or misuses I have made of their works.</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>books about Lojban</primary></indexterm> Depending on just when you are reading this book, there may be three other books about Lojban available: a textbook, a Lojban/English dictionary, and a book containing general information about Lojban. You can probably get these books, if they have been published, from the same place where you got this book. In addition, other books not yet foreseen may also exist.</para>
+
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-captions">
+ <title>Captions to Pictures</title>
+ <para>The following examples list the Lojban caption, with a translation, for the picture at the head of each chapter. If a chapter's picture has no caption,
+ <quote>(none)</quote> is specified instead.</para>
+ <section>
+ <title><link linkend="chapter-about-picture">Chapter 1 Caption</link></title>
+ <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ coi lojban. coi rodo
+ </programlisting>
+ <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ Greetings, O Lojban! Greetings, all-of you
+ </programlisting>
+ </section>
+ <section>
+ <title><link linkend="chapter-tour-picture">Chapter 2 Caption</link></title>
+ <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ (none)
+ </programlisting>
+ </section>
+ <section>
+ <title><link linkend="chapter-phonology-picture">Chapter 3 Caption</link></title>
+ <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ .i .ai .i .ai .o
+ </programlisting>
+ <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ [untranslatable]
+ </programlisting>
+ </section>
+ <section>
+ <title><link linkend="chapter-morphology-picture">Chapter 4 Caption</link></title>
+ <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ jbobliku
+ </programlisting>
+ <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ Lojbanic-blocks
+ </programlisting>
+ </section>
+ <section>
+ <title><link linkend="chapter-selbri-picture">Chapter 5 Caption</link></title>
+ <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ (none)
+ </programlisting>
+ </section>
+ <section>
+ <title><link linkend="chapter-sumti-picture">Chapter 6 Caption</link></title>
+ <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ lei re nanmu cu bevri le re nanmu
+ </programlisting>
+ <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ The-mass-of two men carry the two men
+ Two men (jointly) carry two men (both of them).
+ </programlisting>
+ </section>
+ <section>
+ <title><link linkend="chapter-anaphoric-cmavo-picture">Chapter 7 Caption</link></title>
+ <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ ma drani danfu
+ .i di'e
+
+ .i di'u
+ .i dei
+ .i ri
+ .i do'i
+ </programlisting>
+ <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ [What sumti] is-the-correct type-of-answer?
+ The-next-sentence.
+ The-previous-sentence.
+ This-sentence.
+ The-previous-sentence.
+ An-unspecified-utterance.
+ </programlisting>
+ </section>
+ <section>
+ <title><link linkend="chapter-relative-clauses-picture">Chapter 8 Caption</link></title>
+ <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ ko viska re prenu poi bruna la santas.
+ </programlisting>
+ <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ [You!] see two persons who-are brothers-of Santa.
+
+ </programlisting>
+ </section>
+ <section>
+ <title><link linkend="chapter-sumti-tcita-picture">Chapter 9 Caption</link></title>
+ <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ (none)
+ </programlisting>
+ </section>
+ <section>
+ <title><link linkend="chapter-tenses-picture">Chapter 10 Caption</link></title>
+ <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ za'o klama
+ </programlisting>
+ <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ [superfective] come/go
+ Something goes (or comes) for too long.
+ </programlisting>
+ </section>
+ <section>
+ <title><link linkend="chapter-abstractions-picture">Chapter 11 Caption</link></title>
+ <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ le si'o kunti
+ </programlisting>
+ <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ The concept-of emptiness
+ </programlisting>
+ </section>
+ <section>
+ <title><link linkend="chapter-lujvo-picture">Chapter 12 Caption</link></title>
+ <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ (none)
+ </programlisting>
+ </section>
+ <section>
+ <title><link linkend="chapter-attitudinals-picture">Chapter 13 Caption</link></title>
+ <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ .oi ro'i ro'a ro'o
+ </programlisting>
+ <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ [Pain!] [emotional] [social] [physical]
+ </programlisting>
+ </section>
+ <section>
+ <title><link linkend="chapter-connectives-picture">Chapter 14 Caption</link></title>
+ <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ (none)
+ </programlisting>
+ </section>
+ <section>
+ <title><link linkend="chapter-negation-picture">Chapter 15 Caption</link></title>
+ <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ mi na'e lumci le karce
+ </programlisting>
+ <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ I other-than wash the car
+ I didn't wash the car.
+ </programlisting>
+ </section>
+ <section>
+ <title><link linkend="chapter-quantifiers-picture">Chapter 16 Caption</link></title>
+ <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ drata mupli pe'u .djan.
+ </programlisting>
+ <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ another example [please] John
+ Another example, John, please!
+ </programlisting>
+ </section>
+ <section>
+ <title><link linkend="chapter-letterals-picture">Chapter 17 Caption</link></title>
+ <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ zai xanlerfu by. ly. .obu .jy by. .abu ny.
+
+ </programlisting>
+ <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ [Shift] hand-letters l o j b a n
+ "Lojban" in a manual alphabet
+ </programlisting>
+ </section>
+ <section>
+ <title><link linkend="chapter-mekso-picture">Chapter 18 Caption</link></title>
+ <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ no no
+ </programlisting>
+ <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ 0 0
+ </programlisting>
+ </section>
+ <section>
+ <title><link linkend="chapter-structure-picture">Chapter 19 Caption</link></title>
+ <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ (none)
+ </programlisting>
+ </section>
+ <section>
+ <title><link linkend="chapter-catalogue-picture">Chapter 20 Caption</link></title>
+ <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ (none)
+ </programlisting>
+ </section>
+ <section>
+ <title><link linkend="chapter-grammars-picture">Chapter 21 Caption</link></title>
+ <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ (none)
+ </programlisting>
+ </section>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-copyright">
+ <title>Boring Legalities</title>
+ <para>Copyright © 1997 by The Logical Language Group, Inc. All Rights Reserved.</para>
+ <para>Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this book, either in electronic or in printed form, provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are preserved on all copies.</para>
+ <para>Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this book, provided that the modifications are clearly marked as such, and provided that the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission notice identical to this one.</para>
+ <para>Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this book into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions, except that this permission notice may be stated in a translation that has been approved by the Logical Language Group, rather than in English.</para>
+ <para>The contents of
+ <xref linkend="chapter-grammars"/> are in the public domain.</para>
+ <para>For information, contact: The Logical Language Group, 2904 Beau Lane, Fairfax VA 22031-1303 USA Telephone 703-385-0273. Electronic address:
+ <link xlink:href="mailto:llg-board@lojban.org";>llg-board@lojban.org</link>World Wide Web:
+ <link xlink:href="http://www.lojban.org";>http://www.lojban.org</link></para>
+ </section>
+</chapter>
diff --git a/chapters/02.xml b/chapters/02.xml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b7dcd2a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/chapters/02.xml
@@ -0,0 +1,2284 @@
+<chapter xml:id="chapter-tour">
+ <title>A Quick Tour of Lojban Grammar, With Diagrams</title>
+ <mediaobject xml:id="chapter-tour-picture">
+ <alt>The picture for chapter 2</alt>
+ <imageobject>
+ <imagedata fileref="media/chapter-tour.gif" />
+ </imageobject>
+ </mediaobject>
+ <section xml:id="section-bridi">
+ <title>The concept of the bridi</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi</primary><secondary>concept of</secondary></indexterm> This chapter gives diagrammed examples of basic Lojban sentence structures. The most general pattern is covered first, followed by successive variations on the basic components of the Lojban sentence. There are many more capabilities not covered in this chapter, but covered in detail in later chapters, so this chapter is a
+ <quote>quick tour</quote> of the material later covered more slowly throughout the book. It also introduces most of the Lojban words used to discuss Lojban grammar.</para>
+ <para>
+
+
+ Let us consider John and Sam and three statements about them:</para>
+
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qIuj">
+ <title>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>father</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>John and Sam</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e1d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <para>John is the father of Sam.</para>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qiuQ">
+ <title>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>hits</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>John and Sam</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e1d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <para>John hits Sam.</para>
+
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qIuS">
+ <title>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>taller</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>John and Sam</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e1d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <para>John is taller than Sam.</para>
+
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>relation with bridi</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>brivla</primary><secondary>relation to bridi</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>predication</primary><secondary>compared with bridi</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi</primary><secondary>compared with predication</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>predication</primary><secondary>as a relationship</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relationship</primary><secondary>active/static/attributive compared</secondary></indexterm> These examples all describe relationships between John and Sam. However, in English, we use the noun
+
+ <quote>father</quote> to describe a static relationship in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qIuj"/>, the verb
+ <quote>hits</quote> to describe an active relationship in
+
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qiuQ"/>, and the adjective
+ <quote>taller</quote> to describe an attributive relationship in
+
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qIuS"/>. In Lojban we make no such grammatical distinctions; these three sentences, when expressed in Lojban, are structurally identical. The same part of speech is used to represent the relationship. In formal logic this whole structure is called a
+ <quote>predication</quote>; in Lojban it is called a
+ <valsi>bridi</valsi>, and the central part of speech is the
+ <valsi>selbri</valsi>. Logicians refer to the things thus related as
+ <quote>arguments</quote>, while Lojbanists call them
+ <valsi>sumti</valsi>. These Lojban terms will be used for the rest of the book.</para>
+ <mediaobject>
+ <alt>
+ bridi (predicate)
+ ______________|__________________
+ | |
+ John is the father of Sam
+ |____| |______________| |___|
+ | | |
+ sumti selbri sumti (argument)
+ </alt>
+ <imageobject>
+ <imagedata fileref="media/chapter-2-diagram.png" />
+ </imageobject>
+ </mediaobject>
+ <para>
+
+
+ In a relationship, there are a definite number of things being related. In English, for example,
+ <quote>give</quote> has three places: the donor, the recipient and the gift. For example:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-DE08">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e1d4"/>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>give</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ </title>
+ <para>John gives Sam the book.</para>
+ </example>
+ <para>and</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-IBBE">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e1d5"/>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>give</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ </title>
+ <para>Sam gives John the book.</para>
+ </example>
+ <para>mean two different things because the relative positions of
+ <quote>John</quote> and
+ <quote>Sam</quote> have been switched. Further,</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-DxbA">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e1d6"/>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>give</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ </title>
+ <para>The book gives John Sam.</para>
+ </example>
+ <para>seems strange to us merely because the places are being filled by unorthodox arguments. The relationship expressed by
+ <quote>give</quote> has not changed.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>place structure</primary><secondary>definition of</secondary></indexterm> In Lojban, each selbri has a specified number and type of arguments, known collectively as its
+ <quote>place structure</quote>. The simplest kind of selbri consists of a single root word, called a
+ <valsi>gismu</valsi>, and the definition in a dictionary gives the place structure explicitly. The primary task of constructing a Lojban sentence, after choosing the relationship itself, is deciding what you will use to fill in the sumti places.</para>
+ <para>This book uses the Lojban terms
+ <valsi>bridi</valsi>,
+ <valsi>sumti</valsi>, and
+ <valsi>selbri</valsi>, because it is best to come to understand them independently of the English associations of the corresponding words, which are only roughly similar in meaning anyhow.</para>
+ <para>
+
+ <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>double underscore notation convention for Quick Tour chapter</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>underscore notation for Quick Tour chapter</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>notation conventions</primary><secondary>for Quick Tour chapter</secondary></indexterm> The Lojban examples in this chapter (but not in the rest of the book) use a single underline (---) under each sumti, and a double underline (===) under each selbri, to help you to tell them apart.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-pronunciation">
+ <title>Pronunciation</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pronunciation</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> Detailed pronunciation and spelling rules are given in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-phonology"/>, but what follows will keep the reader from going too far astray while digesting this chapter.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vowels</primary><secondary>pronunciation of</secondary><tertiary>quick-tour version</tertiary></indexterm> Lojban has six recognized vowels:
+ <letteral>a</letteral>,
+ <letteral>e</letteral>,
+ <letteral>i</letteral>,
+ <letteral>o</letteral>,
+ <letteral>u</letteral> and
+ <letteral>y</letteral>. The first five are roughly pronounced as
+ <quote>a</quote> as in
+ <quote>father</quote>,
+ <letteral>e</letteral> as in
+ <quote>let</quote>,
+ <letteral>i</letteral> as in
+ <quote>machine</quote>,
+ <letteral>o</letteral> as in
+ <quote>dome</quote> and
+ <letteral>u</letteral> as in
+ <quote>flute</quote>.
+ <letteral>y</letteral> is pronounced as the sound called
+ <quote>schwa</quote>, that is, as the unstressed
+ <quote>a</quote> as in
+ <quote>about</quote> or
+ <quote>around</quote>.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>consonants</primary><secondary>pronunciation of</secondary><tertiary>quick-tour version</tertiary></indexterm> Twelve consonants in Lojban are pronounced more or less as their counterparts are in English:
+ <letteral>b</letteral>,
+ <letteral>d</letteral>,
+ <letteral>f</letteral>,
+ <letteral>k</letteral>,
+ <letteral>l</letteral>,
+ <letteral>m</letteral>,
+ <letteral>n</letteral>,
+ <letteral>p</letteral>,
+ <letteral>r</letteral>,
+ <letteral>t</letteral>,
+ <letteral>v</letteral> and
+ <letteral>z</letteral>. The letter
+ <letteral>c</letteral>, on the other hand is pronounced as the
+ <quote>sh</quote> in
+ <quote>hush</quote>, while
+ <letteral>j</letteral> is its voiced counterpart, the sound of the
+ <quote>s</quote> in
+ <quote>pleasure</quote>.
+ <letteral>g</letteral> is always pronounced as it is in
+ <quote>gift</quote>, never as in
+ <quote>giant</quote>.
+ <letteral>s</letteral> is as in
+ <quote>sell</quote>, never as in
+ <quote>rose</quote>. The sound of
+ <letteral>x</letteral> is not found in English in normal words. It is found as
+ <quote xml:lang="sco">ch</quote> in Scottish
+ <quote xml:lang="sco">loch</quote>, as
+ <quote xml:lang="es">j</quote> in Spanish
+ <quote xml:lang="es">junta</quote>, and as
+ <quote xml:lang="de">ch</quote> in German
+ <quote xml:lang="de">Bach</quote>; it also appears in the English interjection
+ <quote>yecchh!</quote>. It gets easier to say as you practice it. The letter
+ <letteral>r</letteral> can be trilled, but doesn't have to be.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>diphthongs</primary><secondary>pronunciation of</secondary><tertiary>quick-tour version</tertiary></indexterm> The Lojban diphthongs
+ <diphthong>ai</diphthong>,
+ <diphthong>ei</diphthong>,
+ <diphthong>oi</diphthong>, and
+ <diphthong>au</diphthong> are pronounced much as in the English words
+ <quote>sigh</quote>,
+ <quote>say</quote>,
+ <quote>boy</quote>, and
+ <quote>how</quote>. Other Lojban diphthongs begin with an
+ <letteral>i</letteral> pronounced like English
+ <quote>y</quote> (for example,
+ <diphthong>io</diphthong> is pronounced
+ <quote>yo</quote>) or else with a
+ <letteral>u</letteral> pronounced like English
+ <quote>w</quote> (for example,
+ <diphthong>ua</diphthong> is pronounced
+ <quote>wa</quote>).</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>period</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>comma</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>apostrophe</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> Lojban also has three
+ <quote>semi-letters</quote>: the period, the comma and the apostrophe. The period represents a glottal stop or a pause; it is a required stoppage of the flow of air in the speech stream. The apostrophe sounds just like the English letter
+
+ <quote>h</quote>. Unlike a regular consonant, it is not found at the beginning or end of a word, nor is it found adjacent to a consonant; it is only found between two vowels. The comma has no sound associated with it, and is used to separate syllables that might ordinarily run together. It is not used in this chapter.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>stress</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> Stress falls on the next to the last syllable of all words, unless that vowel is
+ <letteral>y</letteral>, which is never stressed; in such words the third-to-last syllable is stressed. If a word only has one syllable, then that syllable is not stressed.</para>
+ <para>All Lojban words are pronounced as they are spelled: there are no silent letters.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-sumti-cmavo">
+ <title>Words that can act as sumti</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> Here is a short table of single words used as sumti. This table provides examples only, not the entire set of such words, which may be found in
+ <xref linkend="section-koha-summary"/>.</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>mi</cmavo>
+ <description>I/me, we/us</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>do</cmavo>
+ <description>you</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ti</cmavo>
+ <description>this, these</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ta</cmavo>
+ <description>that, those</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>tu</cmavo>
+ <description>that far away, those far away</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>zo'e</cmavo>
+ <description>unspecified value (used when a sumti is unimportant or obvious)</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+ <para>Lojban sumti are not specific as to number (singular or plural), nor gender (masculine/feminine/neutral). Such distinctions can be optionally added by methods that are beyond the scope of this chapter.</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pointing cmavo</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo
+ <valsi>ti</valsi>,
+ <valsi>ta</valsi>, and
+ <valsi>tu</valsi> refer to whatever the speaker is pointing at, and should not be used to refer to things that cannot in principle be pointed at.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> Names may also be used as sumti, provided they are preceded with the word
+ <valsi>la</valsi>:</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>la meris.</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>the one/ones named Mary</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>la djan.</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>the one/ones named John</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <para>Other Lojban spelling versions are possible for names from other languages, and there are restrictions on which letters may appear in Lojban names: see
+ <xref linkend="section-names"/> for more information.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-some-selbri">
+ <title>Some words used to indicate selbri relations</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri list for quick tour</primary></indexterm> Here is a short table of some words used as Lojban selbri in this chapter:</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <!-- FIXME:
+ (1) these definitions come from nowhere and go to nowhere
+ (2) in the end, we should probably drop the whole thing in favor of the user just using the glossary
+ (3) needs table replacement; see TODO
+
+ It used to have some other bits:
+
+ <td><definition><content>x1 (seller) sells x2 (goods) to x3 (buyer) for x4 (price)</content></definition></td>
+
+ But they upset LaTeX and added no value.
+
+ -->
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>vecnu</valsi></td>
+ <td>x1 (seller) sells x2 (goods) to x3 (buyer) for x4 (price)</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>tavla</valsi></td>
+ <td>x1 (talker) talks to x2 (audience) about x3 (topic) in language x4</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>sutra</valsi></td>
+ <td>x1 (agent) is fast at doing x2 (action)</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>blari'o</valsi></td>
+ <td>x1 (object/light source) is blue-green</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>melbi</valsi></td>
+ <td>x1 (object/idea) is beautiful to x2 (observer) by standard x3</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>cutci</valsi></td>
+ <td>x1 is a shoe/boot for x2 (foot) made of x3 (material)</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>bajra</valsi></td>
+ <td>x1 runs on x2 (surface) using x3 (limbs) in manner x4 (gait)</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>klama</valsi></td>
+ <td>x1 goes/comes to x2 (destination) from x3 (origin point) via x4 (route) using x5 (means of transportation)</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>pluka</valsi></td>
+ <td>x1 pleases/is pleasing to x2 (experiencer) under conditions x3</td>
+ </tr>
+
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>gerku</valsi></td>
+ <td>x1 is a dog of breed x2</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>kurji</valsi></td>
+ <td>x1 takes care of x2</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>kanro</valsi></td>
+ <td>x1 is healthy by standard x2</td>
+ </tr>
+
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>stali</valsi></td>
+ <td>x1 stays/remains with x2</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>zarci</valsi></td>
+ <td>x1 is a market/store/shop selling x2 (products) operated by x3 (storekeeper)</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>x1</primary><secondary>notation convention</secondary><tertiary>quick-tour version</tertiary></indexterm> Each selbri (relation) has a specific rule that defines the role of each sumti in the bridi, based on its position. In the table above, that order was expressed by labeling the sumti positions as x1, x2, x3, x4, and x5.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>words not in the dictionary</primary></indexterm> Like the table in
+ <xref linkend="section-sumti-cmavo"/>, this table is far from complete: in fact, no complete table can exist, because Lojban allows new words to be created (in specified ways) whenever a speaker or writer finds the existing supply of words inadequate. This notion is a basic difference between Lojban (and some other languages such as German and Chinese) and English; in English, most people are very leery of using words that
+ <quote>aren't in the dictionary</quote>. Lojbanists are encouraged to invent new words; doing so is a major way of participating in the development of the language.
+ <xref linkend="chapter-morphology"/> explains how to make new words, and
+ <xref linkend="chapter-lujvo"/> explains how to give them appropriate meanings.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-some-simple-bridi">
+ <title>Some simple Lojban bridi</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> Let's look at a simple Lojban bridi. The place structure of the gismu
+ <valsi>tavla</valsi> is</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-5Lis">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e5d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <para>x1 talks to x2 about x3 in language x4</para>
+ </example>
+ <para>where the
+ <quote>x</quote> es with following numbers represent the various arguments that could be inserted at the given positions in the English sentence. For example:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-3bc3">
+ <title>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>engineering</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e5d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <para>John talks to Sam about engineering in Lojban.</para>
+
+ </example>
+ <para>
+
+
+ has
+ <quote>John</quote> in the x1 place,
+ <quote>Sam</quote> in the x2 place,
+ <quote>engineering</quote> in the x3 place, and
+
+ <quote>Lojban</quote> in the x4 place, and could be paraphrased:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-pVMH">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e5d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <para>Talking is going on, with speaker John and listener Sam and subject matter engineering and language Lojban.</para>
+ </example>
+ <para>The Lojban bridi corresponding to
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-5Lis"/> will have the form</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k01t">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e5d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti glossary="false">x1</sumti>
+ <elidable>cu</elidable>
+ <selbri>tavla</selbri>
+ <sumti glossary="false">x2</sumti>
+ <sumti glossary="false">x3</sumti>
+ <sumti glossary="false">x4</sumti>
+ </jbo>
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cu</primary><secondary>use of</secondary><tertiary>quick-tour version</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cu</primary><secondary>omission of</secondary><tertiary>quick-tour version</tertiary></indexterm> The word
+ <valsi>cu</valsi> serves as a separator between any preceding sumti and the selbri. It can often be omitted, as in the following examples.</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k02C">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e5d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>mi</sumti>
+ <selbri>tavla</selbri>
+ <sumti>do</sumti>
+ <sumti>zo'e</sumti>
+ <sumti>zo'e</sumti>
+ </jbo>
+ <natlang>I talk to you about something in some language.</natlang>
+
+
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k02u">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e5d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>do</sumti>
+ <selbri>tavla</selbri>
+ <sumti>mi</sumti>
+ <sumti>ta</sumti>
+ <sumti>zo'e</sumti>
+ </jbo>
+ <natlang>You talk to me about that thing in a language.</natlang>
+
+
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k03n">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e5d7"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>mi</sumti>
+ <selbri>tavla</selbri>
+ <sumti>zo'e</sumti>
+ <sumti>tu</sumti>
+ <sumti>ti</sumti>
+ </jbo>
+ <natlang>I talk to someone about that thing yonder in this language.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <para>(
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-k03n"/> is a bit unusual, as there is no easy way to point to a language; one might point to a copy of this book, and hope the meaning gets across!)</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ellipsis</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> When there are one or more occurrences of the cmavo
+ <valsi>zo'e</valsi> at the end of a bridi, they may be omitted, a process called
+ <quote>ellipsis</quote>.
+
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-k02C"/> and
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-k02u"/> may be expressed thus:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k04J">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e5d8"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>mi</sumti>
+ <selbri>tavla</selbri>
+ <sumti>do</sumti>
+ </jbo>
+ <natlang>I talk to you (about something in some language).</natlang>
+
+
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k05i">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e5d9"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>do</sumti>
+ <selbri>tavla</selbri>
+ <sumti>mi</sumti>
+ <sumti>ta</sumti>
+ </jbo>
+ <natlang>You talk to me about that thing (in some language).</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <para>Note that
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-k03n"/> is not subject to ellipsis by this direct method, as the
+
+ <valsi>zo'e</valsi> in it is not at the end of the bridi.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-variant-bridi-structure">
+ <title>Variant bridi structure</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti placement</primary><secondary>variant</secondary><tertiary>quick-tour version</tertiary></indexterm> Consider the sentence</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k068">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e6d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>mi</sumti>
+ <elidable>cu</elidable>
+ <selbri>vecnu</selbri>
+ <sumti>ti</sumti>
+ <sumti>ta</sumti>
+ <sumti>zo'e</sumti>
+ </jbo>
+ <gloss>
+ <sumti>seller-x1</sumti>
+ <comment></comment>
+ <selbri>sells</selbri>
+ <sumti>goods-sold-x2</sumti>
+ <sumti>buyer-x3</sumti>
+ <sumti>price-x4</sumti>
+ </gloss>
+ <gloss>
+ <sumti>I</sumti>
+ <comment></comment>
+ <selbri>sell</selbri>
+ <sumti>this</sumti>
+ <sumti>to that</sumti>
+ <sumti>for some price.</sumti>
+ </gloss>
+ <natlang>I sell this-thing/these-things to that-buyer/those-buyers.</natlang>
+ <comment>(the price is obvious or unimportant)</comment>
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <para>
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-k068"/> has one sumti (the x1) before the selbri. It is also possible to put more than one sumti before the selbri, without changing the order of sumti:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0aR">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e6d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>mi</sumti>
+ <sumti>ti</sumti>
+ <elidable>cu</elidable>
+ <selbri>vecnu</selbri>
+ <sumti>ta</sumti>
+ </jbo>
+ <gloss>
+ <sumti>seller-x1</sumti>
+ <sumti>goods-sold-x2</sumti>
+ <comment></comment>
+ <selbri>sells</selbri>
+ <sumti>buyer-x3</sumti>
+ </gloss>
+ <gloss>
+ <sumti>I</sumti>
+ <sumti>this</sumti>
+ <comment></comment>
+ <selbri>sell</selbri>
+ <sumti>to that.</sumti>
+ </gloss>
+ <comment>(translates as stilted or poetic English)</comment>
+ <natlang>I this thing do sell to that buyer.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0Bm">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e6d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>mi</sumti>
+ <sumti>ti</sumti>
+ <sumti>ta</sumti>
+ <elidable>cu</elidable>
+ <selbri>vecnu</selbri>
+ </jbo>
+ <gloss>
+ <sumti>seller-x1</sumti>
+ <sumti>goods-sold-x2</sumti>
+ <sumti>buyer-x3</sumti>
+ <elidable></elidable>
+ <selbri>sells</selbri>
+ </gloss>
+ <gloss>
+ <sumti>I</sumti>
+ <sumti>this</sumti>
+ <sumti>to that</sumti>
+ <elidable></elidable>
+ <selbri>sell</selbri>
+ </gloss>
+ <comment>(translates as stilted or poetic English)</comment>
+ <natlang>I this thing to that buyer do sell.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <para>
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-k068"/> through
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-k0Bm"/> mean the same thing. Usually, placing more than one sumti before the selbri is done for style or for emphasis on the sumti that are out-of-place from their normal position. (Native speakers of languages other than English may prefer such orders.)</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>observatives</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> If there are no sumti before the selbri, then it is understood that the x1 sumti value is equivalent to
+ <valsi>zo'e</valsi>; i.e. unimportant or obvious, and therefore not given. Any sumti after the selbri start counting from x2.</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0br">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e6d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>ta</sumti>
+ <elidable>cu</elidable>
+ <selbri>melbi</selbri>
+ </jbo>
+ <gloss>
+ <sumti>object/idea-x1</sumti>
+ <elidable></elidable>
+ <selbri>is-beautiful</selbri>
+ <comment>to someone by some standard</comment>
+ </gloss>
+ <gloss>
+ <sumti>That/Those</sumti>
+ <elidable></elidable>
+ <selbri>is/are beautiful.</selbri>
+ </gloss>
+ <natlang>That is beautiful.</natlang>
+ <natlang>Those are beautiful.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <para>when the x1 is omitted, becomes:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0Ch">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e6d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti glossary="false"></sumti>
+ <selbri>melbi</selbri>
+ <comment/>
+ </jbo>
+ <gloss>
+ <sumti>unspecified-x1</sumti>
+ <selbri>is-beautiful</selbri>
+ <comment>to someone by some standard</comment>
+ </gloss>
+ <natlang>Beautiful!</natlang>
+ <natlang>It's beautiful!</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <para>Omitting the x1 adds emphasis to the selbri relation, which has become first in the sentence. This kind of sentence is termed an observative, because it is often used when someone first observes or takes note of the relationship, and wishes to quickly communicate it to someone else. Commonly understood English observatives include
+
+
+ <quote>Smoke!</quote> upon seeing smoke or smelling the odor, or
+ <quote>Car!</quote> to a person crossing the street who might be in danger. Any Lojban selbri can be used as an observative if no sumti appear before the selbri.</para>
+
+ <para>The word
+ <valsi>cu</valsi> does not occur in an observative;
+
+ <valsi>cu</valsi> is a separator, and there must be a sumti before the selbri that needs to be kept separate for
+ <valsi>cu</valsi> to be used. With no sumti preceding the selbri,
+ <valsi>cu</valsi> is not permitted. Short words like
+ <valsi>cu</valsi> which serve grammatical functions are called
+ <valsi>cmavo</valsi> in Lojban.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-order-of-sumti">
+ <title>Varying the order of sumti</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti reordering</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> For one reason or another you may want to change the order, placing one particular sumti at the front of the bridi. The cmavo
+ <valsi>se</valsi>, when placed before the last word of the selbri, will switch the meanings of the first and second sumti places. So</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0dU">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e7d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>mi</sumti>
+ <selbri>tavla</selbri>
+ <sumti>do</sumti>
+ <sumti>ti</sumti>
+ </jbo>
+ <natlang>I talk to you about this.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <para>has the same meaning as</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0eV">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e7d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>do</sumti>
+ <selbri>se tavla</selbri>
+ <sumti>mi</sumti>
+ <sumti>ti</sumti>
+ </jbo>
+ <natlang>You are talked to by me about this.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <para> The cmavo
+ <valsi>te</valsi>, when used in the same location, switches the meanings of the first and the third sumti places.</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0FJ">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e7d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>mi</sumti>
+ <selbri>tavla</selbri>
+ <sumti>do</sumti>
+ <sumti>ti</sumti>
+ </jbo>
+ <natlang>I talk to you about this.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <para>has the same meaning as</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0fo">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e7d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>ti</sumti>
+ <selbri>te tavla</selbri>
+ <sumti>do</sumti>
+ <sumti>mi</sumti>
+ </jbo>
+ <natlang>This is talked about to you by me.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <para>Note that only the first and third sumti have switched places; the second sumti has remained in the second place.</para>
+ <para> The cmavo
+ <valsi>ve</valsi> and
+ <valsi>xe</valsi> switch the first and fourth sumti places, and the first and fifth sumti places, respectively. These changes in the order of places are known as
+ <quote>conversions</quote>, and the
+ <valsi>se</valsi>,
+ <valsi>te</valsi>,
+ <valsi>ve</valsi>, and
+ <valsi>xe</valsi> cmavo are said to convert the selbri.</para>
+ <para>More than one of these operators may be used on a given selbri at one time, and in such a case they are evaluated from left to right. However, in practice they are used one at a time, as there are better tools for complex manipulation of the sumti places. See
+ <xref linkend="chapter-selbri"/> for details.</para> <!-- FIXME: chapter-modals, no? -->
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>passive voice</primary></indexterm> The effect is similar to what in English is called the
+ <quote>passive voice</quote>. In Lojban, the converted selbri has a new place structure that is renumbered to reflect the place reversal, thus having effects when such a conversion is used in combination with other constructs such as
+
+
+ <jbophrase>le selbri [ku]</jbophrase> (see
+ <xref linkend="section-description-sumti"/>).</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-structure-of-utterances">
+ <title>The basic structure of longer utterances</title>
+ <para> People don't always say just one sentence. Lojban has a specific structure for talk or writing that is longer than one sentence. The entirety of a given speech event or written text is called an utterance. The sentences (usually, but not always, bridi) in an utterance are separated by the cmavo
+ <valsi>ni'o</valsi> and
+ <valsi>i</valsi>. These correspond to a brief pause (or nothing at all) in spoken English, and the various punctuation marks like period, question mark, and exclamation mark in written English. These separators prevent the sumti at the beginning of the next sentence from being mistaken for a trailing sumti of the previous sentence.</para>
+
+ <para>The cmavo
+ <valsi>ni'o</valsi> separates paragraphs (covering different topics of discussion). In a long text or utterance, the topical structure of the text may be indicated by multiple
+ <valsi>ni'o</valsi> s, with perhaps
+ <jbophrase>ni'oni'oni'o</jbophrase> used to indicate a chapter,
+ <jbophrase>ni'oni'o</jbophrase> to indicate a section, and a single
+ <valsi>ni'o</valsi> to indicate a subtopic corresponding to a single English paragraph.</para>
+ <para>The cmavo
+ <valsi>i</valsi> separates sentences. It is sometimes compounded with words that modify the exact meaning (the semantics) of the sentence in the context of the utterance. (The cmavo
+ <valsi>xu</valsi>, discussed in
+ <xref linkend="section-basic-questions"/>, is one such word – it turns the sentence from a statement to a question about truth.) When more than one person is talking, a new speaker will usually omit the
+ <valsi>i</valsi> even though she/he may be continuing on the same topic.</para>
+ <para>It is still O.K. for a new speaker to say the
+ <valsi>i</valsi> before continuing; indeed, it is encouraged for maximum clarity (since it is possible that the second speaker might merely be adding words onto the end of the first speaker's sentence). A good translation for
+ <valsi>i</valsi> is the
+ <quote>and</quote> used in run-on sentences when people are talking informally:
+ <quote>I did this, and then I did that, and ..., and ...</quote>.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-basic-tanru">
+ <title>tanru</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> When two gismu are adjacent, the first one modifies the second, and the selbri takes its place structure from the rightmost word. Such combinations of gismu are called
+ <valsi>tanru</valsi>. For example,</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-GPcS">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e9d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>sutra tavla</jbo>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>has the place structure</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-ANfh">
+ <title>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>fast talker</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e9d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <para>x1 is a fast type-of talker to x2 about x3 in language x4</para>
+ <para>x1 talks fast to x2 about x3 in language x4</para>
+ </example>
+ <para>
+
+
+ <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru default grouping</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> When three or more gismu are in a row, the first modifies the second, and that combined meaning modifies the third, and that combined meaning modifies the fourth, and so on. For example</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pzS9">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e9d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>sutra tavla cutci</jbo>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>
+
+
+ has the place structure</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-7KPn">
+ <title>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>fast-talker shoe</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e9d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <para>s1 is a fast-talker type of shoe worn by s2 of material s3</para>
+ </example>
+ <para>That is, it is a shoe that is worn by a fast talker rather than a shoe that is fast and is also worn by a talker.</para>
+
+ <para>Note especially the use of
+ <quote>type-of</quote> as a mechanism for connecting the English translations of the two or more gismu; this convention helps the learner understand each tanru in its context. Creative interpretations are also possible, however:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-jE94">
+ <title>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>runner shoe</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e9d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>bajra cutci</jbo>
+ <natlang>runner shoe</natlang>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>
+
+
+ most probably refers to shoes suitable for runners, but might be interpreted in some imaginative instances as
+ <quote>shoes that run (by themselves?)</quote>. In general, however, the meaning of a tanru is determined by the literal meaning of its components, and not by any connotations or figurative meanings. Thus</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-HcV5">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e9d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>sutra tavla</jbo>
+ <natlang>fast-talker</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>would not necessarily imply any trickery or deception, unlike the English idiom, and a</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-8umU">
+ <title>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>Lepidoptera</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>butterfly</primary><secondary>social</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>social butterfly</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e9d7"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>jikca toldi</jbo>
+ <natlang>social butterfly</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>
+
+
+ must always be an insect with large brightly-colored wings, of the family
+ <emphasis>Lepidoptera</emphasis>.</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>place structure of</secondary><tertiary>quick-tour version</tertiary></indexterm> The place structure of a tanru is always that of the final component of the tanru. Thus, the following has the place structure of
+ <valsi>klama</valsi>:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0FP">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e9d8"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>mi</sumti>
+ <elidable>cu</elidable>
+ <selbri>sutra klama</selbri>
+ <sumti>la meris.</sumti>
+ </jbo>
+ <gloss>
+ <sumti>I</sumti>
+ <elidable></elidable>
+ <selbri>quickly-go</selbri>
+ <sumti>to Mary.</sumti>
+ </gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru conversion</primary><secondary>effect on place structure</secondary><tertiary>quick-tour version</tertiary></indexterm> With the conversion
+ <jbophrase>se klama</jbophrase> as the final component of the tanru, the place structure of the entire selbri is that of
+ <jbophrase>se klama</jbophrase>: the x1 place is the destination, and the x2 place is the one who goes:</para>
+
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0J1">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e9d9"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>mi</sumti>
+ <elidable>cu</elidable>
+ <selbri>sutra</selbri>
+ <selbri>se klama</selbri>
+ <sumti>la meris.</sumti>
+ </jbo>
+ <gloss>
+ <sumti>I</sumti>
+ <elidable></elidable>
+ <selbri>quickly</selbri>
+ <selbri>am-gone-to</selbri>
+ <sumti>by Mary.</sumti>
+ </gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>and conversion</secondary><tertiary>quick-tour version</tertiary></indexterm> The following example shows that there is more to conversion than merely switching places, though:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0LW">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e9d10"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>la tam.</sumti>
+ <elidable>cu</elidable>
+ <selbri>melbi tavla</selbri>
+ <sumti>la meris.</sumti>
+ </jbo>
+ <gloss>
+ <sumti>Tom</sumti>
+ <elidable></elidable>
+ <selbri>beautifully-talks</selbri>
+ <sumti>to Mary.</sumti>
+ </gloss>
+ <gloss>
+ <sumti>Tom</sumti>
+ <elidable></elidable>
+ <selbri>is a beautiful-talker</selbri>
+ <sumti>to Mary.</sumti>
+ </gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <para>has the place structure of
+ <valsi>tavla</valsi>, but note the two distinct interpretations.</para>
+ <para>Now, using conversion, we can modify the place structure order:</para>
+
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0mh">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e9d11"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>la meris.</sumti>
+ <elidable>cu</elidable>
+ <selbri>melbi se tavla</selbri>
+ <sumti>la tam.</sumti>
+ </jbo>
+ <gloss>
+ <sumti>Mary</sumti>
+ <elidable></elidable>
+ <selbri>is beautifully-talked-to</selbri>
+ <sumti>by Tom.</sumti>
+ </gloss>
+ <gloss>
+ <sumti>Mary</sumti>
+ <elidable></elidable>
+ <selbri>is a beautiful-audience</selbri>
+ <sumti>for Tom.</sumti>
+ </gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <para>and we see that the modification has been changed so as to focus on Mary's role in the bridi relationship, leading to a different set of possible interpretations.</para>
+ <para>Note that there is no place structure change if the modifying term is converted, and so less drastic variation in possible meanings:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-qIv0">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e9d12"/>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>talker</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>la tam.</sumti>
+ <elidable>cu</elidable>
+ <selbri>tavla melbi</selbri>
+ <sumti>la meris.</sumti>
+ </jbo>
+ <gloss>
+ <sumti>Tom</sumti>
+ <elidable></elidable>
+ <selbri>is talkerly-beautiful</selbri>
+ <sumti>to Mary.</sumti>
+ </gloss>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-qIVa">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e9d13"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>la tam.</sumti>
+ <elidable>cu</elidable>
+ <selbri>se tavla melbi</selbri>
+ <sumti>la meris.</sumti>
+ </jbo>
+ <gloss>
+ <sumti>Tom</sumti>
+ <elidable></elidable>
+ <selbri>is audiencely-beautiful</selbri>
+ <sumti>to Mary.</sumti>
+ </gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <para>and we see that the manner in which Tom is seen as beautiful by Mary changes, but Tom is still the one perceived as beautiful, and Mary, the observer of beauty.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-description-sumti">
+ <title>Description sumti</title>
+ <para>
+
+ <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>descriptions</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> Often we wish to talk about things other than the speaker, the listener and things we can point to. Let's say I want to talk about a talker other than
+ <valsi>mi</valsi>. What I want to talk about would naturally fit into the first place of
+ <valsi>tavla</valsi>. Lojban, it turns out, has an operator that pulls this first place out of a selbri and converts it to a sumti called a
+ <quote>description sumti</quote>. The description sumti
+ <jbophrase>le tavla ku</jbophrase> means
+ <quote>the talker</quote>, and may be used wherever any sumti may be used.</para>
+ <para>For example,</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0Pj">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e10d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>mi</sumti>
+ <selbri>tavla</selbri>
+ <sumti>do</sumti>
+ <sumti>le tavla</sumti>
+ <elidable delineated="false">ku</elidable>
+ </jbo>
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <para>means the same as</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-oH9T">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e10d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <para>I talk to you about the talker</para>
+ </example>
+ <para>where
+ <quote>the talker</quote> is presumably someone other than me, though not necessarily.</para>
+ <para>Similarly
+ <jbophrase>le sutra tavla ku</jbophrase> is
+ <quote>the fast talker</quote>, and
+
+ <jbophrase>le sutra te tavla ku</jbophrase> is
+ <quote>the fast subject of talk</quote> or
+ <quote>the subject of fast talk</quote>. Which of these related meanings is understood will depend on the context in which the expression is used. The most plausible interpretation within the context will generally be assumed by a listener to be the intended one.</para>
+ <para>In many cases the word
+ <valsi>ku</valsi> may be omitted. In particular, it is never necessary in a description at the end of a sentence, so:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0Q2">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e10d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>mi</sumti>
+ <selbri>tavla</selbri>
+ <sumti>do</sumti>
+ <sumti>le tavla</sumti>
+ </jbo>
+ <gloss>
+ <sumti>I</sumti>
+ <selbri>talk-to</selbri>
+ <sumti>you</sumti>
+ <sumti>about-the talker</sumti>
+ </gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <para>means exactly the same thing as
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-k0Pj"/>.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cu</primary><secondary>need for</secondary><tertiary>quick-tour version</tertiary></indexterm> There is a problem when we want to say
+ <quote>The fast one is talking.</quote> The
+ <quote>obvious</quote> translation
+ <jbophrase>le sutra tavla</jbophrase> turns out to mean
+ <quote>the fast talker</quote>, and has no selbri at all. To solve this problem we can use the word
+
+ <valsi>cu</valsi>, which so far has always been optional, in front of the selbri.</para>
+ <para>The word
+ <valsi>cu</valsi> has no meaning, and exists only to mark the beginning of the selbri within the bridi, separating it from a previous sumti. It comes before any other part of the selbri, including other cmavo like
+ <valsi>se</valsi> or
+ <valsi>te</valsi>. Thus:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0QA">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e10d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo> <sumti>le sutra tavla</sumti> </jbo>
+ <gloss> <sumti>The fast talker</sumti> </gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0qb">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e10d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>le sutra</sumti>
+ <elidable elidable="false">cu</elidable>
+ <selbri>tavla</selbri>
+ </jbo>
+ <gloss>
+ <sumti>The fast one</sumti>
+ <elidable></elidable>
+ <selbri>is talking.</selbri>
+ </gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0Qf">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e10d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo><sumti>le sutra se tavla</sumti></jbo>
+ <gloss><sumti>The fast talked-to one</sumti> </gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0ru">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e10d7"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>le sutra</sumti>
+ <elidable elidable="false">cu</elidable>
+ <selbri>se tavla</selbri>
+ </jbo>
+ <gloss>
+ <sumti>The fast one</sumti>
+ <elidable></elidable>
+ <selbri>is talked to.</selbri>
+ </gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>KU selma'o</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ku</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> Consider the following more complex example, with two description sumti.</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0S1">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e10d8"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>mi</sumti>
+ <elidable>cu</elidable>
+ <selbri>tavla</selbri>
+ <sumti>le vecnu</sumti>
+ <elidable>ku</elidable>
+ <sumti>le blari'o</sumti>
+ <elidable>ku</elidable>
+ </jbo>
+ <gloss>
+ <sumti>I</sumti>
+ <elidable></elidable>
+ <selbri>talk-to</selbri>
+ <sumti>the seller</sumti>
+ <elidable></elidable>
+ <sumti>about the blue-green-thing.</sumti>
+ <elidable></elidable>
+ </gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <para>The sumti
+ <jbophrase>le vecnu</jbophrase> contains the selbri
+ <valsi>vecnu</valsi>, which has the
+ <quote>seller</quote> in the x1 place, and uses it in this sentence to describe a particular
+ <quote>seller</quote> that the speaker has in mind (one that he or she probably expects the listener will also know about). Similarly, the speaker has a particular blue-green thing in mind, which is described using
+ <valsi>le</valsi> to mark
+ <valsi>blari'o</valsi>, a selbri whose first sumti is something blue-green.</para>
+ <para>It is safe to omit both occurrences of
+ <valsi>ku</valsi> in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-k0S1"/>, and it is also safe to omit the
+ <valsi>cu</valsi>.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-some-brivla">
+ <title>Examples of brivla</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>brivla</primary><secondary>types of</secondary><tertiary>quick-tour version</tertiary></indexterm> The simplest form of selbri is an individual word. A word which may by itself express a selbri relation is called a
+ <valsi>brivla</valsi>. The three types of brivla are gismu (root words), lujvo (compounds), and fu'ivla (borrowings from other languages). All have identical grammatical uses. So far, most of our selbri have been gismu or tanru built from gismu.</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> gismu:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0SM">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e11d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>mi</sumti>
+ <elidable>cu</elidable>
+ <selbri>klama</selbri>
+ <sumti>ti</sumti>
+ <sumti>zo'e</sumti>
+ <sumti>zo'e</sumti>
+ <sumti>ta</sumti>
+ </jbo>
+ <gloss>
+ <sumti>Go-er</sumti>
+ <elidable></elidable>
+ <selbri>goes</selbri>
+ <sumti>destination</sumti>
+ <sumti>origin</sumti>
+ <sumti>route</sumti>
+ <sumti>means.</sumti>
+ </gloss>
+ <natlang>I go here (to this) using that means (from somewhere via some route).</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> lujvo:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0SR">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e11d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>ta</sumti>
+ <elidable>cu</elidable>
+ <selbri>blari'o</selbri>
+ </jbo>
+ <gloss>
+ <sumti>That</sumti>
+ <elidable></elidable>
+ <selbri>is-blue-green.</selbri>
+ </gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> fu'ivla:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0Tj">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e11d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>ti</sumti>
+ <elidable>cu</elidable>
+ <selbri>djarspageti</selbri>
+ </jbo>
+ <gloss>
+ <sumti>This</sumti>
+ <elidable></elidable>
+ <selbri>is-spaghetti.</selbri>
+ </gloss>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmavo as selbri</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> Some cmavo may also serve as selbri, acting as variables that stand for another selbri. The most commonly used of these is
+ <valsi>go'i</valsi>, which represents the main bridi of the previous Lojban sentence, with any new sumti or other sentence features being expressed replacing the previously expressed ones. Thus, in this context:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0UC">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e11d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>ta</sumti>
+ <elidable>cu</elidable>
+ <selbri>go'i</selbri>
+ </jbo>
+ <gloss>
+ <sumti>That</sumti>
+ <elidable></elidable>
+ <selbri>too/same-as-last selbri.</selbri>
+ </gloss>
+ <natlang>That (is spaghetti), too.</natlang>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-dihu-and-lahe-dihu">
+ <title>The sumti
+ <valsi>di'u</valsi> and
+ <jbophrase>la'e di'u</jbophrase></title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>reference</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> In English, I might say
+ <quote>The dog is beautiful</quote>, and you might reply
+ <quote>This pleases me.</quote> How do you know what
+
+ <quote>this</quote> refers to? Lojban uses different expressions to convey the possible meanings of the English:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0wB">
+ <title>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>beautiful dog</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e12d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>le gerku</sumti>
+ <elidable>ku</elidable>
+ <elidable elidable="false">cu</elidable>
+ <selbri>melbi</selbri>
+ </jbo>
+ <natlang>The dog is beautiful.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <para>The following three sentences all might translate as
+ <quote>This pleases me.</quote></para>
+
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0wS">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e12d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>ti</sumti>
+ <elidable>cu</elidable>
+ <selbri>pluka</selbri>
+ <sumti>mi</sumti>
+ </jbo>
+ <natlang>This (the dog) pleases me.</natlang>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0yC">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e12d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>di'u</sumti>
+ <elidable>cu</elidable>
+ <selbri>pluka</selbri>
+ <sumti>mi</sumti>
+ </jbo>
+ <natlang>This (the last sentence) pleases me (perhaps because it is grammatical or sounds nice).</natlang>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0YS">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e12d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>la'e di'u</sumti>
+ <elidable>cu</elidable>
+ <selbri>pluka</selbri>
+ <sumti>mi</sumti>
+ </jbo>
+ <natlang>This (the meaning of the last sentence; i.e. that the dog is beautiful) pleases me.</natlang>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pleases</primary></indexterm>
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-k0YS"/> uses one sumti to point to or refer to another by inference. It is common to write
+ <valsi>la'edi'u</valsi> as a single word; it is used more often than
+
+ <valsi>di'u</valsi> by itself.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-possession">
+ <title>Possession</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>possession</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm>
+ <quote>Possession</quote> refers to the concept of specifying an object by saying who it belongs to (or with). A full explanation of Lojban possession is given in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-relative-clauses"/>. A simple means of expressing possession, however, is to place a sumti representing the possessor of an object within the description sumti that refers to the object: specifically, between the
+ <valsi>le</valsi> and the selbri of the description:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0zY">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e13d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>le mi gerku</sumti>
+ <elidable elidable="false">cu</elidable>
+ <selbri>sutra</selbri>
+ </jbo>
+ <gloss>
+ <sumti>The of-me dog</sumti>
+ <elidable></elidable>
+ <selbri>is fast.</selbri>
+ </gloss>
+ <natlang>My dog is fast.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>possession not ownership</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> In Lojban, possession doesn't necessarily mean ownership: one may
+ <quote>possess</quote> a chair simply by sitting on it, even though it actually belongs to someone else. English uses possession casually in the same way, but also uses it to refer to actual ownership or even more intimate relationships:
+ <quote>my arm</quote> doesn't mean
+ <quote>some arm I own</quote> but rather
+ <quote>the arm that is part of my body</quote>. Lojban has methods of specifying all these different kinds of possession precisely and easily.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-vocatives-and-commands">
+ <title>Vocatives and commands</title>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vocatives</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> You may call someone's attention to the fact that you are addressing them by using
+ <valsi>doi</valsi> followed by their name. The sentence</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ahVb">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e14d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>doi djan.</jbo>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>means
+ <quote>Oh, John, I'm talking to you</quote>. It also has the effect of setting the value of
+ <valsi>do</valsi>;
+ <valsi>do</valsi> now refers to
+ <quote>John</quote> until it is changed in some way in the conversation. Note that
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-ahVb"/> is not a bridi, but it is a legitimate Lojban sentence nevertheless; it is known as a
+ <quote>vocative phrase</quote>.</para>
+
+ <para> Other cmavo can be used instead of
+ <valsi>doi</valsi> in a vocative phrase, with a different significance. For example, the cmavo
+
+ <valsi>coi</valsi> means
+ <quote>hello</quote> and
+ <valsi>co'o</valsi> means
+ <quote>good-bye</quote>. Either word may stand alone, they may follow one another, or either may be followed by a pause and a name. (Vocative phrases with
+ <valsi>doi</valsi> do not need a pause before the name.)</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qIWX" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e14d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>coi. djan.</jbo>
+ <natlang>Hello, John.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qIxE" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e14d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>co'o. djan.</jbo>
+ <natlang>Good-bye, John.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>imperatives</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>commands</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> Commands are expressed in Lojban by a simple variation of the main bridi structure. If you say</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k11I">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e14d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>do</sumti>
+ <selbri>tavla</selbri>
+ </jbo>
+ <gloss>
+ <sumti>You</sumti>
+ <selbri>are-talking.</selbri>
+ </gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <para>you are simply making a statement of fact. In order to issue a command in Lojban, substitute the word
+ <valsi>ko</valsi> for
+ <valsi>do</valsi>. The bridi</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k11z">
+ <title>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>Talk!</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e14d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>ko</sumti>
+ <selbri>tavla</selbri>
+ </jbo>
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <para>
+
+
+ instructs the listener to do whatever is necessary to make
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-k11I"/> true; it means
+ <quote>Talk!</quote> Other examples:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k13h">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e14d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>ko</sumti>
+ <selbri>sutra</selbri>
+ </jbo>
+ <natlang>Be fast!</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <para>The
+ <valsi>ko</valsi> need not be in the x1 place, but rather can occur anywhere a sumti is allowed, leading to possible Lojban commands that are very unlike English commands:</para>
+
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k14j">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e14d7"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>mi</sumti>
+ <selbri>tavla</selbri>
+ <sumti>ko</sumti>
+ </jbo>
+ <natlang>Be talked to by me.</natlang>
+ <natlang>Let me talk to you.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <para>The cmavo
+ <valsi>ko</valsi> can fill any appropriate sumti place, and can be used as often as is appropriate for the selbri:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k14X">
+ <title>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>Take care!</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e14d8"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>ko</sumti>
+ <selbri>kurji</selbri>
+ <sumti>ko</sumti>
+ </jbo>
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <para>and</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k15M">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e14d9"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>ko</sumti>
+ <sumti>ko</sumti>
+ <selbri>kurji</selbri>
+ </jbo>
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <para>
+
+
+ both mean
+ <quote>You take care of you</quote> and
+ <quote>Be taken care of by you</quote>, or to put it colloquially,
+ <quote>Take care of yourself</quote>.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-basic-questions">
+ <title>Questions</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>questions</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> There are many kinds of questions in Lojban: full explanations appear in
+ <xref linkend="section-questions-and-answers"/> and in various other chapters throughout the book. In this chapter, we will introduce three kinds: sumti questions, selbri questions, and yes/no questions.</para>
+
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti questions</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>questions</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo
+ <valsi>ma</valsi> is used to create a sumti question: it indicates that the speaker wishes to know the sumti which should be placed at the location of the
+ <valsi>ma</valsi> to make the bridi true. It can be translated as
+ <quote>Who?</quote> or
+ <quote>What?</quote> in most cases, but also serves for
+ <quote>When?</quote>,
+ <quote>Where?</quote>, and
+ <quote>Why?</quote> when used in sumti places that express time, location, or cause. For example:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k161">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e15d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>ma</sumti>
+ <selbri>tavla</selbri>
+ <sumti>do</sumti>
+ <sumti>mi</sumti>
+ </jbo>
+ <gloss>
+ <sumti>Who?</sumti>
+ <selbri>talks</selbri>
+ <sumti>to-you</sumti>
+ <sumti>about-me.</sumti>
+ </gloss>
+ <natlang>Who is talking to you about me?</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <para>The listener can reply by simply stating a sumti:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1Aa">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e15d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo> <sumti>la djan.</sumti> </jbo>
+ <natlang>John (is talking to you about me).</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <para>Like
+ <valsi>ko</valsi>,
+ <valsi>ma</valsi> can occur in any position where a sumti is allowed, not just in the first position:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1aE">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e15d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>do</sumti>
+ <elidable>cu</elidable>
+ <selbri>tavla</selbri>
+ <sumti>ma</sumti>
+ </jbo>
+ <gloss>
+ <sumti>You</sumti>
+ <elidable></elidable>
+ <selbri>talk</selbri>
+ <sumti>to what/whom?</sumti>
+ </gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <para>A
+ <valsi>ma</valsi> can also appear in multiple sumti positions in one sentence, in effect asking several questions at once.</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1dc">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e15d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>ma</sumti>
+ <elidable>cu</elidable>
+ <selbri>tavla</selbri>
+ <sumti>ma</sumti>
+ </jbo>
+ <gloss>
+ <sumti>What/Who</sumti>
+ <elidable></elidable>
+ <selbri>talks</selbri>
+ <sumti>to what/whom?</sumti>
+ </gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>separate questions</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> The two separate
+ <valsi>ma</valsi> positions ask two separate questions, and can therefore be answered with different values in each sumti place.</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi questions</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri questions</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo
+ <valsi>mo</valsi> is the selbri analogue of
+ <valsi>ma</valsi>. It asks the respondent to provide a selbri that would be a true relation if inserted in place of the
+ <valsi>mo</valsi>:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1DE">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e15d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>do</sumti>
+ <elidable>cu</elidable>
+ <selbri>mo</selbri>
+ </jbo>
+ <gloss>
+ <sumti>You</sumti>
+ <elidable></elidable>
+ <selbri>are-what/do-what?</selbri>
+ </gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <para>A
+ <valsi>mo</valsi> may be used anywhere a brivla or other selbri might. Keep this in mind for later examples. Unfortunately, by itself,
+ <valsi>mo</valsi> is a very non-specific question. The response to the question in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-k1DE"/> could be:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1DR">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e15d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>mi</sumti>
+ <elidable>cu</elidable>
+ <selbri>melbi</selbri>
+ </jbo>
+ <natlang>I am beautiful.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <para>or:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1gh">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e15d7"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>mi</sumti>
+ <elidable>cu</elidable>
+ <selbri>tavla</selbri>
+ </jbo>
+ <natlang>I talk.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>speaker-listener cooperation</primary></indexterm> Clearly,
+ <valsi>mo</valsi> requires some cooperation between the speaker and the respondent to ensure that the right question is being answered. If context doesn't make the question specific enough, the speaker must ask the question more specifically using a more complex construction such as a tanru (see
+ <xref linkend="section-basic-tanru"/>).</para>
+ <para>It is perfectly permissible for the respondent to fill in other unspecified places in responding to a
+ <valsi>mo</valsi> question. Thus, the respondent in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-k1gh"/> could have also specified an audience, a topic, and/or a language in the response.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>yes/no questions</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> Finally, we must consider questions that can be answered
+ <quote>Yes</quote> or
+ <quote>No</quote>, such as</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-fVMN">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e15d8"/>
+ </title>
+ <para>Are you talking to me?</para>
+ </example>
+ <para>Like all yes-or-no questions in English,
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-fVMN"/> may be reformulated as</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-648w">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e15d9"/>
+ </title>
+ <para>Is it true that you are talking to me?</para>
+ </example>
+ <para> In Lojban we have a word that asks precisely that question in precisely the same way. The cmavo
+ <valsi>xu</valsi>, when placed in front of a bridi, asks whether that bridi is true as stated. So</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1gp">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e15d10"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <cmavo>xu</cmavo>
+ <sumti>do</sumti>
+ <selbri>tavla</selbri>
+ <sumti>mi</sumti>
+ </jbo>
+ <gloss>
+ <cmavo>Is-it-true-that</cmavo>
+ <sumti>you</sumti>
+ <selbri>are-talking</selbri>
+ <sumti>to-me?</sumti>
+ </gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <para>is the Lojban translation of
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-fVMN"/>.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>affirmative answer</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>go'i with xu</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> The answer
+ <quote>Yes</quote> may be given by simply restating the bridi without the
+ <valsi>xu</valsi> question word. Lojban has a shorthand for doing this with the word
+ <valsi>go'i</valsi>, mentioned in
+ <xref linkend="section-some-brivla"/>. Instead of a negative answer, the bridi may be restated in such a way as to make it true. If this can be done by substituting sumti, it may be done with
+
+ <valsi>go'i</valsi> as well. For example:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1gU">
+ <title>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>healthy</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e15d11"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <cmavo>xu</cmavo>
+ <sumti>do</sumti>
+ <selbri>kanro</selbri>
+ </jbo>
+ <natlang>Are you healthy?</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <para>
+
+
+ can be answered with</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1iE">
+ <title>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>healthy</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e15d12"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>mi</sumti>
+ <selbri>kanro</selbri>
+ </jbo>
+ <natlang>I am healthy.</natlang>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <para>or</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1JT">
+ <title>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>healthy</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e15d13"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <selbri>go'i</selbri>
+ </jbo>
+ <natlang>I am healthy.</natlang>
+
+
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <para>
+ (Note that
+ <valsi>do</valsi> to the questioner is
+ <valsi>mi</valsi> to the respondent.)
+ </para>
+ <para>or</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1jY">
+ <title>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>healthy</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e15d14"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>le tavla</sumti>
+ <elidable elidable="false">cu</elidable>
+ <selbri>kanro</selbri>
+ </jbo>
+ <natlang>The talker is healthy.</natlang>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <para>or</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1LE">
+ <title>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>healthy</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e15d15"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>le tavla</sumti>
+ <elidable elidable="false">cu</elidable>
+ <selbri>go'i</selbri>
+ </jbo>
+ <natlang>The talker is healthy.</natlang>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>negative answer</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> A general negative answer may be given by
+
+ <jbophrase>na go'i</jbophrase>.
+ <valsi>na</valsi> may be placed before any selbri (but after the
+ <valsi>cu</valsi>). It is equivalent to stating
+ <quote>It is not true that ...</quote> before the bridi. It does not imply that anything else is true or untrue, only that that specific bridi is not true. More details on negative statements are available in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-negation"/>.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-attitudinals">
+ <title>Indicators</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>interjections</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>attitudinal indicators</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>indicators</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> Different cultures express emotions and attitudes with a variety of intonations and gestures that are not usually included in written language. Some of these are available in some languages as interjections (i.e. Aha!, Oh no!, Ouch!, Aahh!, etc.), but they vary greatly from culture to culture.</para> <!-- FIXME: put <quote>s around the interjections? -->
+
+ <para>Lojban has a group of cmavo known as
+ <quote>attitudinal indicators</quote> which specifically covers this type of commentary on spoken statements. They are both written and spoken, but require no specific intonation or gestures. Grammatically they are very simple: one or more attitudinals at the beginning of a bridi apply to the entire bridi; anywhere else in the bridi they apply to the word immediately to the left. For example:</para>
+
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1LH">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e16d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <cmavo>.ie</cmavo>
+ <sumti>mi</sumti>
+ <elidable>cu</elidable>
+ <selbri>klama</selbri>
+ </jbo>
+ <gloss>
+ <cmavo>Agreement!</cmavo>
+ <sumti>I</sumti>
+ <elidable></elidable>
+ <selbri>go.</selbri>
+ </gloss>
+ <natlang>Yep! I'll go.</natlang>
+
+
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1mS">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e16d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <cmavo>.ei</cmavo>
+ <sumti>mi</sumti>
+ <elidable>cu</elidable>
+ <selbri>klama</selbri>
+ </jbo>
+ <gloss>
+ <cmavo>Obligation!</cmavo>
+ <sumti>I</sumti>
+ <elidable></elidable>
+ <selbri>go.</selbri>
+ </gloss>
+ <natlang>I should go.</natlang>
+
+
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1pF">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e16d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>mi</sumti>
+ <elidable>cu</elidable>
+ <selbri>klama</selbri>
+ <sumti>le melbi</sumti>
+ <cmavo>.ui</cmavo>
+ <elidable>ku</elidable>
+ </jbo>
+ <gloss>
+ <sumti>I</sumti>
+ <elidable></elidable>
+ <selbri>go</selbri>
+ <sumti>to-the beautiful-thing</sumti>
+ <cmavo>and I am happy because it is the beautiful thing I'm going to</cmavo>
+ <elidable></elidable>
+ </gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>but/and equivalence</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>metalinguistic words</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>discursives</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> Not all indicators indicate attitudes. Discursives, another group of cmavo with the same grammatical rules as attitudinal indicators, allow free expression of certain kinds of commentary about the main utterances. Using discursives allows a clear separation of these so-called
+
+ <quote>metalinguistic</quote> features from the underlying statements and logical structure. By comparison, the English words
+
+ <quote>but</quote> and
+ <quote>also</quote>, which discursively indicate contrast or an added weight of example, are logically equivalent to
+ <quote>and</quote>, which does not have a discursive content. The average English-speaker does not think about, and may not even realize, the paradoxical idea that
+ <quote>but</quote> basically means
+ <quote>and</quote>.</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1Rd">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e16d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>mi</sumti>
+ <elidable>cu</elidable>
+ <selbri>klama</selbri>
+ <cmavo>.i</cmavo>
+ <sumti>do</sumti>
+ <elidable>cu</elidable>
+ <selbri>stali</selbri>
+ </jbo>
+ <gloss>
+ <sumti>I</sumti>
+ <elidable></elidable>
+ <selbri>go.</selbri>
+ <cmavo></cmavo>
+ <sumti>You</sumti>
+ <elidable></elidable>
+ <selbri>stay.</selbri>
+ </gloss>
+
+
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1Rv">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e16d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>mi</sumti>
+ <elidable>cu</elidable>
+ <selbri>klama</selbri>
+ <cmavo>.i</cmavo>
+ <cmavo>ji'a</cmavo>
+ <sumti>do</sumti>
+ <elidable>cu</elidable>
+ <selbri>stali</selbri>
+ </jbo>
+ <gloss>
+ <sumti>I</sumti>
+ <elidable></elidable>
+ <selbri>go.</selbri>
+ <cmavo></cmavo>
+ <cmavo>In addition,</cmavo>
+ <sumti>you</sumti>
+ <elidable></elidable>
+ <selbri>stay.</selbri>
+ <comment>added weight</comment>
+ </gloss>
+
+
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1sb">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e16d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>mi</sumti>
+ <elidable>cu</elidable>
+ <selbri>klama</selbri>
+ <cmavo>.i</cmavo>
+ <cmavo>ku'i</cmavo>
+ <sumti>do</sumti>
+ <elidable>cu</elidable>
+ <selbri>stali</selbri>
+ </jbo>
+ <gloss>
+ <sumti>I</sumti>
+ <elidable></elidable>
+ <selbri>go.</selbri>
+ <cmavo></cmavo>
+ <cmavo>However,</cmavo>
+ <sumti>you</sumti>
+ <elidable></elidable>
+ <selbri>stay.</selbri>
+ <comment>contrast</comment>
+ </gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>evidentials</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> Another group of indicators are called
+ <quote>evidentials</quote>. Evidentials show the speaker's relationship to the statement, specifically how the speaker came to make the statement. These include
+
+
+ <valsi>za'a</valsi> (I directly observe the relationship),
+
+ <valsi>pe'i</valsi> (I believe that the relationship holds),
+
+ <valsi>ru'a</valsi> (I postulate the relationship), and others. Many American Indian languages use this kind of words.</para>
+
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1uT">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e16d7"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+
+ <jbo>
+ <cmavo>pe'i</cmavo>
+ <sumti>do</sumti>
+ <elidable>cu</elidable>
+ <selbri>melbi</selbri>
+ </jbo>
+ <gloss>
+ <cmavo>I opine!</cmavo>
+ <sumti>You</sumti>
+ <elidable></elidable>
+ <selbri>are beautiful.</selbri>
+ </gloss>
+
+
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1Xs">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e16d8"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+
+ <jbo>
+ <cmavo>za'a</cmavo>
+ <sumti>do</sumti>
+ <elidable>cu</elidable>
+ <selbri>melbi</selbri>
+ </jbo>
+ <gloss>
+ <cmavo>I directly observe!</cmavo>
+ <sumti>You</sumti>
+ <elidable></elidable>
+ <selbri>are beautiful.</selbri>
+ </gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-tenses">
+ <title>Tenses</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>time tenses</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tenses</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> In English, every verb is tagged for the grammatical category called tense: past, present, or future. The sentence</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-xIVa">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e17d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <para>John went to the store</para>
+ </example>
+ <para>necessarily happens at some time in the past, whereas</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-1Acu">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e17d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <para>John is going to the store</para>
+ </example>
+ <para>is necessarily happening right now.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sentences</primary><secondary>tenseless</secondary><tertiary>quick-tour version</tertiary></indexterm> The Lojban sentence</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1xz">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e17d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>la djan.</sumti>
+ <elidable>cu</elidable>
+ <selbri>klama</selbri>
+ <sumti>le zarci</sumti>
+ </jbo>
+ <gloss>
+ <sumti>John</sumti>
+ <elidable></elidable>
+ <selbri>goes/went/will-go</selbri>
+ <sumti>to-the store</sumti>
+ </gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <para>serves as a translation of either
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-xIVa"/> or
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-1Acu"/>, and of many other possible English sentences as well. It is not marked for tense, and can refer to an event in the past, the present or the future. This rule does not mean that Lojban has no way of representing the time of an event. A close translation of
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-xIVa"/> would be:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1Y5">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e17d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>la djan.</sumti>
+ <cmavo>pu</cmavo>
+ <selbri>klama</selbri>
+ <sumti>le zarci</sumti>
+ </jbo>
+ <gloss>
+ <sumti>John</sumti>
+ <cmavo>[past]</cmavo>
+ <selbri>goes</selbri>
+ <sumti>to-the store</sumti>
+ </gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <para>where the tag
+ <valsi>pu</valsi> forces the sentence to refer to a time in the past. Similarly,</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1Y8">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e17d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>la djan.</sumti>
+ <cmavo>ca</cmavo>
+ <selbri>klama</selbri>
+ <sumti>le zarci</sumti>
+ </jbo>
+ <gloss>
+ <sumti>John</sumti>
+ <cmavo>[present]</cmavo>
+ <selbri>goes</selbri>
+ <sumti>to-the store</sumti>
+ </gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <para>necessarily refers to the present, because of the tag
+ <valsi>ca</valsi>. Tags used in this way always appear at the very beginning of the selbri, just after the
+ <valsi>cu</valsi>, and they may make a
+ <valsi>cu</valsi> unnecessary, since tags cannot be absorbed into tanru. Such tags serve as an equivalent to English tenses and adverbs. In Lojban, tense information is completely optional. If unspecified, the appropriate tense is picked up from context.</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>space tenses</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> Lojban also extends the notion of
+ <quote>tense</quote> to refer not only to time but to space. The following example uses the tag
+ <valsi>vu</valsi> to specify that the event it describes happens far away from the speaker:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k20b">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e17d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>do</sumti>
+ <selbri>vu vecnu</selbri>
+ <sumti>zo'e</sumti>
+ </jbo>
+ <gloss>
+ <sumti>You</sumti>
+ <selbri>yonder sell</selbri>
+ <sumti>something-unspecified.</sumti>
+ </gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <para>In addition, tense tags (either for time or space) can be prefixed to the selbri of a description, producing a tensed sumti:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k26N">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e17d7"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>le pu bajra</sumti>
+ <elidable>ku</elidable>
+ <elidable elidable="false">cu</elidable>
+ <selbri>tavla</selbri>
+ </jbo>
+ <gloss>
+ <sumti>The earlier/former/past runner</sumti>
+ <elidable></elidable>
+ <elidable></elidable>
+ <selbri>talked/talks.</selbri>
+ </gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <para>(Since Lojban tense is optional, we don't know when he or she talks.)</para>
+ <para>Tensed sumti with space tags correspond roughly to the English use of
+ <quote>this</quote> or
+ <quote>that</quote> as adjectives, as in the following example, which uses the tag
+
+ <valsi>vi</valsi> meaning
+ <quote>nearby</quote>:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k28N">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e17d8"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>le vi bajra </sumti>
+ <elidable>ku</elidable>
+ <elidable elidable="false">cu</elidable>
+ <selbri>tavla</selbri>
+ </jbo>
+ <gloss>
+ <sumti>The nearby runner</sumti>
+ <elidable></elidable>
+ <elidable></elidable>
+ <selbri>talks.</selbri>
+ </gloss>
+ <natlang>This runner talks.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ <para>Do not confuse the use of
+ <valsi>vi</valsi> in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-k28N"/> with the cmavo
+ <valsi>ti</valsi>, which also means
+ <quote>this</quote>, but in the sense of
+ <quote>this thing</quote>.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti with tenses</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> Furthermore, a tense tag can appear both on the selbri and within a description, as in the following example (where
+ <valsi>ba</valsi> is the tag for future time):</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k29L">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c2e17d9"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ <jbo>
+ <sumti>le vi tavla </sumti>
+ <elidable>ku</elidable>
+ <elidable elidable="false">cu</elidable>
+ <selbri>ba klama</selbri>
+ </jbo>
+ <gloss>
+ <sumti>The here talker</sumti>
+ <elidable></elidable>
+ <elidable></elidable>
+ <selbri>[future] goes.</selbri>
+ </gloss>
+ <natlang>The talker who is here will go.</natlang>
+ <natlang>This talker will go.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
+ </example>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-terms">
+ <title>Lojban grammatical terms</title>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>grammatical terms</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> Here is a review of the Lojban grammatical terms used in this chapter, plus some others used throughout this book. Only terms that are themselves Lojban words are included: there are of course many expressions like
+
+ <quote>indicator</quote> in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-quantifiers"/> that are not explained here. See the Index for further help with these.</para>
+ <variablelist>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term>bridi:</term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi</primary><secondary>definition</secondary><tertiary>quick-tour version</tertiary></indexterm> predication; the basic unit of Lojban expression; the main kind of Lojban sentence; a claim that some objects stand in some relationship, or that some single object has some property.</para>
+
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term>sumti:</term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>definition</secondary><tertiary>quick-tour version</tertiary></indexterm> argument; words identifying something which stands in a specified relationship to something else, or which has a specified property. See
+ <xref linkend="chapter-sumti"/>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term>selbri:</term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri</primary><secondary>definition</secondary><tertiary>quick-tour version</tertiary></indexterm> logical predicate; the core of a bridi; the word or words specifying the relationship between the objects referred to by the sumti. See
+ <xref linkend="chapter-selbri"/>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term>cmavo:</term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmavo</primary><secondary>definition</secondary><tertiary>quick-tour version</tertiary></indexterm> one of the Lojban parts of speech; a short word; a structural word; a word used for its grammatical function.</para>
+
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term>brivla:</term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>brivla</primary><secondary>definition</secondary><tertiary>quick-tour version</tertiary></indexterm> one of the Lojban parts of speech; a content word; a predicate word; can function as a selbri; is a gismu, a lujvo, or a fu'ivla. See
+
+ <xref linkend="chapter-morphology"/>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term>gismu:</term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>definition</secondary><tertiary>quick-tour version</tertiary></indexterm> a root word; a kind of brivla; has associated rafsi. See
+ <xref linkend="chapter-morphology"/>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term>lujvo:</term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>definition</secondary><tertiary>quick-tour version</tertiary></indexterm> a compound word; a kind of brivla; may or may not appear in a dictionary; does not have associated rafsi. See
+ <xref linkend="chapter-morphology"/> and
+ <xref linkend="chapter-lujvo"/>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term>fu'ivla:</term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>definition</secondary><tertiary>quick-tour version</tertiary></indexterm> a borrowed word; a kind of brivla; may or may not appear in a dictionary; copied in a modified form from some non-Lojban language; usually refers to some aspect of culture or the natural world; does not have associated rafsi. See
+
+ <xref linkend="chapter-morphology"/>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term>rafsi:</term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>definition</secondary><tertiary>quick-tour version</tertiary></indexterm> a word fragment; one or more is associated with each gismu; can be assembled according to rules in order to make lujvo; not a valid word by itself. See
+ <xref linkend="chapter-morphology"/>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term>tanru:</term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>definition</secondary><tertiary>quick-tour version</tertiary></indexterm> a group of two or more brivla, possibly with associated cmavo, that form a selbri; always divisible into two parts, with the first part modifying the meaning of the second part (which is taken to be basic). See
+ <xref linkend="chapter-selbri"/>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term>selma'o:</term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selma'o</primary><secondary>definition</secondary><tertiary>quick-tour version</tertiary></indexterm> a group of cmavo that have the same grammatical use (can appear interchangeably in sentences, as far as the grammar is concerned) but differ in meaning or other usage. See
+ <xref linkend="chapter-catalogue"/>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ </variablelist>
+ </section>
+</chapter>
diff --git a/chapters/03.xml b/chapters/03.xml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bfb447c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/chapters/03.xml
@@ -0,0 +1,2209 @@
+<chapter xml:id="chapter-phonology">
+ <title>The Hills Are Alive With The Sounds Of Lojban</title>
+ <mediaobject xml:id="chapter-phonology-picture">
+ <alt>The picture for chapter 3</alt>
+ <imageobject>
+ <imagedata fileref="media/chapter-phonology.gif" />
+ </imageobject>
+ </mediaobject>
+ <section xml:id="section-orthography">
+ <title>Orthography</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>orthography</primary><secondary>relation to pronunciation</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pronunciation</primary><secondary>relation to orthography</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>audio-visual isomorphism</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>isomorphism</primary><secondary>audio-visual</secondary></indexterm> Lojban is designed so that any properly spoken Lojban utterance can be uniquely transcribed in writing, and any properly written Lojban can be spoken so as to be uniquely reproduced by another person. As a consequence, the standard Lojban orthography must assign to each distinct sound, or phoneme, a unique letter or symbol. Each letter or symbol has only one sound or, more accurately, a limited range of sounds that are permitted pronunciations for that phoneme. Some symbols indicate stress (speech emphasis) and pause, which are also essential to Lojban word recognition. In addition, everything that is represented in other languages by punctuation (when written) or by tone of voice (when spoken) is represented in Lojban by words. These two properties together are known technically as <quote>audio-visual isomorphism</quote>.</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>alphabet</primary><secondary>Lojban</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Lojban alphabet</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Latin alphabet</primary></indexterm> Lojban uses a variant of the Latin (Roman) alphabet, consisting of the following letters and symbols:
+ <simplelist type="horiz" columns="26">
+ <member>'</member>
+ <member>,</member>
+ <member>.</member>
+ <member>a</member>
+ <member>b</member>
+ <member>c</member>
+ <member>d</member>
+ <member>e</member>
+ <member>f</member>
+ <member>g</member>
+ <member>i</member>
+ <member>j</member>
+ <member>k</member>
+ <member>l</member>
+ <member>m</member>
+ <member>n</member>
+ <member>o</member>
+ <member>p</member>
+ <member>r</member>
+ <member>s</member>
+ <member>t</member>
+ <member>u</member>
+ <member>v</member>
+ <member>x</member>
+ <member>y</member>
+ <member>z</member>
+ </simplelist>
+ omitting the letters
+ <quote>h</quote>,
+ <quote>q</quote>, and
+ <quote>w</quote>.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>alphabetic order</primary></indexterm> The alphabetic order given above is that of the ASCII coded character set, widely used in computers. By making Lojban alphabetical order the same as ASCII, computerized sorting and searching of Lojban text is facilitated.</para>
+
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>stress</primary><secondary>showing non-standard</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>capital letters</primary><secondary>use of</secondary></indexterm> Capital letters are used only to represent non-standard stress, which can appear only in the representation of Lojbanized names. Thus the English name
+ <quote>Josephine</quote>, as normally pronounced, is Lojbanized as
+ <cmevla>DJOsefin.</cmevla>, pronounced
+ <phrase role="IPA">['dʒosɛfinʔ]</phrase>. (See
+ <xref linkend="section-basic-phonetics"/> for an explanation of the symbols within square brackets.) Technically, it is sufficient to capitalize the vowel letter, in this case
+
+ <letteral>O</letteral>, but it is easier on the reader to capitalize the whole syllable.</para>
+ <para>Without the capitalization, the ordinary rules of Lojban stress would cause the
+
+ <valsi>se</valsi> syllable to be stressed. Lojbanized names are meant to represent the pronunciation of names from other languages with as little distortion as may be; as such, they are exempt from many of the regular rules of Lojban phonology, as will appear in the rest of this chapter.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-basic-phonetics">
+ <title>Basic Phonetics</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>brackets</primary><secondary>use in IPA notation</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>phonetic alphabet</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>IPA</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>International Phonetic Alphabet (see also IPA)</primary></indexterm> Lojban pronunciations are defined using the International Phonetic Alphabet, or IPA, a standard method of transcribing pronunciations. By convention, IPA transcriptions are always within square brackets: for example, the word
+
+ <quote>cat</quote> is pronounced (in General American pronunciation)
+
+ <phrase role="IPA">[kæt]</phrase>.
+ <xref linkend="section-anglophone-phonetics"/> contains a brief explanation of the IPA characters used in this chapter, with their nearest analogues in English, and will be especially useful to those not familiar with the technical terms used in describing speech sounds.</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>standard pronunciation</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pronunciation</primary><secondary>standard</secondary></indexterm> The standard pronunciations and permitted variants of the Lojban letters are listed in the table below. The descriptions have deliberately been made a bit ambiguous to cover variations in pronunciation by speakers of different native languages and dialects. In all cases except
+
+ <letteral>r</letteral> the first IPA symbol shown represents the preferred pronunciation; for
+ <letteral>r</letteral>, all of the variations (and any other rhotic sound) are equally acceptable.</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <thead>
+ <tr>
+ <td>Letter</td>
+ <td>IPA</td>
+ <td>X-SAMPA</td>
+ <td>Description</td>
+ </tr>
+ </thead>
+ <tr>
+ <td><letteral>'</letteral></td>
+ <td><phrase role="IPA">[h]</phrase></td>
+ <td><phrase role="X-SAMPA">[h]</phrase></td>
+ <td>an unvoiced glottal spirant</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><letteral>,</letteral></td>
+ <td>-</td>
+ <td>-</td>
+ <td>the syllable separator</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><letteral>.</letteral></td>
+ <td><phrase role="IPA">[ʔ]</phrase></td>
+ <td><phrase role="X-SAMPA">[?]</phrase></td>
+ <td>a glottal stop or a pause</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><letteral>a</letteral></td>
+ <td><phrase role="IPA">[a]</phrase>, <phrase role="IPA">[ɑ]</phrase>
+ </td>
+ <td><phrase role="X-SAMPA">[a]</phrase>, <phrase role="X-SAMPA">[A]</phrase>
+ </td>
+ <td>an open vowel</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><letteral>b</letteral></td>
+ <td><phrase role="IPA">[b]</phrase></td>
+ <td><phrase role="X-SAMPA">[b]</phrase></td>
+ <td>a voiced bilabial stop</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><letteral>c</letteral></td>
+ <td><phrase role="IPA">[ʃ]</phrase>, <phrase role="IPA">[ʂ]</phrase>
+ </td>
+ <td><phrase role="X-SAMPA">[S]</phrase>, <phrase role="X-SAMPA">[s`]</phrase>
+ </td>
+ <td>an unvoiced coronal sibilant</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><letteral>d</letteral></td>
+ <td><phrase role="IPA">[d]</phrase></td>
+ <td><phrase role="X-SAMPA">[d]</phrase></td>
+ <td>a voiced dental/alveolar stop</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><letteral>e</letteral></td>
+ <td><phrase role="IPA">[ɛ]</phrase>, <phrase role="IPA">[e]</phrase>
+ </td>
+ <td><phrase role="X-SAMPA">[E]</phrase>, <phrase role="X-SAMPA">[e]</phrase>
+ </td>
+ <td>a front mid vowel</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><letteral>f</letteral></td>
+ <td><phrase role="IPA">[f]</phrase>, <phrase role="IPA">[ɸ]</phrase>
+ </td>
+ <td><phrase role="X-SAMPA">[f]</phrase>, <phrase role="X-SAMPA">[p\]</phrase>
+ </td>
+ <td>an unvoiced labial fricative</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><letteral>g</letteral></td>
+ <td><phrase role="IPA">[ɡ]</phrase></td>
+ <td><phrase role="X-SAMPA">[g]</phrase></td>
+ <td>a voiced velar stop</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><letteral>i</letteral></td>
+ <td><phrase role="IPA">[i]</phrase></td>
+ <td><phrase role="X-SAMPA">[i]</phrase></td>
+ <td>a front close vowel</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><letteral>j</letteral></td>
+ <td><phrase role="IPA">[ʒ]</phrase>, <phrase role="IPA">[ʐ]</phrase>
+ </td>
+ <td><phrase role="X-SAMPA">[Z]</phrase>, <phrase role="X-SAMPA">[z`]</phrase>
+ </td>
+ <td>a voiced coronal sibilant</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><letteral>k</letteral></td>
+ <td><phrase role="IPA">[k]</phrase></td>
+ <td><phrase role="X-SAMPA">[k]</phrase></td>
+ <td>an unvoiced velar stop</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><letteral>l</letteral></td>
+ <td><phrase role="IPA">[l]</phrase>, <phrase role="IPA">[l̩]</phrase>
+ </td>
+ <td><phrase role="X-SAMPA">[l]</phrase>, <phrase role="X-SAMPA">[l=]</phrase>
+ </td>
+ <td>a voiced lateral approximant (may be syllabic)</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><letteral>m</letteral></td>
+ <td><phrase role="IPA">[m]</phrase>, <phrase role="IPA">[m̩]</phrase>
+ </td>
+ <td><phrase role="X-SAMPA">[m]</phrase>, <phrase role="X-SAMPA">[m=]</phrase>
+ </td>
+ <td>a voiced bilabial nasal (may be syllabic)</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><letteral>n</letteral></td>
+ <td><phrase role="IPA">[n]</phrase>, <phrase role="IPA">[n̩]</phrase>, <phrase role="IPA">[ŋ]</phrase>, <phrase role="IPA">[ŋ̍]</phrase>
+ </td>
+ <td><phrase role="X-SAMPA">[n]</phrase>, <phrase role="X-SAMPA">[n=]</phrase>, <phrase role="X-SAMPA">[N]</phrase>, <phrase role="X-SAMPA">[N=]</phrase>
+ </td>
+ <td>a voiced dental or velar nasal (may be syllabic)</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><letteral>o</letteral></td>
+ <td><phrase role="IPA">[o]</phrase>, <phrase role="IPA">[ɔ]</phrase>
+ </td>
+ <td><phrase role="X-SAMPA">[o]</phrase>, <phrase role="X-SAMPA">[O]</phrase>
+ </td>
+ <td>a back mid vowel</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><letteral>p</letteral></td>
+ <td><phrase role="IPA">[p]</phrase></td>
+ <td><phrase role="X-SAMPA">[p]</phrase></td>
+ <td>an unvoiced bilabial stop</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><letteral>r</letteral></td>
+ <td><phrase role="IPA">[r]</phrase>, <phrase role="IPA">[ɹ]</phrase>, <phrase role="IPA">[ɾ]</phrase>, <phrase role="IPA">[ʀ]</phrase>, <phrase role="IPA">[r̩]</phrase>, <phrase role="IPA">[ɹ̩]</phrase>, <phrase role="IPA">[ɾ̩]</phrase>, <phrase role="IPA">[ʀ̩]</phrase>
+ </td>
+ <td><phrase role="X-SAMPA">[r]</phrase>, <phrase role="X-SAMPA">[r\]</phrase>, <phrase role="X-SAMPA">[4]</phrase>, <phrase role="X-SAMPA">[R\]</phrase>, <phrase role="X-SAMPA">[r=]</phrase>, <phrase role="X-SAMPA">[r\=]</phrase>, <phrase role="X-SAMPA">[4=]</phrase>, <phrase role="X-SAMPA">[R\=]</phrase>
+ </td>
+ <td>a rhotic sound</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><letteral>s</letteral></td>
+ <td><phrase role="IPA">[s]</phrase></td>
+ <td><phrase role="X-SAMPA">[s]</phrase></td>
+ <td>an unvoiced alveolar sibilant</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><letteral>t</letteral></td>
+ <td><phrase role="IPA">[t]</phrase></td>
+ <td><phrase role="X-SAMPA">[t]</phrase></td>
+ <td>an unvoiced dental/alveolar stop</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><letteral>u</letteral></td>
+ <td><phrase role="IPA">[u]</phrase></td>
+ <td><phrase role="X-SAMPA">[u]</phrase></td>
+ <td>a back close vowel</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><letteral>v</letteral></td>
+ <td><phrase role="IPA">[v]</phrase>, <phrase role="IPA">[β]</phrase>
+ </td>
+ <td><phrase role="X-SAMPA">[v]</phrase>, <phrase role="X-SAMPA">[B]</phrase>
+ </td>
+ <td>a voiced labial fricative</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><letteral>x</letteral></td>
+ <td><phrase role="IPA">[x]</phrase></td>
+ <td><phrase role="X-SAMPA">[x]</phrase></td>
+ <td>an unvoiced velar fricative</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><letteral>y</letteral></td>
+ <td><phrase role="IPA">[ə]</phrase></td>
+ <td><phrase role="X-SAMPA">[@]</phrase></td>
+ <td>a central mid vowel</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><letteral>z</letteral></td>
+ <td><phrase role="IPA">[z]</phrase></td>
+ <td><phrase role="X-SAMPA">[z]</phrase></td>
+ <td>a voiced alveolar sibilant</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sounds</primary><secondary>clarity of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>clarity of sounds</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Lojban letters</primary><secondary>list with IPA pronunciation</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Lojban letters</primary><secondary>IPA for pronouncing</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pronunciation</primary><secondary>IPA for Lojban</secondary></indexterm> The Lojban sounds must be clearly pronounced so that they are not mistaken for each other. Voicing and placement of the tongue are the key factors in correct pronunciation, but other subtle differences will develop between consonants in a Lojban-speaking community. At this point these are the only mandatory rules on the range of sounds.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rounded/unrounded vowels</primary></indexterm> Note in particular that Lojban vowels can be pronounced with either rounded or unrounded lips; typically
+ <letteral>o</letteral> and
+ <letteral>u</letteral> are rounded and the others are not, as in English, but this is not a requirement; some people round
+ <letteral>y</letteral> as well. Lojban consonants can be aspirated or unaspirated. Palatalizing of consonants, as found in Russian and other languages, is not generally acceptable in pronunciation, though a following
+ <letteral>i</letteral> may cause it.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sounds for letters</primary><secondary>Lojban contrasted with English</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sounds</primary><secondary>difficult</secondary></indexterm> The sounds represented by the letters
+ <letteral>c</letteral>,
+ <letteral>g</letteral>,
+ <letteral>j</letteral>,
+ <letteral>s</letteral>, and
+ <letteral>x</letteral> require special attention for speakers of English, either because they are ambiguous in the orthography of English (
+
+ <letteral>c</letteral>,
+ <letteral>g</letteral>,
+ <letteral>s</letteral>), or because they are strikingly different in Lojban (
+ <letteral>c</letteral>,
+ <letteral>j</letteral>,
+ <letteral>x</letteral>). The English
+ <quote>c</quote> represents three different sounds,
+ <phrase role="IPA">[k]</phrase> in
+ <quote>cat</quote> and
+ <phrase role="IPA">[s]</phrase> in
+ <quote>cent</quote>, as well as the
+ <phrase role="IPA">[ʃ]</phrase> of
+ <quote>ocean</quote>. Similarly, English
+ <quote>g</quote> can represent
+ <phrase role="IPA">[ɡ]</phrase> as in
+ <quote>go</quote>,
+ <phrase role="IPA">[dʒ]</phrase> as in
+ <quote>gentle</quote>, and
+ <phrase role="IPA">[ʒ]</phrase> as in the second "g" in
+ <quote>garage</quote> (in some pronunciations). English
+ <quote>s</quote> can be either
+ <phrase role="IPA">[s]</phrase> as in
+ <quote>cats</quote>,
+ <phrase role="IPA">[z]</phrase> as in
+ <quote>cards</quote>,
+ <phrase role="IPA">[ʃ]</phrase> as in
+ <quote>tension</quote>, or
+ <phrase role="IPA">[ʒ]</phrase> as in
+ <quote>measure</quote>. The sound of Lojban
+ <letteral>x</letteral> doesn't appear in most English dialects at all.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>j-sound in English</primary><secondary>representation in Lojban</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ch-sound in English</primary><secondary>representation in Lojban</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ts-sound in Russian</primary><secondary>representation in Lojban</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sounds</primary><secondary>complex</secondary></indexterm> There are two common English sounds that are found in Lojban but are not Lojban consonants: the
+ <quote>ch</quote> of
+ <quote>church</quote> and the
+ <quote>j</quote> of
+ <quote>judge</quote>. In Lojban, these are considered two consonant sounds spoken together without an intervening vowel sound, and so are represented in Lojban by the two separate consonants:
+ <morphology>tc</morphology> (IPA
+ <phrase role="IPA">[tʃ]</phrase>) and
+ <morphology>dj</morphology> (IPA
+ <phrase role="IPA">[dʒ]</phrase>). In general, whether a complex sound is considered one sound or two depends on the language: Russian views
+ <quote>ts</quote> as a single sound, whereas English, French, and Lojban consider it to be a consonant cluster.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-lojban-characters">
+ <title>The Special Lojban Characters</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>characters</primary><secondary>special</secondary></indexterm> The apostrophe, period, and comma need special attention. They are all used as indicators of a division between syllables, but each has a different pronunciation, and each is used for different reasons:</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>apostrophe</primary><secondary>type of letter in word-formation</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>' symbol</primary><secondary>definition (see also apostrophe)</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>apostrophe</primary><secondary>definition of</secondary></indexterm> The apostrophe represents a phoneme similar to a short, breathy English
+ <quote>h</quote>, (IPA
+ <phrase role="IPA">[h]</phrase>). The letter
+ <quote>h</quote> is not used to represent this sound for two reasons: primarily in order to simplify explanations of the morphology, but also because the sound is very common, and the apostrophe is a visually lightweight representation of it. The apostrophe sound is a consonant in nature, but is not treated as either a consonant or a vowel for purposes of Lojban morphology (word-formation), which is explained in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-morphology"/>. In addition, the apostrophe visually parallels the comma and the period, which are also used (in different ways) to separate syllables.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>unvoiced vowel glide</primary><secondary>apostrophe as</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>apostrophe</primary><secondary>purpose of</secondary></indexterm> The apostrophe is included in Lojban only to enable a smooth transition between vowels, while joining the vowels within a single word. In fact, one way to think of the apostrophe is as representing an unvoiced vowel glide.</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>apostrophe</primary><secondary>variant of</secondary></indexterm> As a permitted variant, any unvoiced fricative other than those already used in Lojban may be used to render the apostrophe: IPA
+ <phrase role="IPA">[θ]</phrase> is one possibility. The convenience of the listener should be regarded as paramount in deciding to use a substitute for
+ <phrase role="IPA">[h]</phrase>.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pause</primary><secondary>representation of in Lojban</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>glottal stop</primary><secondary>as pause in Lojban</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>period</primary><secondary>definition of</secondary></indexterm> The period represents a mandatory pause, with no specified length; a glottal stop (IPA
+
+ <phrase role="IPA">[ʔ]</phrase>) is considered a pause of shortest length. A pause (or glottal stop) may appear between any two words, and in certain cases – explained in detail in
+
+ <xref linkend="section-pauses"/> – must occur. In particular, a word beginning with a vowel is always preceded by a pause, and a word ending in a consonant is always followed by a pause.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>period</primary><secondary>optional</secondary></indexterm> Technically, the period is an optional reminder to the reader of a mandatory pause that is dictated by the rules of the language; because these rules are unambiguous, a missing period can be inferred from otherwise correct text. Periods are included only as an aid to the reader.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>period</primary><secondary>within a word</secondary></indexterm> A period also may be found apparently embedded in a word. When this occurs, such a written string is not one word but two, written together to indicate that the writer intends a unitary meaning for the compound. It is not really necessary to use a space between words if a period appears.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pause</primary><secondary>contrasted with syllable break</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>syllable break</primary><secondary>contrasted with pause</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>syllable break</primary><secondary>representation in Lojban</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>comma</primary><secondary>definition of</secondary></indexterm> The comma is used to indicate a syllable break within a word, generally one that is not obvious to the reader. Such a comma is written to separate syllables, but indicates that there must be no pause between them, in contrast to the period. Between two vowels, a comma indicates that some type of glide may be necessary to avoid a pause that would split the two syllables into separate words. It is always legal to use the apostrophe (IPA
+
+ <phrase role="IPA">[h]</phrase>) sound in pronouncing a comma. However, a comma cannot be pronounced as a pause or glottal stop between the two letters separated by the comma, because that pronunciation would split the word into two words.</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>comma</primary><secondary>optional</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>comma</primary><secondary>main use of</secondary></indexterm> Otherwise, a comma is usually only used to clarify the presence of syllabic
+ <letteral>l</letteral>,
+ <letteral>m</letteral>,
+ <letteral>n</letteral>, or
+ <letteral>r</letteral> (discussed later). Commas are never required: no two Lojban words differ solely because of the presence or placement of a comma.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>period</primary><secondary>example of</secondary></indexterm> Here is a somewhat artificial example of the difference in pronunciation between periods, commas and apostrophes. In the English song about Old MacDonald's Farm, the vowel string which is written as
+ <quote>ee-i-ee-i-o</quote> in English could be Lojbanized with periods as:</para>
+ <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k2B4">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>Old McDonald</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c3e3d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <pronunciation>
+ <jbo>.i.ai.i.ai.o</jbo>
+ <ipa>[ʔi ʔaj ʔi ʔaj ʔo]</ipa>
+ <natlang>Ee! Eye! Ee! Eye! Oh!</natlang>
+ </pronunciation>
+ </example>
+ <para>However, this would sound clipped, staccato, and unmusical compared to the English. Furthermore, although
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-k2B4"/> is a string of meaningful Lojban words, as a sentence it makes very little sense. (Note the use of periods embedded within the written word.)</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>comma</primary><secondary>example of</secondary></indexterm> If commas were used instead of periods, we could represent the English string as a Lojbanized name, ending in a consonant:</para>
+ <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k2b9">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c3e3d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <pronunciation>
+ <jbo>.i,ai,i,ai,on.</jbo>
+ <ipa>[ʔi jaj ji jaj jonʔ]</ipa>
+ </pronunciation>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>comma</primary><secondary>variant of</secondary></indexterm> The commas represent new syllable breaks, but prohibit the use of pauses or glottal stop. The pronunciation shown is just one possibility, but closely parallels the intended English pronunciation.</para>
+
+ <para>However, the use of commas in this way is risky to unambiguous interpretation, since the glides might be heard by some listeners as diphthongs, producing something like</para>
+ <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-dQfn">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c3e3d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <pronunciation>
+ <jbo>.i,iai,ii,iai,ion.</jbo>
+ </pronunciation>
+ </example>
+ <para>which is technically a different Lojban name. Since the intent with Lojbanized names is to allow them to be pronounced more like their native counterparts, the comma is allowed to represent vowel glides or some non-Lojbanic sound. Such an exception affects only spelling accuracy and the ability of a reader to replicate the desired pronunciation exactly; it will not affect the recognition of word boundaries.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>apostrophe</primary><secondary>as preferable over comma in names</secondary></indexterm> Still, it is better if Lojbanized names are always distinct. Therefore, the apostrophe is preferred in regular Lojbanized names that are not attempting to simulate a non-Lojban pronunciation perfectly. (Perfection, in any event, is not really achievable, because some sounds simply lack reasonable Lojbanic counterparts.)</para>
+ <para>If apostrophes were used instead of commas in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-k2b9"/>, it would appear as:</para>
+ <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k2bc">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c3e3d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <pronunciation>
+ <jbo>.i'ai'i'ai'on.</jbo>
+ <ipa>[ʔi hai hi hai honʔ]</ipa>
+ </pronunciation>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>apostrophe</primary><secondary>example of</secondary></indexterm> which preserves the rhythm and length, if not the exact sounds, of the original English.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-diphthongs">
+ <title>Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>diphthongs</primary><secondary>definition of</secondary></indexterm> There exist 16 diphthongs in the Lojban language. A diphthong is a vowel sound that consists of two elements, a short vowel sound and a glide, either a labial (IPA
+ <phrase role="IPA">[w]</phrase>) or palatal (IPA
+ <phrase role="IPA">[j]</phrase>) glide, that either precedes (an on-glide) or follows (an off-glide) the main vowel. Diphthongs always constitute a single syllable.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vowels</primary><secondary>contrasted with consonants</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>consonants</primary><secondary>contrasted with vowels</secondary></indexterm> For Lojban purposes, a vowel sound is a relatively long speech-sound that forms the nucleus of a syllable. Consonant sounds are relatively brief and normally require an accompanying vowel sound in order to be audible. Consonants may occur at the beginning or end of a syllable, around the vowel, and there may be several consonants in a cluster in either position. Each separate vowel sound constitutes a distinct syllable; consonant sounds do not affect the determination of syllables.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vowels</primary><secondary>definition of</secondary></indexterm> The six Lojban vowels are
+ <letteral>a</letteral>,
+ <letteral>e</letteral>,
+ <letteral>i</letteral>,
+ <letteral>o</letteral>,
+ <letteral>u</letteral>, and
+ <letteral>y</letteral>. The first five vowels appear freely in all kinds of Lojban words. The vowel
+ <letteral>y</letteral> has a limited distribution: it appears only in Lojbanized names, in the Lojban names of the letters of the alphabet, as a glue vowel in compound words, and standing alone as a space-filler word (like English
+
+ <quote>uh</quote> or
+ <quote>er</quote>).</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>diphthongs</primary><secondary>list of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>diphthongs</primary><secondary>IPA for</secondary></indexterm> The Lojban diphthongs are shown in the table below. (Variant pronunciations have been omitted, but are much as one would expect based on the variant pronunciations of the separate vowel letters:
+ <diphthong>ai</diphthong> may be pronounced
+ <phrase role="IPA">[ɑj]</phrase>, for example.)</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <thead>
+ <tr>
+ <td>Letters</td>
+ <td>IPA</td>
+ <td>Description</td>
+ </tr>
+ </thead>
+ <!-- found the first row of the very first table pasted here for some reason; if you find anything funny going on that may have to do with it -->
+ <tr>
+ <td><diphthong>ai</diphthong></td>
+ <td><phrase role="IPA">[aj]</phrase></td>
+ <td>an open vowel with palatal off-glide</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><diphthong>ei</diphthong></td>
+ <td><phrase role="IPA">[ɛj]</phrase></td>
+ <td>a front mid vowel with palatal off-glide</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><diphthong>oi</diphthong></td>
+ <td><phrase role="IPA">[oj]</phrase></td>
+ <td>a back mid vowel with palatal off-glide</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><diphthong>au</diphthong></td>
+ <td><phrase role="IPA">[aw]</phrase></td>
+ <td>an open vowel with labial off-glide</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><diphthong>ia</diphthong></td>
+ <td><phrase role="IPA">[ja]</phrase></td>
+ <td>an open vowel with palatal on-glide</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><diphthong>ie</diphthong></td>
+ <td><phrase role="IPA">[jɛ]</phrase></td>
+ <td>a front mid vowel with palatal on-glide</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><diphthong>ii</diphthong></td>
+ <td><phrase role="IPA">[ji]</phrase></td>
+ <td>a front close vowel with palatal on-glide</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><diphthong>io</diphthong></td>
+ <td><phrase role="IPA">[jo]</phrase></td>
+ <td>a back mid vowel with palatal on-glide</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><diphthong>iu</diphthong></td>
+ <td><phrase role="IPA">[ju]</phrase></td>
+ <td>a back close vowel with palatal on-glide</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><diphthong>ua</diphthong></td>
+ <td><phrase role="IPA">[wa]</phrase></td>
+ <td>an open vowel with labial on-glide</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><diphthong>ue</diphthong></td>
+ <td><phrase role="IPA">[wɛ]</phrase></td>
+ <td>a front mid vowel with labial on-glide</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><diphthong>ui</diphthong></td>
+ <td><phrase role="IPA">[wi]</phrase></td>
+ <td>a front close vowel with labial on-glide</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><diphthong>uo</diphthong></td>
+ <td><phrase role="IPA">[wo]</phrase></td>
+ <td>a back mid vowel with labial on-glide</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><diphthong>uu</diphthong></td>
+ <td><phrase role="IPA">[wu]</phrase></td>
+ <td>a back close vowel with labial on-glide</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><diphthong>iy</diphthong></td>
+ <td><phrase role="IPA">[jə]</phrase></td>
+ <td>a central mid vowel with palatal on-glide</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><diphthong>uy</diphthong></td>
+ <td><phrase role="IPA">[wə]</phrase></td>
+ <td>a central mid vowel with labial on-glide</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <para>(Approximate English equivalents of most of these diphthongs exist: see
+ <xref linkend="section-anglophone-diphthongs"/> for examples.)</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>diphthongs</primary><secondary>classification of</secondary></indexterm> The first four diphthongs above (
+ <diphthong>ai</diphthong>,
+ <diphthong>ei</diphthong>,
+ <diphthong>oi</diphthong>, and
+ <diphthong>au</diphthong>, the ones with off-glides) are freely used in most types of Lojban words; the ten following ones are used only as stand-alone words and in Lojbanized names and borrowings; and the last two (
+
+ <diphthong>iy</diphthong> and
+ <diphthong>uy</diphthong>) are used only in Lojbanized names.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>syllabic consonants</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>consonants</primary><secondary>syllabic</secondary></indexterm> The syllabic consonants of Lojban,
+
+ <phrase role="IPA">[l̩]</phrase>,
+ <phrase role="IPA">[m̩]</phrase>,
+ <phrase role="IPA">[n̩]</phrase>, and
+ <phrase role="IPA">[r̩]</phrase>, are variants of the non-syllabic
+ <phrase role="IPA">[l]</phrase>,
+ <phrase role="IPA">[m]</phrase>,
+ <phrase role="IPA">[n]</phrase>, and
+ <phrase role="IPA">[r]</phrase> respectively. They normally have only a limited distribution, appearing in Lojban names and borrowings, although in principle any
+
+ <letteral>l</letteral>,
+ <letteral>m</letteral>,
+ <letteral>n</letteral>, or
+ <letteral>r</letteral> may be pronounced syllabically. If a syllabic consonant appears next to a
+
+ <letteral>l</letteral>,
+ <letteral>m</letteral>,
+ <letteral>n</letteral>, or
+ <letteral>r</letteral> that is not syllabic, it may not be clear which is which:</para>
+ <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k2CE">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c3e4d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <pronunciation>
+ <jbo>brlgan.</jbo>
+ <ipa>[br̩l gan]</ipa>
+ or <!--FIXME: this gets deleted-->
+ <ipa>[brl̩ gan]</ipa>
+ </pronunciation>
+ </example>
+ <para>is a hypothetical Lojbanized name with more than one valid pronunciation; however it is pronounced, it remains the same word.</para>
+ <para>
+
+<indexterm type="general"><primary>Earl</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+ <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>syllabic consonants</primary><secondary>final in word</secondary></indexterm> Syllabic consonants are treated as consonants rather than vowels from the standpoint of Lojban morphology. Thus Lojbanized names, which are generally required to end in a consonant, are allowed to end with a syllabic consonant. An example is
+
+ <cmevla>rl.</cmevla>, which is an approximation of the English name
+ <quote>Earl</quote>, and has two syllabic consonants.</para>
+
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>syllabic consonants</primary><secondary>effect on stress</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>stress</primary><secondary>effect of syllabic consonants on</secondary></indexterm> Syllables with syllabic consonants and no vowel are never stressed or counted when determining which syllables to stress (see
+
+ <xref linkend="section-stress"/>).</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-vowel-pairs">
+ <title>Vowel Pairs</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vowel pairs</primary><secondary>use of apostrophe in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>apostrophe</primary><secondary>use in vowel pairs</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vowel pairs</primary><secondary>definition of</secondary></indexterm> Lojban vowels also occur in pairs, where each vowel sound is in a separate syllable. These two vowel sounds are connected (and separated) by an apostrophe. Lojban vowel pairs should be pronounced continuously with the
+
+ <phrase role="IPA">[h]</phrase> sound between (and not by a glottal stop or pause, which would split the two vowels into separate words).</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>diphthongs</primary><secondary>contrasted with vowel pairs</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vowel pairs</primary><secondary>contrasted with diphthongs</secondary></indexterm> All vowel combinations are permitted in two-syllable pairs with the apostrophe separating them; this includes those which constitute diphthongs when the apostrophe is not included.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vowel pairs</primary><secondary>list of</secondary></indexterm> The Lojban vowel pairs are:</para>
+
+ <simplelist type="horiz" columns="6">
+ <member><morphology>a'a</morphology></member>
+ <member><morphology>a'e</morphology></member>
+ <member><morphology>a'i</morphology></member>
+ <member><morphology>a'o</morphology></member>
+ <member><morphology>a'u</morphology></member>
+ <member><morphology>a'y</morphology></member>
+
+
+
+ <member><morphology>e'a</morphology></member>
+ <member><morphology>e'e</morphology></member>
+ <member><morphology>e'i</morphology></member>
+ <member><morphology>e'o</morphology></member>
+ <member><morphology>e'u</morphology></member>
+ <member><morphology>e'y</morphology></member>
+
+
+
+ <member><morphology>i'a</morphology></member>
+ <member><morphology>i'e</morphology></member>
+ <member><morphology>i'i</morphology></member>
+ <member><morphology>i'o</morphology></member>
+ <member><morphology>i'u</morphology></member>
+ <member><morphology>i'y</morphology></member>
+
+ <member><morphology>o'a</morphology></member>
+ <member><morphology>o'e</morphology></member>
+ <member><morphology>o'i</morphology></member>
+ <member><morphology>o'o</morphology></member>
+ <member><morphology>o'u</morphology></member>
+ <member><morphology>o'y</morphology></member>
+
+
+ <member><morphology>u'a</morphology></member>
+ <member><morphology>u'e</morphology></member>
+ <member><morphology>u'i</morphology></member>
+ <member><morphology>u'o</morphology></member>
+ <member><morphology>u'u</morphology></member>
+ <member><morphology>u'y</morphology></member>
+
+ <member><morphology>y'a</morphology></member>
+ <member><morphology>y'e</morphology></member>
+ <member><morphology>y'i</morphology></member>
+ <member><morphology>y'o</morphology></member>
+ <member><morphology>y'u</morphology></member>
+ <member><morphology>y'y</morphology></member>
+ </simplelist>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vowel pairs</primary><secondary>involving y</secondary></indexterm> Vowel pairs involving
+ <letteral>y</letteral> appear only in Lojbanized names. They could appear in cmavo (structure words), but only
+
+ <valsi>.y'y.</valsi> is so used – it is the Lojban name of the apostrophe letter (see
+ <xref linkend="section-lerfu-liste"/>).</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vowel pairs</primary><secondary>grouping of</secondary></indexterm> When more than two vowels occur together in Lojban, the normal pronunciation pairs vowels from the left into syllables, as in the Lojbanized name:</para>
+ <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-RxtI">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c3e5d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <pronunciation>
+ <jbo>meiin.</jbo>
+ <jbo role="pronunciation">mei,in.</jbo>
+ </pronunciation>
+ </example>
+ <para>
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-RxtI"/> contains the diphthong
+ <diphthong>ei</diphthong> followed by the vowel
+ <letteral>i</letteral>. In order to indicate a different grouping, the comma must always be used, leading to:</para>
+ <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-H0wB">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c3e5d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <pronunciation>
+ <jbo role="pronunciation">me,iin.</jbo>
+ </pronunciation>
+ </example>
+ <para>which contains the vowel
+ <letteral>e</letteral> followed by the diphthong
+ <diphthong>ii</diphthong>. In rough English representation,
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-RxtI"/> is
+ <quote>May Een</quote>, whereas
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-H0wB"/> is
+ <quote>Meh Yeen</quote>.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-clusters">
+ <title>Consonant Clusters</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>consonant</primary><secondary>effect on syllable count</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>consonant</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> A consonant sound is a relatively brief speech-sound that precedes or follows a vowel sound in a syllable; its presence either preceding or following does not add to the count of syllables, nor is a consonant required in either position for any syllable. Lojban has seventeen consonants: for the purposes of this section, the apostrophe is not counted as a consonant.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>consonants</primary><secondary>voicing of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>consonants</primary><secondary>voiced/unvoiced equivalents</secondary></indexterm> An important distinction dividing Lojban consonants is that of voicing. The following table shows the unvoiced consonants and the corresponding voiced ones:</para>
+
+ <informaltable>
+ <thead>
+ <tr>
+ <td>UNVOICED</td>
+ <td>VOICED</td>
+ </tr>
+ </thead>
+ <tr>
+ <td><letteral>p</letteral></td>
+ <td><letteral>b</letteral></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><letteral>t</letteral></td>
+ <td><letteral>d</letteral></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><letteral>k</letteral></td>
+ <td><letteral>g</letteral></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><letteral>f</letteral></td>
+ <td><letteral>v</letteral></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><letteral>c</letteral></td>
+ <td><letteral>j</letteral></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><letteral>s</letteral></td>
+ <td><letteral>z</letteral></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><letteral>x</letteral></td>
+ <td>-</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <para>The consonant
+ <letteral>x</letteral> has no voiced counterpart in Lojban. The remaining consonants,
+ <letteral>l</letteral>,
+ <letteral>m</letteral>,
+ <letteral>n</letteral>, and
+ <letteral>r</letteral>, are typically pronounced with voice, but can be pronounced unvoiced.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>consonant clusters</primary><secondary>contrasted with single consonants</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>consonant clusters</primary><secondary>contrasted with doubled consonants</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>doubled consonants</primary><secondary>contrasted with consonant clusters</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>doubled consonants</primary><secondary>contrasted with single consonants</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>single consonants</primary><secondary>contrasted with consonant clusters</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>single consonants</primary><secondary>contrasted with doubled consonants</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>consonant clusters</primary><secondary>definition of</secondary></indexterm> Consonant sounds occur in languages as single consonants, or as doubled, or as clustered combinations. Single consonant sounds are isolated by word boundaries or by intervening vowel sounds from other consonant sounds. Doubled consonant sounds are either lengthened like
+ <phrase role="IPA">[s]</phrase> in English
+ <quote>hiss</quote>, or repeated like
+ <phrase role="IPA">[k]</phrase> in English
+ <quote>backcourt</quote>. Consonant clusters consist of two or more single or doubled consonant sounds in a group, each of which is different from its immediate neighbor. In Lojban, doubled consonants are excluded altogether, and clusters are limited to two or three members, except in Lojbanized names.</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>consonants</primary><secondary>position of</secondary></indexterm> Consonants can occur in three positions in words: initial (at the beginning), medial (in the middle), and final (at the end). In many languages, the sound of a consonant varies depending upon its position in the word. In Lojban, as much as possible, the sound of a consonant is unrelated to its position. In particular, the common American English trait of changing a
+ <quote>t</quote> between vowels into a
+ <quote>d</quote> or even an alveolar tap (IPA
+ <phrase role="IPA">[ɾ]</phrase>) is unacceptable in Lojban.
+ </para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>consonants</primary><secondary>final</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>consonants</primary><secondary>restrictions on</secondary></indexterm> Lojban imposes no restrictions on the appearance of single consonants in any valid consonant position; however, no consonant (including syllabic consonants) occurs final in a word except in Lojbanized names.</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>consonant pairs</primary><secondary>restrictions on</secondary></indexterm> Pairs of consonants can also appear freely, with the following restrictions:</para>
+ <orderedlist>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>It is forbidden for both consonants to be the same, as this would violate the rule against double consonants.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>voiced/unvoiced consonants</primary><secondary>restrictions on</secondary></indexterm> It is forbidden for one consonant to be voiced and the other unvoiced. The consonants
+ <letteral>l</letteral>,
+ <letteral>m</letteral>,
+ <letteral>n</letteral>, and
+ <letteral>r</letteral> are exempt from this restriction. As a result,
+ <morphology>bf</morphology> is forbidden, and so is
+ <morphology>sd</morphology>, but both
+ <morphology>fl</morphology> and
+ <morphology>vl</morphology>, and both
+ <morphology>ls</morphology> and
+ <morphology>lz</morphology>, are permitted.
+ </para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>It is forbidden for both consonants to be drawn from the set
+ <letteral>c</letteral>,
+ <letteral>j</letteral>,
+ <letteral>s</letteral>,
+ <letteral>z</letteral>.
+ </para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>The specific pairs
+ <morphology>cx</morphology>,
+ <morphology>kx</morphology>,
+ <morphology>xc</morphology>,
+ <morphology>xk</morphology>, and
+ <morphology>mz</morphology> are forbidden.
+ </para>
+ </listitem>
+ </orderedlist>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>y</primary><secondary>use in avoiding forbidden consonant pairs</secondary></indexterm> These rules apply to all kinds of words, even Lojbanized names. If a name would normally contain a forbidden consonant pair, a
+ <letteral>y</letteral> can be inserted to break up the pair:
+ </para>
+ <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k2cK">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>James</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c3e6d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <pronunciation>
+ <jbo>djeimyz.</jbo>
+ <ipa>[dʒɛj məzʔ]</ipa>
+ <natlang>James</natlang>
+ </pronunciation>
+ </example>
+ <para>The regular English pronunciation of
+ <quote>James</quote>, which is
+ <phrase role="IPA">[dʒɛjmz]</phrase>, would Lojbanize as
+ <cmevla valid="false">djeimz.</cmevla>, which contains a forbidden consonant pair.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-initial-pairs">
+ <title>Initial Consonant Pairs</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>consonant pairs</primary><secondary>initial</secondary></indexterm> The set of consonant pairs that may appear at the beginning of a word (excluding Lojbanized names) is far more restricted than the fairly large group of permissible consonant pairs described in
+
+ <xref linkend="section-clusters"/>. Even so, it is more than English allows, although hopefully not more than English-speakers (and others) can learn to pronounce.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>initial consonant pairs</primary><secondary>list of</secondary></indexterm> There are just 48 such permissible initial consonant pairs, as follows:</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr>
+ <td><morphology>bl</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>br</morphology></td>
+ <td/>
+ <td/>
+ <td/>
+ <td/>
+ <td/>
+ <td/>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><morphology>cf</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>ck</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>cl</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>cm</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>cn</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>cp</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>cr</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>ct</morphology></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><morphology>dj</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>dr</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>dz</morphology></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><morphology>fl</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>fr</morphology></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><morphology>gl</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>gr</morphology></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><morphology>jb</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>jd</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>jg</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>jm</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>jv</morphology></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><morphology>kl</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>kr</morphology></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><morphology>ml</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>mr</morphology></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><morphology>pl</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>pr</morphology></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><morphology>sf</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>sk</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>sl</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>sm</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>sn</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>sp</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>sr</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>st</morphology></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><morphology>tc</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>tr</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>ts</morphology></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><morphology>vl</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>vr</morphology></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><morphology>xl</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>xr</morphology></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><morphology>zb</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>zd</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>zg</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>zm</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>zv</morphology></td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <para>Lest this list seem almost random, a pairing of voiced and unvoiced equivalent vowels will show significant patterns which may help in learning:</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr>
+ <td><morphology>pl</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>pr</morphology></td>
+ <td/>
+ <td/>
+ <td/>
+ <td/>
+ <td/>
+ <td/>
+ <td/>
+ <td/>
+ <td><morphology>fl</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>fr</morphology></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><morphology>bl</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>br</morphology></td>
+ <td/>
+ <td/>
+ <td/>
+ <td/>
+ <td/>
+ <td/>
+ <td/>
+ <td/>
+ <td><morphology>vl</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>vr</morphology></td>
+ </tr>
+
+ <tr><td><para/></td></tr>
+
+ <tr>
+ <td><morphology>cp</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>cf</morphology></td>
+ <td/>
+ <td/>
+ <td><morphology>ct</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>ck</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>cm</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>cn</morphology></td>
+ <td/>
+ <td/>
+ <td><morphology>cl</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>cr</morphology></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><morphology>jb</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>jv</morphology></td>
+ <td/>
+ <td/>
+ <td><morphology>jd</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>jg</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>jm</morphology></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><morphology>sp</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>sf</morphology></td>
+ <td/>
+ <td/>
+ <td><morphology>st</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>sk</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>sm</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>sn</morphology></td>
+ <td/>
+ <td/>
+ <td><morphology>sl</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>sr</morphology></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><morphology>zb</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>zv</morphology></td>
+ <td/>
+ <td/>
+ <td><morphology>zd</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>zg</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>zm</morphology></td>
+ </tr>
+
+ <tr><td><para/></td></tr>
+
+ <tr>
+ <td><morphology>tc</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>tr</morphology></td>
+ <td/>
+ <td/>
+ <td><morphology>ts</morphology></td>
+ <td/>
+ <td/>
+ <td/>
+ <td/>
+ <td/>
+ <td><morphology>kl</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>kr</morphology></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><morphology>dj</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>dr</morphology></td>
+ <td/>
+ <td/>
+ <td><morphology>dz</morphology></td>
+ <td/>
+ <td/>
+ <td/>
+ <td/>
+ <td/>
+ <td><morphology>gl</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>gr</morphology></td>
+ </tr>
+
+ <tr><td><para/></td></tr>
+
+ <tr>
+ <td><morphology>ml</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>mr</morphology></td>
+ <td/>
+ <td/>
+ <td/>
+ <td/>
+ <td/>
+ <td/>
+ <td/>
+ <td/>
+ <td><morphology>xl</morphology></td>
+ <td><morphology>xr</morphology></td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>unvoiced consonants</primary><secondary>contrasted with voiced in allowable consonant pairs</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>voiced consonants</primary><secondary>contrasted with unvoiced in allowable consonant pairs</secondary></indexterm> Note that if both consonants of an initial pair are voiced, the unvoiced equivalent is also permissible, and the voiced pair can be pronounced simply by voicing the unvoiced pair. (The converse is not true:
+ <morphology>cn</morphology> is a permissible initial pair, but
+ <morphology>jn</morphology> is not.)</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>consonant triples</primary></indexterm> Consonant triples can occur medially in Lojban words. They are subject to the following rules:</para>
+ <orderedlist>
+ <listitem>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>consonant triples</primary><secondary>restrictions on</secondary></indexterm> The first two consonants must constitute a permissible consonant pair;</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>The last two consonants must constitute a permissible initial consonant pair;</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>The triples
+ <morphology>ndj</morphology>,
+ <morphology>ndz</morphology>,
+ <morphology>ntc</morphology>, and
+ <morphology>nts</morphology> are forbidden.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </orderedlist>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>consonant clusters</primary><secondary>more than three consonants in</secondary></indexterm> Lojbanized names can begin or end with any permissible consonant pair, not just the 48 initial consonant pairs listed above, and can have consonant triples in any location, as long as the pairs making up those triples are permissible. In addition, names can contain consonant clusters with more than three consonants, again requiring that each pair within the cluster is valid.</para>
+
+
+
+
+
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-buffer-vowels">
+ <title>Buffering Of Consonant Clusters</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vowel</primary><secondary>buffer</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>buffer vowel</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>consonant clusters</primary><secondary>buffering of</secondary></indexterm> Many languages do not have consonant clusters at all, and even those languages that do have them often allow only a subset of the full Lojban set. As a result, the Lojban design allows the use of a buffer sound between consonant combinations which a speaker finds unpronounceable. This sound may be any non-Lojbanic vowel which is clearly separable by the listener from the Lojban vowels. Some possibilities are IPA
+ <phrase role="IPA">[ɪ]</phrase>,
+ <phrase role="IPA">[ɨ]</phrase>,
+ <phrase role="IPA">[ʊ]</phrase>, or even
+ <phrase role="IPA">[ʏ]</phrase>, but there probably is no universally acceptable buffer sound. When using a consonant buffer, the sound should be made as short as possible. Two examples showing such buffering (we will use
+ <phrase role="IPA">[ɪ]</phrase> in this chapter) are:</para>
+ <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k2dg">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c3e8d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <pronunciation>
+ <jbo>vrusi</jbo>
+ <ipa>[ˈvru si]</ipa>
+ or <!--FIXME: this gets deleted-->
+ <ipa>[vɪ ˈru si]</ipa>
+ </pronunciation>
+ </example>
+ <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k2dI">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c3e8d2"/>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>Amsterdam</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ </title>
+ <pronunciation>
+ <jbo role="pronunciation">.AMsterdam.</jbo>
+ <ipa>[ʔam ster damʔ]</ipa>
+ or <!--FIXME: this gets deleted-->
+ <ipa>[ˈʔa mɪ sɪ tɛ rɪ da mɪʔ]</ipa>
+ </pronunciation>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>stress</primary><secondary>effect of buffer vowel on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>buffer vowel</primary><secondary>and stress</secondary></indexterm> When a buffer vowel is used, it splits each buffered consonant into its own syllable. However, the buffering syllables are never stressed, and are not counted in determining stress. They are, in effect, not really syllables to a Lojban listener, and thus their impact is ignored.</para>
+
+ <para>Here are more examples of unbuffered and buffered pronunciations:</para>
+ <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k2DT">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c3e8d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <pronunciation>
+ <jbo>klama</jbo>
+ <ipa>[ˈkla ma]</ipa>
+ <ipa>[kɪ ˈla ma]</ipa>
+ </pronunciation>
+ </example>
+ <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k2Gg">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c3e8d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <pronunciation>
+ <jbo>xapcke</jbo>
+ <ipa>[ˈxap ʃkɛ]</ipa>
+ <ipa>[ˈxa pɪ ʃkɛ]</ipa>
+ <ipa>[ˈxa pɪ ʃɪ kɛ]</ipa>
+ </pronunciation>
+ </example>
+ <para>In
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-k2Gg"/>, we see that buffering vowels can be used in just some, rather than all, of the possible places: the second pronunciation buffers the
+ <morphology>pc</morphology> consonant pair but not the
+ <morphology>ck</morphology>. The third pronunciation buffers both.</para>
+ <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k2hN">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c3e8d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <pronunciation>
+ <jbo>ponyni'u</jbo>
+ <ipa>[po nə 'ni hu]</ipa>
+ </pronunciation>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>y sound</primary><secondary>contrasted with vowel buffer</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vowel buffer</primary><secondary>contrasted with y sound</secondary></indexterm>
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-k2hN"/> cannot contain any buffering vowel. It is important not to confuse the vowel
+ <letteral>y</letteral>, which is pronounced
+ <phrase role="IPA">[ə]</phrase>, with the buffer, which has a variety of possible pronunciations and is never written. Consider the contrast between</para>
+ <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k2jU">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>bone bread</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c3e8d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <pronunciation>
+ <jbo>bongynanba</jbo>
+ <ipa>[boŋ gə ˈnan ba]</ipa>
+ </pronunciation>
+ </example>
+ <para>an unlikely Lojban compound word meaning
+ <quote>bone bread</quote> (note the use of
+
+ <phrase role="IPA">[ŋ]</phrase> as a representative of
+ <letteral>n</letteral> before
+ <letteral>g</letteral>) and</para>
+ <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k2jv">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c3e8d7"/>
+ </title>
+ <pronunciation>
+ <jbo>bongnanba</jbo>
+ <ipa>[boŋ ˈgnan ba]</ipa>
+ </pronunciation>
+ </example>
+ <para>a possible borrowing from another language (Lojban borrowings can only take a limited form). If
+
+
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-k2jv"/> were pronounced with buffering, as</para>
+ <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k2Kb">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c3e8d8"/>
+ </title>
+ <pronunciation>
+ <ipa>[boŋ gɪ ˈnan ba]</ipa>
+ </pronunciation>
+ </example>
+ <para>it would be very similar to
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-k2jU"/>. Only a clear distinction between
+ <letteral>y</letteral> and any buffering vowel would keep the two words distinct.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>buffer vowel</primary><secondary>shortening of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vowels</primary><secondary>length of</secondary></indexterm> Since buffering is done for the benefit of the speaker in order to aid pronounceability, there is no guarantee that the listener will not mistake a buffer vowel for one of the six regular Lojban vowels. The buffer vowel should be as laxly pronounced as possible, as central as possible, and as short as possible. Furthermore, it is worthwhile for speakers who use buffers to pronounce their regular vowels a bit longer than usual, to avoid confusion with buffer vowels. The speakers of many languages will have trouble correctly hearing any of the suggested buffer vowels otherwise. By this guideline,
+
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-k2Kb"/> would be pronounced</para>
+ <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k2oF">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c3e8d9"/>
+ </title>
+ <pronunciation>
+ <ipa>[boːŋ gɪ ˈnaːn baː]</ipa>
+ </pronunciation>
+ </example>
+ <para>with lengthened vowels.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-stress">
+ <title>Syllabication And Stress</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>syllabication</primary><secondary>definition of</secondary></indexterm> A Lojban word has one syllable for each of its vowels, diphthongs, and syllabic consonants (referred to simply as
+
+ <quote>vowels</quote> for the purposes of this section.) Syllabication rules determine which of the consonants separating two vowels belong to the preceding vowel and which to the following vowel. These rules are conventional only; the phonetic facts of the matter about how utterances are syllabified in any language are always very complex.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>syllabication</primary><secondary>rules for</secondary></indexterm> A single consonant always belongs to the following vowel. A consonant pair is normally divided between the two vowels; however, if the pair constitute a valid initial consonant pair, they are normally both assigned to the following vowel. A consonant triple is divided between the first and second consonants. Apostrophes and commas, of course, also represent syllable breaks. Syllabic consonants usually appear alone in their syllables.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>syllabication</primary><secondary>and names</secondary></indexterm> It is permissible to vary from these rules in Lojbanized names. For example, there are no definitive rules for the syllabication of names with consonant clusters longer than three consonants. The comma is used to indicate variant syllabication or to explicitly mark normal syllabication.</para>
+
+
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>syllabication</primary><secondary>examples of</secondary></indexterm> Here are some examples of Lojban syllabication:</para>
+
+ <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-C9tX">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c3e9d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <pronunciation>
+ <jbo>pujenaicajeba</jbo>
+ <jbo role="pronunciation">pu,je,nai,ca,je,ba</jbo>
+ </pronunciation>
+ </example>
+ <para>This word has no consonant pairs and is therefore syllabified before each medial consonant.</para>
+
+ <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-WfXq">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c3e9d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <pronunciation>
+ <jbo>ninmu</jbo>
+ <jbo role="pronunciation">nin,mu</jbo>
+ </pronunciation>
+ </example>
+ <para>This word is split at a consonant pair.</para>
+ <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-cwtY">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c3e9d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <pronunciation>
+ <jbo>fitpri</jbo>
+ <jbo role="pronunciation">fit,pri</jbo>
+ </pronunciation>
+ </example>
+ <para>This word is split at a consonant triple, between the first two consonants of the triple.</para>
+ <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-WHAV">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c3e9d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <pronunciation>
+ <jbo>sairgoi</jbo>
+ <jbo role="pronunciation">sair,goi</jbo>
+ <jbo role="pronunciation">sai,r,goi</jbo>
+
+ </pronunciation>
+ </example>
+ <para>This word contains the consonant pair
+ <morphology>rg</morphology>; the
+ <letteral>r</letteral> may be pronounced syllabically or not.</para>
+ <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nK5r">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c3e9d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <pronunciation>
+ <jbo>klezba</jbo>
+ <jbo role="pronunciation">klez,ba</jbo>
+ <jbo role="pronunciation">kle,zba</jbo>
+ </pronunciation>
+ </example>
+ <para>This word contains the permissible initial pair
+ <morphology>zb</morphology>, and so may be syllabicated either between
+ <letteral>z</letteral> and
+ <letteral>b</letteral> or before
+ <morphology>zb</morphology>.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>stressed vowel</primary><secondary>compared with stressed syllable</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>stressed syllable</primary><secondary>compared with stressed vowel</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>stress</primary><secondary>definition of</secondary></indexterm> Stress is a relatively louder pronunciation of one syllable in a word or group of words. Since every syllable has a vowel sound (or diphthong or syllabic consonant) as its nucleus, and the stress is on the vowel sound itself, the terms
+ <quote>stressed syllable</quote> and
+ <quote>stressed vowel</quote> are largely interchangeable concepts.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>stress</primary><secondary>rules for</secondary></indexterm> Most Lojban words are stressed on the next-to-the-last, or penultimate, syllable. In counting syllables, however, syllables whose vowel is
+ <letteral>y</letteral> or which contain a syllabic consonant (
+
+ <letteral>l</letteral>,
+ <letteral>m</letteral>,
+ <letteral>n</letteral>, or
+ <letteral>r</letteral>) are never counted. (The Lojban term for penultimate stress is
+ <jbophrase>da'amoi terbasna</jbophrase>.) Similarly, syllables created solely by adding a buffer vowel, such as
+ <phrase role="IPA">[ɪ]</phrase>, are not counted.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>stress</primary><secondary>levels of</secondary></indexterm> There are actually three levels of stress – primary, secondary, and weak. Weak stress is the lowest level, so it really means no stress at all. Weak stress is required for syllables containing
+ <letteral>y</letteral>, a syllabic consonant, or a buffer vowel.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>stress on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>brivla</primary><secondary>stress on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmavo</primary><secondary>stress on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>stress</primary><secondary>primary</secondary></indexterm> Primary stress is required on the penultimate syllable of Lojban content words (called
+ <valsi>brivla</valsi>). Lojbanized names may be stressed on any syllable, but if a syllable other than the penultimate is stressed, the syllable (or at least its vowel) must be capitalized in writing. Lojban structural words (called
+ <valsi>cmavo</valsi>) may be stressed on any syllable or none at all. However, primary stress may not be used in a syllable just preceding a brivla, unless a pause divides them; otherwise, the two words may run together.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>stress</primary><secondary>secondary</secondary></indexterm> Secondary stress is the optional and non-distinctive emphasis used for other syllables besides those required to have either weak or primary stress. There are few rules governing secondary stress, which typically will follow a speaker's native language habits or preferences. Secondary stress can be used for contrast, or for emphasis of a point. Secondary stress can be emphasized at any level up to primary stress, although the speaker must not allow a false primary stress in brivla, since errors in word resolution could result.</para>
+ <para> The following are Lojban words with stress explicitly shown:</para>
+ <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-cxzt">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c3e9d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <pronunciation>
+ <jbo>dikyjvo</jbo>
+ <jbo role="pronunciation">DI,ky,jvo</jbo>
+ </pronunciation>
+ </example>
+ <para>(In a fully-buffered dialect, the pronunciation would be:
+ <phrase role="IPA">['di kə ʒɪ vo]</phrase>.) Note that the syllable
+ <valsi>ky</valsi> is not counted in determining stress. The vowel
+ <letteral>y</letteral> is never stressed in a normal Lojban context.</para>
+ <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Sz52">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>Armstrong</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c3e9d7"/>
+ </title>
+ <pronunciation>
+ <jbo>.armstrong.</jbo>
+ <jbo role="pronunciation">.ARM,strong.</jbo>
+ </pronunciation>
+ </example>
+ <para>This is a Lojbanized version of the name
+ <quote>Armstrong</quote>. The final
+
+ <letteral>g</letteral> must be explicitly pronounced. With full buffering, the name would be pronounced:</para>
+ <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k2PA">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c3e9d8"/>
+ </title>
+ <pronunciation>
+ <ipa>[ˈʔa rɪ mɪ sɪ tɪ ro nɪ gɪʔ]</ipa>
+ </pronunciation>
+ </example>
+ <para>However, there is no need to insert a buffer in every possible place just because it is inserted in one place: partial buffering is also acceptable. In every case, however, the stress remains in the same place: on the first syllable.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>-ng</primary><secondary>Lojban contrasted with English</secondary></indexterm> The English pronunciation of
+ <quote>Armstrong</quote>, as spelled in English, is not correct by Lojban standards; the letters
+
+ <quote>ng</quote> in English represent a velar nasal (IPA
+ <phrase role="IPA">[ŋ]</phrase>) which is a single consonant. In Lojban,
+ <morphology>ng</morphology> represents two separate consonants that must both be pronounced; you may not use
+ <phrase role="IPA">[ŋ]</phrase> to pronounce Lojban
+ <morphology>ng</morphology>, although
+ <phrase role="IPA">[ŋg]</phrase> is acceptable. English speakers are likely to have to pronounce the ending with a buffer, as one of the following:</para>
+ <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k2T5">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c3e9d9"/>
+ </title>
+ <pronunciation>
+ <ipa>[ˈʔarm stron gɪʔ]</ipa>
+ or <!--FIXME: this gets deleted-->
+ <ipa>[ˈʔarm stroŋ gɪʔ]</ipa>
+ or even <!--FIXME: this gets deleted-->
+ <ipa>[ˈʔarm stro nɪgʔ]</ipa>
+ </pronunciation>
+ </example>
+ <para>The normal English pronunciation of the name
+ <quote>Armstrong</quote> could be Lojbanized as:</para>
+
+ <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-vY2y">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c3e9d10"/>
+ </title>
+ <pronunciation>
+ <jbo role="pronunciation">.ARMstron.</jbo>
+ </pronunciation>
+ </example>
+ <para>since Lojban
+ <letteral>n</letteral> is allowed to be pronounced as the velar nasal
+ <phrase role="IPA">[ŋ]</phrase>.</para>
+ <para>Here is another example showing the use of
+ <letteral>y</letteral>:</para>
+ <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hNb7">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c3e9d11"/>
+ </title>
+ <pronunciation>
+ <jbo>bisydja</jbo>
+ <jbo role="pronunciation">BI,sy,dja</jbo>
+ <jbo role="pronunciation">BI,syd,ja</jbo>
+ </pronunciation>
+ </example>
+ <para>This word is a compound word, or lujvo, built from the two affixes
+ <rafsi>bis</rafsi> and
+ <rafsi>dja</rafsi>. When they are joined, an impermissible consonant pair results:
+ <morphology>sd</morphology>. In accordance with the algorithm for making lujvo, explained in
+ <xref linkend="section-lujvo-making"/>, a
+ <letteral>y</letteral> is inserted to separate the impermissible consonant pair; the
+ <letteral>y</letteral> is not counted as a syllable for purposes of stress determination.</para>
+ <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-5g4j">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c3e9d12"/>
+ </title>
+ <pronunciation>
+ <jbo>da'udja</jbo>
+ <jbo role="pronunciation">da'UD,ja</jbo>
+ <jbo role="pronunciation">da'U,dja</jbo>
+ </pronunciation>
+ </example>
+ <para> These two syllabications sound the same to a Lojban listener – the association of unbuffered consonants in syllables is of no import in recognizing the word.</para>
+ <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Ki4a">
+ <title>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>syllabication</primary><secondary>variants of</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c3e9d13"/>
+ </title>
+ <pronunciation>
+ <jbo>e'u bridi</jbo>
+ <jbo role="pronunciation">e'u BRI,di</jbo>
+ <jbo role="pronunciation">E'u BRI,di</jbo>
+ <jbo role="pronunciation">e'U.BRI,di</jbo>
+ </pronunciation>
+ </example>
+ <para>In
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-Ki4a"/>,
+ <valsi>e'u</valsi> is a cmavo and
+ <valsi>bridi</valsi> is a brivla. Either of the first two pronunciations is permitted: no primary stress on either syllable of
+ <valsi>e'u</valsi>, or primary stress on the first syllable. The third pronunciation, which places primary stress on the second syllable of the cmavo, requires that – since the following word is a brivla – the two words must be separated by a pause. Consider the following two cases:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qIXo" role="pronunciation-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c3e9d14"/>
+ </title>
+ <pronunciation>
+ <jbo>le re nobli prenu</jbo>
+ <jbo role="pronunciation">le re NObli PREnu</jbo>
+ </pronunciation>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qiXR" role="pronunciation-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c3e9d15"/>
+ </title>
+ <pronunciation>
+ <jbo>le re no bliprenu</jbo>
+ <jbo role="pronunciation">le re no bliPREnu</jbo>
+ </pronunciation>
+ </example>
+ <para>If the cmavo
+ <valsi>no</valsi> in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qiXR"/> were to be stressed, the phrase would sound exactly like the given pronunciation of
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qIXo"/>, which is unacceptable in Lojban: a single pronunciation cannot represent both.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-anglophone-phonetics">
+ <title>IPA For English Speakers</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>IPA pronunciation</primary><secondary>description</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>television</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Received Pronunciation</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>General American</primary></indexterm> There are many dialects of English, thus making it difficult to define the standardized symbols of the IPA in terms useful to every reader. All the symbols used in this chapter are repeated here, in more or less alphabetical order, with examples drawn from General American. In addition, some attention is given to the Received Pronunciation of (British) English. These two dialects are referred to as GA and RP respectively. Speakers of other dialects should consult a book on phonetics or their local television sets.</para>
+
+
+
+ <variablelist>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase role="IPA">[ˈ]</phrase></term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>An IPA indicator of primary stress; the syllable which follows
+ <phrase role="IPA">[ˈ]</phrase> receives primary stress.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase role="IPA">[ʔ]</phrase></term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>An allowed variant of Lojban
+ <letteral>.</letteral>. This sound is not usually considered part of English. It is the catch in your throat that sometimes occurs prior to the beginning of a word (and sometimes a syllable) which starts with a vowel. In some dialects, like Cockney and some kinds of American English, it is used between vowels instead of
+ <quote>t</quote>:
+ <quote>bottle</quote>
+ <phrase role="IPA">[boʔl̩]</phrase>. The English interjection
+ <quote>uh-oh!</quote> almost always has it between the syllables.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase role="IPA">[ː]</phrase></term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>A symbol indicating that the previous vowel is to be spoken for a longer time than usual. Lojban vowels can be pronounced long in order to make a greater contrast with buffer vowels.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase role="IPA">[a]</phrase></term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>The preferred pronunciation of Lojban
+ <letteral>a</letteral>. This sound doesn't occur in GA, but sounds somewhat like the
+ <quote>ar</quote> of
+ <quote>park</quote>, as spoken in RP or New England American. It is pronounced further forward in the mouth than
+ <phrase role="IPA">[ɑ]</phrase>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase role="IPA">[ɑ]</phrase></term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>An allowed variant of Lojban
+ <letteral>a</letteral>. The
+ <quote>a</quote> of GA
+ <quote>father</quote>. The sound
+ <phrase role="IPA">[a]</phrase> is preferred because GA speakers often relax an unstressed
+ <phrase role="IPA">[ɑ]</phrase> into a schwa
+ <phrase role="IPA">[ə]</phrase>, as in the usual pronunciations of
+ <quote>about</quote> and
+ <quote>sofa</quote>. Because schwa is a distinct vowel in Lojban, English speakers must either learn to avoid this shift or to use
+ <phrase role="IPA">[a]</phrase> instead: the Lojban word for
+ <quote>sofa</quote> is
+ <valsi>sfofa</valsi>, pronounced
+ <phrase role="IPA">[sfofa]</phrase> or
+ <phrase role="IPA">[sfofɑ]</phrase> but never
+ <phrase role="IPA">[sfofə]</phrase> which would be the non-word
+ <valsi valid="false">sfofy</valsi>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase role="IPA">[æ]</phrase></term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>Not a Lojban sound. The
+ <quote>a</quote> of English
+ <quote>cat</quote>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase role="IPA">[b]</phrase></term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>The preferred pronunciation of Lojban
+ <letteral>b</letteral>. As in English
+ <quote>boy</quote>,
+ <quote>sober</quote>, or
+ <quote>job</quote>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase role="IPA">[β]</phrase></term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>An allowed variant of Lojban
+ <letteral>v</letteral>. Not an English sound; the Spanish
+ <quote xml:lang="es">b</quote> or
+ <quote xml:lang="es">v</quote> between vowels. This sound should not be used for Lojban
+ <letteral>b</letteral>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase role="IPA">[d]</phrase></term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>The preferred pronunciation of Lojban
+ <letteral>d</letteral>. As in English
+ <quote>dog</quote>,
+ <quote>soda</quote>, or
+ <quote>mad</quote>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase role="IPA">[ɛ]</phrase></term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>The preferred pronunciation of Lojban
+ <letteral>e</letteral>. The
+ <quote>e</quote> of English
+ <quote>met</quote>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase role="IPA">[e]</phrase></term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>An allowed variant of Lojban
+ <letteral>e</letteral>. This sound is not found in English, but is the Spanish
+ <quote xml:lang="es">e</quote>, or the tense
+ <quote xml:lang="it">e</quote> of Italian. The vowel of English
+ <quote>say</quote> is similar except for the off-glide: you can learn to make this sound by holding your tongue steady while saying the first part of the English vowel.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase role="IPA">[ə]</phrase></term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>The preferred pronunciation of Lojban
+ <letteral>y</letteral>. As in the
+ <quote>a</quote> of English
+ <quote>sofa</quote> or
+ <quote>about</quote>. Schwa is generally unstressed in Lojban, as it is in English. It is a totally relaxed sound made with the tongue in the middle of the mouth.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase role="IPA">[f]</phrase></term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>The preferred pronunciation of Lojban
+ <letteral>f</letteral>. As in
+ <quote>fee</quote>,
+ <quote>loafer</quote>, or
+ <quote>chef</quote>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase role="IPA">[ɸ]</phrase></term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>An allowed variant of Lojban
+ <letteral>f</letteral>. Not an English sound; the Japanese
+ <!-- if you put xml:lang="ja" here, it tries to render f
+ as a japanese character; this does not work well -->
+ <quote>f</quote> sound.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase role="IPA">[g]</phrase></term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>The preferred pronunciation of Lojban
+ <letteral>g</letteral>. As in English
+ <quote>go</quote>,
+ <quote>eagle</quote>, or
+ <quote>dog</quote>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase role="IPA">[h]</phrase></term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>The preferred pronunciation of the Lojban apostrophe sound. As in English
+ <quote>aha</quote> or the second "h" in
+ <quote>oh, hello</quote>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase role="IPA">[i]</phrase></term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>The preferred pronunciation of Lojban
+ <letteral>i</letteral>. Essentially like the English vowel of
+ <quote>pizza</quote> or
+ <quote>machine</quote>, although the English vowel is sometimes pronounced with an off-glide, which should not be present in Lojban.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase role="IPA">[ɪ]</phrase></term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>A possible Lojban buffer vowel. The
+
+ <quote>i</quote> of English
+ <quote>bit</quote>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase role="IPA">[ɨ]</phrase></term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>A possible Lojban buffer vowel. The
+
+ <quote>u</quote> of
+ <quote>just</quote> in some varieties of GA, those which make the word sound more or less like
+ <quote>jist</quote>. Also Russian
+ <quote xml:lang="ru">y</quote> as in
+ <quote xml:lang="ru">byt'</quote> (to be); like a schwa
+ <phrase role="IPA">[ə]</phrase>, but higher in the mouth.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase role="IPA">[j]</phrase></term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>Used in Lojban diphthongs beginning or ending with
+ <letteral>i</letteral>. Like the
+ <quote>y</quote> in English
+ <quote>yard</quote> or
+ <quote>say</quote>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase role="IPA">[k]</phrase></term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>The preferred pronunciation of Lojban
+ <letteral>k</letteral>. As in English
+ <quote>kill</quote>,
+ <quote>token</quote>, or
+ <quote>flak</quote>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase role="IPA">[l]</phrase></term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>The preferred pronunciation of Lojban
+ <letteral>l</letteral>. As in English
+ <quote>low</quote>,
+ <quote>nylon</quote>, or
+ <quote>excel</quote>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term>[l̩]</term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>The syllabic version of Lojban
+ <letteral>l</letteral>, as in English
+ <quote>bottle</quote> or
+ <quote>middle</quote>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase role="IPA">[m]</phrase></term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>The preferred pronunciation of Lojban
+ <letteral>m</letteral>. As in English
+ <quote>me</quote>,
+ <quote>humor</quote>, or
+ <quote>ham</quote>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term>[m̩]</term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>The syllabic version of Lojban
+ <letteral>m</letteral>. As in English
+ <quote>catch 'em</quote> or
+ <quote>bottom</quote>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase role="IPA">[n]</phrase></term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>The preferred pronunciation of Lojban
+ <letteral>n</letteral>. As in English
+ <valsi>no</valsi>,
+ <quote>honor</quote>, or
+ <quote>son</quote>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term>[n̩]</term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>The syllabic version of Lojban
+ <letteral>n</letteral>. As in English
+ <quote>button</quote>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase role="IPA">[ŋ]</phrase></term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>An allowed variant of Lojban
+ <letteral>n</letteral>, especially in Lojbanized names and before
+ <letteral>g</letteral> or
+ <letteral>k</letteral>. As in English
+ <quote>sing</quote> or
+ <quote>singer</quote> (but not
+ <quote>finger</quote> or
+ <quote>danger</quote>).</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term>[ŋ̍]</term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>An allowed variant of Lojban syllabic
+ <letteral>n</letteral>, especially in Lojbanized names.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase role="IPA">[o]</phrase></term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>The preferred pronunciation of Lojban
+ <letteral>o</letteral>. As in the French
+ <quote xml:lang="fr">haute (cuisine)</quote> or Spanish
+ <quote xml:lang="es">como</quote>. There is no exact English equivalent of this sound. The nearest GA equivalent is the
+ <quote>o</quote> of
+ <quote>dough</quote> or
+ <quote>joke</quote>, but it is essential that the off-glide (a
+ <phrase role="IPA">[w]</phrase>-like sound) at the end of the vowel is not pronounced when speaking Lojban. The RP sound in these words is
+ <phrase role="IPA">[əw]</phrase> in IPA terms, and has no
+ <phrase role="IPA">[o]</phrase> in it at all; unless you can speak with a Scots, Irish, or American accent, you may have trouble with this sound.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase role="IPA">[ɔ]</phrase></term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>An allowed variant of Lojban
+ <letteral>o</letteral>, especially before
+ <letteral>r</letteral>. This sound is a shortened form of the
+ <quote>aw</quote> in GA
+ <quote>dawn</quote> (for those people who don't pronounce
+ <quote>dawn</quote> and
+ <quote>Don</quote> alike; if you do, you may have trouble with this sound). In RP, but not GA, it is the
+ <quote>o</quote> of
+ <quote>hot</quote>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase role="IPA">[p]</phrase></term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>The preferred pronunciation of Lojban
+ <letteral>p</letteral>. As in English
+ <quote>pay</quote>,
+ <quote>super</quote>, or
+ <quote>up</quote>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase role="IPA">[r]</phrase></term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>One version of Lojban
+ <letteral>r</letteral>. Not an English sound. The Spanish
+ <quote xml:lang="es">rr</quote> and the Scots
+ <quote>r</quote>, a tongue-tip trill.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase role="IPA">[ɹ]</phrase></term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>One version of Lojban
+ <letteral>r</letteral>. As in GA
+ <quote>right</quote>,
+ <quote>baron</quote>, or
+ <quote>car</quote>. Not found in RP.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase role="IPA">[ɾ]</phrase></term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>One version of Lojban
+ <letteral>r</letteral>. In GA, appears as a variant of
+ <quote>t</quote> or
+ <quote>d</quote> in the words
+ <quote>metal</quote> and
+ <quote>medal</quote> respectively. A tongue-tip flap.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase role="IPA">[ʀ]</phrase></term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>One version of Lojban
+ <letteral>r</letteral>. Not an English sound. The French or German
+ <phrase xml:lang="de"><quote xml:lang="fr">r</quote></phrase> in <!--not sure how else to designate two languages at once-->
+ <quote xml:lang="fr">reine</quote> or
+ <quote xml:lang="de">rot</quote> respectively. A uvular trill.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term>
+ <phrase role="IPA">[r̩]</phrase>,
+ <phrase role="IPA">[ɹ̩]</phrase>,
+ <phrase role="IPA">[ɾ̩]</phrase>,
+ <phrase role="IPA">[ʀ̩]</phrase></term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>are syllabic versions of the above.
+ <phrase role="IPA">[ɹ̩]</phrase> appears in the GA (but not RP) pronunciation of
+ <quote>bird</quote>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase role="IPA">[s]</phrase></term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>The preferred pronunciation of Lojban
+ <letteral>s</letteral>. As in English
+ <quote>so</quote>,
+ <quote>basin</quote>, or
+ <quote>yes</quote>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase role="IPA">[ʃ]</phrase></term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>The preferred pronunciation of Lojban
+ <letteral>c</letteral>. The
+ <quote>sh</quote> of English
+ <quote>ship</quote>,
+ <quote>ashen</quote>, or
+ <quote>dish</quote>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase role="IPA">[ʂ]</phrase></term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>An allowed variant of Lojban
+ <letteral>s</letteral>. Not an English sound. The Hindi retroflex
+ <quote xml:lang="hi">s</quote> with dot below, or Klingon
+ <quote xml:lang="tlh">S</quote>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase role="IPA">[t]</phrase></term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>The preferred pronunciation of Lojban
+ <letteral>t</letteral>. As in English
+ <quote>tea</quote>,
+ <quote>later</quote>, or
+ <quote>not</quote>. It is important to avoid the GA habit of pronouncing the
+ <quote>t</quote> between vowels as
+ <phrase role="IPA">[d]</phrase> or
+ <phrase role="IPA">[ɾ]</phrase>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase role="IPA">[θ]</phrase></term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>Not normally a Lojban sound, but a possible variant of Lojban
+ <letteral>'</letteral>. The
+ <quote>th</quote> of English
+ <quote>thin</quote> (but not
+ <quote>then</quote>).</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase role="IPA">[v]</phrase></term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>The preferred pronunciation of Lojban
+ <letteral>v</letteral>. As in English
+ <quote>voice</quote>,
+ <quote>savor</quote>, or
+ <quote>live</quote>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase role="IPA">[w]</phrase></term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>Used in Lojban diphthongs beginning or ending with
+ <letteral>u</letteral>. Like the
+ <quote>w</quote> in English
+ <quote>wet</quote>
+ <phrase role="IPA">[wɛt]</phrase> or
+ <quote>cow</quote>
+ <phrase role="IPA">[kɑw]</phrase>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase role="IPA">[x]</phrase></term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>The preferred pronunciation of Lojban
+ <letteral>x</letteral>. Not normally an English sound, but used in some pronunciations of
+ <quote>loch</quote> and
+ <quote>Bach</quote>;
+ <quote>gh</quote> in Scots
+ <quote>might</quote> and
+ <quote>night</quote>. The German
+ <quote xml:lang="de">Ach-Laut</quote>. To pronounce
+ <phrase role="IPA">[x]</phrase>, force air through your throat without vibrating your vocal chords; there should be lots of scrape.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase role="IPA">[ʏ]</phrase></term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>A possible Lojban buffer vowel. Not an English sound: the
+
+ <quote xml:lang="de">ü</quote> of German
+ <quote xml:lang="de">hübsch</quote>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase role="IPA">[z]</phrase></term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>The preferred pronunciation of Lojban
+ <letteral>z</letteral>. As in English
+ <quote>zoo</quote>,
+ <quote>hazard</quote>, or
+ <quote>fizz</quote>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase role="IPA">[ʒ]</phrase></term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>The preferred pronunciation of Lojban
+ <letteral>j</letteral>. The
+ <quote>si</quote> of English
+ <quote>vision</quote>, or the consonant at the end of GA
+ <quote>garage</quote>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase role="IPA">[ʐ]</phrase></term>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>An allowed variant of Lojban
+ <letteral>z</letteral>. Not an English sound. The voiced version of
+ <phrase role="IPA">[ʂ]</phrase>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ </variablelist>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-anglophone-diphthongs">
+ <title>English Analogues For Lojban Diphthongs</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>diphthongs</primary><secondary>English analogues of</secondary></indexterm> Here is a list of English words that contain diphthongs that are similar to the Lojban diphthongs. This list does not constitute an official pronunciation guide; it is intended as a help to English-speakers.</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <thead>
+ <tr>
+ <td>Lojban</td>
+ <td>English</td>
+ </tr>
+ </thead>
+ <tr>
+ <td><diphthong>ai</diphthong></td>
+ <td><quote>pie</quote></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><diphthong>ei</diphthong></td>
+ <td><quote>pay</quote></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><diphthong>oi</diphthong></td>
+ <td><quote>boy</quote></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><diphthong>au</diphthong></td>
+ <td><quote>cow</quote></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><diphthong>ia</diphthong></td>
+ <td><quote>yard</quote></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><diphthong>ie</diphthong></td>
+ <td><quote>yes</quote></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><diphthong>ii</diphthong></td>
+ <td><quote>ye</quote></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><diphthong>io</diphthong></td>
+ <td><quote>yodel</quote> (in GA only)</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><diphthong>iu</diphthong></td>
+ <td><quote>unicorn</quote> or <quote>few</quote></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><diphthong>ua</diphthong></td>
+ <td><quote>suave</quote></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><diphthong>ue</diphthong></td>
+ <td><quote>wet</quote></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><diphthong>ui</diphthong></td>
+ <td><quote>we</quote></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><diphthong>uo</diphthong></td>
+ <td><quote>woe</quote> (in GA only)</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><diphthong>uu</diphthong></td>
+ <td><quote>woo</quote></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><diphthong>iy</diphthong></td>
+ <td><quote>million</quote> (the <quote>io</quote> part, that is)</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><diphthong>uy</diphthong></td>
+ <td><quote>was</quote> (when unstressed)</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-oddball-orthographies">
+ <title>Oddball Orthographies</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>orthography</primary><secondary>non-standard</secondary></indexterm> The following notes describe ways in which Lojban has been written or could be written that differ from the standard orthography explained in the rest of this chapter. Nobody needs to read this section except people with an interest in the obscure. Technicalities are used without explanation or further apology.</para>
+
+ <para>There exists an alternative orthography for Lojban, which is designed to be as compatible as possible (but no more so) with the orthography used in pre-Lojban versions of Loglan. The consonants undergo no change, except that
+
+ <letteral>x</letteral> is replaced by
+ <letteral>h</letteral>. The individual vowels likewise remain unchanged. However, the vowel pairs and diphthongs are changed as follows:</para>
+
+ <itemizedlist>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>
+ <diphthong>ai</diphthong>,
+ <diphthong>ei</diphthong>,
+ <diphthong>oi</diphthong>,
+ <diphthong>au</diphthong> become
+ <diphthong>ai</diphthong>,
+ <diphthong>ei</diphthong>,
+ <diphthong>oi</diphthong>,
+ <diphthong>ao</diphthong>.
+ </para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>
+ <diphthong>ia</diphthong> through
+ <diphthong>iu</diphthong> and
+ <diphthong>ua</diphthong> through
+ <diphthong>uu</diphthong> remain unchanged.
+ </para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>
+ <morphology>a'i</morphology>,
+
+ <morphology>e'i</morphology>,
+ <morphology>o'i</morphology> and
+
+ <morphology>a'o</morphology> become
+
+ <diphthong>a,i</diphthong>,
+ <diphthong>e,i</diphthong>,
+ <diphthong>o,i</diphthong> and
+ <diphthong>a,o</diphthong>.
+ </para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>
+ <morphology>i'a</morphology> through
+ <morphology>i'u</morphology> and
+ <morphology>u'a</morphology> through
+ <morphology>u'u</morphology> are changed to
+
+ <diphthong>ia</diphthong> through
+ <diphthong>iu</diphthong> and
+ <diphthong>ua</diphthong> through
+ <diphthong>uu</diphthong> in lujvo and cmavo other than attitudinals, but become
+ <diphthong>i,a</diphthong> through
+ <diphthong>i,u</diphthong> and
+ <diphthong>u,a</diphthong> through
+ <diphthong>u,u</diphthong> in names, fu'ivla, and attitudinal cmavo.
+ </para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>All other vowel pairs simply drop the apostrophe.</para>
+
+ </listitem>
+ </itemizedlist>
+ <para>The result of these rules is to eliminate the apostrophe altogether, replacing it with comma where necessary, and otherwise with nothing. In addition, names and the cmavo
+ <valsi>i</valsi> are capitalized, and irregular stress is marked with an apostrophe (now no longer used for a sound) following the stressed syllable.</para>
+
+
+ <para>Three points must be emphasized about this alternative orthography:</para>
+
+ <itemizedlist>
+ <listitem>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-standard orthographies</primary><secondary>caveat</secondary></indexterm> It is not standard, and has not been used.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>It does not represent any changes to the standard Lojban phonology; it is simply a representation of the same phonology using a different written form.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>It was designed to aid in a planned rapprochement between the Logical Language Group and The Loglan Institute, a group headed by James Cooke Brown. The rapprochement never took place.</para>
+
+ </listitem>
+ </itemizedlist>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-standard orthographies</primary><secondary>Cyrillic</secondary></indexterm> There also exists a Cyrillic orthography for Lojban which was designed when the introductory Lojban brochure was translated into Russian. It uses the
+ <quote>а</quote>,
+ <quote>б</quote>,
+ <quote>в</quote>,
+ <quote>г</quote>,
+ <quote>д</quote>,
+ <quote>е</quote>,
+ <quote>ж</quote>,
+ <quote>з</quote>,
+ <quote>и</quote>,
+ <quote>к</quote>,
+ <quote>л</quote>,
+ <quote>м</quote>,
+ <quote>н</quote>,
+ <quote>о</quote>,
+ <quote>п</quote>,
+ <quote>р</quote>,
+ <quote>с</quote>,
+ <quote>т</quote>,
+ <quote>у</quote>,
+ <quote>ф</quote>,
+ <quote>х</quote>, and
+ <quote>ш</quote> in the obvious ways. The Latin letter
+ <quote>y</quote> is mapped onto the hard sign
+ <quote>ъ</quote>, as in Bulgarian. The apostrophe, comma, and period are unchanged. Diphthongs are written as vowel pairs, as in the Roman representation.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Tolkien</primary><secondary>and non-standard Lojban orthography</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-standard orthographies</primary><secondary>Tengwar</secondary></indexterm> Finally, an orthography using the Tengwar of Féanor, a fictional orthography invented by J. R. R. Tolkien and described in the Appendixes to
+
+
+ <citetitle pubwork="book">The Lord Of The Rings</citetitle>, has been devised for Lojban. The following mapping, which closely resembles that used for Westron, will be meaningful only to those who have read those appendixes. In brief, the tincotéma and parmatéma are used in the conventional ways; the calmatéma represents palatal consonants, and the quessetéma represents velar consonants.</para>
+
+ <variablelist>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase xml:lang="qya">tinco</phrase></term>
+ <listitem><para><letteral>t</letteral></para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase xml:lang="qya">calma</phrase></term>
+ <listitem><para>-</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase xml:lang="qya">ando</phrase></term>
+ <listitem><para><letteral>d</letteral></para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase xml:lang="qya">anga</phrase></term>
+ <listitem><para>-</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase xml:lang="qya">thule</phrase></term>
+ <listitem><para>-</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase xml:lang="qya">harma</phrase></term>
+ <listitem><para><letteral>c</letteral></para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase xml:lang="qya">anto</phrase></term>
+ <listitem><para>-</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase xml:lang="qya">anca</phrase></term>
+ <listitem><para><letteral>j</letteral></para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase xml:lang="qya">numen</phrase></term>
+ <listitem><para><letteral>n</letteral></para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase xml:lang="qya">noldo</phrase></term>
+ <listitem><para>-</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase xml:lang="qya">ore</phrase></term>
+ <listitem><para><letteral>r</letteral></para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase xml:lang="qya">anna</phrase></term>
+ <listitem><para><letteral>i</letteral></para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase xml:lang="qya">parma</phrase></term>
+ <listitem><para><letteral>p</letteral></para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase xml:lang="qya">quesse</phrase></term>
+ <listitem><para><letteral>k</letteral></para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase xml:lang="qya">umbar</phrase></term>
+ <listitem><para><letteral>b</letteral></para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase xml:lang="qya">ungwe</phrase></term>
+ <listitem><para><letteral>g</letteral></para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase xml:lang="qya">formen</phrase></term>
+ <listitem><para><letteral>f</letteral></para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase xml:lang="qya">hwesta</phrase></term>
+ <listitem><para><letteral>x</letteral></para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase xml:lang="qya">ampa</phrase></term>
+ <listitem><para><letteral>v</letteral></para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase xml:lang="qya">unque</phrase></term>
+ <listitem><para>-</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase xml:lang="qya">malta</phrase></term>
+ <listitem><para><letteral>m</letteral></para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase xml:lang="qya">nwalme</phrase></term>
+ <listitem><para>-</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase xml:lang="qya">vala</phrase></term>
+ <listitem><para><letteral>u</letteral></para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><phrase xml:lang="qya">vilya</phrase></term>
+ <listitem><para>-</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ </variablelist>
+
+ <para>The letters
+ <quote xml:lang="qya">vala</quote> and
+ <quote xml:lang="qya">anna</quote> are used for
+ <letteral>u</letteral> and
+ <letteral>i</letteral> only when those letters are used to represent glides. Of the additional letters,
+ <letteral>r</letteral>,
+ <letteral>l</letteral>,
+ <letteral>s</letteral>, and
+ <letteral>z</letteral> are written with
+ <quote xml:lang="qya">rómen</quote>,
+ <quote xml:lang="qya">lambe</quote>,
+ <quote xml:lang="qya">silme</quote>, and
+ <quote xml:lang="qya">áre</quote>/
+ <quote xml:lang="qya">esse</quote> respectively; the inverted forms are used as free variants.</para>
+ <para>Lojban, like Quenya, is a vowel-last language, so tehtar are read as following the tengwar on which they are placed. The conventional tehtar are used for the five regular vowels, and the dot below for <letteral>y</letteral>. The Lojban apostrophe is represented by <quote xml:lang="qya">halla</quote>. There is no equivalent of the Lojban comma or period.</para>
+ </section>
+</chapter>
diff --git a/chapters/04.xml b/chapters/04.xml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..103fd92
--- /dev/null
+++ b/chapters/04.xml
@@ -0,0 +1,3214 @@
+<chapter xml:id="chapter-morphology">
+ <title>The Shape Of Words To Come: Lojban Morphology</title>
+ <mediaobject xml:id="chapter-morphology-picture">
+ <alt>The picture for chapter 4</alt>
+ <imageobject>
+ <imagedata fileref="media/chapter-morphology.gif"/>
+ </imageobject>
+ </mediaobject>
+
+ <section xml:id="section-morphology-introduction">
+ <title>Introductory</title>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>word forms</primary><secondary>in Lojban (see also morphology)</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>morphology</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>morphology</primary><secondary>simplicity of</secondary></indexterm> Morphology is the part of grammar that deals with the form of words. Lojban's morphology is fairly simple compared to that of many languages, because Lojban words don't change form depending on how they are used. English has only a small number of such changes compared to languages like Russian, but it does have changes like
+ <quote>boys</quote> as the plural of
+
+ <quote>boy</quote>, or
+ <quote>walked</quote> as the past-tense form of
+ <quote>walk</quote>. To make plurals or past tenses in Lojban, you add separate words to the sentence that express the number of boys, or the time when the walking was going on.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>word forms</primary><secondary>as related to grammatical uses</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>derivational morphology</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>morphology</primary><secondary>derivational</secondary></indexterm> However, Lojban does have what is called
+ <quote>derivational morphology</quote>: the capability of building new words from old words. In addition, the form of words tells us something about their grammatical uses, and sometimes about the means by which they entered the language. Lojban has very orderly rules for the formation of words of various types, both the words that already exist and new words yet to be created by speakers and writers.</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>morphology</primary><secondary>conventions for</secondary></indexterm> A stream of Lojban sounds can be uniquely broken up into its component words according to specific rules. These so-called
+ <quote>morphology rules</quote> are summarized in this chapter. (However, a detailed algorithm for breaking sounds into words has not yet been fully debugged, and so is not presented in this book.) First, here are some conventions used to talk about groups of Lojban letters, including vowels and consonants.</para>
+
+ <orderedlist>
+ <listitem>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>y</primary><secondary>considered not to be a vowel for morphological discussions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>V</primary><secondary>as a symbol for a single vowel</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>morphology</primary><secondary>symbolic conventions for discussing</secondary></indexterm> V represents any single Lojban vowel except
+ <letteral>y</letteral>; that is, it represents
+ <letteral>a</letteral>,
+ <letteral>e</letteral>,
+ <letteral>i</letteral>,
+ <letteral>o</letteral>, or
+ <letteral>u</letteral>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>VV string</primary><secondary>as a symbol for a double vowel</secondary></indexterm> VV represents either a diphthong, one of the following:
+ <simplelist type="horiz" columns="4">
+ <member><diphthong>ai</diphthong></member>
+ <member><diphthong>ei</diphthong></member>
+ <member><diphthong>oi</diphthong></member>
+ <member><diphthong>au</diphthong></member>
+ </simplelist>
+ or a two-syllable vowel pair with an apostrophe separating the vowels, one of the following:
+ <simplelist type="horiz" columns="5">
+ <member><morphology>a'a</morphology></member>
+ <member><morphology>a'e</morphology></member>
+ <member><morphology>a'i</morphology></member>
+ <member><morphology>a'o</morphology></member>
+ <member><morphology>a'u</morphology></member>
+
+ <member><morphology>e'a</morphology></member>
+ <member><morphology>e'e</morphology></member>
+ <member><morphology>e'i</morphology></member>
+ <member><morphology>e'o</morphology></member>
+ <member><morphology>e'u</morphology></member>
+
+ <member><morphology>i'a</morphology></member>
+ <member><morphology>i'e</morphology></member>
+ <member><morphology>i'i</morphology></member>
+ <member><morphology>i'o</morphology></member>
+ <member><morphology>i'u</morphology></member>
+
+ <member><morphology>o'a</morphology></member>
+ <member><morphology>o'e</morphology></member>
+ <member><morphology>o'i</morphology></member>
+ <member><morphology>o'o</morphology></member>
+ <member><morphology>o'u</morphology></member>
+
+ <member><morphology>u'a</morphology></member>
+ <member><morphology>u'e</morphology></member>
+ <member><morphology>u'i</morphology></member>
+ <member><morphology>u'o</morphology></member>
+ <member><morphology>u'u</morphology></member>
+ </simplelist>
+ </para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>apostrophe</primary><secondary>as not a consonant for morphological discussions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>syllabic r</primary><secondary>as a consonant for morphological discussions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>syllabic n</primary><secondary>as a consonant for morphological discussions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>syllabic m</primary><secondary>as a consonant for morphological discussions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>syllabic l</primary><secondary>considered as a consonant for morphological discussions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>C string</primary><secondary>as a symbol for a single consonant</secondary></indexterm> C represents a single Lojban consonant, not including the apostrophe, one of
+ <simplelist type="inline">
+ <member><letteral>b</letteral></member>
+ <member><letteral>c</letteral></member>
+ <member><letteral>d</letteral></member>
+ <member><letteral>f</letteral></member>
+ <member><letteral>g</letteral></member>
+ <member><letteral>j</letteral></member>
+ <member><letteral>k</letteral></member>
+ <member><letteral>l</letteral></member>
+ <member><letteral>m</letteral></member>
+ <member><letteral>n</letteral></member>
+ <member><letteral>p</letteral></member>
+ <member><letteral>r</letteral></member>
+ <member><letteral>s</letteral></member>
+ <member><letteral>t</letteral></member>
+ <member><letteral>v</letteral></member>
+ <member><letteral>x</letteral></member>
+ <member> or <letteral>z</letteral></member>
+ </simplelist>
+ . Syllabic <letteral>l</letteral>, <letteral>m</letteral>, <letteral>n</letteral>, and <letteral>r</letteral> always count as consonants for the purposes of this chapter.
+ </para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>CC string</primary><secondary>as a symbol for a permissible initial consonant pair</secondary></indexterm> CC represents two adjacent consonants of type C which constitute one of the 48 permissible initial consonant pairs:
+ <!-- FIXME: There's a table of the permissible initial pairs in chapter 3, too; however, the pairs are grouped differently in that table. Can we copy that or must we use this specific grouping here? Also, in draft CLL it's not even a table, just a straight inline list. -->
+ <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
+ bl br
+ cf ck cl cm cn cp cr ct
+ dj dr dz
+ fl fr
+ gl gr
+ jb jd jg jm jv
+ kl kr
+ ml mr
+ pl pr
+ sf sk sl sm sn sp sr st
+ tc tr ts
+ vl vr
+ xl xr
+ zb zd zg zm zv
+ </programlisting></para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>C/C string</primary><secondary>as a symbol for a permissible consonant pair</secondary></indexterm> C/C represents two adjacent consonants which constitute one of the permissible consonant pairs (not necessarily a permissible initial consonant pair). The permissible consonant pairs are explained in <xref linkend="section-clusters"/>. In brief, any consonant pair is permissible unless it: contains two identical letters, contains both a voiced (excluding <letteral>r</letteral>, <letteral>l</letteral>, <letteral>m</letteral>, <letteral>n</letteral>) and an unvoiced consonant, or is one of certain specified forbidden pairs.
+ </para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>C/CC string</primary><secondary>as a symbol for a consonant triple</secondary></indexterm> C/CC represents a consonant triple. The first two consonants must constitute a permissible consonant pair; the last two consonants must constitute a permissible initial consonant pair.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </orderedlist>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>brivla</primary><secondary>as one of the 3 basic word classes</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>as one of the 3 basic word classes</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmavo</primary><secondary>as one of the 3 basic word classes</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>parts of speech</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>word classes</primary></indexterm> Lojban has three basic word classes – parts of speech – in contrast to the eight that are traditional in English. These three classes are called cmavo, brivla, and cmene. Each of these classes has uniquely identifying properties – an arrangement of letters that allows the word to be uniquely and unambiguously recognized as a separate word in a string of Lojban, upon either reading or hearing, and as belonging to a specific word-class.</para>
+
+
+ <para>They are also functionally different: cmavo are the structure words, corresponding to English words like
+
+ <quote>and</quote>,
+ <quote>if</quote>,
+ <quote>the</quote> and
+ <quote>to</quote>; brivla are the content words, corresponding to English words like
+ <quote>come</quote>,
+ <quote>red</quote>,
+ <quote>doctor</quote>, and
+ <quote>freely</quote>; cmene are proper names, corresponding to English
+ <quote>James</quote>,
+ <quote>Afghanistan</quote>, and
+ <quote>Pope John Paul II</quote>.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-cmavo">
+ <title>cmavo</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>punctuation marks</primary><secondary>cmavo as Lojban equivalents</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>numbers</primary><secondary>cmavo as Lojban equivalents</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>prepositions</primary><secondary>cmavo as Lojban equivalents</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>conjunctions</primary><secondary>cmavo as Lojban equivalents</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>articles</primary><secondary>cmavo as Lojban equivalents</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>structure words</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selma'o</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmavo</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> The first group of Lojban words discussed in this chapter are the cmavo. They are the structure words that hold the Lojban language together. They often have no semantic meaning in themselves, though they may affect the semantics of brivla to which they are attached. The cmavo include the equivalent of English articles, conjunctions, prepositions, numbers, and punctuation marks. There are over a hundred subcategories of cmavo, known as <valsi>selma'o</valsi>, each having a specifically defined grammatical usage. The various selma'o are discussed throughout
+ <xref linkend="chapter-selbri"/> to
+ <xref linkend="chapter-structure"/> and summarized in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-catalogue"/>.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmavo</primary><secondary>structure of</secondary></indexterm> Standard cmavo occur in four forms defined by their word structure. Here are some examples of the various forms:</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr>
+ <td>V-form</td>
+ <td><valsi>.a</valsi></td>
+ <td><valsi>.e</valsi></td>
+ <td><valsi>.i</valsi></td>
+ <td><valsi>.o</valsi></td>
+ <td><valsi>.u</valsi></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>CV-form</td>
+ <td><valsi>ba</valsi></td>
+ <td><valsi>ce</valsi></td>
+ <td><valsi>di</valsi></td>
+ <td><valsi>fo</valsi></td>
+ <td><valsi>gu</valsi></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>VV-form</td>
+ <td><valsi>.au</valsi></td>
+ <td><valsi>.ei</valsi></td>
+ <td><valsi>.ia</valsi></td>
+ <td><valsi>o'u</valsi></td>
+ <td><valsi>u'e</valsi></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>CVV-form</td>
+ <td><valsi>ki'a</valsi></td>
+ <td><valsi>pei</valsi></td>
+ <td><valsi>mi'o</valsi></td>
+ <td><valsi>coi</valsi></td>
+ <td><valsi>cu'u</valsi></td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <para>In addition, there is the cmavo
+ <valsi>.y.</valsi> (remember that
+ <letteral>y</letteral> is not a V), which must have pauses before and after it.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmavo</primary><secondary>lack of relation of form to grammatical use</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>experimental cmavo</primary><secondary>forms for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmavo</primary><secondary>for experimental use</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmavo</primary><secondary>simple</secondary></indexterm> A simple cmavo thus has the property of having only one or two vowels, or of having a single consonant followed by one or two vowels. Words consisting of three or more vowels in a row, or a single consonant followed by three or more vowels, are also of cmavo form, but are reserved for experimental use: a few examples are
+ <!-- FIXME: is this valid="false"? probably not, but just checking -->
+ <jbophrase>ku'a'e</jbophrase>,
+
+ <jbophrase>sau'e</jbophrase>, and
+ <jbophrase>bai'ai</jbophrase>. All CVV cmavo beginning with the letter
+ <letteral>x</letteral> are also reserved for experimental use. In general, though, the form of a cmavo tells you little or nothing about its grammatical use.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>experimental cmavo</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmavo</primary><secondary>experimental</secondary></indexterm>
+ <quote>Experimental use</quote> means that the language designers will not assign any standard meaning or usage to these words, and words and usages coined by Lojban speakers will not appear in official dictionaries for the indefinite future. Experimental-use words provide an escape hatch for adding grammatical mechanisms (as opposed to semantic concepts) the need for which was not foreseen.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmavo</primary><secondary>diphthongs in</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo of VV-form include not only the diphthongs and vowel pairs listed in
+
+ <xref linkend="section-morphology-introduction"/>, but also the following ten additional diphthongs:</para>
+ <simplelist type="horiz" columns="5">
+ <member><valsi>.ia</valsi></member>
+ <member><valsi>.ie</valsi></member>
+ <member><valsi>.ii</valsi></member>
+ <member><valsi>.io</valsi></member>
+ <member><valsi>.iu</valsi></member>
+
+ <member><valsi>.ua</valsi></member>
+ <member><valsi>.ue</valsi></member>
+ <member><valsi>.ui</valsi></member>
+ <member><valsi>.uo</valsi></member>
+ <member><valsi>.uu</valsi></member>
+ </simplelist>
+ <para>In addition, cmavo can have the form
+ <morphology>Cy</morphology>, a consonant followed by the letter
+ <letteral>y</letteral>. These cmavo represent letters of the Lojban alphabet, and are discussed in detail in
+
+ <xref linkend="chapter-letterals"/>.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>compound cmavo</primary><secondary>compared with sequence of simple cmavo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>compound cmavo</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmavo</primary><secondary>compound</secondary></indexterm> Compound cmavo are sequences of cmavo attached together to form a single written word. A compound cmavo is always identical in meaning and in grammatical use to the separated sequence of simple cmavo from which it is composed. These words are written in compound form merely to save visual space, and to ease the reader's burden in identifying when the component cmavo are acting together.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>compound cmavo</primary><secondary>recognition of</secondary></indexterm> Compound cmavo, while not visually short like their components, can be readily identified by two characteristics:</para>
+ <orderedlist>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>They have no consonant pairs or clusters, and</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>They end in a vowel.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </orderedlist>
+ <para>For example:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qiXV" role="compound-cmavo-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e2d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <compound-cmavo>
+ <jbo>.iseci'i</jbo>
+ <jbo>.i se ci'i</jbo>
+ </compound-cmavo>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qIYK" role="compound-cmavo-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e2d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <compound-cmavo>
+ <jbo>punaijecanai</jbo>
+ <jbo>pu nai je ca nai</jbo>
+ </compound-cmavo>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qiz6" role="compound-cmavo-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e2d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <compound-cmavo>
+ <jbo>ki'e.u'e</jbo>
+ <jbo>ki'e .u'e</jbo>
+ </compound-cmavo>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pauses</primary><secondary>before vowels</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo
+ <valsi>u'e</valsi> begins with a vowel, and like all words beginning with a vowel, requires a pause (represented by
+ <letteral>.</letteral>) before it. This pause cannot be omitted simply because the cmavo is incorporated into a compound cmavo. On the other hand,</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-FDhH">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e2d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ki'e'u'e</jbo>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>is a single cmavo reserved for experimental purposes: it has four vowels.</para>
+ <example role="compound-cmavo-example" xml:id="example-random-id-CtnR">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e2d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <compound-cmavo>
+ <jbo>cy.ibu.abu</jbo>
+ <jbo>cy. .ibu .abu</jbo>
+ </compound-cmavo>
+ </example>
+ <para>Again the pauses are required (see
+ <xref linkend="section-pauses"/>); the pause after
+ <valsi>cy.</valsi> merges with the pause before
+ <valsi>.ibu</valsi>.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>stress</primary><secondary>on cmavo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmavo</primary><secondary>stress on</secondary></indexterm> There is no particular stress required in cmavo or their compounds. Some conventions do exist that are not mandatory. For two-syllable cmavo, for example, stress is typically placed on the first vowel; an example is</para>
+ <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pdGY">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e2d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <pronunciation>
+ <jbo>.e'o ko ko kurji</jbo>
+ <jbo role="pronunciation">.E'o ko ko KURji</jbo>
+ </pronunciation>
+ </example>
+ <para>This convention results in a consistent rhythm to the language, since brivla are required to have penultimate stress; some find this esthetically pleasing.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pause</primary><secondary>requirement between stressed syllables</secondary></indexterm> If the final syllable of one word is stressed, and the first syllable of the next word is stressed, you must insert a pause or glottal stop between the two stressed syllables. Thus</para>
+
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-uqDz">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e2d7"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le re nanmu</jbo>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>can be optionally pronounced</para>
+ <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-dfzc">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e2d8"/>
+ </title>
+ <pronunciation>
+ <jbo role="pronunciation">le RE. NANmu</jbo>
+ </pronunciation>
+ </example>
+ <para>since there are no rules forcing stress on either of the first two words; the stress on
+ <valsi>re</valsi>, though, demands that a pause separate
+ <valsi>re</valsi> from the following syllable
+ <jbophrase>nan</jbophrase> to ensure that the stress on
+ <jbophrase>nan</jbophrase> is properly heard as a stressed syllable. The alternative pronunciation</para>
+
+
+ <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-bLbf">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e2d9"/>
+ </title>
+ <pronunciation>
+ <jbo>LE re NANmu</jbo>
+ </pronunciation>
+ </example>
+ <para>is also valid; this would apply secondary stress (used for purposes of emphasis, contrast or sentence rhythm) to
+ <valsi>le</valsi>, comparable in rhythmical effect to the English phrase
+ <quote>THE two men</quote>. In
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-dfzc"/>, the secondary stress on
+ <valsi>re</valsi> would be similar to that in the English phrase
+ <quote>the TWO men</quote>.</para>
+ <para>Both cmavo may also be left unstressed, thus:</para>
+ <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sg0p">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e2d10"/>
+ </title>
+ <pronunciation>
+ <jbo role="pronunciation">le re NANmu</jbo>
+ </pronunciation>
+ </example>
+ <para>This would probably be the most common usage.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-morphology-brivla">
+ <title>brivla</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>adverbs</primary><secondary>brivla as Lojban equivalents</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>verbs</primary><secondary>brivla as Lojban equivalents</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>adjectives</primary><secondary>brivla as Lojban equivalents</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>nouns</primary><secondary>brivla as Lojban equivalents</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>brivla</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> Predicate words, called
+ <valsi>brivla</valsi>, are at the core of Lojban. They carry most of the semantic information in the language. They serve as the equivalent of English nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, all in a single part of speech.</para>
+
+
+
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>subtypes of words</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>types and subtypes of words</primary></indexterm> Every brivla belongs to one of three major subtypes. These subtypes are defined by the form, or morphology, of the word – all words of a particular structure can be assigned by sight or sound to a particular type (cmavo, brivla, or cmene) and subtype. Knowing the type and subtype then gives you, the reader or listener, significant clues to the meaning and the origin of the word, even if you have never heard the word before.</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>flexible vocabulary</primary></indexterm> The same principle allows you, when speaking or writing, to invent new brivla for new concepts
+ <quote>on the fly</quote>; yet it offers people that you are trying to communicate with a good chance to figure out your meaning. In this way, Lojban has a flexible vocabulary which can be expanded indefinitely.</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>brivla</primary><secondary>properties of</secondary></indexterm> All brivla have the following properties:</para>
+ <orderedlist>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>always end in a vowel;</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>always contain a consonant pair in the first five letters, where
+ <letteral>y</letteral> and apostrophe are not counted as letters for this purpose (see
+ <xref linkend="section-rafsi"/>.);</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>always are stressed on the next-to-the-last (penultimate) syllable; this implies that they have two or more syllables.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </orderedlist>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene form</primary><secondary>contrasted with brivla form</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmavo form</primary><secondary>contrasted with brivla form</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>brivla form</primary><secondary>contrasted with cmene form</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>brivla form</primary><secondary>contrasted with cmavo form</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>brivla</primary><secondary>recognition of</secondary></indexterm> The presence of a consonant pair distinguishes brivla from cmavo and their compounds. The final vowel distinguishes brivla from cmene, which always end in a consonant. Thus
+ <jbophrase>da'amei</jbophrase> must be a compound cmavo because it lacks a consonant pair;
+ <valsi>lojban.</valsi> must be a name because it lacks a final vowel.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>consonant pairs</primary><secondary>letter y within</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>y</primary><secondary>letter</secondary><tertiary>between letters of consonant pair</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>consonant pairs</primary><secondary>in brivla</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>brivla</primary><secondary>consonant pairs in</secondary></indexterm> Thus,
+ <valsi>bisycla</valsi> has the consonant pair
+ <morphology>sc</morphology> in the first five non-
+ <letteral>y</letteral> letters even though the
+ <morphology>sc</morphology> actually appears in the form of
+ <valsi>sy.</valsi>. Similarly, the word
+ <valsi>ro'inre'o</valsi> contains
+ <morphology>nr</morphology> in the first five letters because the apostrophes are not counted for this purpose.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>brivla</primary><secondary>subtypes of</secondary></indexterm> The three subtypes of brivla are:</para>
+ <orderedlist>
+ <listitem>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>as a subtype of brivla</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>primitive roots</primary><secondary>gismu as</secondary></indexterm> gismu, the Lojban primitive roots from which all other brivla are built;</para>
+
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>compound of gismu</primary><secondary>lujvo as</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>as a subtype of brivla</secondary></indexterm> lujvo, the compounds of two or more gismu; and</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>borrowing from other language</primary><secondary>fu'ivla as</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>as a subtype of brivla</secondary></indexterm> fu'ivla (literally
+ <quote>copy-word</quote>), the specialized words that are not Lojban primitives or natural compounds, and are therefore borrowed from other languages.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </orderedlist>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-gismu">
+ <title>gismu</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>rationale for choice of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> The gismu, or Lojban root words, are those brivla representing concepts most basic to the language. The gismu were chosen for various reasons: some represent concepts that are very familiar and basic; some represent concepts that are frequently used in other languages; some were added because they would be helpful in constructing more complex words; some because they represent fundamental Lojban concepts (like
+ <valsi>cmavo</valsi> and
+ <valsi>gismu</valsi> themselves).</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>as partitioning semantic space</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>selection of</secondary></indexterm> The gismu do not represent any sort of systematic partitioning of semantic space. Some gismu may be superfluous, or appear for historical reasons: the gismu list was being collected for almost 35 years and was only weeded out once. Instead, the intention is that the gismu blanket semantic space: they make it possible to talk about the entire range of human concerns.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>learning Lojban</primary><secondary>magnitude of task</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmavo and gismu</primary><secondary>major</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>and cmavo</secondary><tertiary>major</tertiary></indexterm> There are about 1350 gismu. In learning Lojban, you need only to learn most of these gismu and their combining forms (known as
+
+
+ <valsi>rafsi</valsi>) as well as perhaps 200 major cmavo, and you will be able to communicate effectively in the language. This may sound like a lot, but it is a small number compared to the vocabulary needed for similar communications in other languages.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>rules for</secondary></indexterm> All gismu have very strong form restrictions. Using the conventions defined in
+ <xref linkend="section-morphology-introduction"/>, all gismu are of the forms CVC/CV or CCVCV. They must meet the rules for all brivla given in
+ <xref linkend="section-morphology-brivla"/>; furthermore, they:</para>
+ <orderedlist>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>always have five letters;</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>always start with a consonant and end with a single vowel;</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>always contain exactly one consonant pair, which is a permissible initial pair (CC) if it's at the beginning of the gismu, but otherwise only has to be a permissible pair (C/C);</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>are always stressed on the first syllable (since that is penultimate).</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </orderedlist>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>length of</secondary></indexterm> The five letter length distinguishes gismu from lujvo and fu'ivla. In addition, no gismu contains
+ <letteral>'</letteral>.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>conflicts between</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>special</secondary></indexterm> With the exception of five special brivla variables,
+ <valsi>broda</valsi>,
+ <valsi>brode</valsi>,
+ <valsi>brodi</valsi>,
+ <valsi>brodo</valsi>, and
+ <valsi>brodu</valsi>, no two gismu differ only in the final vowel. Furthermore, the set of gismu was specifically designed to reduce the likelihood that two similar sounding gismu could be confused. For example, because
+ <valsi>gismu</valsi> is in the set of gismu,
+ <valsi>kismu</valsi>,
+ <valsi>xismu</valsi>,
+ <valsi>gicmu</valsi>,
+ <valsi>gizmu</valsi>, and
+ <valsi>gisnu</valsi> cannot be.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>source of</secondary></indexterm> Almost all Lojban gismu are constructed from pieces of words drawn from other languages, specifically Chinese, English, Hindi, Spanish, Russian, and Arabic, the six most widely spoken natural languages. For a given concept, words in the six languages that represent that concept were written in Lojban phonetics. Then a gismu was selected to maximize the recognizability of the Lojban word for speakers of the six languages by weighting the inclusion of the sounds drawn from each language by the number of speakers of that language. See
+
+ <xref linkend="section-gismu-making"/> for a full explanation of the algorithm.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>examples of</secondary></indexterm> Here are a few examples of gismu, with rough English equivalents (not definitions):</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJ0x" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e4d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>creka</jbo>
+ <natlang>shirt</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qj4M" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e4d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>lijda</jbo>
+ <natlang>religion</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJ4M" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e4d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>blanu</jbo>
+ <natlang>blue</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJ5Y" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e4d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mamta</jbo>
+ <natlang>mother</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qj6K" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e4d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>cukta</jbo>
+ <natlang>book</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJ6R" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e4d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>patfu</jbo>
+ <natlang>father</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJ6y" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e4d7"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>nanmu</jbo>
+ <natlang>man</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qj71" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e4d8"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ninmu</jbo>
+ <natlang>woman</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>A small number of gismu were formed differently; see
+ <xref linkend="section-cultural-gismu"/> for a list.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-lujvo">
+ <title>lujvo</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modifying brivla (see also seltau)</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>seltau</primary><secondary>compared with English adverb</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>seltau</primary><secondary>compared with English adjective</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>explanation of</secondary></indexterm> When specifying a concept that is not found among the gismu (or, more specifically, when the relevant gismu seems too general in meaning), a Lojbanist generally attempts to express the concept as a tanru. Lojban tanru are an elaboration of the concept of
+ <quote>metaphor</quote> used in English. In Lojban, any brivla can be used to modify another brivla. The first of the pair modifies the second. This modification is usually restrictive – the modifying brivla reduces the broader sense of the modified brivla to form a more narrow, concrete, or specific concept. Modifying brivla may thus be seen as acting like English adverbs or adjectives. For example,</para>
+
+
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-xhQP">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e5d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>skami pilno</jbo>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>is the tanru which expresses the concept of
+ <quote>computer user</quote>.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>combination of</secondary></indexterm> The simplest Lojban tanru are pairings of two concepts or ideas. Such tanru take two simpler ideas that can be represented by gismu and combine them into a single more complex idea. Two-part tanru may then be recombined in pairs with other tanru, or with individual gismu, to form more complex or more specific ideas, and so on.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>ambiguity of</secondary></indexterm> The meaning of a tanru is usually at least partly ambiguous:
+ <jbophrase>skami pilno</jbophrase> could refer to a computer that is a user, or to a user of computers. There are a variety of ways that the modifier component can be related to the modified component. It is also possible to use cmavo within tanru to provide variations (or to prevent ambiguities) of meaning.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>and creativity</secondary></indexterm> Making tanru is essentially a poetic or creative act, not a science. While the syntax expressing the grouping relationships within tanru is unambiguous, tanru are still semantically ambiguous, since the rules defining the relationships between the gismu are flexible. The process of devising a new tanru is dealt with in detail in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-selbri"/>.</para>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>expression of</secondary></indexterm> To express a simple tanru, simply say the component gismu together. Thus the binary metaphor
+ <quote>big boat</quote> becomes the tanru</para>
+
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-oLE3">
+ <title>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>big boat</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e5d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>barda bloti</jbo>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>representing roughly the same concept as the English word
+ <quote>ship</quote>.</para>
+ <para>
+
+<indexterm type="general"><primary>paternal grandmother</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+ The binary metaphor
+ <quote>father mother</quote> can refer to a paternal grandmother (
+
+
+ <quote>a father-ly type of mother</quote>), while
+ <quote>mother father</quote> can refer to a maternal grandfather (
+
+ <quote>a mother-ly type of father</quote>). In Lojban, these become the tanru</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4wK9">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>father mother</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e5d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>patfu mamta</jbo>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>and</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KQ4s">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>mother father</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e5d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mamta patfu</jbo>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>respectively.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>ambiguity in</secondary></indexterm> The possibility of semantic ambiguity can easily be seen in the last case. To interpret
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-KQ4s"/>, the listener must determine what type of motherliness pertains to the father being referred to. In an appropriate context,
+ <jbophrase>mamta patfu</jbophrase> could mean not
+ <quote>grandfather</quote> but simply
+ <quote>father with some motherly attributes</quote>, depending on the culture. If absolute clarity is required, there are ways to expand upon and explain the exact interrelationship between the components; but such detail is usually not needed.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>to lujvo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>from tanru</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>brivla</primary><secondary>from tanru</secondary></indexterm> When a concept expressed in a tanru proves useful, or is frequently expressed, it is desirable to choose one of the possible meanings of the tanru and assign it to a new brivla. For
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-xhQP"/>, we would probably choose
+ <quote>user of computers</quote>, and form the new word</para>
+ <example role="lujvo-example" xml:id="example-random-id-v5YD">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e5d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <lujvo-making>
+ <jbo>sampli</jbo>
+ </lujvo-making>
+ </example>
+ <para>Such a brivla, built from the rafsi which represent its component words, is called a
+ <valsi>lujvo</valsi>. Another example, corresponding to the tanru of
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-oLE3"/>, would be:</para>
+ <example role="lujvo-example" xml:id="example-random-id-aiAR">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e5d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <lujvo-making>
+ <jbo>bralo'i</jbo>
+ <gloss>big-boat</gloss>
+ <natlang>ship</natlang>
+ </lujvo-making>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>construction of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>unambiguous decomposition of</secondary></indexterm> The lujvo representing a given tanru is built from units representing the component gismu. These units are called
+ <valsi>rafsi</valsi> in Lojban. Each rafsi represents only one gismu. The rafsi are attached together in the order of the words in the tanru, occasionally inserting so-called
+ <quote>hyphen</quote> letters to ensure that the pieces stick together as a single word and cannot accidentally be broken apart into cmavo, gismu, or other word forms. As a result, each lujvo can be readily and accurately recognized, allowing a listener to pick out the word from a string of spoken Lojban, and if necessary, unambiguously decompose the word to a unique source tanru, thus providing a strong clue to its meaning.</para>
+
+ <para>The lujvo that can be built from the tanru
+ <jbophrase>mamta patfu</jbophrase> in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-KQ4s"/> is</para>
+ <example role="lujvo-example" xml:id="example-random-id-TCUH">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e5d7"/>
+ </title>
+ <lujvo-making>
+ <jbo>mampa'u</jbo>
+ </lujvo-making>
+ </example>
+ <para>which refers specifically to the concept
+ <quote>maternal grandfather</quote>. The two gismu that constitute the tanru are represented in
+ <valsi>mampa'u</valsi> by the rafsi
+ <rafsi>mam-</rafsi> and
+ <rafsi>-pa'u</rafsi>, respectively; these two rafsi are then concatenated together to form
+ <valsi>mampa'u</valsi>.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>long rafsi form</primary><secondary>compared with short form in effect on lujvo meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>short rafsi form</primary><secondary>compared with long form in effect on lujvo meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi form</primary><secondary>effect of choice on meaning of lujvo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>multiple forms of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>meaning of</secondary></indexterm> Like gismu, lujvo have only one meaning. When a lujvo is formally entered into a dictionary of the language, a specific definition will be assigned based on one particular interrelationship between the terms. (See
+ <xref linkend="chapter-lujvo"/> for how this has been done.) Unlike gismu, lujvo may have more than one form. This is because there is no difference in meaning between the various rafsi for a gismu when they are used to build a lujvo. A long rafsi may be used, especially in noisy environments, in place of a short rafsi; the result is considered the same lujvo, even though the word is spelled and pronounced differently. Thus the word
+
+
+ <valsi>brivla</valsi>, built from the tanru
+ <jbophrase>bridi valsi</jbophrase>, is the same lujvo as
+ <valsi>brivalsi</valsi>,
+ <valsi>bridyvla</valsi>, and
+ <valsi>bridyvalsi</valsi>, each of which uses a different combination of rafsi.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>apostrophe</primary><secondary>and consonant cluster determination in lujvo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>' symbol</primary><secondary>and consonant cluster determination in lujvo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>y-hyphen</primary><secondary>and consonant cluster determination</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>rules for combining to form lujvo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>rules for formation of</secondary></indexterm> When assembling rafsi together into lujvo, the rules for valid brivla must be followed: a consonant cluster must occur in the first five letters (excluding
+ <letteral>y</letteral> and
+ <letteral>'</letteral>), and the lujvo must end in a vowel.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>glue in lujvo</primary><secondary>y-hyphen as</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>y-hyphen</primary><secondary>and stress determination</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>y-hyphen</primary><secondary>use of</secondary></indexterm> A
+ <letteral>y</letteral> (which is ignored in determining stress or consonant clusters) is inserted in the middle of the consonant cluster to glue the word together when the resulting cluster is either not permissible or the word is likely to break up. There are specific rules describing these conditions, detailed in
+
+
+ <xref linkend="section-rafsi"/>.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>glue in lujvo</primary><secondary>n-hyphen as</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>n-hyphen</primary><secondary>use of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>glue in lujvo</primary><secondary>r-hyphen as</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>r-hyphen</primary><secondary>use of</secondary></indexterm> An
+ <letteral>r</letteral> (in some cases, an
+ <letteral>n</letteral>) is inserted when a CVV-form rafsi attaches to the beginning of a lujvo in such a way that there is no consonant cluster. For example, in the lujvo</para>
+ <example role="lujvo-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3Qtv">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>field rations</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e5d8"/>
+ </title>
+ <lujvo-making>
+ <jbo>soirsai</jbo>
+ <veljvo>sonci sanmi</veljvo>
+ <gloss>soldier meal</gloss>
+ <natlang>field rations</natlang>
+ </lujvo-making>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmavo</primary><secondary>contrasted with same-form rafsi in meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>contrasted with same-form cmavo in meaning</secondary></indexterm> the rafsi
+ <rafsi>soi-</rafsi> and
+ <rafsi>-sai</rafsi> are joined, with the additional
+
+ <letteral>r</letteral> making up the
+ <morphology>rs</morphology> consonant pair needed to make the word a brivla. Without the
+ <letteral>r</letteral>, the word would break up into
+ <jbophrase>soi sai</jbophrase>, two cmavo. The pair of cmavo have no relation to their rafsi lookalikes; they will either be ungrammatical (as in this case), or will express a different meaning from what was intended.</para>
+
+ <para>Learning rafsi and the rules for assembling them into lujvo is clearly seen to be necessary for fully using the potential Lojban vocabulary.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>invention of</secondary></indexterm> Most important, it is possible to invent new lujvo while you speak or write in order to represent a new or unfamiliar concept, one for which you do not know any existing Lojban word. As long as you follow the rules for building these compounds, there is a good chance that you will be understood without explanation.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-rafsi">
+ <title>rafsi</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>selection considerations in making lujvo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>level of uniqueness of rafsi relating to</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>level of uniqueness of relation to gismu</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>multiplicity of for single gismu</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>uniqueness in gismu referent of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>use of</secondary></indexterm> Every gismu has from two to five rafsi, each of a different form, but each such rafsi represents only one gismu. It is valid to use any of the rafsi forms in building lujvo – whichever the reader or listener will most easily understand, or whichever is most pleasing – subject to the rules of lujvo making. There is a scoring algorithm which is intended to determine which of the possible and legal lujvo forms will be the standard dictionary form (see
+ <xref linkend="section-lujvo-scoring"/>).</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>unreduced lujvo</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>long rafsi</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>4-letter rafsi</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>5-letter rafsi</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>basic rafsi for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>unreduced</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>long</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>forms of</secondary></indexterm> Each gismu always has at least two rafsi forms; one is the gismu itself (used only at the end of a lujvo), and one is the gismu without its final vowel (used only at the beginning or middle of a lujvo). These forms are represented as CVC/CV or CCVCV (called
+ <quote>the 5-letter rafsi</quote>), and CVC/C or CCVC (called
+ <quote>the 4-letter rafsi</quote>) respectively. The dashes in these rafsi form representations show where other rafsi may be attached to form a valid lujvo. When lujvo are formed only from 4-letter and 5-letter rafsi, known collectively as
+
+ <quote>long rafsi</quote>, they are called
+
+ <quote>unreduced lujvo</quote>.</para>
+
+ <para>Some examples of unreduced lujvo forms are:</para>
+
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qj84" role="lujvo-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e6d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <lujvo-making>
+ <jbo>mamtypatfu</jbo>
+ <veljvo>mamta patfu</veljvo>
+ <gloss><quote>mother father</quote></gloss>
+ <natlang>or <quote>maternal grandfather</quote></natlang>
+ </lujvo-making>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qj99" role="lujvo-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e6d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <lujvo-making>
+ <jbo>lerfyliste</jbo>
+ <veljvo>lerfu liste</veljvo>
+ <gloss><quote>letter list</quote> or a <quote>list of letters</quote></gloss>
+ <natlang>(letters of the alphabet)</natlang>
+ </lujvo-making>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qj9G" role="lujvo-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e6d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <lujvo-making>
+ <jbo>nancyprali</jbo>
+ <veljvo>nanca prali</veljvo>
+ <gloss><quote>year profit</quote></gloss>
+ <natlang>or <quote>annual profit</quote></natlang>
+ </lujvo-making>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJbi" role="lujvo-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e6d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <lujvo-making>
+ <jbo>prunyplipe</jbo>
+ <veljvo>pruni plipe</veljvo>
+ <gloss><quote>elastic (springy) leap</quote></gloss>
+ <natlang>or <quote>spring</quote> (the verb)</natlang>
+ </lujvo-making>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjbP" role="lujvo-example">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>supper</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e6d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <lujvo-making>
+ <jbo>vancysanmi</jbo>
+ <veljvo>vanci sanmi</veljvo>
+ <gloss><quote>evening meal</quote></gloss>
+ <natlang>or <quote>supper</quote></natlang>
+
+ </lujvo-making>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>short rafsi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>short</secondary></indexterm> In addition to these two forms, each gismu may have up to three additional short rafsi, three letters long. All short rafsi have one of the forms CVC, CCV, or CVV. The total number of rafsi forms that are assigned to a gismu depends on how useful the gismu is, or is presumed to be, in making lujvo, when compared to other gismu that could be assigned the rafsi.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>-er</primary><secondary>use of zmadu in forming</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>comparatives</primary><secondary>use of zmadu in forming</secondary></indexterm> For example,
+ <valsi>zmadu</valsi> (
+ <quote>more than</quote>) has the two short rafsi
+ <rafsi>zma</rafsi> and
+ <rafsi>mau</rafsi> (in addition to its unreduced rafsi
+
+ <rafsi>zmad</rafsi> and
+ <valsi>zmadu</valsi>), because a vast number of lujvo have been created based on
+ <valsi>zmadu</valsi>, corresponding in general to English comparative adjectives ending in
+
+ <quote>-er</quote> such as
+ <quote>whiter</quote> (Lojban
+ <valsi>labmau</valsi>). On the other hand,
+ <valsi>bakri</valsi> (
+ <quote>chalk</quote>) has no short rafsi and few lujvo.</para>
+ <para>There are at most one CVC-form, one CCV-form, and one CVV-form rafsi per gismu. In fact, only a tiny handful of gismu have both a CCV-form and a CVV-form rafsi assigned, and still fewer have all three forms of short rafsi. However, gismu with both a CVC-form and another short rafsi are fairly common, partly because more possible CVC-form rafsi exist. Yet CVC-form rafsi, even though they are fairly easy to remember, cannot be used at the end of a lujvo (because lujvo must end in vowels), so justifying the assignment of an additional short rafsi to many gismu.</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>rationale for assignments of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi space</primary></indexterm> The intention was to use the available
+ <quote>rafsi space</quote>- the set of all possible short rafsi forms – in the most efficient way possible; the goal is to make the most-used lujvo as short as possible (thus maximizing the use of short rafsi), while keeping the rafsi very recognizable to anyone who knows the source gismu. For this reason, the letters in a rafsi have always been chosen from among the five letters of the corresponding gismu. As a result, there are a limited set of short rafsi available for assignment to each gismu. At most seven possible short rafsi are available for consideration (of which at most three can be used, as explained above).</para>
+
+
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>possible forms for construction of</secondary></indexterm> Here are the only short rafsi forms that can possibly exist for gismu of the form CVC/CV, like <valsi>sakli</valsi>. The digits in the second column represent the gismu letters used to form the rafsi.</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr>
+ <td>CVC</td>
+ <td>123</td>
+ <td><rafsi>-sak-</rafsi></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>CVC</td>
+ <td>124</td>
+ <td><rafsi>-sal-</rafsi></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>CVV</td>
+ <td>12'5</td>
+ <td><rafsi>-sa'i-</rafsi></td>
+
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>CVV</td>
+ <td>125</td>
+ <td><rafsi>-sai-</rafsi></td>
+
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>CCV</td>
+ <td>345</td>
+ <td><rafsi>-kli-</rafsi></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>CCV</td>
+ <td>132</td>
+ <td><rafsi>-ska-</rafsi></td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <para>(The only actual short rafsi for
+ <valsi>sakli</valsi> is
+ <rafsi>-sal-</rafsi>.)</para>
+ <para>For gismu of the form CCVCV, like
+ <valsi>blaci</valsi>, the only short rafsi forms that can exist are:</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr>
+ <td>CVC</td>
+ <td>134</td>
+ <td><rafsi>-bac-</rafsi></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>CVC</td>
+ <td>234</td>
+ <td><rafsi>-lac</rafsi></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>CVV</td>
+ <td>13'5</td>
+ <td><rafsi>-ba'i-</rafsi></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>CVV</td>
+ <td>135</td>
+ <td><rafsi>-bai-</rafsi></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>CVV</td>
+ <td>23'5</td>
+ <td><rafsi>-la'i-</rafsi></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>CVV</td>
+ <td>235</td>
+ <td><rafsi>-lai-</rafsi></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>CCV</td>
+ <td>123</td>
+ <td><rafsi>-bla-</rafsi></td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi assignments</primary><secondary>non-reassignability of</secondary></indexterm> (In fact,
+ <valsi>blaci</valsi> has none of these short rafsi; they are all assigned to other gismu. Lojban speakers are not free to reassign any of the rafsi; the tables shown here are to help understand how the rafsi were chosen in the first place.)</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>considerations restricting construction of</secondary></indexterm> There are a few restrictions: a CVV-form rafsi without an apostrophe cannot exist unless the vowels make up one of the four diphthongs
+ <diphthong>ai</diphthong>,
+ <diphthong>ei</diphthong>,
+ <diphthong>oi</diphthong>, or
+ <diphthong>au</diphthong>; and a CCV-form rafsi is possible only if the two consonants form a permissible initial consonant pair (see
+ <xref linkend="section-morphology-introduction"/>). Thus
+ <valsi>mamta</valsi>, which has the same form as
+ <valsi>salci</valsi>, can only have
+ <rafsi>mam</rafsi>,
+ <rafsi>mat</rafsi>, and
+ <rafsi>ma'a</rafsi> as possible rafsi: in fact, only
+
+ <rafsi>mam</rafsi> is assigned to it.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>numbers</primary><secondary>rafsi for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi for numbers</primary></indexterm> Some cmavo also have associated rafsi, usually CVC-form. For example, the ten common numerical digits, which are all CV form cmavo, each have a CVC-form rafsi formed by adding a consonant to the cmavo. Most cmavo that have rafsi are ones used in composing tanru.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fully reduced lujvo</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>fully reduced</secondary></indexterm> The term for a lujvo made up solely of short rafsi is
+ <quote>fully reduced lujvo</quote>. Here are some examples of fully reduced lujvo:</para>
+
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJc2" role="lujvo-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e6d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <lujvo-making>
+ <jbo>cumfri</jbo>
+ <veljvo>cumki lifri</veljvo>
+ <gloss><quote>possible experience</quote></gloss>
+ </lujvo-making>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjcA" role="lujvo-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e6d7"/>
+ </title>
+ <lujvo-making>
+ <jbo>klezba</jbo>
+ <veljvo>klesi zbasu</veljvo>
+ <gloss><quote>category make</quote></gloss>
+ </lujvo-making>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjD7" role="lujvo-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e6d8"/>
+ </title>
+ <lujvo-making>
+ <jbo>kixta'a</jbo>
+ <veljvo>krixa tavla</veljvo>
+ <gloss><quote>cry-out talk</quote></gloss>
+ </lujvo-making>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJDa" role="lujvo-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e6d9"/>
+ </title>
+ <lujvo-making>
+ <jbo>sniju'o</jbo>
+ <veljvo>sinxa djuno</veljvo>
+ <gloss><quote>sign know</quote></gloss>
+ </lujvo-making>
+ </example>
+ <para>In addition, the unreduced forms in <xref linkend="example-random-id-qj84"/> and <xref linkend="example-random-id-qj99"/> may be fully reduced to:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjdE" role="lujvo-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e6d10"/>
+ </title>
+ <lujvo-making>
+ <jbo>mampa'u</jbo>
+ <veljvo>mamta patfu</veljvo>
+ <gloss><quote>mother father</quote></gloss>
+ <natlang>or <quote>maternal grandfather</quote></natlang>
+ </lujvo-making>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJDg" role="lujvo-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e6d11"/>
+ </title>
+ <lujvo-making>
+ <jbo>lerste</jbo>
+ <veljvo>lerfu liste</veljvo>
+ <gloss><quote>letter list</quote> or a <quote>list of letters</quote></gloss>
+ </lujvo-making>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>recognizing</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo form</primary><secondary>number of letters in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo form</primary><secondary>consonant cluster requirement in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo form</primary><secondary>final letter of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>summary of form characteristics</secondary></indexterm> As noted above, CVC-form rafsi cannot appear as the final rafsi in a lujvo, because all lujvo must end with one or two vowels. As a brivla, a lujvo must also contain a consonant cluster within the first five letters – this ensures that they cannot be mistaken for compound cmavo. Of course, all lujvo have at least six letters since they have two or more rafsi, each at least three letters long; hence they cannot be confused with gismu.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo form</primary><secondary>requirements for hyphen insertion in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>hyphen letter</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>hyphens</primary><secondary>use of</secondary></indexterm> When attaching two rafsi together, it may be necessary to insert a hyphen letter. In Lojban, the term
+
+ <quote>hyphen</quote> always refers to a letter, either the vowel
+ <letteral>y</letteral> or one of the consonants
+ <letteral>r</letteral> and
+ <letteral>n</letteral>. (The letter
+ <letteral>l</letteral> can also be a hyphen, but is not used as one in lujvo.)</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo form</primary><secondary>requirements for y-hyphen insertion in</secondary></indexterm> The
+ y-hyphen is used after a CVC-form rafsi when joining it with the following rafsi could result in an impermissible consonant pair, or when the resulting lujvo could fall apart into two or more words (either cmavo or gismu).</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>and consonant pairs</secondary></indexterm> Thus, the tanru
+ <jbophrase>pante tavla</jbophrase> (
+ <quote>protest talk</quote>) cannot produce the lujvo
+ <valsi valid="false">patta'a</valsi>, because
+ <morphology>tt</morphology> is not a permissible consonant pair; the lujvo must be
+ <valsi>patyta'a</valsi>. Similarly, the tanru
+ <jbophrase>mudri siclu</jbophrase> (
+ <quote>wooden whistle</quote>) cannot form the lujvo
+ <valsi valid="false">mudsiclu</valsi>; instead,
+ <valsi>mudysiclu</valsi> must be used. (Remember that
+ <letteral>y</letteral> is not counted in determining whether the first five letters of a brivla contain a consonant cluster: this is why.)</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>four-letter</secondary><tertiary>requirement for y-hyphen</tertiary></indexterm> The
+ y-hyphen is also used to attach a 4-letter rafsi, formed by dropping the final vowel of a gismu, to the following rafsi. (This procedure was shown, but not explained, in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qj84"/> to
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjbP"/>.)</para>
+ <para>The lujvo forms
+ <valsi>zunlyjamfu</valsi>,
+ <valsi>zunlyjma</valsi>,
+ <valsi>zuljamfu</valsi>, and
+ <valsi>zuljma</valsi> are all legitimate and equivalent forms made from the tanru
+ <jbophrase>zunle jamfu</jbophrase> (
+ <quote>left foot</quote>). Of these,
+ <valsi>zuljma</valsi> is the preferred one since it is the shortest; it thus is likely to be the form listed in a Lojban dictionary.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo form</primary><secondary>requirements for n-hyphen insertion in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo form</primary><secondary>requirements for r-hyphen insertion in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>r-hyphen</primary><secondary>use of</secondary></indexterm> The
+ r-hyphen and its close relative, the
+ n-hyphen, are used in lujvo only after CVV-form rafsi. A hyphen is always required in a two-part lujvo of the form CVV-CVV, since otherwise there would be no consonant cluster.</para>
+ <para>An
+ r-hyphen or
+ n-hyphen is also required after the CVV-form rafsi of any lujvo of the form CVV-CVC/CV or CVV-CCVCV since it would otherwise fall apart into a CVV-form cmavo and a gismu. In any lujvo with more than two parts, a CVV-form rafsi in the initial position must always be followed by a hyphen. If the hyphen were to be omitted, the supposed lujvo could be broken into smaller words without the hyphen: because the CVV-form rafsi would be interpreted as a cmavo, and the remainder of the word as a valid lujvo that is one rafsi shorter.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>r-hyphen</primary><secondary>contrasted with n-hyphen in requirements for use</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>n-hyphen</primary><secondary>contrasted with r-hyphen in requirements for use</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>n-hyphen</primary><secondary>use of</secondary></indexterm> An
+ n-hyphen is only used in place of an
+ r-hyphen when the following rafsi begins with
+ <letteral>r</letteral>. For example, the tanru
+ <jbophrase>rokci renro</jbophrase> (
+ <quote>rock throw</quote>) cannot be expressed as
+ <jbophrase valid="false">ro'ire'o</jbophrase> (which breaks up into two cmavo), nor can it be
+ <jbophrase valid="false">ro'irre'o</jbophrase> (which has an impermissible double consonant); the
+ n-hyphen is required, and the correct form of the hyphenated lujvo is
+ <valsi>ro'inre'o</valsi>. The same lujvo could also be expressed without hyphenation as
+ <valsi>rokre'o</valsi>.</para>
+ <para>
+<indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>with zei</secondary></indexterm>
+There is also a different way of building lujvo, or rather phrases which are grammatically and semantically equivalent to lujvo. You can make a phrase containing any desired words, joining each pair of them with the special cmavo
+ <valsi>zei</valsi>. Thus,</para>
+ <example role="lujvo-example" xml:id="example-random-id-VeGL">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e6d12"/>
+ </title>
+ <lujvo-making>
+ <jbo>bridi zei valsi</jbo>
+ </lujvo-making>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmavo without rafsi</primary><secondary>method of including in lujvo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>method of including in lujvo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>method of including in lujvo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>lack of</secondary><tertiary>effect on forming lujvo</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>from cmavo with no rafsi</secondary></indexterm> is the exact equivalent of
+ <valsi>brivla</valsi> (but not necessarily the same as the underlying tanru
+ <jbophrase>bridi valsi</jbophrase>, which could have other meanings.) Using
+ <valsi>zei</valsi> is the only way to get a cmavo lacking a rafsi, a cmene, or a fu'ivla into a lujvo:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJe1" role="lujvo-example">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>X-ray</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e6d13"/>
+ </title>
+ <lujvo-making>
+ <jbo>xy. zei kantu</jbo>
+ <natlang>X ray</natlang>
+ </lujvo-making>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJeE" role="lujvo-example">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>Persian rug</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>rug</primary><secondary>Persian</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e6d14"/>
+ </title>
+ <lujvo-making>
+ <jbo>kulnr,farsi zei lolgai</jbo>
+ <gloss>Farsi floor-cover</gloss>
+ <natlang>Persian rug</natlang>
+ </lujvo-making>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJef" role="lujvo-example">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>hepatitis</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e6d15"/>
+ </title>
+ <lujvo-making>
+ <jbo>na'e zei .a zei na'e zei by. livgyterbilma</jbo>
+ <gloss>non-A, non-B liver-disease</gloss>
+ <natlang>non-A, non-B hepatitis</natlang>
+ </lujvo-making>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJEh" role="lujvo-example">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>Sherman tank</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>tank</primary><secondary>Sherman</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e6d16"/>
+ </title>
+ <lujvo-making>
+ <jbo>.cerman. zei jamkarce</jbo>
+ <gloss>Sherman war-car</gloss>
+ <natlang>Sherman tank</natlang>
+ </lujvo-making>
+ </example>
+ <para><xref linkend="example-random-id-qJef"/> is particularly noteworthy because the phrase that would be produced by removing the
+ <valsi>zei</valsi>s from it doesn't end with a brivla, and in fact is not even grammatical. As written, the example is a tanru with two components, but by adding a
+ <valsi>zei</valsi> between
+ <valsi>by.</valsi> and
+ <valsi>livgyterbilma</valsi> to produce</para>
+ <example role="lujvo-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Wnaz">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>hepatitis</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e6d17"/>
+ </title>
+ <lujvo-making>
+ <jbo>na'e zei .a zei na'e zei by. zei livgyterbilma</jbo>
+ <natlang>non-A-non-B-hepatitis</natlang>
+ </lujvo-making>
+ </example>
+ <para>the whole phrase would become a single lujvo. The longer lujvo of
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-Wnaz"/> may be preferable, because its place structure can be built from that of
+ <valsi>bilma</valsi>, whereas the place structure of a lujvo without a brivla must be constructed ad hoc.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmavo</primary><secondary>contrasted with rafsi in usage</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>contrasted with cmavo in usage</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>contrasted with words</secondary></indexterm> Note that rafsi may not be used in
+ <valsi>zei</valsi> phrases, because they are not words. CVV rafsi look like words (specifically cmavo) but there can be no confusion between the two uses of the same letters, because cmavo appear only as separate words or in compound cmavo (which are really just a notation for writing separate but closely related words as if they were one); rafsi appear only as parts of lujvo.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-fuhivla">
+ <title>fu'ivla</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>unsuitability of for concrete/specific terms and jargon</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>food</primary><secondary>use of fu'ivla for specific</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>animals</primary><secondary>use of fu'ivla for specific</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>plants</primary><secondary>use of fu'ivla for specific</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>jargon</primary><secondary>use of fu'ivla for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>specific terms</primary><secondary>use of fu'ivla for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>concrete terms</primary><secondary>use of fu'ivla for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>use of</secondary></indexterm> The use of tanru or lujvo is not always appropriate for very concrete or specific terms (e.g.
+
+ <quote>brie</quote> or
+
+ <quote>cobra</quote>), or for jargon words specialized to a narrow field (e.g.
+
+
+ <quote>quark</quote>,
+
+ <quote>integral</quote>, or
+
+ <quote>iambic pentameter</quote>). These words are in effect names for concepts, and the names were invented by speakers of another language. The vast majority of words referring to plants, animals, foods, and scientific terminology cannot be easily expressed as tanru. They thus must be borrowed (actually
+
+ <quote>copied</quote>) into Lojban from the original language.</para>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>borrowings</primary><secondary>Stage 1</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>borrowings</primary><secondary>using foreign-language name</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>borrowing</primary><secondary>four stages of</secondary></indexterm> There are four stages of borrowing in Lojban, as words become more and more modified (but shorter and easier to use). Stage 1 is the use of a foreign name quoted with the cmavo
+
+ <valsi>la'o</valsi> (explained in full in
+ <xref linkend="section-more-quotations"/>):</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-QpNm">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e7d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>me la'o ly. spaghetti .ly.</jbo>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>spaghetti</primary></indexterm> is a predicate with the place structure
+ <quote>x1 is a quantity of spaghetti</quote>.</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>borrowings</primary><secondary>Stage 2</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>borrowings</primary><secondary>using lojbanized name</secondary></indexterm> Stage 2 involves changing the foreign name to a Lojbanized name, as explained in
+ <xref linkend="section-cmene"/>:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-zijY">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e7d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>me la spagetis.</jbo>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>One of these expedients is often quite sufficient when you need a word quickly in conversation. (This can make it easier to get by when you do not yet have full command of the Lojban vocabulary, provided you are talking to someone who will recognize the borrowing.)</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>as Stage 3 borrowings</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>borrowings</primary><secondary>Stage 3</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>borrowings</primary><secondary>fu'ivla form with categorizing rafsi</secondary></indexterm> Where a little more universality is desired, the word to be borrowed must be Lojbanized into one of several permitted forms. A rafsi is then usually attached to the beginning of the Lojbanized form, using a hyphen to ensure that the resulting word doesn't fall apart.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>borrowings</primary><secondary>most common form for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>uniqueness of meaning in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>as fu'ivla categorizer</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla categorizer</primary></indexterm> The rafsi categorizes or limits the meaning of the fu'ivla; otherwise a word having several different jargon meanings in other languages would require the word-inventor to choose which meaning should be assigned to the fu'ivla, since fu'ivla (like other brivla) are not permitted to have more than one definition. Such a Stage 3 borrowing is the most common kind of fu'ivla.</para>
+
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>as Stage 4 borrowings</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>borrowings</primary><secondary>Stage 4</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>borrowings</primary><secondary>fu'ivla form without categorizing rafsi</secondary></indexterm> Finally, Stage 4 fu'ivla do not have any rafsi classifier, and are used where a fu'ivla has become so common or so important that it must be made as short as possible. (See
+ <xref linkend="section-rafsi-fuhivla"/> for a proposal concerning Stage 4 fu'ivla.)</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>form of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>construction of</secondary></indexterm> The form of a fu'ivla reliably distinguishes it from both the gismu and the cmavo. Like cultural gismu, fu'ivla are generally based on a word from a single non-Lojban language. The word is
+ <quote>borrowed</quote> (actually
+ <quote>copied</quote>, hence the Lojban tanru
+ <jbophrase>fukpi valsi</jbophrase>) from the other language and Lojbanized – the phonemes are converted to their closest Lojban equivalent and modifications are made as necessary to make the word a legitimate Lojban fu'ivla-form word. All fu'ivla:</para>
+ <orderedlist>
+ <listitem>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>initial consonant cluster in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>rules for formation of</secondary></indexterm> must contain a consonant cluster in the first five letters of the word; if this consonant cluster is at the beginning, it must either be a permissible initial consonant pair, or a longer cluster such that each pair of adjacent consonants in the cluster is a permissible initial consonant pair:
+ <valsi>spraile</valsi> is acceptable, but not
+ <valsi valid="false">ktraile</valsi> or
+ <valsi valid="false">trkaile</valsi>;</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>must end in one or more vowels;</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>slinku'i test</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> must not be gismu or lujvo, or any combination of cmavo, gismu, and lujvo; furthermore, a fu'ivla with a CV cmavo joined to the front of it must not have the form of a lujvo (the so-called
+ <quote>slinku'i test</quote>, not discussed further in this book);</para>
+
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>
+<indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>y</primary><secondary>letter</secondary><tertiary>prohibition from fu'ivla</tertiary></indexterm> cannot contain
+ <letteral>y</letteral>, although they may contain syllabic pronunciations of Lojban consonants;</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>stress in</secondary></indexterm> like other brivla, are stressed on the penultimate syllable.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </orderedlist>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>consonant clusters in</secondary></indexterm> Note that consonant triples or larger clusters that are not at the beginning of a fu'ivla can be quite flexible, as long as all consonant pairs are permissible. There is no need to restrict fu'ivla clusters to permissible initial pairs except at the beginning.</para>
+
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>borrowings</primary><secondary>Stage 3 contrasted with Stage 4 in ease of construction</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>categorized contrasted with uncategorized in ease of construction</secondary></indexterm> This is a fairly liberal definition and allows quite a lot of possibilities within
+ <quote>fu'ivla space</quote>. Stage 3 fu'ivla can be made easily on the fly, as lujvo can, because the procedure for forming them always guarantees a word that cannot violate any of the rules. Stage 4 fu'ivla require running tests that are not simple to characterize or perform, and should be made only after deliberation and by someone knowledgeable about all the considerations that apply.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>algorithm for constructing</secondary></indexterm> Here is a simple and reliable procedure for making a non-Lojban word into a valid Stage 3 fu'ivla:</para>
+ <orderedlist>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>Eliminate all double consonants and silent letters.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>Convert all sounds to their closest Lojban equivalents. Lojban
+ <letteral>y</letteral>, however, may not be used in any fu'ivla.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>If the last letter is not a vowel, modify the ending so that the word ends in a vowel, either by removing a final consonant or by adding a suggestively chosen final vowel.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>If the first letter is not a consonant, modify the beginning so that the word begins with a consonant, either by removing an initial vowel or adding a suggestively chosen initial consonant.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla categorizer</primary><secondary>selection consideration for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>l-hyphen</primary><secondary>use of</secondary></indexterm> Prefix the result of steps 1-5 with a 4-letter rafsi that categorizes the fu'ivla into a
+ <quote>topic area</quote>. It is only safe to use a 4-letter rafsi; short rafsi sometimes produce invalid fu'ivla. Hyphenate the rafsi to the rest of the fu'ivla with an
+ r-hyphen; if that would produce a double
+ <letteral>r</letteral>, use an
+ n-hyphen instead; if the rafsi ends in
+ <letteral>r</letteral> and the rest of the fu'ivla begins with
+ <letteral>n</letteral> (or vice versa), or if the rafsi ends in "r" and the rest of the fu'ivla begins with "tc", "ts", "dj", or "dz" (using "n" would result in a phonotactically impermissible cluster), use an
+ l-hyphen. (This is the only use of
+ l-hyphen in Lojban.)</para>
+ <para>Alternatively, if a CVC-form short rafsi is available it can be used instead of the long rafsi.</para>
+
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>Remember that the stress necessarily appears on the penultimate (next-to-the-last) syllable.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </orderedlist>
+ <para> In this section, the hyphen is set off with commas in the examples, but these commas are not required in writing, and the hyphen need not be pronounced as a separate syllable.</para>
+ <para>Here are a few examples:</para>
+ <example role="lojbanization-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ufin">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>spaghetti</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e7d3"/>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>syllabic pronunciations of consonants</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>syllabic pronunciations of consonants</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla category attachment</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
+ </title>
+ <lojbanization>
+ <natlang>spaghetti <comment>from English or Italian</comment></natlang>
+
+ <jbo>spageti <comment>Lojbanize</comment></jbo>
+ <jbo>cidj,r,spageti <comment>prefix long rafsi</comment></jbo>
+
+ <jbo>dja,r,spageti <comment>prefix short rafsi</comment></jbo>
+ </lojbanization>
+ </example>
+ <para> where
+ <rafsi>cidj-</rafsi> is the 4-letter rafsi for
+ <valsi>cidja</valsi>, the Lojban gismu for
+ <quote>food</quote>, thus categorizing
+ <valsi>cidjrspageti</valsi> as a kind of food. The form with the short rafsi happens to work, but such good fortune cannot be relied on: in any event, it means the same thing.</para>
+ <example role="lojbanization-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pzXe">
+ <title>
+
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>syllabic pronunciations of consonants</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla category attachment</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>syllabic pronunciations of consonants</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>maple trees</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>Acer</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>maple sugar</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e7d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <lojbanization>
+ <natlang>Acer <comment>the scientific name of maple trees</comment></natlang>
+
+
+ <jbo>acer <comment>Lojbanize</comment></jbo>
+ <jbo>xaceru <comment>add initial consonant and final vowel</comment></jbo>
+ <jbo>tric,r,xaceru <comment>prefix rafsi</comment></jbo>
+ <jbo>ric,r,xaceru <comment>prefix short rafsi</comment></jbo>
+ </lojbanization>
+ </example>
+ <para>where
+ <rafsi>tric-</rafsi> and
+ <rafsi>ric-</rafsi> are rafsi for
+ <valsi>tricu</valsi>, the gismu for
+ <quote>tree</quote>. Note that by the same principles,
+ <quote>maple sugar</quote> could get the fu'ivla
+
+ <valsi>saktrxaceru</valsi>, or could be represented by the tanru
+ <jbophrase>tricrxaceru sakta</jbophrase>. Technically,
+ <valsi>ricrxaceru</valsi> and
+ <valsi>tricrxaceru</valsi> are distinct fu'ivla, but they would surely be given the same meanings if both happened to be in use.</para>
+ <example role="lojbanization-example" xml:id="example-random-id-C0YS">
+ <title>
+
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>syllabic pronunciations of consonants</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla category attachment</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>syllabic pronunciations of consonants</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>brie</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e7d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <lojbanization>
+ <natlang>brie <comment>from French</comment></natlang>
+
+ <jbo>bri <comment>Lojbanize</comment></jbo>
+ <jbo>cirl,r,bri <comment>prefix rafsi</comment></jbo>
+ </lojbanization>
+ </example>
+ <para> where
+ <rafsi>cirl-</rafsi> represents
+ <valsi>cirla</valsi> (
+ <quote>cheese</quote>).</para>
+ <example role="lojbanization-example" xml:id="example-random-id-DQju">
+ <title>
+
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>syllabic pronunciations of consonants</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla category attachment</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>syllabic pronunciations of consonants</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>cobra</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e7d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <lojbanization>
+ <natlang>cobra</natlang>
+
+ <jbo>kobra <comment>Lojbanize</comment></jbo>
+ <jbo>sinc,r,kobra <comment>prefix rafsi</comment></jbo>
+ </lojbanization>
+ </example>
+ <para> where
+ <rafsi>sinc-</rafsi> represents
+ <valsi>since</valsi> (
+ <quote>snake</quote>).</para>
+ <example role="lojbanization-example" xml:id="example-random-id-TFzH">
+ <title>
+
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>syllabic pronunciations of consonants</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla category attachment</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>syllabic pronunciations of consonants</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>quark</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e7d7"/>
+ </title>
+ <lojbanization>
+ <natlang>quark</natlang>
+
+ <jbo>kuark <comment>Lojbanize</comment></jbo>
+ <jbo>kuarka <comment>add final vowel</comment></jbo>
+ <jbo>sask,r,kuarka <comment>prefix rafsi</comment></jbo>
+ </lojbanization>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>allowable diphthongs</primary><secondary>in gismu and lujvo contrasted with in fu'ivla</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>allowable diphthongs</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla contrasted with in gismu and lujvo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>diphthongs</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>diphthongs in</secondary></indexterm> where
+ <rafsi>sask-</rafsi> represents
+ <valsi>saske</valsi> (
+ <quote>science</quote>). Note the extra vowel
+ <letteral>a</letteral> added to the end of the word, and the diphthong
+ <diphthong>ua</diphthong>, which never appears in gismu or lujvo, but may appear in fu'ivla.</para>
+ <example role="lojbanization-example" xml:id="example-random-id-FTfQ">
+ <title>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>syllabic pronunciations of consonants</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla category attachment</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>syllabic pronunciations of consonants</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e7d8"/>
+ </title>
+ <lojbanization>
+ <natlang xml:lang="ko">자모 <comment>from Korean</comment></natlang>
+ <jbo>djamo <comment>Lojbanize</comment></jbo>
+ <jbo>lerf,r,djamo <comment>prefix rafsi</comment></jbo>
+ <jbo>ler,l,djamo <comment>prefix rafsi</comment></jbo>
+ </lojbanization>
+ </example>
+ <para>where
+ <rafsi>ler-</rafsi> represents
+ <valsi>lerfu</valsi> (
+ <quote>letter</quote>). Note the l-hyphen in "lerldjamo", since "lerndjamo" contains the forbidden cluster "ndj".</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla categorizer</primary><secondary>for distinguishing fu'ivla form</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>disambiguation of</secondary></indexterm> The use of the prefix helps distinguish among the many possible meanings of the borrowed word, depending on the field. As it happens,
+ <valsi>spageti</valsi> and
+ <valsi>kuarka</valsi> are valid Stage 4 fu'ivla, but
+ <valsi valid="false">xaceru</valsi> looks like a compound cmavo, and
+ <valsi valid="false">kobra</valsi> like a gismu.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla categorizer</primary><secondary>for distinguishing specialized meanings</secondary></indexterm> For another example,
+ <quote>integral</quote> has a specific meaning to a mathematician. But the Lojban fu'ivla
+
+ <valsi>integrale</valsi>, which is a valid Stage 4 fu'ivla, does not convey that mathematical sense to a non-mathematical listener, even one with an English-speaking background; its source – the English word
+ <quote>integral</quote> – has various other specialized meanings in other fields.</para>
+
+ <para>Left uncontrolled,
+ <valsi>integrale</valsi> almost certainly would eventually come to mean the same collection of loosely related concepts that English associates with
+ <quote>integral</quote>, with only the context to indicate (possibly) that the mathematical term is meant.</para>
+
+ <para>
+<indexterm type="general"><primary>integral</primary><secondary>architectural concept</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general"><primary>integral</primary><secondary>mathematical concept</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
+
+The prefix method would render the mathematical concept as
+ <valsi>cmacrntegrale</valsi>, if the
+ <letteral>i</letteral> of
+ <valsi>integrale</valsi> is removed, or something like
+ <valsi>cmacrnintegrale</valsi>, if a new consonant is added to the beginning;
+ <rafsi>cmac-</rafsi> is the rafsi for
+ <valsi>cmaci</valsi> (
+ <quote>mathematics</quote>). The architectural sense of
+ <quote>integral</quote> might be conveyed with
+
+ <valsi>djinrnintegrale</valsi> or
+ <valsi>tarmrnintegrale</valsi>, where
+ <valsi>dinju</valsi> and
+ <valsi>tarmi</valsi> mean
+ <quote>building</quote> and
+ <quote>form</quote> respectively.</para>
+ <para>Here are some fu'ivla representing cultures and related things, shown with more than one rafsi prefix:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJG8" role="lojbanization-example">
+ <title>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>syllabic pronunciations of consonants</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>syllabic pronunciations of consonants</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla category attachment</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>Bulgarian</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e7d9"/>
+ </title>
+ <lojbanization>
+ <jbo role="pronunciation">bang,r,blgaria</jbo>
+ <natlang>Bulgarian <comment>in language</comment></natlang>
+
+ </lojbanization>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJga" role="lojbanization-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e7d10"/>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>syllabic pronunciations of consonants</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla category attachment</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>syllabic pronunciations of consonants</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>Bulgarian</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ </title>
+ <lojbanization>
+ <jbo role="pronunciation">kuln,r,blgaria</jbo>
+ <natlang>Bulgarian <comment>in culture</comment></natlang>
+
+ </lojbanization>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjGf" role="lojbanization-example">
+ <title>
+
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>syllabic pronunciations of consonants</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla category attachment</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>Bulgarian</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e7d11"/>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>syllabic pronunciations of consonants</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
+ </title>
+ <lojbanization>
+ <jbo role="pronunciation">gugd,r,blgaria</jbo>
+ <natlang>Bulgaria <comment>the country</comment></natlang>
+ </lojbanization>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJGv" role="lojbanization-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e7d12"/>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>syllabic pronunciations of consonants</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla category attachment</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>Korean</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>syllabic pronunciations of consonants</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
+ </title>
+ <lojbanization>
+ <jbo role="pronunciation">bang,r,kore,a</jbo>
+ <natlang>Korean <comment>the language</comment></natlang>
+
+ </lojbanization>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjh0" role="lojbanization-example">
+ <title>
+
+
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>syllabic pronunciations of consonants</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla category attachment</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>Korean</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e7d13"/>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>syllabic pronunciations of consonants</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
+ </title>
+ <lojbanization>
+ <jbo role="pronunciation">kuln,r,kore,a</jbo>
+ <natlang>Korean <comment>the culture</comment></natlang>
+
+ </lojbanization>
+ </example>
+ <para>
+
+<indexterm type="general"><primary>Navajo</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+ <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>considerations for choosing basis word</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>with invalid diphthongs</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>invalid diphthongs</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla</secondary></indexterm> Note the commas in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qJGv"/> and
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjh0"/>, used because
+ <diphthong>ea</diphthong> is not a valid diphthong in Lojban. Arguably, some form of the native name
+ <quote>Chosen</quote> should have been used instead of the internationally known
+ <quote>Korea</quote>; this is a recurring problem in all borrowings. In general, it is better to use the native name unless using it will severely impede understanding:
+
+ <quote>Navajo</quote> is far more widely known than
+
+ <quote>Dine'e</quote>.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-cmene">
+ <title>cmene</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names in Lojban (see also cmene)</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>purpose of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>purpose of</secondary></indexterm> Lojbanized names, called
+ <valsi>cmene</valsi>, are very much like their counterparts in other languages. They are labels applied to things (or people) to stand for them in descriptions or in direct address. They may convey meaning in themselves, but do not necessarily do so.</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>rationale for lojbanizing</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>rationale for lojbanizing</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>and analyzability of speech stream</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>examples of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>examples of</secondary></indexterm> Because names are often highly personal and individual, Lojban attempts to allow native language names to be used with a minimum of modification. The requirement that the Lojban speech stream be unambiguously analyzable, however, means that most names must be modified somewhat when they are Lojbanized. Here are a few examples of English names and possible Lojban equivalents:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjhN" role="lojbanization-example">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>Jim</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e8d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <lojbanization>
+ <jbo>djim.</jbo>
+ <natlang>Jim</natlang>
+ </lojbanization>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjHo" role="lojbanization-example">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>Jane</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e8d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <lojbanization>
+ <jbo>djein.</jbo>
+ <natlang>Jane</natlang>
+ </lojbanization>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjIj" role="lojbanization-example">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>Arnold</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e8d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <lojbanization>
+ <jbo>.arnold.</jbo>
+ <natlang>Arnold</natlang>
+
+ </lojbanization>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjim" role="lojbanization-example">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>Pete</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e8d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <lojbanization>
+ <jbo>pit.</jbo>
+ <natlang>Pete</natlang>
+
+ </lojbanization>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjin" role="lojbanization-example">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>Katrina</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e8d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <lojbanization>
+ <jbo>katrinas.</jbo>
+ <natlang>Katrina</natlang>
+
+ </lojbanization>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjIq" role="lojbanization-example">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>Catherine</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e8d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <lojbanization>
+ <jbo>kat,r,in.</jbo>
+ <natlang>Catherine</natlang>
+
+ </lojbanization>
+ </example>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>syllabic consonant</primary><secondary>effect on stress determination</secondary></indexterm> (Note that syllabic
+ <letteral>r</letteral> is skipped in determining the stressed syllable, so
+
+
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjIq"/> is stressed on the
+ <valsi>ka</valsi>.)</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJiv" role="lojbanization-example">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>Cathy</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e8d7"/>
+ </title>
+ <lojbanization>
+ <jbo>katis.</jbo>
+ <natlang>Cathy</natlang>
+
+ </lojbanization>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjIy" role="lojbanization-example">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>Kate</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e8d8"/>
+ </title>
+ <lojbanization>
+ <jbo>keit.</jbo>
+ <natlang>Kate</natlang>
+
+ </lojbanization>
+ </example>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>unusual stress in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>unusual stress in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>stress in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>stress in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>rules for formation</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>rules for formation</secondary></indexterm> Names may have almost any form, but always end in a consonant, and are followed by a pause. They are penultimately stressed, unless unusual stress is marked with capitalization. A name may have multiple parts, each ending with a consonant and pause, or the parts may be combined into a single word with no pause. For example,</para>
+
+ <example role="lojbanization-example" xml:id="example-random-id-43uP">
+ <title>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>John Brown</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>Brown</primary><secondary>John</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e8d9"/>
+ </title>
+ <lojbanization>
+ <jbo>djan. braun.</jbo>
+ </lojbanization>
+ </example>
+ <para>and</para>
+ <example role="lojbanization-example" xml:id="example-random-id-QnyL">
+ <title>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>John Brown</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>Brown</primary><secondary>John</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e8d10"/>
+ </title>
+ <lojbanization>
+ <jbo>djanbraun.</jbo>
+ </lojbanization>
+ </example>
+ <para>are both valid Lojbanizations of
+ <quote>John Brown</quote>.</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>authority for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>authority for</secondary></indexterm> The final arbiter of the correct form of a name is the person doing the naming, although most cultures grant people the right to determine how they want their own name to be spelled and pronounced. The English name
+ <quote>Mary</quote> can thus be Lojbanized as
+ <cmevla>meris.</cmevla>,
+ <cmevla>maris.</cmevla>,
+ <cmevla>meiris.</cmevla>,
+ <cmevla>merix.</cmevla>, or even
+ <cmevla>marys.</cmevla>. The last alternative is not pronounced much like its English equivalent, but may be desirable to someone who values spelling over pronunciation. The final consonant need not be an
+ <letteral>s</letteral>; there must, however, be some Lojban consonant at the end.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>restrictions on form of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>restrictions on form of</secondary></indexterm> Names are not permitted to have the sequences
+ <valsi>la</valsi>,
+ <valsi>lai</valsi>, or
+ <valsi>doi</valsi> embedded in them, unless the sequence is immediately preceded by a consonant. These minor restrictions are due to the fact that all Lojban cmene embedded in a speech stream will be preceded by one of these words or by a pause. With one of these words embedded, the cmene might break up into valid Lojban words followed by a shorter cmene. However, break-up cannot happen after a consonant, because that would imply that the word before the
+ <valsi>la</valsi>, or whatever, ended in a consonant without pause, which is impossible.</para>
+ <para>
+
+<indexterm type="general"><primary>Nederlands</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+ <indexterm type="general"><primary>Laplace</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> For example, the invalid name
+ <cmevla>laplas.</cmevla> would look like the Lojban words
+ <jbophrase>la plas.</jbophrase>, and
+ <cmevla>ilanas.</cmevla> would be misunderstood as
+ <jbophrase>.i la nas.</jbophrase>. However,
+ <pronunciation><jbo>NEderlants.</jbo></pronunciation> cannot be misheard as
+ <pronunciation><jbo>NEder lants.</jbo></pronunciation>, because
+ <pronunciation><jbo>NEder</jbo></pronunciation> with no following pause is not a possible Lojban word.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>alternatives for restricted sequences in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>alternatives for restricted sequences in</secondary></indexterm> There are close alternatives to these forbidden sequences that can be used in Lojbanizing names, such as
+ <valsi>ly</valsi>,
+ <valsi>lei</valsi>, and
+ <valsi>dai</valsi> or
+
+ <valsi>do'i</valsi>, that do not cause these problems.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>rules for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>rules for</secondary></indexterm> Lojban cmene are identifiable as word forms by the following characteristics:</para>
+
+ <orderedlist>
+ <listitem>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>consonant clusters permitted in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>final letter in</secondary></indexterm> They must end in one or more consonants. There are no rules about how many consonants may appear in a cluster in cmene, provided that each consonant pair (whether standing by itself, or as part of a larger cluster) is a permissible pair.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>diphthongs</primary><secondary>specific to cmene</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>diphthongs</primary><secondary>specific to names</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>uy diphthong</primary><secondary>in cmene</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>iy diphthong</primary><secondary>in cmene</secondary></indexterm> They may contain the letter y as a normal, non-hyphenating vowel. They are the only kind of Lojban word that may contain the two diphthongs
+ <diphthong>iy</diphthong> and
+ <diphthong>uy</diphthong>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>requirement for pause after</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>requirement for pause after</secondary></indexterm> They are always followed in speech by a pause after the final consonant, written as
+ <letteral>.</letteral>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>capitalization</primary><secondary>use of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>capitalization</primary><secondary>for unusual stress in names</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>capitalization</primary><secondary>use in names</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>stress in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>stress in</secondary></indexterm> They may be stressed on any syllable; if this syllable is not the penultimate one, it must be capitalized when writing. Neither names nor words that begin sentences are capitalized in Lojban, so this is the only use of capital letters.</para>
+
+ </listitem>
+ </orderedlist>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>from Lojban words</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>from Lojban words</secondary></indexterm> Names meeting these criteria may be invented, Lojbanized from names in other languages, or formed by appending a consonant onto a cmavo, a gismu, a fu'ivla or a lujvo. Some cmene built from Lojban words are:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjj1" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>One</primary><secondary>the</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e8d11"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>pav.</jbo>
+ <natlang>the One</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>from the cmavo <valsi>pa</valsi>, with rafsi <rafsi>pav</rafsi>, meaning <quote>one</quote></para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjjN" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>Sun</primary><secondary>the</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e8d12"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>sol.</jbo>
+ <natlang>the Sun</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>from the gismu <valsi>solri</valsi>, meaning <quote>solar</quote>, or actually <quote>pertaining to the Sun</quote></para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjJz" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>Chief</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e8d13"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ralj.</jbo>
+ <natlang>Chief <comment>as a title</comment></natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>from the gismu <valsi>ralju</valsi>, meaning <quote>principal</quote>.</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJKt" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>Lord</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>Lady</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e8d14"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>nol.</jbo>
+ <natlang>Lord/Lady</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>from the gismu <valsi>nobli</valsi>, with rafsi <rafsi>nol</rafsi>, meaning <quote>noble</quote>.</para>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>algorithm for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>algorithm for</secondary></indexterm> To Lojbanize a name from the various natural languages, apply the following rules:</para>
+ <orderedlist>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>Eliminate double consonants and silent letters.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>Add a final
+ <letteral>s</letteral> or
+ <letteral>n</letteral> (or some other consonant that sounds good) if the name ends in a vowel.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>Convert all sounds to their closest Lojban equivalents.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>If possible and acceptable, shift the stress to the penultimate (next-to-the-last) syllable. Use commas and capitalization in written Lojban when it is necessary to preserve non-standard syllabication or stress. Do not capitalize names otherwise.</para>
+
+
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>avoiding impermissible consonant clusters in</secondary></indexterm> If the name contains an impermissible consonant pair, insert a vowel between the consonants:
+ <letteral>y</letteral> is recommended.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>proscribed syllables in</secondary></indexterm> No cmene may have the syllables
+ <valsi>la</valsi>,
+ <valsi>lai</valsi>, or
+ <valsi>doi</valsi> in them, unless immediately preceded by a consonant. If these combinations are present, they must be converted to something else. Possible substitutions include
+ <valsi>ly</valsi>,
+ <jbophrase>ly'i</jbophrase>, and
+ <valsi>dai</valsi> or
+
+ <valsi>do'i</valsi>, respectively.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </orderedlist>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>scientific names</primary><secondary>rules for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Linnaean names</primary><secondary>rules for</secondary></indexterm> There are some additional rules for Lojbanizing the scientific names (technically known as
+
+ <quote>Linnaean binomials</quote> after their inventor) which are internationally applied to each species of animal or plant. Where precision is essential, these names need not be Lojbanized, but can be directly inserted into Lojban text using the cmavo
+
+
+ <valsi>la'o</valsi>, explained in
+ <xref linkend="section-more-quotations"/>. Using this cmavo makes the already lengthy Latinized names at least four syllables longer, however, and leaves the pronunciation in doubt. The following suggestions, though incomplete, will assist in converting Linnaean binomals to valid Lojban names. They can also help to create fu'ivla based on Linnaean binomials or other words of the international scientific vocabulary. The term
+
+
+
+ <quote>back vowel</quote> in the following list refers to any of the letters
+ <letteral>a</letteral>,
+ <letteral>o</letteral>, or
+ <letteral>u</letteral>; the term
+ <quote>front vowel</quote> correspondingly refers to any of the letters
+ <letteral>e</letteral>,
+ <letteral>i</letteral>, or
+ <letteral>y</letteral>.</para>
+ <orderedlist>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>Change double consonants other than
+ <morphology>cc</morphology> to single consonants.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>Change
+ <morphology>cc</morphology> before a front vowel to
+ <morphology>kc</morphology>, but otherwise to
+ <letteral>k</letteral>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>Change
+ <letteral>c</letteral> before a back vowel and final
+ <letteral>c</letteral> to
+ <letteral>k</letteral>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>Change
+ <morphology>ng</morphology> before a consonant (other than
+ <letteral>h</letteral>) and final
+ <morphology>ng</morphology> to
+ <letteral>n</letteral>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>Change
+ <letteral>x</letteral> to
+ <letteral>z</letteral> initially, but otherwise to
+ <morphology>ks</morphology>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>Change
+ <morphology>pn</morphology> to
+ <letteral>n</letteral> initially.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>Change final
+ <diphthong>ie</diphthong> and
+ <diphthong>ii</diphthong> to
+ <letteral>i</letteral>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>Make the following idiosyncratic substitutions:</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr>
+ <td>aa</td><td>a</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>ae</td><td>e</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>ch</td><td>k</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>ee</td><td>i</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>eigh</td><td>ei</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>ew</td><td>u</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>igh</td><td>ai</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>oo</td><td>u</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>ou</td><td>u</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>ow</td><td>au</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>ph</td><td>f</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>q</td><td>k</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>sc</td><td>sk</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>w</td><td>u</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>y</td><td>i</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <para>However, the diphthong substitutions should not be done if the two vowels are in two different syllables.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>Change
+ <quote>h</quote> between two vowels to
+ <letteral>'</letteral>, but otherwise remove it completely. If preservation of the
+ <quote>h</quote> seems essential, change it to
+ <letteral>x</letteral> instead.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>Place <letteral>'</letteral> between any remaining vowel pairs that do not form Lojban diphthongs.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </orderedlist>
+ <para>Some further examples of Lojbanized names are:</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr>
+ <td>English</td>
+ <td><quote>Mary</quote></td>
+ <td><cmevla>meris.</cmevla> or <cmevla>meiris.</cmevla></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>English</td>
+ <td><quote>Smith</quote></td>
+ <td><cmevla>smit.</cmevla></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>English</td>
+ <td><quote>Jones</quote></td>
+ <td><cmevla>djonz.</cmevla></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>English</td>
+ <td><quote>John</quote></td>
+ <td><cmevla>djan.</cmevla> or <cmevla>jan.</cmevla> (American) or <cmevla>djon.</cmevla> or <cmevla>jon.</cmevla> (British)</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>English</td>
+ <td><quote>Alice</quote></td>
+ <td><cmevla>.alis.</cmevla></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>English</td>
+ <td><quote>Elise</quote></td>
+ <td><cmevla>.eLIS.</cmevla></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>English</td>
+ <td><quote>Johnson</quote></td>
+ <td><cmevla>djansn.</cmevla></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>English</td>
+ <td><quote>William</quote></td>
+ <td><cmevla>.uiliam.</cmevla> or <cmevla>.uil,iam.</cmevla></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>English</td>
+ <td><quote>Brown</quote></td>
+ <td><cmevla>braun.</cmevla></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>English</td>
+ <td><quote>Charles</quote></td>
+ <td><cmevla>tcarlz.</cmevla></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>French</td>
+ <td><quote>Charles</quote></td>
+ <td><cmevla>carl.</cmevla></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>French</td>
+ <td><quote>De Gaulle</quote></td>
+ <td><cmevla>dyGOL.</cmevla></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>German</td>
+ <td><quote>Heinrich</quote></td>
+ <td><cmevla>xainrix.</cmevla></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>Spanish</td>
+ <td><quote>Joaquin</quote></td>
+ <td><cmevla>xuaKIN.</cmevla></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>Russian</td>
+ <td><quote>Svetlana</quote></td>
+ <td><cmevla>sfietlanys.</cmevla></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>Russian</td>
+ <td><quote>Khrushchev</quote></td>
+ <td><cmevla>xrucTCOF.</cmevla></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>Hindi</td>
+ <td><quote>Krishna</quote></td>
+ <td><cmevla>kricnas.</cmevla></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>Polish</td>
+ <td><quote>Lech Walesa</quote></td>
+ <td><cmevla>lex. va,uensas.</cmevla></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>Spanish</td>
+ <td><quote>Don Quixote</quote></td>
+ <td><cmevla>don. kicotes.</cmevla> or modern Spanish: <cmevla>don. kixotes.</cmevla> or Mexican dialect: <cmevla>don. ki'otes.</cmevla></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>Chinese</td>
+ <td><quote>Mao Zedong</quote></td>
+ <td><cmevla>maudzydyn.</cmevla></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>Japanese</td>
+ <td><quote>Fujiko</quote></td>
+ <td><cmevla>fudjikos.</cmevla> or <cmevla>fujikos.</cmevla></td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ </section>
+
+ <section xml:id="section-pauses">
+ <title>Rules for inserting pauses</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pauses</primary><secondary>rules for</secondary></indexterm> Summarized in one place, here are the rules for inserting pauses between Lojban words:</para>
+ <orderedlist>
+ <listitem>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pause</primary><secondary>between words</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pause</primary><secondary>proscribed within words</secondary></indexterm> Any two words may have a pause between them; it is always illegal to pause in the middle of a word, because that breaks up the word into two words.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pause</primary><secondary>and consonant-final words</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>consonant-final words</primary><secondary>necessity for pause after</secondary></indexterm> Every word ending in a consonant must be followed by a pause. Necessarily, all such words are cmene.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pause</primary><secondary>and vowel-initial words</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vowel-initial words</primary><secondary>necessity for pause before</secondary></indexterm> Every word beginning with a vowel must be preceded by a pause. Such words are either cmavo, fu'ivla, or cmene; all gismu and lujvo begin with consonants.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pause</primary><secondary>and cmene</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>rules for pause before</secondary></indexterm> Every cmene must be preceded by a pause, unless the immediately preceding word is one of the cmavo
+ <valsi>la</valsi>,
+ <valsi>lai</valsi>,
+ <valsi>la'i</valsi>, or
+ <valsi>doi</valsi> (which is why those strings are forbidden in cmene). However, the situation triggering this rule rarely occurs.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pause</primary><secondary>and final-syllable stress</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>final syllable stress</primary><secondary>rules for pause after</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>stress</primary><secondary>final syllable</secondary><tertiary>rules for pause after</tertiary></indexterm> If the last syllable of a word bears the stress, and a brivla follows, the two must be separated by a pause, to prevent confusion with the primary stress of the brivla. In this case, the first word must be either a cmavo or a cmene with unusual stress (which already ends with a pause, of course).</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pause</primary><secondary>and Cy-form cmavo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmavo</primary><secondary>rules for pause after Cy-form</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Cy-form cmavo</primary><secondary>rules for pause after</secondary></indexterm> A cmavo of the form
+ <quote>Cy</quote> must be followed by a pause unless another
+ <quote>Cy</quote>-form cmavo follows.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-Lojban text</primary><secondary>rules for pause with</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pause</primary><secondary>and non-Lojban text</secondary></indexterm> When non-Lojban text is embedded in Lojban, it must be preceded and followed by pauses. (How to embed non-Lojban text is explained in
+
+ <xref linkend="section-more-quotations"/>.)</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </orderedlist>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-lujvo-considerations">
+ <title>Considerations for making lujvo</title>
+ <para>Given a tanru which expresses an idea to be used frequently, it can be turned into a lujvo by following the lujvo-making algorithm which is given in
+ <xref linkend="section-lujvo-making"/>.</para>
+ <para>In building a lujvo, the first step is to replace each gismu with a rafsi that uniquely represents that gismu. These rafsi are then attached together by fixed rules that allow the resulting compound to be recognized as a single word and to be analyzed in only one way.</para>
+ <para>There are three other complications; only one is serious.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>multiple for each gismu</secondary></indexterm> The first is that there is usually more than one rafsi that can be used for each gismu. The one to be used is simply whichever one sounds or looks best to the speaker or writer. There are usually many valid combinations of possible rafsi. They all are equally valid, and all of them mean exactly the same thing. (The scoring algorithm given in
+ <xref linkend="section-lujvo-scoring"/> is used to choose the standard form of the lujvo – the version which would be entered into a dictionary.)</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>linguistic drift in Lojban</primary><secondary>possible source of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>consideration in choosing meaning for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>unambiguity of</secondary></indexterm> The second complication is the serious one. Remember that a tanru is ambiguous – it has several possible meanings. A lujvo, or at least one that would be put into the dictionary, has just a single meaning. Like a gismu, a lujvo is a predicate which encompasses one area of the semantic universe, with one set of places. Hopefully the meaning chosen is the most useful of the possible semantic spaces. A possible source of linguistic drift in Lojban is that as Lojbanic society evolves, the concept that seems the most useful one may change.</para>
+
+
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>za'e</primary><secondary>use to avoid lujvo misunderstandings</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>meaning drift of</secondary></indexterm> You must also be aware of the possibility of some prior meaning of a new lujvo, especially if you are writing for posterity. If a lujvo is invented which involves the same tanru as one that is in the dictionary, and is assigned a different meaning (or even just a different place structure), linguistic drift results. This isn't necessarily bad. Every natural language does it. But in communication, when you use a meaning different from the dictionary definition, someone else may use the dictionary and therefore misunderstand you. You can use the cmavo
+
+ <valsi>za'e</valsi> (explained in
+
+ <xref linkend="section-bahe"/>) before a newly coined lujvo to indicate that it may have a non-dictionary meaning.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>ultimate guideline for choice of meaning/place-structure</secondary></indexterm> The essential nature of human communication is that if the listener understands, then all is well. Let this be the ultimate guideline for choosing meanings and place structures for invented lujvo.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>dropping elements of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Zipf's Law</primary></indexterm> The third complication is also simple, but tends to scare new Lojbanists with its implications. It is based on Zipf's Law, which says that the length of words is inversely proportional to their usage. The shortest words are those which are used more; the longest ones are used less. Conversely, commonly used concepts will be tend to be abbreviated. In English, we have abbreviations and acronyms and jargon, all of which represent complex ideas that are used often by small groups of people, so they shortened them to convey more information more rapidly.</para>
+
+
+
+ <para>Therefore, given a complicated tanru with grouping markers, abstraction markers, and other cmavo in it to make it syntactically unambiguous, the psychological basis of Zipf's Law may compel the lujvo-maker to drop some of the cmavo to make a shorter (technically incorrect) tanru, and then use that tanru to make the lujvo.</para>
+
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>based on multiple tanru</secondary></indexterm> This doesn't lead to ambiguity, as it might seem to. A given lujvo still has exactly one meaning and place structure. It is just that more than one tanru is competing for the same lujvo. But more than one meaning for the tanru was already competing for the
+ <quote>right</quote> to define the meaning of the lujvo. Someone has to use judgment in deciding which one meaning is to be chosen over the others.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>shorter for more general concepts</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>considerations for retaining elements of</secondary></indexterm> If the lujvo made by a shorter form of tanru is in use, or is likely to be useful for another meaning, the decider then retains one or more of the cmavo, preferably ones that set this meaning apart from the shorter form meaning that is used or anticipated. As a rule, therefore, the shorter lujvo will be used for a more general concept, possibly even instead of a more frequent word. If both words are needed, the simpler one should be shorter. It is easier to add a cmavo to clarify the meaning of the more complex term than it is to find a good alternate tanru for the simpler term.</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>and plausibility</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>and the listener</secondary></indexterm> And of course, we have to consider the listener. On hearing an unknown word, the listener will decompose it and get a tanru that makes no sense or the wrong sense for the context. If the listener realizes that the grouping operators may have been dropped out, he or she may try alternate groupings, or try inserting an abstraction operator if that seems plausible. (The grouping of tanru is explained in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-selbri"/>; abstraction is explained in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-abstractions"/>.) Plausibility is the key to learning new ideas and to evaluating unfamiliar lujvo.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-lujvo-making">
+ <title>The lujvo-making algorithm</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>algorithm for</secondary></indexterm> The following is the current algorithm for generating Lojban lujvo given a known tanru and a complete list of gismu and their assigned rafsi. The algorithm was designed by Bob LeChevalier and Dr. James Cooke Brown for computer program implementation. It was modified in 1989 with the assistance of Nora LeChevalier, who detected a flaw in the original
+
+ <quote>tosmabru test</quote>.</para>
+
+ <para>Given a tanru that is to be made into a lujvo:</para>
+ <orderedlist>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>Choose a 3-letter or 4-letter rafsi for each of the gismu and cmavo in the tanru except the last.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>Choose a 3-letter (CVV-form or CCV-form) or 5-letter rafsi for the final gismu in the tanru.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>Join the resulting string of rafsi, initially without hyphens.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>hyphens in lujvo</primary><secondary>proscribed where not required</secondary></indexterm> Add hyphen letters where necessary. It is illegal to add a hyphen at a place that is not required by this algorithm. Right-to-left tests are recommended, for reasons discussed below.</para>
+ <orderedlist>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>If there are more than two words in the tanru, put an
+ r-hyphen (or an
+ n-hyphen) after the first rafsi if it is CVV-form. If there are exactly two words, then put an
+ r-hyphen (or an
+ n-hyphen) between the two rafsi if the first rafsi is CVV-form, unless the second rafsi is CCV-form (for example,
+ <jbophrase>saicli</jbophrase> requires no hyphen). Use an
+ r-hyphen unless the letter after the hyphen is
+ <letteral>r</letteral>, in which case use an
+ n-hyphen. Never use an
+ n-hyphen unless it is required.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>Put a
+ y-hyphen between the consonants of any impermissible consonant pair. This will always appear between rafsi.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tosmabru test</primary></indexterm> Put a
+ y-hyphen after any 4-letter rafsi form.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </orderedlist>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>Test all forms with one or more initial CVC-form rafsi – with the pattern
+ <quote>CVC ... CVC + X</quote> – for
+ <quote>tosmabru failure</quote>. X must either be a CVCCV long rafsi that happens to have a permissible initial pair as the consonant cluster, or is something which has caused a
+ y-hyphen to be installed between the previous CVC and itself by one of the above rules.</para>
+ <para>The test is as follows:</para>
+ <orderedlist>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>Examine all the C/C consonant pairs up to the first y-hyphen, or up to the end of the word in case there are no y-hyphens.</para>
+ <para>These consonant pairs are called "joints”.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>If all of those joints are permissible initials, then the trial word will break up into a cmavo and a shorter brivla. If not, the word will not break up, and no further hyphens are needed.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>Install a y-hyphen at the first such joint.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </orderedlist>
+ </listitem>
+</orderedlist>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>selection of best form of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>scoring of</secondary></indexterm> Note that the
+ <quote>tosmabru test</quote> implies that the algorithm will be more efficient if rafsi junctures are tested for required hyphens from right to left, instead of from left to right; when the test is required, it cannot be completed until hyphenation to the right has been determined.</para>
+
+
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-lujvo-scoring">
+ <title>The lujvo scoring algorithm</title>
+ <para>This algorithm was devised by Bob and Nora LeChevalier in 1989. It is not the only possible algorithm, but it usually gives a choice that people find preferable. The algorithm may be changed in the future. The lowest-scoring variant will usually be the dictionary form of the lujvo. (In previous versions, it was the highest-scoring variant.)</para>
+ <orderedlist>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>Count the total number of letters, including hyphens and apostrophes; call it
+ <varname>L</varname>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>Count the number of apostrophes; call it
+ <varname>A</varname>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>Count the number of
+ <letteral>y-</letteral>,
+ <letteral>r-</letteral>, and
+ n-hyphens; call it
+
+ <varname>H</varname>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>For each rafsi, find the value in the following table. Sum this value over all rafsi; call it
+ <varname>R</varname>:
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr>
+ <td>CVC/CV (final)</td>
+ <td>(<rafsi>-sarji</rafsi>)</td>
+ <td>1</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>CVC/C</td>
+ <td>(<rafsi>-sarj-</rafsi>)</td>
+ <td>2</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>CCVCV (final)</td>
+ <td>(<rafsi>-zbasu</rafsi>)</td>
+ <td>3</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>CCVC</td>
+ <td>(<rafsi>-zbas-</rafsi>)</td>
+ <td>4</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>CVC</td>
+ <td>(<rafsi>-nun-</rafsi>)</td>
+ <td>5</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>CVV with an apostrophe</td>
+ <td>(<rafsi>-ta'u-</rafsi>)</td>
+ <td>6</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>CCV</td>
+ <td>(<rafsi>-zba-</rafsi>)</td>
+ <td>7</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>CVV with no apostrophe</td>
+ <td>(<rafsi>-sai-</rafsi>)</td>
+ <td>8</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ </para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>Count the number of vowels, not including
+ <letteral>y</letteral>; call it
+ <varname>V</varname>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </orderedlist>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo form</primary><secondary>hierarchy of priorities for selection of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>hierarchy of priorities for selecting lujvo form</primary></indexterm> The score is then:
+ <math>(1000 * L) - (500 * A) + (100 * H) - (10 * R) - V</math>
+ <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>scored examples of</secondary></indexterm> In case of ties, there is no preference. This should be rare. Note that the algorithm essentially encodes a hierarchy of priorities: short words are preferred (counting apostrophes as half a letter), then words with fewer hyphens, words with more pleasing rafsi (this judgment is subjective), and finally words with more vowels are chosen. Each decision principle is applied in turn if the ones before it have failed to choose; it is possible that a lower-ranked principle might dominate a higher-ranked one if it is ten times better than the alternative.</para>
+
+ <para>
+
+
+ <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>examples of making</secondary></indexterm> Here are some lujvo with their scores (not necessarily the lowest scoring forms for these lujvo, nor even necessarily sensible lujvo):</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJKu" role="lujvo-making-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e12d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <lujvo-making>
+ <jbo>zbasai</jbo>
+ <rafsi>zba + sai</rafsi>
+ <score><inlinemath>(1000 * 6) - (500 * 0) + (100 * 0) - (10 * 15) - 3 = 5847</inlinemath></score>
+ </lujvo-making>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjLd" role="lujvo-making-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e12d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <lujvo-making>
+ <jbo>nunynau</jbo>
+ <rafsi>nun + y + nau</rafsi>
+ <score><inlinemath>(1000 * 7) - (500 * 0) + (100 * 1) - (10 * 13) - 3 = 6967</inlinemath></score>
+ </lujvo-making>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJLQ" role="lujvo-making-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e12d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <lujvo-making>
+ <jbo>sairzbata'u</jbo>
+ <rafsi>sai + r + zba + ta'u</rafsi>
+ <score><inlinemath>(1000 * 11) - (500 * 1) + (100 * 1) - (10 * 21) - 5 = 10385</inlinemath></score>
+ </lujvo-making>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJmn" role="lujvo-making-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e12d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <lujvo-making>
+ <jbo>zbazbasysarji</jbo>
+ <rafsi>zba + zbas + y + sarji</rafsi>
+ <score><inlinemath>(1000 * 13) - (500 * 0) + (100 * 1) - (10 * 12) - 4 = 12976</inlinemath></score>
+ </lujvo-making>
+ </example>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-lujvo-making-examples">
+ <title>lujvo-making examples</title>
+ <para>
+<indexterm type="general"><primary>doghouse</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+This section contains examples of making and scoring lujvo. First, we will start with the tanru
+ <jbophrase>gerku zdani</jbophrase> (
+ <quote>dog house</quote>) and construct a lujvo meaning
+
+
+ <quote>doghouse</quote>, that is, a house where a dog lives. We will use a brute-force application of the algorithm in
+ <xref linkend="section-lujvo-scoring"/>, using every possible rafsi.</para>
+ <para>The rafsi for
+ <valsi>gerku</valsi> are:</para>
+ <simplelist type="horiz" columns="4">
+ <member><rafsi>-ger-</rafsi>, </member>
+ <member><rafsi>-ge'u-</rafsi>, </member>
+ <member><rafsi>-gerk-</rafsi>, </member>
+ <member><rafsi>-gerku</rafsi></member>
+ </simplelist>
+ <para>The rafsi for
+ <valsi>zdani</valsi> are:</para>
+ <simplelist type="horiz" columns="3">
+ <member><rafsi>-zda-</rafsi>, </member>
+ <member><rafsi>-zdan-</rafsi>, </member>
+ <member><rafsi>-zdani</rafsi>.</member>
+ </simplelist>
+ <para>Step 1 of the algorithm directs us to use
+ <rafsi>-ger-</rafsi>,
+ <rafsi>-ge'u-</rafsi> and
+ <rafsi>-gerk-</rafsi> as possible rafsi for
+ <valsi>gerku</valsi>; Step 2 directs us to use
+ <rafsi>-zda-</rafsi> and
+ <rafsi>-zdani</rafsi> as possible rafsi for
+ <valsi>zdani</valsi>. The six possible forms of the lujvo are then:</para>
+ <simplelist type="vert" columns="1">
+ <member><rafsi>ger</rafsi><rafsi>-zda</rafsi></member>
+ <member><rafsi>ger</rafsi><rafsi>-zdani</rafsi></member>
+ <member><rafsi>ge'u</rafsi><rafsi>-zda</rafsi></member>
+ <member><rafsi>ge'u</rafsi><rafsi>-zdani</rafsi></member>
+ <member><rafsi>gerk</rafsi><rafsi>-zda</rafsi></member>
+ <member><rafsi>gerk</rafsi><rafsi>-zdani</rafsi></member>
+ </simplelist>
+ <para>We must then insert appropriate hyphens in each case. The first two forms need no hyphenation:
+
+ <valsi>ge</valsi> cannot fall off the front, because the following word would begin with
+ <morphology>rz</morphology>, which is not a permissible initial consonant pair. So the lujvo forms are
+ <valsi>gerzda</valsi> and
+ <valsi>gerzdani</valsi>.</para>
+ <para>The third form,
+ <rafsi>ge'u</rafsi><rafsi>-zda</rafsi>, needs no hyphen, because even though the first rafsi is CVV, the second one is CCV, so there is a consonant cluster in the first five letters. So
+ <valsi>ge'uzda</valsi> is this form of the lujvo.</para>
+ <para>The fourth form,
+ <valsi valid="false">ge'u-zdani</valsi>, however, requires an
+ r-hyphen; otherwise, the
+ <rafsi>ge'u-</rafsi> part would fall off as a cmavo. So this form of the lujvo is
+ <valsi>ge'urzdani</valsi>.</para>
+ <para>The last two forms require
+ y-hyphens, as all 4-letter rafsi do, and so are
+
+ <valsi>gerkyzda</valsi> and
+ <valsi>gerkyzdani</valsi> respectively.</para>
+ <para>
+
+<indexterm type="general"><primary>boat class</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+ The scoring algorithm is heavily weighted in favor of short lujvo, so we might expect that
+ <valsi>gerzda</valsi> would win. Its <varname>L</varname> score is 6, its <varname>A</varname> score is 0, its <varname>H</varname> score is 0, its <varname>R</varname> score is 12, and its <varname>V</varname> score is 3, for a final score of 5878. The other forms have scores of 7917, 6367, 9506, 8008, and 10047 respectively. Consequently, this lujvo would probably appear in the dictionary in the form
+ <valsi>gerzda</valsi>.</para>
+ <para>For the next example, we will use the tanru
+ <jbophrase>bloti klesi</jbophrase> (
+ <quote>boat class</quote>) presumably referring to the category (rowboat, motorboat, cruise liner) into which a boat falls. We will omit the long rafsi from the process, since lujvo containing long rafsi are almost never preferred by the scoring algorithm when there are short rafsi available.</para>
+ <para>The rafsi for
+ <valsi>bloti</valsi> are
+ <rafsi>-lot-</rafsi>,
+ <rafsi>-blo-</rafsi>, and
+ <rafsi>-lo'i-</rafsi>; for
+ <valsi>klesi</valsi> they are
+ <rafsi>-kle-</rafsi> and
+ <rafsi>-lei-</rafsi>. Both these gismu are among the handful which have both CVV-form and CCV-form rafsi, so there is an unusual number of possibilities available for a two-part tanru:</para>
+ <simplelist type="horiz" columns="3">
+ <member><valsi>lotkle</valsi></member>
+ <member><valsi>blokle</valsi></member>
+ <member><valsi>lo'ikle</valsi></member>
+
+ <member><valsi>lotlei</valsi></member>
+ <member><valsi>blolei</valsi></member>
+ <member><valsi>lo'irlei</valsi></member>
+ </simplelist>
+ <para>Only
+ <valsi>lo'irlei</valsi> requires hyphenation (to avoid confusion with the cmavo sequence
+ <jbophrase>lo'i lei</jbophrase>). All six forms are valid versions of the lujvo, as are the six further forms using long rafsi; however, the scoring algorithm produces the following results:</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>lotkle</valsi></td>
+ <td>5878</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>blokle</valsi></td>
+ <td>5858</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>lo'ikle</valsi></td>
+ <td>6367</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>lotlei</valsi></td>
+ <td>5867</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>blolei</valsi></td>
+ <td>5847</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>lo'irlei</valsi></td>
+ <td>7456</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <para>
+
+<indexterm type="general"><primary>Logical Language Group</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+ So the form
+ <valsi>blolei</valsi> is preferred, but only by a tiny margin over
+ <valsi>blokle</valsi>; "lotlei" and "lotkle" are only slightly worse;
+ <valsi>lo'ikle</valsi> suffers because of its apostrophe, and
+ <valsi>lo'irlei</valsi> because of having both apostrophe and hyphen.</para>
+ <para>Our third example will result in forming both a lujvo and a name from the tanru
+ <jbophrase>logji bangu girzu</jbophrase>, or
+ <quote>logical-language group</quote> in English. (
+ <quote>The Logical Language Group</quote> is the name of the publisher of this book and the organization for the promotion of Lojban.)</para>
+ <para>The available rafsi are
+ <rafsi>-loj-</rafsi> and
+ <rafsi>-logj-</rafsi>;
+ <rafsi>-ban-</rafsi>,
+ <rafsi>-bau-</rafsi>, and
+ <rafsi>-bang-</rafsi>; and
+ <rafsi>-gri-</rafsi> and
+ <rafsi>-girzu</rafsi>, and (for name purposes only)
+ <rafsi>-gir-</rafsi> and
+ <rafsi>-girz-</rafsi>. The resulting 12 lujvo possibilities are:</para>
+ <simplelist type="horiz" columns="3">
+ <member><rafsi>loj</rafsi><rafsi>-ban</rafsi><rafsi>-gri</rafsi></member>
+ <member><rafsi>loj</rafsi><rafsi>-bau</rafsi><rafsi>-gri</rafsi></member>
+ <member><rafsi>loj</rafsi><rafsi>-bang</rafsi><rafsi>-gri</rafsi></member>
+
+ <member><rafsi>logj</rafsi><rafsi>-ban</rafsi><rafsi>-gri</rafsi></member>
+ <member><rafsi>logj</rafsi><rafsi>-bau</rafsi><rafsi>-gri</rafsi></member>
+ <member><rafsi>logj</rafsi><rafsi>-bang</rafsi><rafsi>-gri</rafsi></member>
+
+ <member><rafsi>loj</rafsi><rafsi>-ban</rafsi><rafsi>-girzu</rafsi></member>
+ <member><rafsi>loj</rafsi><rafsi>-bau</rafsi><rafsi>-girzu</rafsi></member>
+ <member><rafsi>loj</rafsi><rafsi>-bang</rafsi><rafsi>-girzu</rafsi></member>
+
+ <member><rafsi>logj</rafsi><rafsi>-ban</rafsi><rafsi>-girzu</rafsi></member>
+ <member><rafsi>logj</rafsi><rafsi>-bau</rafsi><rafsi>-girzu</rafsi></member>
+ <member><rafsi>logj</rafsi><rafsi>-bang</rafsi><rafsi>-girzu</rafsi></member>
+ </simplelist>
+ <para>and the 12 name possibilities are:</para>
+ <simplelist type="horiz" columns="3">
+ <member><rafsi>loj</rafsi><rafsi>-ban</rafsi><rafsi>-gir</rafsi></member>
+ <member><rafsi>loj</rafsi><rafsi>-bau</rafsi><rafsi>-gir</rafsi></member>
+ <member><rafsi>loj</rafsi><rafsi>-bang</rafsi><rafsi>-gir</rafsi></member>
+
+ <member><rafsi>logj</rafsi><rafsi>-ban</rafsi><rafsi>-gir</rafsi></member>
+ <member><rafsi>logj</rafsi><rafsi>-bau</rafsi><rafsi>-gir</rafsi></member>
+ <member><rafsi>logj</rafsi><rafsi>-bang</rafsi><rafsi>-gir</rafsi></member>
+
+ <member><rafsi>loj</rafsi><rafsi>-ban</rafsi><rafsi>-girz</rafsi></member>
+ <member><rafsi>loj</rafsi><rafsi>-bau</rafsi><rafsi>-girz</rafsi></member>
+ <member><rafsi>loj</rafsi><rafsi>-bang</rafsi><rafsi>-girz</rafsi></member>
+
+ <member><rafsi>logj</rafsi><rafsi>-ban</rafsi><rafsi>-girz</rafsi></member>
+ <member><rafsi>logj</rafsi><rafsi>-bau</rafsi><rafsi>-girz</rafsi></member>
+ <member><rafsi>logj</rafsi><rafsi>-bang</rafsi><rafsi>-girz</rafsi></member>
+ </simplelist>
+ <para>After hyphenation, we have:</para>
+ <simplelist type="horiz" columns="3">
+ <member><valsi>lojbangri</valsi></member>
+ <member><valsi>lojbaugri</valsi></member>
+ <member><valsi>lojbangygri</valsi></member>
+
+ <member><valsi>logjybangri</valsi></member>
+ <member><valsi>logjybaugri</valsi></member>
+ <member><valsi>logjybangygri</valsi></member>
+
+ <member><valsi>lojbangirzu</valsi></member>
+ <member><valsi>lojbaugirzu</valsi></member>
+ <member><valsi>lojbangygirzu</valsi></member>
+
+ <member><valsi>logjybangirzu</valsi></member>
+ <member><valsi>logjybaugirzu</valsi></member>
+ <member><valsi>logjybangygirzu</valsi></member>
+
+ <member><valsi>lojbangir</valsi></member>
+ <member><valsi>lojbaugir</valsi></member>
+ <member><valsi>lojbangygir</valsi></member>
+
+ <member><valsi>logjybangir</valsi></member>
+ <member><valsi>logjybaugir</valsi></member>
+ <member><valsi>logjybangygir</valsi></member>
+
+ <member><valsi>lojbangirz</valsi></member>
+ <member><valsi>lojbaugirz</valsi></member>
+ <member><valsi>lojbangygirz</valsi></member>
+
+ <member><valsi>logjybangirz</valsi></member>
+ <member><valsi>logjybaugirz</valsi></member>
+ <member><valsi>logjybangygirz</valsi></member>
+ </simplelist>
+ <para>
+<indexterm type="general"><primary>sexual teacher</primary><secondary>male</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
+
+<indexterm type="general"><primary>male sexual teacher</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+ The only fully reduced lujvo forms are
+
+ <valsi>lojbangri</valsi> and
+ <valsi>lojbaugri</valsi>, of which the latter has a slightly lower score: 8827 versus 8796, respectively. However, for the name of the organization, we chose to make sure the name of the language was embedded in it, and to use the clearer long-form rafsi for
+ <valsi>girzu</valsi>, producing
+ <cmevla>lojbangirz.</cmevla></para>
+ <para>Finally, here is a four-part lujvo with a cmavo in it, based on the tanru
+ <jbophrase>nakni ke cinse ctuca</jbophrase> or
+ <quote>male (sexual teacher)</quote>. The
+
+ <valsi>ke</valsi> cmavo ensures the interpretation
+ <quote>teacher of sexuality who is male</quote>, rather than
+ <quote>teacher of male sexuality</quote>. Here are the possible forms of the lujvo, both before and after hyphenation:</para>
+ <simplelist type="horiz" columns="2">
+ <member><rafsi>nak</rafsi><rafsi>-kem</rafsi><rafsi>-cin</rafsi><rafsi>-ctu</rafsi></member>
+ <member><valsi>nakykemcinctu</valsi></member>
+
+ <member><rafsi>nak</rafsi><rafsi>-kem</rafsi><rafsi>-cin</rafsi><rafsi>-ctuca</rafsi></member>
+ <member><valsi>nakykemcinctuca</valsi></member>
+
+ <member><rafsi>nak</rafsi><rafsi>-kem</rafsi><rafsi>-cins</rafsi><rafsi>-ctu</rafsi></member>
+ <member><valsi>nakykemcinsyctu</valsi></member>
+
+ <member><rafsi>nak</rafsi><rafsi>-kem</rafsi><rafsi>-cins</rafsi><rafsi>-ctuca</rafsi></member>
+ <member><valsi>nakykemcinsyctuca</valsi></member>
+
+ <member><rafsi>nakn</rafsi><rafsi>-kem</rafsi><rafsi>-cin</rafsi><rafsi>-ctu</rafsi></member>
+ <member><valsi>naknykemcinctu</valsi></member>
+
+ <member><rafsi>nakn</rafsi><rafsi>-kem</rafsi><rafsi>-cin</rafsi><rafsi>-ctuca</rafsi></member>
+ <member><valsi>naknykemcinctuca</valsi></member>
+
+ <member><rafsi>nakn</rafsi><rafsi>-kem</rafsi><rafsi>-cins</rafsi><rafsi>-ctu</rafsi></member>
+ <member><valsi>naknykemcinsyctu</valsi></member>
+
+ <member><rafsi>nakn</rafsi><rafsi>-kem</rafsi><rafsi>-cins</rafsi><rafsi>-ctuca</rafsi></member>
+ <member><valsi>naknykemcinsyctuca</valsi></member>
+ </simplelist>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>algorithm for</secondary></indexterm> Of these forms,
+ <valsi>nakykemcinctu</valsi> is the shortest and is preferred by the scoring algorithm. On the whole, however, it might be better to just make a lujvo for
+ <jbophrase>cinse ctuca</jbophrase> (which would be
+ <valsi>cinctu</valsi>) since the sex of the teacher is rarely important. If there was a reason to specify
+ <quote>male</quote>, then the simpler tanru
+ <jbophrase>nakni cinctu</jbophrase> (
+ <quote>male sexual-teacher</quote>) would be appropriate. This tanru is actually shorter than the four-part lujvo, since the
+ <valsi>ke</valsi> required for grouping need not be expressed.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-gismu-making">
+ <title>The gismu creation algorithm</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>source languages</primary><secondary>use in creating gismu</secondary></indexterm> The gismu were created through the following process:</para>
+ <orderedlist>
+ <listitem>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>creation</secondary><tertiary>scoring rules</tertiary></indexterm> At least one word was found in each of the six source languages (Chinese, English, Hindi, Spanish, Russian, Arabic) corresponding to the proposed gismu. This word was rendered into Lojban phonetics rather liberally: consonant clusters consisting of a stop and the corresponding fricative were simplified to just the fricative (
+ <morphology>tc</morphology> became
+ <letteral>c</letteral>,
+ <morphology>dj</morphology> became
+ <letteral>j</letteral>) and non-Lojban vowels were mapped onto Lojban ones. Furthermore, morphological endings were dropped. The same mapping rules were applied to all six languages for the sake of consistency.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>All possible gismu forms were matched against the six source-language forms. The matches were scored as follows:
+ <orderedlist>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>If three or more letters were the same in the proposed gismu and the source-language word, and appeared in the same order, the score was equal to the number of letters that were the same. Intervening letters, if any, did not matter.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>If exactly two letters were the same in the proposed gismu and the source-language word, and either the two letters were consecutive in both words, or were separated by a single letter in both words, the score was 2. Letters in reversed order got no score.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>creation</secondary><tertiary>considerations for selection after scoring</tertiary></indexterm> Otherwise, the score was 0.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </orderedlist></para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>creation</secondary><tertiary>proscribed gismu pairs</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>too-similar</secondary></indexterm> The scores were divided by the length of the source-language word in its Lojbanized form, and then multiplied by a weighting value specific to each language, reflecting the proportional number of first-language and second-language speakers of the language. (Second-language speakers were reckoned at half their actual numbers.) The weights were chosen to sum to 1.00. The sum of the weighted scores was the total score for the proposed gismu form.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>Any gismu forms that conflicted with existing gismu were removed. Obviously, being identical with an existing gismu constitutes a conflict. In addition, a proposed gismu that was identical to an existing gismu except for the final vowel was considered a conflict, since two such gismu would have identical 4-letter rafsi.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>creation</secondary><tertiary>and transcription blunders</tertiary></indexterm> More subtly: If the proposed gismu was identical to an existing gismu except for a single consonant, and the consonant was "too similar” based on the following table, then the proposed gismu was rejected.</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <thead>
+ <tr>
+ <td>proposed gismu</td>
+ <td>existing gismu</td>
+ </tr>
+ </thead>
+ <tr>
+ <td><letteral>b</letteral></td>
+ <td><letteral>p</letteral>, <letteral>v</letteral></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><letteral>c</letteral></td>
+ <td><letteral>j</letteral>, <letteral>s</letteral></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><letteral>d</letteral></td>
+ <td><letteral>t</letteral></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><letteral>f</letteral></td>
+ <td><letteral>p</letteral>, <letteral>v</letteral></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><letteral>g</letteral></td>
+ <td><letteral>k</letteral>, <letteral>x</letteral></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><letteral>j</letteral></td>
+ <td><letteral>c</letteral>, <letteral>z</letteral></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><letteral>k</letteral></td>
+ <td><letteral>g</letteral>, <letteral>x</letteral></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><letteral>l</letteral></td>
+ <td><letteral>r</letteral></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><letteral>m</letteral></td>
+ <td><letteral>n</letteral></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><letteral>n</letteral></td>
+ <td><letteral>m</letteral></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><letteral>p</letteral></td>
+ <td><letteral>b</letteral>, <letteral>f</letteral></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><letteral>r</letteral></td>
+ <td><letteral>l</letteral></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><letteral>s</letteral></td>
+ <td><letteral>c</letteral>, <letteral>z</letteral></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><letteral>t</letteral></td>
+ <td><letteral>d</letteral></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><letteral>v</letteral></td>
+ <td><letteral>b</letteral>, <letteral>f</letteral></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><letteral>x</letteral></td>
+ <td><letteral>g</letteral>, <letteral>k</letteral></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><letteral>z</letteral></td>
+ <td><letteral>j</letteral>, <letteral>s</letteral></td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>source-language weights for</secondary></indexterm> See <xref linkend="section-gismu"/> for an example.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>The gismu form with the highest score usually became the actual gismu. Sometimes a lower-scoring form was used to provide a better rafsi. A few gismu were changed in error as a result of transcription blunders (for example, the gismu
+ <valsi>gismu</valsi> should have been
+ <valsi>gicmu</valsi>, but it's too late to fix it now).</para>
+ <para>The language weights used to make most of the gismu were as follows:</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr>
+ <td>Chinese</td><td>0.36</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>English</td><td>0.21</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>Hindi</td><td>0.16</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>Spanish</td><td>0.11</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>Russian</td><td>0.09</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>Arabic</td><td>0.07</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <para>reflecting 1985 number-of-speakers data. A few gismu were made much later using updated weights:</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr>
+ <td>Chinese</td><td>0.347</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>Hindi</td><td>0.196</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>English</td><td>0.160</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>Spanish</td><td>0.123</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>Russian</td><td>0.089</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>Arabic</td><td>0.085</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>coined</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>exceptions to gismu creation by algorithm</secondary></indexterm> (English and Hindi switched places due to demographic changes.)</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </orderedlist>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>Lojban-specific</secondary></indexterm> Note that the stressed vowel of the gismu was considered sufficiently distinctive that two or more gismu may differ only in this vowel; as an extreme example,
+
+ <valsi>bradi</valsi>,
+ <valsi>bredi</valsi>,
+ <valsi>bridi</valsi>, and
+ <valsi>brodi</valsi> (but fortunately not
+ <valsi>brudi</valsi>) are all existing gismu.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-cultural-gismu">
+ <title>Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu</title>
+ <para>The following gismu were not made by the gismu creation algorithm. They are, in effect, coined words similar to fu'ivla. They are exceptions to the otherwise mandatory gismu creation algorithm where there was sufficient justification for such exceptions. Except for the small metric prefixes and the assignable predicates beginning with
+ <rafsi>brod-</rafsi>, they all end in the letter
+ <letteral>o</letteral>, which is otherwise a rare letter in Lojban gismu.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>scientific-mathematical</secondary></indexterm> The following gismu represent concepts that are sufficiently unique to Lojban that they were either coined from combining forms of other gismu, or else made up out of whole cloth. These gismu are thus conceptually similar to lujvo even though they are only five letters long; however, unlike lujvo, they have rafsi assigned to them for use in building more complex lujvo. Assigning gismu to these concepts helps to keep the resulting lujvo reasonably short.</para>
+ <variablelist>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>broda</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>1st assignable predicate</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>brode</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>2nd assignable predicate</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>brodi</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>3rd assignable predicate</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>brodo</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>4th assignable predicate</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>brodu</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>5th assignable predicate</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>cmavo</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>structure word (from <jbophrase>cmalu valsi</jbophrase>)</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>lojbo</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>Lojbanic (from <jbophrase>logji bangu</jbophrase>)</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>lujvo</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>compound word (from <jbophrase>pluja valsi</jbophrase>)</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>mekso</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>Mathematical EXpression</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ </variablelist>
+ <para>It is important to understand that even though
+ <valsi>cmavo</valsi>,
+ <valsi>lojbo</valsi>, and
+ <valsi>lujvo</valsi> were made up from parts of other gismu, they are now full-fledged gismu used in exactly the same way as all other gismu, both in grammar and in word formation.</para>
+ <para>The following three groups of gismu represent concepts drawn from the international language of science and mathematics. They are used for concepts that are represented in most languages by a root which is recognized internationally.</para>
+ <para>Small metric prefixes (values less than 1):</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>decti</valsi></td>
+ <td>.1</td>
+ <td>deci</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>centi</valsi></td>
+ <td>.01</td>
+ <td>centi</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>milti</valsi></td>
+ <td>.001</td>
+ <td>milli</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>mikri</valsi></td>
+ <td><inlinemath>10<superscript>-6</superscript></inlinemath></td>
+ <td>micro</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>nanvi</valsi></td>
+ <td><inlinemath>10<superscript>-9</superscript></inlinemath></td>
+ <td>nano</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>picti</valsi></td>
+ <td><inlinemath>10<superscript>-12</superscript></inlinemath></td>
+ <td>pico</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>femti</valsi></td>
+ <td><inlinemath>10<superscript>-15</superscript></inlinemath></td>
+ <td>femto</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>xatsi</valsi></td>
+ <td><inlinemath>10<superscript>-18</superscript></inlinemath></td>
+ <td>atto</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>zepti</valsi></td>
+ <td><inlinemath>10<superscript>-21</superscript></inlinemath></td>
+ <td>zepto</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>gocti</valsi></td>
+ <td><inlinemath>10<superscript>-24</superscript></inlinemath></td>
+ <td>yocto</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <para>Large metric prefixes (values greater than 1):</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>dekto</valsi></td>
+ <td>10</td>
+ <td>deka</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>xecto</valsi></td>
+ <td>100</td>
+ <td>hecto</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>kilto</valsi></td>
+ <td>1000</td>
+ <td>kilo</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>megdo</valsi></td>
+ <td><inlinemath>10<superscript>6</superscript></inlinemath></td>
+ <td>mega</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>gigdo</valsi></td>
+ <td><inlinemath>10<superscript>9</superscript></inlinemath></td>
+ <td>giga</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>terto</valsi></td>
+ <td><inlinemath>10<superscript>12</superscript></inlinemath></td>
+ <td>tera</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>petso</valsi></td>
+ <td><inlinemath>10<superscript>15</superscript></inlinemath></td>
+ <td>peta</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>xexso</valsi></td>
+ <td><inlinemath>10<superscript>18</superscript></inlinemath></td>
+ <td>exa</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>zetro</valsi></td>
+ <td><inlinemath>10<superscript>21</superscript></inlinemath></td>
+ <td>zetta</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>gotro</valsi></td>
+ <td><inlinemath>10<superscript>24</superscript></inlinemath></td>
+ <td>yotta</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>cultural</secondary></indexterm> Other scientific or mathematical terms:</para>
+ <variablelist>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>delno</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>candela</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>kelvo</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>kelvin</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>molro</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>mole</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>radno</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>radian</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>sinso</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>sine</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>stero</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>steradian</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>tanjo</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>tangent</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>xampo</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>ampere</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ </variablelist>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>for Lojban source languages</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>for languages</secondary></indexterm> The gismu
+ <valsi>sinso</valsi> and
+ <valsi>tanjo</valsi> were only made non-algorithmically because they were identical (having been borrowed from a common source) in all the dictionaries that had translations. The other terms in this group are units in the international metric system; some metric units, however, were made by the ordinary process (usually because they are different in Chinese).</para>
+ <para>Finally, there are the cultural gismu, which are also borrowed, but by modifying a word from one particular language, instead of using the multi-lingual gismu creation algorithm. Cultural gismu are used for words that have local importance to a particular culture; other cultures or languages may have no word for the concept at all, or may borrow the word from its home culture, just as Lojban does. In such a case, the gismu algorithm, which uses weighted averages, doesn't accurately represent the frequency of usage of the individual concept. Cultural gismu are not even required to be based on the six major languages.</para>
+ <para>The six Lojban source languages:</para>
+
+ <variablelist>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>jungo</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>Chinese (from <quote xml:lang="zh">Zhong <superscript>1</superscript> guo <superscript>2</superscript></quote>)</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>glico</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>English</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>xindo</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>Hindi</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>spano</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>Spanish</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>rusko</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>Russian</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>xrabo</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>Arabic</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ </variablelist>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>for countries</secondary></indexterm> Seven other widely spoken languages that were on the list of candidates for gismu-making, but weren't used:</para>
+ <variablelist>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>bengo</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>Bengali</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>porto</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>Portuguese</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>baxso</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>Bahasa Melayu/Bahasa Indonesia</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>ponjo</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>Japanese (from <quote>Nippon</quote>)</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>dotco</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>German (from <quote xml:lang="de">Deutsch</quote>)</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>fraso</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>French (from <quote xml:lang="fr">Français</quote>)</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>xurdo</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>Urdu</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ </variablelist>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>continents</primary><secondary>gismu for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>geographical</secondary></indexterm> (Urdu and Hindi began as the same language with different writing systems, but have now become somewhat different, principally in borrowed vocabulary. Urdu-speakers were counted along with Hindi-speakers when weights were assigned for gismu-making purposes.)</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>ethnic</secondary></indexterm> Countries with a large number of speakers of any of the above languages (where the meaning of <quote>large</quote> is dependent on the specific language):</para>
+ <para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr><td colspan="0">English:</td></tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>merko</valsi></td>
+ <td>American</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>brito</valsi></td>
+ <td>British</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>skoto</valsi></td>
+ <td>Scottish</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>sralo</valsi></td>
+ <td>Australian</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>kadno</valsi></td>
+ <td>Canadian</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr><td colspan="0">Spanish:</td></tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>gento</valsi></td>
+ <td>Argentinian</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>mexno</valsi></td>
+ <td>Mexican</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr><td colspan="0">Russian:</td></tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>softo</valsi></td>
+ <td>Soviet/USSR</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>vukro</valsi></td>
+ <td>Ukrainian</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr><td colspan="0">Arabic:</td></tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>filso</valsi></td>
+ <td>Palestinian</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>jerxo</valsi></td>
+ <td>Algerian</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>jordo</valsi></td>
+ <td>Jordanian</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>libjo</valsi></td>
+ <td>Libyan</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>lubno</valsi></td>
+ <td>Lebanese</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>misro</valsi></td>
+ <td>Egyptian (from <quote xml:lang="he">Mizraim</quote>)</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>morko</valsi></td>
+ <td>Moroccan</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>rakso</valsi></td>
+ <td>Iraqi</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>sadjo</valsi></td>
+ <td>Saudi</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>sirxo</valsi></td>
+ <td>Syrian</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr><td colspan="0">Bahasa Melayu/Bahasa Indonesia:</td></tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>bindo</valsi></td>
+ <td>Indonesian</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>meljo</valsi></td>
+ <td>Malaysian</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr><td colspan="0">Portuguese:</td></tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>brazo</valsi></td>
+ <td>Brazilian</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr><td colspan="0">Urdu:</td></tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>kisto</valsi></td>
+ <td>Pakistani</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ </para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>religious</secondary></indexterm> The continents (and oceanic regions) of the Earth:</para>
+
+ <variablelist>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>bemro</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>North American (from <jbophrase>berti merko</jbophrase>)</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>dzipo</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>Antarctican (from <jbophrase>cadzu cipni</jbophrase>)</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>ketco</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>South American (from <quote xml:lang="qu">Quechua</quote>)</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>friko</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>African</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>polno</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>Polynesian/Oceanic</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>ropno</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>European</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>xazdo</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>Asiatic</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ </variablelist>
+ <para>A few smaller but historically important cultures:</para>
+ <variablelist>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>latmo</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>Latin/Roman</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>srito</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>Sanskrit</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>xebro</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>Hebrew/Israeli/Jewish</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>xelso</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>Greek (from <quote xml:lang="el">Hellas</quote>)</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ </variablelist>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cultural words</primary><secondary>rafsi fu'ivla proposal for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi fu'ivla</primary></indexterm> Major world religions:</para>
+ <variablelist>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>budjo</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>Buddhist</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>dadjo</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>Taoist</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>muslo</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>Islamic/Moslem</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>xriso</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>Christian</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ </variablelist>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>form for rafsi fu'ivla proposal</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>CCVVCV fu'ivla</primary><secondary>and rafsi fu'ivla proposal</secondary></indexterm> A few terms that cover multiple groups of the above:</para>
+ <variablelist>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>jegvo</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>Jehovist (Judeo-Christian-Moslem)</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>semto</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>Semitic</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>slovo</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>Slavic</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>xispo</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>Hispanic (New World Spanish)</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ </variablelist>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-rafsi-fuhivla">
+ <title>rafsi fu'ivla: a proposal</title>
+ <para>The list of cultures represented by gismu, given in
+ <xref linkend="section-cultural-gismu"/>, is unavoidably controversial. Much time has been spent debating whether this or that culture
+ <quote>deserves a gismu</quote> or
+ <quote>must languish in fu'ivla space</quote>. To help defuse this argument, a last-minute proposal was made when this book was already substantially complete. I have added it here with experimental status: it is not yet a standard part of Lojban, since all its implications have not been tested in open debate, and it affects a part of the language (lujvo-making) that has long been stable, but is known to be fragile in the face of small changes. (Many attempts were made to add general mechanisms for making lujvo that contained fu'ivla, but all failed on obvious or obscure counterexamples; finally the general
+ <valsi>zei</valsi> mechanism was devised instead.)</para>
+ <para>The first part of the proposal is uncontroversial and involves no change to the language mechanisms. All valid Type 4 fu'ivla of the form CCVVCV would be reserved for cultural brivla analogous to those described in
+ <xref linkend="section-cultural-gismu"/>. For example,</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PMb2">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="general"><primary>Chilean desert</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e16d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo valid="false">tci'ile</jbo>
+ <natlang>Chilean</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> is of the appropriate form, and passes all tests required of a Stage 4 fu'ivla. No two fu'ivla of this form would be allowed to coexist if they differed only in the final vowel; this rule was applied to gismu, but does not apply to other fu'ivla or to lujvo.</para>
+ <para>The second, and fully experimental, part of the proposal is to allow rafsi to be formed from these cultural fu'ivla by removing the final vowel and treating the result as a 4-letter rafsi (although it would contain five letters, not four). These rafsi could then be used on a par with all other rafsi in forming lujvo. The tanru</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hcR6">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e16d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo valid="false">tci'ile ke canre tutra</jbo>
+ <gloss>Chilean type-of <comment>sand territory</comment></gloss>
+ <natlang>Chilean desert</natlang>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>could be represented by the lujvo</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-0rzn">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c4e16d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo valid="false">tci'ilykemcantutra</jbo>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>which is an illegal word in standard Lojban, but a valid lujvo under this proposal. There would be no short rafsi or 5-letter rafsi assigned to any fu'ivla, so no fu'ivla could appear as the last element of a lujvo.</para>
+ <para>The cultural fu'ivla introduced under this proposal are called
+ <jbophrase>rafsi fu'ivla</jbophrase>, since they are distinguished from other Type 4 fu'ivla by the property of having rafsi. If this proposal is workable and introduces no problems into Lojban morphology, it might become standard for all Type 4 fu'ivla, including those made for plants, animals, foodstuffs, and other things.</para>
+
+ </section>
+</chapter>
diff --git a/chapters/05.xml b/chapters/05.xml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7fc0abe
--- /dev/null
+++ b/chapters/05.xml
@@ -0,0 +1,4050 @@
+<chapter xml:id="chapter-selbri">
+ <title><quote>Pretty Little Girls' School</quote>: The Structure Of Lojban selbri</title>
+ <mediaobject xml:id="chapter-selbri-picture">
+ <alt>The picture for chapter 5</alt>
+ <imageobject>
+ <imagedata fileref="media/chapter-selbri.gif"/>
+ </imageobject>
+ </mediaobject>
+
+ <section xml:id="section-content-words-brivla">
+ <title>Lojban content words: brivla</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi</primary><secondary>relation to selbri</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri</primary><secondary>relation to bridi</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> At the center, logically and often physically, of every Lojban bridi is one or more words which constitute the selbri. A bridi expresses a relationship between things: the selbri specifies which relationship is referred to. The difference between:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-do-mamta-mi">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e1d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>do mamta mi</jbo>
+ <gloss>You are-a-mother-of me</gloss>
+ <natlang>You are my mother</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>and</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-B0aR">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e1d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>do patfu mi</jbo>
+ <gloss>You are-a-father-of me.</gloss>
+ <natlang>You are my father.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>lies in the different selbri.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>brivla</primary><secondary>types</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>brivla as selbri</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri</primary><secondary>brivla as</secondary></indexterm> The simplest kind of selbri is a single Lojban content word: a brivla. There are three different varieties of brivla: those which are built into the language (the gismu), those which are derived from combinations of the gismu (the lujvo), and those which are taken (usually in a modified form) from other languages (the fu'ivla). In addition, there are a few cmavo that can act like brivla; these are mentioned in
+ <xref linkend="section-cmavo-selbri"/>, and discussed in full in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-anaphoric-cmavo"/>.</para>
+ <para>For the purposes of this chapter, however, all brivla are alike. For example,</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-483c">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e1d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ta bloti</jbo>
+ <gloss>That is-a-boat.</gloss>
+ <natlang>That is a boat.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mdxB">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e1d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ta brablo</jbo>
+ <gloss>That is-a-large-boat.</gloss>
+ <natlang>That is a ship.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-UMjE">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>schooner</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e1d5"/>
+ </title>
+
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ta blotrskunri</jbo>
+ <gloss>That is-a-(boat)-schooner.</gloss>
+ <natlang>That is a schooner.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> illustrate the three types of brivla (gismu, lujvo, and fu'ivla respectively), but in each case the selbri is composed of a single word whose meaning can be learned independent of its origins.</para>
+ <para>The remainder of this chapter will mostly use gismu as example brivla, because they are short. However, it is important to keep in mind that wherever a gismu appears, it could be replaced by any other kind of brivla.</para>
+ </section>
+
+ <section xml:id="section-simple-tanru">
+ <title>Simple tanru</title>
+
+
+
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>simple</secondary></indexterm> Beyond the single brivla, a selbri may consist of two brivla placed together. When a selbri is built in this way from more than one brivla, it is called a tanru, a word with no single English equivalent. The nearest analogue to tanru in English are combinations of two nouns such as
+ <quote>lemon tree</quote>. There is no way to tell just by looking at the phrase
+ <quote>lemon tree</quote> exactly what it refers to, even if you know the meanings of
+ <quote>lemon</quote> and
+ <quote>tree</quote> by themselves. As English-speakers, we must simply know that it refers to
+ <quote>a tree which bears lemons as fruits</quote>. A person who didn't know English very well might think of it as analogous to
+ <quote>brown tree</quote> and wonder,
+ <quote>What kind of tree is lemon-colored?</quote></para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>adjective-noun combination</primary><secondary>with tanru</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>adverb-verb combination</primary><secondary>with tanru</secondary></indexterm> In Lojban, tanru are also used for the same purposes as English adjective-noun combinations like
+ <quote>big boy</quote> and adverb-verb combinations like
+ <quote>quickly run</quote>. This is a consequence of Lojban not having any such categories as
+ <quote>noun</quote>,
+ <quote>verb</quote>,
+ <quote>adjective</quote>, or
+ <quote>adverb</quote>. English words belonging to any of these categories are translated by simple brivla in Lojban. Here are some examples of tanru:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-lemon-tree">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>lemon tree</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e2d1"/>
+ </title>
+
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>tu pelnimre tricu</jbo>
+ <gloss>That-yonder is-a-(lemon tree).</gloss>
+ <natlang>That is a lemon tree.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-qHNA">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e2d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la djan. barda nanla</jbo>
+ <gloss>That-named John is-a-big boy.</gloss>
+ <natlang>John is a big boy.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-eD63">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>quick runner</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e2d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi sutra bajra</jbo>
+ <gloss>I quick run</gloss>
+ <natlang>I quickly run./I run quickly.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>Note that
+ <valsi>pelnimre</valsi> is a lujvo for
+ <quote>lemon</quote>; it is derived from the gismu
+ <valsi>pelxu</valsi>, yellow, and
+ <valsi>nimre</valsi>, citrus. Note also that
+ <valsi>sutra</valsi> can mean
+ <quote>fast/quick</quote> or
+ <quote>quickly</quote> depending on its use:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-cjhN">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e2d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi sutra</jbo>
+ <gloss>I am-fast/quick</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> shows
+ <valsi>sutra</valsi> used to translate an adjective, whereas in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-eD63"/> it is translating an adverb. (Another correct translation of
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-eD63"/>, however, would be
+ <quote>I am a quick runner</quote>.)</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tertau</primary><secondary>definition of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>seltau</primary><secondary>definition of</secondary></indexterm> There are special Lojban terms for the two components of a tanru, derived from the place structure of the word
+ <valsi>tanru</valsi>. The first component is called the
+ <valsi>seltau</valsi>, and the second component is called the
+ <valsi>tertau</valsi>.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tertau</primary><secondary>effect on meaning of tanru</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>primary meaning of</secondary></indexterm> The most important rule for use in interpreting tanru is that the tertau carries the primary meaning. A
+ <jbophrase>pelnimre tricu</jbophrase> is primarily a tree, and only secondarily is it connected with lemons in some way. For this reason, an alternative translation of
+ <xref linkend="example-lemon-tree"/> would be:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hP9j">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e2d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <para>That is a lemon type of tree.</para>
+ </example>
+ <para>This
+ <quote>type of</quote> relationship between the components of a tanru is fundamental to the tanru concept.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modifier</primary><secondary>seltau as</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>seltau</primary><secondary>effect on meaning of tanru</secondary></indexterm> We may also say that the seltau modifies the meaning of the tertau:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4fvn">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e2d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <para>That is a tree which is lemon-ish (in the way appropriate to trees)</para>
+ </example>
+ <para>would be another possible translation of
+ <xref linkend="example-lemon-tree"/>. In the same way, a more explicit translation of
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qHNA"/> might be:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-asRA">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e2d7"/>
+ </title>
+ <para>John is a boy who is big in the way that boys are big.</para>
+ </example>
+ <para>This
+ <quote>way that boys are big</quote> would be quite different from the way in which elephants are big; big-for-a-boy is small-for-an-elephant.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ambiguity of tanru</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>ambiguity of</secondary></indexterm> All tanru are ambiguous semantically. Possible translations of:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-aIfM">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>goer table</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e2d8"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ta klama jubme</jbo>
+ <gloss>That is-a-goer type-of-table.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>include:</para>
+ <itemizedlist>
+ <listitem>
+ <para> That is a table which goes (a wheeled table, perhaps).</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>That is a table owned by one who goes.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>That is a table used by those who go (a sports doctor's table?).</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>That is a table when it goes (otherwise it is a chair?).</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </itemizedlist>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>as ambiguous</secondary></indexterm> In each case the object referred to is a
+ <quote>goer type of table</quote>, but the ambiguous
+ <quote>type of</quote> relationship can mean one of many things. A speaker who uses tanru (and pragmatically all speakers must) takes the risk of being misunderstood. Using tanru is convenient because they are short and expressive; the circumlocution required to squeeze out all ambiguity can require too much effort.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>meaning of</secondary></indexterm> No general theory covering the meaning of all possible tanru exists; probably no such theory can exist. However, some regularities obviously do exist:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Lczh">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e2d9"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>do barda prenu</jbo>
+ <gloss>You are-a-large person.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Ldb1">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e2d10"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>do cmalu prenu</jbo>
+ <gloss>You are-a-small person.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>are parallel tanru, in the sense that the relationship between
+ <valsi>barda</valsi> and
+ <valsi>prenu</valsi> is the same as that between
+ <valsi>cmalu</valsi> and
+ <valsi>prenu</valsi>.
+ <xref linkend="section-asymmetric-tanru"/> and
+ <xref linkend="section-symmetric-tanru"/> contain a partial listing of some types of tanru, with examples.</para>
+ </section>
+
+ <section xml:id="section-three-part-tanru">
+ <title>Three-part tanru grouping with
+ <valsi>bo</valsi></title>
+
+ <para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>bo</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>BO</selmaho>
+ <description>closest scope grouping</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru grouping</primary><secondary>three-part</secondary></indexterm> Consider the English sentence:</para>
+ <!-- FIXME: The indexterm "girls' school" applies to all three of the following examples; should it go in all three or just the first? -->
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gCLr">
+ <title>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>girls' school</primary><secondary>little</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e3d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <para>That's a little girls' school.</para>
+ </example>
+ <para>What does it mean? Two possible readings are:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-5UBW">
+ <title>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>girls' school</primary><secondary>little</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e3d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <para>That's a little school for girls.</para>
+ </example>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-5UBJ">
+ <title>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>girls' school</primary><secondary>little</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e3d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <para>That's a school for little girls.</para>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>speech rhythm</primary><secondary>for grouping in English</secondary></indexterm> This ambiguity is quite different from the simple tanru ambiguity described in
+ <xref linkend="section-simple-tanru"/>. We understand that
+ <quote>girls' school</quote> means
+ <quote>a school where girls are the students</quote>, and not
+ <quote>a school where girls are the teachers</quote> or
+ <quote>a school which is a girl</quote> (!). Likewise, we understand that
+ <quote>little girl</quote> means
+ <quote>girl who is small</quote>. This is an ambiguity of grouping. Is
+ <quote>girls' school</quote> to be taken as a unit, with
+ <quote>little</quote> specifying the type of girls' school? Or is
+ <quote>little girl</quote> to be taken as a unit, specifying the type of school? In English speech, different tones of voice, or
+ exaggerated speech rhythm showing the grouping, are used to make the distinction; English writing usually leaves it unrepresented.</para>
+
+ <para> Lojban makes no use of tones of voice for any purpose; explicit words are used to do the work. The cmavo
+ <valsi>bo</valsi> (which belongs to selma'o BO) may be placed between the two brivla which are most closely associated. Therefore, a Lojban translation of
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-5UBW"/> would be:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nwuU">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e3d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ta cmalu nixli bo ckule</jbo>
+ <gloss>That is-a-small girl [] school.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para><xref linkend="example-random-id-5UBJ"/> might be translated:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-jquh">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e3d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ta cmalu bo nixli ckule</jbo>
+ <gloss>That is-a-small [] girl school.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>The
+ <valsi>bo</valsi> is represented in the literal translation by a hyphen because in written English a hyphen is sometimes used for the same purpose:
+ <quote>a big dog-catcher</quote> would be quite different from a
+ <quote>big-dog catcher</quote> (presumably someone who catches only big dogs).</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru nested within tanru</primary></indexterm> Analysis of
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-nwuU"/> and
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-jquh"/> reveals a tanru nested within a tanru. In
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-nwuU"/>, the main tanru has a seltau of
+ <valsi>cmalu</valsi> and a tertau of
+ <jbophrase>nixli bo ckule</jbophrase>; the tertau is itself a tanru with
+ <valsi>nixli</valsi> as the seltau and
+ <valsi>ckule</valsi> as the tertau. In
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-jquh"/>, on the other hand, the seltau is
+ <jbophrase>cmalu bo nixli</jbophrase> (itself a tanru), whereas the tertau is
+ <valsi>ckule</valsi>.
+ This structure of tanru nested within tanru forms the basis for all the more complex types of selbri that will be explained below.</para>
+ <para>What about
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-9FPm"/>? What does it mean?</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9FPm">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e3d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ta cmalu nixli ckule</jbo>
+ <gloss>That is-a-small girl school.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>default left-grouping of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>left-grouping rule</primary><secondary>definition of</secondary></indexterm> The rules of Lojban do not leave this sentence ambiguous, as the rules of English do with
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-gCLr"/>. The choice made by the language designers is to say that
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-9FPm"/> means the same as
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-jquh"/>. This is true no matter what three brivla are used: the leftmost two are always grouped together. This rule is called the
+ <quote>left-grouping rule</quote>. Left-grouping in seemingly ambiguous structures is quite common – though not universal – in other contexts in Lojban.</para>
+ <para>Another way to express the English meaning of
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-nwuU"/> and
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-jquh"/>, using parentheses to mark grouping, is:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ERBx">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e3d7"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ta cmalu [] nixli bo ckule</jbo>
+ <gloss>That is-a-small type-of (girl type-of school).</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ERBQ">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e3d8"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ta cmalu bo nixli [] ckule</jbo>
+ <gloss>That is-a-(small type-of girl) type-of school.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>Because
+ <quote>type-of</quote> is implicit in the Lojban tanru form, it has no Lojban equivalent.</para>
+ <para>Note: It is perfectly legal, though pointless, to insert
+ <valsi>bo</valsi> into a simple tanru:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-q6br">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e3d9"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ta klama bo jubme</jbo>
+ <gloss>That is-a-goer [] table.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>is a legal Lojban bridi that means exactly the same thing as
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-aIfM"/>, and is ambiguous in exactly the same ways. The cmavo
+ <valsi>bo</valsi> serves only to resolve grouping ambiguity: it says nothing about the more basic ambiguity present in all tanru.</para>
+ </section>
+
+ <section xml:id="section-complex-grouping">
+ <title>Complex tanru grouping</title>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru grouping</primary><secondary>complex</secondary></indexterm> If one element of a tanru can be another tanru, why not both elements?</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-m5SD">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e4d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>do mutce bo barda gerku bo kavbu</jbo>
+ <gloss>You are-a-(very type-of large) (dog type-of capturer).</gloss>
+ <natlang>You are a very large dog-catcher.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>In
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-m5SD"/>, the selbri is a tanru with seltau
+ <jbophrase>mutce bo barda</jbophrase> and tertau
+ <jbophrase>gerku bo kavbu</jbophrase>. It is worth emphasizing once again that this tanru has the same fundamental ambiguity as all other Lojban tanru: the sense in which the
+ <quote>dog type-of capturer</quote> is said to be
+ <quote>very type-of large</quote> is not precisely specified. Presumably it is his body which is large, but theoretically it could be one of his other properties.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pretty</primary><secondary>English ambiguity of</secondary></indexterm> We will now justify the title of this chapter by exploring the ramifications of the phrase
+ <quote>pretty little girls' school</quote>, an expansion of the tanru used in
+
+ <xref linkend="section-three-part-tanru"/> to four brivla. (Although this example has been used in the Loglan Project almost since the beginning – it first appeared in Quine's book
+ <citetitle pubwork="book">Word and Object</citetitle> (1960) – it is actually a mediocre example because of the ambiguity of English
+ <quote>pretty</quote>; it can mean
+ <quote>beautiful</quote>, the sense intended here, or it can mean
+ <quote>very</quote>. Lojban
+ <valsi>melbi</valsi> is not subject to this ambiguity: it means only
+ <quote>beautiful</quote>.)</para>
+ <para>Here are four ways to group this phrase:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjmr" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e4d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ta melbi cmalu nixli ckule</jbo>
+ <gloss>That is-a-((pretty type-of little) type-of girl) type-of school.</gloss>
+ <natlang>That is a school for girls who are beautifully small.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjNi" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e4d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ta melbi cmalu nixli bo ckule</jbo>
+ <gloss>That is-a-(pretty type-of little) (girl type-of school).</gloss>
+ <natlang>That is a girls' school which is beautifully small.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjog" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e4d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ta melbi cmalu bo nixli ckule</jbo>
+ <gloss>That is-a-(pretty type-of (little type-of girl)) type-of school.</gloss>
+ <natlang>That is a school for small girls who are beautiful.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjop" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e4d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ta melbi cmalu bo nixli bo ckule</jbo>
+ <gloss>That is-a-pretty type-of (little type-of (girl type-of school)).</gloss>
+ <natlang>That is a small school for girls which is beautiful.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bo</primary><secondary>for right-grouping in tanru</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru grouping</primary><secondary>with bo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>right-grouping in tanru</primary><secondary>with bo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>right-grouping rule</primary><secondary>definition of</secondary></indexterm>
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjop"/> uses a construction which has not been seen before:
+ <jbophrase>cmalu bo nixli bo ckule</jbophrase>, with two consecutive uses of
+ <valsi>bo</valsi> between brivla. The rule for multiple
+ <valsi>bo</valsi> constructions is the opposite of the rule when no
+ <valsi>bo</valsi> is present at all: the last two are grouped together. Not surprisingly, this is called the
+ <quote>right-grouping rule</quote>, and it is associated with every use of
+
+ <valsi>bo</valsi> in the language. Therefore,</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-snKn">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e4d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ta cmalu bo nixli bo ckule</jbo>
+ <gloss>That is-a-little type-of (girl type-of school).</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>means the same as
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-nwuU"/>, not
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-jquh"/>. This rule may seem peculiar at first, but one of its consequences is that
+ <valsi>bo</valsi> is never necessary between the first two elements of any of the complex tanru presented so far: all of
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjmr"/> through
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjop"/> could have
+ <valsi>bo</valsi> inserted between
+ <valsi>melbi</valsi> and
+ <valsi>cmalu</valsi> with no change in meaning.</para>
+ </section>
+
+ <section xml:id="section-ke-grouping">
+ <title>Complex tanru with
+ <valsi>ke</valsi> and
+ <valsi>ke'e</valsi></title>
+
+ <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ke</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>KE</selmaho>
+ <description>start grouping</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ke'e</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>KEhE</selmaho>
+ <description>end grouping</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru grouping</primary><secondary>with ke</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>grouping parentheses</primary></indexterm> There is, in fact, a fifth grouping of
+ <quote>pretty little girls' school</quote> that cannot be expressed with the resources explained so far. To handle it, we must introduce the grouping parentheses cmavo,
+
+
+ <valsi>ke</valsi> and
+ <valsi>ke'e</valsi> (belonging to selma'o KE and KEhE respectively). Any portion of a selbri sandwiched between these two cmavo is taken to be a single tanru component, independently of what is adjacent to it. Thus,
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjmr"/> can be rewritten in any of the following ways:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjqu" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e5d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ta ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ckule</jbo>
+ <gloss>That is-a-( pretty little ) girl school.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJQz" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e5d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ta ke ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ke'e ckule</jbo>
+ <gloss>That is-a-( ( pretty little ) girl ) school.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjSA" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e5d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ta ke ke ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ke'e ckule ke'e</jbo>
+ <gloss>That is-a-( ( ( pretty little ) girl ) school ).</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>Even more versions could be created simply by placing any number of
+ <valsi>ke</valsi> cmavo at the beginning of the selbri, and a like number of
+ <valsi>ke'e</valsi> cmavo at its end. Obviously, all of these are a waste of breath once the left-grouping rule has been grasped. However, the following is equivalent to
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjog"/> and may be easier to understand:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-zV26">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e5d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ta melbi ke cmalu nixli ke'e ckule</jbo>
+ <gloss>That is-a-( pretty type-of ( little type-of girl ) ) type-of school.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>Likewise, a
+ <valsi>ke</valsi> and
+ <valsi>ke'e</valsi> version of
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjNi"/> would be:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-AUdM">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e5d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ta melbi cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e]</jbo>
+ <gloss>That is-a-(pretty type-of little) ( girl type-of school ).</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>The final
+ <valsi>ke'e</valsi> is given in square brackets here to indicate that it can be elided. It is always possible to elide
+
+ <valsi>ke'e</valsi> at the end of the selbri, making
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-AUdM"/> as terse as
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjNi"/>.</para>
+ <para>Now how about that fifth grouping? It is</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-tz0L">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e5d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ta melbi ke cmalu nixli ckule [ke'e]</jbo>
+ <gloss>That is-a-pretty type-of ( ( little type-of girl ) type-of school ).</gloss>
+ <natlang>That is a beautiful school for small girls.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-tz0L"/> is distinctly different in meaning from any of Examples 4.2 through 4.5. Note that within the
+ <valsi>ke</valsi>…<valsi>ke'e</valsi> parentheses, the left-grouping rule is applied to
+ <jbophrase>cmalu nixli ckule</jbophrase>.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru grouping</primary><secondary>with ke and bo</secondary></indexterm>
+ It is perfectly all right to mix
+ <valsi>bo</valsi> and
+ <valsi>ke</valsi>…<valsi>ke'e</valsi> in a single selbri. For instance,
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjop"/>, which in pure
+ <valsi>ke</valsi>…<valsi>ke'e</valsi> form is</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-uBS4">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e5d7"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ta melbi ke cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e] [ke'e]</jbo>
+ <gloss>That is-a-pretty type-of ( little type-of ( girl type-of school ) ).</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>can equivalently be expressed as:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Ei5U">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e5d8"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ta melbi ke cmalu nixli bo ckule [ke'e]</jbo>
+ <gloss>That is-a-pretty type-of ( little type-of ( girl type-of school ) ).</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>and in many other different forms as well.</para>
+ </section>
+
+ <section xml:id="section-logical-connection">
+ <title>Logical connection within tanru</title>
+ <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>je</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>JA</selmaho>
+ <description>tanru logical <quote>and</quote></description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ja</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>JA</selmaho>
+ <description>tanru logical <quote>or</quote></description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>joi</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>JOI</selmaho>
+ <description>mixed mass <quote>and</quote></description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>gu'e</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>GUhA</selmaho>
+ <description>tanru forethought logical <quote>and</quote></description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>gi</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>GI</selmaho>
+ <description>forethought connection separator</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+ <para> Consider the English phrase
+ <quote>big red dog</quote>. How shall this be rendered as a Lojban tanru? The naive attempt:</para>
+
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-riAq">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>big red dog</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e6d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo valid="iffy">barda xunre gerku</jbo>
+ <gloss>(big type-of red) type-of dog</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>will not do, as it means a dog whose redness is big, in whatever way redness might be described as
+ <quote>big</quote>. Nor is</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-6MqF">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e6d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo valid="iffy">barda xunre bo gerku</jbo>
+ <gloss>big type-of (red type-of dog)</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>adjective ordering</primary></indexterm> much better. After all, the straightforward understanding of the English phrase is that the dog is big as compared with other dogs, not merely as compared with other red dogs. In fact, the bigness and redness are independent properties of the dog, and only obscure rules of English adjective ordering prevent us from saying
+
+ <quote>red big dog</quote>.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connectives</primary><secondary>in tanru</secondary></indexterm> The Lojban approach to this problem is to introduce the cmavo
+ <valsi>je</valsi>, which is one of the many equivalents of English
+ <quote>and</quote>. A big red dog is one that is both big and red, and we can say:</para>
+
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-0UrF">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e6d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>barda je xunre gerku</jbo>
+ <gloss>(big and red) type-of dog</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>Of course,</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-DzeP">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e6d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>xunre je barda gerku</jbo>
+ <gloss>(red and big) type-of dog</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connectives in tanru</primary><secondary>effect on tanru grouping</secondary></indexterm> is equally satisfactory and means the same thing. As these examples indicate, joining two brivla with
+ <valsi>je</valsi> makes them a unit for tanru purposes. However, explicit grouping with
+ <valsi>bo</valsi> or
+ <valsi>ke</valsi>…<valsi>ke'e</valsi> associates brivla more closely than
+ <valsi>je</valsi> does:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-LES9">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e6d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>barda je pelxu bo xunre gerku</jbo>
+ <jbo>barda je ke pelxu xunre ke'e gerku</jbo>
+ <gloss>(big and (yellow type-of red)) dog</gloss>
+ <natlang>big yellowish-red dog</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>With no grouping indicators, we get:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-fuhg">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e6d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo valid="iffy">barda je pelxu xunre gerku</jbo>
+ <gloss>((big and yellow) type-of red) type-of dog</gloss>
+ <gloss>biggish- and yellowish-red dog</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>which again raises the question of
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-riAq"/>: what does
+ <quote>biggish-red</quote> mean?</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connectives in tanru</primary><secondary>usefulness of</secondary></indexterm> Unlike
+ <valsi>bo</valsi> and
+ <valsi>ke</valsi>…<valsi>ke'e</valsi>,
+ <valsi>je</valsi> is useful as well as merely legal within simple tanru. It may be used to partly resolve the ambiguity of simple tanru:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-W56H">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e6d7"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ta blanu je zdani</jbo>
+ <gloss>that is-blue and is-a-house</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>definitely refers to something which is both blue and is a house, and not to any of the other possible interpretations of simple
+ <jbophrase>blanu zdani</jbophrase>. Furthermore,
+ <jbophrase>blanu zdani</jbophrase> refers to something which is blue in the way that houses are blue;
+ <jbophrase>blanu je zdani</jbophrase> has no such implication – the blueness of a
+ <jbophrase>blanu je zdani</jbophrase> is independent of its houseness.</para>
+ <para>With the addition of
+ <valsi>je</valsi>, many more versions of
+ <quote>pretty little girls' school</quote> are made possible: see
+
+ <xref linkend="section-pretty-school-groupings"/> for a complete list.</para>
+ <para>A subtle point in the semantics of tanru like
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-0UrF"/> needs special elucidation. There are at least two possible interpretations of:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-N5Bt">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e6d8"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ta melbi je nixli ckule</jbo>
+ <gloss>That is-a-(beautiful and girl) type-of school.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>It can be understood as:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-FCDa">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e6d9"/>
+ </title>
+ <para>That is a girls' school and a beautiful school.</para>
+ </example>
+ <para>or as:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-aFxm">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e6d10"/>
+ </title>
+ <para>That is a school for things which are both girls and beautiful.</para>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connectives in tanru</primary><secondary>ambiguity of</secondary></indexterm> The interpretation specified by
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-FCDa"/> treats the tanru as a sort of abbreviation for:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pHHw">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e6d11"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ta ke melbi ckule ke'e je ke nixli ckule [ke'e]</jbo>
+ <gloss>That is-a-( beautiful type-of school ) and ( girl type-of school )</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>whereas the interpretation specified by
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-aFxm"/> does not. This is a kind of semantic ambiguity for which Lojban does not compel a firm resolution. The way in which the school is said to be of type
+ <quote>beautiful and girl</quote> may entail that it is separately a beautiful school and a girls' school; but the alternative interpretation, that the members of the school are beautiful and girls, is also possible. Still another interpretation is:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-2cjH">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e6d12"/>
+ </title>
+ <para>That is a school for beautiful things and also for girls.</para>
+ </example>
+ <para>so while the logical connectives help to resolve the meaning of tanru, they by no means compel a single meaning in and of themselves.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connectives in tanru</primary><secondary>effect on formal logical manipulations</secondary></indexterm> In general, logical connectives within tanru cannot undergo the formal manipulations that are possible with the related logical connectives that exist outside tanru; see
+ <xref linkend="section-tanru"/> for further details.</para>
+ <para> The logical connective
+ <valsi>je</valsi> is only one of the fourteen logical connectives that Lojban provides. Here are a few examples of some of the others:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJse" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e6d13"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le bajra cu jinga ja te jinga</jbo>
+ <natlang>the runner(s) is/are winner(s) or loser(s).</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJsg" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e6d14"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>blanu naja lenku skapi</jbo>
+ <gloss>(blue only-if cold) skin</gloss>
+ <natlang>skin which is blue only if it is cold</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjsy" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e6d15"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>xamgu jo tordu nuntavla</jbo>
+ <gloss>(good if-and-only-if short) speech</gloss>
+ <natlang>speech which is good if (and only if) it is short</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjtD" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e6d16"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>vajni ju pluka nuntavla</jbo>
+ <gloss>(important whether-or-not pleasing) event-of-talking</gloss>
+ <natlang>speech which is important, whether or not it is pleasing</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>In
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qJse"/>,
+ <valsi>ja</valsi> is grammatically equivalent to
+ <valsi>je</valsi> but means
+ <quote>or</quote> (more precisely,
+ <quote>and/or</quote>). Likewise,
+ <valsi>naja</valsi> means
+ <quote>only if</quote> in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qJsg"/>,
+ <valsi>jo</valsi> means
+ <quote>if and only if</quote> in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjsy"/>, and
+ <valsi>ju</valsi> means
+ <quote>whether or not</quote> in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjtD"/>.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple logical connectives</primary><secondary>within tanru</secondary></indexterm> Now consider the following example:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-NuWM">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e6d17"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ricfu je blanu jabo crino</jbo>
+ <gloss>rich and (blue or green)</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru grouping with JA+BO</primary><secondary>effect on tanru grouping</secondary></indexterm> which illustrates a new grammatical feature: the use of both
+ <valsi>ja</valsi> and
+ <valsi>bo</valsi> between tanru components. The two cmavo combine to form a compound whose meaning is that of
+ <valsi>ja</valsi> but which groups more closely;
+ <valsi>ja</valsi><valsi>bo</valsi> is to
+
+ <valsi>ja</valsi> as plain
+ <valsi>bo</valsi> is to no cmavo at all. However, both
+ <valsi>ja</valsi> and
+ <valsi>ja</valsi><valsi>bo</valsi> group less closely than
+
+ <valsi>bo</valsi> does:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KxqX">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e6d18"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ricfu je blanu jabo crino bo blanu</jbo>
+ <gloss>rich and (blue or green - blue)</gloss>
+ <gloss>rich and (blue or greenish-blue)</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>An alternative form of
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-NuWM"/> is:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2WtT">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e6d19"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ricfu je ke blanu ja crino [ke'e]</jbo>
+ <gloss>rich and (blue or green)</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-logical connectives</primary><secondary>within tanru</secondary></indexterm> In addition to the logical connectives, there are also a variety of non-logical connectives, grammatically equivalent to the logical ones. The only one with a well-understood meaning in tanru contexts is
+ <valsi>joi</valsi>, which is the kind of
+ <quote>and</quote> that denotes a mixture:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Hr1L">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e6d20"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ti blanu joi xunre bolci</jbo>
+ <gloss>This is-a-(blue and red) ball.</gloss>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>The ball described is neither solely red nor solely blue, but probably striped or in some other way exhibiting a combination of the two colors.
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-Hr1L"/> is distinct from:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-NAhT">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e6d21"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ti blanu xunre bolci</jbo>
+ <natlang>This is a bluish-red ball</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>which would be a ball whose color is some sort of purple tending toward red, since
+ <valsi>xunre</valsi> is the more important of the two components. On the other hand,</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-78C3">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e6d22"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ti blanu je xunre bolci</jbo>
+ <gloss>This is a (blue and red) ball</gloss>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>is probably self-contradictory, seeming to claim that the ball is independently both blue and red at the same time, although some sensible interpretation may exist.</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>forethought logical connectives</primary><secondary>within tanru</secondary></indexterm> Finally, just as English
+ <quote>and</quote> has the variant form
+ <quote>both ... and</quote>, so
+ <valsi>je</valsi> between tanru components has the variant form
+ <valsi>gu'e</valsi>…<valsi>gi</valsi>, where
+ <valsi>gu'e</valsi> is placed before the components and
+ <valsi>gi</valsi> between them:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gLbh">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e6d23"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>gu'e barda gi xunre gerku</jbo>
+ <gloss>(both big and red) type-of dog</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>is equivalent in meaning to
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-0UrF"/>. For each logical connective related to
+ <valsi>je</valsi>, there is a corresponding connective related to
+ <valsi>gu'e</valsi>…<valsi>gi</valsi> in a systematic way.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>forethought logical connectives in tanru</primary><secondary>effect on tanru grouping</secondary></indexterm> The portion of a
+ <valsi>gu'e</valsi>…<valsi>gi</valsi> construction before the
+ <valsi>gi</valsi> is a full selbri, and may use any of the selbri resources including
+ <valsi>je</valsi> logical connections. After the
+ <valsi>gi</valsi>, logical connections are taken to be wider in scope than the
+ <valsi>gu'e</valsi>…<valsi>gi</valsi>, which has in effect the same scope as
+ <valsi>bo</valsi>:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ETVe">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e6d24"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>gu'e barda je xunre gi gerku ja mlatu</jbo>
+ <gloss>(both (big and red) and dog) or cat</gloss>
+ <natlang>something which is either big, red, and a dog, or else a cat</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>leaves
+ <valsi>mlatu</valsi> outside the
+ <valsi>gu'e</valsi>…<valsi>gi</valsi> construction. The scope of the
+ <valsi>gi</valsi> arm extends only to a single brivla or to two or more brivla connected with
+ <valsi>bo</valsi> or
+ <valsi>ke</valsi>…<valsi>ke'e</valsi>.</para>
+ </section>
+
+ <section xml:id="section-be-sumti">
+ <title>Linked sumti: <valsi>be</valsi>-<valsi>bei</valsi>-<valsi>be'o</valsi></title>
+ <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>be</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>BE</selmaho>
+ <description>linked sumti marker</description>
+
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>bei</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>BEI</selmaho>
+ <description>linked sumti separator</description>
+
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>be'o</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>BEhO</selmaho>
+ <description>linked sumti terminator</description>
+
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+ <para>The question of the place structures of selbri has been glossed over so far. This chapter does not attempt to treat place structure issues in detail; they are discussed in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-sumti-tcita"/>. One grammatical structure related to places belongs here, however. In simple sentences such as
+ <xref linkend="example-do-mamta-mi"/>, the place structure of the selbri is simply the defined place structure of the gismu
+ <valsi>mamta</valsi>. What about more complex selbri?</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>place structures of</secondary></indexterm> For tanru, the place structure rule is simple: the place structure of a tanru is always the place structure of its tertau. Thus, the place structure of
+ <jbophrase>blanu zdani</jbophrase> is that of
+ <valsi>zdani</valsi>: the x1 place is a house or nest, and the x2 place is its occupants.</para>
+ <para>What about the places of
+ <valsi>blanu</valsi>? Is there any way to get them into the act? In fact,
+ <valsi>blanu</valsi> has only one place, and this is merged, as it were, with the x1 place of
+ <valsi>zdani</valsi>. It is whatever is in the x1 place that is being characterized as blue-for-a-house. But if we replace
+ <valsi>blanu</valsi> with
+ <valsi>xamgu</valsi>, we get:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-tffW">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>good house</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e7d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ti xamgu zdani</jbo>
+ <gloss>This is-a-good house.</gloss>
+
+ <natlang>This is a good (for someone, by some standard) house.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>Since
+ <valsi>xamgu</valsi> has three places (x1, the good thing; x2, the person for whom it is good; and x3, the standard of goodness),
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-tffW"/> necessarily omits information about the last two: there is no room for them. Room can be made, however!</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Uuio">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e7d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ti xamgu be do bei mi [be'o] zdani</jbo>
+ <gloss>This is-a-good (for you by-standard me) house.</gloss>
+ <natlang>This is a house that is good for you by my standards.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>linked sumti</primary><secondary>in tanru</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>seltau</primary><secondary>filling sumti places in</secondary></indexterm> Here, the gismu
+ <valsi>xamgu</valsi> has been followed by the cmavo
+ <valsi>be</valsi> (of selma'o BE), which signals that one or more sumti follows. These sumti are not part of the overall bridi place structure, but fill the places of the brivla they are attached to, starting with x2. If there is more than one sumti, they are separated by the cmavo
+ <valsi>bei</valsi> (of selma'o BEI), and the list of sumti is terminated by the elidable terminator
+ <valsi>be'o</valsi> (of selma'o BEhO).</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>linked sumti</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> Grammatically, a brivla with sumti linked to it in this fashion plays the same role in tanru as a simple brivla. To illustrate, here is a fully fleshed-out version of
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-nwuU"/>, with all places filled in:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7vxB">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>Brooklyn</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e7d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ti cmalu be le ka canlu bei lo'e ckule be'o</jbo>
+ <gloss>This is a small (in-dimension the property-of volume by-standard the-typical school)</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>nixli be li mu bei lo merko be'o bo ckule</jbo>
+ <gloss>(girl (of-years the-number five by-standard some American-thing) school)</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la bryklyn. loi pemci</jbo>
+ <gloss>in-Brooklyn with-subject poems</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le mela nu,IORK. prenu le jecta</jbo>
+ <gloss>for-audience New-York persons with-operator the state.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ <para>This is a school, small in volume compared to the typical school, pertaining to five-year-old girls (by American standards), in Brooklyn, teaching poetry to the New York community and operated by the state.</para>
+ </example>
+ <para>Here the three places of
+ <valsi>cmalu</valsi>, the three of
+ <valsi>nixli</valsi>, and the four of
+ <valsi>ckule</valsi> are fully specified. Since the places of
+ <valsi>ckule</valsi> are the places of the bridi as a whole, it was not necessary to link the sumti which follow
+ <valsi>ckule</valsi>. It would have been legal to do so, however:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-YIty">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e7d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi klama be le zarci bei le zdani [be'o]</jbo>
+ <gloss>I go (to-the market from-the house).</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>means the same as</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-UtBR">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e7d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi klama le zarci le zdani</jbo>
+ <gloss>I go to-the market from-the house.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>place structures of</secondary></indexterm> No matter how complex a tanru gets, the last brivla always dictates the place structure: the place structure of</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Twmx">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e7d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>melbi je cmalu nixli bo ckule</jbo>
+ <gloss>a (pretty and little) (girl school)</gloss>
+ <natlang>a school for girls which is both beautiful and small</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>is simply that of
+ <valsi>ckule</valsi>. (The sole exception to this rule is discussed in
+ <xref linkend="section-co-inversion"/>.)</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>FA tags and linked sumti</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>linked sumti and FA tags</primary></indexterm> It is possible to precede linked sumti by the place structure ordering tags
+
+ <valsi>fe</valsi>,
+ <valsi>fi</valsi>,
+ <valsi>fo</valsi>, and
+ <valsi>fu</valsi> (of selma'o FA, discussed further in
+ <xref linkend="section-FA"/>), which serve to explicitly specify the x2, x3, x4, and x5 places respectively. Normally, the place following the
+ <valsi>be</valsi> is the x2 place and the other places follow in order. If it seems convenient to change the order, however, it can be accomplished as follows:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mhS7">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e7d7"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ti xamgu be fi mi bei fe do [be'o] zdani</jbo>
+ <gloss>This is-a-good ( by-standard me for you ) house.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>which is equivalent in meaning to
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-Uuio"/>. Note that the order of
+ <valsi>be</valsi>,
+ <valsi>bei</valsi>, and
+ <valsi>be'o</valsi> does not change; only the inserted
+ <valsi>fi</valsi> tells us that
+ <valsi>mi</valsi> is the x3 place (and correspondingly, the inserted
+ <valsi>fe</valsi> tells us that
+ <valsi>do</valsi> is the x2 place). Changing the order of sumti is often done to match the order of another language, or for emphasis or rhythm.</para>
+ <para>Of course, using FA cmavo makes it easy to specify one place while omitting a previous place:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9b37">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e7d8"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ti xamgu be fi mi [be'o] zdani</jbo>
+ <gloss>This is-a-good (by-standard me) house.</gloss>
+ <natlang>This is a good house by my standards.</natlang>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti tcita and tense tags</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense tags and sumti tcita</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti tcita and modal tags</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal tags and sumti tcita</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti tcita and linked sumti</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>linked sumti and sumti tcita</primary></indexterm> Similarly, sumti labeled by modal or tense tags can be inserted into strings of linked sumti just as they can into bridi:</para>
+
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-GstI">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e7d9"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ta blanu be ga'a mi [be'o] zdani</jbo>
+ <gloss>That is-a-blue (to-observer me) house.</gloss>
+ <natlang>That is a blue, as I see it, house.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>The meaning of
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-GstI"/> is slightly different from:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-63c5">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e7d10"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ta blanu zdani ga'a mi</jbo>
+ <gloss>That is-a-blue house to-observer me.</gloss>
+ <natlang>That is a blue house, as I see it.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>See discussions in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-sumti-tcita"/> of modals and in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-tenses"/> of tenses for more explanations.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>be'o</primary><secondary>effect of relative clauses on elidability of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>effect on elidability of be'o</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>be'o</primary><secondary>elidability of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>elidability of be'o</primary></indexterm> The terminator
+ <valsi>be'o</valsi> is almost always elidable: however, if the selbri belongs to a description, then a relative clause following it will attach to the last linked sumti unless
+
+ <valsi>be'o</valsi> is used, in which case it will attach to the outer description:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJTI" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e7d11"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le xamgu be do noi barda cu zdani</jbo>
+ <gloss>The good-thing for you (who are-large) is-a-house.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjTj" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e7d12"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le xamgu be do be'o noi barda cu zdani</jbo>
+ <gloss>The (good-thing for you) (which is-large) is-a-house</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>(Relative clauses are explained in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-relative-clauses"/>.)</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>be'o</primary><secondary>effect of ku on elidability of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ku</primary><secondary>effect on elidability of be'o</secondary></indexterm> In other cases, however,
+ <valsi>be'o</valsi> cannot be elided if
+ <valsi>ku</valsi> has also been elided:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-zb4A">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e7d13"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le xamgu be le ctuca [ku] be'o zdani</jbo>
+ <gloss>the good (for the teacher) house</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>requires either
+ <valsi>ku</valsi> or
+ <valsi>be'o</valsi>, and since there is only one occurrence of
+ <valsi>be</valsi>, the
+ <valsi>be'o</valsi> must match it, whereas it may be confusing which occurrence of
+ <valsi>le</valsi> the
+ <valsi>ku</valsi> terminates (in fact the second one is correct).</para>
+ </section>
+
+ <section xml:id="section-co-inversion">
+ <title>Inversion of tanru:
+ <valsi>co</valsi></title>
+ <para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>co</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>CO</selmaho>
+ <description>tanru inversion marker</description>
+
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru inversion</primary></indexterm> The standard order of Lojban tanru, whereby the modifier precedes what it modifies, is very natural to English-speakers: we talk of
+ <quote>blue houses</quote>, not of
+ <quote>houses blue</quote>. In other languages, however, such matters are differently arranged, and Lojban supports this reverse order (tertau before seltau) by inserting the particle
+ <valsi>co</valsi>.
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjtV"/> and
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjty"/> mean exactly the same thing:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjtV" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e8d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ta blanu zdani</jbo>
+ <gloss>That is-a-blue type-of-house.</gloss>
+ <natlang>That is a blue house.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjty" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e8d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ta zdani co blanu</jbo>
+ <gloss>That is-a-house of-type blue.</gloss>
+ <natlang>That is a blue house.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>seltau</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tertau</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru inversion</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> This change is called
+ <quote>tanru inversion</quote>. In tanru inversion, the element before
+
+ <valsi>co</valsi> (
+ <valsi>zdani</valsi> in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjty"/>) is the tertau, and the element following
+ <valsi>co</valsi> (
+ <valsi>blanu</valsi>) in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjty"/>) is the seltau.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>place structure and tanru inversion</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru inversion and place structure</primary></indexterm> The meaning, and more specifically, the place structure, of a tanru is not affected by inversion: the place structure of
+ <jbophrase>zdani co blanu</jbophrase> is still that of
+ <valsi>zdani</valsi>. However, the existence of inversion in a selbri has a very special effect on any sumti which follow that selbri. Instead of being interpreted as filling places of the selbri, they actually fill the places (starting with x2) of the seltau. In
+ <xref linkend="section-be-sumti"/>, we saw how to fill interior places with
+ <valsi>be</valsi>…<valsi>bei</valsi>…<valsi>be'o</valsi>, and in fact
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjuc"/> and
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjVx"/> have the same meaning:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjuc" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e8d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi klama be le zarci bei le zdani be'o troci</jbo>
+ <gloss>I am-a-(goer to the market from the house) type-of trier.</gloss>
+ <natlang>I try to go to the market from the house.</natlang>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjVx" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>try to go</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e8d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi troci co klama le zarci le zdani</jbo>
+ <gloss>I am-a-trier of-type (goer to-the market from-the house).</gloss>
+ <natlang>I try to go to the market from the house.</natlang>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjVx"/> is a less deeply nested construction, requiring fewer cmavo. As a result it is probably easier to understand.</para>
+ <para> Note that in Lojban
+ <quote>trying to go</quote> is expressed using
+ <valsi>troci</valsi> as the tertau. The reason is that
+ <quote>trying to go</quote> is a
+ <quote>going type of trying</quote>, not a
+ <quote>trying type of going</quote>. The trying is more fundamental than the going – if the trying fails, we may not have a going at all.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>inverted tanru</primary><secondary>effect on sumti after the selbri</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>inverted tanru</primary><secondary>effect on sumti before the selbri</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>unfilled places of inverted tanru</primary></indexterm> Any sumti which precede a selbri with an inverted tanru fill the places of the selbri (i.e., the places of the tertau) in the ordinary way. In
+
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjVx"/>,
+ <valsi>mi</valsi> fills the x1 place of
+ <jbophrase>troci co klama</jbophrase>, which is the x1 place of
+ <valsi>troci</valsi>. The other places of the selbri remain unfilled. The trailing sumti
+ <jbophrase>le zarci</jbophrase> and
+ <jbophrase>le zdani</jbophrase> do not occupy selbri places, despite appearances.</para>
+ <para>As a result, the regular mechanisms (involving selma'o VOhA and GOhI, explained in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-anaphoric-cmavo"/>) for referring to individual sumti of a bridi cannot refer to any of the trailing places of
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjVx"/>, because they are not really
+ <quote>sumti of the bridi</quote> at all.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru inversion</primary><secondary>where allowed</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru inversion</primary><secondary>in complex tanru</secondary></indexterm> When inverting a more complex tanru, it is possible to invert it only at the most general modifier-modified pair. The only possible inversion of
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-nwuU"/>, for instance, is:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7uS2">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e8d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ta nixli [bo] ckule co cmalu</jbo>
+ <gloss>That (is-a-girl type-of school) of-type little.</gloss>
+ <natlang>That's a girls' school which is small.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru grouping</primary><secondary>effect of tanru inversion on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru inversion</primary><secondary>effect on tanru grouping</secondary></indexterm>
+ Note that the
+ <valsi>bo</valsi> of
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-nwuU"/> is optional in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-7uS2"/>, because
+ <valsi>co</valsi> groups more loosely than any other cmavo used in tanru, including none at all. Not even
+ <valsi>ke</valsi>…<valsi>ke'e</valsi> parentheses can encompass a
+ <valsi>co</valsi>:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-y501">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e8d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ta cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e] co melbi</jbo>
+ <gloss>That is-a-(little type-of (girl type-of school)) of-type pretty.</gloss>
+ <natlang>That's a small school for girls which is beautiful.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru inversion</primary><secondary>rule for removing</secondary></indexterm> In
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-y501"/>, the
+ <valsi>ke'e</valsi> is automatically inserted before the
+ <valsi>co</valsi> rather than at its usual place at the end of the selbri. As a result, there is a simple and mechanical rule for removing
+ <valsi>co</valsi> from any selbri: change
+ <quote>A co B</quote> to
+ <quote>ke B ke'e A</quote>. (At the same time, any sumti following the selbri must be transformed into
+ <valsi>be</valsi>…<valsi>bei</valsi>…<valsi>be'o</valsi> form and attached following B.) Therefore,</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4c0A">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e8d7"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ckule co melbi nixli</jbo>
+ <gloss>school of-type pretty girl</gloss>
+ <natlang>school for beautiful girls</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>means the same as:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-w5cI">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e8d8"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ke melbi nixli ke'e ckule</jbo>
+ <gloss>(pretty girl) school</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple tanru inversion</primary><secondary>effect on grouping</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru inversion</primary><secondary>multiple</secondary></indexterm> Multiple
+ <valsi>co</valsi> cmavo can appear within a selbri, indicating multiple inversions: a right-grouping rule is employed, as for
+
+ <valsi>bo</valsi>. The above rule can be applied to interpret such selbri, but all
+ <valsi>co</valsi> cmavo must be removed simultaneously:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-yLn5">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e8d9"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ckule co nixli co cmalu</jbo>
+ <gloss>school of-type (girl of-type little)</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>becomes formally</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mM3Q">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e8d10"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ke ke cmalu ke'e nixli ke'e ckule</jbo>
+ <gloss>( (little) girl ) school</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>which by the left-grouping rule is simply</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-LGRz">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e8d11"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>cmalu nixli ckule</jbo>
+ <gloss>little girl school</gloss>
+ <natlang>school for little girls</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>As stated above, the selbri places, other than the first, of</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Qcwd">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e8d12"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi klama co sutra</jbo>
+ <gloss>I am-a-goer of-type quick</gloss>
+ <natlang>I go quickly</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>cannot be filled by placing sumti after the selbri, because any sumti in that position fill the places of
+ <valsi>sutra</valsi>, the seltau. However, the tertau places (which means in effect the selbri places) can be filled with
+ <valsi>be</valsi>:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PDAh">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e8d13"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi klama be le zarci be'o co sutra</jbo>
+ <gloss>I am-a-goer (to the store) of-type quick.</gloss>
+ <natlang>I go to the store quickly.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ </section>
+
+ <section xml:id="section-cmavo-selbri">
+ <title>Other kinds of simple selbri</title>
+ <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>go'i</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>GOhA</selmaho>
+ <description>repeats the previous bridi</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>du</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>GOhA</selmaho>
+ <description>equality</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>nu'a</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>NUhA</selmaho>
+ <description>math operator to selbri</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>moi</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>MOI</selmaho>
+ <description>changes number to ordinal selbri</description>
+
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>mei</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>MOI</selmaho>
+ <description>changes number to cardinal selbri</description>
+
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>nu</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>NU</selmaho>
+ <description>event abstraction</description>
+
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>kei</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>KEI</selmaho>
+ <description>terminator for NU</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>equivalents to brivla</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>brivla equivalents</primary></indexterm> So far we have only discussed brivla and tanru built up from brivla as possible selbri. In fact, there are a few other constructions in Lojban which are grammatically equivalent to brivla: they can be used either directly as selbri, or as components in tanru. Some of these types of simple selbri are discussed at length in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-anaphoric-cmavo"/>,
+ <xref linkend="chapter-abstractions"/>, and
+ <xref linkend="chapter-mekso"/>; but for completeness these types are mentioned here with a brief explanation and an example of their use in selbri.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>with GOhA</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri</primary><secondary>with GOhA</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>GOhA selma'o</primary><secondary>as component in tanru</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>GOhA selma'o</primary><secondary>as selbri</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo of selma'o GOhA (with one exception) serve as pro-bridi, providing a reference to the content of other bridi; none of them has a fixed meaning. The most commonly used member of GOhA is probably
+ <valsi>go'i</valsi>, which amounts to a repetition of the previous bridi, or part of it. If I say:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2UvG">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e9d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la djan. klama le zarci</jbo>
+ <gloss>John goes-to the market.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> you may retort:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-EvoD">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e9d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la djan. go'i troci</jbo>
+ <gloss>John [repeat last] are-a-tryer</gloss>
+ <natlang>John tries to.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-EvoD"/> is short for:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nKQ3">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e9d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la djan. klama be le zarci be'o troci</jbo>
+ <gloss>John is-a-goer (to the market) type-of trier.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>because the whole bridi of
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-2UvG"/> has been packaged up into the single word
+ <valsi>go'i</valsi> and inserted into
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-EvoD"/>.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>du</primary><secondary>as an exception within GOhA selma'o</secondary></indexterm> The exceptional member of GOhA is
+ <valsi>du</valsi>, which represents the relation of identity. Its place structure is:</para>
+ <definition><content>x1 is identical with x2, x3, ...</content></definition>
+ <para>for as many places as are given. More information on selma'o GOhA is available in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-anaphoric-cmavo"/>.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>containing mathematical expressions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mathematical expressions in tanru</primary></indexterm> Lojban mathematical expressions (mekso) can be incorporated into selbri in two different ways. Mathematical operators such as
+
+ <valsi>su'i</valsi>, meaning
+ <quote>plus</quote>, can be transformed into selbri by prefixing them with
+ <valsi>nu'a</valsi> (of selma'o NUhA). The resulting place structure is:</para>
+ <definition><content>x1 is the result of applying (the operator) to arguments x2, x3, etc.</content></definition>
+ <para>for as many arguments as are required. (The result goes in the x1 place because the number of following places may be indefinite.) For example:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pp6j">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e9d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>li vo nu'a su'i li re li re</jbo>
+ <gloss>The-number 4 is-the-sum-of the-number 2 and-the-number 2.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>A possible tanru example might be:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-K7yz">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>addition problems</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e9d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi jimpe tu'a loi nu'a su'i nabmi</jbo>
+ <gloss>I understand something-about the-mass-of is-the-sum-of problems.</gloss>
+ <natlang>I understand addition problems.</natlang>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>MOI selma'o</primary></indexterm> More usefully, it is possible to combine a mathematical expression with a cmavo of selma'o MOI to create one of various numerical selbri. Details are available in
+
+ <xref linkend="section-mekso-selbri"/>. Here are a few tanru:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjWh" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>Preem Palver</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e9d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la prim. palvr. pamoi cusku</jbo>
+ <gloss>Preem Palver is-the-1-th speaker.</gloss>
+
+ <natlang>Preem Palver is the first speaker.</natlang>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJwU" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>two brothers</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e9d7"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la an,iis. joi la .asun. bruna remei</jbo>
+ <gloss>Anyi massed-with Asun are-a-brother type-of-twosome.</gloss>
+ <natlang>Anyi and Asun are two brothers.</natlang>
+
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>NU selma'o</primary></indexterm> Finally, an important type of simple selbri which is not a brivla is the abstraction. Grammatically, abstractions are simple: a cmavo of selma'o NU, followed by a bridi, followed by the elidable terminator
+ <valsi>kei</valsi> of selma'o KEI. Semantically, abstractions are an extremely subtle and powerful feature of Lojban whose full ramifications are documented in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-abstractions"/>. A few examples:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-5szz">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e9d8"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ti nu zdile kei kumfa</jbo>
+ <gloss>This is-an-event-of amusement room.</gloss>
+ <natlang>This is an amusement room.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstraction bridi</primary><secondary>contrasted with component non-abstraction bridi in meaning</secondary></indexterm>
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-5szz"/> is quite distinct in meaning from:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-yNSI">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e9d9"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ti zdile kumfa</jbo>
+ <gloss>This is-an-amuser room.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>which suggests the meaning
+ <quote>a room that amuses someone</quote>.</para>
+ </section>
+
+ <section xml:id="section-me-selbri">
+ <title>selbri based on sumti: <valsi>me</valsi></title>
+ <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>me</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>ME</selmaho>
+ <description>changes sumti to simple selbri</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>me'u</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>MEhU</selmaho>
+ <description>terminator for <valsi>me</valsi></description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>me</primary><secondary>place structure of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>conversion of sumti into selbri</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti into selbri</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri from sumti</primary></indexterm> A sumti can be made into a simple selbri by preceding it with
+ <valsi>me</valsi> (of selma'o ME) and following it with the elidable terminator
+ <valsi>me'u</valsi> (of selma'o MEhU). This makes a selbri with the place structure</para>
+ <definition><content>x1 is one of the referents of <quote>[the sumti]</quote></content></definition>
+ <para>which is true of the thing, or things, that are the referents of the sumti, and not of anything else. For example, consider the sumti</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-v6QW">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>Three Kings</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e10d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le ci nolraitru</jbo>
+ <gloss>the three noblest-governors</gloss>
+ <natlang>the three kings</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> If these are understood to be the Three Kings of Christian tradition, who arrive every year on January 6, then we may say:</para>
+
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-99r3">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e10d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la BALtazar. cu me le ci nolraitru</jbo>
+ <gloss>Balthazar is one-of-the-referents-of
+ <quote>the three kings</quote>.</gloss>
+ <natlang>Balthazar is one of the three kings.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>and likewise</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gPnL">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e10d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la kaspar. cu me le ci nolraitru</jbo>
+ <natlang>Caspar is one of the three kings.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>and</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4827">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e10d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la melxi,or. cu me le ci nolraitru</jbo>
+ <natlang>Melchior is one of the three kings.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>du</primary><secondary>compared with me in effect</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>me</primary><secondary>compared with du in effect</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>me/du equivalence</primary></indexterm> If the sumti refers to a single object, then the effect of
+ <valsi>me</valsi> is much like that of
+ <valsi>du</valsi>:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-HMHc">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e10d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>do du la djan.</jbo>
+ <gloss>You are-identical-with the-one-called <quote>John</quote>.</gloss>
+ <natlang>You are John.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>means the same as</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-GMCc">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e10d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>do me la djan.</jbo>
+ <gloss>You are-the-referent-of
+ <quote>the-one-called <quote>John</quote></quote>.</gloss>
+ <natlang>You are John.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>me</primary><secondary>used with names</secondary></indexterm> It is common to use
+ <valsi>me</valsi> selbri, especially those based on name sumti using
+ <valsi>la</valsi>, as seltau. For example:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-raQG">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>Chrysler</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e10d7"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ta me lai kraislr. [me'u] karce</jbo>
+ <gloss>That (is-a-referent of
+ <quote>the-mass-called <quote>Chrysler</quote></quote>) car.</gloss>
+
+ <natlang>That is a Chrysler car.</natlang>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connectives</primary><secondary>relative precedence with me'u</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>me'u</primary><secondary>relative precedence with logical connectives</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>elidability of me'u</primary></indexterm> The elidable terminator
+ <valsi>me'u</valsi> can usually be omitted. It is absolutely required only if the
+ <valsi>me</valsi> selbri is being used in an indefinite description (a type of sumti explained in
+
+
+ <xref linkend="section-indefinite-descriptions"/>), and if the indefinite description is followed by a relative clause (explained in
+
+
+ <xref linkend="chapter-relative-clauses"/>) or a sumti logical connective (explained in
+ <xref linkend="section-sumti-connection"/>). Without a
+ <valsi>me'u</valsi>, the relative clause or logical connective would appear to belong to the sumti embedded in the
+ <valsi>me</valsi> expression. Here is a contrasting pair of sentences:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJyi" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e10d8"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>re me le ci nolraitru .e la djan. [me'u] cu blabi</jbo>
+ <natlang>Two of the group
+ <quote>the three kings and John</quote> are white.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJyK" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e10d9"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>re me le ci nolraitru me'u .e la djan. cu blabi</jbo>
+ <natlang>Two of the three kings, and John, are white.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>In
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qJyi"/> the
+ <valsi>me</valsi> selbri covers the three kings plus John, and the indefinite description picks out two of them that are said to be white: we cannot say which two. In
+
+
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qJyK"/>, though, the
+ <valsi>me</valsi> selbri covers only the three kings: two of them are said to be white, and so is John.</para>
+ <para>Finally, here is another example requiring
+ <valsi>me'u</valsi>:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ygzq">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e10d10"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ta me la'e le se cusku be do me'u cukta</jbo>
+ <gloss>That is-a-(what-you-said) type of book.</gloss>
+ <natlang>That is the kind of book you were talking about.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>There are other sentences where either
+ <valsi>me'u</valsi> or some other elidable terminator must be expressed:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-8yDj">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e10d11"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le me le ci nolraitru [ku] me'u nunsalci</jbo>
+ <gloss>the (the three kings) type-of-event-of-celebrating</gloss>
+ <natlang>the Three Kings celebration</natlang>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>requires either
+ <valsi>ku</valsi> or
+ <valsi>me'u</valsi> to be explicit, and (as with
+ <valsi>be'o</valsi> in
+ <xref linkend="section-be-sumti"/>) the
+ <valsi>me'u</valsi> leaves no doubt which cmavo it is paired with.</para>
+ </section>
+
+ <section xml:id="section-place-conversion">
+ <title>Conversion of simple selbri</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>xe</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ve</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>te</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>se</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>SE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>place structure</primary><secondary>re-ordering by conversion</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>conversion</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru and conversion</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>conversion and tanru</primary></indexterm> Conversion is the process of changing a selbri so that its places appear in a different order. This is not the same as labeling the sumti with the cmavo of FA, as mentioned in
+ <xref linkend="section-be-sumti"/>, and then rearranging the order in which the sumti are spoken or written. Conversion transforms the selbri into a distinct, though closely related, selbri with renumbered places.</para>
+ <para>In Lojban, conversion is accomplished by placing a cmavo of selma'o SE before the selbri:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-29Gu">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e11d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi prami do</jbo>
+ <natlang>I love you.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>is equivalent in meaning to:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-DWcN">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e11d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>do se prami mi</jbo>
+ <gloss>You [swap x1 and x2] love me.</gloss>
+ <natlang>You are loved by me.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>Conversion is fully explained in
+ <xref linkend="section-SE"/>. For the purposes of this chapter, the important point about conversion is that it applies only to the following simple selbri. When trying to convert a tanru, therefore, it is necessary to be careful! Consider
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-mPX8"/>:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mPX8">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>walk to market</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e11d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la .alis. cu cadzu klama le zarci</jbo>
+ <gloss>Alice is-a-walker type-of goer to-the market.</gloss>
+ <gloss>Alice walkingly goes to the market.</gloss>
+ <natlang>Alice walks to the market.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>To convert this sentence so that
+ <jbophrase>le zarci</jbophrase> is in the x1 place, one correct way is:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4mbn">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e11d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le zarci cu se ke cadzu klama [ke'e] la .alis.</jbo>
+ <gloss>The market is-a-[swap x1/x2] (walker type-of goer) Alice.</gloss>
+ <gloss>The market is-walkingly gone-to by-Alice.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ke</primary><secondary>for conversion of tanru</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>conversion with ke</primary></indexterm> The
+ <valsi>ke</valsi>…<valsi>ke'e</valsi> brackets cause the entire tanru to be converted by the
+ <valsi>se</valsi>, which would otherwise convert only
+ <valsi>cadzu</valsi>, leading to:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-UNt0">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e11d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le zarci cu se cadzu klama la .alis.</jbo>
+ <gloss>The market (is-a-[swap x1/x2] walker) type-of goer to Alice.</gloss>
+ <gloss>The market is-a-walking-surface type-of goer to Alice.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>whatever that might mean. An alternative approach, since the place structure of
+ <jbophrase>cadzu klama</jbophrase> is that of
+ <valsi>klama</valsi> alone, is to convert only the latter:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-U0fo">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e11d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le zarci cu cadzu se klama la .alis.</jbo>
+ <gloss>The market walkingly is-gone-to by-Alice.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>But the tanru in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-U0fo"/> may or may not have the same meaning as that in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-mPX8"/>; in particular, because
+ <valsi>cadzu</valsi> is not converted, there is a suggestion that although Alice is the goer, the market is the walker. With a different sumti as x1, this seemingly odd interpretation might make considerable sense:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-XEnd">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e11d7"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la djan. cu cadzu se klama la .alis</jbo>
+ <gloss>John walkingly is-gone-to by Alice</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>suggests that Alice is going to John, who is a moving target.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense conversion</primary><secondary>with jai</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>jai</primary><secondary>for modal conversion</secondary></indexterm> There is an alternative type of conversion, using the cmavo
+ <valsi>jai</valsi> of selma'o JAI optionally followed by a modal or tense construction. Grammatically, such a combination behaves exactly like conversion using SE. More details can be found in
+ <xref linkend="section-modal-jai"/>.</para>
+ </section>
+
+ <section xml:id="section-selbri-scalar-negation">
+ <title>Scalar negation of selbri</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri</primary><secondary>scalar negation of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>scalar negation</primary><secondary>effect on selbri</secondary></indexterm> Negation is too large and complex a topic to explain fully in this chapter; see
+ <xref linkend="chapter-negation"/>. In brief, there are two main types of negation in Lojban. This section is concerned with so-called
+ <quote>scalar negation</quote>, which is used to state that a true relation between the sumti is something other than what the selbri specifies. Scalar negation is expressed by cmavo of selma'o NAhE:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4oxH">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e12d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la .alis. cu na'e ke cadzu klama [ke'e] le zarci</jbo>
+ <gloss>Alice non- (walkingly goes) to-the market.</gloss>
+ <gloss>Alice other-than (walkingly goes) to-the market.</gloss>
+ <natlang>Alice doesn't walk to the market.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ke</primary><secondary>for expanding scope of scalar negation</secondary></indexterm> meaning that Alice's relationship to the market is something other than that of walking there. But if the
+ <valsi>ke</valsi> were omitted, the result would be:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-NL2Y">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e12d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la .alis. cu na'e cadzu klama le zarci</jbo>
+ <gloss>Alice non- walkingly goes to-the market.</gloss>
+ <natlang>Alice doesn't walk to the market.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>meaning that Alice does go there in some way (
+ <valsi>klama</valsi> is not negated), but by a means other than that of walking.
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-4oxH"/> negates both
+ <valsi>cadzu</valsi> and
+ <valsi>klama</valsi>, suggesting that Alice's relation to the market is something different from walkingly-going; it might be walking without going, or going without walking, or neither.</para>
+ <para>Of course, any of the simple selbri types explained in
+ <xref linkend="section-cmavo-selbri"/> may be used in place of brivla in any of these examples:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-YB00">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e12d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la djonz. cu na'e pamoi cusku</jbo>
+ <gloss>Jones is non-1st speaker</gloss>
+ <natlang>Jones is not the first speaker.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>Since only
+ <valsi>pamoi</valsi> is negated, an appropriate inference is that he is some other kind of speaker.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>negation</primary><secondary>complex examples</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>complex negation</primary><secondary>examples</secondary></indexterm> Here is an assortment of more complex examples showing the interaction of scalar negation with
+ <valsi>bo</valsi> grouping,
+ <valsi>ke</valsi> and
+ <valsi>ke'e</valsi> grouping, logical connection, and sumti linked with
+ <valsi>be</valsi> and
+ <valsi>bei</valsi>:</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>na'e</primary><secondary>contrasted with na'e ke</secondary></indexterm></para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-I1Rd">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e12d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi na'e sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o klama le zarci</jbo>
+ <gloss>I ( (non-quickly) ( walking using the arms) ) go-to the market.</gloss>
+ <natlang>I go to the market, walking using my arms other than quickly.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>In
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-I1Rd"/>,
+ <valsi>na'e</valsi> negates only
+ <valsi>sutra</valsi>. Contrast
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-KcK8"/>:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KcK8">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e12d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka [be'o] ke'e klama le zarci</jbo>
+ <gloss>I non- ( quickly (walking using the arms) ) go-to the market.</gloss>
+ <natlang>I go to the market, other than by walking quickly on my arms.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>Now consider
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjyW"/> and
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjyy"/>, which are equivalent in meaning, but use
+ <valsi>ke</valsi> grouping and
+ <valsi>bo</valsi> grouping respectively:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjyW" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e12d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o je masno klama le zarci</jbo>
+ <gloss>I (quickly – (walking using the arms) and slowly) go-to the market.</gloss>
+ <natlang>I go to the market, both quickly walking using my arms and slowly.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjyy" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e12d7"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka [be'o] ke'e je masno klama le zarci</jbo>
+ <gloss>I ( (quickly (walking using the arms) ) and slowly) go-to the market.</gloss>
+ <natlang>I go to the market, both quickly walking using my arms and slowly.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>However, if we place a
+ <valsi>na'e</valsi> at the beginning of the selbri in both
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjyW"/> and
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjyy"/>, we get different results:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjyz" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e12d8"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi na'e sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o je masno klama le zarci</jbo>
+ <gloss>I ( (non- quickly) - (walking using the arms) and slowly) go-to the market.</gloss>
+ <natlang>I go to the market, both walking using my arms other than quickly, and also slowly.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJzr" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e12d9"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka [be'o] ke'e je masno klama le zarci</jbo>
+ <gloss>I (non-(quickly (walking using the arms) ) and slowly) go-to the market.</gloss>
+ <natlang>I go to the market, both other than quickly walking using my arms, and also slowly.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>The difference arises because the
+ <valsi>na'e</valsi> in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qJzr"/> negates the whole construction from
+ <valsi>ke</valsi> to
+ <valsi>ke'e</valsi>, whereas in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjyz"/> it negates
+ <valsi>sutra</valsi> alone.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>perils of omitting terminators</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>omitting terminators</primary><secondary>perils of</secondary></indexterm> Beware of omitting terminators in these complex examples! If the explicit
+
+ <valsi>ke'e</valsi> is left out in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qJzr"/>, it is transformed into:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Y53U">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e12d10"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o je masno klama [ke'e] le zarci</jbo>
+ <gloss>I non-(quickly ( (walking using the arms) ) and slowly) go-to) the market.</gloss>
+ <gloss>I do something other than quickly both going to the market walking</gloss>
+ <natlang>using my arms and slowly going to the market.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>And if both
+ <valsi>ke'e</valsi> and
+ <valsi>be'o</valsi> are omitted, the results are even sillier:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-0WLq">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e12d11"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka je masno klama [be'o] [ke'e] le zarci</jbo>
+ <gloss>I non-(quickly walk on my (arm-type and slow) goers) on the market.</gloss>
+ <natlang>I do something other than quickly walking using the goers, both arm-type and slow, relative-to the market.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>In
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-0WLq"/>, everything after
+ <valsi>be</valsi> is a linked sumti, so the place structure is that of
+
+ <valsi>cadzu</valsi>, whose x2 place is the surface walked upon. It is less than clear what an
+ <quote>arm-type goer</quote> might be. Furthermore, since the x3 place has been occupied by the linked sumti, the
+
+ <jbophrase>le zarci</jbophrase> following the selbri falls into the nonexistent x4 place of
+ <valsi>cadzu</valsi>. As a result, the whole example, though grammatical, is complete nonsense. (The bracketed Lojban words appear where a fluent Lojbanist would understand them to be implied.)</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>na'e</primary><secondary>before gu'e</secondary></indexterm> Finally, it is also possible to place
+ <valsi>na'e</valsi> before a
+ <valsi>gu'e</valsi>…<valsi>gi</valsi> logically connected tanru construction. The meaning of this usage has not yet been firmly established.</para>
+ </section>
+
+ <section xml:id="section-bridi-negation-tenses">
+ <title>Tenses and bridi negation</title>
+ <para>A bridi can have cmavo associated with it which specify the time, place, or mode of action. For example, in</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-uz13">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e13d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi pu klama le zarci</jbo>
+ <gloss>I [past] go to-the market.</gloss>
+ <natlang>I went to the market.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>the cmavo
+ <valsi>pu</valsi> specifies that the action of the speaker going to the market takes place in the past. Tenses are explained in full detail in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-tenses"/>. Tense is semantically a property of the entire bridi; however, the usual syntax for tenses attaches them at the front of the selbri, as in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-uz13"/>. There are alternative ways of expressing tense information as well. Modals, which are explained in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-sumti-tcita"/>, behave in the same way as tenses.</para>
+ <para>Similarly, a bridi may have the particle
+ <valsi>na</valsi> (of selma'o NA) attached to the beginning of the selbri to negate the bridi. A negated bridi expresses what is false without saying anything about what is true. Do not confuse this usage with the scalar negation of
+ <xref linkend="section-selbri-scalar-negation"/>. For example:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PYSP">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e13d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la djonz. na pamoi cusku</jbo>
+ <gloss>Jones (Not!) is-the-first speaker</gloss>
+ <gloss>It is not true that Jones is the first speaker.</gloss>
+ <natlang>Jones isn't the first speaker.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>Jones may be the second speaker, or not a speaker at all;
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-PYSP"/> doesn't say. There are other ways of expressing bridi negation as well; the topic is explained fully in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-negation"/>.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi negation</primary><secondary>relative order with tense</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>relative order with bridi negation</secondary></indexterm> Various combinations of tense and bridi negation cmavo are permitted. If both are expressed, either order is permissible with no change in meaning:</para>
+
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-RV4C">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e13d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi na pu klama le zarci</jbo>
+ <gloss>mi pu na klama le zarci</gloss>
+ <gloss>It is false that I went to the market.</gloss>
+ <natlang>I didn't go to the market.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi negation</primary><secondary>multiple</secondary></indexterm> It is also possible to have more than one
+ <valsi>na</valsi>, in which case pairs of
+ <valsi>na</valsi> cmavo cancel out:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-TuP7">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e13d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi na na klama le zarci</jbo>
+ <gloss>It is false that it is false that I go to the market.</gloss>
+ <natlang>I go to the market.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense and na</primary><secondary>multiple</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>na and tense</primary><secondary>multiple</secondary></indexterm> It is even possible, though somewhat pointless, to have multiple
+ <valsi>na</valsi> cmavo and tense cmavo mixed together, subject to the limitation that two adjacent tense cmavo will be understood as a compound tense, and must fit the grammar of tenses as explained in
+
+
+
+ <xref linkend="chapter-tenses"/>.</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hw6g">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e13d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi na pu na ca klama le zarci</jbo>
+ <gloss>I [not] [past] [not] [present] go to-the market</gloss>
+ <gloss>It is not the case that in the past it was not the case that in the present I went to the market.</gloss>
+ <gloss>I didn't not go to the market.</gloss>
+ <natlang>I went to the market.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>negation cmavo</primary><secondary>position relative to selbri</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal cmavo</primary><secondary>position relative to selbri</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense cmavo</primary><secondary>position relative to selbri</secondary></indexterm> Tense, modal, and negation cmavo can appear only at the beginning of the selbri. They cannot be embedded within it.</para>
+
+ </section>
+
+ <section xml:id="section-asymmetric-tanru">
+ <title>Some types of asymmetrical tanru</title>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>asymmetrical</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru</primary></indexterm> This section and
+ <xref linkend="section-symmetric-tanru"/> contain some example tanru classified into groups based on the type of relationship between the modifying seltau and the modified tertau. All the examples are paralleled by compounds actually observed in various natural languages. In the tables which follow, each group is preceded by a brief explanation of the relationship. The tables themselves contain a tanru, a literal gloss, an indication of the languages which exhibit a compound analogous to this tanru, and (for those tanru with no English parallel) a translation.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>languages</primary><secondary>abbreviations for</secondary></indexterm> Here are the 3-letter abbreviations used for the various languages (it is presumed to be obvious whether a compound is found in English or not, so English is not explicitly noted):</para>
+ <variablelist>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term>Aba</term>
+ <listitem><para>Abazin</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term>Chi</term>
+ <listitem><para>Chinese</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term>Ewe</term>
+ <listitem><para>Ewe</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term>Fin</term>
+ <listitem><para>Finnish</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term>Geo</term>
+ <listitem><para>Georgian</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term>Gua</term>
+ <listitem><para>Guarani</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term>Hop</term>
+ <listitem><para>Hopi</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term>Hun</term>
+ <listitem><para>Hungarian</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term>Imb</term>
+ <listitem><para>Imbabura Quechua</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term>Kar</term>
+ <listitem><para>Karaitic</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term>Kaz</term>
+ <listitem><para>Kazakh</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term>Kor</term>
+ <listitem><para>Korean</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term>Mon</term>
+ <listitem><para>Mongolian</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term>Qab</term>
+ <listitem><para>Qabardian</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term>Que</term>
+ <listitem><para>Quechua</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term>Rus</term>
+ <listitem><para>Russian</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term>Skt</term>
+ <listitem><para>Sanskrit</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term>Swe</term>
+ <listitem><para>Swedish</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term>Tur</term>
+ <listitem><para>Turkish</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term>Udm</term>
+ <listitem><para>Udmurt</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ </variablelist>
+ <para>Any lujvo or fu'ivla used in a group are glossed at the end of that group.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> The tanru discussed in this section are asymmetrical tanru; that is, ones in which the order of the terms is fundamental to the meaning of the tanru. For example,
+
+ <jbophrase>junla dadysli</jbophrase>, or
+ <quote>clock pendulum</quote>, is the kind of pendulum used in a clock, whereas
+ <jbophrase>dadysli junla</jbophrase>, or
+ <quote>pendulum clock</quote>, is the kind of clock that employs a pendulum. Most tanru are asymmetrical in this sense. Symmetrical tanru are discussed in
+ <xref linkend="section-symmetric-tanru"/>.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>object-of-action + action</secondary></indexterm> The tertau represents an action, and the seltau then represents the object of that action:</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>pinsi nunkilbra</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>pencil sharpener</td>
+ <td>Hun</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>zgike nunctu</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>music instruction</td>
+ <td>Hun</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>mirli nunkalte</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>deer hunting</td>
+ <td>Hun</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>finpe nunkalte</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>fish hunting</td>
+ <td>Tur,Kor,Udm,Aba</td>
+ <td>fishing</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>smacu terkavbu</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>mousetrap</td>
+ <td>Tur,Kor,Hun,Udm,Aba</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>zdani turni</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>house ruler</td>
+ <td>Kar</td>
+ <td>host</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>zerle'a nunte'a</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>thief fear</td>
+ <td>Skt</td>
+ <td>fear of thieves</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>cevni zekri</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>god crime</td>
+ <td>Skt</td>
+ <td>offense against the gods</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <variablelist>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>nunkilbra</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>sharpness-apparatus</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>nunctu</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>event-of-teaching</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>nunkalte</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>event-of-hunting</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>terkavbu</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>trap</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>zerle'a</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>crime-taker</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>nunte'a</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>event-of-fearing</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ </variablelist>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>elements-in-set + set</secondary></indexterm> The tertau represents a set, and the seltau the type of the elements contained in that set:</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>zdani lijgri</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>house row</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>selci lamgri</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>cell block</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>karda mulgri</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>card pack</td>
+ <td>Swe</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>rokci derxi</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>stone heap</td>
+ <td>Swe</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>tadni girzu</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>student group</td>
+ <td>Hun</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>remna girzu</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>human-being group</td>
+ <td>Qab</td>
+ <td>group of people</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>cpumi'i lijgri</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>tractor column</td>
+ <td>Qab</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>cevni jenmi</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>god army</td>
+ <td>Skt</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>cevni prenu</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>god folk</td>
+ <td>Skt</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <variablelist>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>lijgri</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>line-group</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>lamgri</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>adjacent-group</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>mulgri</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>complete-group</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>cpumi'i</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>pull-machine</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ </variablelist>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>set + element-of-set</secondary></indexterm> Conversely: the tertau is an element, and the seltau represents a set in which that element is contained. Implicitly, the meaning of the tertau is restricted from its usual general meaning to the specific meaning appropriate for elements in the given set. Note the opposition between
+ <jbophrase>zdani linji</jbophrase> in the previous group, and
+ <jbophrase>linji zdani</jbophrase> in this one, which shows why this kind of tanru is called
+ <quote>asymmetrical</quote>.</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>carvi dirgo</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>raindrop</td>
+ <td>Tur,Kor,Hun,Udm,Aba</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>linji zdani</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>row house</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>object + component/detail</secondary></indexterm> The seltau specifies an object and the tertau a component or detail of that object; the tanru as a whole refers to the detail, specifying that it is a detail of that whole and not some other.</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>junla dadysli</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>clock pendulum</td>
+ <td>Hun</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>purdi vorme</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>garden door</td>
+ <td>Qab</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>purdi bitmu</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>garden wall</td>
+ <td>Que</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>moklu skapi</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>mouth skin</td>
+ <td>Imb</td>
+ <td>lips</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>nazbi kevna</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>nose hole</td>
+ <td>Imb</td>
+ <td>nostril</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>karce xislu</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>automobile wheel</td>
+ <td>Chi</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>jipci pimlu</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>chicken feather</td>
+ <td>Chi</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>vinji rebla</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>airplane tail</td>
+ <td>Chi</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <variablelist>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>dadysli</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>hang-oscillator</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ </variablelist>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>characteristic/detail + object</secondary></indexterm> Conversely: the seltau specifies a characteristic or important detail of the object described by the tertau; objects described by the tanru as a whole are differentiated from other similar objects by this detail.</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>pixra cukta</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>picture book</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>kerfa silka</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>hair silk</td>
+ <td>Kar</td>
+ <td>velvet</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>plise tapla</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>apple cake</td>
+ <td>Tur</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>dadysli junla</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>pendulum clock</td>
+ <td>Hun</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <variablelist>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>dadysli</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>hang-oscillator</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ </variablelist>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>general-class + sub-class</secondary></indexterm> The tertau specifies a general class of object (a genus), and the seltau specifies a sub-class of that class (a species):</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>ckunu tricu</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>pine tree</td>
+ <td>Hun,Tur,Hop</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>possessor + object</secondary></indexterm> The tertau specifies an object of possession, and the seltau may specify the possessor (the possession may be intrinsic or otherwise). In English, these compounds have an explicit possessive element in them:
+ <quote>lion's mane</quote>,
+ <quote>child's foot</quote>,
+ <quote>noble's cow</quote>.</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>cinfo kerfa</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>lion mane</td>
+ <td>Kor,Tur,Hun,Udm,Qab</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>verba jamfu</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>child foot</td>
+ <td>Swe</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>nixli tuple</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>girl leg</td>
+ <td>Swe</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>cinfo jamfu</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>lion foot</td>
+ <td>Que</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>danlu skapi</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>animal skin</td>
+ <td>Ewe</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>ralju zdani</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>chief house</td>
+ <td>Ewe</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>jmive munje</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>living world</td>
+ <td>Skt</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>nobli bakni</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>noble cow</td>
+ <td>Skt</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>nolraitru ralju</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>king chief</td>
+ <td>Skt</td>
+ <td>emperor</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <variablelist>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>nolraitru</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>nobly-superlative-ruler</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ </variablelist>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>inhabitant + habitat</secondary></indexterm> The tertau specifies a habitat, and the seltau specifies the inhabitant:</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>lanzu tumla</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>family land</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>effect + causative agent</secondary></indexterm> The tertau specifies a causative agent, and the seltau specifies the effect of that cause:</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>kalselvi'i gapci</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>tear gas</td>
+ <td>Hun</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>terbi'a jurme</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>disease germ</td>
+ <td>Tur</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>fenki litki</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>crazy liquid</td>
+ <td>Hop</td>
+ <td>whisky</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>pinca litki</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>urine liquid</td>
+ <td>Hop</td>
+ <td>beer</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <variablelist>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>kalselvi'i</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>eye-excreted-thing</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>terbi'a</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>disease</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ </variablelist>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>cause + effect</secondary></indexterm> Conversely: the tertau specifies an effect, and the seltau specifies its cause.</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>djacu barna</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>water mark</td>
+ <td>Chi</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>purpose-of-instrument + instrument</secondary></indexterm> The tertau specifies an instrument, and the seltau specifies the purpose of that instrument:</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>taxfu dadgreku</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>garment rack</td>
+ <td>Chi</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>tergu'i ti'otci</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>lamp shade</td>
+ <td>Chi</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>xirma zdani</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>horse house</td>
+ <td>Chi</td>
+ <td>stall</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>nuzba tanbo</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>news board</td>
+ <td>Chi</td>
+ <td>bulletin board</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <variablelist>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>dadgreku</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>hang-frame</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>tergu'i</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>source of illumination</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>ti'otci</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>shadow-tool</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ </variablelist>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>object-of-purpose-of-instrument + instrument</secondary></indexterm> More vaguely: the tertau specifies an instrument, and the seltau specifies the object of the purpose for which that instrument is used:</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>cpina rokci</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>pepper stone</td>
+ <td>Que</td>
+ <td>stone for grinding pepper</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>jamfu djacu</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>foot water</td>
+ <td>Skt</td>
+ <td>water for washing the feet</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>grana mudri</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>post wood</td>
+ <td>Skt</td>
+ <td>wood for making a post</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>moklu djacu</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>mouth water</td>
+ <td>Hun</td>
+ <td>water for washing the mouth</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>lanme gerku</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>sheep dog</td>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>dog for working sheep</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>source + product</secondary></indexterm> The tertau specifies a product from some source, and the seltau specifies the source of the product:</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>moklu djacu</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>mouth water</td>
+ <td>Aba,Qab</td>
+ <td>saliva</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>ractu mapku</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>rabbit hat</td>
+ <td>Rus</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>jipci sovda</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>chicken egg</td>
+ <td>Chi</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>sikcurnu silka</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>silkworm silk</td>
+ <td>Chi</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>mlatu kalci</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>cat feces</td>
+ <td>Chi</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>bifce lakse</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>bee wax</td>
+ <td>Chi</td>
+ <td>beeswax</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>cribe rectu</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>bear meat</td>
+ <td>Tur,Kor,Hun,Udm,Aba</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>solxrula grasu</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>sunflower oil</td>
+ <td>Tur,Kor,Hun,Udm,Aba</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>bifce jisra</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>bee juice</td>
+ <td>Hop</td>
+ <td>honey</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>tatru litki</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>breast liquid</td>
+ <td>Hop</td>
+ <td>milk</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>kanla djacu</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>eye water</td>
+ <td>Kor</td>
+ <td>tear</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <variablelist>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>sikcurnu</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>silk-worm</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>solxrula</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>solar-flower</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ </variablelist>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>product + source</secondary></indexterm> Conversely: the tertau specifies the source of a product, and the seltau specifies the product:</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>silna jinto</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>salt well</td>
+ <td>Chi</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>kolme terkakpa</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>coal mine</td>
+ <td>Chi</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>ctile jinto</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>oil well</td>
+ <td>Chi</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <variablelist>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>terkakpa</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>source of digging</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ </variablelist>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>source-material + object</secondary></indexterm> The tertau specifies an object, and the seltau specifies the material from which the object is made. This case is especially interesting, because the referent of the tertau may normally be made from just one kind of material, which is then overridden in the tanru.</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>rokci cinfo</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>stone lion</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>snime nanmu</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>snow man</td>
+ <td>Hun</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>kliti cipni</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>clay bird</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>blaci kanla</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>glass eye</td>
+ <td>Hun</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>blaci kanla</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>glass eye</td>
+ <td>Que</td>
+ <td>spectacles</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>solji sicni</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>gold coin</td>
+ <td>Tur</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>solji junla</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>gold watch</td>
+ <td>Tur,Kor,Hun</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>solji djine</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>gold ring</td>
+ <td>Udm,Aba,Que</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>rokci zdani</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>stone house</td>
+ <td>Imb</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>mudri zdani</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>wood house</td>
+ <td>Ewe</td>
+ <td>wooden house</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>rokci bitmu</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>stone wall</td>
+ <td>Ewe</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>solji carce</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>gold chariot</td>
+ <td>Skt</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>mudri xarci</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>wood weapon</td>
+ <td>Skt</td>
+ <td>wooden weapon</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>cmaro'i dargu</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>pebble road</td>
+ <td>Chi</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>sudysrasu cutci</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>straw shoe</td>
+ <td>Chi</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <variablelist>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>cmaro'i</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>small-rock</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>sudysrasu</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>dry-grass</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ </variablelist>
+ <para>Note: the two senses of
+ <jbophrase>blaci kanla</jbophrase> can be discriminated as:</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>blaci kanla bo tarmi</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>glass (eye shape)</td>
+ <td>glass eye</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>blaci kanla bo sidju</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>glass (eye helper)</td>
+ <td>spectacles</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>object-measured + standard-object</secondary></indexterm> The tertau specifies a typical object used to measure a quantity and the seltau specifies something measured. The tanru as a whole refers to a given quantity of the thing being measured. English does not have compounds of this form, as a rule.</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>tumla spisa</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>land piece</td>
+ <td>Tur</td>
+ <td>piece of land</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>tcati kabri</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>tea cup</td>
+ <td>Kor,Aba</td>
+ <td>cup of tea</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>nanba spisa</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>bread piece</td>
+ <td>Kor</td>
+ <td>piece of bread</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>bukpu spisa</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>cloth piece</td>
+ <td>Udm,Aba</td>
+ <td>piece of cloth</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>djacu calkyguzme</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>water calabash</td>
+ <td>Ewe</td>
+ <td>calabash of water</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <variablelist>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>calkyguzme</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>shell-fruit, calabash</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ </variablelist>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>overriding-property + object-with-implicit-properties</secondary></indexterm> The tertau specifies an object with certain implicit properties, and the seltau overrides one of those implicit properties:</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>kensa bloti</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>spaceship</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>bakni verba</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>cattle child</td>
+ <td>Ewe</td>
+ <td>calf</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>whole + part</secondary></indexterm> The seltau specifies a whole, and the tertau specifies a part which normally is associated with a different whole. The tanru then refers to a part of the seltau which stands in the same relationship to the whole seltau as the tertau stands to its typical whole.</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>kosta degji</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>coat finger</td>
+ <td>Hun</td>
+ <td>coat sleeve</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>denci genja</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>tooth root</td>
+ <td>Imb</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>tricu stedu</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>tree head</td>
+ <td>Imb</td>
+ <td>treetop</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>product + producer</secondary></indexterm> The tertau specifies the producer of a certain product, and the seltau specifies the product. In this way, the tanru as a whole distinguishes its referents from other referents of the tertau which do not produce the product.</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>silka curnu</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>silkworm</td>
+ <td>Tur,Hun,Aba</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>object-giving-characteristic + other-object</secondary></indexterm> The tertau specifies an object, and the seltau specifies another object which has a characteristic property. The tanru as a whole refers to those referents of the tertau which possess the property.</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>sonci manti</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>soldier ant</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>ninmu bakni</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>woman cattle</td>
+ <td>Imb</td>
+ <td>cow</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>mamta degji</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>mother finger</td>
+ <td>Imb</td>
+ <td>thumb</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>cifnu degji</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>baby finger</td>
+ <td>Imb</td>
+ <td>pinky</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>pacraistu zdani</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>hell house</td>
+ <td>Skt</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>fagri dapma</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>fire curse</td>
+ <td>Skt</td>
+ <td>curse destructive as fire</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <variablelist>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>pacraistu</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>evil-superlative-site</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ </variablelist>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>similar-appearance-object + object</secondary></indexterm> As a particular case (when the property is that of resemblance): the seltau specifies an object which the referent of the tanru resembles.</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>grutrceraso jbama</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>cherry bomb</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>solji kerfa</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>gold hair</td>
+ <td>Hun</td>
+ <td>golden hair</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>kanla djacu</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>eye water</td>
+ <td>Kar</td>
+ <td>spring</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>bakni rokci</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>bull stone</td>
+ <td>Mon</td>
+ <td>boulder</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <variablelist>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>grutrceraso</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>fu'ivla for <quote>cherry</quote> based on Linnean name</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ </variablelist>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>typical-place + object</secondary></indexterm> The seltau specifies a place, and the tertau an object characteristically located in or at that place.</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>ckana boxfo</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>bed sheet</td>
+ <td>Chi</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>mrostu mojysu'a</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>tomb monument</td>
+ <td>Chi</td>
+ <td>tombstone</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>jubme tergusni</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>table lamp</td>
+ <td>Chi</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>foldi smacu</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>field mouse</td>
+ <td>Chi</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>briju ci'ajbu</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>office desk</td>
+ <td>Chi</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>rirxe xirma</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>river horse</td>
+ <td>Chi</td>
+ <td>hippopotamus</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>xamsi gerku</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>sea dog</td>
+ <td>Chi</td>
+ <td>seal</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>cagyce'u zdani</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>village house</td>
+ <td>Skt</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <variablelist>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>mrostu</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>dead-site</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>mojysu'a</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>remember-structure</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>ci'ajbu</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>write-table</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>cagyce'u</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>farm-community</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ </variablelist>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>object + place-sold</secondary></indexterm> Specifically: the tertau is a place where the seltau is sold or made available to the public.</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>cidja barja</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>food bar</td>
+ <td>Chi</td>
+ <td>restaurant</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>cukta barja</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>book bar</td>
+ <td>Chi</td>
+ <td>library</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>locus-of-application + object</secondary></indexterm> The seltau specifies the locus of application of the tertau.</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>kanla velmikce</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>eye medicine</td>
+ <td>Chi</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>jgalu grasu</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>nail oil</td>
+ <td>Chi</td>
+ <td>nail polish</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>denci pesxu</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>tooth paste</td>
+ <td>Chi</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <variablelist>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>velmikce</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>treatment used by doctor</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ </variablelist>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>activity + implement-used</secondary></indexterm> The tertau specifies an implement used in the activity denoted by the seltau.</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>me la pinpan. bolci</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>Ping-Pong ball</td>
+ <td>Chi</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>undesired-object + protection-object</secondary></indexterm> The tertau specifies a protective device against the undesirable features of the referent of the seltau.</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>carvi mapku</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>rain cap</td>
+ <td>Chi</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>carvi taxfu</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>rain garment</td>
+ <td>Chi</td>
+ <td>raincoat</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>vindu firgai</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>poison mask</td>
+ <td>Chi</td>
+ <td>gas mask</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <variablelist>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>firgai</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>face-cover</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ </variablelist>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>object + usual-container</secondary></indexterm> The tertau specifies a container characteristically used to hold the referent of the seltau.</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>cukta vasru</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>book vessel</td>
+ <td>Chi</td>
+ <td>satchel</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>vanju kabri</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>wine cup</td>
+ <td>Chi</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>spatrkoka lanka</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>coca basket</td>
+ <td>Que</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>rismi dakli</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>rice bag</td>
+ <td>Ewe,Chi</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>tcati kabri</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>tea cup</td>
+ <td>Chi</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>ladru botpi</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>milk bottle</td>
+ <td>Chi</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>rismi patxu</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>rice pot</td>
+ <td>Chi</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>festi lante</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>trash can</td>
+ <td>Chi</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>bifce zdani</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>bee house</td>
+ <td>Kor</td>
+ <td>beehive</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>cladakyxa'i zdani</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>sword house</td>
+ <td>Kor</td>
+ <td>sheath</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>manti zdani</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>ant nest</td>
+ <td>Gua</td>
+ <td>anthill</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <variablelist>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>spatrkoka</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>fu'ivla for <quote>coca</quote></para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>cladakyxa'i</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>(long-knife)-weapon</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ </variablelist>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>characteristic-time + event</secondary></indexterm> The seltau specifies the characteristic time of the event specified by the tertau.</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>vensa djedi</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>spring day</td>
+ <td>Chi</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>crisa citsi</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>summer season</td>
+ <td>Chi</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>cerni bumru</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>morning fog</td>
+ <td>Chi</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>critu lunra</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>autumn moon</td>
+ <td>Chi</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>dunra nicte</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>winter night</td>
+ <td>Chi</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>nicte ckule</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>night school</td>
+ <td>Chi</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>energy-source + powered</secondary></indexterm> The seltau specifies a source of energy for the referent of the tertau.</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>dikca tergusni</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>electric lamp</td>
+ <td>Chi</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>ratni nejni</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>atom energy</td>
+ <td>Chi</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>brife molki</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>windmill</td>
+ <td>Tur,Kor,Hun,Udm,Aba</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <variablelist>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>tergusni</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>illumination-source</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ </variablelist>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>miscellaneous</secondary></indexterm> Finally, some tanru which don't fall into any of the above categories.</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>ladru denci</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>milk tooth</td>
+ <td>Tur,Hun,Udm,Qab</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>kanla denci</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>eye tooth</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <para>It is clear that
+ <quote>tooth</quote> is being specified, and that
+ <quote>milk</quote> and
+ <quote>eye</quote> act as modifiers. However, the relationship between
+ <valsi>ladru</valsi> and
+ <valsi>denci</valsi> is something like
+ <quote>tooth which one has when one is drinking milk from one's mother</quote>, a relationship certainly present nowhere except in this particular concept. As for
+ <jbophrase>kanla denci</jbophrase>, the relationship is not only not present on the surface, it is hardly possible to formulate it at all.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-symmetric-tanru">
+ <title>Some types of symmetrical tanru</title>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>symmetrical tanru</primary></indexterm> This section deals with symmetrical tanru, where order is not important. Many of these tanru can be expressed with a logical or non-logical connective between the components.</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>symmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>both separately true</secondary></indexterm> The tanru may refer to things which are correctly specified by both tanru components. Some of these instances may also be seen as asymmetrical tanru where the seltau specifies a material. The connective
+
+ <valsi>je</valsi> is appropriate:</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>cipnrstrigi pacru'i</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>owl demon</td>
+ <td>Skt</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>nolraitru prije</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>royal sage</td>
+ <td>Skt</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>remna nakni</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>human-being male</td>
+ <td>Qab</td>
+ <td>man</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>remna fetsi</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>human-being female</td>
+ <td>Qab</td>
+ <td>woman</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>sonci tolvri</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>soldier coward</td>
+ <td>Que</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>panzi nanmu</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>offspring man</td>
+ <td>Ewe</td>
+ <td>son</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>panzi ninmu</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>offspring woman</td>
+ <td>Ewe</td>
+ <td>daughter</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>solji sicni</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>gold coin</td>
+ <td>Tur</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>solji junla</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>gold watch</td>
+ <td>Tur,Kor,Hun</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>solji djine</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>gold ring</td>
+ <td>Udm,Aba,Que</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>rokci zdani</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>stone house</td>
+ <td>Imb</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>mudri zdani</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>wooden house</td>
+ <td>Ewe</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>rokci bitmu</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>stone wall</td>
+ <td>Ewe</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>solji carce</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>gold chariot</td>
+ <td>Skt</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>mudri xarci</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>wooden weapon</td>
+ <td>Skt</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>zdani tcadu</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>home town</td>
+ <td>Chi</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <variablelist>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>cipnrstrigi</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>fu'ivla for <quote>owl</quote> based on Linnean name</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>pacru'i</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>evil-spirit</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>tolvri</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>opposite-of-brave</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ </variablelist>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>symmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>one or other true</secondary></indexterm> The tanru may refer to all things which are specified by either of the tanru components. The connective
+ <valsi>ja</valsi> is appropriate:</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>nunji'a nunterji'a</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>victory defeat</td>
+ <td>Skt</td>
+ <td>victory or defeat</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>donri nicte</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>day night</td>
+ <td>Skt</td>
+ <td>day and night</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>lunra tarci</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>moon stars</td>
+ <td>Skt</td>
+ <td>moon and stars</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>patfu mamta</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>father mother</td>
+ <td>Imb,Kaz,Chi</td>
+ <td>parents</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>tuple birka</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>leg arm</td>
+ <td>Kaz</td>
+ <td>extremity</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>nuncti nunpinxe</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>eating drinking</td>
+ <td>Udm</td>
+ <td>cuisine</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>bersa tixnu</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>son daughter</td>
+ <td>Chi</td>
+ <td>children</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <variablelist>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>nunji'a</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>event-of-winning</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>nunterji'a</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>event-of-losing</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>nuncti</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>event-of-eating</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>nunpinxe</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>event-of-drinking</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ </variablelist>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>symmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>using more inclusive class</secondary></indexterm> Alternatively, the tanru may refer to things which are specified by either of the tanru components or by some more inclusive class of things which the components typify:</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>curnu jalra</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>worm beetle</td>
+ <td>Mon</td>
+ <td>insect</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>jalra curnu</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>beetle worm</td>
+ <td>Mon</td>
+ <td>insect</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>kabri palta</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>cup plate</td>
+ <td>Kaz</td>
+ <td>crockery</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>jipci gunse</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>hen goose</td>
+ <td>Qab</td>
+ <td>housefowl</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>xrula tricu</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>flower tree</td>
+ <td>Chi</td>
+ <td>vegetation</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>symmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>using crucial/typical parts</secondary></indexterm> The tanru components specify crucial or typical parts of the referent of the tanru as a whole:</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>tumla vacri</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>land air</td>
+ <td>Fin</td>
+ <td>world</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>moklu stedu</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>mouth head</td>
+ <td>Aba</td>
+ <td>face</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>sudysrasu cunmi</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>hay millet</td>
+ <td>Qab</td>
+ <td>agriculture</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>gugde ciste</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>state system</td>
+ <td>Mon</td>
+ <td>politics</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>prenu so'imei</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>people multitude</td>
+ <td>Mon</td>
+ <td>masses</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><jbophrase>djacu dertu</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>water earth</td>
+ <td>Chi</td>
+ <td>climate</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <variablelist>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>sudysrasu</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>dry-grass</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>so'imei</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>manysome</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ </variablelist>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-pretty-school-groupings">
+ <title>
+ <quote>Pretty little girls' school</quote>: forty ways to say it</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pretty little girls' school</primary><secondary>forty ways</secondary></indexterm> The following examples show every possible grouping arrangement of
+ <jbophrase>melbi cmalu nixli ckule</jbophrase> using
+ <valsi>bo</valsi> or
+ <valsi>ke</valsi>…<valsi>ke'e</valsi> for grouping and
+ <valsi>je</valsi> or
+ <valsi>je</valsi><valsi>bo</valsi> for logical connection. Most of these are definitely not plausible interpretations of the English phrase
+ <quote>pretty little girls' school</quote>, especially those which describe something which is both a girl and a school.</para>
+ <para>Examples <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjmr"/>, <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjNi"/>, <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjog"/>, <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjop"/>, and <xref linkend="example-random-id-tz0L"/> are repeated here as Examples <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjzw"/>, <xref linkend="example-random-id-qKaM"/>, <xref linkend="example-random-id-qKfX"/>, <xref linkend="example-random-id-qKmg"/>, and <xref linkend="example-random-id-qKPQ"/> respectively.
+ <!-- was: Examples 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, and 5.6 are repeated here as Examples 16.1, 16.9, 16.17, 16.25, and 16.33 respectively. -->
+ The seven examples following each of these share the same grouping pattern, but differ in the presence or absence of
+ <valsi>je</valsi> at each possible site. Some of the examples have more than one Lojban version. In that case, they differ only in grouping mechanism, and are always equivalent in meaning.</para>
+ <para>The logical connective
+ <valsi>je</valsi> is associative: that is,
+ <quote>A and (B and C)</quote> is the same as
+ <quote>(A and B) and C</quote>. Therefore, some of the examples have the same meaning as others. In particular, <xref linkend="example-random-id-qKAG"/>, <xref linkend="example-random-id-qKFA"/>, <xref linkend="example-random-id-qKLN"/>, <xref linkend="example-random-id-qKpo"/>, and <xref linkend="example-random-id-qKU6"/> all have the same meaning because all four brivla are logically connected and the grouping is simply irrelevant.
+ <!-- was: In particular, 16.8, 16.16, 16.24, 16.32, and 16.40 all have the same meaning -->
+ Other equivalent forms are noted in the examples themselves. However, if
+
+ <valsi>je</valsi> were replaced by
+ <valsi>naja</valsi> or
+ <valsi>jo</valsi> or most of the other logical connectives, the meanings would become distinct.</para>
+ <para>It must be emphasized that, because of the ambiguity of all tanru, the English translations are by no means definitive – they represent only one possible interpretation of the corresponding Lojban sentence.</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjzw" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e16d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>melbi cmalu nixli ckule</jbo>
+ <gloss>((pretty type-of little) type-of girl) type-of school</gloss>
+ <natlang>school for girls who are beautifully small</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qK2W" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e16d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>melbi je cmalu nixli ckule</jbo>
+ <gloss>((pretty and little) type-of girl) type-of school</gloss>
+ <natlang>school for girls who are beautiful and small</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qK2x" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e16d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>melbi bo cmalu je nixli ckule</jbo>
+ <gloss>((pretty type-of little) and girl) type-of school</gloss>
+ <natlang>school for girls and for beautifully small things</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qK5r" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e16d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ke melbi cmalu nixli ke'e je ckule</jbo>
+ <gloss>((pretty type-of little) type-of girl) and school</gloss>
+ <natlang>thing which is a school and a beautifully small girl</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qK5Y" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e16d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>melbi je cmalu je nixli ckule</jbo>
+ <gloss>((pretty and little) and girl) type-of school</gloss>
+ <gloss>school for things which are beautiful, small, and girls</gloss>
+ <para>Note: same as <xref linkend="example-random-id-qKjr"/></para>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qK7I" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e16d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>melbi bo cmalu je nixli je ckule</jbo>
+ <gloss>((pretty type-of little) and girl) and school</gloss>
+ <gloss>thing which is beautifully small, a school, and a girl</gloss>
+ <para>Note: same as <xref linkend="example-random-id-qKdY"/></para>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qK90" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e16d7"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ke melbi je cmalu nixli ke'e je ckule</jbo>
+ <gloss>((pretty and little) type-of girl) and school</gloss>
+ <natlang>thing which is a school and a girl who is both beautiful and small</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKAG" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e16d8"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>melbi je cmalu je nixli je ckule</jbo>
+ <gloss>((pretty and little) and girl) and school</gloss>
+ <natlang>thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKaM" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e16d9"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>melbi cmalu nixli bo ckule</jbo>
+ <gloss>(pretty type-of little) type-of (girl type-of school)</gloss>
+ <natlang>girls' school which is beautifully small</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKat" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e16d10"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>melbi je cmalu nixli bo ckule</jbo>
+ <gloss>(pretty and little) type-of (girl type-of school)</gloss>
+ <natlang>girls' school which is beautiful and small</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKBQ" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e16d11"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>melbi cmalu nixli je ckule</jbo>
+ <gloss>(pretty type-of little) type-of (girl and school)</gloss>
+ <natlang>something which is a girl and a school which is beautifully small</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKBy" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e16d12"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>melbi bo cmalu je nixli bo ckule</jbo>
+ <gloss>(pretty type-of little) and (girl type-of school)</gloss>
+ <natlang>something which is beautifully small and a girls' school</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKcH" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e16d13"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>melbi je cmalu nixli je ckule</jbo>
+ <gloss>(pretty and little) type-of (girl and school)</gloss>
+ <natlang>a pretty and little type of thing which is both a girl and a school</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKdY" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e16d14"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>melbi bo cmalu je nixli jebo ckule</jbo>
+ <gloss>(pretty type-of little) and (girl and school)</gloss>
+ <natlang>thing which is beautifully small, a school, and a girl</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>Note: same as <xref linkend="example-random-id-qK7I"/></para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKEI" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e16d15"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>melbi jebo cmalu je nixli bo ckule</jbo>
+ <gloss>(pretty and little) and (girl type-of school)</gloss>
+ <natlang>thing which is beautiful and small and a girl's school</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>Note: same as <xref linkend="example-random-id-qKpm"/></para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKFA" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e16d16"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>melbi jebo cmalu je nixli jebo ckule</jbo>
+ <gloss>(pretty and little) and (girl and school)</gloss>
+ <natlang>thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKfX" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e16d17"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>melbi cmalu bo nixli ckule</jbo>
+ <gloss>(pretty type-of (little type-of girl)) type-of school</gloss>
+ <natlang>school for beautiful girls who are small</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKGW" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e16d18"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>melbi cmalu je nixli ckule</jbo>
+ <gloss>(pretty type-of (little and girl)) type-of school</gloss>
+ <natlang>school for beautiful things which are small and are girls</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKHA" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e16d19"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>melbi je cmalu bo nixli ckule</jbo>
+ <gloss>(pretty and (little type-of girl)) type-of school</gloss>
+ <natlang>school for things which are beautiful and are small girls</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKjJ" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e16d20"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ke melbi cmalu bo nixli ke'e je ckule</jbo>
+ <jbo>melbi bo cmalu bo nixli je ckule</jbo>
+ <gloss>(pretty type-of (little type-of girl)) and school</gloss>
+ <natlang>thing which is a school and a small girl who is beautiful</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKjr" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e16d21"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>melbi je cmalu jebo nixli ckule</jbo>
+ <gloss>(pretty and (little and girl)) type-of school</gloss>
+ <natlang>school for things which are beautiful, small, and girls</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>Note: same as <xref linkend="example-random-id-qK5Y"/></para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKKM" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e16d22"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>melbi je cmalu bo nixli je ckule</jbo>
+ <gloss>(pretty and (little type-of girl)) and school</gloss>
+ <natlang>thing which is beautiful, a small girl, and a school</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>Note: same as <xref linkend="example-random-id-qKsA"/></para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKLi" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e16d23"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ke melbi cmalu je nixli ke'e je ckule</jbo>
+ <gloss>(pretty type-of (little and girl)) and school</gloss>
+ <natlang>thing which is beautifully small, a beautiful girl, and a school</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKLN" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e16d24"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>melbi je cmalu jebo nixli je ckule</jbo>
+ <gloss>(pretty and (little and girl)) and school</gloss>
+ <natlang>thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKmg" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e16d25"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>melbi cmalu bo nixli bo ckule</jbo>
+ <jbo>melbi ke cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e] [ke'e]</jbo>
+ <gloss>pretty type-of (little type-of (girl type-of school))</gloss>
+ <natlang>small school for girls which is beautiful</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKn8" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e16d26"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>melbi ke cmalu nixli je ckule [ke'e]</jbo>
+ <gloss>pretty type-of (little type-of (girl and school))</gloss>
+ <natlang>small thing, both a girl and a school, which is beautiful</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKNY" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e16d27"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>melbi cmalu je nixli bo ckule</jbo>
+ <gloss>pretty type-of (little and (girl type-of school))</gloss>
+ <natlang>thing which is beautifully small and a girls' school that is beautiful</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKp6" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e16d28"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>melbi je cmalu bo nixli bo ckule</jbo>
+ <jbo>melbi je ke cmalu nixli bo ckule [ke'e]</jbo>
+ <jbo>melbi je ke cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e] [ke'e]</jbo>
+ <gloss>pretty and (little type-of (girl type-of school))</gloss>
+ <natlang>thing which is beautiful and a small type of girls' school</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKp9" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e16d29"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>melbi cmalu je nixli jebo ckule</jbo>
+ <gloss>melbi cmalu je ke nixli je ckule [ke'e]</gloss>
+ <gloss>pretty type-of (little and (girl and school))</gloss>
+ <natlang>thing which is beautifully small, a beautiful girl, and a beautiful school</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>Note: same as <xref linkend="example-random-id-qKR5"/></para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKpm" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e16d30"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>melbi je cmalu jebo nixli bo ckule</jbo>
+ <jbo>melbi je ke cmalu je nixli bo ckule [ke'e]</jbo>
+ <gloss>pretty and (little and (girl type-of school))</gloss>
+ <natlang>thing which is beautiful, small and a girls' school</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>Note: same as <xref linkend="example-random-id-qKEI"/></para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKPn" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e16d31"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>melbi je ke cmalu nixli je ckule [ke'e]</jbo>
+ <gloss>pretty and (little type-of (girl and school))</gloss>
+ <natlang>beautiful thing which is a small girl and a small school</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKpo" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e16d32"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>melbi jebo cmalu jebo nixli jebo ckule</jbo>
+ <gloss>pretty and (little and (girl and school))</gloss>
+ <natlang>thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKPQ" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e16d33"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>melbi ke cmalu nixli ckule [ke'e]</jbo>
+ <gloss>pretty type-of ((little type-of girl) type-of school)</gloss>
+ <natlang>beautiful school for small girls</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKpX" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e16d34"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>melbi ke cmalu je nixli ckule [ke'e]</jbo>
+ <gloss>pretty type-of ((little and girl) type-of school</gloss>
+ <natlang>beautiful school for things which are small and are girls</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKPz" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e16d35"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>melbi ke cmalu bo nixli je ckule [ke'e]</jbo>
+ <gloss>pretty type-of ((little type-of girl) and school)</gloss>
+ <natlang>beautiful thing which is a small girl and a school</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKQ3" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e16d36"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>melbi je ke cmalu nixli ckule [ke'e]</jbo>
+ <gloss>pretty and ((little type-of girl) type-of school)</gloss>
+ <natlang>thing which is beautiful and a school for small girls</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKR5" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e16d37"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>melbi cmalu je nixli je ckule</jbo>
+ <gloss>pretty type-of ((little and girl) and school)</gloss>
+ <natlang>thing which is beautifully small, a beautiful girl, and a beautiful school</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>Note: same as <xref linkend="example-random-id-qKp9"/></para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKsA" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e16d38"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>melbi je ke cmalu bo nixli je ckule [ke'e]</jbo>
+ <gloss>pretty and ((little type-of girl) and school)</gloss>
+ <natlang>thing which is beautiful, a small girl and a school</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>Note: same as <xref linkend="example-random-id-qKKM"/></para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKSK" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e16d39"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>melbi je ke cmalu je nixli ckule [ke'e]</jbo>
+ <gloss>pretty and ((little and girl) type-of school)</gloss>
+ <natlang>thing which is beautiful and is a small school and a girls' school</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKU6" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c5e16d40"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>melbi je ke cmalu je nixli je ckule [ke'e]</jbo>
+ <gloss>pretty and ((little and girl) and school)</gloss>
+ <natlang>thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ </section>
+
+</chapter>
diff --git a/chapters/06.xml b/chapters/06.xml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..59acd47
--- /dev/null
+++ b/chapters/06.xml
@@ -0,0 +1,2205 @@
+<chapter xml:id="chapter-sumti">
+ <title>To Speak Of Many Things: The Lojban sumti</title>
+ <mediaobject xml:id="chapter-sumti-picture">
+ <alt>The picture for chapter 6</alt>
+ <imageobject>
+ <imagedata fileref="media/chapter-sumti.gif"/>
+ </imageobject>
+ </mediaobject>
+
+ <section xml:id="section-simple-sumti-kinds">
+ <title>The five kinds of simple sumti</title>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>simple sumti</primary></indexterm> If you understand anything about Lojban, you know what a sumti is by now, right? An argument, one of those things that fills the places of simple Lojban sentences like:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-VKU6">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e1d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi klama le zarci</jbo>
+ <gloss>I go-to the market</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>contrasted with description</secondary></indexterm> In
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-VKU6"/>,
+ <valsi>mi</valsi> and
+ <jbophrase>le zarci</jbophrase> are the sumti. It is easy to see that these two sumti are not of the same kind:
+ <valsi>mi</valsi> is a pro-sumti (the Lojban analogue of a pronoun) referring to the speaker, whereas
+ <jbophrase>le zarci</jbophrase> is a description which refers to something described as being a market.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>kinds of</secondary></indexterm> There are five kinds of simple sumti provided by Lojban:</para>
+
+ <orderedlist>
+ <listitem>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gadri</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>descriptions as</secondary></indexterm> descriptions like
+ <jbophrase>le zarci</jbophrase>, which usually begin with a descriptor (called a
+ <valsi>gadri</valsi> in Lojban) such as
+
+ <valsi>le</valsi>;</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>pro-sumti as</secondary></indexterm> pro-sumti, such as
+ <valsi>mi</valsi>;</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>names as</secondary></indexterm> names, such as
+ <jbophrase>la lojban.</jbophrase>, which usually begin with
+ <valsi>la</valsi>;</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>quotations as</secondary></indexterm> quotations, which begin with
+ <valsi>lu</valsi>,
+ <valsi>le'u</valsi>,
+ <valsi>zo</valsi>, or
+ <valsi>zoi</valsi>;</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>numbers as</secondary></indexterm> pure numbers, which usually begin with
+ <valsi>li</valsi>.</para>
+ </listitem>
+ </orderedlist>
+ <para>Here are a few examples of each kind of sumti:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Dx1s">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e1d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>e'osai ko sarji la lojban.</jbo>
+ <natlang>Please support Lojban!</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-Dx1s"/> exhibits
+ <valsi>ko</valsi>, a pro-sumti; and
+ <jbophrase>la lojban.</jbophrase>, a name.</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-v1mS">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e1d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi cusku lu e'osai li'u le tcidu</jbo>
+ <natlang>I express
+ <quote>Please!</quote> to-the reader.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <!-- FIXME: these three indexterms aren't tagged alone --><indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>le</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>li'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>lu</primary></indexterm>
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-v1mS"/> exhibits
+ <valsi>mi</valsi>, a pro-sumti;
+ <jbophrase>lu e'osai li'u</jbophrase>, a quotation; and
+ <jbophrase>le tcidu</jbophrase>, a description.</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-0YaH">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e1d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ti mitre li ci</jbo>
+ <gloss>This measures-in-meters the-number three.</gloss>
+ <natlang>This is three meters long.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <!-- FIXME: this indexterm isn't tagged alone --><indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>li</primary></indexterm>
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-0YaH"/> exhibits
+ <valsi>ti</valsi>, a pro-sumti; and
+ <jbophrase>li ci</jbophrase>, a number.</para>
+ <para>Most of this chapter is about descriptions, as they have the most complicated syntax and usage. Some attention is also given to names, which are closely interwoven with descriptions. Pro-sumti, numbers, and quotations are described in more detail in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-anaphoric-cmavo"/>,
+ <xref linkend="chapter-mekso"/>, and
+ <xref linkend="chapter-structure"/> respectively, so this chapter only gives summaries of their forms and uses. See
+ <xref linkend="section-pro-sumti"/> through
+ <xref linkend="section-number-summary"/> for these summaries.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-basic-descriptors">
+ <title>The three basic description types</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>descriptions</primary><secondary>types of</secondary></indexterm> The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>le</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>LE</selmaho>
+ <description>the, the one(s) described as</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>lo</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>LE</selmaho>
+ <description>some, some of those which really are</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>la</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>LA</selmaho>
+ <description>the one(s) named</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ku</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>KU</selmaho>
+ <description>elidable terminator for LE, LA</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri</primary><secondary>as part of description</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>descriptor</primary><secondary>as part of description</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>descriptions</primary><secondary>components of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>descriptions</primary><secondary>types of</secondary></indexterm> The syntax of descriptions is fairly complex, and not all of it can be explained within the confines of this chapter: relative clauses, in particular, are discussed in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-relative-clauses"/>. However, most descriptions have just two components: a descriptor belonging to selma'o LE or LA, and a selbri. (The difference between selma'o LE and selma'o LA is not important until
+ <xref linkend="section-names"/>.) Furthermore, the selbri is often just a single brivla. Here is an elementary example:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rBuQ">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e2d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le zarci</jbo>
+ <gloss>one-or-more-specific-things-each-of-which-I-describe-as being-a-market</gloss>
+ <natlang>the market</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le</primary><secondary>compared with English the</secondary></indexterm> The long gloss for
+ <valsi>le</valsi> is of course far too long to use most of the time, and in fact
+
+ <valsi>le</valsi> is quite close in meaning to English
+ <quote>the</quote>. It has particular implications, however, which
+ <quote>the</quote> does not have.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>descriptions</primary><secondary>importance of selbri first place in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>descriptors</primary><secondary>purpose of</secondary></indexterm> The general purpose of all descriptors is to create a sumti which might occur in the x1 place of the selbri belonging to the description. Thus
+ <jbophrase>le zarci</jbophrase> conveys something which might be found in the x1 place of
+ <valsi>zarci</valsi>, namely a market.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le</primary><secondary>and truth of selbri</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le</primary><secondary>and specificity</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le</primary><secondary>implications of</secondary></indexterm> The specific purpose of
+ <valsi>le</valsi> is twofold. First, it indicates that the speaker has one or more specific markets in mind (whether or not the listener knows which ones they are). Second, it also indicates that the speaker is merely describing the things he or she has in mind as markets, without being committed to the truth of that description.</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ULGC">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e2d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le zarci cu barda</jbo>
+ <gloss>One-or-more-specific-things-which-I-describe as <quote>markets</quote> is/are-big.</gloss>
+ <natlang>The market is big.</natlang>
+ <natlang>The markets are big.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>plurals</primary><secondary>Lojban contrasted with English in necessity of marking</secondary></indexterm> Note that English-speakers must state whether a reference to markets is to just one (
+ <quote>the market</quote>) or to more than one (
+ <quote>the markets</quote>). Lojban requires no such forced choice, so both colloquial translations of
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-ULGC"/> are valid. Only the context can specify which is meant. (This rule does not mean that Lojban has no way of specifying the number of markets in such a case: that mechanism is explained in
+ <xref linkend="section-quantified-descriptions"/>.)</para>
+ <para>Now consider the following strange-looking example:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PutX">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>The men are women</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e2d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le nanmu cu ninmu</jbo>
+ <gloss>One-or-more-specific-things-which-I-describe as <quote>men</quote> are women.</gloss>
+ <natlang>The man is a woman.</natlang>
+ <natlang>The men are women.</natlang>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le</primary><secondary>in false-to-fact descriptions</secondary></indexterm>
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-PutX"/> is not self-contradictory in Lojban, because
+ <jbophrase>le nanmu</jbophrase> merely means something or other which, for my present purposes, I choose to describe as a man, whether or not it really is a man. A plausible instance would be: someone we had assumed to be a man at a distance turned out to be actually a woman on closer observation.
+
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-PutX"/> is what I would say to point out my observation to you.</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>descriptions</primary><secondary>specific</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>specific descriptions</primary></indexterm> In all descriptions with
+ <valsi>le</valsi>, the listener is presumed to either know what I have in mind or else not to be concerned at present (perhaps I will give more identifying details later). In particular, I might be pointing at the supposed man or men:
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-PutX"/> would then be perfectly intelligible, since
+ <jbophrase>le nanmu</jbophrase> merely clarifies that I am pointing at the supposed man, not at a landscape, or a nose, which happens to lie in the same direction.</para>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo</primary><secondary>implications of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>descriptions</primary><secondary>non-specific</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-specific descriptions</primary></indexterm> The second descriptor dealt with in this section is
+ <valsi>lo</valsi>. Unlike
+ <valsi>le</valsi>,
+ <valsi>lo</valsi> is nonspecific:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-t11z">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e2d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>lo zarci</jbo>
+ <gloss>one-or-more-of-all-the-things-which-really are-markets</gloss>
+ <natlang>a market</natlang>
+ <natlang>some markets</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo</primary><secondary>and truth of selbri</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo</primary><secondary>contrasted with le in truth requirement</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le</primary><secondary>contrasted with lo in truth requirement</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le</primary><secondary>contrasted with lo in specificity</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo</primary><secondary>contrasted with le in specificity</secondary></indexterm> Again, there are two colloquial English translations. The effect of using
+ <valsi>lo</valsi> in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-t11z"/> is to refer generally to one or more markets, without being specific about which. Unlike
+ <jbophrase>le zarci</jbophrase>,
+ <jbophrase>lo zarci</jbophrase> must refer to something which actually is a market (that is, which can appear in the x1 place of a truthful bridi whose selbri is
+ <valsi>zarci</valsi>). Thus</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-fSxN">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e2d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>lo nanmu cu ninmu</jbo>
+ <natlang>Some man is a woman.</natlang>
+ <natlang>Some men are women.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>must be false in Lojban, given that there are no objects in the real world which are both men and women. Pointing at some specific men or women would not make
+
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-fSxN"/> true, because those specific individuals are no more both-men-and-women than any others. In general,
+ <valsi>lo</valsi> refers to whatever individuals meet its description.</para>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>la</primary><secondary>use with descriptions contrasted with use before Lojbanized names</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le</primary><secondary>compared with la in specificity</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>la</primary><secondary>compared with le in specificity</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>la</primary><secondary>implications of</secondary></indexterm> The last descriptor of this section is
+ <valsi>la</valsi>, which indicates that the selbri which follows it has been dissociated from its normal meaning and is being used as a name. Like
+ <valsi>le</valsi> descriptions,
+ <valsi>la</valsi> descriptions are implicitly restricted to those I have in mind. (Do not confuse this use of
+ <valsi>la</valsi> with its use before regular Lojbanized names, which is discussed in
+ <xref linkend="section-names"/>.) For example:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PrGp">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>bear wrote story</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e2d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la cribe pu finti le lisri</jbo>
+ <gloss>The-one-named
+ <quote>bear</quote> [past] creates the story.</gloss>
+ <natlang>Bear wrote the story.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>naming predicate</primary></indexterm> In
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-PrGp"/>,
+ <jbophrase>la cribe</jbophrase> refers to someone whose naming predicate is
+
+ <valsi>cribe</valsi>, i.e.
+ <quote>Bear</quote>. In English, most names don't mean anything, or at least not anything obvious. The name
+ <quote>Frank</quote> coincides with the English word
+ <quote>frank</quote>, meaning
+ <quote>honest</quote>, and so one way of translating
+ <quote>Frank ate some cheese</quote> into Lojban would be:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-yyBX">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e2d7"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la stace pu citka lo cirla</jbo>
+ <gloss>The-one-called <quote>Honest/Frank</quote> [past] eats some cheese.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>English-speakers typically would not do this, as we tend to be more attached to the sound of our names than their meaning, even if the meaning (etymological or current) is known. Speakers of other languages may feel differently. (In point of fact,
+ <quote>Frank</quote> originally meant
+ <quote>the free one</quote> rather than
+ <quote>the honest one</quote>.)</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>la</primary><secondary>contrasted with le in implications</secondary></indexterm> It is important to note the differences between
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-PrGp"/> and the following:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nXyo">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e2d8"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le cribe pu finti le lisri</jbo>
+ <gloss>One-or-more-specific-things-which-I-describe-as a-bear [past] creates the story.</gloss>
+ <natlang>The bear(s) wrote the story.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-93Yv">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e2d9"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>lo cribe pu finti le lisri</jbo>
+ <gloss>One-or-more-of-the-things-which-really are-bears [past] creates the story.</gloss>
+ <natlang>A bear wrote the story.</natlang>
+ <natlang>Some bears wrote the story.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>la</primary><secondary>contrasted with lo in implications</secondary></indexterm>
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-nXyo"/> is about a specific bear or bearlike thing(s), or thing(s) which the speaker (perhaps whimsically or metaphorically) describes as a bear (or more than one);
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-93Yv"/> is about one or more of the really existing, objectively defined bears. In either case, though, each of them must have contributed to the writing of the story, if more than one bear (or
+ <quote>bear</quote>) is meant.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>descriptions with lo</primary><secondary>teddy bear contrasted with real bear</secondary></indexterm> (The notion of a
+ <quote>really existing, objectively defined bear</quote> raises certain difficulties. Is a panda bear a
+ <quote>real bear</quote>? How about a teddy bear? In general, the answer is
+ <quote>yes</quote>. Lojban gismu are defined as broadly as possible, allowing tanru and lujvo to narrow down the definition. There probably are no necessary and sufficient conditions for defining what is and what is not a bear that can be pinned down with complete precision: the real world is fuzzy. In borderline cases,
+
+ <valsi>le</valsi> may communicate better than
+ <valsi>lo</valsi>.)</para>
+ <para>So while
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-PrGp"/> could easily be true (there is a real writer named
+ <quote>Greg Bear</quote>), and
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-nXyo"/> could be true if the speaker is sufficiently peculiar in what he or she describes as a bear,
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-93Yv"/> is certainly false.</para>
+ <para>Similarly, compare the following two examples, which are analogous to
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-nXyo"/> and
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-93Yv"/> respectively:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKw7" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e2d10"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le remna pu finti le lisri</jbo>
+ <natlang>The human being(s) wrote the story.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKYf" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e2d11"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>lo remna pu finti le lisri</jbo>
+ <natlang>A human being wrote the story.</natlang>
+ <natlang>Some human beings wrote the story.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo</primary><secondary>contrasted with le in implications</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le</primary><secondary>contrasted with lo in implications</secondary></indexterm>
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qKw7"/> says who the author of the story is: one or more particular human beings that the speaker has in mind. If the topic of conversation is the story, then
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qKw7"/> identifies the author as someone who can be pointed out or who has been previously mentioned; whereas if the topic is a person, then
+ <jbophrase>le remna</jbophrase> is in effect a shorthand reference to that person.
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qKYf"/> merely says that the author is human.</para>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ku</primary><secondary>uses of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cu</primary><secondary>effect on elidability of ku</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ku</primary><secondary>effect of following selbri on elidability of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ku</primary><secondary>as elidable terminator for descriptions</secondary></indexterm> The elidable terminator for all descriptions is
+ <valsi>ku</valsi>. It can almost always be omitted with no danger of ambiguity. The main exceptions are in certain uses of relative clauses, which are discussed in
+ <xref linkend="section-descriptors"/>, and in the case of a description immediately preceding the selbri. In this latter case, using an explicit
+ <valsi>cu</valsi> before the selbri makes the
+ <valsi>ku</valsi> unnecessary. There are also a few other uses of
+ <valsi>ku</valsi>: in the compound negator
+ <jbophrase>naku</jbophrase> (discussed in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-quantifiers"/>) and to terminate place-structure, tense, and modal tags that do not have associated sumti (discussed in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-sumti-tcita"/> and
+ <xref linkend="chapter-tenses"/>).</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-masses">
+ <title>Individuals and masses</title>
+ <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>lei</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>LE</selmaho>
+ <description>the mass I describe as</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>loi</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>LE</selmaho>
+ <description>part of the mass of those which really are</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>lai</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>LA</selmaho>
+ <description>the mass of those named</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>for set objects</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>for mass objects</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>for individual objects</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>classified by types of objects referred to</secondary></indexterm> All Lojban sumti are classified by whether they refer to one of three types of objects, known as
+ <quote>individuals</quote>,
+ <quote>masses</quote>, and
+ <quote>sets</quote>. The term
+ <quote>individual</quote> is misleading when used to refer to more than one object, but no less-confusing term has as yet been found. All the descriptions in
+ <xref linkend="section-simple-sumti-kinds"/> and
+ <xref linkend="section-basic-descriptors"/> refer to individuals, whether one or more than one. Consider the following example:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mwhq">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e3d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le prenu cu bevri le pipno</jbo>
+ <gloss>One-or-more-of-those-I-describe-as persons carry the piano.</gloss>
+
+ <natlang>The person(s) carry the piano.</natlang>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>(Of course the second
+ <valsi>le</valsi> should really get the same translation as the first, but I am putting the focus of this discussion on the first
+ <valsi>le</valsi>, the one preceding
+ <valsi>prenu</valsi>. I will assume that there is only one piano under discussion.)</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>individual objects</primary><secondary>multiple</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple individual objects</primary><secondary>meaning of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le</primary><secondary>meaning of in the plural</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>plurals with le</primary><secondary>meaning of</secondary></indexterm> Suppose the context of
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-mwhq"/> is such that you can determine that I am talking about three persons. What am I claiming? I am claiming that each of the three persons carried the piano. This claim can be true if the persons carried the piano one at a time, or in turns, or in a variety of other ways. But in order for
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-mwhq"/> to be true, I must be willing to assert that person 1 carried the piano, and that person 2 carried the piano, and that person 3 carried the piano.</para>
+ <para>But suppose I am not willing to claim that. For in fact pianos are heavy, and very few persons can carry a piano all by themselves. The most likely factual situation is that person 1 carried one end of the piano, and person 2 the other end, while person 3 either held up the middle or else supervised the whole operation without actually lifting anything. The correct way of expressing such a situation in Lojban is:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-eCsh">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>piano-moving</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e3d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>lei prenu cu bevri le pipno</jbo>
+ <gloss>The-mass-of-one-or-more-of-those-I-describe-as persons carry the piano.</gloss>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mass object</primary><secondary>and logical reasoning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mass object</primary><secondary>properties of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple individual objects</primary><secondary>contrasted with mass object</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mass object</primary><secondary>contrasted with multiple individual objects</secondary></indexterm> Here the same three persons are treated not as individuals, but as a so-called
+ <quote>mass entity</quote>, or just
+ <quote>mass</quote>. A mass has the properties of each individual which composes it, and may have other properties of its own as well. This can lead to apparent contradictions. Thus suppose in the piano-moving example above that person 1 has fair skin, whereas person 2 has dark skin. Then it is correct to say that the person-mass has both fair skin and dark skin. Using the mass descriptor
+
+ <valsi>lei</valsi> signals that ordinary logical reasoning is not applicable: contradictions can be maintained, and all sorts of other peculiarities may exist. However, we can safely say that a mass inherits only the component properties that are relevant to it; it would be ludicrous to say that a mass of two persons is of molecular dimensions, simply because some of the parts (namely, the molecules) of the persons are that small.</para>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lai</primary><secondary>as mass counterpart of lai</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>loi</primary><secondary>as mass counterpart of lo</secondary></indexterm> The descriptors
+ <valsi>loi</valsi> and
+ <valsi>lai</valsi> are analogous to
+ <valsi>lo</valsi> and
+ <valsi>la</valsi> respectively, but refer to masses either by property (
+ <valsi>loi</valsi>) or by name (
+ <valsi>lai</valsi>). A classic example of
+ <valsi>loi</valsi> use is:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-T1pF">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>lions in Africa</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e3d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>loi cinfo cu xabju le fi'ortu'a</jbo>
+ <gloss>Part-of-the-mass-of-those-which-really are-lions dwell in-the African-land.</gloss>
+ <natlang>The lion dwells in Africa.</natlang>
+ <natlang>Lions dwell in Africa.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>loi</primary><secondary>contrasted with lei in specificity</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lei</primary><secondary>contrasted with loi in specificity</secondary></indexterm> The difference between
+ <valsi>lei</valsi> and
+ <valsi>loi</valsi> is that
+ <jbophrase>lei cinfo</jbophrase> refers to a mass of specific individuals which the speaker calls lions, whereas
+ <jbophrase>loi cinfo</jbophrase> refers to some part of the mass of all those individuals which actually are lions. The restriction to
+ <quote>some part of the mass</quote> allows statements like
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-T1pF"/> to be true even though some lions do not dwell in Africa – they live in various zoos around the world. On the other hand,
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-T1pF"/> doesn't actually say that most lions live in Africa: equally true is</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-JzXc">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>Englishman in Africa</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e3d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>loi glipre cu xabju le fi'ortu'a</jbo>
+ <gloss>Part-of-the-mass-of-those-which-really are-English-persons dwell in-the African-land.</gloss>
+ <natlang>The English dwell in Africa.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>since there is at least one English person living there.
+ <xref linkend="section-sets"/> explains another method of saying what is usually meant by
+ <quote>The lion lives in Africa</quote> which does imply that living in Africa is normal, not exceptional, for lions.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mass objects</primary><secondary>peculiarities of English translation of</secondary></indexterm> Note that the Lojban mass articles are sometimes translated by English plurals (the most usual case), sometimes by English singulars (when the singular is used to express typicalness or abstraction), and sometimes by singulars with no article:</para>
+
+
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-yDCF">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>butter is soft</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e3d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>loi matne cu ranti</jbo>
+
+ <gloss>Part-of-the-mass-of-that-which-really is-a-quantity-of-butter is-soft.</gloss>
+ <natlang>Butter is soft.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mass object</primary><secondary>as dependent on intention</secondary></indexterm> Of course, some butter is hard (for example, if it is frozen butter), so the
+ <quote>part-of</quote> implication of
+ <valsi>loi</valsi> becomes once again useful. The reason this mechanism works is that the English words like
+ <quote>butter</quote>, which are seen as already describing masses, are translated in Lojban by non-mass forms. The place structure of
+ <valsi>matne</valsi> is
+
+ <quote>x1 is a quantity of butter from source x2</quote>, so the single English word
+ <quote>butter</quote> is translated as something like
+ <quote>a part of the mass formed from all the quantities of butter that exist</quote>. (Note that the operation of forming a mass entity does not imply, in Lojban, that the components of the mass are necessarily close to one another or even related in any way other than conceptually. Masses are formed by the speaker's intention to form a mass, and can in principle contain anything.)</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mass name</primary><secondary>use of</secondary></indexterm> The mass name descriptor
+
+
+ <valsi>lai</valsi> is used in circumstances where we wish to talk about a mass of things identified by a name which is common to all of them. It is not used to identify a mass by a single name peculiar to it. Thus the mass version of
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-fSxN"/>,</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-H8z5">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>Bears wrote book</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e3d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>lai cribe pu finti le vi cukta</jbo>
+ <gloss>The-mass-of-those-named
+ <quote>bear</quote> [past] creates the nearby book.</gloss>
+ <natlang>The Bears wrote this book.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lai</primary><secondary>contrasted with la in implications</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>la</primary><secondary>contrasted with lai in implications</secondary></indexterm> in a context where
+ <jbophrase>la cribe</jbophrase> would be understood as plural, would mean that either Tom Bear or Fred Bear (to make up some names) might have written the book, or that Tom and Fred might have written it as collaborators. Using
+
+ <valsi>la</valsi> instead of
+ <valsi>lai</valsi> in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-H8z5"/> would give the implication that each of Tom and Fred, considered individually, had written it.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-sets">
+ <title>Masses and sets</title>
+ <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>le'i</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>LE</selmaho>
+ <description>the set described as</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>lo'i</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>LE</selmaho>
+ <description>the set of those which really are</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>la'i</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>LA</selmaho>
+ <description>the set of those named</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mass</primary><secondary>compared with set as abstract of multiple individuals</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>set</primary><secondary>compared with mass as abstract of multiple individuals</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mass</primary><secondary>contrasted with set in attribution of component properties</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>set</primary><secondary>contrasted with mass in attribution of component properties</secondary></indexterm> Having said so much about masses, let us turn to sets. Sets are easier to understand than masses, but are more rarely used. Like a mass, a set is an abstract object formed from a number of individuals; however, the properties of a set are not derived from any of the properties of the individuals that compose it.</para>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>la'i</primary><secondary>as set counterpart of lai</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo'i</primary><secondary>as set counterpart of loi</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le'i</primary><secondary>as set counterpart of lei</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sets</primary><secondary>properties of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cardinality</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cardinality</primary><secondary>property of sets</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>membership</primary><secondary>property of sets</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>inclusion</primary><secondary>property of sets</secondary></indexterm> Sets have properties like cardinality (how many elements in the set), membership (the relationship between a set and its elements), and set inclusion (the relationship between two sets, one of which – the superset – contains all the elements of the other – the subset). The set descriptors
+
+
+
+ <valsi>le'i</valsi>,
+ <valsi>lo'i</valsi> and
+ <valsi>la'i</valsi> correspond exactly to the mass descriptors
+ <valsi>lei</valsi>,
+ <valsi>loi</valsi>, and
+ <valsi>lai</valsi> except that normally we talk of the whole of a set, not just part of it. Here are some examples contrasting
+ <valsi>lo</valsi>,
+ <valsi>loi</valsi>, and
+ <valsi>lo'i</valsi>:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qL1E" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>rats are brown</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e4d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>lo ratcu cu bunre</jbo>
+ <gloss>One-or-more-of-those-which-really-are rats are-brown.</gloss>
+ <natlang>Some rats are brown.</natlang>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qL2Y" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e4d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>loi ratcu cu cmalu</jbo>
+ <gloss>Part-of-the-mass-of-those-which-really-are rats are-small.</gloss>
+ <natlang>Rats are small.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo'i</primary><secondary>contrasted with lo and loi</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>loi</primary><secondary>contrasted with lo and lo'i</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo</primary><secondary>contrasted with loi and lo'i</secondary></indexterm></para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qL3V" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e4d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>lo'i ratcu cu barda</jbo>
+ <gloss>The-set-of rats is-large.</gloss>
+ <natlang>There are a lot of rats.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>The mass of rats is small because at least one rat is small; the mass of rats is also large; the set of rats, though, is unquestionably large – it has billions of members. The mass of rats is also brown, since some of its components are; but it would be incorrect to call the set of rats brown – brown-ness is not the sort of property that sets possess.</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sets</primary><secondary>use in Lojban place structure</secondary></indexterm> Lojban speakers should generally think twice before employing the set descriptors. However, certain predicates have places that require set sumti to fill them. For example, the place structure of
+ <valsi>fadni</valsi> is:</para>
+ <definition><content>x1 is ordinary/common/typical/usual in property x2 among the members of set x3</content></definition>
+ <para>Why is it necessary for the x3 place of
+ <valsi>fadni</valsi> to be a set? Because it makes no sense for an individual to be typical of another individual: an individual is typical of a group. In order to make sure that the bridi containing
+ <valsi>fadni</valsi> is about an entire group, its x3 place must be filled with a set:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-xIXo">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>typical Lojban user</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e4d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi fadni zo'e lo'i lobypli</jbo>
+ <gloss>I am-ordinary among the-set-of Lojban-users.</gloss>
+ <natlang>I am a typical Lojban user.</natlang>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>Note that the x2 place has been omitted; I am not specifying in exactly which way I am typical – whether in language knowledge, or age, or interests, or something else. If
+ <valsi>lo'i</valsi> were changed to
+ <valsi>lo</valsi> in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-xIXo"/>, the meaning would be something like
+ <quote>I am typical of some Lojban user</quote>, which is nonsense.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-typicals">
+ <title>Descriptors for typical objects</title>
+
+ <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>lo'e</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>LE</selmaho>
+ <description>the typical</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>le'e</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>LE</selmaho>
+ <description>the stereotypical</description>
+
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+ <para>As promised in
+ <xref linkend="section-masses"/>, Lojban has a method for discriminating between
+ <quote>the lion</quote> who lives in Africa and
+ <quote>the Englishman</quote> who, generally speaking, doesn't live in Africa even though some Englishmen do. The descriptor
+ <valsi>lo'e</valsi> means
+ <quote>the typical</quote>, as in</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-AJKt">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>lion in Africa</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e5d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>lo'e cinfo cu xabju le fi'ortu'a</jbo>
+ <gloss>The-typical lion dwells-in the African-land.</gloss>
+ <natlang>The lion dwells in Africa.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>typical objects</primary><secondary>and instantiation</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>typical objects</primary><secondary>determining characteristics of</secondary></indexterm> What is this
+ <quote>typical lion</quote>? Surely it is not any particular lion, because no lion has all of the
+ <quote>typical</quote> characteristics, and (worse yet) some characteristics that all real lions have can't be viewed as typical. For example, all real lions are either male or female, but it would be bizarre to suppose that the typical lion is either one. So the typical lion has no particular sex, but does have a color (golden brown), a residence (Africa), a diet (game), and so on. Likewise we can say that</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-8PoG">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>typical Englishman</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e5d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>lo'e glipre cu xabju le fi'ortu'a na.e le gligugde</jbo>
+ <gloss>The-typical English-person dwells-in the African-land (Not!) and the English-country.</gloss>
+ <natlang>The typical English person dwells not in Africa but in England.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le'i</primary><secondary>relationship to le'e</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le'e</primary><secondary>relationship to le'i</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo'i</primary><secondary>relationship to lo'e</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo'e</primary><secondary>relationship to lo'i</secondary></indexterm> The relationship between
+ <jbophrase>lo'e cinfo</jbophrase> and
+ <jbophrase>lo'i cinfo</jbophrase> may be explained thus: the typical lion is an imaginary lion-abstraction which best exemplifies the set of lions. There is a similar relationship between
+ <valsi>le'e</valsi> and
+ <valsi>le'i</valsi>:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-D88V">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e5d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le'e xelso merko cu gusta ponse</jbo>
+ <gloss>The-stereotypical Greek-type-of American is-a-restaurant-type-of owner.</gloss>
+
+ <natlang>Lots of Greek-Americans own restaurants.</natlang>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>stereotypical</primary><secondary>compared with typical</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>typical</primary><secondary>compared with stereotypical</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>stereotypical</primary><secondary>as not derogatory in Lojban</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Greek-Americans own restaurants</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>stereotypical objects</primary></indexterm> Here we are concerned not with the actual set of Greek-Americans, but with the set of those the speaker has in mind, which is typified by one (real or imaginary) who owns a restaurant. The word
+ <quote>stereotypical</quote> is often derogatory in English, but
+
+ <valsi>le'e</valsi> need not be derogatory in Lojban: it simply suggests that the example is typical in the speaker's imagination rather than in some objectively agreed-upon way. Of course, different speakers may disagree about what the features of
+ <quote>the typical lion</quote> are (some would include having a short intestine, whereas others would know nothing of lions' intestines), so the distinction between
+ <jbophrase>lo'e cinfo</jbophrase> and
+ <jbophrase>le'e cinfo</jbophrase> may be very fine.</para>
+ <para>Furthermore,</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-NVFy">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>Hollywood</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e5d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le'e skina cu se finti ne'i la xali,uyd.</jbo>
+ <gloss>The-stereotypical movie is-invented in Hollywood.</gloss>
+
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>is probably true to an American, but might be false (not the stereotype) to someone living in India or Russia.</para>
+ <para>
+
+<indexterm type="general"><primary>typical Smith</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+ <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>name equivalent for <quote>typical</quote></primary><secondary>rationale for lack of</secondary></indexterm> Note that there is no naming equivalent of
+ <valsi>lo'e</valsi> and
+ <valsi>le'e</valsi>, because there is no need, as a rule, for a
+ <quote>typical George</quote> or a
+ <quote>typical Smith</quote>. People or things who share a common name do not, in general, have any other common attributes worth mentioning.</para>
+
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-quantified-sumti">
+ <title>Quantified sumti</title>
+ <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ro</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>PA</selmaho>
+ <description>all of/each of</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>su'o</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>PA</selmaho>
+ <description>at least (one of)</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+ <para>Quantifiers tell us how many: in the case of quantifiers with sumti, how many things we are talking about. In Lojban, quantifiers are expressed by numbers and mathematical expressions: a large topic discussed in some detail in
+
+ <xref linkend="chapter-mekso"/>. For the purposes of this chapter, a simplified treatment will suffice. Our examples will employ either the simple Lojban numbers
+ <valsi>pa</valsi>,
+ <valsi>re</valsi>,
+ <valsi>ci</valsi>,
+ <valsi>vo</valsi>, and
+ <valsi>mu</valsi>, meaning
+ <quote>one</quote>,
+ <quote>two</quote>,
+ <quote>three</quote>,
+ <quote>four</quote>,
+ <quote>five</quote> respectively, or else one of four special quantifiers, two of which are discussed in this section and listed above. These four quantifiers are important because every Lojban sumti has either one or two of them implicitly present in it – which one or two depends on the particular kind of sumti. There is more explanation of implicit quantifiers later in this section. (The other two quantifiers,
+ <valsi>piro</valsi> and
+ <valsi>pisu'o</valsi>, are explained in
+
+ <xref linkend="section-quantified-descriptions"/>.)</para>
+ <para>Every Lojban sumti may optionally be preceded by an explicit quantifier. The purpose of this quantifier is to specify how many of the things referred to by the sumti are being talked about. Here are some simple examples contrasting sumti with and without explicit quantifiers:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qL61" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e6d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>do cadzu le bisli</jbo>
+ <gloss>You walk-on the ice.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLAH" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e6d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>re do cadzu le bisli</jbo>
+ <gloss>Two-of you walk-on the ice.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>The difference between
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qL61"/> and
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLAH"/> is the presence of the explicit quantifier
+ <valsi>re</valsi> in the latter example. Although
+ <valsi>re</valsi> by itself means
+ <quote>two</quote>, when used as a quantifier it means
+ <quote>two-of</quote>. Out of the group of listeners (the number of which isn't stated), two (we are not told which ones) are asserted to be
+ <quote>walkers on the ice</quote>. Implicitly, the others (if any) are not walkers on the ice. In Lojban, you cannot say
+ <quote>I own three shoes</quote> if in fact you own four shoes. Numbers need never be specified, but if they are specified they must be correct.</para>
+ <para>(This rule does not mean that there is no way to specify a number which is vague. The sentence</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gLpy">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e6d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi ponse su'o ci cutci</jbo>
+ <gloss>I possess at-least three shoes.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>is true if you own three shoes, or four, or indeed any larger number. More details on vague numbers appear in the discussion of mathematical expressions in
+
+
+ <xref linkend="chapter-mekso"/>.)</para>
+ <para>Now consider
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qL61"/> again. How many of the listeners are claimed to walk on the ice? The answer turns out to be: all of them, however many that is. So
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qL61"/> and
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-0qr0"/>:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-0qr0">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e6d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ro do cadzu le bisli</jbo>
+ <gloss>All-of you walk-on the ice.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>as having implicit quantifiers</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>quantifiers</primary><secondary>with sumti</secondary></indexterm> turn out to mean exactly the same thing. This is a safe strategy, because if one of my listeners doesn't turn out to be walking on the ice, I can safely claim that I didn't intend that person to be a listener! And in fact, all of the personal pro-sumti such as
+
+ <valsi>mi</valsi> and
+ <valsi>mi'o</valsi> and
+ <valsi>ko</valsi> obey the same rule. We say that personal pro-sumti have a so-called
+
+ <quote>implicit quantifier</quote> of
+ <valsi>ro</valsi> (all). This just means that if no quantifier is given explicitly, the meaning is the same as if the implicit quantifier had been used.</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>implicit quantifier</primary><secondary>on quotations</secondary><tertiary>discussion of</tertiary></indexterm> Not all sumti have
+ <valsi>ro</valsi> as the implicit quantifier, however. Consider the quotation in:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3eMo">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e6d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi cusku lu do cadzu le bisli li'u</jbo>
+ <gloss>I express [quote] you walk-on the ice [unquote].</gloss>
+ <natlang>I say,
+ <quote>You walk on the ice.</quote></natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>What is the implicit quantifier of the quotation
+ <jbophrase>lu do cadzu le bisli li'u</jbophrase>? Surely not
+ <valsi>ro</valsi>. If
+ <valsi>ro</valsi> were supplied explicitly, thus:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-h4SJ">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e6d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi cusku ro lu do cadzu le bisli li'u</jbo>
+ <natlang>I express all-of [quote] you walk-on the ice [unquote].</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>the meaning would be something like
+ <quote>I say every occurrence of the sentence 'You walk on the ice'</quote>. Of course I don't say every occurrence of it, only some occurrences. One might suppose that
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-3eMo"/> means that I express exactly one occurrence, but it is more Lojbanic to leave the number unspecified, as with other sumti. We can say definitely, however, that I say it at least once.</para>
+ <para>The Lojban cmavo meaning
+ <quote>at least</quote> is
+ <valsi>su'o</valsi>, and if no ordinary number follows,
+ <valsi>su'o</valsi> means
+ <quote>at least once</quote>. (See
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-gLpy"/> for the use of
+ <valsi>su'o</valsi> with an ordinary number). Therefore, the explicitly quantified version of
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-3eMo"/> is</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>implicit quantifier</primary><secondary>for quotations</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>quotations</primary><secondary>implicit quantifier for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>su'o</primary><secondary>as implicit quantifier for quotations</secondary></indexterm></para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-P558">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e6d7"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi cusku su'o lu do cadzu le bisli li'u</jbo>
+ <gloss>I express at-least-one-of [quote] you walk-on the ice [unquote].</gloss>
+ <gloss>I say one or more instances of
+ <quote>You walk on the ice</quote>.</gloss>
+ <natlang>I say
+ <quote>You walk on the ice</quote>.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>If an explicit ordinary number such as
+ <valsi>re</valsi> were to appear, it would have to convey an exact expression, so</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-59dF">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e6d8"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi cusku re lu do cadzu le bisli li'u</jbo>
+ <gloss>I express two-of [quote] you walk-on the ice [unquote].</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>means that I say the sentence exactly twice, neither more nor less.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-quantified-descriptions">
+ <title>Quantified descriptions</title>
+ <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>piro</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>PA</selmaho>
+ <description>the whole of</description>
+ <cmavo>pisu'o</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>PA</selmaho>
+ <description>a part of</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>quantification</primary><secondary>before description sumti compared with before non-description sumti</secondary></indexterm> Like other sumti, descriptions can be quantified. When a quantifier appears before a description, it has the same meaning as one appearing before a non-description sumti: it specifies how many things, of all those referred to by the description, are being talked about in this particular bridi. Suppose that context tells us that
+ <jbophrase>le gerku</jbophrase> refers to three dogs. Then we can say that exactly two of them are white as follows:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-WtUh">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>two dogs are white</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e7d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>re le gerku cu blabi</jbo>
+ <gloss>Two-of the dogs are-white.</gloss>
+ <natlang>Two of the dogs are white.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>inner quantifier</primary><secondary>effect of on meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>outer quantifier</primary><secondary>effect of on meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>inner quantifier</primary><secondary>contrasted with outer quantifier</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>outer quantifier</primary><secondary>contrasted with inner quantifier</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>inner quantifier</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>outer quantifier</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> When discussing descriptions, this ordinary quantifier is called an
+ <quote>outer quantifier</quote>, since it appears outside the description. But there is another possible location for a quantifier: between the descriptor and the selbri. This quantifier is called an
+ <quote>inner quantifier</quote>, and its meaning is quite different: it tells the listener how many objects the description selbri characterizes.</para>
+ <para>For example, the context of
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-WtUh"/> supposedly told us that
+ <jbophrase>le gerku</jbophrase> referred to some three specific dogs. This assumption can be made certain with the use of an explicit inner quantifier:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-X3iY">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e7d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>re le ci gerku cu blabi</jbo>
+ <gloss>Two-of the three dogs are-white.</gloss>
+ <natlang>Two of the three dogs are white.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>(As explained in the discussion of
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-gLpy"/>, simple numbers like those in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-X3iY"/> must be exact: it therefore follows that the third dog cannot be white.)</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>inner quantifier</primary><secondary>explicit</secondary></indexterm> You may also specify an explicit inner quantifier and leave the outer quantifier implicit:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-JxzV">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e7d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le ci gerku cu blabi</jbo>
+ <gloss>The three dogs are-white.</gloss>
+ <natlang>The three dogs are white.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>outer quantifier</primary><secondary>implicit on descriptors</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>inner quantifier</primary><secondary>implicit on descriptors</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>descriptors</primary><secondary>implicit quantifiers for</secondary></indexterm> There are rules for each of the 11 descriptors specifying what the implicit values for the inner and outer quantifiers are. They are meant to provide sensible default values when context is absent, not necessarily to prescribe hard and fast rules. The following table lists the implicit values:</para>
+
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>le</valsi>:</td>
+ <td><jbophrase>ro le su'o</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>all of the at-least-one described as</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>lo</valsi>:</td>
+ <td><jbophrase>su'o lo ro</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>at least one of all of those which really are</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>la</valsi>:</td>
+ <td><jbophrase>ro la su'o</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>all of the at least one named</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>lei</valsi>:</td>
+ <td><jbophrase>pisu'o lei su'o</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>some part of the mass of the at-least-one described as</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>loi</valsi>:</td>
+ <td><jbophrase>pisu'o loi ro</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>some part of the mass of all those that really are</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>lai</valsi>:</td>
+ <td><jbophrase>pisu'o lai su'o</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>some part of the mass of the at-least-one named</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>le'i</valsi>:</td>
+ <td><jbophrase>piro le'i su'o</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>the whole of the set of the at-least-one described as</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>lo'i</valsi>:</td>
+ <td><jbophrase>piro lo'i ro</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>the whole of the set of all those that really are</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>la'i</valsi>:</td>
+ <td><jbophrase>piro la'i su'o</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>the whole of the set of the at-least-one named</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>le'e</valsi>:</td>
+ <td><jbophrase>ro le'e su'o</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>all the stereotypes of the at-least-one described as</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><valsi>lo'e</valsi>:</td>
+ <td><jbophrase>su'o lo'e ro</jbophrase></td>
+ <td>at least one of the types of all those that really are</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le-series cmavo</primary><secondary>as encompassing le-series and la-series descriptors for quantification discussion</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le-series cmavo</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>la-series descriptors</primary><secondary>compared with le-series in implicit quantification</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le-series descriptors</primary><secondary>compared with la-series in implicit quantification</secondary></indexterm> When examined for the first time, this table looks dreadfully arbitrary. In fact, there are quite a few regularities in it. First of all, the la-series (that is, the descriptors
+ <valsi>la</valsi>,
+ <valsi>lai</valsi>, and
+ <valsi>la'i</valsi>) and the le-series (that is, the descriptors
+ <valsi>le</valsi>,
+ <valsi>lei</valsi>,
+ <valsi>le'i</valsi>, and
+ <valsi>le'e</valsi>) always have corresponding implicit quantifiers, so we may subsume the la-series under the le-series for the rest of this discussion:
+ <quote>le-series cmavo</quote> will refer to both the le-series proper and to the la-series.</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le-series cmavo</primary><secondary>rule for implicit inner quantifier</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo-series cmavo</primary><secondary>rule for implicit inner quantifier</secondary></indexterm> The rule for the inner quantifier is very simple: the lo-series cmavo (namely,
+
+ <valsi>lo</valsi>,
+ <valsi>loi</valsi>,
+ <valsi>lo'i</valsi>, and
+ <valsi>lo'e</valsi>) all have an implicit inner quantifier of
+ <valsi>ro</valsi>, whereas the le-series cmavo all have an implicit inner quantifier of
+
+ <valsi>su'o</valsi>.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le-series cmavo</primary><secondary>rationale for implicit inner quantifier</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo-series cmavo</primary><secondary>rationale for implicit inner quantifier</secondary></indexterm> Why? Because lo-series descriptors always refer to all of the things which really fit into the x1 place of the selbri. They are not restricted by the speaker's intention. Descriptors of the le-series, however, are so restricted, and therefore talk about some number, definite or indefinite, of objects the speaker has in mind – but never less than one.</para>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>masses</primary><secondary>rule for implicit outer quantifier</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sets</primary><secondary>rule for implicit outer quantifier</secondary></indexterm> Understanding the implicit outer quantifier requires rules of greater subtlety. In the case of mass and set descriptors, a single rule suffices for each: reference to a mass is implicitly a reference to some part of the mass; reference to a set is implicitly a reference to the whole set. Masses and sets are inherently singular objects: it makes no sense to talk about two distinct masses with the same components, or two distinct sets with the same members. Therefore, the largest possible outer quantifier for either a set description or a mass description is
+ <valsi>piro</valsi>, the whole of it.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>plural masses</primary><secondary>possible use for</secondary></indexterm> (Pedantically, it is possible that the mass of water molecules composing an ice cube might be thought of as different from the same mass of water molecules in liquid form, in which case we might talk about
+ <jbophrase>re lei djacu</jbophrase>, two masses of the water-bits I have in mind.)</para>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pisu'o</primary><secondary>explanation of meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>piro</primary><secondary>explanation of meaning</secondary></indexterm> Why
+ <quote><valsi>pi</valsi>-</quote>? It is the Lojban cmavo for the decimal point. Just as
+
+ <jbophrase>pimu</jbophrase> means
+ <quote><inlinemath>.5</inlinemath></quote>, and when used as a quantifier specifies a portion consisting of five tenths of a thing,
+ <valsi>piro</valsi> means a portion consisting of the all-ness – the entirety – of a thing. Similarly,
+ <valsi>pisu'o</valsi> specifies a portion consisting of at least one part of a thing, i.e. some of it.</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>portion</primary><secondary>on set contrasted with on individual</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>outer quantifiers</primary><secondary>for expressing subsets</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>subsets</primary><secondary>expressing with outer quantifiers</secondary></indexterm> Smaller quantifiers are possible for sets, and refer to subsets. Thus
+
+ <jbophrase>pimu le'i nanmu</jbophrase> is a subset of the set of men I have in mind; we don't know precisely which elements make up this subset, but it must have half the size of the full set. This is the best way to say
+ <quote>half of the men</quote>; saying
+ <jbophrase>pimu le nanmu</jbophrase> would give us a half-portion of one of them instead! Of course, the result of
+ <jbophrase>pimu le'i nanmu</jbophrase> is still a set; if you need to refer to the individuals of the subset, you must say so (see
+ <valsi>lu'a</valsi> in
+
+ <xref linkend="section-sumti-qualifiers"/>).</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo</primary><secondary>implicit outer quantifier for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le</primary><secondary>implicit outer quantifier for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>individual descriptors</primary><secondary>different implicit outer quantifiers among</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>outer quantifiers</primary><secondary>rationale for differences in implicit quantifier on descriptors</secondary></indexterm> The case of outer quantifiers for individual descriptors (including
+ <valsi>le</valsi>,
+ <valsi>lo</valsi>,
+ <valsi>la</valsi>, and the typical descriptors
+ <valsi>le'e</valsi> and
+ <valsi>lo'e</valsi>) is special. When we refer to specific individuals with
+ <valsi>le</valsi>, we mean to refer to all of those we have in mind, so
+ <valsi>ro</valsi> is appropriate as the implicit quantifier, just as it is appropriate for
+ <valsi>do</valsi>. Reference to non-specific individuals with
+ <valsi>lo</valsi>, however, is typically to only some of the objects which can be correctly described, and so
+ <valsi>su'o</valsi> is the appropriate implicit quantifier, just as for quotations.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo</primary><secondary>contrasted with le in implicit quantification</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le</primary><secondary>contrasted with lo in implicit quantification</secondary></indexterm> From the English-speaking point of view, the difference in structure between the following example using
+ <valsi>le</valsi>:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-f643">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e7d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>[ro] le ci gerku cu blabi</jbo>
+ <gloss>[All-of] those-described-as three dogs are-white.</gloss>
+ <natlang>The three dogs are white.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>and the corresponding form with
+ <valsi>lo</valsi>:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gr7Y">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e7d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ci lo [ro] gerku cu blabi</jbo>
+ <gloss>Three-of those-which-are [all] dogs are-white.</gloss>
+ <natlang>Three dogs are white.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>looks very peculiar. Why is the number
+ <valsi>ci</valsi> found as an inner quantifier in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-f643"/> and as an outer quantifier in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-gr7Y"/>? The number of dogs is the same in either case. The answer is that the
+ <valsi>ci</valsi> in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-f643"/> is part of the specification: it tells us the actual number of dogs in the group that the speaker has in mind. In
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-gr7Y"/>, however, the dogs referred to by
+ <jbophrase>... lo gerku</jbophrase> are all the dogs that exist: the outer quantifier then restricts the number to three; which three, we cannot tell. The implicit quantifiers are chosen to avoid claiming too much or too little: in the case of
+ <valsi>le</valsi>, the implicit outer quantifier
+ <valsi>ro</valsi> says that each of the dogs in the restricted group is white; in the case of
+ <valsi>lo</valsi>, the implicit inner quantifier simply says that three dogs, chosen from the group of all the dogs there are, are white.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo-series description</primary><secondary>caution on exact numbers as inner quantifiers on</secondary></indexterm> Using exact numbers as inner quantifiers in lo-series descriptions is dangerous, because you are stating that exactly that many things exist which really fit the description. So examples like</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-uYH4">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e7d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>[so'o] lo ci gerku cu blabi</jbo>
+
+ <gloss>[some-of] those-which-really-are three dogs are-white</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>are semantically anomalous;
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-uYH4"/> claims that some dog (or dogs) is white, but also that there are just three dogs in the universe!</para>
+ <para>Nevertheless, inner quantifiers are permitted on
+ <valsi>lo</valsi> descriptors for consistency's sake, and may occasionally be useful.</para>
+ <para>Note that the inner quantifier of
+ <valsi>le</valsi>, even when exact, need not be truthful:
+ <jbophrase>le ci nanmu</jbophrase> means
+ <quote>what I describe as three men</quote>, not
+ <quote>three of what I describe as men</quote>. This follows from the rule that what is described by a
+ <valsi>le</valsi> description represents the speaker's viewpoint rather than the objective way things are.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-indefinite-descriptions">
+ <title>Indefinite descriptions</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>descriptors</primary><secondary>omission of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo</primary><secondary>omission of</secondary></indexterm> By a quirk of Lojban syntax, it is possible to omit the descriptor
+ <valsi>lo</valsi>, but never any other descriptor, from a description like that of
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-gr7Y"/>; namely, one which has an explicit outer quantifier but no explicit inner quantifier. The following example:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-EsVd">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e8d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ci gerku [ku] cu blabi</jbo>
+ <natlang>Three dogs are white.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>indefinite description</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>omission of descriptor</primary><secondary>effect on ku</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ku</primary><secondary>effect on of omitting descriptor</secondary></indexterm> is equivalent in meaning to
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-gr7Y"/>. Even though the descriptor is not present, the elidable terminator
+ <valsi>ku</valsi> may still be used. The name
+ <quote>indefinite description</quote> for this syntactic form is historically based: of course, it is no more and no less indefinite than its counterpart with an explicit
+
+
+ <valsi>lo</valsi>. Indefinite descriptions were introduced into the language in order to imitate the syntax of English and other natural languages.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>inner quantifier</primary><secondary>in indefinite description</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>outer quantifier</primary><secondary>in indefinite description</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>indefinite description</primary><secondary>as prohibiting explicit inner quantifier</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>indefinite description</primary><secondary>as needing explicit outer quantifier</secondary></indexterm> Indefinite descriptions must fit this mold exactly: there is no way to make one which does not have an explicit outer quantifier (thus
+ <jbophrase valid="false">*gerku cu blabi</jbophrase> is ungrammatical), or which has an explicit inner quantifier (thus
+ <jbophrase valid="false">*reboi ci gerku cu blabi</jbophrase> is also ungrammatical –
+ <jbophrase>re ci gerku cu blabi</jbophrase> is fine, but means
+ <quote>23 dogs are white</quote>).</para>
+ <para>Note:
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-gLpy"/> also contains an indefinite description, namely
+
+
+ <jbophrase>su'o ci cutci</jbophrase>; another version of that example using an explicit
+ <valsi>lo</valsi> would be:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-SMvA">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e8d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi ponse su'o ci lo cutci</jbo>
+ <gloss>I possess at-least three things-which-really-are shoes</gloss>
+ <natlang>I own three (or more) shoes.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-sumti-based-descriptions">
+ <title>sumti-based descriptions</title>
+ <para>As stated in
+ <xref linkend="section-basic-descriptors"/>, most descriptions consist of just a descriptor and a selbri. (In this chapter, the selbri have always been single gismu, but of course any selbri, however complex, can be employed in a description. The syntax and semantics of selbri are explained in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-selbri"/>.) In the intervening sections, inner and outer quantifiers have been added to the syntax. Now it is time to discuss a description of a radically different kind: the sumti-based description.</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti-based description</primary><secondary>outer quantifier on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti-based description</primary><secondary>inner quantifier on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti-based description</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> A sumti-based description has a sumti where the selbri would normally be, and the inner quantifier is required – it cannot be implicit. An outer quantifier is permitted but not required.</para>
+
+ <para>A full theory of sumti-based descriptions has yet to be worked out. One common case, however, is well understood. Compare the following:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLaQ" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>the two of you</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e9d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>re do cu nanmu</jbo>
+ <gloss>Two-of you are-men.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLAr" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e9d2"/>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>the two of you</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le re do cu nanmu</jbo>
+ <gloss>The two-of you are men.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLaQ"/> simply specifies that of the group of listeners, size unknown, two are men.
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLAr"/>, which has the sumti-based description
+
+ <jbophrase>le re do</jbophrase>, says that of the two listeners, all (the implicit outer quantifier
+ <valsi>ro</valsi>) are men. So in effect the inner quantifier
+ <valsi>re</valsi> gives the number of individuals which the inner sumti
+
+ <valsi>do</valsi> refers to.</para>
+ <para>Here is another group of examples:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLbf" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>three bears</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e9d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>re le ci cribe cu bunre</jbo>
+ <gloss>Two-of the three bears are-brown.</gloss>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLbh" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e9d4"/>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>three bears</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le re le ci cribe cu bunre</jbo>
+ <gloss>The two-of the three bears are-brown.</gloss>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLBq" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e9d5"/>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>three bears</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>pa le re le ci cribe cu bunre</jbo>
+ <gloss>One-of the two-of the three bears are-brown.</gloss>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti-based descriptions with le</primary><secondary>as increasing restricting to in-mind</secondary></indexterm> In each case,
+ <jbophrase>le ci cribe</jbophrase> restricts the bears (or alleged bears) being talked of to some group of three which the speaker has in mind.
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLbf"/> says that two of them (which two is not stated) are brown.
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLbh"/> says that a specific pair of them are brown.
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLBq"/> says that of a specific pair chosen from the original three, one or the other of that pair is brown.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-sumti-qualifiers">
+ <title>sumti qualifiers</title>
+ <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti qualifiers</primary><secondary>list of</secondary></indexterm></para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>la'e</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>LAhE</selmaho>
+ <description>something referred to by</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>lu'e</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>LAhE</selmaho>
+ <description>a reference to</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>tu'a</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>LAhE</selmaho>
+ <description>an abstraction involving</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>lu'a</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>LAhE</selmaho>
+ <description>an individual/member/component of</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>lu'i</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>LAhE</selmaho>
+ <description>a set formed from</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>lu'o</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>LAhE</selmaho>
+ <description>a mass formed from</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>vu'i</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>LAhE</selmaho>
+ <description>a sequence formed from</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>na'ebo</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>NAhE+BO</selmaho>
+ <description>something other than</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>to'ebo</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>NAhE+BO</selmaho>
+ <description>the opposite of</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>no'ebo</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>NAhE+BO</selmaho>
+ <description>the neutral form of</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>je'abo</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>NAhE+BO</selmaho>
+ <description>that which indeed is</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>lu'u</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>LUhU</selmaho>
+ <description>elidable terminator for LAhE and NAhE+BO</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+ <para>Well, that's quite a list of cmavo. What are they all about?</para>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lu'u</primary><secondary>as elidable terminator for qualified sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti qualifiers</primary><secondary>elidable terminator for qualified sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti qualifiers</primary><secondary>external syntax of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti qualifiers</primary><secondary>internal syntax of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>NAhE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>LAhE selma'o</primary></indexterm> The above cmavo and compound cmavo are called the
+ <quote>sumti qualifiers</quote>. All of them are either single cmavo of selma'o LAhE, or else compound cmavo involving a scalar negation cmavo of selma'o NAhE immediately followed by
+
+ <valsi>bo</valsi> of selma'o BO. Syntactically, you can prefix a sumti qualifier to any sumti and produce another simple sumti. (You may need to add the elidable terminator
+
+ <valsi>lu'u</valsi> to show where the qualified sumti ends.)</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti qualifiers</primary><secondary>as short forms for common special cases</secondary></indexterm> Semantically, sumti qualifiers represent short forms of certain common special cases. Suppose you want to say
+ <quote>I see 'The Red Pony'</quote>, where
+
+ <quote>The Red Pony</quote> is the title of a book. How about:</para>
+
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>unqualified sumti</primary><secondary>contrasted with qualified sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>qualified sumti</primary><secondary>contrasted with unqualified sumti</secondary></indexterm></para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-6W3v">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>Red Pony</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e10d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi viska lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u</jbo>
+ <gloss>I see [quote] the red small-horse [unquote].</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>But
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-6W3v"/> doesn't work: it says that you see a piece of text
+ <quote>The Red Pony</quote>. That might be all right if you were looking at the cover of the book, where the words
+
+ <quote>The Red Pony</quote> are presumably written. (More precisely, where the words
+
+ <jbophrase>le xunre cmaxirma</jbophrase> are written – but we may suppose the book has been translated into Lojban.)</para>
+ <para>What you really want to say is:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-MSVK">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e10d2"/>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>Red Pony</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi viska le selsinxa be lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u</jbo>
+ <gloss>I see the thing-represented-by [quote] the red small-horse [unquote].</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>The x2 place of
+ <jbophrase>selsinxa</jbophrase> (the x1 place of
+ <valsi>sinxa</valsi>) is a sign or symbol, and the x1 place of
+ <jbophrase>selsinxa</jbophrase> (the x2 place of
+ <valsi>sinxa</valsi>) is the thing represented by the sign.
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-MSVK"/> allows us to use a symbol (namely the title of a book) to represent the thing it is a symbol of (namely the book itself).</para>
+ <para>This operation turns out to be needed often enough that it's useful to be able to say:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Ajty">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e10d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi viska la'e lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u [lu'u]</jbo>
+
+
+ <gloss>I see the-referent-of [quote] the red small-horse [unquote].</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>referent</primary><secondary>referring to with la'e</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>la'e</primary><secondary>effect of on meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>dereferencing a pointer</primary><secondary>with la'e</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>la'e</primary><secondary>as short for <jbophrase>le selsinxa be</jbophrase></secondary></indexterm> So when
+ <valsi>la'e</valsi> is prefixed to a sumti referring to a symbol, it produces a sumti referring to the referent of that symbol. (In computer jargon,
+
+ <valsi>la'e</valsi> dereferences a pointer.)</para>
+ <para>By introducing a sumti qualifier, we correct a false sentence (
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-6W3v"/>), which too closely resembles its literal English equivalent, into a true sentence (
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-Ajty"/>), without having to change it overmuch; in particular, the structure remains the same. Most of the uses of sumti qualifiers are of this general kind.</para>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>symbol</primary><secondary>referring to with lu'e</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lu'e</primary><secondary>effect of on meaning</secondary></indexterm> The sumti qualifier
+ <valsi>lu'e</valsi> provides the converse operation: it can be prefixed to a sumti referring to some thing to produce a sumti referring to a sign or symbol for the thing. For example,</para>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lu'e</primary><secondary>as short for <jbophrase>le sinxa be</jbophrase></secondary></indexterm></para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7ytm">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>title of book</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e10d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi pu cusku lu'e le vi cukta</jbo>
+ <gloss>I [past] express a-symbol-for the nearby book.</gloss>
+ <natlang>I said the title of this book.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>The equivalent form not using a sumti qualifier would be:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-aC9Q">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e10d5"/>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>title of book</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi pu cusku le sinxa be le vi cukta</jbo>
+ <gloss>I [past] express the symbol-for the nearby book.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>which is equivalent to
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-7ytm"/>, but longer.</para>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sequence</primary><secondary>contrasted with set</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vu'i</primary><secondary>use for creating sequence</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tu'a</primary><secondary>use for forming abstractions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vu'i</primary><secondary>effect of on meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lu'o</primary><secondary>effect of on meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lu'i</primary><secondary>effect of on meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lu'a</primary><secondary>effect of on meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tu'a</primary><secondary>effect of on meaning</secondary></indexterm> The other sumti qualifiers follow the same rules. The cmavo
+ <valsi>tu'a</valsi> is used in forming abstractions, and is explained more fully in
+ <xref linkend="section-events-and-contours"/>. The triplet
+ <valsi>lu'a</valsi>,
+
+ <valsi>lu'i</valsi>, and
+
+ <valsi>lu'o</valsi> convert between individuals, sets, and masses;
+
+ <valsi>vu'i</valsi> belongs to this group as well, but creates a sequence, which is similar to a set but has a definite order. (The set of John and Charles is the same as the set of Charles and John, but the sequences are different.) Here are some examples:</para>
+
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ioCu">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e10d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi troci tu'a le vorme</jbo>
+ <gloss>I try some-abstraction-about the door.</gloss>
+ <natlang>I try (to open) the door.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tu'a</primary><secondary>as being deliberately vague</secondary></indexterm>
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-ioCu"/> might mean that I try to do something else involving the door; the form is deliberately vague.</para>
+ <para>Most of the following examples make use of the cmavo
+ <valsi>ri</valsi>, belonging to selma'o KOhA. This cmavo means
+ <quote>the thing last mentioned</quote>; it is equivalent to repeating the immediately previous sumti (but in its original context). It is explained in more detail in
+ <xref linkend="section-ri-gohi-series"/>.</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLbv" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>set of rats</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e10d7"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>lo'i ratcu cu barda .iku'i lu'a ri cmalu</jbo>
+
+ <gloss>The-set-of rats is-large. But some-members-of it-last-mentioned is-small.</gloss>
+ <natlang>The set of rats is large, but some of its members are small.</natlang>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLCP" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e10d8"/>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>set of rats</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>lo ratcu cu cmalu .iku'i lu'i ri barda</jbo>
+
+ <gloss>Some rats are-small. But the-set-of them-last-mentioned is-large.</gloss>
+ <natlang>Some rats are small, but the set of rats is large.</natlang>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLcy" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e10d9"/>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>set of rats</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi ce do girzu .i lu'o ri gunma .i vu'i ri porsi</jbo>
+ <gloss>I in-a-set-with you are-a-set. The-mass-of it-last-mentioned is-a-mass. The-sequence-of it-last-mentioned is-a-sequence</gloss>
+ <natlang>The set of you and me is a set. The mass of you and me is a mass. The sequence of you and me is a sequence.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>(Yes, I know these examples are a bit silly. This set was introduced for completeness, and practical examples are as yet hard to come by.)</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>negation sumti qualifiers</primary><secondary>meanings of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti qualifiers</primary><secondary>for negation</secondary></indexterm> Finally, the four sumti qualifiers formed from a cmavo of NAhE and
+ <valsi>bo</valsi> are all concerned with negation, which is discussed in detail in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-negation"/>. Here are a few examples of negation sumti qualifiers:</para>
+
+ <para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4Mte">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e10d10"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi viska na'ebo le gerku</jbo>
+
+ <gloss>I see something-other-than the dog.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ </para>
+ <para>This compound,
+ <jbophrase>na'ebo</jbophrase>, is the most common of the four negation sumti qualifiers. The others usually only make sense in the context of repeating, with modifications, something already referred to:</para>
+
+
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-JwCb">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>lukewarm food</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e10d11"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi nelci loi glare cidja .ije do nelci to'ebo ri .ije la djein. nelci no'ebo ra</jbo>
+ <gloss>I like part-of-the-mass-of hot-type-of food. And you like the-opposite-of the-last-mentioned. And Jane likes the-neutral-value-of something-mentioned.</gloss>
+ <natlang>I like hot food, and you like cold food, and Jane likes lukewarm food.</natlang>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>(In
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-JwCb"/>, the sumti
+ <valsi>ra</valsi> refers to some previously mentioned sumti other than that referred to by
+ <valsi>ri</valsi>. We cannot use
+ <valsi>ri</valsi> here, because it would signify
+ <jbophrase>la djein.</jbophrase>, that being the most recent sumti available to
+ <valsi>ri</valsi>. See more detailed explanations in
+ <xref linkend="section-ri-gohi-series"/>.)</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-vocative-syntax">
+ <title>The syntax of vocative phrases</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vocative phrases</primary><secondary>as a <quote>free modifier</quote></secondary></indexterm> Vocative phrases are not sumti, but are explained in this chapter because their syntax is very similar to that of sumti. Grammatically, a vocative phrase is one of the so-called
+
+ <quote>free modifiers</quote> of Lojban, along with subscripts, parentheses, and various other constructs explained in
+
+ <xref linkend="chapter-structure"/>. They can be placed after many, but not all, constructions of the grammar: in general, after any elidable terminator (which, however, must not then be elided!), at the beginnings and ends of sentences, and in many other places.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vocative phrase</primary><secondary>purpose of</secondary></indexterm> The purpose of a vocative phrase is to indicate who is being addressed, or to indicate to that person that he or she ought to be listening. A vocative phrase begins with a cmavo of selma'o COI or DOI, all of which are explained in more detail in
+
+ <xref linkend="section-vocative-scales"/>. Sometimes that is all there is to the phrase:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLE3" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e11d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>coi</jbo>
+ <gloss>[greetings]</gloss>
+ <natlang>Hello.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLeB" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e11d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>je'e</jbo>
+
+ <gloss>[acknowledgement]</gloss>
+ <natlang>Uh-huh.</natlang>
+ <natlang>Roger!</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vocative word</primary><secondary>phrase following</secondary></indexterm> In these cases, the person being addressed is obvious from the context. However, a vocative word (more precisely, one or more cmavo of COI, possibly followed by
+ <valsi>doi</valsi>, or else just
+ <valsi>doi</valsi> by itself) can be followed by one of several kinds of phrases, all of which are intended to indicate the addressee. The most common case is a name:</para>
+ <para> <!-- FIXME: this indexterm isn't tagged alone --><indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>coi</primary></indexterm></para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Bega">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e11d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>coi. djan.</jbo>
+ <natlang>Hello, John.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>A pause is required (for morphological reasons) between a member of COI and a name. You can use
+ <valsi>doi</valsi> instead of a pause:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-QmzB">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e11d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>coi doi djan.</jbo>
+ <natlang>Hello, John.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> means exactly the same thing and does not require a pause. Using
+ <valsi>doi</valsi> by itself is like just saying someone's name to attract his or her attention:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ULHn">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e11d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>doi djan.</jbo>
+ <natlang>John!</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vocative phrase</primary><secondary>implicit descriptor on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vocative phrase</primary><secondary>with sumti without descriptor</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vocative phrase</primary><secondary>forms of</secondary></indexterm> In place of a name, a description may appear, lacking its descriptor, which is understood to be
+ <valsi>le</valsi>:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-V530">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e11d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>coi xunre pastu nixli</jbo>
+ <gloss>Hello, (red-type-of dress)-type-of girl.</gloss>
+ <natlang>Hello, girl with the red dress!</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vocative phrase</primary><secondary>explicit quantifiers prohibited on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vocative phrase</primary><secondary>implicit quantifiers on</secondary></indexterm> The listener need not really be a
+ <jbophrase>xunre pastu nixli</jbophrase>, as long as she understands herself correctly from the description. (Actually, only a bare selbri can appear; explicit quantifiers are forbidden in this form of vocative, so the implicit quantifiers
+ <jbophrase>su'o le ro</jbophrase> are in effect.)</para>
+ <para>Finally, a complete sumti may be used, the most general case.</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-tBTa">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e11d7"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>co'o la bab. .e la noras.</jbo>
+ <natlang>Goodbye, Bob and Nora.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vocative phrase</primary><secondary>with complete sumti</secondary></indexterm>
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-V530"/> is thus the same as:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3Qac">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e11d8"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>coi le xunre pastu nixli</jbo>
+ <gloss>Hello, the-one-described-as red-dress girl!</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>and
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-ULHn"/> is the same as:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-bx2C">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e11d9"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>doi la djan.</jbo>
+ <gloss>The-one-named John!</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vocative phrase terminator</primary><secondary>elidability of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vocative phrase</primary><secondary>elidable terminator for</secondary></indexterm> Finally, the elidable terminator for vocative phrases is
+ <valsi>do'u</valsi> (of selma'o DOhU), which is rarely needed except when a simple vocative word is being placed somewhere within a bridi. It may also be required when a vocative is placed between a sumti and its relative clause, or when there are a sequence of so-called
+
+ <quote>free modifiers</quote> (vocatives, subscripts, utterance ordinals – see
+ <xref linkend="chapter-mekso"/> – metalinguistic comments – see
+ <xref linkend="section-parentheses"/> – or reciprocals – see
+ <xref linkend="chapter-structure"/>) which must be properly separated.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vocative phrase</primary><secondary>effect of position on meaning</secondary></indexterm> The meaning of a vocative phrase that is within a sentence is not affected by its position in the sentence: thus
+
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-bx2C"/> and
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLFi"/> mean the same thing:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLFi" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e11d10"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>doi djan. ko klama mi</jbo>
+ <natlang>John, come to me!</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLGC" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e11d11"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ko klama mi doi djan.</jbo>
+ <natlang>Come to me, John!</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>As usual for this chapter, the full syntax of vocative phrases has not been explained: relative clauses, discussed in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-relative-clauses"/>, make for more possibilities.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-names">
+ <title>Lojban names</title>
+ <para>Names have been used freely as sumti throughout this chapter without too much explanation. The time for the explanation has now come.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>name words</primary><secondary>recognition of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>two kinds of</secondary></indexterm> First of all, there are two different kinds of things usually called
+ <quote>names</quote> when talking about Lojban. The naming predicates of
+ <xref linkend="section-basic-descriptors"/> are just ordinary predicates which are being used in a special sense. In addition, though, there is a class of Lojban words which are used only to name things: these can be recognized by the fact that they end in a consonant followed by a pause. Some examples:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-u0zY">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e12d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>djan. meris. djein. .alis.</jbo>
+ <natlang>John. Mary. Jane. Alice.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>(Note that
+ <cmevla>.alis.</cmevla> begins as well as ends with a pause, because all Lojban words beginning with a vowel must be preceded by a pause. See
+ <xref linkend="chapter-morphology"/> for more information.)</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>with LA descriptor</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>in vocative phrase</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>uses of</secondary></indexterm> Names of this kind have two basic uses in Lojban: when used in a vocative phrase (see
+
+ <xref linkend="section-vocative-syntax"/>) they indicate who the listener is or should be. When used with a descriptor of selma'o LA, namely
+ <valsi>la</valsi>,
+ <valsi>lai</valsi>, or
+ <valsi>la'i</valsi>, they form sumti which refer to the persons or things known by the name.</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLgw" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e12d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la djonz. klama le zarci</jbo>
+ <gloss>Jones goes to-the store.</gloss>
+ <natlang>The Joneses go to-the store.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLHn" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e12d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>lai djonz. klama le zarci</jbo>
+ <gloss>The-mass-of Joneses go to-the store.</gloss>
+ <natlang>The Joneses go to the store.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>In
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLgw"/>, the significance is that all the persons (perhaps only one) I mean to refer to by the name
+ <cmevla>djonz.</cmevla> are going to the store. In
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLHn"/>, the Joneses are massified, and only some part of them needs to be going. Of course, by
+ <cmevla>djonz.</cmevla> I can mean whomever I want: that person need not use the name
+ <cmevla>djonz.</cmevla> at all.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>LA selma'o</primary><secondary>contrasted with LE in use of name-words</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>LE selma'o</primary><secondary>contrasted with LA in use of name-words</secondary></indexterm> The sumti in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLgw"/> and
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLHn"/> operate exactly like the similar uses of
+ <valsi>la</valsi> and
+ <valsi>lai</valsi> in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-PrGp"/> and
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-H8z5"/> respectively. The only difference is that these descriptors are followed by Lojban name-words. And in fact, the only difference between descriptors of selma'o LA (these three) and of selma'o LE (all the other descriptors) is that the former can be followed by name-words, whereas the latter cannot.</para>
+
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>doi</primary><secondary>effect on necessity for pause before name-word</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>LA selma'o</primary><secondary>effect on necessity for pause before name-word</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>name-words</primary><secondary>pause requirements before</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>name-words</primary><secondary>limitations on</secondary></indexterm> There are certain limitations on the form of name-words in Lojban. In particular, they cannot contain the letter-sequences (or sound-sequences)
+
+ <valsi>la</valsi>,
+ <valsi>lai</valsi>, or
+ <valsi>doi</valsi> unless a consonant immediately precedes within the name. Reciprocally, every name not preceded by
+ <valsi>la</valsi>,
+ <valsi>lai</valsi>,
+ <valsi>la'i</valsi>, or
+ <valsi>doi</valsi> must be preceded by a pause instead:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLiB" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e12d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>coi .djan.</jbo>
+ <natlang>Hello, John.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLIJ" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e12d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>zo .djan. cmene mi</jbo>
+ <gloss>The-word <quote>John</quote> is-the-name-of me.</gloss>
+ <natlang>My name is John.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>In
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLiB"/> and
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLIJ"/>,
+ <cmevla>.djan.</cmevla> appears with a pause before it as well as after it, because the preceding word is not one of the four special cases. These rules force names to always be separable from the general word-stream.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>multiple</secondary></indexterm> Unless some other rule prevents it (such as the rule that
+ <valsi>zo</valsi> is always followed by a single word, which is quoted), multiple names may appear wherever one name is permitted, each with its terminating pause:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-cw3p">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>Newport News</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>John Paul Jones</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e12d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>doi djan. pol. djonz. le bloti cu klama fi la niuport. niuz.</jbo>
+ <natlang>John Paul Jones, the boat comes (to somewhere) from Newport News.</natlang>
+
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>name-words</primary><secondary>permissible consonant combinations</secondary></indexterm> A name may not contain any consonant combination that is illegal in Lojban words generally: the
+ <quote>impermissible consonant clusters</quote> of Lojban morphology (explained in
+
+
+ <xref linkend="section-clusters"/>). Thus
+ <cmevla valid="false">djeimz.</cmevla> is not a valid version of
+ <quote>James</quote> (because
+ <morphology>mz</morphology> is invalid):
+ <cmevla>djeimyz</cmevla> will suffice. Similarly,
+ <valsi>la</valsi> may be replaced by
+ <valsi>ly</valsi>,
+ <valsi>lai</valsi> by
+ <jbophrase>ly'i</jbophrase>,
+ <valsi>doi</valsi> by
+ <valsi>do'i</valsi> or
+ <valsi>dai</valsi>. Here are a few examples:</para>
+
+ <para>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>Doyle</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>Lyra</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>Lottie</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <informaltable>
+ <tr>
+ <td>Doyle</td>
+ <td><cmevla valid="false">*doi,l</cmevla></td>
+ <td><cmevla>do'il</cmevla> or <cmevla>dai,l</cmevla></td>
+
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>Lyra</td>
+ <td><cmevla valid="false">*lairas</cmevla></td>
+ <td><cmevla>ly'iras</cmevla></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>Lottie</td>
+ <td><cmevla valid="false">*latis</cmevla></td>
+ <td><cmevla>LYtis.</cmevla> or <cmevla>lotis.</cmevla></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>(American pronunciation)</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ </para>
+ <para>
+
+<indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>using rafsi</secondary></indexterm> Names may be borrowed from other languages or created arbitrarily. Another common practice is to use one or more rafsi, arranged to end with a consonant, to form a name: thus the rafsi
+ <rafsi>loj-</rafsi> for
+ <valsi>logji</valsi> (logical) and
+ <rafsi>ban-</rafsi> for
+ <valsi>bangu</valsi> (language) unite to form the name of this language:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-uXAY">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e12d7"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>lojban.</jbo>
+ <natlang>Lojban</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names from vowel-final base</primary><secondary>commonly used consonant endings</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>borrowing from other languages</secondary></indexterm> When borrowing names from another language which end in a vowel, or when turning a Lojban brivla (all of which end in vowels) into a name, the vowel may be removed or an arbitrary consonant added. It is common (but not required) to use the consonants
+
+ <rafsi>s</rafsi> or
+ <rafsi>n</rafsi> when borrowing vowel-final names from English; speakers of other languages may wish to use other consonant endings.</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names with la</primary><secondary>implicit quantifier for</secondary></indexterm> The implicit quantifier for name sumti of the form
+ <valsi>la</valsi> followed by a name is
+ <valsi>su'o</valsi>, just as for
+ <valsi>la</valsi> followed by a selbri.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-pro-sumti">
+ <title>Pro-sumti summary</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>classes of</secondary></indexterm> The Lojban pro-sumti are the cmavo of selma'o KOhA. They fall into several classes: personal, definable, quantificational, reflexive, back-counting, indefinite, demonstrative, metalinguistic, relative, question. More details are given in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-anaphoric-cmavo"/>; this section mostly duplicates information found there, but adds material on the implicit quantifier of each pro-sumti.</para>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>implicit quantifier for</secondary></indexterm> The following examples illustrate each of the classes. Unless otherwise noted below, the implicit quantification for pro-sumti is
+ <valsi>ro</valsi> (all). In the case of pro-sumti which refer to other sumti, the
+ <valsi>ro</valsi> signifies
+ <quote>all of those referred to by the other sumti</quote>: thus it is possible to restrict, but not to extend, the quantification of the other sumti.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>personal pro-sumti</primary></indexterm> Personal pro-sumti (
+ <valsi>mi</valsi>,
+ <valsi>do</valsi>,
+ <valsi>mi'o</valsi>,
+ <valsi>mi'a</valsi>,
+
+ <valsi>ma'a</valsi>,
+
+ <valsi>do'o</valsi>,
+
+ <valsi>ko</valsi>) refer to the speaker or the listener or both, with or without third parties:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PHPi">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e13d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi prami do</jbo>
+ <natlang>I love you.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>personal pro-sumti</primary><secondary>implicit quantifier for</secondary></indexterm> The personal pro-sumti may be interpreted in context as either representing individuals or masses, so the implicit quantifier may be
+
+ <valsi>pisu'o</valsi> rather than
+
+ <valsi>ro</valsi>: in particular,
+ <valsi>mi'o</valsi>,
+ <valsi>mi'a</valsi>,
+
+ <valsi>ma'a</valsi>, and
+
+ <valsi>do'o</valsi> specifically represent mass combinations of the individuals (you and I, I and others, you and I and others, you and others) that make them up.</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>definable pro-sumti</primary></indexterm> Definable pro-sumti (
+ <valsi>ko'a</valsi>,
+ <valsi>ko'e</valsi>,
+ <valsi>ko'i</valsi>,
+ <valsi>ko'o</valsi>,
+ <valsi>ko'u</valsi>,
+ <valsi>fo'a</valsi>,
+
+ <valsi>fo'e</valsi>,
+ <valsi>fo'i</valsi>,
+ <valsi>fo'o</valsi>,
+ <valsi>fo'u</valsi>) refer to whatever the speaker has explicitly made them refer to. This reference is accomplished with
+ <valsi>goi</valsi> (of selma'o GOI), which means
+ <quote>defined-as</quote>.</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-8whK">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e13d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le cribe goi ko'a cu xekri .i ko'a citka le smacu</jbo>
+ <natlang>The bear defined-as it-1 is-black. It-1 eats the mouse.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>quantificational pro-sumti</primary></indexterm> Quantificational pro-sumti (
+ <valsi>da</valsi>,
+ <valsi>de</valsi>,
+ <valsi>di</valsi>) are used as variables in bridi involving predicate logic:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-FVj8">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e13d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ro da poi prenu cu prami pa de poi finpe</jbo>
+ <gloss>All somethings-1 which-are persons love one something-2 which-is a-fish.</gloss>
+ <natlang>All persons love a fish (each his/her own).</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>quantificational pro-sumti</primary><secondary>implicit quantification rules</secondary></indexterm> (This is not the same as
+ <quote>All persons love a certain fish</quote>; the difference between the two is one of quantifier order.) The implicit quantification rules for quantificational pro-sumti are particular to them, and are discussed in detail in
+
+ <xref linkend="chapter-quantifiers"/>. Roughly speaking, the quantifier is
+ <valsi>su'o</valsi> (at least one) when the pro-sumti is first used, and
+ <valsi>ro</valsi> (all) thereafter.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>reflexive pro-sumti</primary></indexterm> Reflexive pro-sumti (
+ <valsi>vo'a</valsi>,
+ <valsi>vo'e</valsi>,
+ <valsi>vo'i</valsi>,
+ <valsi>vo'o</valsi>,
+ <valsi>vo'u</valsi>) refer to the same referents as sumti filling other places in the same bridi, with the effect that the same thing is referred to twice:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nMse">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e13d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le cribe cu batci vo'a</jbo>
+ <gloss>The bear bites what-is-in-the-x1-place.</gloss>
+ <natlang>The bear bites itself.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>back-counting pro-sumti</primary></indexterm> Back-counting pro-sumti (
+ <valsi>ri</valsi>,
+ <valsi>ra</valsi>,
+ <valsi>ru</valsi>) refer to the referents of previous sumti counted backwards from the pro-sumti:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-cjTj">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e13d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi klama la frankfurt. ri</jbo>
+ <gloss>I go to-Frankfurt from-the-referent-of-the-last-sumti</gloss>
+ <natlang>I go from Frankfurt to Frankfurt (by some unstated route).</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>indefinite pro-sumti</primary></indexterm> Indefinite pro-sumti (
+ <valsi>zo'e</valsi>,
+ <valsi>zu'i</valsi>,
+
+ <valsi>zi'o</valsi>) refer to something which is unspecified:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-d5Ee">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e13d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi klama la frankfurt. zo'e zo'e zo'e</jbo>
+ <gloss>I go to-Frankfurt from-unspecified via-unspecified by-means-unspecified.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>indefinite pro-sumti</primary><secondary>implicit quantifier for</secondary></indexterm> The implicit quantifier for indefinite pro-sumti is, well, indefinite. It might be
+
+ <valsi>ro</valsi> (all) or
+ <valsi>su'o</valsi> (at least one) or conceivably even
+ <valsi>no</valsi> (none), though
+ <valsi>no</valsi> would require a very odd context indeed.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>demonstrative pro-sumti</primary></indexterm> Demonstrative pro-sumti (
+ <valsi>ti</valsi>,
+ <valsi>ta</valsi>,
+ <valsi>tu</valsi>) refer to things pointed at by the speaker, or when pointing is not possible, to things near or far from the speaker:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-aqfJ">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e13d7"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ko muvgau ti ta tu</jbo>
+ <gloss>You [imperative] move this-thing from-that-nearby-place to-that-further-away-place.</gloss>
+ <natlang>Move this from there to over there!</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>metalinguistic pro-sumti</primary></indexterm> Metalinguistic pro-sumti (
+ <valsi>di'u</valsi>,
+ <valsi>de'u</valsi>,
+
+ <valsi>da'u</valsi>,
+
+ <valsi>di'e</valsi>,
+
+ <valsi>de'e</valsi>,
+
+ <valsi>da'e</valsi>,
+
+ <valsi>dei</valsi>,
+ <valsi>do'i</valsi>) refer to spoken or written utterances, either preceding, following, or the same as the current utterance.</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-8VYF">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e13d8"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>li re su'i re du li vo .i la'e di'u jetnu</jbo>
+ <gloss>The-number two plus two equals the-number four. The-referent-of the-previous-utterance is-true.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>metalinguistic pro-sumti</primary><secondary>implicit quantifier for</secondary></indexterm> The implicit quantifier for metalinguistic pro-sumti is
+
+ <valsi>su'o</valsi> (at least one), because they are considered analogous to
+ <valsi>lo</valsi> descriptions: they refer to things which really are previous, current, or following utterances.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative pro-sumti</primary></indexterm> The relative pro-sumti (
+
+ <valsi>ke'a</valsi>) is used within relative clauses (see
+ <xref linkend="chapter-relative-clauses"/> for a discussion of relative clauses) to refer to whatever sumti the relative clause is attached to.</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sf2T">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e13d9"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi viska le mlatu ku poi zo'e zbasu ke'a loi slasi</jbo>
+ <gloss>I see the cat(s) such-that something-unspecified makes it/them (the cats) from-a-mass-of plastic.</gloss>
+ <natlang>I see the cat(s) made of plastic.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>question pro-sumti</primary></indexterm> The question pro-sumti (
+
+ <valsi>ma</valsi>) is used to ask questions which request the listener to supply a sumti which will make the question into a truth:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9tSb">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e13d10"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>do klama ma</jbo>
+ <gloss>You go to-what-sumti?</gloss>
+ <natlang>Where are you going?</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>question pro-sumti</primary><secondary>implicit quantifier for</secondary></indexterm> The implicit quantifier for the question pro-sumti is
+
+ <valsi>su'o</valsi> (at least one), because the listener is only being asked to supply a single answer, not all correct answers.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>definable pro-sumti</primary><secondary>sequences of lerfu words as</secondary></indexterm> In addition, sequences of lerfu words (of selma'o BY and related selma'o) can also be used as definable pro-sumti.</para>
+
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-quotation">
+ <title>Quotation summary</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>quotation</primary><secondary>four kinds</secondary></indexterm> There are four kinds of quotation in Lojban: text quotation, words quotation, single-word quotation, non-Lojban quotation. More information is provided in <xref linkend="chapter-structure"/>.</para>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>text quotation</primary><secondary>as internally grammatical</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>text quotation</primary><secondary>syntax of</secondary></indexterm> Text quotations are preceded by
+ <valsi>lu</valsi> and followed by
+ <valsi>li'u</valsi>, and are an essential part of the surrounding text: they must be grammatical Lojban texts.</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-v1DE">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e14d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi cusku lu mi'e djan. li'u</jbo>
+ <gloss>I say the-text [quote] I-am John [unquote].</gloss>
+ <natlang>I say <quote>I'm John</quote>.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>word quotation</primary><secondary>internal grammar of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>word quotation</primary><secondary>as morphologically valid</secondary></indexterm> Words quotations are quotations of one or more Lojban words. The words need not mean anything, but they must be morphologically valid so that the end of the quotation can be discerned.</para>
+ <para> <!-- FIXME: these indexterms aren't tagged alone --><indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>le'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>lo'u</primary></indexterm></para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-UMDQ">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e14d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi cusku lo'u li mi le'u</jbo>
+ <gloss>I say the-words [quote] <jbophrase valid="false">li mi</jbophrase> [unquote].</gloss>
+ <natlang>I say <quote><jbophrase valid="false">li mi</jbophrase></quote>.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>Note that the translation of
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-UMDQ"/> does not translate the Lojban words, because they are not presumed to have any meaning (in fact, they are ungrammatical).</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>single-word quotation</primary></indexterm> Single-word quotation quotes a single Lojban word. Compound cmavo are not allowed.</para>
+
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-XqKv">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e14d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi cusku zo .ai</jbo>
+ <natlang>I say the-word
+ <valsi>ai</valsi>.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-Lojban quotation</primary></indexterm> Non-Lojban quotation can quote anything, Lojban or not, even non-speech such as drum talk, whistle words, music, or belching. A Lojban word which does not appear within the quotation is used before and after it to set it off from the surrounding Lojban text.</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1Uey">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e14d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi cusku zoi kuot. I'm John .kuot</jbo>
+ <natlang>I say
+ <quote>I'm John</quote>.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>quotation</primary><secondary>implicit quantifier for</secondary></indexterm> The implicit quantifier for all types of quotation is
+ <valsi>su'o</valsi> (at least one), because quotations are analogous to
+ <valsi>lo</valsi> descriptions: they refer to things which actually are words or sequences of words.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-number-summary">
+ <title>Number summary</title>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>number sumti</primary><secondary>with li</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>number sumti</primary><secondary>syntax of</secondary></indexterm> The sumti which refer to numbers consist of the cmavo
+ <valsi>li</valsi> (of selma'o LI) followed by an arbitrary Lojban mekso, or mathematical expression. This can be anything from a simple number up to the most complicated combination of numbers, variables, operators, and so on. Much more information on numbers is given in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-mekso"/>. Here are a few examples of increasing complexity:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLIm" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e15d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>li vo</jbo>
+ <gloss>the-number four</gloss>
+ <math>4</math>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLis" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e15d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>li re su'i re</jbo>
+ <gloss>the-number two plus two</gloss>
+ <math>2 + 2</math>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLiX" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e15d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>li .abu bopi'i xy. bote'a re su'i by. bopi'i xy. su'i cy.</jbo>
+ <gloss>the-number a times x to-power 2 plus b times x plus c</gloss>
+ <math>ax<superscript>2</superscript> + bx + c</math>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>number sumti</primary><secondary>with li contrasted with me'o</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>number sumti</primary><secondary>with me'o contrasted with li</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>LI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>me'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>number sumti</primary><secondary>with me'o</secondary></indexterm> An alternative to
+ <valsi>li</valsi> is
+ <valsi>me'o</valsi>, also of selma'o LI. Number expressions beginning with
+ <valsi>me'o</valsi> refer to the actual expression, rather than its value. Thus
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLIm"/> and
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLis"/> above have the same meaning, the number four, whereas</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sW7u">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e15d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>me'o vo</jbo>
+ <gloss>the-expression four</gloss>
+ <natlang><quote><inlinemath>4</inlinemath></quote></natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>and</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3s82">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c6e15d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>me'o re su'i re</jbo>
+ <gloss>the-expression two plus two</gloss>
+ <natlang><quote><inlinemath>2+2</inlinemath></quote></natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>refer to different pieces of text.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mathematical expressions</primary><secondary>implicit quantifier for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>numbers</primary><secondary>implicit quantifier for</secondary></indexterm> The implicit quantifier for numbers and mathematical expressions is
+
+ <valsi>su'o</valsi>, because these sumti are analogous to
+ <valsi>lo</valsi> descriptions: they refer to things which actually are numbers or pieces of text. In the case of numbers (with
+ <valsi>li</valsi>), this is a distinction without a difference, as there is only one number which is 4; but there are many texts
+ <quote>4</quote>, as many as there are documents in which that numeral appears.</para>
+ </section>
+</chapter>
diff --git a/chapters/07.xml b/chapters/07.xml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5eb8394
--- /dev/null
+++ b/chapters/07.xml
@@ -0,0 +1,2424 @@
+<chapter xml:id="chapter-anaphoric-cmavo">
+ <title>Brevity Is The Soul Of Language: Pro-sumti And Pro-bridi</title>
+
+ <mediaobject xml:id="chapter-anaphoric-cmavo-picture">
+ <alt>The picture for chapter 7</alt>
+ <imageobject>
+ <imagedata fileref="media/chapter-anaphoric-cmavo.gif"/>
+ </imageobject>
+ </mediaobject>
+
+ <section xml:id="section-anaphoric-cmavo-introduction">
+ <title>What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pronouns in English</primary><secondary>as noun abbreviations</secondary></indexterm> Speakers of Lojban, like speakers of other languages, require mechanisms of abbreviation. If every time we referred to something, we had to express a complete description of it, life would be too short to say what we have to say. In English, we have words called
+ <quote>pronouns</quote> which allow us to replace nouns or noun phrases with shorter terms. An English with no pronouns might look something like this:</para>
+
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-KeL4">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e1d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <para>Speakers of Lojban, like speakers of other languages, require mechanisms of abbreviation. If every time speakers of Lojban referred to a thing to which speakers of Lojban refer, speakers of Lojban had to express a complete description of what speakers of Lojban referred to, life would be too short to say what speakers of Lojban have to say.</para>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pronouns in English</primary><secondary>as independent of abbreviations</secondary></indexterm> Speakers of this kind of English would get mightily sick of talking. Furthermore, there are uses of pronouns in English which are independent of abbreviation. There is all the difference in the world between:</para>
+
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-VISf">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>shook stick</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e1d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <para>John picked up a stick and shook it.</para>
+ </example>
+ <para>and</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-GoqJ">
+ <title>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>shook stick</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e1d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <para>John picked up a stick and shook a stick.</para>
+ </example>
+ <para>
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-GoqJ"/> does not imply that the two sticks are necessarily the same, whereas
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-VISf"/> requires that they are.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GOhA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>series</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>compared to pro-bridi as means of abbreviation</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-bridi</primary><secondary>compared to pro-sumti as means of abbreviation</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-bridi</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>compared to pronouns in usage as abbreviations</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pronouns</primary><secondary>compared to pro-sumti in usage as abbreviations</secondary></indexterm> In Lojban, we have sumti rather than nouns, so our equivalent of pronouns are called by the hybrid term
+
+ <quote>pro-sumti</quote>. A purely Lojban term would be
+ <jbophrase>sumti cmavo</jbophrase>: all of the pro-sumti are cmavo belonging to selma'o KOhA. In exactly the same way, Lojban has a group of cmavo (belonging to selma'o GOhA) which serve as selbri or full bridi. These may be called
+ <quote>pro-bridi</quote> or
+ <jbophrase>bridi cmavo</jbophrase>. This chapter explains the uses of all the members of selma'o KOhA and GOhA. They fall into a number of groups, known as series: thus, in selma'o KOhA, we have among others the mi-series, the ko'a-series, the da-series, and so on. In each section, a series of pro-sumti is explained, and if there is a corresponding series of pro-bridi, it is explained and contrasted. Many pro-sumti series don't have pro-bridi analogues, however.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>antecedent of pro-bridi</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>referent of pro-bridi</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>antecedent of pro-sumti</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>referent of pro-sumti</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> A few technical terms: The term
+
+ <quote>referent</quote> means the thing to which a pro-sumti (by extension, a pro-bridi) refers. If the speaker of a sentence is James, then the referent of the word
+ <quote>I</quote> is James. On the other hand, the term
+ <quote>antecedent</quote> refers to a piece of language which a pro-sumti (or pro-bridi) implicitly repeats. In</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-AnBS">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e1d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <para>John loves himself</para>
+ </example>
+ <para>the antecedent of
+ <quote>himself</quote> is
+ <quote>John</quote>; not the person, but a piece of text (a name, in this case). John, the person, would be the referent of
+ <quote>himself</quote>. Not all pro-sumti or pro-bridi have antecedents, but all of them have referents.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-mi-series">
+ <title>Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series</title>
+ <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>mi</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
+ <series>mi-series</series>
+ <description>I, me </description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>do</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
+ <series>mi-series</series>
+ <description>you</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>mi'o</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
+ <series>mi-series</series>
+ <description>you and I</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>mi'a</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
+ <series>mi-series</series>
+ <description>I and others, we but not you</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ma'a</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
+ <series>mi-series</series>
+ <description>you and I and others</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>do'o</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
+ <series>mi-series</series>
+ <description>you and others</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ko</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
+ <series>mi-series</series>
+ <description>you-imperative</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+ <para>
+
+<indexterm type="general"><primary>foreman of a jury</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+ <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>personal pronouns</primary><secondary>with mi-series for I/you</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>for listener(s)</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>for speaker(s)</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>mi-series</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mi-series</primary><secondary>of pro-sumti</secondary></indexterm> The mi-series of pro-sumti refer to the speaker, the listener, and others in various combinations.
+ <valsi>mi</valsi> refers to the speaker and perhaps others for whom the speaker speaks; it may be a Lojbanic mass.
+ <valsi>do</valsi> refers to the listener or listeners. Neither
+ <valsi>mi</valsi> nor
+ <valsi>do</valsi> is specific about the number of persons referred to; for example, the foreman of a jury may refer to the members of the jury as
+
+ <valsi>mi</valsi>, since in speaking officially he represents all of them.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>COI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>COI selma'o</primary><secondary>effect on referent of "do"<!-- FIXME: what should these "s become? --></secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>COI selma'o</primary><secondary>effect on referent of "mi"</secondary></indexterm> The referents of
+ <valsi>mi</valsi> and
+ <valsi>do</valsi> are usually obvious from the context, but may be assigned by the vocative words of selma'o COI, explained in
+ <xref linkend="section-vocative-scales"/>. The vocative
+ <valsi>mi'e</valsi> assigns
+ <valsi>mi</valsi>, whereas all of the other vocatives assign
+ <valsi>do</valsi>.</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4dna">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e2d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi'e djan. doi frank. mi cusku lu mi bajra li'u do</jbo>
+ <gloss>I-am John, O Frank, I express [quote] I run [unquote] to-you</gloss>
+ <natlang>I am John, Frank; I tell you
+ <quote>I run</quote>.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>for listeners and/or speakers and/or others</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo
+ <valsi>mi'o</valsi>,
+ <valsi>mi'a</valsi>,
+
+ <valsi>ma'a</valsi>, and
+
+ <valsi>do'o</valsi> express various combinations of the speaker and/or the listener and/or other people:</para>
+
+ <itemizedlist>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>
+ <valsi>mi'o</valsi> includes only the speaker and the listener but no one else;</para>
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>
+ <valsi>mi'a</valsi> includes the speaker and others but excludes the listener;</para>
+
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>
+ <valsi>do'o</valsi> includes the listener and others but excludes the speaker;</para>
+
+ </listitem>
+ <listitem>
+ <para>
+ <valsi>ma'a</valsi> includes all three: speaker, listener, others.</para>
+
+ </listitem>
+ </itemizedlist>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti for speaker/listener/others</primary><secondary>as masses</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti for speaker/listener/others</primary><secondary>relation to joi</secondary></indexterm> All of these pro-sumti represent masses. For example,
+ <valsi>mi'o</valsi> is the same as
+ <jbophrase>mi joi do</jbophrase>, the mass of me and you considered jointly.</para>
+ <para> <!-- FIXME: what should these "s become? --><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti for "we"</primary><secondary>contrasted with English "we"</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>English "we"</primary><secondary>contrasted with Lojban pro-sumti for "we"</secondary></indexterm> In English,
+ <quote>we</quote> can mean
+ <valsi>mi</valsi> or
+ <valsi>mi'o</valsi> or
+ <valsi>mi'a</valsi> or even
+
+ <valsi>ma'a</valsi>, and English-speakers often suffer because they cannot easily distinguish
+
+ <valsi>mi'o</valsi> from
+ <valsi>mi'a</valsi>:</para>
+
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-22dg">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e2d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <para>We're going to the store.</para>
+ </example>
+ <para>Does this include the listener or not? There's no way to be sure.</para>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ko</primary><secondary>use for commands</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ko</primary><secondary>use for imperatives</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>imperatives</primary><secondary>with ko</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>commands</primary><secondary>with ko</secondary></indexterm> Finally, the cmavo
+ <valsi>ko</valsi> is logically equivalent to
+ <valsi>do</valsi>; its referent is the listener. However, its use alters an assertion about the listener into a command to the listener to make the assertion true:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-n1Rv">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e2d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>do klama le zarci</jbo>
+ <gloss>You go to-the store.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>becomes:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-uwDI">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e2d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ko klama le zarci</jbo>
+ <gloss>You [imperative] go to-the store.</gloss>
+ <gloss>Make <quote>you go to the store</quote> true!</gloss>
+ <natlang>Go to the store!</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ko</primary><secondary>in later selbri place in imperative</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>imperatives</primary><secondary>English contrasted with Lojban in presence of subject of command</secondary></indexterm> In English, the subject of a command is omitted, but in Lojban, the word
+ <valsi>ko</valsi> must be used. However,
+ <valsi>ko</valsi> does not have to appear in the x1 place:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-5Jbi">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e2d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi viska ko</jbo>
+ <gloss>I see you [imperative]</gloss>
+ <gloss>Make
+ <quote>I see you</quote> true!</gloss>
+ <natlang>Be seen by me!</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ko</primary><secondary>in sub-clause of main bridi</secondary></indexterm> In
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-5Jbi"/>, it is necessary to make the verb passive in English in order to convey the effect of
+ <valsi>ko</valsi> in the x2 place. Indeed,
+ <valsi>ko</valsi> does not even have to be a sumti of the main bridi:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-VTRG">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e2d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi viska le prenu poi prami ko</jbo>
+ <gloss>I see the person that loves you [imperative]</gloss>
+ <gloss>Make
+ <quote>I see the person that loves you</quote> true!</gloss>
+ <gloss>Be such that the person who loves you is seen by me!</gloss>
+ <natlang>Show me the person who loves you!</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mi-series pro-sumti</primary><secondary>lack of pro-bridi equivalent</secondary></indexterm> As mentioned in
+ <xref linkend="section-anaphoric-cmavo-introduction"/>, some pro-sumti series have corresponding pro-bridi series. However, there is no equivalent of the mi-series among pro-bridi, since a person isn't a relationship.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-ti-series">
+ <title>Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series</title>
+ <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ti</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
+ <series>ti-series</series>
+ <description>this here, a nearby object </description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ta</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
+ <series>ti-series</series>
+ <description>that there, a medium-distant object</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>tu</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
+ <series>ti-series</series>
+ <description>that yonder, a far-distant object</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>ti-series</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ti-series pro-sumti</primary><secondary>as pointing referents only</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>this/that in English</primary><secondary>compared with ti-series pro-sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ti-series pro-sumti</primary><secondary>compared with English this/that</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>demonstrative pro-sumti</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pointing</primary><secondary>reference by</secondary></indexterm> It is often useful to refer to things by pointing to them or by some related non-linguistic mechanism. In English, the words
+ <quote>this</quote> and
+ <quote>that</quote> serve this function among others:
+ <quote>this</quote> refers to something pointed at that is near the speaker, and
+ <quote>that</quote> refers to something further away. The Lojban pro-sumti of the ti-series serve the same functions, but more narrowly. The cmavo
+ <valsi>ti</valsi>,
+ <valsi>ta</valsi>, and
+ <valsi>tu</valsi> provide only the pointing function of
+ <quote>this</quote> and
+ <quote>that</quote>; they are not used to refer to things that cannot be pointed at.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ti-series pro-sumti</primary><secondary>3 degrees of distance with</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tu</primary><secondary>archaic English yon as equivalent of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>yon</primary><secondary>as archaic English equivalent of tu</secondary></indexterm> There are three pro-sumti of the ti-series rather than just two because it is often useful to distinguish between objects that are at more than two different distances. Japanese, among other languages, regularly does this. Until the 16th century, English did too; the pronoun
+ <quote>that</quote> referred to something at a medium distance from the speaker, and the now-archaic pronoun
+ <quote>yon</quote> to something far away.</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ti-series pro-sumti</primary><secondary>problems in written text</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ti-series pro-sumti</primary><secondary>conversational convention for</secondary></indexterm> In conversation, there is a special rule about
+ <valsi>ta</valsi> and
+ <valsi>tu</valsi> that is often helpful in interpreting them. When used contrastingly,
+ <valsi>ta</valsi> refers to something that is near the listener, whereas
+ <valsi>tu</valsi> refers to something far from both speaker and listener. This makes for a parallelism between
+ <valsi>ti</valsi> and
+ <valsi>mi</valsi>, and
+ <valsi>ta</valsi> and
+ <valsi>do</valsi>, that is convenient when pointing is not possible; for example, when talking by telephone. In written text, on the other hand, the meaning of the ti-series is inherently vague; is the writer to be taken as pointing to something, and if so, to what? In all cases, what counts as
+ <quote>near</quote> and
+ <quote>far away</quote> is relative to the current situation.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>this</primary><secondary>pronoun expression with ti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ti</primary><secondary>as pronoun expression for English this</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>this</primary><secondary>adjective usage contrasted with pronoun usage</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>this</primary><secondary>pronoun usage contrasted with adjective usage</secondary></indexterm> It is important to distinguish between the English pronoun
+ <quote>this</quote> and the English adjective
+ <quote>this</quote> as in
+ <quote>this boat</quote>. The latter is not represented in Lojban by
+
+ <valsi>ti</valsi>:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-IWi7">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>this boat</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e3d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le ti bloti</jbo>
+ <gloss>the this boat</gloss>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>this</primary><secondary>adjective expression with vi</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vi</primary><secondary>as adjective expression for English this</secondary></indexterm> does not mean
+ <quote>this boat</quote> but rather
+
+ <quote>this one's boat</quote>,
+ <quote>the boat associated with this thing</quote>, as explained in
+ <xref linkend="section-possessive-sumti"/>. A correct Lojban translation of
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-IWi7"/> is</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rfUc">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e3d2"/>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>this boat</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le vi bloti</jbo>
+ <gloss>the here boat</gloss>
+ <natlang>the nearby boat</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>using a spatial tense before the selbri
+ <valsi>bloti</valsi> to express that the boat is near the speaker. (Tenses are explained in full in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-tenses"/>.) Another correct translation would be:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pRLq">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e3d3"/>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>this boat</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ti noi bloti</jbo>
+
+ <gloss>this-thing which-incidentally is-a-boat</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ti-series pro-sumti</primary><secondary>lack of pro-bridi equivalent</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>this</primary><secondary>adjective expression with ti noi</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ti noi</primary><secondary>as adjective expression for this</secondary></indexterm> There are no demonstrative pro-bridi to correspond to the ti-series: you can't point to a relationship.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-dihu-series">
+ <title>Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series</title>
+ <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>di'u</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
+ <series>di'u-series</series>
+ <description>the previous utterance </description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>de'u</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
+ <series>di'u-series</series>
+ <description>an earlier utterance</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>da'u</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
+ <series>di'u-series</series>
+ <description>a much earlier utterance</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>di'e</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
+ <series>di'u-series</series>
+ <description>the next utterance</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>de'e</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
+ <series>di'u-series</series>
+ <description>a later utterance</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>da'e</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
+ <series>di'u-series</series>
+ <description>a much later utterance</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>dei</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
+ <series>di'u-series</series>
+ <description>this very utterance</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>do'i</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
+ <series>di'u-series</series>
+ <description>some utterance</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>di'u-series</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>this</primary><secondary>as utterance reference in English</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>di'u-series pro-sumti</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>utterance pro-sumti (see also di'u-series pro-sumti)</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti for utterances</primary></indexterm> The cmavo of the di'u-series enable us to talk about things that have been, are being, or will be said. In English, it is normal to use
+ <quote>this</quote> and
+ <quote>that</quote> for this (indeed, the immediately preceding
+ <quote>this</quote> is an example of such a usage):</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-KNih">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e4d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <para>You don't like cats.</para>
+ <para>That is untrue.</para>
+ </example>
+ <para>Here
+ <quote>that</quote> does not refer to something that can be pointed to, but to the preceding sentence
+ <quote>You don't like cats</quote>. In Lojban, therefore,
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-KNih"/> is rendered:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nTou">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e4d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>do na nelci loi mlatu .i di'u jitfa jufra</jbo>
+ <gloss>You (Not!) like the-mass-of cats. The-previous-utterance is-a-false-sentence.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ti-series pro-sumti</primary><secondary>contrasted with di'u-series pro-sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>di'u</primary><secondary>contrasted with ta</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ta</primary><secondary>contrasted with di'u</secondary></indexterm> Using
+ <valsi>ta</valsi> instead of
+ <valsi>di'u</valsi> would cause the listener to look around to see what the speaker of the second sentence was physically pointing to.</para>
+ <para> As with
+ <valsi>ti</valsi>,
+ <valsi>ta</valsi>, and
+ <valsi>tu</valsi>, the cmavo of the di'u-series come in threes: a close utterance, a medium-distance utterance, and a distant utterance, either in the past or in the future. It turned out to be impossible to use the
+ <letteral>i</letteral>/
+ <letteral>a</letteral>/
+ <letteral>u</letteral> vowel convention of the demonstratives in
+ <xref linkend="section-ti-series"/> without causing collisions with other cmavo, and so the di'u-series has a unique
+ <letteral>i</letteral>/
+ <letteral>e</letteral>/
+ <letteral>a</letteral> convention in the first vowel of the cmavo.</para>
+ <para> Most references in speech are to the past (what has already been said), so
+ <valsi>di'e</valsi>,
+
+ <valsi>de'e</valsi>, and
+
+ <valsi>da'e</valsi> are not very useful when speaking. In writing, they are frequently handy:</para>
+
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-erEL">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>Simon says</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e4d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la saimn. cusku di'e</jbo>
+
+ <gloss>Simon expresses the-following-utterance.</gloss>
+ <natlang>Simon says:</natlang>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-erEL"/> would typically be followed by a quotation. Note that although presumably the quotation is of something Simon has said in the past, the quotation utterance itself would appear after
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-erEL"/>, and so
+ <valsi>di'e</valsi> is appropriate.</para>
+
+ <para> The remaining two cmavo,
+ <valsi>dei</valsi> and
+ <valsi>do'i</valsi>, refer respectively to the very utterance that the speaker is uttering, and to some vague or unspecified utterance uttered by someone at some time:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLmA" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e4d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>dei jetnu jufra</jbo>
+ <gloss>This-utterance is-a-true-sentence.</gloss>
+ <natlang>What I am saying (at this moment) is true.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLmV" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e4d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>do'i jetnu jufra</jbo>
+ <gloss>Some-utterance is-a-true-sentence.</gloss>
+ <natlang>That's true (where
+ <quote>that</quote> is not necessarily what was just said).</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>The cmavo of the di'u-series have a meaning that is relative to the context. The referent of
+ <valsi>dei</valsi> in the current utterance is the same as the referent of
+ <valsi>di'u</valsi> in the next utterance. The term
+ <quote>utterance</quote> is used rather than
+ <quote>sentence</quote> because the amount of speech or written text referred to by any of these words is vague. Often, a single bridi is intended, but longer utterances may be thus referred to.</para>
+ <para> Note one very common construction with
+ <valsi>di'u</valsi> and the cmavo
+ <valsi>la'e</valsi> (of selma'o LAhE; see
+ <xref linkend="section-sumti-qualifiers"/>) which precedes a sumti and means
+ <quote>the thing referred to by (the sumti)</quote>:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-MsUd">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e4d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi prami la djein. .i mi nelci la'e di'u</jbo>
+ <gloss>I love Jane. And I like the-referent-of the-last-utterance.</gloss>
+ <natlang>I love Jane, and I like that.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>la'edi'u</primary><secondary>contrasted with di'u</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>di'u</primary><secondary>contrasted with la'edi'u</secondary></indexterm> The effect of
+ <jbophrase>la'e di'u</jbophrase> in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-MsUd"/> is that the speaker likes, not the previous sentence, but rather the state of affairs referred to by the previous sentence, namely his loving Jane. This cmavo compound is often written as a single word:
+ <valsi>la'edi'u</valsi>. It is important not to mix up
+
+ <valsi>di'u</valsi> and
+ <valsi>la'edi'u</valsi>, or the wrong meaning will generally result:</para>
+
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-68ru">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e4d7"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi prami la djein. .i mi nelci di'u</jbo>
+ <natlang>I love Jane. And I like the-last-utterance.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>says that the speaker likes one of his own sentences.</para>
+ <para>There are no pro-bridi corresponding to the di'u-series.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-koha-broda-series">
+ <title>Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series</title>
+ <para>The following cmavo and gismu are discussed in this section:</para>
+
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ko'a</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
+ <series>ko'a-series</series>
+ <description>it-1 </description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ko'e</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
+ <series>ko'a-series</series>
+ <description>it-2</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ko'i</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
+ <series>ko'a-series</series>
+ <description>it-3</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ko'o</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
+ <series>ko'a-series</series>
+ <description>it-4</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ko'u</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
+ <series>ko'a-series</series>
+ <description>it-5</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>fo'a</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
+ <series>ko'a-series</series>
+ <description>it-6</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>fo'e</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
+ <series>ko'a-series</series>
+ <description>it-7</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>fo'i</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
+ <series>ko'a-series</series>
+ <description>it-8</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>fo'o</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
+ <series>ko'a-series</series>
+ <description>it-9</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>fo'u</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
+ <series>ko'a-series</series>
+ <description>it-10</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>broda</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>BRIVLA</selmaho>
+ <series>broda-series</series>
+ <description>is-thing-1</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>brode</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>BRIVLA</selmaho>
+ <series>broda-series</series>
+ <description>is-thing-2</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>brodi</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>BRIVLA</selmaho>
+ <series>broda-series</series>
+ <description>is-thing-3</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>brodo</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>BRIVLA</selmaho>
+ <series>broda-series</series>
+ <description>is-thing-4</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>brodu</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>BRIVLA</selmaho>
+ <series>broda-series</series>
+ <description>is-thing-5</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>goi</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>GOI</selmaho>
+ <description>pro-sumti assignment</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>cei</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>CEI</selmaho>
+ <description>pro-bridi assignment</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+
+ </cmavo-list>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ko'a-series pro-sumti</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>ko'a-series</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>personal pronouns</primary><secondary>with ko'a-series for he/she/it/they</secondary></indexterm> The discussion of personal pro-sumti in
+
+ <xref linkend="section-mi-series"/> may have seemed incomplete. In English, the personal pronouns include not only
+
+ <quote>I</quote> and
+ <quote>you</quote> but also
+ <quote>he</quote>,
+ <quote>she</quote>,
+ <quote>it</quote>, and
+ <quote>they</quote>. Lojban does have equivalents of this latter group: in fact, it has more of them than English does. However, they are organized and used very differently.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ko'a-series pro-sumti</primary><secondary>as assignable</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>personal pronouns for he/she/it/they</primary><secondary>English contrasted with Lojban in organization</secondary></indexterm> There are ten cmavo in the ko'a-series, and they may be assigned freely to any sumti whatsoever. The English word
+ <quote>he</quote> can refer only to males,
+ <quote>she</quote> only to females (and ships and a few other things),
+ <quote>it</quote> only to inanimate things, and
+ <quote>they</quote> only to plurals; the cmavo of the ko'a-series have no restrictions at all. Therefore, it is almost impossible to guess from the context what ko'a-series cmavo might refer to if they are just used freely:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-qdCR">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e5d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la .alis. klama le zarci .i ko'a blanu</jbo>
+ <natlang>Alice goes-to the store. It-1 is-blue.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>The English gloss
+ <quote>it-1</quote>, plus knowledge about the real world, would tend to make English-speakers believe that
+
+ <valsi>ko'a</valsi> refers to the store; in other words, that its antecedent is
+ <jbophrase>le zarci</jbophrase>. To a Lojbanist, however,
+ <jbophrase>la .alis.</jbophrase> is just as likely an antecedent, in which case
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qdCR"/> means that Alice, not the store, is blue.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ko'a-series pro-sumti</primary><secondary>assigning with goi</secondary></indexterm> To avoid this pitfall, Lojban employs special syntax, using the cmavo
+ <valsi>goi</valsi>:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-duGR">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e5d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la .alis. klama le zarci .i ko'a goi la .alis. cu blanu</jbo>
+ <gloss>Alice goes-to the store. It-1, also-known-as Alice, is-blue.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ko'a-series pro-sumti</primary><secondary>assignment with goi as symmetrical</secondary></indexterm> Syntactically,
+ <jbophrase>goi la .alis.</jbophrase> is a relative phrase (relative phrases are explained in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-relative-clauses"/>). Semantically, it says that
+ <valsi>ko'a</valsi> and
+ <jbophrase>la .alis.</jbophrase> refer to the same thing, and furthermore that this is true because
+ <valsi>ko'a</valsi> is being defined as meaning
+ <jbophrase>la .alis.</jbophrase>. It is equally correct to say:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-oKaM">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e5d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la .alis. klama le zarci .i la .alis. goi ko'a cu blanu</jbo>
+ <gloss>Alice goes-to the store. Alice, also-known-as it-1, is-blue.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> in other words,
+ <valsi>goi</valsi> is symmetrical. There is a terminator,
+ <valsi>ge'u</valsi> (of selma'o GEhU), which is almost always elidable. The details are in
+ <xref linkend="section-relative-phrases"/>.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>goi assignment of ko'a-series pro-sumti</primary><secondary>use in speech contrasted with writing</secondary></indexterm> The afterthought form of
+ <valsi>goi</valsi> shown in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-duGR"/> and
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-oKaM"/> is probably most common in speech, where we do not know until part way through our utterance that we will want to refer to Alice again. In writing, though,
+ <valsi>ko'a</valsi> may be assigned at the point where Alice is first mentioned. An example of this forethought form of
+ <valsi>goi</valsi> is:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1FJV">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e5d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la .alis. goi ko'a klama le zarci .i ko'a cu blanu</jbo>
+ <gloss>Alice, also-known-as it-1, goes-to the store. It-1 is-blue.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>
+<indexterm type="general"><primary>hereafter known as</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <indexterm type="general"><primary>legal jargon</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+ Again, <jbophrase>ko'a goi la .alis.</jbophrase> would have been entirely acceptable in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-1FJV"/>. This last form is reminiscent of legal jargon: <quote>The party of the first part, hereafter known as Buyer, ...</quote>.</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-bridi</primary><secondary>as abbreviation for bridi</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>broda-series for pro-bridi</primary><secondary>compared with ko'a-series for pro-sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ko'a-series for pro-sumti</primary><secondary>compared with broda-series for pro-bridi</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-bridi</primary><secondary>broda-series</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>broda-series pro-bridi</primary></indexterm> Just as the ko'a-series of pro-sumti allows a substitute for a sumti which is long or complex, or which for some other reason we do not want to repeat, so the broda-series of pro-bridi allows a substitute for a selbri or even a whole bridi:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-yXYT">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>thingy</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e5d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ti slasi je mlatu bo cidja lante gacri cei broda .i le crino broda cu barda .i le xunre broda cu cmalu</jbo>
+ <natlang>These are plastic cat-food can covers or thingies. The green thingy is large. The red thingy is small.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>broda-series pro-bridi</primary><secondary>word-form rationale</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cei</primary><secondary>for broda-series pro-bridi assignment</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>broda-series pro-bridi</primary><secondary>assigning with cei</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>goi for ko'a-series assignment</primary><secondary>compared with cei for broda-series assignment</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cei for broda-series assignment</primary><secondary>compared with goi for ko'a-series assignment</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>antecedent</primary><secondary>for pro-bridi</secondary></indexterm> The pro-bridi
+ <valsi>broda</valsi> has as its antecedent the selbri
+ <jbophrase>slasi je mlatu bo cidja lante gacri</jbophrase>. The cmavo
+ <valsi>cei</valsi> performs the role of
+
+ <valsi>goi</valsi> in assigning
+ <valsi>broda</valsi> to this long phrase, and
+ <valsi>broda</valsi> can then be used just like any other brivla. (In fact,
+ <valsi>broda</valsi> and its relatives actually
+ <emphasis>are</emphasis> brivla: they are gismu in morphology, although they behave exactly like the members of selma'o GOhA. The reasons for using gismu rather than cmavo are buried in the Loglan Project's history.)</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>antecedent</primary><secondary>for pro-bridi as full bridi</secondary></indexterm> Note that pro-bridi are so called because, even though they have the grammar of selbri, their antecedents are whole bridi. In the following rather contrived example, the antecedent of
+ <valsi>brode</valsi> is the whole bridi
+ <jbophrase>mi klama le zarci</jbophrase>:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-UFJf">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e5d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi klama cei brode le zarci .i do brode</jbo>
+
+ <gloss>I go-to (which-is claim-1) the store. You claim-1.</gloss>
+ <natlang>I go to the store. You, too.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-bridi</primary><secondary>overriding sumti of antecedent bridi for</secondary></indexterm> In the second bridi,
+ <jbophrase>do brode</jbophrase> means
+ <jbophrase>do klama le zarci</jbophrase>, because
+ <valsi>brode</valsi> carries the x2 sumti of
+ <jbophrase>mi klama le zarci</jbophrase> along with it. It also potentially carries the x1 sumti as well, but the explicit x1 sumti
+ <valsi>do</valsi> overrides the
+ <valsi>mi</valsi> of the antecedent bridi. Similarly, any tense or negation that is present in the antecedent is also carried, and can be overridden by explicit tense or negation cmavo on the pro-bridi. These rules hold for all pro-bridi that have antecedents.</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>broda-series pro-bridi</primary><secondary>with no assignment</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>broda-series pro-bridi</primary><secondary>use as abstract pattern</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>broda-series pro-bridi</primary><secondary>use as sample gismu</secondary></indexterm> Another use of
+ <valsi>broda</valsi> and its relatives, without assignment, is as
+ <quote>sample gismu</quote>:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-AYYA">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e5d7"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>broda ke brode brodi</jbo>
+ <gloss>a thing-1 type of (thing-2 type-of thing-3)</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>represents an abstract pattern, a certain kind of tanru. (Historically, this use was the original one.)</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu as pro-sumti</primary><secondary>implicit assignment of antecedent</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ko'a-series pro-sumti</primary><secondary>contrasted with lerfu as pro-sumti in explicit assignment of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu as pro-sumti</primary><secondary>contrasted with ko'a-series in explicit assignment of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>lerfu as</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu</primary><secondary>as assignable pro-sumti</secondary></indexterm> As is explained in
+ <xref linkend="section-lerfu-pro-sumti"/>, the words for Lojban letters, belonging to selma'o BY and certain related selma'o, are also usable as assignable pro-sumti. The main difference between letter pro-sumti and ko'a-series pro-sumti is that, in the absence of an explicit assignment, letters are taken to refer to the most recent name or description sumti beginning with the same letter:</para>
+
+
+
+
+
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-x1gh">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e5d8"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi viska le gerku .i gy. cusku zo arf.</jbo>
+ <gloss>I see the dog. D expresses the-word
+ <quote>Arf!</quote>.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>goi</primary><secondary>use in assigning lerfu as pro-sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu as pro-sumti</primary><secondary>explicit assignment of antecedent</secondary></indexterm> The Lojban word
+ <valsi>gerku</valsi> begins with
+ <letteral>g</letteral>, so the antecedent of
+ <valsi>gy.</valsi>, the cmavo for the letter
+ <letteral>g</letteral>, must be
+ <jbophrase>le gerku</jbophrase>. In the English translation, we use the same principle to refer to the dog as
+ <quote>D</quote>. Of course, in case of ambiguity,
+ <valsi>goi</valsi> can be used to make an explicit assignment.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>assigning with goi</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>goi</primary><secondary>use in assigning name</secondary></indexterm> Furthermore,
+ <valsi>goi</valsi> can even be used to assign a name:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rbPr">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e5d9"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le ninmu goi la sam. cu klama le zarci</jbo>
+ <gloss>The woman also-known-as Sam goes to-the store.</gloss>
+ <natlang>The woman, whom I'll call Sam, goes to the store.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>This usage does not imply that the woman's name is Sam, or even that the speaker usually calls the woman
+ <quote>Sam</quote>.
+ <quote>Sam</quote> is simply a name chosen, as if at random, for use in the current context only.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-ri-gohi-series">
+ <title>Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series</title>
+ <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ri</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
+ <series>ri-series</series>
+ <description>(repeats last sumti) </description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ra</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
+ <series>ri-series</series>
+ <description>(repeats previous sumti)</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ru</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
+ <series>ri-series</series>
+ <description>(repeats long-ago sumti)</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>go'i</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>GOhA</selmaho>
+ <series>go'i-series</series>
+ <description>(repeats last bridi)</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>go'a</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>GOhA</selmaho>
+ <series>go'i-series</series>
+ <description>(repeats previous bridi)</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>go'u</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>GOhA</selmaho>
+ <series>go'i-series</series>
+ <description>(repeats long-ago bridi)</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>go'e</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>GOhA</selmaho>
+ <series>go'i-series</series>
+ <description>(repeats last-but-one bridi)</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>go'o</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>GOhA</selmaho>
+ <series>go'i-series</series>
+ <description>(repeats future bridi)</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>nei</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>GOhA</selmaho>
+ <series>go'i-series</series>
+ <description>(repeats current bridi)</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>no'a</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>GOhA</selmaho>
+ <series>go'i-series</series>
+ <description>(repeats outer bridi)</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+
+
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ra'o</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>RAhO</selmaho>
+ <description>pro-cmavo update</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+ <para>The term
+ <quote>anaphora</quote> literally means
+
+ <quote>repetition</quote>, but is used in linguistics to refer to pronouns whose significance is the repetition of earlier words, namely their antecedents. Lojban provides three pro-sumti anaphora,
+
+ <valsi>ri</valsi>,
+ <valsi>ra</valsi>, and
+ <valsi>ru</valsi>; and three corresponding pro-bridi anaphora,
+
+ <valsi>go'i</valsi>,
+ <valsi>go'a</valsi>, and
+
+ <valsi>go'u</valsi>. These cmavo reveal the same vowel pattern as the ti-series, but the
+
+ <quote>distances</quote> referred to are not physical distances, but distances from the anaphoric cmavo to its antecedent.</para>
+ <para>The cmavo
+ <valsi>ri</valsi> is the simplest of these; it has the same referent as the last complete sumti appearing before the
+ <valsi>ri</valsi>:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3som">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e6d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la .alis. sipna le ri kumfa</jbo>
+ <gloss>Alice sleeps-in the of-[repeat last sumti] room.</gloss>
+ <natlang>Alice sleeps in her room.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>The
+ <valsi>ri</valsi> in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-3som"/> is equivalent to repeating the last sumti, which is
+ <jbophrase>la .alis.</jbophrase>, so
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-3som"/> is equivalent to:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-bs5R">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e6d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la .alis. sipna le la .alis. kumfa</jbo>
+ <gloss>Alice sleeps-in the of-Alice room.</gloss>
+ <natlang>Alice sleeps in Alice's room.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>Note that
+ <valsi>ri</valsi> does not repeat
+ <jbophrase>le ri kumfa</jbophrase>, because that sumti is not yet complete when
+ <valsi>ri</valsi> appears. This prevents
+ <valsi>ri</valsi> from getting entangled in paradoxes of self-reference. (There are plenty of other ways to do that!) Note also that sumti within other sumti, as in quotations, abstractions, and the like, are counted in the order of their beginnings; thus a lower level sumti like
+ <jbophrase>la alis.</jbophrase> in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-bs5R"/> is considered to be more recent than a higher level sumti that contains it.</para>
+ <para>Certain sumti are ignored by
+ <valsi>ri</valsi>; specifically, most of the other cmavo of KOhA, and the almost-grammatically-equivalent lerfu words of selma'o BY. It is simpler just to repeat these directly:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-CVmN">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e6d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi prami mi</jbo>
+ <gloss>I love me.</gloss>
+ <natlang>I love myself.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>However, the cmavo of the ti-series can be picked up by
+ <valsi>ri</valsi>, because you might have changed what you are pointing at, so repeating
+ <valsi>ti</valsi> may not be effective. Likewise,
+ <valsi>ri</valsi> itself (or rather its antecedent) can be repeated by a later
+ <valsi>ri</valsi>; in fact, a string of
+ <valsi>ri</valsi> cmavo with no other intervening sumti always all repeat the same sumti:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-eXsN">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e6d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la djan. viska le tricu .i ri se jadni le ri jimca</jbo>
+ <gloss>John sees the tree. [repeat last] is-adorned-by the of-[repeat last] branch.</gloss>
+ <natlang>John sees the tree. It is adorned by its branches.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>Here the second
+ <valsi>ri</valsi> has as antecedent the first
+ <valsi>ri</valsi>, which has as antecedent
+ <jbophrase>le tricu</jbophrase>. All three refer to the same thing: a tree.</para>
+ <para>To refer to the next-to-last sumti, the third-from-last sumti, and so on,
+ <valsi>ri</valsi> may be subscripted (subscripts are explained in
+ <xref linkend="section-subscripts-general"/>):</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Lc2y">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e6d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>lo smuci .i lo forca .i la rik. pilno rixire .i la .alis. pilno riximu</jbo>
+ <gloss>A spoon. A fork. Rick uses [repeat next-to-last]. Alice uses [repeat fifth-from-last].</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>Here
+ <jbophrase>rixire</jbophrase>, or
+ <quote>ri-sub-2</quote>, skips
+ <jbophrase>la rik.</jbophrase> to reach
+ <jbophrase>lo forca</jbophrase>. In the same way,
+ <jbophrase>riximu</jbophrase>, or
+ <quote>ri-sub-5</quote>, skips
+ <jbophrase>la .alis.</jbophrase>,
+ <jbophrase>rixire</jbophrase>,
+ <jbophrase>la rik.</jbophrase>, and
+ <jbophrase>lo forca</jbophrase> to reach
+ <jbophrase>lo smuci</jbophrase>. As can clearly be seen, this procedure is barely practicable in writing, and would break down totally in speech.</para>
+ <para>Therefore, the vaguer
+ <valsi>ra</valsi> and
+ <valsi>ru</valsi> are also provided. The cmavo
+ <valsi>ra</valsi> repeats a recently used sumti, and
+ <valsi>ru</valsi> one that was further back in the speech or text. The use of
+ <valsi>ra</valsi> and
+ <valsi>ru</valsi> forces the listener to guess at the referent, but makes life easier for the speaker. Can
+ <valsi>ra</valsi> refer to the last sumti, like
+ <valsi>ri</valsi>? The answer is no if
+ <valsi>ri</valsi> has also been used. If
+ <valsi>ri</valsi> has not been used, then
+ <valsi>ra</valsi> might be the last sumti. Likewise, if
+ <valsi>ra</valsi> has been used, then any use of
+ <valsi>ru</valsi> would repeat a sumti earlier than the one
+ <valsi>ra</valsi> is repeating. A more reasonable version of Example <xref linkend="example-random-id-Lc2y"/>, but one that depends more on context, is:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-N89g">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e6d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>lo smuci .i lo forca .i la rik. pilno ra .i la .alis. pilno ru</jbo>
+ <gloss>A spoon. A fork. Rick uses [some previous thing]. Alice uses [some more remote thing].</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>In
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-N89g"/>, the use of
+ <valsi>ra</valsi> tells us that something other than
+ <jbophrase>la rik.</jbophrase> is the antecedent;
+ <jbophrase>lo forca</jbophrase> is the nearest sumti, so it is probably the antecedent. Similarly, the antecedent of
+ <valsi>ru</valsi> must be something even further back in the utterance than
+ <jbophrase>lo forca</jbophrase>, and
+ <jbophrase>lo smuci</jbophrase> is the obvious candidate.</para>
+ <para>The meaning of
+ <valsi>ri</valsi> must be determined every time it is used. Since
+ <valsi>ra</valsi> and
+ <valsi>ru</valsi> are more vaguely defined, they may well retain the same meaning for a while, but the listener cannot count on this behavior. To make a permanent reference to something repeated by
+ <valsi>ri</valsi>,
+ <valsi>ra</valsi>, or
+ <valsi>ru</valsi>, use
+ <valsi>goi</valsi> and a ko'a-series cmavo:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-xIRG">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e6d7"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la .alis. klama le zarci .i ri goi ko'a blanu</jbo>
+ <gloss>Alice goes-to the store. It-last-mentioned also-known-as it-1 is-blue.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>allows the store to be referred to henceforth as
+ <valsi>ko'a</valsi> without ambiguity.
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-xIRG"/> is equivalent to
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qdCR"/> and eliminates any possibility of
+ <valsi>ko'a</valsi> being interpreted by the listener as referring to Alice.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>answers</primary><secondary>go'i for yes/no questions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>questions</primary><secondary>answering with go'i</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>go'i</primary><secondary>as affirmative answer to yes/no question</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>go'i-series pro-bridi</primary><secondary>effect of sumti of referent bridi on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>go'i-series pro-bridi</primary><secondary>as main-bridi anaphora only</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>go'i-series pro-bridi</primary><secondary>effect of sub-clauses on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>go'i-series pro-bridi</primary><secondary>referent of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>go'i-series pro-bridi</primary><secondary>compared with ri-series pro-sumti in rules of reference</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>go'i-series pro-bridi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ri-series pro-sumti</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>anaphora</primary><secondary>pro-bridi go'i-series as</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>anaphora</primary><secondary>pro-sumti ri-series as</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pronouns</primary><secondary>as anaphora</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>anaphora</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo
+ <valsi>go'i</valsi>,
+ <valsi>go'a</valsi>, and
+
+ <valsi>go'u</valsi> follow exactly the same rules as
+
+ <valsi>ri</valsi>,
+ <valsi>ra</valsi>, and
+ <valsi>ru</valsi>, except that they are pro-bridi, and therefore repeat bridi, not sumti – specifically, main sentence bridi. Any bridi that are embedded within other bridi, such as relative clauses or abstractions, are not counted. Like the cmavo of the broda-series, the cmavo of the go'i-series copy all sumti with them. This makes
+ <valsi>go'i</valsi> by itself convenient for answering a question affirmatively, or for repeating the last bridi, possibly with new sumti:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLN4" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e6d8"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>xu zo djan. cmene do .i go'i</jbo>
+ <gloss>[True-false?] The-word
+ <quote>John</quote> is-the-name of you? [repeat last bridi].</gloss>
+ <natlang>Is John your name? Yes.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLn5" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e6d9"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi klama le zarci .i do go'i</jbo>
+ <gloss>I go-to the store. You [repeat last bridi].</gloss>
+ <natlang>I go to the store. You, too.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>cei</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>go'i-series pro-bridi</primary><secondary>assigning for permanent reference</secondary></indexterm> Note that
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLn5"/> means the same as
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-UFJf"/>, but without the bother of assigning an actual broda-series word to the first bridi. For long-term reference, use
+ <jbophrase>go'i cei broda</jbophrase> or the like, analogously to
+
+ <jbophrase>ri goi ko'a</jbophrase> in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-xIRG"/>.</para>
+ <para> The remaining four cmavo of the go'i-series are provided for convenience or for achieving special effects. The cmavo
+ <valsi>go'e</valsi> means the same as
+
+ <jbophrase>go'ixire</jbophrase>: it repeats the last bridi but one. This is useful in conversation:</para>
+
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9hf5">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e6d10"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>A: mi ba klama le zarci B: mi nelci le si'o mi go'i A: do go'e</jbo>
+
+ <gloss>A: I [future] go-to the store. B: I like the concept-of I [repeat last bridi]. A: You [repeat last bridi but one].</gloss>
+ <natlang>A: I am going to the store. B: I like the idea of my going. A: You'll go, too.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>Here B's sentence repeats A's within an abstraction (explained in <xref linkend="chapter-abstractions"/>):
+ <jbophrase>le si'o mi go'i</jbophrase> means
+ <jbophrase>le si'o mi klama le zarci</jbophrase>. Why must B use the word
+ <valsi>mi</valsi> explicitly to replace the x1 of
+ <jbophrase>mi klama le zarci</jbophrase>, even though it looks like
+ <valsi>mi</valsi> is replacing
+ <valsi>mi</valsi>? Because B's
+ <valsi>mi</valsi> refers to B, whereas A's
+ <valsi>mi</valsi> refers to A. If B said:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2uS7">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e6d11"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi nelci le si'o go'i</jbo>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>that would mean:</para>
+ <blockquote>
+ <para>I like the idea of your going to the store.</para>
+ </blockquote>
+ <para>The repetition signalled by
+ <valsi>go'i</valsi> is not literally of words, but of concepts. Finally, A repeats her own sentence, but with the x1 changed to
+ <valsi>do</valsi>, meaning B. Note that in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-9hf5"/>, the tense
+ <valsi>ba</valsi> (future time) is carried along by both
+ <valsi>go'i</valsi> and
+ <valsi>go'e</valsi>.</para>
+
+ <para>Descriptions based on go'i-series cmavo can be very useful for repeating specific sumti of previous bridi:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hwau">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e6d12"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le xekri mlatu cu klama le zarci .i le go'i cu cadzu le bisli</jbo>
+ <gloss>The black cat goes-to the store. That-described-as-the-x1-place-of [repeat last bridi] walks-on the ice.</gloss>
+ <natlang>The black cat goes to the store. It walks on the ice.</natlang>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>Here the
+ <valsi>go'i</valsi> repeats
+ <jbophrase>le xekri mlatu cu klama le zarci</jbophrase>, and since
+ <valsi>le</valsi> makes the x1 place into a description, and the x1 place of this bridi is
+ <jbophrase>le xekri mlatu</jbophrase>,
+ <jbophrase>le go'i</jbophrase> means
+ <jbophrase>le xekri mlatu</jbophrase>.</para>
+ <para>The cmavo
+ <valsi>go'o</valsi>,
+
+ <valsi>nei</valsi>, and
+
+ <valsi>no'a</valsi> have been little used so far. They repeat respectively some future bridi, the current bridi, and the bridi that encloses the current bridi (
+
+ <valsi>no'a</valsi>, unlike the other members of the go'i- series, can repeat non-sentence bridi). Here are a few examples:</para>
+
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-EUmV">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e6d13"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi nupre le nu mi go'o .i ba dunda le djini le bersa .i ba dunda le zdani le tixnu</jbo>
+ <gloss>I promise the event-of I [repeat future bridi] [Future] give the money to-the son [Future] give the house to-the daughter</gloss>
+ <natlang>I promise to do the following: Give the money to my son. Give the house to my daughter.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>(Note: The Lojban does not contain an equivalent of the
+ <valsi>my</valsi> in the colloquial English; it leaves the fact that it is the speaker's son and daughter that are referred to implicit. To make the fact explicit, use
+ <jbophrase>le bersa</jbophrase>/<jbophrase>tixnu be mi</jbophrase>.)</para>
+ <para>For good examples of
+ <valsi>nei</valsi> and
+
+ <valsi>no'a</valsi>, we need nested bridi contexts:</para>
+
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLo1" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e6d14"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi se pluka le nu do pensi le nu nei kei pu le nu do zukte</jbo>
+
+ <gloss>I am-pleased-by the event-of (you think-about (the event-of [main bridi]) before the-event of (your acting).</gloss>
+ <natlang>I am pleased that you thought about whether I would be pleased (about ...) before you acted.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLop" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e6d15"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi ba klama ca le nu do no'a</jbo>
+
+ <gloss>I [future] go [present] the event-of you [repeats outer bridi]</gloss>
+ <natlang>I will go when you do.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>go'i ra'o</primary><secondary>contrasted with go'i</secondary></indexterm> Finally,
+ <valsi>ra'o</valsi> is a cmavo that can be appended to any go'i-series cmavo, or indeed any cmavo of selma'o GOhA, to signal that pro-sumti or pro-bridi cmavo in the antecedent are to be repeated literally and reinterpreted in their new context. Normally, any pro-sumti used within the antecedent of the pro-bridi keep their meanings intact. In the presence of
+ <valsi>ra'o</valsi>, however, their meanings must be reinterpreted with reference to the new environment. If someone says to you:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9Uq6">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e6d16"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi ba lumci lemi karce</jbo>
+ <natlang>I will wash my car.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>you might reply either:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1fK3">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e6d17"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi go'i</jbo>
+ <natlang>I will wash your car.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>or:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-qW1B">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e6d18"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi go'i ra'o</jbo>
+
+ <natlang>I will wash my car.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>The
+ <valsi>ra'o</valsi> forces the second
+ <valsi>mi</valsi> from the original bridi to mean the new speaker rather than the former speaker. This means that
+ <jbophrase>go'e ra'o</jbophrase> would be an acceptable alternative to
+
+ <jbophrase>do go'e</jbophrase> in B's statement in
+
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-9hf5"/>.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>go'i-series pro-bridi</primary><secondary>in quotations</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ri-series pro-sumti</primary><secondary>in quotations</secondary></indexterm> The anaphoric pro-sumti of this section can be used in quotations, but never refer to any of the supporting text outside the quotation, since speakers presumably do not know that they may be quoted by someone else.</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>go'i-series pro-bridi</primary><secondary>in quotation series</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ri-series pro-sumti</primary><secondary>in quotation series</secondary></indexterm> However, a
+ <jbophrase>ri-</jbophrase>series or
+ <jbophrase>go'a-</jbophrase>series reference within a quotation can refer to something mentioned in an earlier quotation if the two quotations are closely related in time and context. This allows a quotation to be broken up by narrative material without interfering with the pro-sumti within it. Here's an example:</para>
+
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-LWyE">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e6d19"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la djan. cusku lu mi klama le zarci li'u .i la .alis. cusku lu mi go'i li'u</jbo>
+ <gloss>John says [quote] I go-to the store [unquote]. Alice says [quote] I [repeat] [unquote].</gloss>
+ <natlang>John says, <quote>I am going to the store.</quote> Alice says, <quote>Me too.</quote></natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>go'i-series pro-bridi</primary><secondary>in narrative about quotation</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ri-series pro-sumti</primary><secondary>in narrative about quotation</secondary></indexterm> Of course, there is no problem with narrative material referring to something within a quotation: people who quote, unlike people who are quoted, are aware of what they are doing.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-zohe-cohe-series">
+ <title>Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series</title>
+
+
+ <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>zo'e</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
+ <series>zo'e-series</series>
+ <description>the obvious value</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>zu'i</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
+ <series>zo'e-series</series>
+ <description>the typical value</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+
+
+
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>zi'o</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
+ <series>zo'e-series</series>
+ <description>the nonexistent value</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+
+
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>co'e</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>GOhA</selmaho>
+ <series>co'e-series</series>
+ <description>has the obvious relationship</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+
+ </cmavo-list>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>typical value</primary><secondary>contrasted with elliptical value for sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>elliptical value</primary><secondary>contrasted with typical value for sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>elliptical sumti</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>zo'e</primary><secondary>as place-holder for sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>elliptical pro-bridi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>indefinite pro-bridi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>unspecified</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>elliptical pro-sumti</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>indefinite pro-sumti</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>co'e-series pro-bridi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>zo'e-series pro-sumti</primary></indexterm> The cmavo of the zo'e-series represent indefinite, unspecified sumti. The cmavo
+
+
+ <valsi>zo'e</valsi> represents an elliptical value for this sumti place; it is the optional spoken place holder when a sumti is skipped without being specified. Note that the elliptical value is not always the typical value. The properties of ellipsis lead to an elliptical sumti being defined as
+
+
+
+
+
+ <quote>whatever I want it to mean but haven't bothered to figure out, or figure out how to express</quote>.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>typical sumti</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>typical</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo
+ <valsi>zu'i</valsi>, on the other hand, represents the typical value for this place of this bridi:</para>
+
+
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-VScg">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e7d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi klama le bartu be le zdani le nenri be le zdani zu'i zu'i</jbo>
+ <gloss>I go to-the outside of the house from-the inside of the house [by-typical-route] [by-typical-means]</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>In
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-VScg"/>, the first
+ <valsi>zu'i</valsi> probably means something like
+
+ <quote>by the door</quote>, and the second
+ <valsi>zu'i</valsi> probably means something like
+
+ <quote>on foot</quote>, those being the typical route and means for leaving a house. On the other hand, if you are at the top of a high rise during a fire, neither
+ <valsi>zu'i</valsi> is appropriate. It's also common to use
+
+ <valsi>zu'i</valsi> in
+
+ <quote>by standard</quote> places.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>irrelevant</primary><secondary>specifying of sumti place</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>irrelevant to relationship</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>zi'o</primary></indexterm> Finally, the cmavo
+ <valsi>zi'o</valsi> represents a value which does not even exist. When a bridi fills one of its places with
+ <valsi>zi'o</valsi>, what is really meant is that the selbri has a place which is irrelevant to the true relationship the speaker wishes to express. For example, the place structure of
+
+ <valsi>zbasu</valsi> is:</para>
+ <definition><content>actor x1 makes x2 from materials x3</content></definition>
+ <para>
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>living things</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+ Consider the sentence</para>
+ <blockquote>
+ <para>Living things are made from cells.</para>
+ </blockquote>
+ <para>This cannot be correctly expressed as:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ipCV">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e7d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>loi jmive cu se zbasu [zo'e] fi loi selci</jbo>
+ <gloss>The-mass-of living-things is-made [by-something] from the-mass-of cells</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>because the
+ <valsi>zo'e</valsi>, expressed or understood, in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-ipCV"/> indicates that there is still a
+ <quote>maker</quote> in this relationship. We do not generally suppose, however, that someone
+ <quote>makes</quote> living things from cells. The best answer is probably to find a different selbri, one which does not imply a
+
+ <quote>maker</quote>: however, an alternative strategy is to use
+ <valsi>zi'o</valsi> to eliminate the maker place:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-xxm1">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e7d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>loi jmive cu se zbasu zi'o loi selci</jbo>
+ <gloss>The-mass-of living-things is-made [without-maker] from the-mass-of cells.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>zi'o</primary><secondary>as creating new selbri</secondary></indexterm> Note: The use of
+ <valsi>zi'o</valsi> to block up, as it were, one place of a selbri actually creates a new selbri with a different place structure. Consider the following examples:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLoY" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e7d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi zbasu le dinju loi mudri</jbo>
+ <gloss>I make the building from-some-of-the-mass-of wood.</gloss>
+ <natlang>I make the building out of wood.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLPI" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e7d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>zi'o zbasu le dinju loi mudri</jbo>
+ <gloss>[without-maker] makes the building from-some-of-the-mass-of wood.</gloss>
+ <natlang>The building is made out of wood.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLpy" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e7d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi zbasu zi'o loi mudri</jbo>
+ <gloss>I make [without-thing-made] from-some-of-the-mass-of wood.</gloss>
+ <natlang>I build using wood.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLqE" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e7d7"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi zbasu le dinju zi'o</jbo>
+ <gloss>I make the building [without-material].</gloss>
+ <natlang>I make the building.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>If
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLoY"/> is true, then
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLPI"/> through
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLqE"/> must be true also. However,
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-xxm1"/> does not correspond to any sentence with three regular (non-
+ <valsi>zi'o</valsi>) sumti.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>co'e</primary><secondary>as selbri place-holder</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri</primary><secondary>omitting with co'e</secondary></indexterm> The pro-bridi
+ <valsi>co'e</valsi> (which by itself constitutes the co'e-series of selma'o GOhA) represents the elliptical selbri. Lojban grammar does not allow the speaker to merely omit a selbri from a bridi, although any or all sumti may be freely omitted. Being vague about a relationship requires the use of
+
+ <valsi>co'e</valsi> as a selbri place-holder:</para>
+
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-uy9R">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e7d8"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi troci le nu mi co'e le vorme</jbo>
+
+ <gloss>I try the event-of my [doing-the-obvious-action] to-the door.</gloss>
+ <natlang>I try the door.</natlang>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>The English version means, and the Lojban version probably means, that I try to open the door, but the relationship of opening is not actually specified; the Lojbanic listener must guess it from context. Lojban, unlike English, makes it clear that there is an implicit action that is not being expressed.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>co'e</primary><secondary>rationale for word form</secondary></indexterm> The form of
+ <valsi>co'e</valsi> was chosen to resemble
+
+ <valsi>zo'e</valsi>; the cmavo
+ <valsi>do'e</valsi> of selma'o BAI (see
+
+ <xref linkend="section-BAI"/>) also belongs to the same group of cmavo.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>zo'e-series</primary><secondary>compared with do'i as indefinite pro-sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>do'i</primary><secondary>compared with zo'e-series as indefinite pro-sumti</secondary></indexterm> Note that
+ <valsi>do'i</valsi>, of the di'u-series, is also a kind of indefinite pro-sumti: it is indefinite in referent, but is restricted to referring only to an utterance.</para>
+
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-voha-series">
+ <title>Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series</title>
+
+
+ <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>vo'a</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
+ <series>vo'a-series</series>
+ <description>x1 of this bridi </description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>vo'e</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
+ <series>vo'a-series</series>
+ <description>x2 of this bridi</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>vo'i</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
+ <series>vo'a-series</series>
+ <description>x3 of this bridi</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>vo'o</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
+ <series>vo'a-series</series>
+ <description>x4 of this bridi</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>vo'u</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
+ <series>vo'a-series</series>
+ <description>x5 of this bridi</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>soi</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>SOI</selmaho>
+ <series></series>
+ <description>reciprocity</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+
+
+
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>se'u</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>SEhU</selmaho>
+ <series></series>
+ <description>soi terminator</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>reciprocal pro-sumti</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>reflexive pro-sumti</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>referring to place of same bridi with vo'a-series</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>vo'a-series</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>anaphora</primary><secondary>pro-sumti vo'a-series as</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo of the vo'a-series are pro-sumti anaphora, like those of the ri-series, but have a specific function. These cmavo refer to the other places of the same bridi; the five of them represent up to five places. The same vo'a-series cmavo mean different things in different bridi. Some examples:</para>
+
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLqT" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>wash self</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e8d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi lumci vo'a</jbo>
+ <natlang>I wash myself</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLqV" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e8d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi klama le zarci vo'e</jbo>
+ <natlang>I go to the store from itself [by some route unspecified].</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>referring to place of different bridi with go'i-series</secondary></indexterm> To refer to places of neighboring bridi, constructions like
+ <jbophrase>le se go'i ku</jbophrase> do the job: this refers to the 2nd place of the previous main bridi, as explained in
+ <xref linkend="section-ri-gohi-series"/>.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vice versa</primary><secondary>English</secondary><tertiary>expressing with vo'a-series pro-sumti and soi</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vo'a-series pro-sumti</primary><secondary>use in expressing reciprocity with soi</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>soi</primary><secondary>use in expressing reciprocity with vo'a-series pro-sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>reciprocity</primary><secondary>expressing with vo'a-series pro-sumti and soi</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo of the vo'a-series are also used with
+ <valsi>soi</valsi> (of selma'o SOI) to precisely express reciprocity, which in English is imprecisely expressed with a discursive phrase like
+
+
+ <quote>vice versa</quote>:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-vpb3">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>vice versa</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e8d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi prami do soi vo'a vo'e</jbo>
+ <gloss>I love you [reciprocity] [x1 of this bridi] [x2 of this bridi].</gloss>
+
+
+ <natlang>I love you and vice versa (swapping
+ <quote>I</quote> and
+ <quote>you</quote>).</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>soi with one following sumti</primary><secondary>convention</secondary></indexterm> The significance of
+ <jbophrase>soi vo'a vo'e</jbophrase> is that the bridi is still true even if the x1 (specified by
+ <valsi>vo'a</valsi>) and the x2 (specified by
+ <valsi>vo'e</valsi>) places are interchanged. If only a single sumti follows
+ <valsi>soi</valsi>, then the sumti immediately preceding
+ <valsi>soi</valsi> is understood to be one of those involved:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-CMQ1">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e8d4"/>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>vice versa</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi prami do soi vo'a</jbo>
+ <gloss>I love you [reciprocity] [x1 of this bridi].</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>again involves the x1 and x2 places.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>soi</primary><secondary>use in expressing reciprocity</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>reciprocity</primary><secondary>expressing with soi</secondary></indexterm> Of course, other places can be involved, and other sumti may be used in place of vo'a-series cmavo, provided those other sumti can be reasonably understood as referring to the same things mentioned in the bridi proper. Here are several examples that mean the same thing:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rqNJ">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e8d5"/>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>vice versa</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <!-- FIXME: I bet this looks bad; this isn't quite an
+ interlinear gloss situation -->
+ <jbo>mi bajykla ti ta soi vo'e</jbo>
+ <jbo>mi bajykla ti ta soi vo'e vo'i</jbo>
+ <jbo>soi vo'e vo'i mi bajykla ti ta</jbo>
+ <gloss>I runningly-go to this from that and vice versa (to that from this).</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>se'u</primary><secondary>elidability considerations</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>se'u</primary><secondary>as elidable terminator for soi</secondary></indexterm> The elidable terminator for
+ <valsi>soi</valsi> is
+ <valsi>se'u</valsi> (selma'o SEhU), which is normally needed only if there is just one sumti after the
+ <valsi>soi</valsi>, and the
+ <valsi>soi</valsi> construction is not at the end of the bridi. Constructions using
+ <valsi>soi</valsi> are free modifiers, and as such can go almost anywhere. Here is an example where
+
+ <valsi>se'u</valsi> is required:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-RFBV">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e8d6"/>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>vice versa</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi bajykla ti soi vo'i se'u ta</jbo>
+ <gloss>I runningly-go to-this [reciprocity] [x3 of this bridi] from-that</gloss>
+ <natlang>I run to this from that and vice versa.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-sumti-and-bridi-questions">
+ <title>sumti and bridi questions:
+
+ <valsi>ma</valsi> and
+ <valsi>mo</valsi></title>
+ <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ma</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
+ <description>sumti question</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>mo</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>GOhA</selmaho>
+ <description>bridi question</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>questions</primary><secondary>sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ma</primary><secondary>as sumti question</secondary></indexterm> Lojban questions are more fully explained in
+ <xref linkend="section-questions-and-answers"/>, but
+ <valsi>ma</valsi> and
+ <valsi>mo</valsi> are listed in this chapter for completeness. The cmavo
+ <valsi>ma</valsi> asks for a sumti to make the bridi true:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Csod">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e9d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>do klama ma</jbo>
+ <gloss>You go to-what-destination?</gloss>
+ <natlang>Where are you going?</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>go'i</primary><secondary>compared with mo in overriding of arguments</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mo</primary><secondary>compared with go'i in overriding of arguments</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>questions</primary><secondary>selbri</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mo</primary><secondary>as selbri question</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo
+ <valsi>mo</valsi>, on the other hand, asks for a selbri which makes the question bridi true. If the answer is a full bridi, then the arguments of the answer override the arguments in the question, in the same manner as the go'i-series cmavo. A simple example is:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Ih10">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e9d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>do mo</jbo>
+ <gloss>What predicate is true as applied to you?</gloss>
+ <natlang>How are you?</natlang>
+ <natlang>What are you doing?</natlang>
+ <natlang>What are you?</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-8HKo"/> is a truly pregnant question that will have several meanings depending on context.</para>
+ <para>(One thing it probably does not mean is
+ <quote>Who are you?</quote> in the sense
+ <quote>What is your name/identity?</quote>, which is better expressed by:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-8HKo">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>what is your name</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e9d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ma cmene do</jbo>
+ <gloss>What sumti is-the-name-of you?</gloss>
+ <natlang>What is your name?</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>or even</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-y4Yi">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e9d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>doi ma</jbo>
+ <gloss>O [what sumti?]</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>which uses the vocative
+ <valsi>doi</valsi> to address someone, and simultaneously asks who the someone is.)</para>
+
+ <para>A further example of
+ <valsi>mo</valsi>:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PP7r">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e9d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>lo mo prenu cu darxi do .i barda</jbo>
+ <gloss>A [what selbri?] type-of person hit you? (Observative:) A big thing.</gloss>
+ <natlang>Which person hit you? The big one.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple mo</primary><secondary>as multiple questions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple ma</primary><secondary>as multiple questions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple questions in one bridi</primary><secondary>expressing</secondary></indexterm> When
+ <valsi>ma</valsi> or
+ <valsi>mo</valsi> is repeated, multiple questions are being asked simultaneously:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2KPQ">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e9d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ma djuno ma</jbo>
+ <gloss>[What sumti] knows [what sumti]?</gloss>
+ <natlang>Who knows what?</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-keha">
+ <title>Relativized pro-sumti:
+ <valsi>ke'a</valsi></title>
+ <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ke'a</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
+ <description>relativized sumti</description>
+
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>use of ke'a for referral to relativized sumti in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ke'a</primary><secondary>for relativized sumti in relative clauses</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>for relativized sumti in relative clauses</secondary></indexterm> This pro-sumti is used in relative clauses (explained in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-relative-clauses"/>) to indicate how the sumti being relativized fits within the clause. For example:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-UNBb">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>cat of plastic</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e10d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi catlu lo mlatu poi [zo'e] zbasu ke'a lei slasi</jbo>
+ <gloss>I see a cat such-that something-unspecified makes the-thing-being-relativized [the cat] from-some-mass-of plastic.</gloss>
+ <natlang>I see a cat made of plastic.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ke'a</primary><secondary>ambiguity when omitted</secondary></indexterm> If
+ <valsi>ke'a</valsi> were omitted from
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-UNBb"/>, it might be confused with:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-0EWp">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e10d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi catlu lo mlatu poi [ke'a] zbasu lei slasi</jbo>
+ <gloss>I see a cat such-that the-thing-being-relativized [the cat] makes a-mass-of plastic</gloss>
+ <natlang>I see a cat that makes plastic.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ri</primary><secondary>contrasted with ke'a in relative clauses</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ke'a</primary><secondary>contrasted with ri in relative clauses</secondary></indexterm> The anaphora cmavo
+
+ <valsi>ri</valsi> cannot be used in place of
+ <valsi>ke'a</valsi> in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-UNBb"/> and
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-0EWp"/>, because the relativized sumti is not yet complete when the
+
+ <valsi>ke'a</valsi> appears.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>subscripts</primary><secondary>on ke'a for nested relative clauses</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ke'a</primary><secondary>subscripting for nested relative clauses</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ke'a</primary><secondary>and abstract descriptions</secondary></indexterm> Note that
+ <valsi>ke'a</valsi> is used only with relative clauses, and not with other embedded bridi such as abstract descriptions. In the case of relative clauses within relative clauses,
+ <valsi>ke'a</valsi> may be subscripted to make the difference clear (see
+ <xref linkend="section-nesting"/>).</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-cehu">
+ <title>Abstraction focus pro-sumti:
+ <valsi>ce'u</valsi></title>
+ <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ce'u</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
+ <description>abstraction focus</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+ <para> The cmavo
+ <valsi>ce'u</valsi> is used within abstraction bridi, particularly property abstractions introduced by the cmavo
+
+ <valsi>ka</valsi>. Abstractions, including the uses of
+ <valsi>ce'u</valsi>, are discussed in full in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-abstractions"/>.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ce'u</primary><secondary>use in specifying sumti place of property in abstraction</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>property abstraction</primary><secondary>specifying sumti place of property with ce'u</secondary></indexterm> In brief: Every property abstraction specifies a property of one of the sumti in it; that sumti place is filled by using
+
+
+ <valsi>ce'u</valsi>. This convention enables us to distinguish clearly between:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ELxF">
+ <title>
+
+
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>happiness</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e11d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le ka ce'u gleki</jbo>
+ <gloss>the property-of (X being-happy)</gloss>
+ <gloss>the property of being happy</gloss>
+ <natlang>happiness</natlang>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>and</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-VSw3">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e11d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le ka gleki ce'u</jbo>
+ <gloss>the property-of (being-happy about-X)</gloss>
+ <natlang>the property of being that which someone is happy about</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-da-buha-series">
+ <title>Bound variable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the da-series and the bu'a-series</title>
+ <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>da</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
+ <series>da-series</series>
+ <description>something-1 </description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>de</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
+ <series>da-series</series>
+ <description>something-2</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>di</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
+ <series>da-series</series>
+ <description>something-3</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>bu'a</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>GOhA</selmaho>
+ <series>bu'a-series</series>
+ <description>some-predicate-1</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>bu'e</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>GOhA</selmaho>
+ <series>bu'a-series</series>
+ <description>some-predicate-2</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>bu'i</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>GOhA</selmaho>
+ <series>bu'a-series</series>
+ <description>some-predicate-3</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+
+ </cmavo-list>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bu'a-series pro-sumti</primary><secondary>for bound variables</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>da-series pro-sumti</primary><secondary>for bound variables</secondary></indexterm> Bound variables belong to the predicate-logic part of Lojban, and are listed here for completeness only. Their semantics is explained in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-quantifiers"/>. It is worth mentioning that the Lojban translation of
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-VISf"/> is:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-6vxz">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e12d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la djan. cu lafti da poi grana ku'o gi'e desygau da</jbo>
+ <gloss>John raised something-1 which is-a-stick and shake-did something-1.</gloss>
+ <natlang>John picked up a stick and shook it.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-daho">
+ <title>Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling</title>
+ <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>da'o</cmavo>
+
+ <selmaho>DAhO</selmaho>
+ <description>cancel all pro-sumti/pro-bridi</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-bridi assignment</primary><secondary>stability of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti assignment</primary><secondary>stability of</secondary></indexterm> How long does a pro-sumti or pro-bridi remain stable? In other words, once we know the referent of a pro-sumti or pro-bridi, how long can we be sure that future uses of the same cmavo have the same referent? The answer to this question depends on which series the cmavo belongs to.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bound variable pro-sumti</primary><secondary>stability of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>assignable pro-sumti</primary><secondary>explicit cancellation of by rebinding</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>assignable pro-sumti</primary><secondary>stability of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>personal pro-sumti</primary><secondary>stability of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>personal pro-sumti</primary><secondary>implicit cancellation of by change of speaker/listener</secondary></indexterm> Personal pro-sumti are stable until there is a change of speaker or listener, possibly signaled by a vocative. Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi last indefinitely or until rebound with
+ <valsi>goi</valsi> or
+ <valsi>cei</valsi>. Bound variable pro-sumti and pro-bridi also generally last until re-bound; details are available in
+
+ <xref linkend="section-notes-on-variables"/>.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>anaphoric pro-bridi</primary><secondary>stability of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>anaphoric pro-sumti</primary><secondary>stability of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ke'a</primary><secondary>stability of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>reflexive pro-sumti</primary><secondary>stability of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>utterance pro-sumti</primary><secondary>stability of</secondary></indexterm> Utterance pro-sumti are stable only within the utterance in which they appear; similarly, reflexive pro-sumti are stable only within the bridi in which they appear; and
+
+ <valsi>ke'a</valsi> is stable only within its relative clause. Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi are stable only within narrow limits depending on the rules for the particular cmavo.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>indefinite pro-bridi</primary><secondary>stability of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>indefinite pro-sumti</primary><secondary>stability of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>demonstrative pro-sumti</primary><secondary>stability of</secondary></indexterm> Demonstrative pro-sumti, indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi, and sumti and bridi questions potentially change referents every time they are used.</para>
+
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>da'o</primary><secondary>syntax of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>da'o</primary><secondary>for cancellation of pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignment</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cancellation of pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignment</primary><secondary>with da'o</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-bridi assignment</primary><secondary>explicit cancellation of with da'o</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti assignment</primary><secondary>explicit cancellation of with da'o</secondary></indexterm> However, there are ways to cancel all pro-sumti and pro-bridi, so that none of them have known referents. (Some, such as
+ <valsi>mi</valsi>, will acquire the same referent as soon as they are used again after the cancellation.) The simplest way to cancel everything is with the cmavo
+ <valsi>da'o</valsi> of selma'o DAhO, which is used solely for this purpose; it may appear anywhere, and has no effect on the grammar of texts containing it. One use of
+
+ <valsi>da'o</valsi> is when entering a conversation, to indicate that one's pro-sumti assignments have nothing to do with any assignments already made by other participants in the conversation.</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-bridi assignment</primary><secondary>no'i effect on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti assignment</primary><secondary>no'i effect on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>no'i</primary><secondary>effect on pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignments</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ni'o</primary><secondary>effect on pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignments</secondary></indexterm> In addition, the cmavo
+ <valsi>ni'o</valsi> and
+ <valsi>no'i</valsi> of selma'o NIhO, which are used primarily to indicate shifts in topic, may also have the effect of canceling pro-sumti and pro-bridi assignments, or of reinstating ones formerly in effect. More explanations of NIhO can be found in
+ <xref linkend="section-niho"/>.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-du">
+ <title>The identity predicate: du</title>
+
+ <para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>du</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>GOhA</selmaho>
+ <description>identity</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>identity predicate</primary></indexterm> The cmavo
+ <valsi>du</valsi> has the place structure:</para>
+ <definition><content>x1 is identical with x2, x3, ...</content></definition>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>du</primary><secondary>rationale for selection of selma'o for</secondary></indexterm> and appears in selma'o GOhA for reasons of convenience: it is not a pro-bridi.
+ <valsi>du</valsi> serves as mathematical
+ <quote>=</quote>, and outside mathematical contexts is used for defining or identifying. Mathematical examples may be found in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-mekso"/>.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mintu</primary><secondary>contrasted with du</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>du</primary><secondary>contrasted with mintu</secondary></indexterm> The main difference between</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-GGoH">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e14d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ko'a du le nanmu</jbo>
+ <gloss>It-1 is-identical-to the man</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>and</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-prfu">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e14d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ko'a mintu le nanmu</jbo>
+
+ <gloss>It-1 is-the-same-as the man</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>du</primary><secondary>meaning of</secondary></indexterm> is this defining nature.
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-GGoH"/> presumes that the speaker is responding to a request for information about what
+ <valsi>ko'a</valsi> refers to, or that the speaker in some way feels the need to define
+ <valsi>ko'a</valsi> for later reference. A bridi with
+ <valsi>du</valsi> is an identity sentence, somewhat metalinguistically saying that all attached sumti are representations for the same referent. There may be any number of sumti associated with
+ <valsi>du</valsi>, and all are said to be identical.</para>
+ <para>
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-prfu"/>, however, predicates; it is used to make a claim about the identity of
+ <valsi>ko'a</valsi>, which presumably has been defined previously.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>dunli</primary><secondary>contrasted with du</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>du</primary><secondary>contrasted with dunli</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>du</primary><secondary>derivation of</secondary></indexterm> Note:
+ <valsi>du</valsi> historically is derived from
+ <valsi>dunli</valsi>, but
+
+ <valsi>dunli</valsi> has a third place which
+
+ <valsi>du</valsi> lacks: the standard of equality.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-anaphoric-rafsi">
+ <title>lujvo based on pro-sumti</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>rafsi for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>based on pro-sumti</secondary></indexterm> There exist rafsi allocated to a few cmavo of selma'o KOhA, but they are rarely used. (See
+ <xref linkend="section-koha-summary"/> for a complete list.) The obvious way to use them is as internal sumti, filling in an appropriate place of the gismu or lujvo to which they are attached; as such, they usually stand as the first rafsi in their lujvo.</para>
+ <para>
+
+<indexterm type="general"><primary>you-talk</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+ <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti rafsi</primary><secondary>effect of on place structure of lujvo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>pro-sumti rafsi effect on place structure of</secondary></indexterm> Thus
+ <valsi>donta'a</valsi>, meaning
+ <quote>you-talk</quote>, would be interpreted as
+ <jbophrase>tavla be do</jbophrase>, and would have the place structure</para>
+
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-unmV">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e15d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <definition><content>t1 talks to you about subject t3 in language t4</content></definition>
+ </example>
+ <para>since <varname>t2</varname> (the addressee) is already known to be
+ <valsi>do</valsi>.</para>
+ <para>
+
+<indexterm type="general"><primary>you-cmavo</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+ On the other hand, the lujvo
+ <valsi>donma'o</valsi>, literally
+ <quote>you-cmavo</quote>, which means
+
+ <quote>a second person personal pronoun</quote>, would be interpreted as
+ <jbophrase>cmavo be zo do</jbophrase>, and have the place structure:</para>
+
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-H5NB">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e15d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <definition><content>c1 is a second person pronoun in language c4</content></definition>
+ </example>
+
+ <para>since both the <varname>c2</varname> place (the grammatical class) and the <varname>c3</varname> place (the meaning) are obvious from the context
+ <valsi>do</valsi>.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti rafsi</primary><secondary>anticipated use of for abbreviating inconvenient forms</secondary></indexterm> An anticipated use of rafsi for cmavo in the
+
+ <valsi>fo'a</valsi> series is to express lujvo which can't be expressed in a convenient rafsi form, because they are too long to express, or are formally inconvenient (fu'ivla, cmene, and so forth.) An example would be:</para>
+
+
+
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-tH6w">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c7e15d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>fo'a goi le kulnrsu,omi .i lo fo'arselsanga</jbo>
+ <gloss>x6 stands for Finnish-culture. An x6-song.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>
+
+<indexterm type="general"><primary>beverage</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+ <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>zi'o rafsi</primary><secondary>effect of on place structure of lujvo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>zi'o rafsi effect on place structure of</secondary></indexterm> Finally, lujvo involving
+ <valsi>zi'o</valsi> are also possible, and are fully discussed in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-lujvo"/>. In brief, the convention is to use the rafsi for <!-- FIXME: chapter 12 does not talk about zi'o, it's probably supposed to -->
+ <valsi>zi'o</valsi> as a prefix immediately followed by the rafsi for the number of the place to be deleted. Thus, if we consider a beverage (something drunk without considering who, if anyone, drinks it) as a
+
+
+ <jbophrase>se pinxe be zi'o</jbophrase>, the lujvo corresponding to this is
+ <valsi>zilrelselpinxe</valsi> (deleting the second place of
+ <jbophrase>se pinxe</jbophrase>). Deleting the x1 place in this fashion would move all remaining places up by one. This would mean that
+ <valsi>zilpavypinxe</valsi> has the same place structure as
+ <valsi>zilrelselpinxe</valsi>, and
+ <jbophrase>lo zilpavypinxe</jbophrase>, like
+ <jbophrase>lo zilrelselpinxe</jbophrase>, refers to a beverage, and not to a non-existent drinker.</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-bridi rafsi</primary><secondary>as producing context-dependent meanings</secondary></indexterm> The pro-bridi
+ <valsi>co'e</valsi>,
+
+ <valsi>du</valsi>, and
+ <valsi>bu'a</valsi> also have rafsi, which can be used just as if they were gismu. The resulting lujvo have (except for
+ <jbophrase>du-</jbophrase>based lujvo) highly context-dependent meanings.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-koha-summary">
+ <title>KOhA cmavo by series</title>
+ <para>mi-series</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>mi</cmavo>
+ <description>I (rafsi: <rafsi>mib</rafsi>)</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>do</cmavo>
+ <description>you (rafsi: <rafsi>don</rafsi> and <valsi>doi</valsi>)</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>mi'o</cmavo>
+ <description>you and I</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>mi'a</cmavo>
+ <description>I and others, we but not you</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ma'a</cmavo>
+ <description>you and I and others</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>do'o</cmavo>
+ <description>you and others</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ko</cmavo>
+ <description>you-imperative</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+
+ <para>ti-series</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ti</cmavo>
+ <description>this here; something nearby (rafsi: <rafsi>tif</rafsi>)</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ta</cmavo>
+ <description>that there; something distant (rafsi: <rafsi>taz</rafsi>)</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>tu</cmavo>
+ <description>that yonder; something far distant (rafsi: <rafsi>tuf</rafsi>)</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+
+ <para>di'u-series</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>di'u</cmavo>
+ <description>the previous utterance</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>de'u</cmavo>
+ <description>an earlier utterance</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>da'u</cmavo>
+ <description>a much earlier utterance</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>di'e</cmavo>
+ <description>the next utterance</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>de'e</cmavo>
+ <description>a later utterance</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>da'e</cmavo>
+ <description>a much later utterance</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>dei</cmavo>
+ <description>this very utterance</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>do'i</cmavo>
+ <description>some utterance</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+
+ <para>ko'a-series</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ko'a</cmavo>
+ <description>it-1; 1st assignable pro-sumti</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ko'e</cmavo>
+ <description>it-2; 2nd assignable pro-sumti</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ko'i</cmavo>
+ <description>it-3; 3rd assignable pro-sumti</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ko'o</cmavo>
+ <description>it-4; 4th assignable pro-sumti</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ko'u</cmavo>
+ <description>it-5; 5th assignable pro-sumti</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>fo'a</cmavo>
+ <description>it-6; 6th assignable pro-sumti (rafsi: <valsi>fo'a</valsi>)</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>fo'e</cmavo>
+ <description>it-7; 7th assignable pro-sumti (rafsi: <valsi>fo'e</valsi>)</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>fo'i</cmavo>
+ <description>it-8; 8th assignable pro-sumti (rafsi: <valsi>fo'i</valsi>)</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>fo'o</cmavo>
+ <description>it-9; 9th assignable pro-sumti</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>fo'u</cmavo>
+ <description>it-10; 10th assignable pro-sumti</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+
+ <para>ri-series</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ri</cmavo>
+ <description>(repeats the last sumti)</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ra</cmavo>
+ <description>(repeats a previous sumti)</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ru</cmavo>
+ <description>(repeats a long-ago sumti)</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+
+ <para>zo'e-series</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>zo'e</cmavo>
+ <description>the obvious value</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>zu'i</cmavo>
+ <description>the typical value</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>zi'o</cmavo>
+ <description>the nonexistent value (rafsi: <rafsi>zil</rafsi>)</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+
+ <para>vo'a-series</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>vo'a</cmavo>
+ <description>x1 of this bridi</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>vo'e</cmavo>
+ <description>x2 of this bridi</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>vo'i</cmavo>
+ <description>x3 of this bridi</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>vo'o</cmavo>
+ <description>x4 of this bridi</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>vo'u</cmavo>
+ <description>x5 of this bridi</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+
+ <para>da-series</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>da</cmavo>
+ <description>something-1 (rafsi: <rafsi>dav</rafsi>/<rafsi>dza</rafsi>)</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>de</cmavo>
+ <description>something-2</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>di</cmavo>
+ <description>something-3</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+
+ <para>others:</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ke'a</cmavo>
+ <description>relativized sumti</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ma</cmavo>
+ <description>sumti question</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ce'u</cmavo>
+ <description>abstraction focus</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-goha-summary">
+ <title>GOhA and other pro-bridi by series</title>
+
+ <para>broda-series (not GOhA):</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>broda</cmavo>
+ <description>is-1; 1st assignable pro-bridi</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>brode</cmavo>
+ <description>is-2; 2nd assignable pro-bridi</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>brodi</cmavo>
+ <description>is-3; 3rd assignable pro-bridi</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>brodo</cmavo>
+ <description>is-4; 4th assignable pro-bridi</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>brodu</cmavo>
+ <description>is-5; 5th assignable pro-bridi</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+
+ <para>go'i-series</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>go'i</cmavo>
+ <description>(repeats the last bridi)</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>go'a</cmavo>
+ <description>(repeats a previous bridi)</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>go'u</cmavo>
+ <description>(repeats a long-ago bridi)</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>go'e</cmavo>
+ <description>(repeats the last-but-one bridi)</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>go'o</cmavo>
+ <description>(repeats a future bridi)</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>nei</cmavo>
+ <description>(repeats the current bridi)</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>no'a</cmavo>
+ <description>(repeats the next outer bridi)</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+
+ <para>bu'a-series</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>bu'a</cmavo>
+ <description>some-predicate-1 (rafsi: <rafsi>bul</rafsi>)</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>bu'e</cmavo>
+ <description>some-predicate-2</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>bu'i</cmavo>
+ <description>some-predicate-3</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+
+ <para>others:</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>co'e</cmavo>
+ <description>has the obvious relationship (rafsi: <rafsi>com</rafsi>/<valsi>co'e</valsi>)</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>mo</cmavo>
+ <description>bridi question</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>du</cmavo>
+ <description role="place-structure">identity: x1 is identical to x2, x3 ...</description>
+ <!-- (rafsi: <rafsi>dub</rafsi>/<valsi>du'o</valsi>) -->
+ <rafsi>dub</rafsi>
+ <rafsi>du'o</rafsi>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-other-summary">
+ <title>Other cmavo discussed in this chapter</title>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>goi</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>GOI</selmaho>
+ <description>pro-sumti assignment (ko'a-series)</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>cei</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>CEI</selmaho>
+ <description>pro-bridi assignment (broda-series)</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ra'o</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>RAhO</selmaho>
+ <description>pro-sumti/pro-bridi update</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>soi</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>SOI</selmaho>
+ <description>reciprocity</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>se'u</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>SEhU</selmaho>
+ <description>soi terminator</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>da'o</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>DAhO</selmaho>
+ <description>cancel all pro-sumti/pro-bridi</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+ </section>
+</chapter>
diff --git a/chapters/08.xml b/chapters/08.xml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..25d7cdc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/chapters/08.xml
@@ -0,0 +1,1579 @@
+<chapter xml:id="chapter-relative-clauses">
+ <title>Relative Clauses, Which Make sumti Even More Complicated</title>
+ <mediaobject xml:id="chapter-relative-clauses-picture">
+ <alt>The picture for chapter 8</alt>
+ <imageobject>
+ <imagedata fileref="media/chapter-relative-clauses.gif"/>
+ </imageobject>
+ </mediaobject>
+
+ <section xml:id="section-poi">
+ <title>What are you pointing at?</title>
+ <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>poi</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>NOI</selmaho>
+ <description>restrictive relative clause introducer</description>
+
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ke'a</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>GOhA</selmaho>
+ <description>relative pro-sumti</description>
+
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ku'o</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>KUhO</selmaho>
+ <description>relative clause terminator</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+ <para>Let us think about the problem of communicating what it is that we are pointing at when we are pointing at something. In Lojban, we can refer to what we are pointing at by using the pro-sumti
+ <valsi>ti</valsi> if it is nearby, or
+ <valsi>ta</valsi> if it is somewhat further away, or
+ <valsi>tu</valsi> if it is distant. (Pro-sumti are explained in full in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-anaphoric-cmavo"/>.)</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>reference</primary><secondary>ambiguity of ti/ta/tu</secondary></indexterm> However, even with the assistance of a pointing finger, or pointing lips, or whatever may be appropriate in the local culture, it is often hard for a listener to tell just what is being pointed at. Suppose one is pointing at a person (in particular, in the direction of his or her face), and says:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-QzhK">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e1d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ti cu barda</jbo>
+ <gloss>This-one is-big.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>What is the referent of
+ <valsi>ti</valsi>? Is it the person? Or perhaps it is the person's nose? Or even (for
+ <valsi>ti</valsi> can be plural as well as singular, and mean
+
+ <quote>these ones</quote> as well as
+ <quote>this one</quote>) the pores on the person's nose?</para>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>reference</primary><secondary>use of relative clause for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clause</primary><secondary>use for reference</secondary></indexterm> To help solve this problem, Lojban uses a construction called a
+ <quote>relative clause</quote>. Relative clauses are usually attached to the end of sumti, but there are other places where they can go as well, as explained later in this chapter. A relative clause begins with a word of selma'o NOI, and ends with the elidable terminator
+ <valsi>ku'o</valsi> (of selma'o KUhO). As you might suppose,
+ <valsi>noi</valsi> is a cmavo of selma'o NOI; however, first we will discuss the cmavo
+ <valsi>poi</valsi>, which also belongs to selma'o NOI.</para>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ke'a</primary><secondary>as referent for relativized sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>reference</primary><secondary>to relativized sumti with ke'a</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relativized sumti</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>poi</primary><secondary>syntax of</secondary></indexterm> In between the
+ <valsi>poi</valsi> and the
+ <valsi>ku'o</valsi> appears a full bridi, with the same syntax as any other bridi. Anywhere within the bridi of a relative clause, the pro-sumti
+ <valsi>ke'a</valsi> (of selma'o KOhA) may be used, and it stands for the sumti to which the relative clause is attached (called the
+ <quote>relativized sumti</quote>). Here are some examples before we go any further:</para>
+
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLt8" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e1d2"/>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>big person</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ti poi ke'a prenu ku'o cu barda</jbo>
+ <gloss>This-thing such-that-(IT is-a-person) is-large.</gloss>
+ <gloss>This thing which is a person is big.</gloss>
+ <natlang>This person is big.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLtX" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>big nose</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e1d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ti poi ke'a nazbi ku'o cu barda</jbo>
+ <gloss>This-thing such-that-(IT is-a-nose) is-large.</gloss>
+ <gloss>This thing which is a nose is big.</gloss>
+ <natlang>This nose is big.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLuj" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>big nose-pores</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e1d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ti poi ke'a nazbi kapkevna ku'o cu barda</jbo>
+ <gloss>This-thing such-that-(IT is-a-nose-type-of skin-hole) is-big.</gloss>
+ <gloss>These things which are nose-pores are big.</gloss>
+ <natlang>These nose-pores are big.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>
+
+<indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>IT</primary><secondary>as notation convention in relative clause chapter</secondary></indexterm> In the literal translations throughout this chapter, the word
+ <quote>IT</quote>, capitalized, is used to represent the cmavo
+ <valsi>ke'a</valsi>. In each case, it serves to represent the sumti (in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLt8"/> through
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLuj"/>, the cmavo
+ <valsi>ti</valsi>) to which the relative clause is attached.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ke'a</primary><secondary>non-initial place use in relative clause</secondary></indexterm> Of course, there is no reason why
+ <valsi>ke'a</valsi> needs to appear in the x1 place of a relative clause bridi; it can appear in any place, or indeed even in a sub-bridi within the relative clause bridi. Here are two more examples:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLUV" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e1d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>tu poi le mlatu pu lacpu ke'a ku'o cu ratcu</jbo>
+ <gloss>That-distant-thing such-that (the cat [past] drags IT) is-a-rat.</gloss>
+ <gloss>That thing which the cat dragged is a rat.</gloss>
+ <natlang>What the cat dragged is a rat.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLxF" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e1d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ta poi mi djica le nu mi ponse ke'a [kei] ku'o cu bloti</jbo>
+ <gloss>That-thing such-that( I desire the event-of( I own IT ) ) is-a-boat.</gloss>
+ <natlang>That thing that I want to own is a boat.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>In
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLxF"/>,
+ <valsi>ke'a</valsi> appears in an abstraction clause (abstractions are explained in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-abstractions"/>) within a relative clause.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clause</primary><secondary>effect of omission of <valsi>ke'a</valsi> on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ke'a</primary><secondary>effect of omission of</secondary></indexterm> Like any sumti,
+ <valsi>ke'a</valsi> can be omitted. The usual presumption in that case is that it then falls into the x1 place:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sMHH">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e1d7"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ti poi nazbi cu barda</jbo>
+ <gloss>This-thing which is-a-nose is-big.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>almost certainly means the same thing as
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLtX"/>. However,
+ <valsi>ke'a</valsi> can be omitted if it is clear to the listener that it belongs in some place other than x1:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-cUsJ">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e1d8"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>tu poi le mlatu pu lacpu cu ratcu</jbo>
+ <gloss>That-distant-thing which the cat [past] drags is-a-rat</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>is equivalent to
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLuj"/>.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ku'o</primary><secondary>elidability for relative clauses</secondary></indexterm> As stated before,
+ <valsi>ku'o</valsi> is an elidable terminator, and in fact it is almost always elidable. Throughout the rest of this chapter,
+ <valsi>ku'o</valsi> will not be written in any of the examples unless it is absolutely required: thus,
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLt8"/> can be written:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-MtNs">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e1d9"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ti poi prenu cu barda</jbo>
+ <gloss>That which is-a-person is-big.</gloss>
+ <natlang>That person is big.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>poi</primary><secondary>discussion of translation</secondary></indexterm> without any change in meaning. Note that
+ <valsi>poi</valsi> is translated
+ <quote>which</quote> rather than
+ <quote>such-that</quote> when
+ <valsi>ke'a</valsi> has been omitted from the x1 place of the relative clause bridi. The word
+ <quote>which</quote> is used in English to introduce English relative clauses: other words that can be used are
+ <quote>who</quote> and
+ <quote>that</quote>, as in:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-j5ym">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e1d10"/>
+ </title>
+ <para>I saw a man who was going to the store.</para>
+ </example>
+ <para>and</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-J9yC">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e1d11"/>
+ </title>
+ <para>The building that the school was located in is large.</para>
+ </example>
+ <para>In
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-j5ym"/> the relative clause is
+ <quote>who was going to the store</quote>, and in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-J9yC"/> it is
+ <quote>that the school was located in</quote>. Sometimes
+ <quote>who</quote>,
+ <quote>which</quote>, and
+ <quote>that</quote> are used in literal translations in this chapter in order to make them read more smoothly.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-noi">
+ <title>Incidental relative clauses</title>
+ <para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>noi</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>NOI</selmaho>
+ <description>incidental relative clause introducer</description>
+
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>restricted contrasted with incidental</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-restrictive relative clause</primary><secondary>definition (see also incidental relative clause)</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>incidental relative clause</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>restrictive relative clause</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clause</primary><secondary>restrictive (see also restrictive relative clause)</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>kinds of</secondary></indexterm> There are two basic kinds of relative clauses: restrictive relative clauses introduced by
+
+ <valsi>poi</valsi>, and incidental (sometimes called simply
+ <quote>non-restrictive</quote>) relative clauses introduced by
+ <valsi>noi</valsi>. The difference between restrictive and incidental relative clauses is that restrictive clauses provide information that is essential to identifying the referent of the sumti to which they are attached, whereas incidental relative clauses provide additional information which is helpful to the listener but is not essential for identifying the referent of the sumti. All of the examples in
+ <xref linkend="section-poi"/> are restrictive relative clauses: the information in the relative clause is essential to identification. (The title of this chapter, though, uses an incidental relative clause.)</para>
+
+
+ <para>Consider the following examples:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLXK" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e2d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le gerku poi blanu cu barda</jbo>
+ <gloss>The dog which is-blue is-large.</gloss>
+ <natlang>The dog which is blue is large.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLys" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e2d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le gerku noi blanu cu barda</jbo>
+ <gloss>The dog incidentally-which is-blue is-large.</gloss>
+ <natlang>The dog, which is blue, is large.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>In
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLXK"/>, the information conveyed by
+ <jbophrase>poi blanu</jbophrase> is essential to identifying the dog in question: it restricts the possible referents from dogs in general to dogs that are blue. This is why
+ <valsi>poi</valsi> relative clauses are called restrictive. In
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLys"/>, on the other hand, the dog which is referred to has presumably already been identified clearly, and the relative clause
+ <jbophrase>noi blanu</jbophrase> just provides additional information about it. (If in fact the dog hasn't been identified clearly, then the relative clause does not help identify it further.)</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>incidental relative clause</primary><secondary>as a parenthetical device</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>comma</primary><secondary>effect on relative clause in English</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>effect of commas in English</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>restricted contrasted with incidental in English expression</secondary></indexterm> In English, the distinction between restrictive and incidental relative clauses is expressed in writing by surrounding incidental, but not restrictive, clauses with commas. These commas are functioning as parentheses, because incidental relative clauses are essentially parenthetical. This distinction in punctuation is represented in speech by a difference in tone of voice. In addition, English restrictive relative clauses can be introduced by
+
+
+ <quote>that</quote> as well as
+ <quote>which</quote> and
+ <quote>who</quote>, whereas incidental relative clauses cannot begin with
+ <quote>that</quote>. Lojban, however, always uses the cmavo
+ <valsi>poi</valsi> and
+ <valsi>noi</valsi> rather than punctuation or intonation to make the distinction.</para>
+ <para>Here are more examples of incidental relative clauses:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-WxJo">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e2d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi noi jdice cu zvati</jbo>
+ <gloss>I who-incidentally am-a-judge am-at [some-place].</gloss>
+ <natlang>I, a judge, am present.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>In this example,
+ <valsi>mi</valsi> is already sufficiently restricted, and the additional information that I am a judge is being provided solely for the listener's edification.</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pR53">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e2d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>xu do viska le mi karce noi blabi</jbo>
+ <gloss>[True?] You see my car incidentally-which is-white.</gloss>
+ <natlang>Do you see my car, which is white?</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>In
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-pR53"/>, the speaker is presumed to have only one car, and is providing incidental information that it is white. (Alternatively, he or she might have more than one car, since
+ <jbophrase>le karce</jbophrase> can be plural, in which case the incidental information is that each of them is white.) Contrast
+
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-0qU1"/> with a restrictive relative clause:</para>
+
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-0qU1">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e2d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>xu do viska le mi karce poi blabi</jbo>
+ <gloss>[True?] You see my car which is-white.</gloss>
+ <gloss>Do you see my car that is white?</gloss>
+ <natlang>Do you see my white car?</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clause</primary><secondary>compared with tanru</secondary></indexterm> Here the speaker probably has several cars, and is restricting the referent of the sumti
+ <jbophrase>le mi karce</jbophrase> (and thereby the listener's attention) to the white one only.
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-0qU1"/> means much the same as
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-zsQ6"/>, which does not use a relative clause:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-zsQ6">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e2d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>xu do viska le mi blabi karce</jbo>
+ <gloss>[True?] You see my white car.</gloss>
+ <natlang>Do you see my car, the white one?</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clause</primary><secondary>contrasted with tanru</secondary></indexterm> So a restrictive relative clause attached to a description can often mean the same as a description involving a tanru. However,
+
+ <jbophrase>blabi karce</jbophrase>, like all tanru, is somewhat vague: in principle, it might refer to a car which carries white things, or even express some more complicated concept involving whiteness and car-ness; the restrictive relative clause of
+
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-0qU1"/> can only refer to a car which is white, not to any more complex or extended concept.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-relative-phrases">
+ <title>Relative phrases</title>
+ <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>pe</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>GOI</selmaho>
+ <description>restrictive association</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>po</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>GOI</selmaho>
+ <description>restrictive possession</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>po'e</cmavo>
+
+ <selmaho>GOI</selmaho>
+ <description>restrictive intrinsic possession</description>
+
+
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>po'u</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>GOI</selmaho>
+ <description>restrictive identification</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ne</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>GOI</selmaho>
+ <description>incidental association</description>
+
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>no'u</cmavo>
+
+ <selmaho>GOI</selmaho>
+ <description>incidental identification</description>
+
+
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ge'u</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>GEhU</selmaho>
+ <description>relative phrase terminator</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative phrase</primary><secondary>as an abbreviation of a common relative clause</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative phrase</primary><secondary>syntax of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative phrase</primary><secondary>rationale for</secondary></indexterm> There are types of relative clauses (those which have a certain selbri) which are frequently wanted in Lojban, and can be expressed using a shortcut called a relative phrase. Relative phrases are introduced by cmavo of selma'o GOI, and consist of a GOI cmavo followed by a single sumti.</para>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>loose association</primary><secondary>expressing with pe</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pe</primary><secondary>as loose association</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pe</primary><secondary>compared with <jbophrase>poi ke'a srana</jbophrase></secondary></indexterm> Here is an example of
+ <valsi>pe</valsi>, plus an equivalent sentence using a relative clause:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qM04" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e3d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le stizu pe mi cu blanu</jbo>
+ <gloss>The chair associated-with me is-blue.</gloss>
+ <natlang>My chair is blue.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qM1W" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e3d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le stizu poi ke'a srana mi cu blanu</jbo>
+ <gloss>The chair such-that( IT is-associated-with me) is-blue.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>In
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qM04"/> and
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qM1W"/>, the link between the chair and the speaker is of the loosest kind.</para>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>specificity</primary><secondary>expressing with po</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>possession</primary><secondary>expressing with po</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>po</primary><secondary>as restrictive possession</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>po</primary><secondary>compared with <jbophrase>poi ke'a se steci srana</jbophrase></secondary></indexterm> Here is an example of
+ <valsi>po</valsi>:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qM3D" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e3d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le stizu po mi cu xunre</jbo>
+ <gloss>The chair specific-to me is red.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qm3I" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e3d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le stizu poi ke'a se steci srana mi cu xunre</jbo>
+ <gloss>The chair such-that (IT is-specifically associated-with me) is-red.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>po</primary><secondary>contrasted with pe</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pe</primary><secondary>contrasted with po</secondary></indexterm>
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qM3D"/> and
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qm3I"/> contrast with
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qM04"/> and
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qM1W"/>: the chair is more permanently connected with the speaker. A plausible (though not the only possible) contrast between
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qM04"/> and
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qM3D"/> is that
+ <jbophrase>pe mi</jbophrase> would be appropriate for a chair the speaker is currently sitting on (whether or not the speaker owned that chair), and
+ <jbophrase>po mi</jbophrase> for a chair owned by the speaker (whether or not he or she was currently occupying it).</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>po</primary><secondary>contrasted with English <quote>possession</quote></secondary></indexterm> As a result, the relationship expressed between two sumti by
+ <valsi>po</valsi> is usually called
+ <quote>possession</quote>, although it does not necessarily imply ownership, legal or otherwise. The central concept is that of specificity (
+
+ <valsi>steci</valsi> in Lojban).</para>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>inalienable possession</primary><secondary>expressing with po'e</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>intrinsic possession</primary><secondary>expressing with po'e</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>possession</primary><secondary>intrinsic</secondary><tertiary>expressing with po'e</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>po'e</primary><secondary>as intrinsic possession</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>po'e</primary><secondary>compared with <jbophrase>poi ke'a jinzi ke se steci srana</jbophrase></secondary></indexterm> Here is an example of
+ <valsi>po'e</valsi>, as well as another example of
+
+ <valsi>po</valsi>:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qM3Q" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e3d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le birka po'e mi cu spofu</jbo>
+
+ <gloss>The arm intrinsically-possessed-by me is-broken</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qm5E" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>person's arm</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e3d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le birka poi jinzi ke se steci srana mi cu spofu</jbo>
+ <gloss>The arm which is-intrinsically (specifically associated-with) me is-broken.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qm7W" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e3d7"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le botpi po mi cu spofu</jbo>
+ <gloss>The bottle specific-to me is-broken</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>
+
+
+ <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>alienable possession</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>extrinsic possession</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>inalienable possession</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>intrinsic possession</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>po</primary><secondary>contrasted with po'e</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>po'e</primary><secondary>contrasted with po</secondary></indexterm>
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qM3Q"/> and
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qm5E"/> on the one hand, and
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qm7W"/> on the other, illustrate the contrast between two types of possession called
+ <quote>intrinsic</quote> and
+ <quote>extrinsic</quote>, or sometimes
+ <quote>inalienable</quote> and
+
+ <quote>alienable</quote>, respectively. Something is intrinsically (or inalienably) possessed by someone if the possession is part of the possessor, and cannot be changed without changing the possessor. In the case of
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qM3Q"/>, people are usually taken to intrinsically possess their arms: even if an arm is cut off, it remains the arm of that person. (If the arm is transplanted to another person, however, it becomes intrinsically possessed by the new user, though, so intrinsic possession is a matter of degree.)</para>
+
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>inalienable</primary><secondary>distinguishing from alienable</secondary></indexterm> By contrast, the bottle of
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qm7W"/> can be given away, or thrown away, or lost, or stolen, so it is possessed extrinsically (alienably). The exact line between intrinsic and extrinsic possession is culturally dependent. The U.S. Declaration of Independence speaks of the
+
+ <quote>inalienable rights</quote> of men, but just what those rights are, and even whether the concept makes sense at all, varies from culture to culture.</para>
+
+ <para>Note that
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qM3Q"/> can also be expressed without a relative clause:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-bF0U">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e3d8"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le birka be mi cu spofu</jbo>
+ <gloss>The arm of-body me is broken</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>intrinsic possession</primary><secondary>expressing by using place in some selbri</secondary></indexterm> reflecting the fact that the gismu
+ <valsi>birka</valsi> has an x2 place representing the body to which the arm belongs. Many, but not all, cases of intrinsic possession can be thus covered without using
+
+
+ <valsi>po'e</valsi> by placing the possessor into the appropriate place of the description selbri.</para>
+
+ <para>Here is an example of
+ <valsi>po'u</valsi>:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qM8u" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e3d9"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le gerku po'u le mi pendo cu cinba mi</jbo>
+ <gloss>The dog which-is my friend kisses me.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qm90" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e3d10"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le gerku poi du le mi pendo cu cinba mi</jbo>
+ <gloss>The dog which = my friend kisses me.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>identity</primary><secondary>expressing with po'u</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>po'u</primary><secondary>as identity</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>po'u</primary><secondary>compared with <jbophrase>poi ke'a du</jbophrase></secondary></indexterm> The cmavo
+ <valsi>po'u</valsi> does not represent possession at all, but rather identity. (Note that it means
+ <jbophrase>poi du</jbophrase> and its form was chosen to suggest the relationship.)</para>
+ <para>In
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qM8u"/>, the use of
+ <valsi>po'u</valsi> tells us that
+ <jbophrase>le gerku</jbophrase> and
+ <jbophrase>le mi pendo</jbophrase> represent the same thing. Consider the contrast between
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qM8u"/> and:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-wARJ">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e3d11"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le mi pendo po'u le gerku cu cinba mi</jbo>
+ <gloss>My friend which-is the dog kisses me.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>po'u</primary><secondary>relative phrase of contrasted with relativized sumti of</secondary></indexterm> The facts of the case are the same, but the listener's knowledge about the situation may not be. In
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qM8u"/>, the listener is presumed not to understand which dog is meant by
+ <jbophrase>le gerku</jbophrase>, so the speaker adds a relative phrase clarifying that it is the particular dog which is the speaker's friend.</para>
+ <para>
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-wARJ"/>, however, assumes that the listener does not know which of the speaker's friends is referred to, and specifies that it is the friend that is the dog (which dog is taken to be obvious). Here is another example of the same contrast:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMAd" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>New York city</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e3d12"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le tcadu po'u la nu,iork</jbo>
+ <natlang>The city of New York [not another city]</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qmaY" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>New York state</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>New York city</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e3d13"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la nu,iork po'u le tcadu</jbo>
+ <natlang>New York the city (not the state or some other New York)</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>
+
+
+ <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>possessed in relative phrases</primary><secondary>compared with possessor</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>possessor in relative phrases</primary><secondary>compared with possessed</secondary></indexterm> The principle that the possessor and the possessed may change places applies to all the GOI cmavo, and allows for the possibility of odd effects:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMb2" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e3d14"/>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>friend's cup</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le kabri pe le mi pendo cu cmalu</jbo>
+ <gloss>The cup associated-with my friend is small.</gloss>
+ <natlang>My friend's cup is small</natlang>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qmbn" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e3d15"/>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>cup's friend</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le mi pendo pe le kabri cu cmalu</jbo>
+ <gloss>My friend associated-with the cup is small.</gloss>
+ <natlang>My friend, the one with the cup, is small.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>
+
+
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMb2"/> is useful in a context which is about my friend, and states that his or her cup is small, whereas
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qmbn"/> is useful in a context that is primarily about a certain cup, and makes a claim about
+ <quote>my friend of the cup</quote>, as opposed to some other friend of mine. Here the cup appears to
+ <quote>possess</quote> the person! English can't even express this relationship with a possessive –
+ <quote>the cup's friend of mine</quote> looks like nonsense – but Lojban has no trouble doing so.</para>
+
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>incidental identification</primary><secondary>expressing with no'u</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>incidental association</primary><secondary>expressing with ne</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>po'u</primary><secondary>compared with no'u</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pe</primary><secondary>compared with ne</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>no'u</primary><secondary>compared with po'u</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ne</primary><secondary>compared with pe</secondary></indexterm> Finally, the cmavo
+ <valsi>ne</valsi> and
+ <valsi>no'u</valsi> stand to
+
+ <valsi>pe</valsi> and
+ <valsi>po'u</valsi>, respectively, as
+ <valsi>noi</valsi> does to
+ <jbophrase>poi-</jbophrase> they provide incidental information:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Arj8">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e3d16"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le blabi gerku ne mi cu batci do</jbo>
+ <gloss>The white dog, incidentally-associated-with me, bites you.</gloss>
+ <natlang>The white dog, which is mine, bites you.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>In
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-Arj8"/>, the white dog is already fully identified (after all, presumably the listener knows which dog bit him or her!). The fact that it is yours is merely incidental to the main bridi claim.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>po'u</primary><secondary>contrasted with no'u</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>no'u</primary><secondary>contrasted with po'u</secondary></indexterm> Distinguishing between
+ <valsi>po'u</valsi> and
+ <valsi>no'u</valsi> can be a little tricky. Consider a room with several men in it, one of whom is named Jim. If you don't know their names, I might say:</para>
+
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-DSf4">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e3d17"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le nanmu no'u la djim. cu terpemci</jbo>
+
+ <gloss>The man, incidentally-who-is Jim, is-a-poet.</gloss>
+ <natlang>The man, Jim, is a poet.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>Here I am saying that one of the men is a poet, and incidentally telling you that he is Jim. But if you do know the names, then</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-y8nH">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e3d18"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le nanmu po'u la djim. cu terpemci</jbo>
+ <gloss>The man who-is Jim is-a-poet.</gloss>
+ <natlang>The man Jim is a poet.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>is appropriate. Now I am using the fact that the man I am speaking of is Jim in order to pick out which man I mean.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>possession</primary><secondary>Lojban usage compared with French and German in omission/inclusion</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>possession</primary><secondary>Lojban usage contrasted with English in omission/inclusion</secondary></indexterm> It is worth mentioning that English sometimes over-specifies possession from the Lojban point of view (and the point of view of many other languages, including ones closely related to English). The idiomatic English sentence</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-GXyS">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e3d19"/>
+ </title>
+ <para>The man put his hands in his pockets.</para>
+ </example>
+ <para>seems strange to a French- or German-speaking person: whose pockets would he put his hands into? and even odder, whose hands would he put into his pockets? In Lojban, the sentence</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-V4R1">
+ <title>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>hands in pockets</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e3d20"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le nanmu cu punji le xance le daski</jbo>
+ <gloss>The man puts the hand at-locus-the pocket.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>
+
+
+ is very natural. Of course, if the man is in fact putting his hands into another's pockets, or another's hands into his pockets, the fact can be specified.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>goi</primary><secondary>rationale for non-inclusion in relative clause chapter</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ge'u</primary><secondary>effect of following logical connective on elidability</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connectives</primary><secondary>effect on elidability of ge'u from preceding relative phrase</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ge'u</primary><secondary>elidability of from relative phrases</secondary></indexterm> Finally, the elidable terminator for GOI cmavo is
+ <valsi>ge'u</valsi> of selma'o GEhU; it is almost never required. However, if a logical connective immediately follows a sumti modified by a relative phrase, then an explicit
+ <valsi>ge'u</valsi> is needed to allow the connective to affect the relativized sumti rather than the sumti of the relative phrase. (What about the cmavo after which selma'o GOI is named? It is discussed in
+
+ <xref linkend="section-koha-broda-series"/>, as it is not semantically akin to the other kinds of relative phrases, although the syntax is the same.)</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-zihe">
+ <title>Multiple relative clauses:
+ <valsi>zi'e</valsi></title>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>zi'e</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>ZIhE</selmaho>
+ <description>relative clause joiner</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple relative clauses</primary><secondary>attaching with zi'e</secondary></indexterm> Sometimes it is necessary or useful to attach more than one relative clause to a sumti. This is made possible in Lojban by the cmavo
+ <valsi>zi'e</valsi> (of selma'o ZIhE), which is used to join one or more relative clauses together into a single unit, thus making them apply to the same sumti. For example:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-HBMR">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e4d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le gerku poi blabi zi'e poi batci le nanmu cu klama</jbo>
+ <natlang>The dog which is white and which bites the man goes.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>zi'e</primary><secondary>compared with English <quote>and</quote></secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>zi'e</primary><secondary>contrasted with logical connectives</secondary></indexterm> The most usual translation of
+ <valsi>zi'e</valsi> in English is
+ <quote>and</quote>, but
+ <valsi>zi'e</valsi> is not really a logical connective: unlike most of the true logical connectives (which are explained in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-connectives"/>), it cannot be converted into a logical connection between sentences.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative phrase</primary><secondary>connecting to relative clause with zi'e</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clause</primary><secondary>connecting to relative phrase with zi'e</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple relative clauses</primary><secondary>connecting different kinds with zi'e</secondary></indexterm> It is perfectly correct to use
+ <valsi>zi'e</valsi> to connect relative clauses of different kinds:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Vbm7">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e4d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le gerku poi blabi zi'e noi le mi pendo cu ponse ke'a cu klama</jbo>
+ <gloss>The dog that-is (white) and incidentally-such-that (my friend owns IT) goes.</gloss>
+ <natlang>The dog that is white, which my friend owns, is going.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>In
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-Vbm7"/>, the restrictive clause
+ <jbophrase>poi blabi</jbophrase> specifies which dog is referred to, but the incidental clause
+ <jbophrase>noi le mi pendo cu ponse</jbophrase> is mere incidental information: the listener is supposed to already have identified the dog from the
+ <jbophrase>poi blabi</jbophrase>. Of course, the meaning (though not necessarily the emphasis) is the same if the incidental clause appears first.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>zi'e</primary><secondary>use in connecting relative phrase/clause to relative phrase/clause</secondary></indexterm> It is also possible to connect relative phrases with
+ <valsi>zi'e</valsi>, or a relative phrase with a relative clause:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-36tm">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e4d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le botpi po mi zi'e poi blanu cu spofu</jbo>
+ <gloss>The bottle specific-to me and which-is blue is-broken.</gloss>
+ <natlang>My blue bottle is broken.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>Note that if the colloquial translation of
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-36tm"/> were
+ <quote>My bottle, which is blue, is broken</quote>, then
+ <valsi>noi</valsi> rather than
+ <valsi>poi</valsi> would have been correct in the Lojban version, since that version of the English implies that you do not need to know the bottle is blue. As written,
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-36tm"/> suggests that I probably have more than one bottle, and the one in question needs to be picked out as the blue one.</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-FapT">
+ <title>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>my chair</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e4d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi ba zutse le stizu pe mi zi'e po do zi'e poi xunre</jbo>
+ <gloss>I [future] sit-in the chair associated-with me and specific-to you and which-is red.</gloss>
+ <natlang>I will sit in my chair (really yours), the red one.</natlang>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>
+
+
+
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-FapT"/> illustrates that more than two relative phrases or clauses can be connected with
+ <valsi>zi'e</valsi>. It almost defies colloquial translation because of the very un-English contrast between
+ <jbophrase>pe mi</jbophrase>, implying that the chair is temporarily connected with me, and
+ <jbophrase>po do</jbophrase>, implying that the chair has a more permanent association with you. (Perhaps I am a guest in your house, in which case the chair would naturally be your property.)</para>
+ <para>Here is another example, mixing a relative phrase and two relative clauses, a restrictive one and a non-restrictive one:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-erma">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e4d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi ba citka le dembi pe mi zi'e poi cpana le mi palta zi'e noi do dunda ke'a mi</jbo>
+ <gloss>I [future] eat the beans associated-with me and which are-upon my plate and which-incidentally you gave IT to-me.</gloss>
+ <natlang>I'll eat my beans that are on my plate, the ones you gave me.</natlang>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-voi">
+ <title>Non-veridical relative clauses:
+ <valsi>voi</valsi></title>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>voi</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>NOI</selmaho>
+ <description>non-veridical relative clause introducer</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+ <para>There is another member of selma'o NOI which serves to introduce a third kind of relative clause:
+ <valsi>voi</valsi>. Relative clauses introduced by
+ <valsi>voi</valsi> are restrictive, like those introduced by
+ <valsi>poi</valsi>. However, there is a fundamental difference between
+ <valsi>poi</valsi> and
+ <valsi>voi</valsi> relative clauses. A
+ <valsi>poi</valsi> relative clause is said to be veridical, in the same sense that a description using
+ <valsi>lo</valsi> or
+ <valsi>loi</valsi> is: it is essential to the interpretation that the bridi actually be true. For example:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pcvP">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e5d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le gerku poi blabi cu klama</jbo>
+ <gloss>The dog which is-white goes.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>it must actually be true that the dog is white, or the sentence constitutes a miscommunication. If there is a white dog and a brown dog, and the speaker uses
+ <jbophrase>le gerku poi blabi</jbophrase> to refer to the brown dog, then the listener will not understand correctly. However,</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-BDgn">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e5d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le gerku voi blabi cu klama</jbo>
+ <gloss>The dog which-I-describe-as white goes.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>puts the listener on notice that the dog in question may not actually meet objective standards (whatever they are) for being white: only the speaker can say exactly what is meant by the term. In this way,
+ <valsi>voi</valsi> is like
+ <valsi>le</valsi>; the speaker's intention determines the meaning.</para>
+ <para>As a result, the following two sentences</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMCc" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e5d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le nanmu cu ninmu</jbo>
+ <gloss>That-which-I-describe-as a-man is-a-woman.</gloss>
+ <natlang>The
+ <quote>guy</quote> is actually a gal.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qmcE" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e5d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ti voi nanmu cu ninmu</jbo>
+ <gloss>This-thing which-I-describe-as a-man is-a-woman.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>mean essentially the same thing (except that
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qmcE"/> involves pointing thanks to the use of
+ <valsi>ti</valsi>, whereas
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMCc"/> doesn't), and neither one is self-contradictory: it is perfectly all right to describe something as a man (although perhaps confusing to the listener) even if it actually is a woman.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-descriptors">
+ <title>Relative clauses and descriptors</title>
+ <para>So far, this chapter has described the various kinds of relative clauses (including relative phrases). The list is now complete, and the rest of the chapter will be concerned with the syntax of sumti that include relative clauses. So far, all relative clauses have appeared directly after the sumti to which they are attached. This is the most common position (and originally the only one), but a variety of other placements are also possible which produce a variety of semantic effects.</para>
+ <para>There are actually three places where a relative clause can be attached to a description sumti: after the descriptor (
+ <valsi>le</valsi>,
+ <valsi>lo</valsi>, or whatever), after the embedded selbri but before the elidable terminator (which is
+ <valsi>ku</valsi>), and after the
+ <valsi>ku</valsi>. The relative clauses attached to descriptors that we have seen have occupied the second position. Thus
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-pcvP"/>, if written out with all elidable terminators, would appear as:</para>
+
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-UmLX">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e6d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le gerku poi blabi ku'o ku cu klama vau</jbo>
+ <gloss>The (dog which (is-white) ) goes.</gloss>
+ <natlang>The dog which is white is going.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>Here
+ <valsi>ku'o</valsi> is the terminator paired with
+ <valsi>poi</valsi> and
+ <valsi>ku</valsi> with
+ <valsi>le</valsi>, and
+ <valsi>vau</valsi> is the terminator of the whole bridi.</para>
+ <para>When a simple descriptor using
+ <valsi>le</valsi>, like
+ <jbophrase>le gerku</jbophrase>, has a relative clause attached, it is purely a matter of style and emphasis where the relative clause should go. Therefore, the following examples are all equivalent in meaning to
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-UmLX"/>:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qmCQ" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e6d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le poi blabi ku'o gerku cu klama</jbo>
+ <gloss>The such-that (it-is-white) dog goes.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMct" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e6d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le gerku ku poi blabi cu klama</jbo>
+ <gloss>The (dog) which is-white goes.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-UmLX"/> will seem most natural to speakers of languages like English, which always puts relative clauses after the noun phrases they are attached to;
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qmCQ"/>, on the other hand, may seem more natural to Finnish or Chinese speakers, who put the relative clause first. Note that in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qmCQ"/>, the elidable terminator
+ <valsi>ku'o</valsi> must appear, or the selbri of the relative clause (
+ <valsi>blabi</valsi>) will merge with the selbri of the description (
+ <valsi>gerku</valsi>), resulting in an ungrammatical sentence. The purpose of the form appearing in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMct"/> will be apparent shortly.</para>
+ <para>As is explained in detail in
+ <xref linkend="section-quantified-descriptions"/>, two different numbers (known as the
+ <quote>inner quantifier</quote> and the
+ <quote>outer quantifier</quote>) can be attached to a description. The inner quantifier specifies how many things the descriptor refers to: it appears between the descriptor and the description selbri. The outer quantifier appears before the descriptor, and specifies how many of the things referred to by the descriptor are involved in this particular bridi. In the following example,</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3nJN">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e6d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>re le mu prenu cu klama le zarci</jbo>
+ <gloss>Two-of the five persons go to-the market.</gloss>
+ <natlang>Two of the five people [that I have in mind] are going to the market.</natlang>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>
+ <valsi>mu</valsi> is the inner quantifier and
+ <valsi>re</valsi> is the outer quantifier. Now what is meant by attaching a relative clause to the sumti
+ <jbophrase>re le mu prenu</jbophrase>? Suppose the relative clause is
+ <jbophrase>poi ninmu</jbophrase> (meaning
+ <quote>who are women</quote>). Now the three possible attachment points discussed previously take on significance.</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMdb" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e6d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>re le poi ninmu ku'o mu prenu cu klama le zarci</jbo>
+ <gloss>Two of the such-that([they] are-women) five persons go to-the market.</gloss>
+ <natlang>Two women out of the five persons go to the market.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qmDo" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e6d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>re le mu prenu poi ninmu [ku] cu klama le zarci</jbo>
+ <gloss>Two of the (five persons which are-women) go to-the market.</gloss>
+ <natlang>Two of the five women go to the market.</natlang>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMDQ" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e6d7"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>re le mu prenu ku poi ninmu cu klama le zarci</jbo>
+ <gloss>(Two of the five persons) which are-women go to-the market.</gloss>
+ <natlang>Two women out of the five persons go to the market.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>As the parentheses show,
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qmDo"/> means that all five of the persons are women, whereas
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMDQ"/> means that the two who are going to the market are women. How do we remember which is which? If the relative clause comes after the explicit
+ <valsi>ku</valsi>, as in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMDQ"/>, then the sumti as a whole is qualified by the relative clause. If there is no
+ <valsi>ku</valsi>, or if the relative clause comes before an explicit
+ <valsi>ku</valsi>, then the relative clause is understood to apply to everything which the underlying selbri applies to.</para>
+ <para>What about
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMdb"/>? By convention, it means the same as
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMDQ"/>, and it requires no
+ <valsi>ku</valsi>, but it does typically require a
+ <valsi>ku'o</valsi> instead. Note that the relative clause comes before the inner quantifier.</para>
+ <para>When
+ <valsi>le</valsi> is the descriptor being used, and the sumti has no explicit outer quantifier, then the outer quantifier is understood to be
+ <valsi>ro</valsi> (meaning
+ <quote>all</quote>), as is explained in
+ <xref linkend="section-quantified-descriptions"/>. Thus
+ <jbophrase>le gerku</jbophrase> is taken to mean
+ <quote>all of the things I refer to as dogs</quote>, possibly all one of them. In that case, there is no difference between a relative clause after the
+ <valsi>ku</valsi> or before it. However, if the descriptor is
+ <valsi>lo</valsi>, the difference is quite important:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qmDS" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e6d8"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>lo prenu ku noi blabi cu klama le zarci</jbo>
+ <gloss>(Some persons) incidentally-which are-white go to-the market.</gloss>
+ <natlang>Some people, who are white, go to the market.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qmdX" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e6d9"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>lo prenu noi blabi [ku] cu klama le zarci</jbo>
+ <gloss>Some (persons incidentally-which are-white) go to-the market.</gloss>
+ <natlang>Some of the people, who by the way are white, go to the market.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>Both
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qmDS"/> and
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qmdX"/> tell us that one or more persons are going to the market. However, they make very different incidental claims. Now, what does
+ <jbophrase>lo prenu noi blabi</jbophrase> mean? Well, the default inner quantifier is
+ <valsi>ro</valsi> (meaning
+ <quote>all</quote>), and the default outer quantifier is
+ <valsi>su'o</valsi> (meaning
+ <quote>at least one</quote>). Therefore, we must first take all persons, then choose at least one of them. That one or more people will be going.</para>
+
+ <para>In
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qmDS"/>, the relative clause described the sumti once the outer quantifier was applied: one or more people, who are white, are going. But in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qmdX"/>, the relative clause actually describes the sumti before the outer quantification is applied, so that it ends up meaning
+ <quote>First take all persons – by the way, they're all white</quote>. But not all people are white, so the incidental claim being made here is false.</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses on lo</primary><secondary>syntax suggestion</secondary></indexterm> The safe strategy, therefore, is to always use
+ <valsi>ku</valsi> when attaching a
+ <valsi>noi</valsi> relative clause to a
+ <valsi>lo</valsi> descriptor. Otherwise we may end up claiming far too much.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses and names</primary><secondary>placement considerations</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>on names</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>as part of name</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>impact of la on placement</secondary></indexterm> When the descriptor is
+ <valsi>la</valsi>, indicating that what follows is a selbri used for naming, then the positioning of relative clauses has a different significance. A relative clause inside the
+ <valsi>ku</valsi>, whether before or after the selbri, is reckoned part of the name; a relative clause outside the
+ <valsi>ku</valsi> is not. Therefore,</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-JYj4">
+ <title>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>afraid of horse</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e6d10"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi viska la nanmu poi terpa le ke'a xirma [ku]</jbo>
+ <gloss>I see that-named (
+ <quote>man which fears the of-IT horse</quote>).</gloss>
+ <natlang>I see Man Afraid Of His Horse.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>
+
+
+ says that the speaker sees a person with a particular name, who does not necessarily fear any horses, whereas</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9GWR">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e6d11"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi viska la nanmu ku poi terpa le ke'a xirma.</jbo>
+ <gloss>I see that-named(
+ <quote>Man</quote>) which fears the of-IT horse.</gloss>
+ <natlang>I see the person named
+ <quote>Man</quote> who is afraid of his horse.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>refers to one (or more) of those named
+ <quote>Man</quote>, namely the one(s) who are afraid of their horses.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses and indefinite sumti</primary><secondary>placement considerations</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>impact of indefinite sumti on placement</secondary></indexterm> Finally, so-called indefinite sumti like
+
+
+ <jbophrase>re karce</jbophrase>, which means almost the same as
+ <jbophrase>re lo karce</jbophrase> (which in turn means the same as
+ <jbophrase>re lo ro karce</jbophrase>), can have relative clauses attached; these are taken to be of the outside-the-
+ <valsi>ku</valsi> variety. Here is an example:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-J11I">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e6d12"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi ponse re karce [ku] poi xekri</jbo>
+ <gloss>I possess two cars which-are black.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses on indefinite sumti</primary><secondary>syntax considerations</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>syntax with indefinite sumti</secondary></indexterm> The restrictive relative clause only affects the two cars being affected by the main bridi, not all cars that exist. It is ungrammatical to try to place a relative clause within an indefinite sumti (that is, before an explicitly expressed terminating
+
+
+
+ <valsi>ku</valsi>.) Use an explicit
+ <valsi>lo</valsi> instead.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-possessive-sumti">
+ <title>Possessive sumti</title>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>possessive sumti</primary><secondary>compared with relative phrase</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative phrase</primary><secondary>compared with possessive sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>between descriptor and description selbri</secondary></indexterm> In
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-pR53"/> through
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-zsQ6"/>, the sumti
+ <jbophrase>le mi karce</jbophrase> appears, glossed as
+ <quote>my car</quote>. Although it might not seem so, this sumti actually contains a relative phrase. When a sumti appears between a descriptor and its description selbri, it is actually a
+ <valsi>pe</valsi> relative phrase. So</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pALv">
+ <title>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>my</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e7d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le mi karce cu xunre</jbo>
+ <gloss>My car is-red.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>
+
+
+ and</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1ng6">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e7d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le pe mi karce cu xunre</jbo>
+ <gloss>The (associated-with me) car is-red.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>mean exactly the same thing. Furthermore, since there are no special considerations of quantifiers here,</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-BCqF">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e7d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le karce pe mi cu xunre</jbo>
+ <gloss>The car associated-with me is-red.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>possessor sumti</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>possessive sumti</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> means the same thing as well. A sumti like the one in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-pALv"/> is called a
+ <quote>possessive sumti</quote>. Of course, it does not really indicate possession in the sense of ownership, but like
+
+ <valsi>pe</valsi> relative phrases, indicates only weak association; you can say
+ <jbophrase>le mi karce</jbophrase> even if you've only borrowed it for the night. (In English,
+ <quote>my car</quote> usually means
+ <jbophrase>le karce po mi</jbophrase>, but we do not have the same sense of possession in
+ <quote>my seat on the bus</quote>; Lojban simply makes the weaker sense the standard one.) The inner sumti,
+
+ <valsi>mi</valsi> in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-pALv"/>, is correspondingly called the
+ <quote>possessor sumti</quote>.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses and possessive sumti</primary><secondary>development history</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>possessive sumti and relative clauses</primary><secondary>development history</secondary></indexterm> Historically, possessive sumti existed before any other kind of relative phrase or clause, and were retained when the machinery of relative phrases and clauses as detailed in this chapter so far was slowly built up. When preposed relative clauses of the
+
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-1ng6"/> type were devised, possessive sumti were most easily viewed as a special case of them.</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>numbers</primary><secondary>as possessive sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>quotations</primary><secondary>as possessive sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>descriptions</primary><secondary>as possessive sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>as possessive sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>as possessive sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative phrases</primary><secondary>contrasted with possessive sumti in complexity allowed</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>possessive sumti</primary><secondary>contrasted with relative phrases in complexity allowed</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>possessive sumti</primary><secondary>syntax allowed</secondary></indexterm> Although any sumti, however complex, can appear in a full-fledged relative phrase, only simple sumti can appear as possessor sumti, without a
+
+ <valsi>pe</valsi>. Roughly speaking, the legal possessor sumti are: pro-sumti, quotations, names and descriptions, and numbers. In addition, the possessor sumti may not be preceded by a quantifier, as such a form would be interpreted as the unusual
+ <quote>descriptor + quantifier + sumti</quote> type of description. All these sumti forms are explained in full in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-sumti"/>.</para>
+ <para>Here is an example of a description used in a possessive sumti:</para>
+
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rBmw">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e7d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le le nanmu ku karce cu blanu</jbo>
+ <gloss>The (associated-with-the man) car is blue.</gloss>
+ <natlang>The man's car is blue.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>possessive sumti</primary><secondary>effect on elidability of ku</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ku</primary><secondary>effect of possessive sumti on elidability of</secondary></indexterm> Note the explicit
+ <valsi>ku</valsi> at the end of the possessor sumti, which prevents the selbri of the possessor sumti from merging with the selbri of the main description sumti. Because of the need for this
+ <valsi>ku</valsi>, the most common kind of possessor sumti are pro-sumti, especially personal pro-sumti, which require no elidable terminator. Descriptions are more likely to be attached with relative phrases.</para>
+
+ <para>And here is a number used as a possessor sumti:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pYfN">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e7d5"/>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>juror 5</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le li mu jdice se bende</jbo>
+ <gloss>The of-the-number-five judging team-member</gloss>
+ <natlang>Juror number 5</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>
+
+
+ which is not quite the same as
+ <quote>the fifth juror</quote>; it simply indicates a weak association between the particular juror and the number 5.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>possessive sumti with relative clauses</primary><secondary>effect of placement</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses with possessive sumti</primary><secondary>effect of placement</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>possessive sumti</primary><secondary>with relative clauses on possessive sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>possessive sumti</primary><secondary>relative clauses on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>on possessive sumti</secondary></indexterm> A possessive sumti may also have regular relative clauses attached to it. This would need no comment if it were not for the following special rule: a relative clause immediately following the possessor sumti is understood to affect the possessor sumti, not the possessive. For example:</para>
+
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-cVjs">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e7d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le mi noi sipna vau karce cu na klama</jbo>
+ <gloss>The of-me incidentally-which-(is-sleeping) car isn't going.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>means that my car isn't going; the incidental claim of
+ <jbophrase>noi sipna</jbophrase> applies to me, not my car, however. If I wanted to say that the car is sleeping (whatever that might mean) I would need:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-iP4q">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e7d7"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le mi karce poi sipna cu na klama</jbo>
+ <gloss>The of-me car which sleeps isn't going.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ku'o</primary><secondary>effect of vau on elidability</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vau</primary><secondary>effect on elidability ku'o</secondary></indexterm> Note that
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-cVjs"/> uses
+ <valsi>vau</valsi> rather than
+ <valsi>ku'o</valsi> at the end of the relative clause: this terminator ends every simple bridi and is almost always elidable; in this case, though, it is a syllable shorter than the equally valid alternative,
+
+ <valsi>ku'o</valsi>.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-vuho">
+ <title>Relative clauses and complex sumti:
+ <valsi>vu'o</valsi></title>
+ <para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>vu'o</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>VUhO</selmaho>
+ <description>relative clause attacher</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+ <para>Normally, relative clauses attach only to simple sumti or parts of sumti: pro-sumti, names and descriptions, pure numbers, and quotations. An example of a relative clause attached to a pure number is:</para>
+
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sfHA">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e8d1"/>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>irrational number</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>li pai noi na'e frinu namcu</jbo>
+ <gloss>The-number pi, incidentally-which is-a-non- fraction number</gloss>
+ <natlang>The irrational number pi</natlang>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>
+
+
+ <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>on quotation</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>on number</secondary></indexterm> And here is an incidental relative clause attached to a quotation:</para>
+
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-WuBh">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e8d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>lu mi klama le zarci li'u noi mi cusku ke'a cu jufra</jbo>
+ <gloss>[quote] I go to-the market [unquote] incidentally-which-(I express IT) is-a-sentence.</gloss>
+ <natlang>
+ <quote>I'm going to the market</quote>, which I'd said, is a sentence.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>which may serve to identify the author of the quotation or some other relevant, but subsidiary, fact about it. All such relative clauses appear only after the simple sumti, never before it.</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>NAhE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>NAhE selma'o</primary><secondary>effect of relative clause placement with</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>LAhE selma'o</primary><secondary>effect of relative clause placement with</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses and NAhE</primary><secondary>placement considerations</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>impact of NAhE on placement</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses and LAhE</primary><secondary>placement considerations</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>impact of LAhE on placement</secondary></indexterm> In addition, sumti with attached sumti qualifiers of selma'o LAhE or NAhE+BO (which are explained in detail in
+
+ <xref linkend="section-sumti-qualifiers"/>) can have a relative clause appearing after the qualifier and before the qualified sumti, as in:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4sqi">
+ <title>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>red pony</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e8d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la'e poi tolcitno vau lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u cu zvati le vu kumfa</jbo>
+ <gloss>A-referent-of (which is-old) [quote] The Red Small-horse [unquote] is-at the [far distance] room.</gloss>
+ <natlang>An old
+ <quote>The Red Pony</quote> is in the far room.</natlang>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>
+
+
+
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-4sqi"/> is a bit complex, and may need some picking apart. The quotation
+ <jbophrase>lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u</jbophrase> means the string of words
+ <quote>The Red Pony</quote>. If the
+
+ <valsi>la'e</valsi> at the beginning of the sentence were omitted,
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-4sqi"/> would claim that a certain string of words is in a room distant from the speaker. But obviously a string of words can't be in a room! The effect of the
+ <valsi>la'e</valsi> is to modify the sumti so that it refers not to the words themselves, but to the referent of those words, a novel by John Steinbeck (presumably in Lojban translation). The particular copy of
+ <quote>The Red Pony</quote> is identified by the restrictive relative clause.
+
+
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-4sqi"/> means exactly the same as:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-yX24">
+ <title>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>red pony</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e8d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la'e lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u lu'u poi to'ercitno cu zvati le vu kumfa</jbo>
+ <gloss>A-referent-of ([quote] The Red Small-horse [unquote]) which is-old is-at the [far distance] room.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>and the two sentences can be considered stylistic variants. Note the required
+ <valsi>lu'u</valsi> terminator, which prevents the relative clause from attaching to the quotation itself: we do not wish to refer to an old quotation!</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>on connected sumti</secondary></indexterm> Sometimes, however, it is important to make a relative clause apply to the whole of a more complex sumti, one which involves logical or non-logical connection (explained in
+
+ <xref linkend="chapter-connectives"/>). For example,</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-EYgE">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e8d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la frank. .e la djordj. noi nanmu cu klama le zdani</jbo>
+ <gloss>Frank and George incidentally-who is-a-man go to-the house.</gloss>
+ <natlang>Frank and George, who is a man, go to the house.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>The incidental claim in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-EYgE"/> is not that Frank and George are men, but only that George is a man, because the incidental relative clause attaches only to
+
+ <jbophrase>la djordj</jbophrase>, the immediately preceding simple sumti.</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clause scope</primary><secondary>extending to preceding sumti with vu'o</secondary></indexterm> To make a relative clause attach to both parts of the logically connected sumti in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-EYgE"/>, a new cmavo is needed,
+ <valsi>vu'o</valsi> (of selma'o VUhO). It is placed between the sumti and the relative clause, and extends the sphere of influence of that relative clause to the entire preceding sumti, including however many logical or non-logical connectives there may be.</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9XPz">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e8d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la frank. .e la djordj. vu'o noi nanmu cu klama le zdani</jbo>
+ <gloss>Frank and George incidentally-who are-men go to-the house.</gloss>
+ <natlang>Frank and George, who are men, go to the house.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>The presence of
+ <valsi>vu'o</valsi> here means that the relative clause
+ <jbophrase>noi nanmu</jbophrase> extends to the entire logically connected sumti
+ <jbophrase>la frank. .e la djordj.</jbophrase>; in other words, both Frank and George are claimed to be men, as the colloquial translation shows.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses on complex sumti</primary><secondary>Lojban contrasted with English</secondary></indexterm> English is able to resolve the distinction correctly in the case of
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-EYgE"/> and
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-9XPz"/> by making use of number:
+ <quote>who is</quote> rather than
+ <quote>who are</quote>. Lojban doesn't distinguish between singular and plural verbs:
+
+
+ <valsi>nanmu</valsi> can mean
+ <quote>is a man</quote> or
+ <quote>are men</quote>, so another means is required. Furthermore, Lojban's mechanism works correctly in general: if
+ <valsi>nanmu</valsi> (meaning
+ <quote>is-a-man</quote>) were replaced with
+ <jbophrase>pu bajra</jbophrase> (
+ <quote>ran</quote>), English would have to make the distinction some other way:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qmeb" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e8d7"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la frank. .e la djordj. noi pu bajra cu klama le zdani</jbo>
+ <gloss>Frank and (George who [past] runs) go to-the house.</gloss>
+ <natlang>Frank and George, who ran, go to the house.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qmEt" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e8d8"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la frank. .e la djordj. vu'o noi pu bajra cu klama le zdani</jbo>
+ <gloss>(Frank and George) who [past] run go to-the house.</gloss>
+ <natlang>Frank and George, who ran, go to the house.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>In spoken English, tone of voice would serve; in written English, one or both sentences would need rewriting.</para>
+
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-relative-clauses-and-vocatives">
+ <title>Relative clauses in vocative phrases</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>DOI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>COI selma'o</primary></indexterm> Vocative phrases are explained in more detail in
+ <xref linkend="section-vocative-syntax"/>. Briefly, they are a method of indicating who a sentence or discourse is addressed to: of identifying the intended listener. They take three general forms, all beginning with cmavo from selma'o COI or DOI (called
+ <quote>vocative words</quote>; there can be one or many), followed by either a name, a selbri, or a sumti. Here are three examples:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMG8" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e9d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>coi. frank.</jbo>
+ <natlang>Hello, Frank.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMGj" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e9d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>co'o xirma</jbo>
+ <natlang>Goodbye, horse.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qmgM" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e9d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>fi'i la frank. .e la djordj.</jbo>
+
+ <natlang>Welcome, Frank and George!</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>Note that
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMGj"/> says farewell to something which doesn't really have to be a horse, something that the speaker simply thinks of as being a horse, or even might be something (a person, for example) who is named
+ <quote>Horse</quote>. In a sense,
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMGj"/> is ambiguous between
+ <jbophrase>co'o le xirma</jbophrase> and
+ <jbophrase>co'o la xirma</jbophrase>, a relatively safe semantic ambiguity, since names are ambiguous in general: saying
+ <quote>George</quote> doesn't distinguish between the possible Georges.</para>
+ <para>Similarly,
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMG8"/> can be thought of as an abbreviation of:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-oWPU">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e9d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>coi la frank.</jbo>
+ <gloss>Hello, the-one-named
+ <quote>Frank</quote>.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>Syntactically, vocative phrases are a kind of free modifier, and can appear in many places in Lojban text, generally at the beginning or end of some complete construct; or, as in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMG8"/> to
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qmgM"/>, as sentences by themselves.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vocative phrase with name</primary><secondary>placement of relative clause on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>placement with vocative phrases</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vocative phrases</primary><secondary>relative clauses on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>on vocative phrases</secondary></indexterm> As can be seen, the form of vocative phrases is similar to that of sumti, and as you might expect, vocative phrases allow relative clauses in various places. In vocative phrases which are simple names (after the vocative words), any relative clauses must come just after the names:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-xECX">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e9d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>coi. frank. poi xunre se bende</jbo>
+ <gloss>Hello, Frank who is-a-red team-member</gloss>
+ <natlang>Hello, Frank from the Red Team!</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>The restrictive relative clause in
+
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-xECX"/> suggests that there is some other Frank (perhaps on the Green Team) from whom this Frank, the one the speaker is greeting, must be distinguished.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vocative phrase with selbri</primary><secondary>placement of relative clause on</secondary></indexterm> A vocative phrase containing a selbri can have relative clauses either before or after the selbri; both forms have the same meaning. Here are some examples:</para>
+
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qmgV" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e9d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>co'o poi mi zvati ke'a ku'o xirma</jbo>
+ <gloss>Goodbye, such-that-(I am-at IT) horse</gloss>
+ <natlang>Goodbye, horse where I am!</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMHc" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e9d7"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>co'o xirma poi mi zvati</jbo>
+ <gloss>Goodbye, horse such-that-(I am-at-it).</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qmgV"/> and
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMHc"/> mean the same thing. In fact, relative clauses can appear in both places.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-nesting">
+ <title>Relative clauses within relative clauses</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>relative clauses within</secondary></indexterm> For the most part, these are straightforward and uncomplicated: a sumti that is part of a relative clause bridi may itself be modified by a relative clause:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-TGiu">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e10d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le prenu poi zvati le kumfa poi blanu cu masno</jbo>
+ <gloss>The person who is-in the room which is-blue is-slow.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ke'a with subscript</primary><secondary>use for outer sumti reference</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>subscripts</primary><secondary>use with ke'a for outer sumti reference</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>inner sumti</primary><secondary>referring to from within relative clause within relative clause</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>outer sumti</primary><secondary>referring to from within relative clause within relative clause</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relativized sumti</primary><secondary>in relative clauses within relative clauses</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ke'a</primary><secondary>meaning in relative clause inside relative clause</secondary></indexterm> However, an ambiguity can exist if
+ <valsi>ke'a</valsi> is used in a relative clause within a relative clause: does it refer to the outermost sumti, or to the sumti within the outer relative clause to which the inner relative clause is attached? The latter. To refer to the former, use a subscript on
+ <valsi>ke'a</valsi>:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-8RdM">
+ <title>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>room which he built</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e10d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le prenu poi zvati le kumfa poi ke'axire zbasu ke'a cu masno</jbo>
+ <gloss>The person who is-in the room which IT-sub-2 built IT is-slow.</gloss>
+ <natlang>The person who is in the room which he built is slow.</natlang>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>
+
+
+ Here, the meaning of
+ <quote>IT-sub-2</quote> is that sumti attached to the second relative clause, counting from the innermost, is used. Therefore,
+ <jbophrase>ke'axipa</jbophrase> (IT-sub-1) means the same as plain
+
+ <valsi>ke'a</valsi>.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>prenex</primary><secondary>use for outer sumti reference</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>outer sumti</primary><secondary>prenex for referring to from within relative clause within relative clause</secondary></indexterm> Alternatively, you can use a prenex (explained in full in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-quantifiers"/>), which is syntactically a series of sumti followed by the special cmavo
+ <valsi>zo'u</valsi>, prefixed to the relative clause bridi:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-5TuF">
+ <title>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>room which he built</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c8e10d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le prenu poi ke'a goi ko'a zo'u ko'a zvati le kumfa poi ke'a goi ko'e zo'u ko'a zbasu ke'a cu masno</jbo>
+ <gloss>The man who (IT = it1 : it1 is-in the room which (IT = it2 : it1 built it2) is-slow.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-5TuF"/> is more verbose than
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-8RdM"/>, but may be clearer, since it explicitly spells out the two
+ <valsi>ke'a</valsi> cmavo, each on its own level, and assigns them to the assignable cmavo
+ <valsi>ko'a</valsi> and
+ <valsi>ko'e</valsi> (explained in <xref linkend="section-koha-broda-series"/>).</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-relative-clause-cmavo-summary">
+ <title>Index of relative clause cmavo</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>list of cmavo for</secondary></indexterm> Relative clause introducers (selma'o NOI):</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>noi</cmavo>
+ <description>incidental clauses</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>poi</cmavo>
+ <description>restrictive clauses</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>voi</cmavo>
+ <description>restrictive clauses (non-veridical)</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+ <para>Relative phrase introducers (selma'o GOI):</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>goi</cmavo>
+ <description>pro-sumti assignment</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>pe</cmavo>
+ <description>restrictive association</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ne</cmavo>
+ <description>incidental association</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>po</cmavo>
+ <description>extrinsic (alienable) possession</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>po'e</cmavo>
+ <description>intrinsic (inalienable) possession</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+
+
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>po'u</cmavo>
+ <description>restrictive identification</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>no'u</cmavo>
+ <description>incidental identification</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+
+
+
+ </cmavo-list>
+ <para>Relativizing pro-sumti (selma'o KOhA):</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ke'a</cmavo>
+ <description>pro-sumti for relativized sumti</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+
+ </cmavo-list>
+ <para>Relative clause joiner (selma'o ZIhE):</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>zi'e</cmavo>
+ <description>joins relative clauses applying to a single sumti</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+ <para>Relative clause associator (selma'o VUhO):</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>vu'o</cmavo>
+ <description>causes relative clauses to apply to all of a complex sumti</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+ <para>Elidable terminators (each its own selma'o):</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ku'o</cmavo>
+ <description>relative clause elidable terminator</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ge'u</cmavo>
+ <description>relative phrase elidable terminator</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+ </section>
+</chapter>
diff --git a/chapters/09.xml b/chapters/09.xml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..001fdde
--- /dev/null
+++ b/chapters/09.xml
@@ -0,0 +1,2703 @@
+<chapter xml:id="chapter-sumti-tcita">
+ <title>To Boston Via The Road Go I, With An Excursion Into The Land Of Modals</title>
+ <mediaobject xml:id="chapter-sumti-tcita-picture">
+ <alt>The picture for chapter 9</alt>
+ <imageobject>
+ <imagedata fileref="media/chapter-sumti-tcita.gif"/>
+ </imageobject>
+ </mediaobject>
+
+ <section xml:id="section-sumti-tcita-introduction">
+ <title>Introductory</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relationship</primary><secondary>objects of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relationship</primary><secondary>as basis of sentence</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sentence</primary><secondary>basic Lojban</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> The basic type of Lojban sentence is the bridi: a claim by the speaker that certain objects are related in a certain way. The objects are expressed by Lojban grammatical forms called
+ <valsi>sumti</valsi>; the relationship is expressed by the Lojban grammatical form called a
+ <valsi>selbri</valsi>.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>as objects in place structure slots</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>place structure</primary><secondary>empty slots in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>place structure</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri</primary><secondary>place structure of</secondary></indexterm> The sumti are not randomly associated with the selbri, but according to a systematic pattern known as the
+ <quote>place structure</quote> of the selbri. This chapter describes the various ways in which the place structure of Lojban bridi is expressed and by which it can be manipulated. The place structure of a selbri is a sequence of empty slots into which the sumti associated with that selbri are placed. The sumti are said to occupy the places of the selbri.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>place structure of selbri</primary><secondary>determining</secondary></indexterm> For our present purposes, every selbri is assumed to have a well-known place structure. If the selbri is a brivla, the place structure can be looked up in a dictionary (or, if the brivla is a lujvo not in any dictionary, inferred from the principles of lujvo construction as explained in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-lujvo"/>); if the selbri is a tanru, the place structure is the same as that of the final component in the tanru.</para>
+ <para>
+
+
+ <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>x1</primary><secondary>in place structure notation</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>place structure</primary><secondary>notation conventions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>klama</primary><secondary>place structure of</secondary></indexterm> The stock example of a place structure is that of the gismu
+ <valsi>klama</valsi>:</para>
+ <definition>
+ <valsi>klama</valsi> <content>x1 comes/goes to destination x2 from origin x3 via route x4 employing means of transport x5.</content>
+ </definition>
+ <para>The
+ <quote>x1 ... x5</quote> indicates that
+ <valsi>klama</valsi> is a five-place predicate, and show the natural order (as assigned by the language engineers) of those places: agent, destination, origin, route, means.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>place structure</primary><secondary>instability of</secondary></indexterm> The place structures of brivla are not absolutely stable aspects of the language. The work done so far has attempted to establish a basic place structure on which all users can, at first, agree. In the light of actual experience with the individual selbri of the language, there will inevitably be some degree of change to the brivla place structures.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-cu">
+ <title>Standard bridi form:
+ <valsi>cu</valsi></title>
+ <para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>cu</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>CU</selmaho>
+ <description>prefixed selbri separator</description>
+
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi</primary><secondary>building from selbri and sumti</secondary></indexterm> The most usual way of constructing a bridi from a selbri such as
+ <valsi>klama</valsi> and an appropriate number of sumti is to place the sumti intended for the x1 place before the selbri, and all the other sumti in order after the selbri, thus:</para>
+
+
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Ji94">
+ <title>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>Boston from Atlanta</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>go</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>go to Boston from Atlanta</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e2d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi cu klama la bastn. la .atlantas. le dargu le karce</jbo>
+ <gloss>I go to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the road using-the car.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>Here the sumti are assigned to the places as follows:</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <colgroup/>
+ <tr>
+ <td>x1</td>
+ <td>agent</td>
+ <td><valsi>mi</valsi></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>x2</td>
+ <td>destination</td>
+ <td><jbophrase>la bastn.</jbophrase></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>x3</td>
+ <td>origin</td>
+ <td><jbophrase>la .atlantas.</jbophrase></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>x4</td>
+ <td>route</td>
+ <td><jbophrase>le dargu</jbophrase></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>x5</td>
+ <td>means</td>
+ <td><jbophrase>le karce</jbophrase></td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <para>(Note: Many of the examples in the rest of this chapter will turn out to have the same meaning as
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-Ji94"/>; this fact will not be reiterated.)</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi</primary><secondary>non-standard form</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>standard bridi form</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi</primary><secondary>standard form of</secondary></indexterm> This ordering, with the x1 place before the selbri and all other places in natural order after the selbri, is called
+ <quote>standard bridi form</quote>, and is found in the bulk of Lojban bridi, whether used in main sentences or in subordinate clauses. However, many other forms are possible, such as:</para>
+
+
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-yLqT">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e2d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi la bastn. la .atlantas. le dargu le karce cu klama</jbo>
+ <gloss>I, to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the road using-the car, go.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi</primary><secondary>effect of alternate form on sumti order</secondary></indexterm> Here the selbri is at the end; all the sumti are placed before it. However, the same order is maintained.</para>
+ <para>Similarly, we may split up the sumti, putting some before the selbri and others after it:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-vzNY">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e2d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi la bastn. cu klama la .atlantas. le dargu le karce</jbo>
+ <gloss>I to-Boston go from-Atlanta via-the road using-the car.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>emphasis</primary><secondary>changing by using non-standard form of bridi</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi</primary><secondary>effect of using non-standard form</secondary></indexterm> All of the variant forms in this section and following sections can be used to place emphasis on the part or parts which have been moved out of their standard places. Thus,
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-yLqT"/> places emphasis on the selbri (because it is at the end);
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-vzNY"/> emphasizes
+ <jbophrase>la bastn.</jbophrase>, because it has been moved before the selbri. Moving more than one component may dilute this emphasis. It is permitted, but no stylistic significance has yet been established for drastic reordering.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cu</primary><secondary>effect on elidable terminators</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cu</primary><secondary>usefulness of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cu</primary><secondary>necessity of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cu</primary><secondary>as selbri separator</secondary></indexterm> In all these examples, the cmavo
+ <valsi>cu</valsi> (belonging to selma'o CU) is used to separate the selbri from any preceding sumti. It is never absolutely necessary to use
+ <valsi>cu</valsi>. However, providing it helps the reader or listener to locate the selbri quickly, and may make it possible to place a complex sumti just before the selbri, allowing the speaker to omit elidable terminators, possibly a whole stream of them, that would otherwise be necessary.</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi</primary><secondary>selbri-first as exceptional</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri-first bridi</primary><secondary>effect on sumti places</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>omitted first place in selbri-first bridi</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>order in selbri-first bridi</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>order in selbri</secondary></indexterm> The general rule, then, is that the selbri may occur anywhere in the bridi as long as the sumti maintain their order. The only exception (and it is an important one) is that if the selbri appears first, the x1 sumti is taken to have been omitted:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-aQtM">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e2d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>klama la bastn. la .atlantas. le dargu le karce</jbo>
+ <gloss>A-goer to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the road using-the car.</gloss>
+ <gloss>Goes to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the road using-the car.</gloss>
+ <natlang>Look: a goer to Boston from Atlanta via the road using the car!</natlang>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>command</primary><secondary>contrasted with observative form</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>observative form</primary><secondary>contrasted with command</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>observative</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi</primary><secondary>exception to sumti place structure in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi</primary><secondary>omitting the first sumti place</secondary></indexterm> Here the x1 place is empty: the listener must guess from context who is going to Boston. In
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-aQtM"/>,
+ <valsi>klama</valsi> is glossed
+ <quote>a goer</quote> rather than
+ <quote>go</quote> because
+ <quote>Go</quote> at the beginning of an English sentence would suggest a command:
+ <quote>Go to Boston!</quote>.
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-aQtM"/> is not a command, simply a normal statement with the x1 place unspecified, causing the emphasis to fall on the selbri
+ <valsi>klama</valsi>. Such a bridi, with empty x1, is called an
+ <quote>observative</quote>, because it usually calls on the listener to observe something in the environment which would belong in the x1 place. The third translation above shows this observative nature. Sometimes it is the relationship itself which the listener is asked to observe.</para>
+
+ <para>(There is a way to both provide a sumti for the x1 place and put the selbri first in the bridi: see
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-oDES"/>.)</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi</primary><secondary>leaving end sumti places unspecified in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>dropping trailing unspecified</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>unspecified trailing sumti</primary><secondary>dropping</secondary></indexterm> Suppose the speaker desires to omit a place other than the x1 place? (Presumably it is obvious or, for one reason or another, not worth saying.) Places at the end may simply be dropped:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-5Eqa">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e2d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi klama la bastn. la .atlantas.</jbo>
+ <gloss>I go to-Boston from-Atlanta (via an unspecified route, using an unspecified means).</gloss>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>
+
+ <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>unspecified sumti</primary><secondary>non-trailing</secondary></indexterm>
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-5Eqa"/> has empty x4 and x5 places: the speaker does not specify the route or the means of transport. However, simple omission will not work for a place when the places around it are to be specified: in</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-jh7T">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e2d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi klama la bastn. la .atlantas. le karce</jbo>
+ <gloss>I go to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the car.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>
+ <jbophrase>le karce</jbophrase> occupies the x4 place, and therefore
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-jh7T"/> means:</para>
+ <blockquote>
+ <para>I go to Boston from Atlanta, using the car as a route.</para>
+ </blockquote>
+ <para>This is nonsense, since a car cannot be a route. What the speaker presumably meant is expressed by:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-tqoQ">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e2d7"/>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>unspecified route</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi klama la bastn. la .atlantas. zo'e le karce</jbo>
+ <gloss>I go to-Boston from-Atlanta via-something-unspecified using-the car.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>place structures</primary><secondary>omitting places with zo'e</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>place structure</primary><secondary>leaving a sumti place unspecified in with zo'e</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi</primary><secondary>leaving a sumti place unspecified in with zo'e</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>zo'e</primary><secondary>as place-holder for unspecified sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>unspecified sumti</primary><secondary>using zo'e as place-holder for</secondary></indexterm> Here the sumti cmavo
+ <valsi>zo'e</valsi> is used to explicitly fill the x4 place;
+ <valsi>zo'e</valsi> means
+ <quote>the unspecified thing</quote> and has the same meaning as leaving the place empty: the listener must infer the correct meaning from context.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-FA">
+ <title>Tagging places: FA</title>
+ <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>fa</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>FA</selmaho>
+ <description>tags x1 place</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>fe</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>FA</selmaho>
+ <description>tags x2 place</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>fi</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>FA</selmaho>
+ <description>tags x3 place</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>fo</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>FA</selmaho>
+ <description>tags x4 place</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>fu</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>FA</selmaho>
+ <description>tags x5 place</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>fi'a</cmavo>
+
+ <selmaho>FA</selmaho>
+ <description>place structure question</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>FA selma'o</primary><secondary>syntax of</secondary></indexterm> In sentences like
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-Ji94"/>, it is easy to get lost and forget which sumti falls in which place, especially if the sumti are more complicated than simple names or descriptions. The place structure tags of selma'o FA may be used to help clarify place structures. The five cmavo
+ <valsi>fa</valsi>,
+ <valsi>fe</valsi>,
+ <valsi>fi</valsi>,
+ <valsi>fo</valsi>, and
+ <valsi>fu</valsi> may be inserted just before the sumti in the x1 to x5 places respectively:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-yLop">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e3d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>fa mi cu klama fe la bastn. fi la .atlantas. fo le dargu fu le karce</jbo>
+ <gloss>x1= I go x2= Boston x3= Atlanta x4= the road x5= the car.</gloss>
+ <natlang>I go to Boston from Atlanta via the road using the car.</natlang>
+
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>FA selma'o</primary><secondary>for accessing a selbri place explicitly by relative number</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>explicitly mapping into place structure with FA</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>place structure</primary><secondary>explicitly mapping sumti to place with FA</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>place structure</primary><secondary>effect of FA on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>FA selma'o</primary><secondary>effect on place structure</secondary></indexterm> In
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-yLop"/>, the tag
+ <valsi>fu</valsi> before
+ <jbophrase>le karce</jbophrase> clarifies that
+ <jbophrase>le karce</jbophrase> occupies the x5 place of
+ <valsi>klama</valsi>. The use of
+ <valsi>fu</valsi> tells us nothing about the purpose or meaning of the x5 place; it simply says that
+ <jbophrase>le karce</jbophrase> occupies it.</para>
+ <para>In
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-yLop"/>, the tags are overkill; they serve only to make
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-Ji94"/> even longer than it is. Here is a better illustration of the use of FA tags for clarification:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3CPJ">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e3d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>fa mi klama fe le zdani be mi be'o poi nurma vau fi la nu,IORK.</jbo>
+ <gloss>x1= I go x2= (the house of me) which is-rural x3= New York.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>In
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-3CPJ"/>, the place structure of
+ <valsi>klama</valsi> is as follows:</para>
+ <informaltable>
+ <colgroup/>
+ <tr>
+ <td>x1</td>
+ <td>agent</td>
+ <td><valsi>mi</valsi></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>x2</td>
+ <td>destination</td>
+ <td><jbophrase>le zdani be mi be'o poi nurma vau</jbophrase></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>x3</td>
+ <td>origin</td>
+ <td><jbophrase>la nu,IORK.</jbophrase></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>x4</td>
+ <td>route</td>
+ <td>(empty)</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>x5</td>
+ <td>means</td>
+ <td>(empty)</td>
+ </tr>
+ </informaltable>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>FA selma'o</primary><secondary>as a reminder of place in place structure</secondary></indexterm> The
+ <valsi>fi</valsi> tag serves to remind the hearer that what follows is in the x3 place of
+ <valsi>klama</valsi>; after listening to the complex sumti occupying the x2 place, it's easy to get lost.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>re-ordering with FA</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri-first bridi</primary><secondary>specifying first sumti place in with fa</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>place structure order</primary><secondary>effect of FA on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>FA selma'o</primary><secondary>effect on place structure order</secondary></indexterm> Of course, once the sumti have been tagged, the order in which they are specified no longer carries the burden of distinguishing the places. Therefore, it is perfectly all right to scramble them into any order desired, and to move the selbri to anywhere in the bridi, even the beginning:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-YmN2">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e3d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>klama fa mi fi la .atlantas. fu le karce fe la bastn. fo le dargu</jbo>
+ <gloss>go x1= I x3= Atlanta x5= the car x2= Boston x4= the road.</gloss>
+ <natlang>Go I from Atlanta using the car to Boston via the road.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri-first bridi</primary><secondary>effect on use of cu</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cu</primary><secondary>effect of selbri-first bridi on</secondary></indexterm> Note that no
+ <valsi>cu</valsi> is permitted before the selbri in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-YmN2"/>, because
+ <valsi>cu</valsi> separates the selbri from any preceding sumti, and
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-YmN2"/> has no such sumti.</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-fG8R">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e3d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>fu le karce fo le dargu fi la .atlantas. fe la bastn. cu klama fa mi</jbo>
+ <gloss>x5= the car x4= the road x3= Atlanta x2= Boston go x1=I</gloss>
+ <natlang>Using the car, via the road, from Atlanta to Boston go I.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-fG8R"/> exhibits the reverse of the standard bridi form seen in
+
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-Ji94"/> and
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-yLop"/>, but still means exactly the same thing. If the FA tags were left out, however, producing:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-j7Nu">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e3d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le karce le dargu la .atlantas. la bastn. cu klama mi</jbo>
+ <gloss>The car to-the road from-Atlanta via-Boston goes using-me.</gloss>
+ <natlang>The car goes to the road from Atlanta, with Boston as the route, using me as a means of transport.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>the meaning would be wholly changed, and in fact nonsensical.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>zo'e</primary><secondary>compared with FA for omitting places</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>FA selma'o</primary><secondary>compared with zo'e for omitting places</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>place structures</primary><secondary>omitting places with FA</secondary></indexterm> Tagging places with FA cmavo makes it easy not only to reorder the places but also to omit undesirable ones, without any need for
+ <valsi>zo'e</valsi> or special rules about the x1 place:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-brGX">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e3d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>klama fi la .atlantas. fe la bastn. fu le karce</jbo>
+ <gloss>A-goer x3= Atlanta x2= Boston x5 = the car.</gloss>
+ <natlang>A goer from Atlanta to Boston using the car.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>Here the x1 and x4 places are empty, and so no sumti are tagged with
+ <valsi>fa</valsi> or
+ <valsi>fo</valsi>; in addition, the x2 and x3 places appear in reverse order.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>FA selma'o</primary><secondary>effect on subsequent non-tagged places</secondary></indexterm> What if some sumti have FA tags and others do not? The rule is that after a FA-tagged sumti, any sumti following it occupy the places numerically succeeding it, subject to the proviso that an already-filled place is skipped:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-oDES">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e3d7"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>klama fa mi la bastn. la .atlantas. le dargu le karce</jbo>
+ <gloss>Go x1= I x2= Boston x3= Atlanta x4= the road x5= the car.</gloss>
+ <natlang>Go I to Boston from Atlanta via the road using the car.</natlang>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>In
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-oDES"/>, the
+ <valsi>fa</valsi> causes
+ <valsi>mi</valsi> to occupy the x1 place, and then the following untagged sumti occupy in order the x2 through x5 places. This is the mechanism by which Lojban allows placing the selbri first while specifying a sumti for the x1 place.</para>
+ <para>Here is a more complex (and more confusing) example:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-q8is">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e3d8"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi klama fi la .atlantas. le dargu fe la bastn. le karce</jbo>
+ <gloss>I go x3= Atlanta, the road x2= Boston, the car.</gloss>
+ <natlang>I go from Atlanta via the road to Boston using the car.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>In
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-q8is"/>,
+ <valsi>mi</valsi> occupies the x1 place because it is the first sumti in the sentence (and is before the selbri). The second sumti,
+ <jbophrase>la .atlantas.</jbophrase>, occupies the x3 place by virtue of the tag
+
+ <valsi>fi</valsi>, and
+ <jbophrase>le dargu</jbophrase> occupies the x4 place as a result of following
+ <jbophrase>la .atlantas.</jbophrase>. Finally,
+ <jbophrase>la bastn.</jbophrase> occupies the x2 place because of its tag
+ <valsi>fe</valsi>, and
+ <jbophrase>le karce</jbophrase> skips over the already-occupied x3 and x4 places to land in the x5 place.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>FA selma'o</primary><secondary>avoidance of complex usage of</secondary></indexterm> Such a convoluted use of tags should probably be avoided except when trying for a literal translation of some English (or other natural-language) sentence; the rules stated here are merely given so that some standard interpretation is possible.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple sumti in one place</primary><secondary>meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>multiple in one place with FA</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>FA selma'o</primary><secondary>for putting more than one sumti in a single place</secondary></indexterm> It is grammatically permitted to tag more than one sumti with the same FA cmavo. The effect is that of making more than one claim:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-N1aE">
+ <title>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>to movie</primary><secondary>house</secondary><tertiary>office: example</tertiary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e3d9"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>[fa] la rik. fa la djein. klama [fe] le skina fe le zdani fe le zarci</jbo>
+ <gloss>[x1=] Rick x1= Jane goes-to [x2=] the movie x2= the house x2= the office</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>
+ <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple sumti in one place</primary><secondary>avoiding</secondary></indexterm> may be taken to say that both Rick and Jane go to the movie, the house, and the office, merging six claims into one. More likely, however, it will simply confuse the listener. There are better ways, involving logical connectives (explained in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-connectives"/>), to say such things in Lojban. In fact, putting more than one sumti into a place is odd enough that it can only be done by explicit FA usage: this is the motivation for the proviso above, that already-occupied places are skipped. In this way, no sumti can be forced into a place already occupied unless it has an explicit FA cmavo tagging it.</para>
+
+
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>questions</primary><secondary>place structure position</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>place structure questions</primary></indexterm> The cmavo
+ <valsi>fi'a</valsi> also belongs to selma'o FA, and allows Lojban users to ask questions about place structures. A bridi containing
+
+ <valsi>fi'a</valsi> is a question, asking the listener to supply the appropriate other member of FA which will make the bridi a true statement:</para>
+
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-GnTu">
+ <title>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>give or receive</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e3d10"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>fi'a do dunda [fe] le vi rozgu</jbo>
+
+ <gloss>[what place]? you give x2= the nearby rose</gloss>
+ <gloss>In what way are you involved in the giving of this rose?</gloss>
+ <natlang>Are you the giver or the receiver of this rose?</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>In
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-GnTu"/>, the speaker uses the selbri
+ <valsi>dunda</valsi>, whose place structure is:</para>
+ <definition>
+ <valsi>dunda</valsi> <content>x1 gives x2 to x3</content>
+ </definition>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>answers</primary><secondary>to place structure questions</secondary></indexterm> The tagged sumti
+ <jbophrase>fi'a do</jbophrase> indicates that the speaker wishes to know whether the sumti
+
+ <valsi>do</valsi> falls in the x1 or the x3 place (the x2 place is already occupied by
+ <jbophrase>le rozgu</jbophrase>). The listener can reply with a sentence consisting solely of a FA cmavo:
+ <valsi>fa</valsi> if the listener is the giver,
+ <valsi>fi</valsi> if he/she is the receiver.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fi'a</primary><secondary>effect on subsequent untagged sumti</secondary></indexterm> I have inserted the tag
+ <valsi>fe</valsi> in brackets into
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-GnTu"/>, but it is actually not necessary, because
+ <valsi>fi'a</valsi> does not count as a numeric tag; therefore,
+
+ <jbophrase>le vi rozgu</jbophrase> would necessarily be in the x2 place even if no tag were present, because it immediately follows the selbri.</para>
+ <para>There is also another member of FA, namely
+ <valsi>fai</valsi>, which is discussed in
+ <xref linkend="section-modal-jai"/>.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-SE">
+ <title>Conversion: SE</title>
+ <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>se</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>SE</selmaho>
+ <description>2nd place conversion</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>te</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>SE</selmaho>
+ <description>3rd place conversion</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ve</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>SE</selmaho>
+ <description>4th place conversion</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>xe</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>SE</selmaho>
+ <description>5th place conversion</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>SE selma'o</primary><secondary>for converting place structure</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>SE selma'o</primary><secondary>effect on selbri place structure</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>converted selbri</primary><secondary>as different selbri from unconverted</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>converted selbri</primary><secondary>place structure of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>converted selbri</primary><secondary>forming with SE</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>converted selbri</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> So far we have seen ways to move sumti around within a bridi, but the actual place structure of the selbri has always remained untouched. The conversion cmavo of selma'o SE are incorporated within the selbri itself, and produce a new selbri (called a converted selbri) with a different place structure. In particular, after the application of any SE cmavo, the number and purposes of the places remain the same, but two of them have been exchanged, the x1 place and another. Which place has been exchanged with x1 depends on the cmavo chosen. Thus, for example, when
+
+ <valsi>se</valsi> is used, the x1 place is swapped with the x2 place.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>SE selma'o</primary><secondary>word formation of cmavo in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>SE selma'o</primary><secondary>rationale for no 1st place conversion</secondary></indexterm> Note that the cmavo of SE begin with consecutive consonants in alphabetical order. There is no
+ <quote>1st place conversion</quote> cmavo, because exchanging the x1 place with itself is a pointless maneuver.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>se klama</primary><secondary>place structure of</secondary></indexterm> Here are the place structures of
+ <jbophrase>se klama</jbophrase>:</para>
+ <definition>
+ <content>x1 is the destination of x2's going from x3 via x4 using x5</content>
+ </definition>
+ <para> and
+ <jbophrase>te klama</jbophrase>:</para>
+ <definition>
+ <content>x1 is the origin and x2 the destination of x3 going via x4 using x5</content>
+ </definition>
+ <para> and
+ <jbophrase>ve klama</jbophrase>:</para>
+
+ <definition>
+ <content>x1 is the route to x2 from x3 used by x4 going via x5</content>
+ </definition>
+ <para> and
+ <jbophrase>xe klama</jbophrase>:</para>
+ <definition>
+ <content>x1 is the means in going to x2 from x3 via x4 employed by x5</content>
+ </definition>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>SE selma'o</primary><secondary>effect on place structure numbering</secondary></indexterm> Note that the place structure numbers in each case continue to be listed in the usual order, x1 to x5.</para>
+ <para>Consider the following pair of examples:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qmHh" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e4d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la bastn. cu se klama mi</jbo>
+ <gloss>Boston is-the-destination of-me.</gloss>
+ <gloss>Boston is my destination.</gloss>
+ <natlang>Boston is gone to by me.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMHH" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e4d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>fe la bastn. cu klama fa mi</jbo>
+ <gloss>x2 = Boston go x1=I.</gloss>
+ <natlang>To Boston go I.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>converted selbri</primary><secondary>as resetting standard order</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>FA in selbri</primary><secondary>compared with converted selbri in meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>converted selbri</primary><secondary>compared with selbri with FA in meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>FA in selbri</primary><secondary>contrasted converted selbri with in structure</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>converted selbri</primary><secondary>contrasted with selbri with FA in structure</secondary></indexterm>
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qmHh"/> and
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMHH"/> mean the same thing, in the sense that there is a relationship of going with the speaker as the agent and Boston as the destination (and with unspecified origin, route, and means). Structurally, however, they are quite different.
+
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qmHh"/> has
+ <jbophrase>la bastn.</jbophrase> in the x1 place and
+ <valsi>mi</valsi> in the x2 place of the selbri
+ <jbophrase>se klama</jbophrase>, and uses standard bridi order;
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMHH"/> has
+ <valsi>mi</valsi> in the x1 place and
+ <jbophrase>la bastn.</jbophrase> in the x2 place of the selbri
+ <valsi>klama</valsi>, and uses a non-standard order.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>LE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>LA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>converted selbri</primary><secondary>in descriptions</secondary></indexterm> The most important use of conversion is in the construction of descriptions. A description is a sumti which begins with a cmavo of selma'o LA or LE, called the descriptor, and contains (in the simplest case) a selbri. We have already seen the descriptions
+ <jbophrase>le dargu</jbophrase> and
+ <jbophrase>le karce</jbophrase>. To this we could add:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3YoA">
+ <title>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>the go-er</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e4d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le klama</jbo>
+ <gloss>the go-er, the one who goes</gloss>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>
+
+
+ <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>converted selbri</primary><secondary>to access non-first place in description</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>descriptions</primary><secondary>use of SE in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>descriptions</primary><secondary>as based on first place of following selbri</secondary></indexterm> In every case, the description is about something which fits into the x1 place of the selbri. In order to get a description of a destination (that is, something fitting the x2 place of
+ <valsi>klama</valsi>), we must convert the selbri to
+ <jbophrase>se klama</jbophrase>, whose x1 place is a destination. The result is</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-brDN">
+ <title>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>the destination</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e4d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le se klama</jbo>
+ <natlang>the destination gone to by someone</natlang>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>Likewise, we can create three more converted descriptions:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMIQ" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e4d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le te klama</jbo>
+ <natlang>the origin of someone's going</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMjE" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e4d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le ve klama</jbo>
+
+ <natlang>the route of someone's going</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qmji" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e4d7"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le xe klama</jbo>
+ <natlang>the means by which someone goes</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>pluta</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ve klama</primary></indexterm>
+
+<indexterm type="general"><primary>Mars road</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+
+ <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pluta</primary><secondary>contrasted with ve klama</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ve klama</primary><secondary>contrasted with pluta</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>converted selbri</primary><secondary>retention of basic meaning in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>converted selbri</primary><secondary>contrasted with other similar selbri</secondary></indexterm>
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMjE"/> does not mean
+ <quote>the route</quote> plain and simple: that is
+ <jbophrase>le pluta</jbophrase>, using a different selbri. It means a route that is used by someone for an act of
+
+
+ <valsi>klama</valsi>; that is, a journey with origin and destination. A
+ <quote>road</quote> on Mars, on which no one has traveled or is ever likely to, may be called
+ <jbophrase>le pluta</jbophrase>, but it cannot be
+
+
+ <jbophrase>le ve klama</jbophrase>, since there exists no one for whom it is
+
+ <jbophrase>le ve klama be fo da</jbophrase> (the route taken in an actual journey by someone [da]).</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>conversion</primary><secondary>extending scope of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>conversion</primary><secondary>scope of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>SE selma'o</primary><secondary>extending scope of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>SE selma'o</primary><secondary>scope of</secondary></indexterm> When converting selbri that are more complex than a single brivla, it is important to realize that the scope of a SE cmavo is only the following brivla (or equivalent unit). In order to convert an entire tanru, it is necessary to enclose the tanru in
+
+ <valsi>ke</valsi>…<valsi>ke'e</valsi> brackets:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-wQbB">
+ <title>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>blue house</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e4d8"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi se ke blanu zdani [ke'e] ti</jbo>
+ <gloss>I [2nd conversion] blue house this-thing</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>The place structure of
+ <jbophrase>blanu zdani</jbophrase> (blue house) is the same as that of
+ <valsi>zdani</valsi>, by the rule given in
+ <xref linkend="section-sumti-tcita-introduction"/>. The place structure of
+ <valsi>zdani</valsi> is:</para>
+ <definition>
+ <valsi>zdani</valsi> <content>x1 is a house/nest/lair/den for inhabitant x2</content>
+ </definition>
+ <para>The place structure of
+ <jbophrase>se ke blanu zdani [ke'e]</jbophrase> is therefore:</para>
+ <definition>
+ <content>x1 is the inhabitant of the blue house (etc.) x2</content>
+ </definition>
+ <para>Consequently,
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-wQbB"/> means:</para>
+ <blockquote>
+ <para>I am the inhabitant of the blue house which is this thing.</para>
+ </blockquote>
+ <para>Conversion applied to only part of a tanru has subtler effects which are explained in
+ <xref linkend="section-place-conversion"/>.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple conversion</primary><secondary>effect of ordering</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>conversion</primary><secondary>effect of multiple on a selbri</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple SE</primary><secondary>effect of ordering</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>SE selma'o</primary><secondary>effect of multiple on a selbri</secondary></indexterm> It is grammatical to convert a selbri more than once with SE; later (inner) conversions are applied before earlier (outer) ones. For example, the place structure of
+ <jbophrase>se te klama</jbophrase> is achieved by exchanging the x1 and x2 place of
+
+ <jbophrase>te klama</jbophrase>, producing:</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>se te</primary></indexterm></para>
+ <definition>
+ <content>x1 is the destination and x2 is the origin of x3 going via x4 using x5</content>
+ </definition>
+ <para>On the other hand,
+ <jbophrase>te se klama</jbophrase> has a place structure derived from swapping the x1 and x3 places of
+ <jbophrase>se klama</jbophrase>:</para>
+ <definition>
+ <content>x1 is the origin of x2's going to x3 via x4 using x5</content>
+ </definition>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple conversion</primary><secondary>avoiding</secondary></indexterm> which is quite different. However, multiple conversions like this are never necessary. Arbitrary scrambling of places can be achieved more easily and far more intelligibly with FA tags, and only a single conversion is ever needed in a description.</para>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>conversion</primary><secondary>swapping non-first places</secondary></indexterm> (Although no one has made any real use of it, it is perhaps worth noting that compound conversions of the form
+ <jbophrase>setese</jbophrase>, where the first and third cmavo are the same, effectively swap the two given places while leaving the others, including x1, alone:
+
+ <jbophrase>setese</jbophrase> (or equivalently
+
+ <jbophrase>tesete</jbophrase>) swap the x2 and x3 places, whereas
+ <jbophrase>texete</jbophrase> (or
+ <jbophrase>xetexe</jbophrase>) swap the x3 and x5 places.)</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-selbri-modals">
+ <title>Modal places: FIhO, FEhU</title>
+ <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>fi'o</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>FIhO</selmaho>
+ <description>modal place prefix</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>fe'u</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>FEhU</selmaho>
+ <description>modal terminator</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+ <para>Sometimes the place structures engineered into Lojban are inadequate to meet the needs of actual speech. Consider the gismu
+ <valsi>viska</valsi>, whose place structure is:</para>
+ <definition>
+ <valsi>viska</valsi> <content>x1 sees x2 under conditions x3</content>
+ </definition>
+ <para>Seeing is a threefold relationship, involving an agent (le viska), an object of sight (le se viska), and an environment that makes seeing possible (le te viska). Seeing is done with one or more eyes, of course; in general, the eyes belong to the entity in the x1 place.</para>
+ <para>
+
+
+ <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fi'o</primary><secondary>use in adding places to place structure</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>place structure</primary><secondary>adding new places to with modal sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fi'o</primary><secondary>as modal tag</secondary></indexterm> Suppose, however, that you are blind in one eye and are talking to someone who doesn't know that. You might want to say,
+ <quote>I see you with the left eye.</quote> There is no place in the place structure of
+ <valsi>viska</valsi> such as
+ <quote>with eye x4</quote> or the like. Lojban allows you to solve the problem by adding a new place, changing the relationship:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-BSAc">
+ <title>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>see with left eye</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e5d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi viska do fi'o kanla [fe'u] le zunle</jbo>
+ <gloss>I see you [modal] eye: the left-thing</gloss>
+ <natlang>I see you with the left eye.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fi'o with selbri</primary><secondary>meaning of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal tag</primary><secondary>fi'o with selbri as</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fi'o</primary><secondary>effect on following selbri</secondary></indexterm> The three-place relation
+ <valsi>viska</valsi> has now acquired a fourth place specifying the eye used for seeing. The combination of the cmavo
+ <valsi>fi'o</valsi> (of selma'o FIhO) followed by a selbri, in this case the gismu
+ <valsi>kanla</valsi>, forms a tag which is prefixed to the sumti filling the new place, namely
+ <jbophrase>le zunle</jbophrase>. The semantics of
+ <jbophrase>fi'o kanla le zunle</jbophrase> is that
+ <jbophrase>le zunle</jbophrase> fills the x1 place of
+ <valsi>kanla</valsi>, whose place structure is</para>
+ <definition>
+ <valsi>kanla</valsi> <content>x1 is an/the eye of body x2</content>
+ </definition>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal sumti</primary><secondary>as first place of modal tag selbri</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal place relation</primary><secondary>importance of first place in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fi'o tag</primary><secondary>relation of modal sumti following to selbri</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal place</primary><secondary>relation of to selbri</secondary></indexterm> Thus
+ <jbophrase>le zunle</jbophrase> is an eye. The x2 place of
+ <valsi>kanla</valsi> is unspecified and must be inferred from the context. It is important to remember that even though
+ <jbophrase>le zunle</jbophrase> is placed following
+ <jbophrase>fi'o kanla</jbophrase>, semantically it belongs in the x1 place of
+ <valsi>kanla</valsi>. The selbri may be terminated with
+ <valsi>fe'u</valsi> (of selma'o FEhU), an elidable terminator which is rarely required unless a non-logical connective follows the tag (omitting
+ <valsi>fe'u</valsi> in that case would make the connective affect the selbri).</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal sumti</primary><secondary>and FA marking</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal sumti</primary><secondary>effect on place structure</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal sumti</primary><secondary>position in bridi</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>seltcita sumti</primary><secondary>definition (see also modal sumti)</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti tcita</primary><secondary>definition (see also modal tag)</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal sumti</primary><secondary>definition (see also seltcita sumti)</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal tag</primary><secondary>definition (see also sumti tcita)</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal place</primary><secondary>rationale for term name</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal place</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> The term for such an added place is a
+ <quote>modal place</quote>, as distinguished from the regular numbered places. (This use of the word
+ <quote>modal</quote> is specific to the Loglan Project, and does not agree with the standard uses in either logic or linguistics, but is now too entrenched to change easily.) The
+ <valsi>fi'o</valsi> construction marking a modal place is called a
+ <quote>modal tag</quote>, and the sumti which follows it a
+ <quote>modal sumti</quote>; the purely Lojban terms
+
+
+ <jbophrase>sumti tcita</jbophrase> and
+ <jbophrase>seltcita sumti</jbophrase>, respectively, are also commonly used. Modal sumti may be placed anywhere within the bridi, in any order; they have no effect whatever on the rules for assigning unmarked bridi to numbered places, and they may not be marked with FA cmavo.</para>
+
+ <para>Consider
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-BSAc"/> again. Another way to view the situation is to consider the speaker's left eye as a tool, a tool for seeing. The relevant selbri then becomes
+ <valsi>pilno</valsi>, whose place structure is</para>
+ <definition>
+ <valsi>pilno</valsi> <content>x1 uses x2 as a tool for purpose x3</content>
+ </definition>
+ <para>and we can rewrite
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-BSAc"/> as</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Lu15">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e5d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi viska do fi'o se pilno le zunle kanla</jbo>
+ <gloss>I see you [modal] [conversion] use: the left eye.</gloss>
+ <natlang>I see you using my left eye.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>Here the selbri belonging to the modal is
+ <jbophrase>se pilno</jbophrase>. The conversion of
+ <valsi>pilno</valsi> is necessary in order to get the
+ <quote>tool</quote> place into x1, since only x1 can be the modal sumti. The
+
+
+ <quote>tool user</quote> place is the x2 of
+ <jbophrase>se pilno</jbophrase> (because it is the x1 of
+ <valsi>pilno</valsi>) and remains unspecified. The tag
+ <jbophrase>fi'o pilno</jbophrase> would mean
+ <quote>with tool user</quote>, leaving the tool unspecified.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-BAI">
+ <title>Modal tags: BAI</title>
+ <para>There are certain selbri which seem particularly useful in constructing modal tags. In particular,
+ <valsi>pilno</valsi> is one of them. The place structure of
+ <valsi>pilno</valsi> is:</para>
+ <definition>
+ <valsi>pilno</valsi> <content>x1 uses x2 as a tool for purpose x3</content>
+ </definition>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>BAI modal tags</primary><secondary>rationale for</secondary></indexterm> and almost any selbri which represents an action may need to specify a tool. Having to say
+ <jbophrase>fi'o se pilno</jbophrase> frequently would make many Lojban sentences unnecessarily verbose and clunky, so an abbreviation is provided in the language design: the compound cmavo
+ <valsi>sepi'o</valsi>.</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>conversion</primary><secondary>of BAI cmavo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal tags</primary><secondary>short forms as BAI cmavo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fi'o constructs</primary><secondary>short forms as BAI cmavo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>BAI selma'o</primary><secondary>as short forms for fi'o constructs</secondary></indexterm> Here
+ <valsi>se</valsi> is used before a cmavo, namely
+ <valsi>pi'o</valsi>, rather than before a brivla. The meaning of this cmavo, which belongs to selma'o BAI, is exactly the same as that of
+
+ <jbophrase>fi'o pilno fe'u</jbophrase>. Since what we want is a tag based on
+ <jbophrase>se pilno</jbophrase> rather than
+ <jbophrase>pilno-</jbophrase> the tool, not the tool user – the grammar allows a BAI cmavo to be converted using a SE cmavo.
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-Lu15"/> may therefore be rewritten as:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-N32m">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e6d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi viska do sepi'o le zunle kanla</jbo>
+
+ <gloss>I see you with-tool: the left eye</gloss>
+ <natlang>I see you using my left eye.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>The compound cmavo
+ <valsi>sepi'o</valsi> is much shorter than
+
+ <jbophrase>fi'o se pilno [fe'u]</jbophrase> and can be thought of as a single word meaning
+ <quote>with-tool</quote>. The modal tag
+ <valsi>pi'o</valsi>, with no
+
+ <valsi>se</valsi>, similarly means
+ <quote>with-tool-user</quote>, probably a less useful concept. Nevertheless, the parallelism with the place structure of
+ <valsi>pilno</valsi> makes the additional syllable worthwhile.</para>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>conversion</primary><secondary>effect on BAI</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>BAI selma'o</primary><secondary>effect of conversion on</secondary></indexterm> Some BAI cmavo make sense with as well as without a SE cmavo; for example,
+ <valsi>ka'a</valsi>, the BAI corresponding to the gismu
+
+ <valsi>klama</valsi>, has five usable forms corresponding to the five places of
+ <valsi>klama</valsi> respectively:</para>
+ <variablelist>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>ka'a</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>with-goer</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>seka'a</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>with-destination</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>teka'a</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>with-origin</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>veka'a</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>with-route</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>xeka'a</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><para>with-means-of-transport</para></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ </variablelist>
+ <para>Any of these tags may be used to provide modal places for bridi, as in the following examples:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-r0QA">
+ <title>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>Avon</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>traveling salesperson</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> (
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e6d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la .eivn. cu vecnu loi flira cinta ka'a mi</jbo>
+
+ <gloss>Avon sells a-mass-of face paint with-goer me.</gloss>
+
+ <natlang>I am a traveling cosmetics salesperson for Avon.</natlang>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>
+
+
+
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-r0QA"/> may seem a bit strained, but it illustrates the way in which an existing selbri,
+ <valsi>vecnu</valsi> in this case, may have a place added to it which might otherwise seem utterly unrelated.)</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qmJM" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e6d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi cadzu seka'a la bratfyd.</jbo>
+ <gloss>I walk with-destination Bradford.</gloss>
+ <natlang>I am walking to Bradford.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMjz" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e6d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>bloti teka'a la nu,IORK.</jbo>
+ <gloss>[Observative:] is-a-boat with-origin New York</gloss>
+ <natlang>A boat from New York!</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qmLX" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e6d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>do bajra veka'a lo djine</jbo>
+ <gloss>You run with-route a circle.</gloss>
+ <natlang>You are running in circles.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMMX" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e6d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi citka xeka'a le vinji</jbo>
+ <gloss>I eat with-means-of-transport the airplane.</gloss>
+ <natlang>I eat in the airplane.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>English prepositions</primary><secondary>contrasted with modal tags in preciseness</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal tags</primary><secondary>contrasted with English prepositions in preciseness</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>BAI cmavo</primary><secondary>rationale for selection</secondary></indexterm> There are sixty-odd cmavo of selma'o BAI, based on selected gismu that seemed useful in a variety of settings. The list is somewhat biased toward English, because many of the cmavo were selected on the basis of corresponding English prepositions and preposition compounds such as <quote>with</quote>,
+ <quote>without</quote>, and
+ <quote>by means of</quote>. The BAI cmavo, however, are far more precise than English prepositions, because their meanings are fixed by the place structures of the corresponding gismu.</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>BAI selma'o</primary><secondary>form of cmavo in</secondary></indexterm> All BAI cmavo have the form CV'V or CVV. Most of them are CV'V, where the C is the first consonant of the corresponding gismu and the two Vs are the two vowels of the gismu. The table in
+ <xref linkend="section-irregular-BAI"/> shows the exceptions.</para>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vague relationship</primary><secondary>modal tag for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal tag</primary><secondary>for vague relationship</secondary></indexterm> There is one additional BAI cmavo that is not derived from a gismu:
+ <valsi>do'e</valsi>. This cmavo is used when an extra place is needed, but it seems useful to be vague about the semantic implications of the extra place:</para>
+
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2vMd">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e6d7"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>lo nanmu be do'e le berti cu klama le tcadu</jbo>
+
+ <gloss>Some man [related to] the north came to-the city.</gloss>
+ <natlang>A man of the north came to the city.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para><!-- FIXME: what to do with these "s? --><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal place</primary><secondary>on description selbri</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>"of"</primary><secondary>in English</secondary><tertiary>compared with do'e</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>do'e</primary><secondary>compared with English "of"</secondary></indexterm> Here
+ <jbophrase>le berti</jbophrase> is provided as a modal place of the selbri
+ <valsi>nanmu</valsi>, but its exact significance is vague, and is paralleled in the colloquial translation by the vague English preposition
+ <quote>of</quote>.
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-2vMd"/> also illustrates a modal place bound into a selbri with
+ <valsi>be</valsi>. This construction is useful when the selbri of a description requires a modal place; this and other uses of
+ <valsi>be</valsi> are more fully explained in
+ <xref linkend="section-be-sumti"/>.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-causals">
+ <title>Modal sentence connection: the causals</title>
+
+ <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ri'a</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>BAI</selmaho>
+ <description>rinka modal: physical cause</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ki'u</cmavo>
+
+ <selmaho>BAI</selmaho>
+ <description>krinu modal: justification</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>mu'i</cmavo>
+
+ <selmaho>BAI</selmaho>
+ <description>mukti modal: motivation</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ni'i</cmavo>
+
+ <selmaho>BAI</selmaho>
+ <description>nibli modal: logical entailment</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+ <para>This section has two purposes. On the one hand, it explains the grammatical construct called
+ <quote>modal sentence connection</quote>. On the other, it exemplifies some of the more useful BAI cmavo: the causals. (There are other BAI cmavo which have causal implications:
+
+
+ <valsi>ja'e</valsi> means
+ <quote>with result</quote>, and so
+ <valsi>seja'e</valsi> means
+ <quote>with cause of unspecified nature</quote>; likewise,
+ <valsi>gau</valsi> means
+ <quote>with agent</quote> and
+ <valsi>tezu'e</valsi> means
+ <quote>with purpose</quote>. These other modal cmavo will not be further discussed here, as my purpose is to explain modal sentence connection rather than Lojbanic views of causation.)</para>
+
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>causals</primary><secondary>gismu</secondary></indexterm> There are four causal gismu in Lojban, distinguishing different versions of the relationships lumped in English as
+ <quote>causal</quote>:</para>
+ <variablelist>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>rinka</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><definition><content>event x1 physically causes event x2</content></definition></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>krinu</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><definition><content>event x1 is the justification for event x2</content></definition></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>mukti</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><definition><content>event x1 is the (human) motive for event x2</content></definition></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>nibli</valsi></term>
+ <listitem><definition><content>event x1 logically entails event x2</content></definition></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ </variablelist>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal causals</primary><secondary>implication differences</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>causals</primary><secondary>modal</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modals</primary><secondary>for causal gismu</secondary></indexterm> Each of these gismu has a related modal:
+ <valsi>ri'a</valsi>,
+ <valsi>ki'u</valsi>,
+
+ <valsi>mu'i</valsi>, and
+
+ <valsi>ni'i</valsi> respectively. Using these gismu and these modals, we can create various causal sentences with different implications:</para>
+
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qmMz" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e7d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le spati cu banro ri'a le nu do djacu dunda fi le spati</jbo>
+ <gloss>The plant grows with-physical-cause the event-of you water give to the plant.</gloss>
+ <natlang>The plant grows because you water it.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qmN2" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e7d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la djan. cpacu le pamoi se jinga ki'u le nu la djan. jinga</jbo>
+
+ <gloss>John gets the first prize with-justification the event-of John wins.</gloss>
+ <natlang>John got the first prize because he won.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMN7" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e7d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi lebna le cukta mu'i le nu mi viska le cukta</jbo>
+
+ <gloss>I took the book with-motivation the event-of I saw the book.</gloss>
+ <natlang>I took the book because I saw it.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMNc" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+<indexterm type="ekxample-imported"><primary>Socrates</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e7d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la sokrates. morsi binxo ni'i le nu la sokrates. remna</jbo>
+
+ <gloss>Socrates dead-became with-logical-justification Socrates is-human.</gloss>
+
+ <natlang>Socrates died because Socrates is human.</natlang>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>
+
+
+ <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>"because"</primary><secondary>English word</secondary><tertiary>four varieties of</tertiary></indexterm> In
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qmMz"/> through
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMNc"/>, the same English word
+ <quote>because</quote> is used to translate all four modals, but the types of cause being expressed are quite different. Let us now focus on
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qmMz"/>, and explore some variations on it.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>causals</primary><secondary>claiming the relation contrasted with claiming cause and/or effect and/or relation</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstraction bridi</primary><secondary>effect on claim of bridi</secondary></indexterm> As written,
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qmMz"/> claims that the plant grows, but only refers to the event of watering it in an abstraction bridi (abstractions are explained in
+
+ <xref linkend="chapter-abstractions"/>) without actually making a claim. If I express
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qmMz"/>, I have said that the plant in fact grows, but I have not said that you actually water it, merely that there is a causal relationship between watering and growing. This is semantically asymmetrical. Suppose I wanted to claim that the plant was being watered, and only mention its growth as ancillary information? Then we could reverse the main bridi and the abstraction bridi, saying:</para>
+
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ibro">
+ <title>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>plant grows</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e7d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>do djacu dunda fi le spati seri'a le nu ri banro</jbo>
+ <gloss>You water-give to the plant with-physical-effect it grows.</gloss>
+ <natlang>You water the plant; therefore, it grows.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>with the
+ <valsi>ri'a</valsi> changed to
+ <valsi>seri'a</valsi>. In addition, there are also symmetrical forms:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1YHv">
+ <title>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>plant grows</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e7d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le nu do djacu dunda fi le spati cu rinka le nu le spati cu banro</jbo>
+ <gloss>The event-of (you water-give to the plant) causes the event-of (the plant grows).</gloss>
+ <natlang>Your watering the plant causes its growth. If you water the plant, then it grows.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>does not claim either event, but asserts only the causal relationship between them. So in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-1YHv"/>, I am not saying that the plant grows nor that you have in fact watered it. The second colloquial translation shows a form of
+ <quote>if-then</quote> in English quite distinct from the logical connective
+ <quote>if-then</quote> explained in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-connectives"/>.</para>
+ <para>Suppose we wish to claim both events as well as their causal relationship? We can use one of two methods:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMnX" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>plant grows</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e7d7"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le spati cu banro .iri'abo do djacu dunda fi le spati</jbo>
+
+ <gloss>The plant grows. Because you water-give to the plant.</gloss>
+ <natlang>The plant grows because you water it.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal sentence connection</primary></indexterm></para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMPn" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>plant grows</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e7d8"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>do djacu dunda fi le spati .iseri'abo le spati cu banro</jbo>
+ <gloss>You water-give to the plant. Therefore it grows.</gloss>
+ <natlang>You water the plant; therefore, it grows.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>The compound cmavo
+ <jbophrase>.iri'abo</jbophrase> and
+
+ <jbophrase>.iseri'abo</jbophrase> serve to connect two bridi, as the initial
+ <valsi>i</valsi> indicates. The final
+ <valsi>bo</valsi> is necessary to prevent the modal from
+ <quote>taking over</quote> the following sumti. If the
+ <valsi>bo</valsi> were omitted from
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMnX"/> we would have:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Wo6K">
+ <title>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>plant grows</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e7d9"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le spati cu banro .i ri'a do djacu dunda fi le spati</jbo>
+ <gloss>The plant grows. Because of you, [something] water-gives to the plant.</gloss>
+ <natlang>The plant grows. Because of you, water is given to the plant.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>Because
+ <jbophrase>ri'a do</jbophrase> is a modal sumti in
+
+
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-Wo6K"/>, there is no longer an explicit sumti in the x1 place of
+ <jbophrase>djacu dunda</jbophrase>, and the translation must be changed.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal sentence connection</primary><secondary>relation to modal of second sentence in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal sentence connection</primary><secondary>relation to modal of first sentence in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal sentence connection</primary><secondary>effect on modal</secondary></indexterm> The effect of sentences like
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMnX"/> and
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMPn"/> is that the modal,
+ <valsi>ri'a</valsi> in this example, no longer modifies an explicit sumti. Instead, the sumti is implicit, the event given by a full bridi. Furthermore, there is a second implication: that the first bridi fills the x2 place of the gismu
+ <valsi>rinka</valsi>; it specifies an event which is the effect. I am therefore claiming three things: that the plant grows, that you have watered it, and that there is a cause-and-effect relationship between the two.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal sentence connection</primary><secondary>with other than causals</secondary></indexterm> In principle, any modal tag can appear in a sentence connective of the type exemplified by
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMnX"/> and
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMPn"/>. However, it makes little sense to use any modals which do not expect events or other abstractions to fill the places of the corresponding gismu. The sentence connective
+ <jbophrase>.ibaubo</jbophrase> is perfectly grammatical, but it is hard to imagine any two sentences which could be connected by an
+ <quote>in-language</quote> modal. This is because a sentence describes an event, and an event can be a cause or an effect, but not a language.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-modal-connectives">
+ <title>Other modal connections</title>
+ <para>Like many Lojban grammatical constructions, sentence modal connection has both forethought and afterthought forms. (See
+ <xref linkend="chapter-connectives"/> for a more detailed discussion of Lojban connectives.)
+ <xref linkend="section-causals"/> exemplifies only afterthought modal connection, illustrated here by:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2D4c">
+ <title>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>grasp water</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e8d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi jgari lei djacu .iri'abo mi jgari le kabri</jbo>
+ <gloss>I grasp the-mass-of water with-physical-cause I grasp the cup.</gloss>
+ <gloss>Causing the mass of water to be grasped by me, I grasped the cup.</gloss>
+ <natlang>I grasp the water because I grasp the cup.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>
+
+
+ <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>forethought connection</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>afterthought connection</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> An afterthought connection is one that is signaled only by a cmavo (or a compound cmavo, in this case) between the two constructs being connected. Forethought connection uses a signal both before the first construct and between the two: the use of
+
+ <quote>both</quote> and
+ <quote>and</quote> in the first half of this sentence represents a forethought connection (though not a modal one).</para>
+
+
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal sentence connection</primary><secondary>forethought</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>forethought modal sentence connection</primary></indexterm> To make forethought modal sentence connections in Lojban, place the modal plus
+ <valsi>gi</valsi> before the first bridi, and
+ <valsi>gi</valsi> between the two. No
+ <valsi>i</valsi> is used within the construct. The forethought equivalent of
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-2D4c"/> is:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-d2b9">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e8d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>ri'agi mi jgari le kabri gi mi jgari lei djacu</jbo>
+ <gloss>With-physical-cause I grasp the cup, I grasp the-mass-of water.</gloss>
+ <natlang>Because I grasp the cup, I grasp the water.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>forethought modal sentence connection</primary><secondary>relation to modal of second bridi in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>forethought modal sentence connection</primary><secondary>relation to modal of first bridi in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>forethought modal sentence connection for causals</primary><secondary>order of cause and effect</secondary></indexterm> Note that the cause, the x1 of
+ <valsi>rinka</valsi> is now placed first. To keep the two bridi in the original order of
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-2D4c"/>, we could say:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rQ77">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e8d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>seri'agi mi jgari lei djacu gi mi jgari le kabri</jbo>
+ <gloss>With-physical-effect I grasp the-mass-of water, I grasp the cup.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>In English, the sentence
+ <quote>Therefore I grasp the water, I grasp the cup</quote> is ungrammatical, because
+ <quote>therefore</quote> is not grammatically equivalent to
+ <quote>because</quote>. In Lojban,
+ <jbophrase>seri'agi</jbophrase> can be used just like
+ <jbophrase>ri'agi</jbophrase>.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal sentence connection</primary><secondary>condensing</secondary></indexterm> When the two bridi joined by a modal connection have one or more elements (selbri or sumti or both) in common, there are various condensed forms that can be used in place of full modal sentence connection with both bridi completely stated.</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti modal connection</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal sumti connection</primary></indexterm> When the bridi are the same except for a single sumti, as in Examples 8.1 through 8.3, then a sumti modal connection may be employed:</para>
+
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-o7FG">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e8d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi jgari ri'agi le kabri gi lei djacu</jbo>
+ <gloss>I grasp because the cup, the-mass-of water.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-o7FG"/> means exactly the same as
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-2D4c"/> through
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-rQ77"/>, but there is no idiomatic English translation that will distinguish it from them.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>termset modal connection</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modals</primary><secondary>termset connection</secondary></indexterm> If the two connected bridi are different in more than one sumti, then a termset may be employed. Termsets are explained more fully in
+ <xref linkend="section-termsets"/>, but are essentially a mechanism for creating connections between multiple sumti simultaneously.</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-LetE">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e8d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi dunda le cukta la djan. .imu'ibo la djan. dunda lei jdini mi</jbo>
+ <gloss>I gave the book to John. Motivated-by John gave the-mass-of money to-me.</gloss>
+ <natlang>I gave the book to John, because John gave money to me.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>means the same as:</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>nu'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>nu'i</primary></indexterm></para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-tFSC">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e8d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>nu'i mu'igi la djan. lei jdini mi gi mi le cukta la djan. nu'u dunda</jbo>
+ <gloss>[start] because John, the-mass-of money, me; I, the book, John [end] gives.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>Here there are three sumti in each half of the termset, because the two bridi share only their selbri.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi-tail modal connection</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal bridi-tail connection</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal connection of selbri</primary><secondary>using bridi-tail modal connection</secondary></indexterm> There is no modal connection between selbri as such: bridi which differ only in the selbri can be modally connected using bridi-tail modal connection. The bridi-tail construct is more fully explained in
+
+ <xref linkend="section-compound-bridi"/>, but essentially it consists of a selbri with optional sumti following it.
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMN7"/> is suitable for bridi-tail connection, and could be shortened to:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Do9b">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e8d7"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi mu'igi viska le cukta gi lebna le cukta</jbo>
+ <gloss>I, because saw the book, took the book.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>Again, no straightforward English translation exists. It is even possible to shorten
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-Do9b"/> further to:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-YXps">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e8d8"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi mu'igi viska gi lebna vau le cukta</jbo>
+ <gloss>I because saw, therefore took, the book.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>where
+ <jbophrase>le cukta</jbophrase> is set off by the non-elidable
+ <valsi>vau</valsi> and is made to belong to both bridi-tails – see
+ <xref linkend="section-compound-bridi"/> for more explanations.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>shared bridi-tail sumti</primary><secondary>avoiding</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vau for shared bridi-tail sumti</primary><secondary>avoiding</secondary></indexterm> Since this is a chapter on rearranging sumti, it is worth pointing out that
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-YXps"/> can be further rearranged to:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Pxca">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e8d9"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi le cukta mu'igi viska gi lebna</jbo>
+ <gloss>I, the book, because saw, therefore took.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>which doesn't require the extra
+ <valsi>vau</valsi>; all sumti before a conjunction of bridi-tails are shared.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>operand modal connection</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal operand connection</primary></indexterm> Finally, mathematical operands can be modally connected.</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-J2T5">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e8d10"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>li ny. du li vo .ini'ibo li ny. du li re su'i re</jbo>
+ <gloss>the number n = the-number 4. Entailed-by the-number n = the-number 2 + 2.</gloss>
+ <natlang>n = 4 because n = 2 + 2.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>can be reduced to:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Mfe4">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e8d11"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>li ny. du li ni'igi vei re su'i re [ve'o] gi vo</jbo>
+ <gloss>the-number n = the-number because ( 2 + 2 ) therefore 4.</gloss>
+ <natlang>n is 2 + 2, and is thus 4.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>The cmavo
+ <valsi>vei</valsi> and
+ <valsi>ve'o</valsi> represent mathematical parentheses, and are required so that
+ <jbophrase>ni'igi</jbophrase> affects more than just the immediately following operand, namely the first
+ <valsi>re</valsi>. (The right parenthesis,
+ <valsi>ve'o</valsi>, is an elidable terminator.) As usual, no English translation does
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-Mfe4"/> justice.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal connectives</primary><secondary>fi'o prohibited in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fi'o</primary><secondary>restriction on use</secondary></indexterm> Note: Due to restrictions on the Lojban parsing algorithm, it is not possible to form modal connectives using the
+
+ <jbophrase>fi'o-</jbophrase>plus-selbri form of modal. Only the predefined modals of selma'o BAI can be compounded as shown in
+ <xref linkend="section-causals"/> and
+ <xref linkend="section-modal-connectives"/>.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-modal-selbri">
+ <title>Modal selbri</title>
+ <para>Consider the example:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-bT4c">
+ <title>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>under compulsion</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e9d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi tavla bau la lojban. bai tu'a la frank.</jbo>
+ <gloss>I speak in-language Lojban with-compeller some-act-by Frank.</gloss>
+ <natlang>I speak in Lojban, under compulsion by Frank.</natlang>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>
+
+
+ <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal sumti</primary><secondary>unspecified</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal sumti</primary><secondary>leaving vague</secondary></indexterm>
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-bT4c"/> has two modal sumti, using the modals
+
+
+ <valsi>bau</valsi> and
+ <valsi>bai</valsi>. Suppose we wanted to specify the language explicitly but be vague about who's doing the compelling. We can simplify
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-bT4c"/> to:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-dbSy">
+ <title>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>under compulsion</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e9d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi tavla bau la lojban. bai [ku].</jbo>
+ <gloss>I speak in-language Lojban under-compulsion.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>In
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-dbSy"/>, the elidable terminator
+ <valsi>ku</valsi> has taken the place of the sumti which would normally follow
+ <valsi>bai</valsi>. Alternatively, we could specify the one who compels but keep the language vague:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Qc8w">
+ <title>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>under compulsion</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e9d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi tavla bau [ku] bai tu'a la frank.</jbo>
+ <gloss>I speak in-some-language under-compulsion-by some-act-by Frank.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>We are also free to move the modal-plus-
+ <valsi>ku</valsi> around the bridi:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2utY">
+ <title>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>under compulsion</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e9d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>bau [ku] bai ku mi tavla</jbo>
+ <gloss>In-some-language under-compulsion I speak.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal followed by selbri</primary><secondary>effect on eliding cu</secondary></indexterm> An alternative to using
+ <valsi>ku</valsi> is to place the modal cmavo right before the selbri, following the
+
+ <valsi>cu</valsi> which often appears there. When a modal is present, the
+ <valsi>cu</valsi> is almost never necessary.</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-613h">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e9d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi bai tavla bau la lojban.</jbo>
+ <gloss>I compelledly speak in-language Lojban.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal followed by selbri</primary><secondary>contrasted with tanru modification in grammar</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal followed by selbri</primary><secondary>compared with tanru modification in meaning</secondary></indexterm> In this use, the modal is like a tanru modifier semantically, although grammatically it is quite distinct.
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-613h"/> is very similar in meaning to:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pVUT">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e9d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi se bapli tavla bau la lojban.</jbo>
+ <gloss>I compelledly-speak in-language Lojban.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>The
+ <valsi>se</valsi> conversion is needed because
+ <jbophrase>bapli tavla</jbophrase> would be a
+ <quote>compeller type of speaker</quote> rather than a
+ <quote>compelled (by someone) type of speaker</quote>, which is what a
+ <jbophrase>bai tavla</jbophrase> is.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fi'o modal followed by selbri</primary><secondary>effect on eliding fe'u</secondary></indexterm> If the modal preceding a selbri is constructed using
+ <valsi>fi'o</valsi>, then
+ <valsi>fe'u</valsi> is required to prevent the main selbri and the modal selbri from colliding:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-SfwV">
+ <title>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>see with eye</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e9d7"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi fi'o kanla fe'u viska do</jbo>
+ <gloss>I with-eye see you.</gloss>
+ <natlang>I see you with my eye(s).</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>bai ke</primary></indexterm>
+
+
+ <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modals</primary><secondary>expanding scope over inner modal connection</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modals</primary><secondary>expanding scope over non-logical connection</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modals</primary><secondary>expanding scope over logical connection with ke ... ke'e</secondary></indexterm> There are two other uses of modals. A modal can be attached to a pair of bridi-tails that have already been connected by a logical, non-logical, or modal connection (see
+ <xref linkend="chapter-connectives"/> for more on logical and non-logical connections):</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-vCzL">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e9d8"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi bai ke ge klama le zarci gi cadzu le bisli [ke'e]</jbo>
+
+ <gloss>I under-compulsion (both go to-the market and walk on-the ice).</gloss>
+ <natlang>Under compulsion, I both go to the market and walk on the ice.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>Here the
+ <valsi>bai</valsi> is spread over both
+ <jbophrase>klama le zarci</jbophrase> and
+ <jbophrase>cadzu le bisli</jbophrase>, and the
+ <jbophrase>ge ... gi</jbophrase> represents the logical connection
+ <quote>both-and</quote> between the two.</para>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modals</primary><secondary>expanding scope over multiple sentences with tu'e…tu'u</secondary></indexterm> Similarly, a modal can be attached to multiple sentences that have been combined with
+ <valsi>tu'e</valsi> and
+ <valsi>tu'u</valsi>, which are explained in more detail in
+ <xref linkend="section-i"/>:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-boYr">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e9d9"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>bai tu'e mi klama le zarci .i mi cadzu le bisli [tu'u]</jbo>
+ <gloss>Under-compulsion [start] I go to-the market. I walk on-the ice [end].</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>means the same thing as
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-vCzL"/>.</para>
+ <para>Note: Either BAI modals or
+ <jbophrase>fi'o-</jbophrase>plus-selbri modals may correctly be used in any of the constructions discussed in this section.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-modal-relative-phrases">
+ <title>Modal relative phrases; Comparison</title>
+ <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>pe</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>GOI</selmaho>
+ <description>restrictive relative phrase</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ne</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>GOI</selmaho>
+ <description>incidental relative phrase</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>mau</cmavo>
+
+ <selmaho>BAI</selmaho>
+ <description>zmadu modal</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>me'a</cmavo>
+
+ <selmaho>BAI</selmaho>
+ <description>mleca modal</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+ <para>Relative phrases and clauses are explained in much more detail in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-relative-clauses"/>. However, there is a construction which combines a modal with a relative phrase which is relevant to this chapter. Consider the following examples of relative clauses:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qmPP" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>Artur Rubenstein</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e10d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la .apasionatas. poi se cusku la .artr. rubnstain. cu se nelci mi</jbo>
+ <gloss>The Appassionata which is-expressed-by Arthur Rubinstein is-liked-by me.</gloss>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qmPr" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>Beethoven</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e10d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la .apasionatas. noi se finti la betovn. cu se nelci mi</jbo>
+ <gloss>The Appassionata, which is-created-by Beethoven, is-liked-by me.</gloss>
+
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>
+
+
+ In
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qmPP"/>,
+ <jbophrase>la .apasionatas.</jbophrase> refers to a particular performance of the sonata, namely the one performed by Rubinstein. Therefore, the relative clause
+ <jbophrase>poi se cusku</jbophrase> uses the cmavo
+ <valsi>poi</valsi> (of selma'o NOI) to restrict the meaning of
+ <jbophrase>la .apasionatas</jbophrase> to the performance in question.</para>
+ <para>In
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qmPr"/>, however,
+ <jbophrase>la .apasionatas.</jbophrase> refers to the sonata as a whole, and the information that it was composed by Beethoven is merely incidental. The cmavo
+
+ <valsi>noi</valsi> (also of selma'o NOI) expresses the incidental nature of this relationship.</para>
+ <para>The cmavo
+ <valsi>pe</valsi> and
+ <valsi>ne</valsi> (of selma'o GOI) are roughly equivalent to
+ <valsi>poi</valsi> and
+ <valsi>noi</valsi> respectively, but are followed by sumti rather than full bridi. We can abbreviate
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qmPP"/> and
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qmPr"/> to:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMq1" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>Appassionata</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>Artur Rubenstein</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e10d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la .apasionatas. pe la .artr. rubnstain. se nelci mi</jbo>
+ <gloss>The Appassionata of Arthur Rubinstein is-liked-by me.</gloss>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMQ1" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>Beethoven</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>Appassionata</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e10d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la .apasionatas. ne la betovn. se nelci mi</jbo>
+ <gloss>The Appassionata, which is of Beethoven, is-liked-by me.</gloss>
+
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative phrases</primary><secondary>contrasted with relative clauses in preciseness</secondary></indexterm> Here the precise selbri of the relative clauses is lost: all we can tell is that the Appassionata is connected in some way with Rubinstein (in
+
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMq1"/>) and Beethoven (in
+
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMQ1"/>), and that the relationships are respectively restrictive and incidental.</para>
+ <para>It happens that both
+ <valsi>cusku</valsi> and
+ <valsi>finti</valsi> have BAI cmavo, namely
+ <valsi>cu'u</valsi> and
+
+ <valsi>fi'e</valsi>. We can recast
+
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMq1"/> and
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMQ1"/> as:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMqF" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>Appassionata</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>Artur Rubenstein</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e10d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la .apasionatas pe cu'u la .artr. rubnstain. cu se nelci mi</jbo>
+
+ <gloss>The Appassionata expressed-by Arthur Rubinstein is-liked-by me.</gloss>
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qmqy" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>Beethoven</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <indexterm type="example"><primary>Appassionata</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e10d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la .apasionatas ne fi'e la betovn. cu se nelci mi</jbo>
+
+ <gloss>The Appassionata, invented-by Beethoven, is-liked-by me.</gloss>
+
+
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modals</primary><secondary>improving relative phrase preciseness with </secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative phrases</primary><secondary>improving preciseness with modals</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative phrases with modals</primary><secondary>compared to relative clauses in preciseness</secondary></indexterm>
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMqF"/> and
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qmqy"/> have the full semantic content of
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qmPP"/> and
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qmPr"/> respectively.</para>
+ <para> <!-- FIXME: what to do with these "s? --><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>"less"</primary><secondary>English word</secondary><tertiary>expressing with relative phrases</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>"more"</primary><secondary>English word</secondary><tertiary>expressing with relative phrases</tertiary></indexterm> Modal relative phrases are often used with the BAI cmavo
+ <valsi>mau</valsi> and
+
+ <valsi>me'a</valsi>, which are based on the comparative gismu
+
+ <valsi>zmadu</valsi> (more than) and
+ <valsi>mleca</valsi> (less than) respectively. The place structures are:</para>
+ <variablelist>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>zmadu</valsi>:</term>
+ <listitem><definition><content>x1 is more than x2 in property/quantity x3 by amount x4</content></definition></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ <varlistentry>
+ <term><valsi>mleca</valsi>:</term>
+ <listitem><definition><content>x1 is less than x2 in property/quantity x3 by amount x4</content></definition></listitem>
+ </varlistentry>
+ </variablelist>
+ <para>Here are some examples:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Jr4V">
+ <title>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>likes more than</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e10d7"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la frank. nelci la betis. ne semau la meiris.</jbo>
+ <gloss>Frank likes Betty, which-is more-than Mary.</gloss>
+ <natlang>Frank likes Betty more than (he likes) Mary.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>
+
+
+
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-Jr4V"/> requires that Frank likes Betty, but adds the information that his liking for Betty exceeds his liking for Mary. The modal appears in the form
+ <valsi>semau</valsi> because the x2 place of
+ <valsi>zmadu</valsi> is the basis for comparison: in this case, Frank's liking for Mary.</para>
+
+
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ecf1">
+ <title>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>likes more than</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e10d8"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la frank. nelci la meiris. ne seme'a la betis.</jbo>
+ <gloss>Frank likes Mary, which-is less-than Betty.</gloss>
+ <natlang>Frank likes Mary less than (he likes) Betty.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>me'a</primary><secondary>avoiding in favor of semau</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mau</primary><secondary>avoiding in favor of seme'a</secondary></indexterm> Here we are told that Frank likes Mary less than he likes Betty; the information about the comparison is the same. It would be possible to rephrase
+
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-Jr4V"/> using
+ <valsi>me'a</valsi> rather than
+
+ <valsi>semau</valsi>, and
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-ecf1"/> using
+ <valsi>mau</valsi> rather than
+
+ <valsi>seme'a</valsi>, but such usage would be unnecessarily confusing. Like many BAI cmavo,
+ <valsi>mau</valsi> and
+
+ <valsi>me'a</valsi> are more useful when converted with
+
+ <valsi>se</valsi>.</para>
+ <para> <!-- FIXME: what to do with these "s? --><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>"less"</primary><secondary>English word</secondary><tertiary>importance of relative phrase to</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>"more"</primary><secondary>English word</secondary><tertiary>importance of relative phrase to</tertiary></indexterm> If the
+ <valsi>ne</valsi> were omitted in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-Jr4V"/> and
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-ecf1"/>, the modal sumti (
+
+
+ <jbophrase>la meiris.</jbophrase> and
+ <jbophrase>la betis.</jbophrase> respectively) would become attached to the bridi as a whole, producing a very different translation.
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-ecf1"/> would become:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-5QHA">
+ <title>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>likes more than</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e10d9"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la frank. nelci la meiris. seme'a la betis.</jbo>
+ <gloss>Frank likes Mary is-less-than Betty.</gloss>
+ <natlang>Frank's liking Mary is less than Betty.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>which compares a liking with a person, and is therefore nonsense.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi-based comparison</primary><secondary>contrasted with comparison with relative phrase</secondary><tertiary>in claims about parts</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>comparison with relative phrase</primary><secondary>contrasted with bridi-based comparison</secondary><tertiary>in claims about parts</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>comparison</primary><secondary>claims related to based on form</secondary></indexterm> Pure comparison, which states only the comparative information but says nothing about whether Frank actually likes either Mary or Betty (he may like neither, but dislike Betty less), would be expressed differently, as:</para>
+
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-AAQp">
+ <title>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>likes more than</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e10d10"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le ni la frank. nelci la betis. cu zmadu le ni la frank. nelci la meiris.</jbo>
+ <gloss>The quantity-of Frank's liking Betty is-more-than the quantity-of Frank's liking Mary.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modals often attached with relative phrases</primary><secondary>list</secondary></indexterm> The mechanisms explained in this section are appropriate to many modals other than
+ <valsi>semau</valsi> and
+ <valsi>seme'a</valsi>. Some other modals that are often associated with relative phrases are:
+ <valsi>seba'i</valsi> (
+
+ <quote>instead of</quote>),
+ <valsi>ci'u</valsi> (
+
+ <quote>on scale</quote>),
+ <valsi>de'i</valsi> (
+
+ <quote>dated</quote>),
+ <valsi>du'i</valsi> (
+
+ <quote>as much as</quote>). Some BAI tags can be used equally well in relative phrases or attached to bridi; others seem useful only attached to bridi. But it is also possible that the usefulness of particular BAI modals is an English-speaker bias, and that speakers of other languages may find other BAIs useful in divergent ways.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fi'o modals</primary><secondary>usage in relative phrases</secondary></indexterm> Note: The uses of modals discussed in this section are applicable both to BAI modals and to
+ <jbophrase>fi'o-</jbophrase>plus-selbri modals.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-mixed-connection">
+ <title>Mixed modal connection</title>
+ <para>It is possible to mix logical connection (explained in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-connectives"/>) with modal connection, in a way that simultaneously asserts the logical connection and the modal relationship. Consider the sentences:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4qz4">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e11d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi nelci do .ije mi nelci la djein.</jbo>
+ <gloss>I like you. And I like Jane.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>which is a logical connection, and</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-6EE5">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e11d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi nelci do .iki'ubo mi nelci la djein.</jbo>
+ <gloss>I like you. Justified-by I like Jane.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mixed modal connection</primary><secondary>of sentences</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal connection</primary><secondary>simultaneous with logical</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>connection</primary><secondary>simultaneously modal and logical</secondary></indexterm> The meanings of
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-4qz4"/> and
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-6EE5"/> can be simultaneously expressed by combining the two compound cmavo, thus:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-W3Le">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e11d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi nelci do .ijeki'ubo mi nelci la djein.</jbo>
+ <gloss>I like you. And justified-by I like Jane.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mixed modal connection</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> Here the two sentences
+ <jbophrase>mi nelci do</jbophrase> and
+ <jbophrase>mi nelci la djein.</jbophrase> are simultaneously asserted, their logical connection is asserted, and their causal relationship is asserted. The logical connective
+ <valsi>je</valsi> comes before the modal
+ <valsi>ki'u</valsi> in all such mixed connections.</para>
+
+ <para>Since
+ <jbophrase>mi nelci do</jbophrase> and
+ <jbophrase>mi nelci la djein.</jbophrase> differ only in the final sumti, we can transform
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-W3Le"/> into a mixed sumti connection:</para>
+
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gE1z">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e11d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi nelci do .eki'ubo la djein.</jbo>
+ <natlang>I like you and/because Jane.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mixed modal connection</primary><secondary>as proscribed in forethought</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mixed modal connection</primary><secondary>afterthought</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mixed modal connection</primary><secondary>of sumti</secondary></indexterm> Note that this connection is an afterthought one. Mixed connectives are always afterthought; forethought connectives must be either logical or modal.</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mixed modal connection</primary><secondary>of bridi-tails</secondary></indexterm> There are numerous other afterthought logical and non-logical connectives that can have modal information planted within them. For example, a bridi-tail connected version of
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-gE1z"/> would be:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7LmA">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e11d5"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi nelci do gi'eki'ubo nelci la djein.</jbo>
+ <natlang>I like you and/because like Jane.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>The following three complex examples all mean the same thing.</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMRB" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e11d6"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi bevri le dakli .ijeseri'abo tu'e mi bevri le gerku .ijadu'ibo mi bevri le mlatu [tu'u]</jbo>
+ <gloss>I carry the sack. And [effect] (I carry the dog. And/or [equal] I carry the cat.)</gloss>
+ <natlang>I carry the sack. As a result I carry the dog or I carry the cat, equally.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qmRL" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e11d7"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi bevri le dakli gi'eseri'ake bevri le gerku gi'adu'ibo bevri le mlatu [ke'e]</jbo>
+ <gloss>I carry the sack and [effect] (carry the dog and/or [equal] carry the cat).</gloss>
+ <natlang>I carry the sack and as a result carry the dog or carry the cat equally.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMSb" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>carry sack</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e11d8"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi bevri le dakli .eseri'ake le gerku .adu'ibo le mlatu [ke'e]</jbo>
+ <gloss>I carry the sack and [effect] (the cat and/or [equal] the dog).</gloss>
+ <natlang>I carry the sack, and as a result the cat or the dog equally.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>
+
+
+ In
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMRB"/>, the
+ <valsi>tu'e</valsi>…<valsi>tu'u</valsi> brackets are the equivalent of the
+ <valsi>ke</valsi>…<valsi>ke'e</valsi> brackets in
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qmRL"/> and
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMSb"/>, because
+ <valsi>ke</valsi>…<valsi>ke'e</valsi> cannot extend across more than one sentence. It would also be possible to change the
+ <jbophrase>.ijeseri'abo</jbophrase> to
+ <jbophrase>.ije seri'a</jbophrase>, which would show that the
+ <valsi>tu'e</valsi>…<valsi>tu'u</valsi> portion was an effect, but would not pin down the
+ <jbophrase>mi bevri le dakli</jbophrase> portion as the cause. It is legal for a modal (or a tense; see
+ <xref linkend="chapter-tenses"/>) to modify the whole of a
+ <valsi>tu'e</valsi>…<valsi>tu'u</valsi> construct.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fi'o</primary><secondary>mixed modal connection with</secondary></indexterm> Note: The uses of modals discussed in this section are applicable both to BAI modals and to
+ <jbophrase>fi'o-</jbophrase>plus-selbri modals.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-modal-jai">
+ <title>Modal conversion: JAI</title>
+ <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>jai</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>JAI</selmaho>
+ <description>modal conversion</description>
+
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>fai</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>FA</selmaho>
+ <description>modal place structure tag</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+ <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>BAI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>SE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>conversion</primary><secondary>swapping with modal place</secondary></indexterm> So far, conversion of numbered bridi places with SE and the addition of modal places with BAI have been two entirely separate operations. However, it is possible to convert a selbri in such a way that, rather than exchanging two numbered places, a modal place is made into a numbered place. For example,</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KMMX">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e12d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi cusku bau la lojban.</jbo>
+ <gloss>I express [something] in-language Lojban.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>place structure</primary><secondary>effect of modal conversion on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>conversion</primary><secondary>modal</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal conversion</primary><secondary>place structure of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal conversion</primary><secondary>grammar of</secondary></indexterm> has an explicit x1 place occupied by
+ <valsi>mi</valsi> and an explicit
+ <valsi>bau</valsi> place occupied by
+ <jbophrase>la lojban.</jbophrase> To exchange these two, we use a modal conversion operator consisting of
+
+ <valsi>jai</valsi> (of selma'o JAI) followed by the modal cmavo. Thus, the modal conversion of
+
+
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-KMMX"/> is:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KjyW">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e12d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la lojban. jai bau cusku fai mi</jbo>
+ <gloss>Lojban is-the-language-of-expression used-by me.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fai</primary><secondary>as allowing access to original first place in modal conversion</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal conversion</primary><secondary>access to original first place with fai</secondary></indexterm> In
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-KjyW"/>, the modal place
+ <jbophrase>la lojban.</jbophrase> has become the x1 place of the new selbri
+ <jbophrase>jai bau cusku</jbophrase>. What has happened to the old x1 place? There is no numbered place for it to move to, so it moves to a special
+ <quote>unnumbered place</quote> marked by the tag
+ <valsi>fai</valsi> of selma'o FA.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fai</primary><secondary>effect on numbering of place structure places</secondary></indexterm> Note: For the purposes of place numbering,
+ <valsi>fai</valsi> behaves like
+ <valsi>fi'a</valsi>; it does not affect the numbering of the other places around it.</para>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal conversions</primary><secondary>in descriptions</secondary></indexterm> Like SE conversions, JAI conversions are especially convenient in descriptions. We may refer to
+ <quote>the language of an expression</quote> as
+ <jbophrase>le jai bau cusku</jbophrase>, for example.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal conversion</primary><secondary>with no modal specified</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>jai without modal</primary><secondary>meaning</secondary></indexterm> In addition, it is grammatical to use
+ <valsi>jai</valsi> without a following modal. This usage is not related to modals, but is explained here for completeness. The effect of
+ <valsi>jai</valsi> by itself is to send the x1 place, which should be an abstraction, into the
+ <valsi>fai</valsi> position, and to raise one of the sumti from the abstract sub-bridi into the x1 place of the main bridi. This feature is discussed in more detail in
+ <xref linkend="section-sumti-raising"/>. The following two examples mean the same thing:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMsd" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e12d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le nu mi lebna le cukta cu se krinu le nu mi viska le cukta</jbo>
+ <gloss>The event-of (I take the book) is-justified-by the event-of (I see the book).</gloss>
+ <natlang>My taking the book is justified by my seeing it.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMse" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e12d4"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi jai se krinu le nu mi viska le cukta kei [fai le nu mi lebna le cukta]</jbo>
+ <gloss>I am-justified by the event-of (I see the book) [namely, the event-of (I take the book)]</gloss>
+ <natlang>I am justified in taking the book by seeing the book.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal conversion without modal</primary><secondary>as vague</secondary></indexterm>
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMse"/>, with the bracketed part omitted, allows us to say that
+ <quote>I am justified</quote> whereas in fact it is my action that is justified. This construction is vague, but useful in representing natural-language methods of expression.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fi'o</primary><secondary>and modal conversion</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal conversion with fi'o</primary></indexterm> Note: The uses of modals discussed in this section are applicable both to BAI modals and to
+ <jbophrase>fi'o-</jbophrase>plus-selbri modals.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-modal-negation">
+ <title>Modal negation</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modals</primary><secondary>negation of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>negation of modals</primary></indexterm> Negation is explained in detail in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-negation"/>. There are two forms of negation in Lojban: contradictory and scalar negation. Contradictory negation expresses what is false, whereas scalar negation says that some alternative to what has been stated is true. A simple example is the difference between
+ <quote>John didn't go to Paris</quote> (contradictory negation) and
+ <quote>John went to (somewhere) other than Paris</quote> (scalar negation).</para>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modals</primary><secondary>contradictory negation of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>negation of modals</primary><secondary>contradictory</secondary></indexterm> Contradictory negation involving BAI cmavo is performed by appending
+ <jbophrase>-nai</jbophrase> (of selma'o NAI) to the BAI. A common use of modals with
+ <jbophrase>-nai</jbophrase> is to deny a causal relationship:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ej84">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e13d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi nelci do mu'inai le nu do nelci mi</jbo>
+ <natlang>I like you, but not because you like me.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>contradictory negation of modals</primary><secondary>explanation of meaning</secondary></indexterm>
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-ej84"/> denies that the relationship between my liking you (which is asserted) and your liking me (which is not asserted) is one of motivation. Nothing is said about whether you like me or not, merely that that hypothetical liking is not the motivation for my liking you.</para>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modals</primary><secondary>scalar negation of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>negation of modals</primary><secondary>scalar</secondary></indexterm> Scalar negation is achieved by prefixing
+ <valsi>na'e</valsi> (of selma'o NAhE), or any of the other cmavo of NAhE, to the BAI cmavo.</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9WC5">
+ <title>
+<indexterm type="example"><primary>plant grows</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e13d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>le spati cu banro na'emu'i le nu do djacu dunda fi le spati</jbo>
+ <gloss>The plant grows other-than-motivated-by the event-of you water-give to the plant.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>
+
+
+ <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>scalar negation of modals</primary><secondary>explanation of meaning</secondary></indexterm>
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-9WC5"/> says that the relationship between the plant's growth and your watering it is not one of motivation: the plant is not motivated to grow, as plants are not something which can have motivation as a rule. Implicitly, some other relationship between watering and growth exists, but
+
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-9WC5"/> doesn't say what it is (presumably
+ <valsi>ri'a</valsi>).</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fi'o modals</primary><secondary>negation of by negating selbri</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>negation of fi'o modals</primary><secondary>by negating selbri</secondary></indexterm> Note: Modals made with
+ <valsi>fi'o</valsi> plus a selbri cannot be negated directly. The selbri can itself be negated either with contradictory or with scalar negation, however.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-sticky-modals">
+ <title>Sticky modals</title>
+ <para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ki</cmavo>
+ <selmaho>KI</selmaho>
+ <description>stickiness flag</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+ <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modals</primary><secondary>making sticky</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modals</primary><secondary>making long-scope</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sticky modals</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> Like tenses, modals can be made persistent from the bridi in which they appear to all following bridi. The effect of this
+ <quote>stickiness</quote> is to make the modal, along with its following sumti, act as if it appeared in every successive bridi. Stickiness is put into effect by following the modal (but not any following sumti) with the cmavo
+ <valsi>ki</valsi> of selma'o KI. For example,</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1UGf">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e14d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi tavla bau la lojban. bai ki tu'a la frank. .ibabo mi tavla bau la gliban.</jbo>
+ <gloss>I speak in-language Lojban compelled-by some-property-of Frank. Afterward, I speak in-language English.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>means the same as:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-txFr">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e14d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi tavla bau la lojban. bai tu'a la frank. .ibabo mi tavla bau la gliban. bai tu'a la frank.</jbo>
+ <gloss>I speak in-language Lojban compelled-by some-property-of Frank. Afterward, I speak in-language English compelled-by some-property-of Frank.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>In
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-1UGf"/>,
+ <valsi>bai</valsi> is made sticky, and so Frank's compelling is made applicable to every following bridi.
+ <valsi>bau</valsi> is not sticky, and so the language may vary from bridi to bridi, and if not specified in a particular bridi, no assumption can safely be made about its value.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sticky modals</primary><secondary>canceling</secondary></indexterm> To cancel stickiness, use the form
+ <jbophrase>BAI ki ku</jbophrase>, which stops any modal value for the specified BAI from being passed to the next bridi. To cancel stickiness for all modals simultaneously, and also for any sticky tenses that exist (
+ <valsi>ki</valsi> is used for both modals and tenses), use
+ <valsi>ki</valsi> by itself, either before the selbri or (in the form
+ <jbophrase>ki ku</jbophrase>) anywhere in the bridi:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sYdo">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e14d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>mi ki tavla</jbo>
+ <natlang>I speak (no implication about language or compulsion).</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fi'o</primary><secondary>proscribed for sticky modals</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sticky modals</primary><secondary>fi'o proscribed from</secondary></indexterm> Note: Modals made with
+ <valsi>fi'o</valsi>-plus-selbri cannot be made sticky. This is an unfortunate, but unavoidable, restriction.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-connected-modals">
+ <title>Logical and non-logical connection of modals</title>
+
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-logical connection</primary><secondary>of modals</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>of modals</secondary></indexterm> Logical and non-logical connectives are explained in detail in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-connectives"/>. For the purposes of this chapter, it suffices to point out that a logical (or non-logical) connection between two bridi which differ only in a modal can be reduced to a single bridi with a connective between the modals. As a result,
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMsx"/> and
+ <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMte"/> mean the same thing:</para>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMsx" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e15d1"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la frank. bajra seka'a le zdani .ije la frank. bajra teka'a le zdani</jbo>
+ <gloss>Frank runs with-destination the house. And Frank runs with-origin the house.</gloss>
+ <natlang>Frank runs to the house, and Frank runs from the house.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMte" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e15d2"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la frank. bajra seka'a je teka'a le zdani</jbo>
+ <gloss>Frank runs with-destination and with-origin the house.</gloss>
+ <natlang>Frank runs to and from the house.</natlang>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para><indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>je</primary></indexterm> Neither example implies whether a single act, or two acts, of running is referred to. To compel the sentence to refer to a single act of running, you can use the form:</para>
+ <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-b0LW">
+ <title>
+ <anchor xml:id="c9e15d3"/>
+ </title>
+ <interlinear-gloss>
+ <jbo>la frank. bajra seka'a le zdani ce'e teka'a le zdani</jbo>
+ <gloss>Frank runs with-destination the house [joined-to] with-origin the-house.</gloss>
+ </interlinear-gloss>
+ </example>
+ <para>The cmavo
+ <valsi>ce'e</valsi> creates a termset containing two terms (termsets are explained in
+ <xref linkend="chapter-connectives"/> and
+ <xref linkend="chapter-quantifiers"/>). When a termset contains more than one modal tag derived from a single BAI, the convention is that the two tags are derived from a common event.</para>
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-irregular-BAI">
+ <title>CV'V cmavo of selma'o BAI with irregular forms</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal cmavo</primary><secondary>regular form for derivation</secondary></indexterm> There are 65 cmavo of selma'o BAI, of which all but one (
+ <valsi>do'e</valsi>, discussed in
+
+ <xref linkend="section-BAI"/>), are derived directly from selected gismu. Of these 64 cmavo, 36 are entirely regular and have the form CV'V, where C is the first consonant of the corresponding gismu, and the Vs are the two vowels of the gismu. The remaining BAI cmavo, which are irregular in one way or another, are listed in the table below. The table is divided into sub-tables according to the nature of the exception; some cmavo appear in more than one sub-table, and are so noted.</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-list-head>
+ <td>cmavo</td>
+ <td>gismu</td>
+ <td>comments</td>
+ </cmavo-list-head>
+ <title>Monosyllables of the form CVV:</title>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>bai</cmavo>
+ <gismu>bapli</gismu>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>bau</cmavo>
+ <gismu>bangu</gismu>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>cau</cmavo>
+ <gismu>claxu</gismu>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>fau</cmavo>
+ <gismu>fasnu</gismu>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>gau</cmavo>
+ <gismu>gasnu</gismu>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>kai</cmavo>
+ <gismu>ckaji</gismu>
+ <description>uses 2nd consonant of gismu</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>mau</cmavo>
+ <gismu>zmadu</gismu>
+ <description>uses 2nd consonant of gismu</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>koi</cmavo>
+ <gismu>korbi</gismu>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>rai</cmavo>
+ <gismu>traji</gismu>
+ <description>uses 2nd consonant of gismu</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>sau</cmavo>
+ <gismu>sarcu</gismu>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>tai</cmavo>
+ <gismu>tamsmi</gismu>
+ <description>based on lujvo, not gismu</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>zau</cmavo>
+ <gismu>zanru</gismu>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <title>Second consonant of the gismu as the C: (the gismu is always of the form CCVCV)</title>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ga'a</cmavo>
+ <gismu>zgana</gismu>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>kai</cmavo>
+ <gismu>ckaji</gismu>
+ <description>has CVV form (monosyllable)</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ki'i</cmavo>
+ <gismu>ckini</gismu>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>la'u</cmavo>
+ <gismu>klani</gismu>
+ <description>has irregular 2nd V</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>le'a</cmavo>
+ <gismu>klesi</gismu>
+ <description>has irregular 2nd V</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>mau</cmavo>
+ <gismu>zmadu</gismu>
+ <description>has CVV form (monosyllable)</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>me'e</cmavo>
+ <gismu>cmene</gismu>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ra'a</cmavo>
+ <gismu>srana</gismu>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ra'i</cmavo>
+ <gismu>krasi</gismu>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>rai</cmavo>
+ <gismu>traji</gismu>
+ <description>has CVV form (monosyllable)</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ti'i</cmavo>
+ <gismu>stidi</gismu>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>tu'i</cmavo>
+ <gismu>stuzi</gismu>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <title>Irregular 2nd V:</title>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>fi'e</cmavo>
+ <gismu>finti</gismu>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>la'u</cmavo>
+ <gismu>klani</gismu>
+ <description>uses 2nd consonant of gismu</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>le'a</cmavo>
+ <gismu>klesi</gismu>
+ <description>uses 2nd consonant of gismu</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ma'e</cmavo>
+ <gismu>marji</gismu>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>mu'u</cmavo>
+ <gismu>mupli</gismu>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ti'u</cmavo>
+ <gismu>tcika</gismu>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>va'o</cmavo>
+ <gismu>vanbi</gismu>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <title>Special cases:</title>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ri'i</cmavo>
+ <gismu>lifri</gismu>
+ <description>uses 3rd consonant of gismu</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>tai</cmavo>
+ <gismu>tamsmi</gismu>
+ <description>based on lujvo, not gismu</description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>va'u</cmavo>
+ <gismu>xamgu</gismu>
+ <description>CV'V cmavo can't begin with <letteral>x</letteral></description>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+
+ </section>
+ <section xml:id="section-all-BAI">
+ <title>Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents</title>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal cmavo table</primary><secondary>format of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal cmavo</primary><secondary>table with English equivalents</secondary></indexterm> The following table shows all the cmavo belonging to selma'o BAI, and has five columns. The first column is the cmavo itself; the second column is the gismu linked to it. The third column gives an English phrase which indicates the meaning of the cmavo; and the fourth column indicates its meaning when preceded by
+ <valsi>se</valsi>.</para>
+ <para>For those cmavo with meaningful
+ <valsi>te</valsi>,
+ <valsi>ve</valsi>, and even
+ <valsi>xe</valsi> conversions (depending on the number of places of the underlying gismu), the meanings of these are shown on one or two extra rows following the primary row for that cmavo.</para>
+ <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal cmavo</primary><secondary>basis in gismu place structure</secondary></indexterm> It should be emphasized that the place structures of the gismu control the meanings of the BAI cmavo. The English phrases shown here are only suggestive, and are often too broad or too narrow to correctly specify what the acceptable range of uses for the modal tag are.</para>
+ <cmavo-list>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ba'i</cmavo>
+ <gismu>basti</gismu>
+ <modal-place>replaced by</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">instead of</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>bai</cmavo>
+ <gismu>bapli</gismu>
+ <modal-place>compelled by</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">compelling</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>bau</cmavo>
+ <gismu>bangu</gismu>
+ <modal-place>in language</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">in language of</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>be'i</cmavo>
+ <gismu>benji</gismu>
+ <modal-place>sent by</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">transmitting</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="te">sent to</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="ve">with transmit origin</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="xe">transmitted via</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ca'i</cmavo>
+ <gismu>catni</gismu>
+ <modal-place>by authority of</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">with authority over</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>cau</cmavo>
+ <gismu>claxu</gismu>
+ <modal-place>lacked by</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">without</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ci'e</cmavo>
+ <gismu>ciste</gismu>
+ <modal-place>in system</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">with system function</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="te">of system components</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ci'o</cmavo>
+ <gismu>cinmo</gismu>
+ <modal-place>felt by</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">feeling emotion</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ci'u</cmavo>
+ <gismu>ckilu</gismu>
+ <modal-place>on the scale</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">on scale measuring</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>cu'u</cmavo>
+ <gismu>cusku</gismu>
+ <modal-place>as said by</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">expressing</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="te">as told to</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="ve">expressed in medium</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>de'i</cmavo>
+ <gismu>detri</gismu>
+ <modal-place>dated</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">on the same date as</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>di'o</cmavo>
+ <gismu>diklo</gismu>
+ <modal-place>at the locus of</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">at specific locus</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo><valsi>do'e</valsi></cmavo>
+ <gismu>-----</gismu>
+ <modal-place>vaguely related to</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>du'i</cmavo>
+ <gismu>dunli</gismu>
+ <modal-place>as much as</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">equal to</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>du'o</cmavo>
+ <gismu>djuno</gismu>
+ <modal-place>according to</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">knowing facts</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="te">knowing about</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="ve">under epistemology</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>fa'e</cmavo>
+ <gismu>fatne</gismu>
+ <modal-place>reverse of</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">in reversal of</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo><valsi>fau</valsi></cmavo>
+ <gismu><valsi>fasnu</valsi></gismu>
+ <modal-place>in the event of</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>fi'e</cmavo>
+ <gismu>finti</gismu>
+ <modal-place>created by</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">creating work</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="te">created for purpose</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ga'a</cmavo>
+ <gismu>zgana</gismu>
+ <modal-place>to observer</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">observing</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="te">observed by means</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="ve">observed under conditions</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>gau</cmavo>
+ <gismu>gasnu</gismu>
+ <modal-place>with agent</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">as agent in doing</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ja'e</cmavo>
+ <gismu>jalge</gismu>
+ <modal-place>resulting in</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">results because of</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ja'i</cmavo>
+ <gismu>javni</gismu>
+ <modal-place>by rule</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">by rule prescribing</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ji'e</cmavo>
+ <gismu>jimte</gismu>
+ <modal-place>up to limit</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">as a limit of</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ji'o</cmavo>
+ <gismu>jitro</gismu>
+ <modal-place>under direction</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">controlling</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ji'u</cmavo>
+ <gismu>jicmu</gismu>
+ <modal-place>based on</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">supporting</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ka'a</cmavo>
+ <gismu>klama</gismu>
+ <modal-place>gone to by</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">with destination</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="te">with origin</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="ve">via route</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="xe">by transport mode</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ka'i</cmavo>
+ <gismu>krati</gismu>
+ <modal-place>represented by</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">on behalf of</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>kai</cmavo>
+ <gismu>ckaji</gismu>
+ <modal-place>characterizing</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">with property</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ki'i</cmavo>
+ <gismu>ckini</gismu>
+ <modal-place>as relation of</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">related to</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="te">with relation</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ki'u</cmavo>
+ <gismu>krinu</gismu>
+ <modal-place>justified by</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">with justified result</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>koi</cmavo>
+ <gismu>korbi</gismu>
+ <modal-place>bounded by</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">as boundary of</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="te">bordering</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ku'u</cmavo>
+ <gismu>kulnu</gismu>
+ <modal-place>in culture</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">in culture of</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>la'u</cmavo>
+ <gismu>klani</gismu>
+ <modal-place>as quantity of</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">in quantity</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>le'a</cmavo>
+ <gismu>klesi</gismu>
+ <modal-place>in category</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">as category of</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="te">defined by quality</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>li'e</cmavo>
+ <gismu>lidne</gismu>
+ <modal-place>led by</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">leading</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ma'e</cmavo>
+ <gismu>marji</gismu>
+ <modal-place>of material</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">made from material</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="te">in material form of</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ma'i</cmavo>
+ <gismu>manri</gismu>
+ <modal-place>in reference frame</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">as a standard of</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>mau</cmavo>
+ <gismu>zmadu</gismu>
+ <modal-place>exceeded by</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">more than</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>me'a</cmavo>
+ <gismu>mleca</gismu>
+ <modal-place>undercut by</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">less than</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>me'e</cmavo>
+ <gismu>cmene</gismu>
+ <modal-place>with name</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">as a name for</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="te">as a name to</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>mu'i</cmavo>
+ <gismu>mukti</gismu>
+ <modal-place>motivated by</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">motive therefore</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>mu'u</cmavo>
+ <gismu>mupli</gismu>
+ <modal-place>exemplified by</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">as an example of</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ni'i</cmavo>
+ <gismu>nibli</gismu>
+ <modal-place>entailed by</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">entails</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>pa'a</cmavo>
+ <gismu>panra</gismu>
+ <modal-place>in addition to</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">similar to</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="te">similar in pattern</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="ve">similar by standard</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>pa'u</cmavo>
+ <gismu>pagbu</gismu>
+ <modal-place>with component</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">as a part of</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>pi'o</cmavo>
+ <gismu>pilno</gismu>
+ <modal-place>used by</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">using tool</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>po'i</cmavo>
+ <gismu>porsi</gismu>
+ <modal-place>in the sequence</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">sequenced by rule</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>pu'a</cmavo>
+ <gismu>pluka</gismu>
+ <modal-place>pleased by</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">in order to please</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>pu'e</cmavo>
+ <gismu>pruce</gismu>
+ <modal-place>by process</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">processing from</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="te">processing into</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="ve">passing through stages</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo><valsi>ra'a</valsi></cmavo>
+ <gismu><valsi>srana</valsi></gismu>
+ <modal-place>pertained to by</modal-place>
+ <modal-place>concerning</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo><valsi>ra'i</valsi></cmavo>
+ <gismu><valsi>krasi</valsi></gismu>
+ <modal-place>from source</modal-place>
+ <modal-place>as an origin of</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>rai</cmavo>
+ <gismu>traji</gismu>
+ <modal-place>with superlative</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">superlative in</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="te">at extreme</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="ve">superlative among</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ri'a</cmavo>
+ <gismu>rinka</gismu>
+ <modal-place>caused by</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">causing</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ri'i</cmavo>
+ <gismu>lifri</gismu>
+ <modal-place>experienced by</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">experiencing</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>sau</cmavo>
+ <gismu>sarcu</gismu>
+ <modal-place>requiring</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">necessarily for</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="te">necessarily under conditions</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>si'u</cmavo>
+ <gismu>sidju</gismu>
+ <modal-place>aided by</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">assisting in</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ta'i</cmavo>
+ <gismu>tadji</gismu>
+ <modal-place>by method</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">as a method for</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>tai</cmavo>
+ <gismu>tamsmi</gismu>
+ <modal-place>as a form of</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">in form</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="te">in form similar to</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ti'i</cmavo>
+ <gismu>stidi</gismu>
+ <modal-place>suggested by</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">suggesting</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="te">suggested to</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>ti'u</cmavo>
+ <gismu>tcika</gismu>
+ <modal-place>with time</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">at the time of</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>tu'i</cmavo>
+ <gismu>stuzi</gismu>
+ <modal-place>with site</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">as location of</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>va'o</cmavo>
+ <gismu>vanbi</gismu>
+ <modal-place>under conditions</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">as conditions for</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>va'u</cmavo>
+ <gismu>xamgu</gismu>
+ <modal-place>benefiting from</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">with beneficiary</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>zau</cmavo>
+ <gismu>zanru</gismu>
+ <modal-place>approved by</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">approving</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo-entry>
+ <cmavo>zu'e</cmavo>
+ <gismu>zukte</gismu>
+ <modal-place>with actor</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="se">with means to goal</modal-place>
+ <modal-place se="te">with goal</modal-place>
+ </cmavo-entry>
+ </cmavo-list>
+ <para>The lujvo
+ <valsi>tamsmi</valsi> on which
+ <valsi>tai</valsi> is based is derived from the tanru
+ <jbophrase>tarmi simsa</jbophrase> and has the place structure:</para>
+ <definition>
+ <valsi>tamsmi</valsi> <content>x1 has form x2, similar in form to x3 in property/quality x4</content>
+ </definition>
+ <para>This lujvo is employed because
+ <valsi>tarmi</valsi> does not have a place structure useful for the modal's purpose.</para>
+ </section>
+</chapter>
diff --git a/chapters/1.xml b/chapters/1.xml
deleted file mode 100644
index 2857811..0000000
--- a/chapters/1.xml
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,370 +0,0 @@
-<chapter xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"; xml:id="chapter-about">
- <title>Lojban As We Mangle It In Lojbanistan: About This Book</title>
- <mediaobject xml:id="chapter-about-picture">
- <alt>The picture for chapter 1</alt>
- <imageobject>
- <imagedata fileref="media/chapter-about.gif" />
- </imageobject>
- </mediaobject>
-
- <section xml:id="section-what-is-lojban">
- <title>What is Lojban?</title>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Logical Language Group</primary><secondary>relation to Lojban</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Lojban</primary><secondary>history of</secondary></indexterm> Lojban (pronounced
- <quote>LOZH-bahn</quote>) is a constructed language. Previous versions of the language were called
- <quote>Loglan</quote> by Dr. James Cooke Brown, who founded the Loglan Project and started the development of the language in 1955. The goals for the language were first described in the open literature in the article
-
-
- <quote><citetitle pubwork="article">Loglan</citetitle></quote>, published in
- <citetitle pubwork="journal">Scientific American</citetitle>, June, 1960. Made well-known by that article and by occasional references in science fiction (most notably in Robert Heinlein's novel
-
- <citetitle pubwork="book">The Moon Is A Harsh Mistress</citetitle>) and computer publications, Loglan and Lojban have been built over four decades by dozens of workers and hundreds of supporters, led since 1987 by The Logical Language Group (who are the publishers of this book).</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Lojban</primary><secondary>features of</secondary></indexterm> There are thousands of artificial languages (of which Esperanto is the best-known), but Loglan/Lojban has been engineered to make it unique in several ways. The following are the main features of Lojban:</para>
- <itemizedlist>
- <listitem>
- <para>Lojban is designed to be used by people in communication with each other, and possibly in the future with computers.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>Lojban is designed to be neutral between cultures.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>Lojban grammar is based on the principles of predicate logic.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>Lojban has an unambiguous yet flexible grammar.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>Lojban has phonetic spelling, and unambiguously resolves its sounds into words.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>Lojban is simple compared to natural languages; it is easy to learn.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>Lojban's 1300 root words can be easily combined to form a vocabulary of millions of words.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>Lojban is regular; the rules of the language are without exceptions.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>Lojban attempts to remove restrictions on creative and clear thought and communication.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>Lojban has a variety of uses, ranging from the creative to the scientific, from the theoretical to the practical.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>Lojban has been demonstrated in translation and in original works of prose and poetry.</para>
- </listitem>
- </itemizedlist>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-what-is-cll">
- <title>What is this book?</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>goal of this book</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>this book</primary><secondary>goal of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>reference grammar</primary></indexterm> This book is what is called a
- <quote>reference grammar</quote>. It attempts to expound the whole Lojban language, or at least as much of it as is understood at present. Lojban is a rich language with many features, and an attempt has been made to discover the functions of those features. The word
-
- <quote>discover</quote> is used advisedly; Lojban was not
- <quote>invented</quote> by any one person or committee. Often, grammatical features were introduced into the language long before their usage was fully understood. Sometimes they were introduced for one reason, only to prove more useful for other reasons not recognized at the time.</para>
- <para>By intention, this book is complete in description but not in explanation. For every rule in the formal Lojban grammar (given in
- <xref linkend="chapter-grammars"/>), there is a bit of explanation and an example somewhere in the book, and often a great deal more than a bit. In essence,
- <xref linkend="chapter-tour"/> gives a brief overview of the language,
- <xref linkend="chapter-grammars"/> gives the formal structure of the language, and the chapters in between put semantic flesh on those formal bones. I hope that eventually more grammatical material founded on (or even correcting) the explanations in this book will become available.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>linguistic drift</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Lojban</primary><secondary>stability of</secondary></indexterm> Nevertheless, the publication of this book is, in one sense, the completion of a long period of language evolution. With the exception of a possible revision of the language that will not even be considered until five years from publication date, and any revisions of this book needed to correct outright errors, the language described in this book will not be changing by deliberate act of its creators any more. Instead, language change will take place in the form of new vocabulary – Lojban does not yet have nearly the vocabulary it needs to be a fully usable language of the modern world, as
- <xref linkend="chapter-lujvo"/> explains – and through the irregular natural processes of drift and (who knows?) native-speaker evolution. (Teach your children Lojban!) You can learn the language described here with assurance that (unlike previous versions of Lojban and Loglan, as well as most other artificial languages) it will not be subject to further fiddling by language-meisters.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>this book</primary><secondary>structure of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>structure of this book</primary></indexterm> It is probably worth mentioning that this book was written somewhat piecemeal. Each chapter began life as an explication of a specific Lojban topic; only later did these begin to clump together into a larger structure of words and ideas. Therefore, there are perhaps not as many cross-references as there should be. However, I have attempted to make the index as comprehensive as possible.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>chapter titles</primary><secondary>intent of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>jokes</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Lojbanistan</primary></indexterm> Each chapter has a descriptive title, often involving some play on words; this is an attempt to make the chapters more memorable. The title of
- <xref linkend="chapter-about"/> (which you are now reading), for example, is an allusion to the book
- <citetitle pubwork="book">English As We Speak It In Ireland</citetitle>, by P. W. Joyce, which is a sort of informal reference grammar of Hiberno-English.
-
- <quote>Lojbanistan</quote> is both an imaginary country where Lojban is the native language, and a term for the actual community of Lojban-speakers, scattered over the world. Why
-
- <quote>mangle</quote>? As yet, nobody in the real Lojbanistan speaks the language at all well, by the standards of the imaginary Lojbanistan; that is one of the circumstances this book is meant to help remedy.</para>
-
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-conventions">
- <title>What are the typographical conventions of this book?</title>
-
- <para>Each chapter is broken into numbered sections; each section contains a mixture of expository text, numbered examples, and possibly tables.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>this book</primary><secondary>examples of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>examples in this book</primary></indexterm> The reader will notice a certain similarity in the examples used throughout the book. One chapter after another rings the changes on the self-same sentences:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hrtj">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>go to the store</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c1e3d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi klama le zarci</jbo>
- <gloss>I go-to that-which-I-describe-as-a store.</gloss>
- <natlang>I go to the store.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> will become wearisomely familiar before
- <xref linkend="chapter-grammars"/> is reached. This method is deliberate; I have tried to use simple and (eventually) familiar examples wherever possible, to avoid obscuring new grammatical points with new vocabulary. Of course, this is not the method of a textbook, but this book is not a textbook (although people have learned Lojban from it and its predecessors). Rather, it is intended both for self-learning (of course, at present would-be Lojban teachers must be self-learners) and to serve as a reference in the usual sense, for looking up obscure points about the language.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>examples</primary><secondary>structure of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>structure of examples</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>example of examples</primary></indexterm> It is useful to talk further about
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-hrtj"/> for what it illustrates about examples in this book. Examples usually occupy three lines. The first of these is in Lojban, the second in a word-by-word literal translation of the Lojban into English, and the third in colloquial English. The second and third lines are sometimes called the
-
- <quote>literal translation</quote> and the
- <quote>colloquial translation</quote> respectively. Sometimes, when clarity is not sacrificed thereby, one or both are omitted. If there is more than one Lojban sentence, it generally means that they have the same meaning.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>square brackets</primary><secondary>use of in notation</secondary></indexterm> Words are sometimes surrounded by square brackets. In Lojban texts, these enclose optional grammatical particles that may (in the context of the particular example) be either omitted or included. In literal translations, they enclose words that are used as conventional translations of specific Lojban words, but don't have exactly the meanings or uses that the English word would suggest. In
-
- <xref linkend="chapter-phonology"/>, square brackets surround phonetic representations in the International Phonetic Alphabet.</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>grammatical categories</primary><secondary>use of upper case for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tables</primary><secondary>format of</secondary></indexterm> Many of the tables, especially those placed at the head of various sections, are in three columns. The first column contains Lojban words discussed in that section; the second column contains the grammatical category (represented by an UPPER CASE Lojban word) to which the word belongs, and the third column contains a brief English gloss, not necessarily or typically a full explanation. Other tables are explained in context.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>technical terms</primary></indexterm> A few Lojban words are used in this book as technical terms. All of these are explained in
-
- <xref linkend="chapter-tour"/>, except for a few used only in single chapters, which are explained in the introductory sections of those chapters.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-disclaimers">
- <title>Disclaimers</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>disclaimers</primary></indexterm> It is necessary to add, alas, that the examples used in this book do not refer to any existing person, place, or institution, and that any such resemblance is entirely coincidental and unintentional, and not intended to give offense.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>dictionary</primary><secondary>superior authority of</secondary></indexterm> When definitions and place structures of gismu, and especially of lujvo, are given in this book, they may differ from those given in the English-Lojban dictionary (which, as of this writing, is not yet published). If so, the information given in the dictionary supersedes whatever is given here.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="credits">
- <title>Acknowledgements and Credits</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>LLG</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>this book</primary><secondary>author of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>author of this book</primary></indexterm> Although the bulk of this book was written for the Logical Language Group (LLG) by John Cowan, who is represented by the occasional authorial
-
- <quote>I</quote>, certain chapters were first written by others and then heavily edited by me to fit into this book.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>this book</primary><secondary>contributors to</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>contributors to this book</primary></indexterm> In particular:
- <xref linkend="chapter-tour"/> is a fusion of originally separate documents, one by Athelstan, and one by Nora Tansky LeChevalier and Bob LeChevalier;
- <xref linkend="chapter-phonology"/> and
- <xref linkend="chapter-morphology"/> were originally written by Bob LeChevalier with contributions by Chuck Barton;
- <xref linkend="chapter-lujvo"/> was originally written (in much longer form) by Nick Nicholas; the dialogue near the end of
- <xref linkend="chapter-attitudinals"/> was contributed by Nora Tansky LeChevalier;
- <xref linkend="chapter-negation"/> and parts of
- <xref linkend="chapter-quantifiers"/> were originally by Bob LeChevalier; and the YACC grammar in
-
- <xref linkend="chapter-grammars"/> is the work of several hands, but is primarily by Bob LeChevalier and Jeff Taylor. The BNF grammar, which is also in
- <xref linkend="chapter-grammars"/>, was originally written by me, then rewritten by Clark Nelson, and finally touched up by me again.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>this book</primary><secondary>credits for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>credits for this book</primary></indexterm> The research into natural languages from which parts of
- <xref linkend="chapter-selbri"/> draw their material was performed by Ivan Derzhanski. LLG acknowledges his kind permission to use the fruits of his research.</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pictures</primary><secondary>credits for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>credits for pictures</primary></indexterm> The pictures in this book were drawn by Nora Tansky LeChevalier, except for the picture appearing in
-
- <xref linkend="chapter-morphology"/>, which is by Sylvia Rutiser Rissell.</para>
- <para>The index was made by Nora Tansky LeChevalier.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>this book</primary><secondary>reviewers of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>reviewers of this book</primary></indexterm> I would like to thank the following people for their detailed reviews, suggestions, comments, and early detection of my embarrassing errors in Lojban, logic, English, and cross-references: Nick Nicholas, Mark Shoulson, Veijo Vilva, Colin Fine, And Rosta, Jorge Llambias, Iain Alexander, Paulo S. L. M. Barreto, Robert J. Chassell, Gale Cowan, Karen Stein, Ivan Derzhanski, Jim Carter, Irene Gates, Bob LeChevalier, John Parks-Clifford (also known as
- <quote>pc</quote>), and Nora Tansky LeChevalier.</para>
- <para>Nick Nicholas (NSN) would like to thank the following Lojbanists: Mark Shoulson, Veijo Vilva, Colin Fine, And Rosta, and Iain Alexander for their suggestions and comments; John Cowan, for his extensive comments, his exemplary trailblazing of Lojban grammar, and for solving the
- <valsi>manskapi</valsi> dilemma for NSN; Jorge Llambias, for his even more extensive comments, and for forcing NSN to think more than he was inclined to; Bob LeChevalier, for his skeptical overview of the issue, his encouragement, and for scouring all Lojban text his computer has been burdened with for lujvo; Nora Tansky LeChevalier, for writing the program converting old rafsi text to new rafsi text, and sparing NSN from embarrassing errors; and Jim Carter, for his dogged persistence in analyzing lujvo algorithmically, which inspired this research, and for first identifying the three lujvo classes.</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Brown</primary><secondary>James Cooke</secondary></indexterm> Of course, the entire Loglan Project owes a considerable debt to James Cooke Brown as the language inventor, and also to several earlier contributors to the development of the language. Especially noteworthy are Doug Landauer, Jeff Prothero, Scott Layson, Jeff Taylor, and Bob McIvor. Final responsibility for the remaining errors and infelicities is solely mine.</para>
-
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-bibliography">
- <title>Informal Bibliography</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Loglan</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bibliography</primary></indexterm> The founding document for the Loglan Project, of which this book is one of the products, is
- <citetitle pubwork="book">Loglan 1: A Logical Language</citetitle> by James Cooke Brown (4th ed. 1989, The Loglan Institute, Gainesville, Florida, U.S.A.). The language described therein is not Lojban, but is very close to it and may be considered an ancestral version. It is regrettably necessary to state that nothing in this book has been approved by Dr. Brown, and that the very existence of Lojban is disapproved of by him.</para>
-
- <para>The logic of Lojban, such as it is, owes a good deal to the American philosopher W. v.O. Quine, especially
- <citetitle pubwork="book">Word and Object</citetitle> (1960, M.I.T. Press). Much of Quine's philosophical writings, especially on observation sentences, reads like a literal translation from Lojban.</para>
-
- <para>The theory of negation expounded in
- <xref linkend="chapter-negation"/> is derived from a reading of Laurence Horn's work
- <citetitle pubwork="book">A Natural History of Negation</citetitle>.</para>
- <para>Of course, neither Brown nor Quine nor Horn is in any way responsible for the uses or misuses I have made of their works.</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>books about Lojban</primary></indexterm> Depending on just when you are reading this book, there may be three other books about Lojban available: a textbook, a Lojban/English dictionary, and a book containing general information about Lojban. You can probably get these books, if they have been published, from the same place where you got this book. In addition, other books not yet foreseen may also exist.</para>
-
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-captions">
- <title>Captions to Pictures</title>
- <para>The following examples list the Lojban caption, with a translation, for the picture at the head of each chapter. If a chapter's picture has no caption,
- <quote>(none)</quote> is specified instead.</para>
- <section>
- <title><link linkend="chapter-about-picture">Chapter 1 Caption</link></title>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
- coi lojban. coi rodo
- </programlisting>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
- Greetings, O Lojban! Greetings, all-of you
- </programlisting>
- </section>
- <section>
- <title><link linkend="chapter-tour-picture">Chapter 2 Caption</link></title>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
- (none)
- </programlisting>
- </section>
- <section>
- <title><link linkend="chapter-phonology-picture">Chapter 3 Caption</link></title>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
- .i .ai .i .ai .o
- </programlisting>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
- [untranslatable]
- </programlisting>
- </section>
- <section>
- <title><link linkend="chapter-morphology-picture">Chapter 4 Caption</link></title>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
- jbobliku
- </programlisting>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
- Lojbanic-blocks
- </programlisting>
- </section>
- <section>
- <title><link linkend="chapter-selbri-picture">Chapter 5 Caption</link></title>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
- (none)
- </programlisting>
- </section>
- <section>
- <title><link linkend="chapter-sumti-picture">Chapter 6 Caption</link></title>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
- lei re nanmu cu bevri le re nanmu
- </programlisting>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
- The-mass-of two men carry the two men
- Two men (jointly) carry two men (both of them).
- </programlisting>
- </section>
- <section>
- <title><link linkend="chapter-anaphoric-cmavo-picture">Chapter 7 Caption</link></title>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
- ma drani danfu
- .i di'e
-
- .i di'u
- .i dei
- .i ri
- .i do'i
- </programlisting>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
- [What sumti] is-the-correct type-of-answer?
- The-next-sentence.
- The-previous-sentence.
- This-sentence.
- The-previous-sentence.
- An-unspecified-utterance.
- </programlisting>
- </section>
- <section>
- <title><link linkend="chapter-relative-clauses-picture">Chapter 8 Caption</link></title>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
- ko viska re prenu poi bruna la santas.
- </programlisting>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
- [You!] see two persons who-are brothers-of Santa.
-
- </programlisting>
- </section>
- <section>
- <title><link linkend="chapter-sumti-tcita-picture">Chapter 9 Caption</link></title>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
- (none)
- </programlisting>
- </section>
- <section>
- <title><link linkend="chapter-tenses-picture">Chapter 10 Caption</link></title>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
- za'o klama
- </programlisting>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
- [superfective] come/go
- Something goes (or comes) for too long.
- </programlisting>
- </section>
- <section>
- <title><link linkend="chapter-abstractions-picture">Chapter 11 Caption</link></title>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
- le si'o kunti
- </programlisting>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
- The concept-of emptiness
- </programlisting>
- </section>
- <section>
- <title><link linkend="chapter-lujvo-picture">Chapter 12 Caption</link></title>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
- (none)
- </programlisting>
- </section>
- <section>
- <title><link linkend="chapter-attitudinals-picture">Chapter 13 Caption</link></title>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
- .oi ro'i ro'a ro'o
- </programlisting>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
- [Pain!] [emotional] [social] [physical]
- </programlisting>
- </section>
- <section>
- <title><link linkend="chapter-connectives-picture">Chapter 14 Caption</link></title>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
- (none)
- </programlisting>
- </section>
- <section>
- <title><link linkend="chapter-negation-picture">Chapter 15 Caption</link></title>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
- mi na'e lumci le karce
- </programlisting>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
- I other-than wash the car
- I didn't wash the car.
- </programlisting>
- </section>
- <section>
- <title><link linkend="chapter-quantifiers-picture">Chapter 16 Caption</link></title>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
- drata mupli pe'u .djan.
- </programlisting>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
- another example [please] John
- Another example, John, please!
- </programlisting>
- </section>
- <section>
- <title><link linkend="chapter-letterals-picture">Chapter 17 Caption</link></title>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
- zai xanlerfu by. ly. .obu .jy by. .abu ny.
-
- </programlisting>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
- [Shift] hand-letters l o j b a n
- "Lojban" in a manual alphabet
- </programlisting>
- </section>
- <section>
- <title><link linkend="chapter-mekso-picture">Chapter 18 Caption</link></title>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
- no no
- </programlisting>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
- 0 0
- </programlisting>
- </section>
- <section>
- <title><link linkend="chapter-structure-picture">Chapter 19 Caption</link></title>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
- (none)
- </programlisting>
- </section>
- <section>
- <title><link linkend="chapter-catalogue-picture">Chapter 20 Caption</link></title>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
- (none)
- </programlisting>
- </section>
- <section>
- <title><link linkend="chapter-grammars-picture">Chapter 21 Caption</link></title>
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
- (none)
- </programlisting>
- </section>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-copyright">
- <title>Boring Legalities</title>
- <para>Copyright © 1997 by The Logical Language Group, Inc. All Rights Reserved.</para>
- <para>Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this book, either in electronic or in printed form, provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are preserved on all copies.</para>
- <para>Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this book, provided that the modifications are clearly marked as such, and provided that the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission notice identical to this one.</para>
- <para>Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this book into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions, except that this permission notice may be stated in a translation that has been approved by the Logical Language Group, rather than in English.</para>
- <para>The contents of
- <xref linkend="chapter-grammars"/> are in the public domain.</para>
- <para>For information, contact: The Logical Language Group, 2904 Beau Lane, Fairfax VA 22031-1303 USA Telephone 703-385-0273. Electronic address:
- <link xlink:href="mailto:llg-board@lojban.org";>llg-board@lojban.org</link>World Wide Web:
- <link xlink:href="http://www.lojban.org";>http://www.lojban.org</link></para>
- </section>
-</chapter>
diff --git a/chapters/2.xml b/chapters/2.xml
deleted file mode 100644
index b7dcd2a..0000000
--- a/chapters/2.xml
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,2284 +0,0 @@
-<chapter xml:id="chapter-tour">
- <title>A Quick Tour of Lojban Grammar, With Diagrams</title>
- <mediaobject xml:id="chapter-tour-picture">
- <alt>The picture for chapter 2</alt>
- <imageobject>
- <imagedata fileref="media/chapter-tour.gif" />
- </imageobject>
- </mediaobject>
- <section xml:id="section-bridi">
- <title>The concept of the bridi</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi</primary><secondary>concept of</secondary></indexterm> This chapter gives diagrammed examples of basic Lojban sentence structures. The most general pattern is covered first, followed by successive variations on the basic components of the Lojban sentence. There are many more capabilities not covered in this chapter, but covered in detail in later chapters, so this chapter is a
- <quote>quick tour</quote> of the material later covered more slowly throughout the book. It also introduces most of the Lojban words used to discuss Lojban grammar.</para>
- <para>
-
-
- Let us consider John and Sam and three statements about them:</para>
-
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qIuj">
- <title>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>father</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>John and Sam</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
- <anchor xml:id="c2e1d1"/>
- </title>
- <para>John is the father of Sam.</para>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qiuQ">
- <title>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>hits</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>John and Sam</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
- <anchor xml:id="c2e1d2"/>
- </title>
- <para>John hits Sam.</para>
-
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qIuS">
- <title>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>taller</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>John and Sam</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
- <anchor xml:id="c2e1d3"/>
- </title>
- <para>John is taller than Sam.</para>
-
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>relation with bridi</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>brivla</primary><secondary>relation to bridi</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>predication</primary><secondary>compared with bridi</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi</primary><secondary>compared with predication</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>predication</primary><secondary>as a relationship</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relationship</primary><secondary>active/static/attributive compared</secondary></indexterm> These examples all describe relationships between John and Sam. However, in English, we use the noun
-
- <quote>father</quote> to describe a static relationship in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qIuj"/>, the verb
- <quote>hits</quote> to describe an active relationship in
-
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qiuQ"/>, and the adjective
- <quote>taller</quote> to describe an attributive relationship in
-
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qIuS"/>. In Lojban we make no such grammatical distinctions; these three sentences, when expressed in Lojban, are structurally identical. The same part of speech is used to represent the relationship. In formal logic this whole structure is called a
- <quote>predication</quote>; in Lojban it is called a
- <valsi>bridi</valsi>, and the central part of speech is the
- <valsi>selbri</valsi>. Logicians refer to the things thus related as
- <quote>arguments</quote>, while Lojbanists call them
- <valsi>sumti</valsi>. These Lojban terms will be used for the rest of the book.</para>
- <mediaobject>
- <alt>
- bridi (predicate)
- ______________|__________________
- | |
- John is the father of Sam
- |____| |______________| |___|
- | | |
- sumti selbri sumti (argument)
- </alt>
- <imageobject>
- <imagedata fileref="media/chapter-2-diagram.png" />
- </imageobject>
- </mediaobject>
- <para>
-
-
- In a relationship, there are a definite number of things being related. In English, for example,
- <quote>give</quote> has three places: the donor, the recipient and the gift. For example:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-DE08">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e1d4"/>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>give</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- </title>
- <para>John gives Sam the book.</para>
- </example>
- <para>and</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-IBBE">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e1d5"/>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>give</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- </title>
- <para>Sam gives John the book.</para>
- </example>
- <para>mean two different things because the relative positions of
- <quote>John</quote> and
- <quote>Sam</quote> have been switched. Further,</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-DxbA">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e1d6"/>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>give</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- </title>
- <para>The book gives John Sam.</para>
- </example>
- <para>seems strange to us merely because the places are being filled by unorthodox arguments. The relationship expressed by
- <quote>give</quote> has not changed.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>place structure</primary><secondary>definition of</secondary></indexterm> In Lojban, each selbri has a specified number and type of arguments, known collectively as its
- <quote>place structure</quote>. The simplest kind of selbri consists of a single root word, called a
- <valsi>gismu</valsi>, and the definition in a dictionary gives the place structure explicitly. The primary task of constructing a Lojban sentence, after choosing the relationship itself, is deciding what you will use to fill in the sumti places.</para>
- <para>This book uses the Lojban terms
- <valsi>bridi</valsi>,
- <valsi>sumti</valsi>, and
- <valsi>selbri</valsi>, because it is best to come to understand them independently of the English associations of the corresponding words, which are only roughly similar in meaning anyhow.</para>
- <para>
-
- <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>double underscore notation convention for Quick Tour chapter</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>underscore notation for Quick Tour chapter</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>notation conventions</primary><secondary>for Quick Tour chapter</secondary></indexterm> The Lojban examples in this chapter (but not in the rest of the book) use a single underline (---) under each sumti, and a double underline (===) under each selbri, to help you to tell them apart.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-pronunciation">
- <title>Pronunciation</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pronunciation</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> Detailed pronunciation and spelling rules are given in
- <xref linkend="chapter-phonology"/>, but what follows will keep the reader from going too far astray while digesting this chapter.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vowels</primary><secondary>pronunciation of</secondary><tertiary>quick-tour version</tertiary></indexterm> Lojban has six recognized vowels:
- <letteral>a</letteral>,
- <letteral>e</letteral>,
- <letteral>i</letteral>,
- <letteral>o</letteral>,
- <letteral>u</letteral> and
- <letteral>y</letteral>. The first five are roughly pronounced as
- <quote>a</quote> as in
- <quote>father</quote>,
- <letteral>e</letteral> as in
- <quote>let</quote>,
- <letteral>i</letteral> as in
- <quote>machine</quote>,
- <letteral>o</letteral> as in
- <quote>dome</quote> and
- <letteral>u</letteral> as in
- <quote>flute</quote>.
- <letteral>y</letteral> is pronounced as the sound called
- <quote>schwa</quote>, that is, as the unstressed
- <quote>a</quote> as in
- <quote>about</quote> or
- <quote>around</quote>.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>consonants</primary><secondary>pronunciation of</secondary><tertiary>quick-tour version</tertiary></indexterm> Twelve consonants in Lojban are pronounced more or less as their counterparts are in English:
- <letteral>b</letteral>,
- <letteral>d</letteral>,
- <letteral>f</letteral>,
- <letteral>k</letteral>,
- <letteral>l</letteral>,
- <letteral>m</letteral>,
- <letteral>n</letteral>,
- <letteral>p</letteral>,
- <letteral>r</letteral>,
- <letteral>t</letteral>,
- <letteral>v</letteral> and
- <letteral>z</letteral>. The letter
- <letteral>c</letteral>, on the other hand is pronounced as the
- <quote>sh</quote> in
- <quote>hush</quote>, while
- <letteral>j</letteral> is its voiced counterpart, the sound of the
- <quote>s</quote> in
- <quote>pleasure</quote>.
- <letteral>g</letteral> is always pronounced as it is in
- <quote>gift</quote>, never as in
- <quote>giant</quote>.
- <letteral>s</letteral> is as in
- <quote>sell</quote>, never as in
- <quote>rose</quote>. The sound of
- <letteral>x</letteral> is not found in English in normal words. It is found as
- <quote xml:lang="sco">ch</quote> in Scottish
- <quote xml:lang="sco">loch</quote>, as
- <quote xml:lang="es">j</quote> in Spanish
- <quote xml:lang="es">junta</quote>, and as
- <quote xml:lang="de">ch</quote> in German
- <quote xml:lang="de">Bach</quote>; it also appears in the English interjection
- <quote>yecchh!</quote>. It gets easier to say as you practice it. The letter
- <letteral>r</letteral> can be trilled, but doesn't have to be.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>diphthongs</primary><secondary>pronunciation of</secondary><tertiary>quick-tour version</tertiary></indexterm> The Lojban diphthongs
- <diphthong>ai</diphthong>,
- <diphthong>ei</diphthong>,
- <diphthong>oi</diphthong>, and
- <diphthong>au</diphthong> are pronounced much as in the English words
- <quote>sigh</quote>,
- <quote>say</quote>,
- <quote>boy</quote>, and
- <quote>how</quote>. Other Lojban diphthongs begin with an
- <letteral>i</letteral> pronounced like English
- <quote>y</quote> (for example,
- <diphthong>io</diphthong> is pronounced
- <quote>yo</quote>) or else with a
- <letteral>u</letteral> pronounced like English
- <quote>w</quote> (for example,
- <diphthong>ua</diphthong> is pronounced
- <quote>wa</quote>).</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>period</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>comma</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>apostrophe</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> Lojban also has three
- <quote>semi-letters</quote>: the period, the comma and the apostrophe. The period represents a glottal stop or a pause; it is a required stoppage of the flow of air in the speech stream. The apostrophe sounds just like the English letter
-
- <quote>h</quote>. Unlike a regular consonant, it is not found at the beginning or end of a word, nor is it found adjacent to a consonant; it is only found between two vowels. The comma has no sound associated with it, and is used to separate syllables that might ordinarily run together. It is not used in this chapter.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>stress</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> Stress falls on the next to the last syllable of all words, unless that vowel is
- <letteral>y</letteral>, which is never stressed; in such words the third-to-last syllable is stressed. If a word only has one syllable, then that syllable is not stressed.</para>
- <para>All Lojban words are pronounced as they are spelled: there are no silent letters.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-sumti-cmavo">
- <title>Words that can act as sumti</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> Here is a short table of single words used as sumti. This table provides examples only, not the entire set of such words, which may be found in
- <xref linkend="section-koha-summary"/>.</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>mi</cmavo>
- <description>I/me, we/us</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>do</cmavo>
- <description>you</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ti</cmavo>
- <description>this, these</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ta</cmavo>
- <description>that, those</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>tu</cmavo>
- <description>that far away, those far away</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>zo'e</cmavo>
- <description>unspecified value (used when a sumti is unimportant or obvious)</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
- <para>Lojban sumti are not specific as to number (singular or plural), nor gender (masculine/feminine/neutral). Such distinctions can be optionally added by methods that are beyond the scope of this chapter.</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pointing cmavo</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo
- <valsi>ti</valsi>,
- <valsi>ta</valsi>, and
- <valsi>tu</valsi> refer to whatever the speaker is pointing at, and should not be used to refer to things that cannot in principle be pointed at.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> Names may also be used as sumti, provided they are preceded with the word
- <valsi>la</valsi>:</para>
- <informaltable>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>la meris.</jbophrase></td>
- <td>the one/ones named Mary</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>la djan.</jbophrase></td>
- <td>the one/ones named John</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <para>Other Lojban spelling versions are possible for names from other languages, and there are restrictions on which letters may appear in Lojban names: see
- <xref linkend="section-names"/> for more information.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-some-selbri">
- <title>Some words used to indicate selbri relations</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri list for quick tour</primary></indexterm> Here is a short table of some words used as Lojban selbri in this chapter:</para>
- <informaltable>
- <!-- FIXME:
- (1) these definitions come from nowhere and go to nowhere
- (2) in the end, we should probably drop the whole thing in favor of the user just using the glossary
- (3) needs table replacement; see TODO
-
- It used to have some other bits:
-
- <td><definition><content>x1 (seller) sells x2 (goods) to x3 (buyer) for x4 (price)</content></definition></td>
-
- But they upset LaTeX and added no value.
-
- -->
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>vecnu</valsi></td>
- <td>x1 (seller) sells x2 (goods) to x3 (buyer) for x4 (price)</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>tavla</valsi></td>
- <td>x1 (talker) talks to x2 (audience) about x3 (topic) in language x4</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>sutra</valsi></td>
- <td>x1 (agent) is fast at doing x2 (action)</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>blari'o</valsi></td>
- <td>x1 (object/light source) is blue-green</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>melbi</valsi></td>
- <td>x1 (object/idea) is beautiful to x2 (observer) by standard x3</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>cutci</valsi></td>
- <td>x1 is a shoe/boot for x2 (foot) made of x3 (material)</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>bajra</valsi></td>
- <td>x1 runs on x2 (surface) using x3 (limbs) in manner x4 (gait)</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>klama</valsi></td>
- <td>x1 goes/comes to x2 (destination) from x3 (origin point) via x4 (route) using x5 (means of transportation)</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>pluka</valsi></td>
- <td>x1 pleases/is pleasing to x2 (experiencer) under conditions x3</td>
- </tr>
-
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>gerku</valsi></td>
- <td>x1 is a dog of breed x2</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>kurji</valsi></td>
- <td>x1 takes care of x2</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>kanro</valsi></td>
- <td>x1 is healthy by standard x2</td>
- </tr>
-
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>stali</valsi></td>
- <td>x1 stays/remains with x2</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>zarci</valsi></td>
- <td>x1 is a market/store/shop selling x2 (products) operated by x3 (storekeeper)</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>x1</primary><secondary>notation convention</secondary><tertiary>quick-tour version</tertiary></indexterm> Each selbri (relation) has a specific rule that defines the role of each sumti in the bridi, based on its position. In the table above, that order was expressed by labeling the sumti positions as x1, x2, x3, x4, and x5.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>words not in the dictionary</primary></indexterm> Like the table in
- <xref linkend="section-sumti-cmavo"/>, this table is far from complete: in fact, no complete table can exist, because Lojban allows new words to be created (in specified ways) whenever a speaker or writer finds the existing supply of words inadequate. This notion is a basic difference between Lojban (and some other languages such as German and Chinese) and English; in English, most people are very leery of using words that
- <quote>aren't in the dictionary</quote>. Lojbanists are encouraged to invent new words; doing so is a major way of participating in the development of the language.
- <xref linkend="chapter-morphology"/> explains how to make new words, and
- <xref linkend="chapter-lujvo"/> explains how to give them appropriate meanings.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-some-simple-bridi">
- <title>Some simple Lojban bridi</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> Let's look at a simple Lojban bridi. The place structure of the gismu
- <valsi>tavla</valsi> is</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-5Lis">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e5d1"/>
- </title>
- <para>x1 talks to x2 about x3 in language x4</para>
- </example>
- <para>where the
- <quote>x</quote> es with following numbers represent the various arguments that could be inserted at the given positions in the English sentence. For example:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-3bc3">
- <title>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>engineering</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e5d2"/>
- </title>
- <para>John talks to Sam about engineering in Lojban.</para>
-
- </example>
- <para>
-
-
- has
- <quote>John</quote> in the x1 place,
- <quote>Sam</quote> in the x2 place,
- <quote>engineering</quote> in the x3 place, and
-
- <quote>Lojban</quote> in the x4 place, and could be paraphrased:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-pVMH">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e5d3"/>
- </title>
- <para>Talking is going on, with speaker John and listener Sam and subject matter engineering and language Lojban.</para>
- </example>
- <para>The Lojban bridi corresponding to
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-5Lis"/> will have the form</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k01t">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e5d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti glossary="false">x1</sumti>
- <elidable>cu</elidable>
- <selbri>tavla</selbri>
- <sumti glossary="false">x2</sumti>
- <sumti glossary="false">x3</sumti>
- <sumti glossary="false">x4</sumti>
- </jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cu</primary><secondary>use of</secondary><tertiary>quick-tour version</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cu</primary><secondary>omission of</secondary><tertiary>quick-tour version</tertiary></indexterm> The word
- <valsi>cu</valsi> serves as a separator between any preceding sumti and the selbri. It can often be omitted, as in the following examples.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k02C">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e5d5"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>mi</sumti>
- <selbri>tavla</selbri>
- <sumti>do</sumti>
- <sumti>zo'e</sumti>
- <sumti>zo'e</sumti>
- </jbo>
- <natlang>I talk to you about something in some language.</natlang>
-
-
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k02u">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e5d6"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>do</sumti>
- <selbri>tavla</selbri>
- <sumti>mi</sumti>
- <sumti>ta</sumti>
- <sumti>zo'e</sumti>
- </jbo>
- <natlang>You talk to me about that thing in a language.</natlang>
-
-
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k03n">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e5d7"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>mi</sumti>
- <selbri>tavla</selbri>
- <sumti>zo'e</sumti>
- <sumti>tu</sumti>
- <sumti>ti</sumti>
- </jbo>
- <natlang>I talk to someone about that thing yonder in this language.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <para>(
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-k03n"/> is a bit unusual, as there is no easy way to point to a language; one might point to a copy of this book, and hope the meaning gets across!)</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ellipsis</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> When there are one or more occurrences of the cmavo
- <valsi>zo'e</valsi> at the end of a bridi, they may be omitted, a process called
- <quote>ellipsis</quote>.
-
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-k02C"/> and
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-k02u"/> may be expressed thus:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k04J">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e5d8"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>mi</sumti>
- <selbri>tavla</selbri>
- <sumti>do</sumti>
- </jbo>
- <natlang>I talk to you (about something in some language).</natlang>
-
-
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k05i">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e5d9"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>do</sumti>
- <selbri>tavla</selbri>
- <sumti>mi</sumti>
- <sumti>ta</sumti>
- </jbo>
- <natlang>You talk to me about that thing (in some language).</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <para>Note that
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-k03n"/> is not subject to ellipsis by this direct method, as the
-
- <valsi>zo'e</valsi> in it is not at the end of the bridi.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-variant-bridi-structure">
- <title>Variant bridi structure</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti placement</primary><secondary>variant</secondary><tertiary>quick-tour version</tertiary></indexterm> Consider the sentence</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k068">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e6d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>mi</sumti>
- <elidable>cu</elidable>
- <selbri>vecnu</selbri>
- <sumti>ti</sumti>
- <sumti>ta</sumti>
- <sumti>zo'e</sumti>
- </jbo>
- <gloss>
- <sumti>seller-x1</sumti>
- <comment></comment>
- <selbri>sells</selbri>
- <sumti>goods-sold-x2</sumti>
- <sumti>buyer-x3</sumti>
- <sumti>price-x4</sumti>
- </gloss>
- <gloss>
- <sumti>I</sumti>
- <comment></comment>
- <selbri>sell</selbri>
- <sumti>this</sumti>
- <sumti>to that</sumti>
- <sumti>for some price.</sumti>
- </gloss>
- <natlang>I sell this-thing/these-things to that-buyer/those-buyers.</natlang>
- <comment>(the price is obvious or unimportant)</comment>
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <para>
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-k068"/> has one sumti (the x1) before the selbri. It is also possible to put more than one sumti before the selbri, without changing the order of sumti:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0aR">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e6d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>mi</sumti>
- <sumti>ti</sumti>
- <elidable>cu</elidable>
- <selbri>vecnu</selbri>
- <sumti>ta</sumti>
- </jbo>
- <gloss>
- <sumti>seller-x1</sumti>
- <sumti>goods-sold-x2</sumti>
- <comment></comment>
- <selbri>sells</selbri>
- <sumti>buyer-x3</sumti>
- </gloss>
- <gloss>
- <sumti>I</sumti>
- <sumti>this</sumti>
- <comment></comment>
- <selbri>sell</selbri>
- <sumti>to that.</sumti>
- </gloss>
- <comment>(translates as stilted or poetic English)</comment>
- <natlang>I this thing do sell to that buyer.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0Bm">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e6d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>mi</sumti>
- <sumti>ti</sumti>
- <sumti>ta</sumti>
- <elidable>cu</elidable>
- <selbri>vecnu</selbri>
- </jbo>
- <gloss>
- <sumti>seller-x1</sumti>
- <sumti>goods-sold-x2</sumti>
- <sumti>buyer-x3</sumti>
- <elidable></elidable>
- <selbri>sells</selbri>
- </gloss>
- <gloss>
- <sumti>I</sumti>
- <sumti>this</sumti>
- <sumti>to that</sumti>
- <elidable></elidable>
- <selbri>sell</selbri>
- </gloss>
- <comment>(translates as stilted or poetic English)</comment>
- <natlang>I this thing to that buyer do sell.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <para>
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-k068"/> through
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-k0Bm"/> mean the same thing. Usually, placing more than one sumti before the selbri is done for style or for emphasis on the sumti that are out-of-place from their normal position. (Native speakers of languages other than English may prefer such orders.)</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>observatives</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> If there are no sumti before the selbri, then it is understood that the x1 sumti value is equivalent to
- <valsi>zo'e</valsi>; i.e. unimportant or obvious, and therefore not given. Any sumti after the selbri start counting from x2.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0br">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e6d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>ta</sumti>
- <elidable>cu</elidable>
- <selbri>melbi</selbri>
- </jbo>
- <gloss>
- <sumti>object/idea-x1</sumti>
- <elidable></elidable>
- <selbri>is-beautiful</selbri>
- <comment>to someone by some standard</comment>
- </gloss>
- <gloss>
- <sumti>That/Those</sumti>
- <elidable></elidable>
- <selbri>is/are beautiful.</selbri>
- </gloss>
- <natlang>That is beautiful.</natlang>
- <natlang>Those are beautiful.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <para>when the x1 is omitted, becomes:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0Ch">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e6d5"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti glossary="false"></sumti>
- <selbri>melbi</selbri>
- <comment/>
- </jbo>
- <gloss>
- <sumti>unspecified-x1</sumti>
- <selbri>is-beautiful</selbri>
- <comment>to someone by some standard</comment>
- </gloss>
- <natlang>Beautiful!</natlang>
- <natlang>It's beautiful!</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <para>Omitting the x1 adds emphasis to the selbri relation, which has become first in the sentence. This kind of sentence is termed an observative, because it is often used when someone first observes or takes note of the relationship, and wishes to quickly communicate it to someone else. Commonly understood English observatives include
-
-
- <quote>Smoke!</quote> upon seeing smoke or smelling the odor, or
- <quote>Car!</quote> to a person crossing the street who might be in danger. Any Lojban selbri can be used as an observative if no sumti appear before the selbri.</para>
-
- <para>The word
- <valsi>cu</valsi> does not occur in an observative;
-
- <valsi>cu</valsi> is a separator, and there must be a sumti before the selbri that needs to be kept separate for
- <valsi>cu</valsi> to be used. With no sumti preceding the selbri,
- <valsi>cu</valsi> is not permitted. Short words like
- <valsi>cu</valsi> which serve grammatical functions are called
- <valsi>cmavo</valsi> in Lojban.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-order-of-sumti">
- <title>Varying the order of sumti</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti reordering</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> For one reason or another you may want to change the order, placing one particular sumti at the front of the bridi. The cmavo
- <valsi>se</valsi>, when placed before the last word of the selbri, will switch the meanings of the first and second sumti places. So</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0dU">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e7d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>mi</sumti>
- <selbri>tavla</selbri>
- <sumti>do</sumti>
- <sumti>ti</sumti>
- </jbo>
- <natlang>I talk to you about this.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <para>has the same meaning as</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0eV">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e7d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>do</sumti>
- <selbri>se tavla</selbri>
- <sumti>mi</sumti>
- <sumti>ti</sumti>
- </jbo>
- <natlang>You are talked to by me about this.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <para> The cmavo
- <valsi>te</valsi>, when used in the same location, switches the meanings of the first and the third sumti places.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0FJ">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e7d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>mi</sumti>
- <selbri>tavla</selbri>
- <sumti>do</sumti>
- <sumti>ti</sumti>
- </jbo>
- <natlang>I talk to you about this.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <para>has the same meaning as</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0fo">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e7d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>ti</sumti>
- <selbri>te tavla</selbri>
- <sumti>do</sumti>
- <sumti>mi</sumti>
- </jbo>
- <natlang>This is talked about to you by me.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <para>Note that only the first and third sumti have switched places; the second sumti has remained in the second place.</para>
- <para> The cmavo
- <valsi>ve</valsi> and
- <valsi>xe</valsi> switch the first and fourth sumti places, and the first and fifth sumti places, respectively. These changes in the order of places are known as
- <quote>conversions</quote>, and the
- <valsi>se</valsi>,
- <valsi>te</valsi>,
- <valsi>ve</valsi>, and
- <valsi>xe</valsi> cmavo are said to convert the selbri.</para>
- <para>More than one of these operators may be used on a given selbri at one time, and in such a case they are evaluated from left to right. However, in practice they are used one at a time, as there are better tools for complex manipulation of the sumti places. See
- <xref linkend="chapter-selbri"/> for details.</para> <!-- FIXME: chapter-modals, no? -->
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>passive voice</primary></indexterm> The effect is similar to what in English is called the
- <quote>passive voice</quote>. In Lojban, the converted selbri has a new place structure that is renumbered to reflect the place reversal, thus having effects when such a conversion is used in combination with other constructs such as
-
-
- <jbophrase>le selbri [ku]</jbophrase> (see
- <xref linkend="section-description-sumti"/>).</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-structure-of-utterances">
- <title>The basic structure of longer utterances</title>
- <para> People don't always say just one sentence. Lojban has a specific structure for talk or writing that is longer than one sentence. The entirety of a given speech event or written text is called an utterance. The sentences (usually, but not always, bridi) in an utterance are separated by the cmavo
- <valsi>ni'o</valsi> and
- <valsi>i</valsi>. These correspond to a brief pause (or nothing at all) in spoken English, and the various punctuation marks like period, question mark, and exclamation mark in written English. These separators prevent the sumti at the beginning of the next sentence from being mistaken for a trailing sumti of the previous sentence.</para>
-
- <para>The cmavo
- <valsi>ni'o</valsi> separates paragraphs (covering different topics of discussion). In a long text or utterance, the topical structure of the text may be indicated by multiple
- <valsi>ni'o</valsi> s, with perhaps
- <jbophrase>ni'oni'oni'o</jbophrase> used to indicate a chapter,
- <jbophrase>ni'oni'o</jbophrase> to indicate a section, and a single
- <valsi>ni'o</valsi> to indicate a subtopic corresponding to a single English paragraph.</para>
- <para>The cmavo
- <valsi>i</valsi> separates sentences. It is sometimes compounded with words that modify the exact meaning (the semantics) of the sentence in the context of the utterance. (The cmavo
- <valsi>xu</valsi>, discussed in
- <xref linkend="section-basic-questions"/>, is one such word – it turns the sentence from a statement to a question about truth.) When more than one person is talking, a new speaker will usually omit the
- <valsi>i</valsi> even though she/he may be continuing on the same topic.</para>
- <para>It is still O.K. for a new speaker to say the
- <valsi>i</valsi> before continuing; indeed, it is encouraged for maximum clarity (since it is possible that the second speaker might merely be adding words onto the end of the first speaker's sentence). A good translation for
- <valsi>i</valsi> is the
- <quote>and</quote> used in run-on sentences when people are talking informally:
- <quote>I did this, and then I did that, and ..., and ...</quote>.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-basic-tanru">
- <title>tanru</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> When two gismu are adjacent, the first one modifies the second, and the selbri takes its place structure from the rightmost word. Such combinations of gismu are called
- <valsi>tanru</valsi>. For example,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-GPcS">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e9d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>sutra tavla</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>has the place structure</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-ANfh">
- <title>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>fast talker</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
- <anchor xml:id="c2e9d2"/>
- </title>
- <para>x1 is a fast type-of talker to x2 about x3 in language x4</para>
- <para>x1 talks fast to x2 about x3 in language x4</para>
- </example>
- <para>
-
-
- <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru default grouping</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> When three or more gismu are in a row, the first modifies the second, and that combined meaning modifies the third, and that combined meaning modifies the fourth, and so on. For example</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pzS9">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e9d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>sutra tavla cutci</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>
-
-
- has the place structure</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-7KPn">
- <title>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>fast-talker shoe</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
- <anchor xml:id="c2e9d4"/>
- </title>
- <para>s1 is a fast-talker type of shoe worn by s2 of material s3</para>
- </example>
- <para>That is, it is a shoe that is worn by a fast talker rather than a shoe that is fast and is also worn by a talker.</para>
-
- <para>Note especially the use of
- <quote>type-of</quote> as a mechanism for connecting the English translations of the two or more gismu; this convention helps the learner understand each tanru in its context. Creative interpretations are also possible, however:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-jE94">
- <title>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>runner shoe</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
- <anchor xml:id="c2e9d5"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>bajra cutci</jbo>
- <natlang>runner shoe</natlang>
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>
-
-
- most probably refers to shoes suitable for runners, but might be interpreted in some imaginative instances as
- <quote>shoes that run (by themselves?)</quote>. In general, however, the meaning of a tanru is determined by the literal meaning of its components, and not by any connotations or figurative meanings. Thus</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-HcV5">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e9d6"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>sutra tavla</jbo>
- <natlang>fast-talker</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>would not necessarily imply any trickery or deception, unlike the English idiom, and a</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-8umU">
- <title>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>Lepidoptera</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>butterfly</primary><secondary>social</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>social butterfly</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e9d7"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>jikca toldi</jbo>
- <natlang>social butterfly</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>
-
-
- must always be an insect with large brightly-colored wings, of the family
- <emphasis>Lepidoptera</emphasis>.</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>place structure of</secondary><tertiary>quick-tour version</tertiary></indexterm> The place structure of a tanru is always that of the final component of the tanru. Thus, the following has the place structure of
- <valsi>klama</valsi>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0FP">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e9d8"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>mi</sumti>
- <elidable>cu</elidable>
- <selbri>sutra klama</selbri>
- <sumti>la meris.</sumti>
- </jbo>
- <gloss>
- <sumti>I</sumti>
- <elidable></elidable>
- <selbri>quickly-go</selbri>
- <sumti>to Mary.</sumti>
- </gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru conversion</primary><secondary>effect on place structure</secondary><tertiary>quick-tour version</tertiary></indexterm> With the conversion
- <jbophrase>se klama</jbophrase> as the final component of the tanru, the place structure of the entire selbri is that of
- <jbophrase>se klama</jbophrase>: the x1 place is the destination, and the x2 place is the one who goes:</para>
-
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0J1">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e9d9"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>mi</sumti>
- <elidable>cu</elidable>
- <selbri>sutra</selbri>
- <selbri>se klama</selbri>
- <sumti>la meris.</sumti>
- </jbo>
- <gloss>
- <sumti>I</sumti>
- <elidable></elidable>
- <selbri>quickly</selbri>
- <selbri>am-gone-to</selbri>
- <sumti>by Mary.</sumti>
- </gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>and conversion</secondary><tertiary>quick-tour version</tertiary></indexterm> The following example shows that there is more to conversion than merely switching places, though:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0LW">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e9d10"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>la tam.</sumti>
- <elidable>cu</elidable>
- <selbri>melbi tavla</selbri>
- <sumti>la meris.</sumti>
- </jbo>
- <gloss>
- <sumti>Tom</sumti>
- <elidable></elidable>
- <selbri>beautifully-talks</selbri>
- <sumti>to Mary.</sumti>
- </gloss>
- <gloss>
- <sumti>Tom</sumti>
- <elidable></elidable>
- <selbri>is a beautiful-talker</selbri>
- <sumti>to Mary.</sumti>
- </gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <para>has the place structure of
- <valsi>tavla</valsi>, but note the two distinct interpretations.</para>
- <para>Now, using conversion, we can modify the place structure order:</para>
-
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0mh">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e9d11"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>la meris.</sumti>
- <elidable>cu</elidable>
- <selbri>melbi se tavla</selbri>
- <sumti>la tam.</sumti>
- </jbo>
- <gloss>
- <sumti>Mary</sumti>
- <elidable></elidable>
- <selbri>is beautifully-talked-to</selbri>
- <sumti>by Tom.</sumti>
- </gloss>
- <gloss>
- <sumti>Mary</sumti>
- <elidable></elidable>
- <selbri>is a beautiful-audience</selbri>
- <sumti>for Tom.</sumti>
- </gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <para>and we see that the modification has been changed so as to focus on Mary's role in the bridi relationship, leading to a different set of possible interpretations.</para>
- <para>Note that there is no place structure change if the modifying term is converted, and so less drastic variation in possible meanings:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-qIv0">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e9d12"/>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>talker</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>la tam.</sumti>
- <elidable>cu</elidable>
- <selbri>tavla melbi</selbri>
- <sumti>la meris.</sumti>
- </jbo>
- <gloss>
- <sumti>Tom</sumti>
- <elidable></elidable>
- <selbri>is talkerly-beautiful</selbri>
- <sumti>to Mary.</sumti>
- </gloss>
-
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-qIVa">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e9d13"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>la tam.</sumti>
- <elidable>cu</elidable>
- <selbri>se tavla melbi</selbri>
- <sumti>la meris.</sumti>
- </jbo>
- <gloss>
- <sumti>Tom</sumti>
- <elidable></elidable>
- <selbri>is audiencely-beautiful</selbri>
- <sumti>to Mary.</sumti>
- </gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <para>and we see that the manner in which Tom is seen as beautiful by Mary changes, but Tom is still the one perceived as beautiful, and Mary, the observer of beauty.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-description-sumti">
- <title>Description sumti</title>
- <para>
-
- <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>descriptions</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> Often we wish to talk about things other than the speaker, the listener and things we can point to. Let's say I want to talk about a talker other than
- <valsi>mi</valsi>. What I want to talk about would naturally fit into the first place of
- <valsi>tavla</valsi>. Lojban, it turns out, has an operator that pulls this first place out of a selbri and converts it to a sumti called a
- <quote>description sumti</quote>. The description sumti
- <jbophrase>le tavla ku</jbophrase> means
- <quote>the talker</quote>, and may be used wherever any sumti may be used.</para>
- <para>For example,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0Pj">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e10d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>mi</sumti>
- <selbri>tavla</selbri>
- <sumti>do</sumti>
- <sumti>le tavla</sumti>
- <elidable delineated="false">ku</elidable>
- </jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <para>means the same as</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-oH9T">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e10d2"/>
- </title>
- <para>I talk to you about the talker</para>
- </example>
- <para>where
- <quote>the talker</quote> is presumably someone other than me, though not necessarily.</para>
- <para>Similarly
- <jbophrase>le sutra tavla ku</jbophrase> is
- <quote>the fast talker</quote>, and
-
- <jbophrase>le sutra te tavla ku</jbophrase> is
- <quote>the fast subject of talk</quote> or
- <quote>the subject of fast talk</quote>. Which of these related meanings is understood will depend on the context in which the expression is used. The most plausible interpretation within the context will generally be assumed by a listener to be the intended one.</para>
- <para>In many cases the word
- <valsi>ku</valsi> may be omitted. In particular, it is never necessary in a description at the end of a sentence, so:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0Q2">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e10d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>mi</sumti>
- <selbri>tavla</selbri>
- <sumti>do</sumti>
- <sumti>le tavla</sumti>
- </jbo>
- <gloss>
- <sumti>I</sumti>
- <selbri>talk-to</selbri>
- <sumti>you</sumti>
- <sumti>about-the talker</sumti>
- </gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <para>means exactly the same thing as
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-k0Pj"/>.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cu</primary><secondary>need for</secondary><tertiary>quick-tour version</tertiary></indexterm> There is a problem when we want to say
- <quote>The fast one is talking.</quote> The
- <quote>obvious</quote> translation
- <jbophrase>le sutra tavla</jbophrase> turns out to mean
- <quote>the fast talker</quote>, and has no selbri at all. To solve this problem we can use the word
-
- <valsi>cu</valsi>, which so far has always been optional, in front of the selbri.</para>
- <para>The word
- <valsi>cu</valsi> has no meaning, and exists only to mark the beginning of the selbri within the bridi, separating it from a previous sumti. It comes before any other part of the selbri, including other cmavo like
- <valsi>se</valsi> or
- <valsi>te</valsi>. Thus:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0QA">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e10d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo> <sumti>le sutra tavla</sumti> </jbo>
- <gloss> <sumti>The fast talker</sumti> </gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0qb">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e10d5"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>le sutra</sumti>
- <elidable elidable="false">cu</elidable>
- <selbri>tavla</selbri>
- </jbo>
- <gloss>
- <sumti>The fast one</sumti>
- <elidable></elidable>
- <selbri>is talking.</selbri>
- </gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0Qf">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e10d6"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo><sumti>le sutra se tavla</sumti></jbo>
- <gloss><sumti>The fast talked-to one</sumti> </gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0ru">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e10d7"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>le sutra</sumti>
- <elidable elidable="false">cu</elidable>
- <selbri>se tavla</selbri>
- </jbo>
- <gloss>
- <sumti>The fast one</sumti>
- <elidable></elidable>
- <selbri>is talked to.</selbri>
- </gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>KU selma'o</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ku</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> Consider the following more complex example, with two description sumti.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0S1">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e10d8"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>mi</sumti>
- <elidable>cu</elidable>
- <selbri>tavla</selbri>
- <sumti>le vecnu</sumti>
- <elidable>ku</elidable>
- <sumti>le blari'o</sumti>
- <elidable>ku</elidable>
- </jbo>
- <gloss>
- <sumti>I</sumti>
- <elidable></elidable>
- <selbri>talk-to</selbri>
- <sumti>the seller</sumti>
- <elidable></elidable>
- <sumti>about the blue-green-thing.</sumti>
- <elidable></elidable>
- </gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <para>The sumti
- <jbophrase>le vecnu</jbophrase> contains the selbri
- <valsi>vecnu</valsi>, which has the
- <quote>seller</quote> in the x1 place, and uses it in this sentence to describe a particular
- <quote>seller</quote> that the speaker has in mind (one that he or she probably expects the listener will also know about). Similarly, the speaker has a particular blue-green thing in mind, which is described using
- <valsi>le</valsi> to mark
- <valsi>blari'o</valsi>, a selbri whose first sumti is something blue-green.</para>
- <para>It is safe to omit both occurrences of
- <valsi>ku</valsi> in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-k0S1"/>, and it is also safe to omit the
- <valsi>cu</valsi>.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-some-brivla">
- <title>Examples of brivla</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>brivla</primary><secondary>types of</secondary><tertiary>quick-tour version</tertiary></indexterm> The simplest form of selbri is an individual word. A word which may by itself express a selbri relation is called a
- <valsi>brivla</valsi>. The three types of brivla are gismu (root words), lujvo (compounds), and fu'ivla (borrowings from other languages). All have identical grammatical uses. So far, most of our selbri have been gismu or tanru built from gismu.</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> gismu:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0SM">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e11d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>mi</sumti>
- <elidable>cu</elidable>
- <selbri>klama</selbri>
- <sumti>ti</sumti>
- <sumti>zo'e</sumti>
- <sumti>zo'e</sumti>
- <sumti>ta</sumti>
- </jbo>
- <gloss>
- <sumti>Go-er</sumti>
- <elidable></elidable>
- <selbri>goes</selbri>
- <sumti>destination</sumti>
- <sumti>origin</sumti>
- <sumti>route</sumti>
- <sumti>means.</sumti>
- </gloss>
- <natlang>I go here (to this) using that means (from somewhere via some route).</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> lujvo:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0SR">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e11d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>ta</sumti>
- <elidable>cu</elidable>
- <selbri>blari'o</selbri>
- </jbo>
- <gloss>
- <sumti>That</sumti>
- <elidable></elidable>
- <selbri>is-blue-green.</selbri>
- </gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> fu'ivla:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0Tj">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e11d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>ti</sumti>
- <elidable>cu</elidable>
- <selbri>djarspageti</selbri>
- </jbo>
- <gloss>
- <sumti>This</sumti>
- <elidable></elidable>
- <selbri>is-spaghetti.</selbri>
- </gloss>
-
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmavo as selbri</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> Some cmavo may also serve as selbri, acting as variables that stand for another selbri. The most commonly used of these is
- <valsi>go'i</valsi>, which represents the main bridi of the previous Lojban sentence, with any new sumti or other sentence features being expressed replacing the previously expressed ones. Thus, in this context:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0UC">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e11d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>ta</sumti>
- <elidable>cu</elidable>
- <selbri>go'i</selbri>
- </jbo>
- <gloss>
- <sumti>That</sumti>
- <elidable></elidable>
- <selbri>too/same-as-last selbri.</selbri>
- </gloss>
- <natlang>That (is spaghetti), too.</natlang>
-
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-dihu-and-lahe-dihu">
- <title>The sumti
- <valsi>di'u</valsi> and
- <jbophrase>la'e di'u</jbophrase></title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>reference</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> In English, I might say
- <quote>The dog is beautiful</quote>, and you might reply
- <quote>This pleases me.</quote> How do you know what
-
- <quote>this</quote> refers to? Lojban uses different expressions to convey the possible meanings of the English:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0wB">
- <title>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>beautiful dog</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e12d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>le gerku</sumti>
- <elidable>ku</elidable>
- <elidable elidable="false">cu</elidable>
- <selbri>melbi</selbri>
- </jbo>
- <natlang>The dog is beautiful.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <para>The following three sentences all might translate as
- <quote>This pleases me.</quote></para>
-
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0wS">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e12d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>ti</sumti>
- <elidable>cu</elidable>
- <selbri>pluka</selbri>
- <sumti>mi</sumti>
- </jbo>
- <natlang>This (the dog) pleases me.</natlang>
-
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0yC">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e12d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>di'u</sumti>
- <elidable>cu</elidable>
- <selbri>pluka</selbri>
- <sumti>mi</sumti>
- </jbo>
- <natlang>This (the last sentence) pleases me (perhaps because it is grammatical or sounds nice).</natlang>
-
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0YS">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e12d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>la'e di'u</sumti>
- <elidable>cu</elidable>
- <selbri>pluka</selbri>
- <sumti>mi</sumti>
- </jbo>
- <natlang>This (the meaning of the last sentence; i.e. that the dog is beautiful) pleases me.</natlang>
-
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pleases</primary></indexterm>
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-k0YS"/> uses one sumti to point to or refer to another by inference. It is common to write
- <valsi>la'edi'u</valsi> as a single word; it is used more often than
-
- <valsi>di'u</valsi> by itself.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-possession">
- <title>Possession</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>possession</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm>
- <quote>Possession</quote> refers to the concept of specifying an object by saying who it belongs to (or with). A full explanation of Lojban possession is given in
- <xref linkend="chapter-relative-clauses"/>. A simple means of expressing possession, however, is to place a sumti representing the possessor of an object within the description sumti that refers to the object: specifically, between the
- <valsi>le</valsi> and the selbri of the description:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k0zY">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e13d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>le mi gerku</sumti>
- <elidable elidable="false">cu</elidable>
- <selbri>sutra</selbri>
- </jbo>
- <gloss>
- <sumti>The of-me dog</sumti>
- <elidable></elidable>
- <selbri>is fast.</selbri>
- </gloss>
- <natlang>My dog is fast.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>possession not ownership</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> In Lojban, possession doesn't necessarily mean ownership: one may
- <quote>possess</quote> a chair simply by sitting on it, even though it actually belongs to someone else. English uses possession casually in the same way, but also uses it to refer to actual ownership or even more intimate relationships:
- <quote>my arm</quote> doesn't mean
- <quote>some arm I own</quote> but rather
- <quote>the arm that is part of my body</quote>. Lojban has methods of specifying all these different kinds of possession precisely and easily.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-vocatives-and-commands">
- <title>Vocatives and commands</title>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vocatives</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> You may call someone's attention to the fact that you are addressing them by using
- <valsi>doi</valsi> followed by their name. The sentence</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ahVb">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e14d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>doi djan.</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>means
- <quote>Oh, John, I'm talking to you</quote>. It also has the effect of setting the value of
- <valsi>do</valsi>;
- <valsi>do</valsi> now refers to
- <quote>John</quote> until it is changed in some way in the conversation. Note that
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-ahVb"/> is not a bridi, but it is a legitimate Lojban sentence nevertheless; it is known as a
- <quote>vocative phrase</quote>.</para>
-
- <para> Other cmavo can be used instead of
- <valsi>doi</valsi> in a vocative phrase, with a different significance. For example, the cmavo
-
- <valsi>coi</valsi> means
- <quote>hello</quote> and
- <valsi>co'o</valsi> means
- <quote>good-bye</quote>. Either word may stand alone, they may follow one another, or either may be followed by a pause and a name. (Vocative phrases with
- <valsi>doi</valsi> do not need a pause before the name.)</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qIWX" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e14d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>coi. djan.</jbo>
- <natlang>Hello, John.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qIxE" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e14d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>co'o. djan.</jbo>
- <natlang>Good-bye, John.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>imperatives</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>commands</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> Commands are expressed in Lojban by a simple variation of the main bridi structure. If you say</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k11I">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e14d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>do</sumti>
- <selbri>tavla</selbri>
- </jbo>
- <gloss>
- <sumti>You</sumti>
- <selbri>are-talking.</selbri>
- </gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <para>you are simply making a statement of fact. In order to issue a command in Lojban, substitute the word
- <valsi>ko</valsi> for
- <valsi>do</valsi>. The bridi</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k11z">
- <title>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>Talk!</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e14d5"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>ko</sumti>
- <selbri>tavla</selbri>
- </jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <para>
-
-
- instructs the listener to do whatever is necessary to make
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-k11I"/> true; it means
- <quote>Talk!</quote> Other examples:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k13h">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e14d6"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>ko</sumti>
- <selbri>sutra</selbri>
- </jbo>
- <natlang>Be fast!</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <para>The
- <valsi>ko</valsi> need not be in the x1 place, but rather can occur anywhere a sumti is allowed, leading to possible Lojban commands that are very unlike English commands:</para>
-
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k14j">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e14d7"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>mi</sumti>
- <selbri>tavla</selbri>
- <sumti>ko</sumti>
- </jbo>
- <natlang>Be talked to by me.</natlang>
- <natlang>Let me talk to you.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <para>The cmavo
- <valsi>ko</valsi> can fill any appropriate sumti place, and can be used as often as is appropriate for the selbri:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k14X">
- <title>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>Take care!</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e14d8"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>ko</sumti>
- <selbri>kurji</selbri>
- <sumti>ko</sumti>
- </jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <para>and</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k15M">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e14d9"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>ko</sumti>
- <sumti>ko</sumti>
- <selbri>kurji</selbri>
- </jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <para>
-
-
- both mean
- <quote>You take care of you</quote> and
- <quote>Be taken care of by you</quote>, or to put it colloquially,
- <quote>Take care of yourself</quote>.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-basic-questions">
- <title>Questions</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>questions</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> There are many kinds of questions in Lojban: full explanations appear in
- <xref linkend="section-questions-and-answers"/> and in various other chapters throughout the book. In this chapter, we will introduce three kinds: sumti questions, selbri questions, and yes/no questions.</para>
-
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti questions</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>questions</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo
- <valsi>ma</valsi> is used to create a sumti question: it indicates that the speaker wishes to know the sumti which should be placed at the location of the
- <valsi>ma</valsi> to make the bridi true. It can be translated as
- <quote>Who?</quote> or
- <quote>What?</quote> in most cases, but also serves for
- <quote>When?</quote>,
- <quote>Where?</quote>, and
- <quote>Why?</quote> when used in sumti places that express time, location, or cause. For example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k161">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e15d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>ma</sumti>
- <selbri>tavla</selbri>
- <sumti>do</sumti>
- <sumti>mi</sumti>
- </jbo>
- <gloss>
- <sumti>Who?</sumti>
- <selbri>talks</selbri>
- <sumti>to-you</sumti>
- <sumti>about-me.</sumti>
- </gloss>
- <natlang>Who is talking to you about me?</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <para>The listener can reply by simply stating a sumti:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1Aa">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e15d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo> <sumti>la djan.</sumti> </jbo>
- <natlang>John (is talking to you about me).</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <para>Like
- <valsi>ko</valsi>,
- <valsi>ma</valsi> can occur in any position where a sumti is allowed, not just in the first position:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1aE">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e15d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>do</sumti>
- <elidable>cu</elidable>
- <selbri>tavla</selbri>
- <sumti>ma</sumti>
- </jbo>
- <gloss>
- <sumti>You</sumti>
- <elidable></elidable>
- <selbri>talk</selbri>
- <sumti>to what/whom?</sumti>
- </gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <para>A
- <valsi>ma</valsi> can also appear in multiple sumti positions in one sentence, in effect asking several questions at once.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1dc">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e15d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>ma</sumti>
- <elidable>cu</elidable>
- <selbri>tavla</selbri>
- <sumti>ma</sumti>
- </jbo>
- <gloss>
- <sumti>What/Who</sumti>
- <elidable></elidable>
- <selbri>talks</selbri>
- <sumti>to what/whom?</sumti>
- </gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>separate questions</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> The two separate
- <valsi>ma</valsi> positions ask two separate questions, and can therefore be answered with different values in each sumti place.</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi questions</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri questions</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo
- <valsi>mo</valsi> is the selbri analogue of
- <valsi>ma</valsi>. It asks the respondent to provide a selbri that would be a true relation if inserted in place of the
- <valsi>mo</valsi>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1DE">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e15d5"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>do</sumti>
- <elidable>cu</elidable>
- <selbri>mo</selbri>
- </jbo>
- <gloss>
- <sumti>You</sumti>
- <elidable></elidable>
- <selbri>are-what/do-what?</selbri>
- </gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <para>A
- <valsi>mo</valsi> may be used anywhere a brivla or other selbri might. Keep this in mind for later examples. Unfortunately, by itself,
- <valsi>mo</valsi> is a very non-specific question. The response to the question in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-k1DE"/> could be:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1DR">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e15d6"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>mi</sumti>
- <elidable>cu</elidable>
- <selbri>melbi</selbri>
- </jbo>
- <natlang>I am beautiful.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <para>or:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1gh">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e15d7"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>mi</sumti>
- <elidable>cu</elidable>
- <selbri>tavla</selbri>
- </jbo>
- <natlang>I talk.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>speaker-listener cooperation</primary></indexterm> Clearly,
- <valsi>mo</valsi> requires some cooperation between the speaker and the respondent to ensure that the right question is being answered. If context doesn't make the question specific enough, the speaker must ask the question more specifically using a more complex construction such as a tanru (see
- <xref linkend="section-basic-tanru"/>).</para>
- <para>It is perfectly permissible for the respondent to fill in other unspecified places in responding to a
- <valsi>mo</valsi> question. Thus, the respondent in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-k1gh"/> could have also specified an audience, a topic, and/or a language in the response.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>yes/no questions</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> Finally, we must consider questions that can be answered
- <quote>Yes</quote> or
- <quote>No</quote>, such as</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-fVMN">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e15d8"/>
- </title>
- <para>Are you talking to me?</para>
- </example>
- <para>Like all yes-or-no questions in English,
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-fVMN"/> may be reformulated as</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-648w">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e15d9"/>
- </title>
- <para>Is it true that you are talking to me?</para>
- </example>
- <para> In Lojban we have a word that asks precisely that question in precisely the same way. The cmavo
- <valsi>xu</valsi>, when placed in front of a bridi, asks whether that bridi is true as stated. So</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1gp">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e15d10"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <cmavo>xu</cmavo>
- <sumti>do</sumti>
- <selbri>tavla</selbri>
- <sumti>mi</sumti>
- </jbo>
- <gloss>
- <cmavo>Is-it-true-that</cmavo>
- <sumti>you</sumti>
- <selbri>are-talking</selbri>
- <sumti>to-me?</sumti>
- </gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <para>is the Lojban translation of
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-fVMN"/>.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>affirmative answer</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>go'i with xu</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> The answer
- <quote>Yes</quote> may be given by simply restating the bridi without the
- <valsi>xu</valsi> question word. Lojban has a shorthand for doing this with the word
- <valsi>go'i</valsi>, mentioned in
- <xref linkend="section-some-brivla"/>. Instead of a negative answer, the bridi may be restated in such a way as to make it true. If this can be done by substituting sumti, it may be done with
-
- <valsi>go'i</valsi> as well. For example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1gU">
- <title>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>healthy</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e15d11"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <cmavo>xu</cmavo>
- <sumti>do</sumti>
- <selbri>kanro</selbri>
- </jbo>
- <natlang>Are you healthy?</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <para>
-
-
- can be answered with</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1iE">
- <title>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>healthy</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e15d12"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>mi</sumti>
- <selbri>kanro</selbri>
- </jbo>
- <natlang>I am healthy.</natlang>
-
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <para>or</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1JT">
- <title>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>healthy</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e15d13"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <selbri>go'i</selbri>
- </jbo>
- <natlang>I am healthy.</natlang>
-
-
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <para>
- (Note that
- <valsi>do</valsi> to the questioner is
- <valsi>mi</valsi> to the respondent.)
- </para>
- <para>or</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1jY">
- <title>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>healthy</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e15d14"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>le tavla</sumti>
- <elidable elidable="false">cu</elidable>
- <selbri>kanro</selbri>
- </jbo>
- <natlang>The talker is healthy.</natlang>
-
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <para>or</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1LE">
- <title>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>healthy</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e15d15"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>le tavla</sumti>
- <elidable elidable="false">cu</elidable>
- <selbri>go'i</selbri>
- </jbo>
- <natlang>The talker is healthy.</natlang>
-
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>negative answer</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> A general negative answer may be given by
-
- <jbophrase>na go'i</jbophrase>.
- <valsi>na</valsi> may be placed before any selbri (but after the
- <valsi>cu</valsi>). It is equivalent to stating
- <quote>It is not true that ...</quote> before the bridi. It does not imply that anything else is true or untrue, only that that specific bridi is not true. More details on negative statements are available in
- <xref linkend="chapter-negation"/>.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-attitudinals">
- <title>Indicators</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>interjections</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>attitudinal indicators</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>indicators</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> Different cultures express emotions and attitudes with a variety of intonations and gestures that are not usually included in written language. Some of these are available in some languages as interjections (i.e. Aha!, Oh no!, Ouch!, Aahh!, etc.), but they vary greatly from culture to culture.</para> <!-- FIXME: put <quote>s around the interjections? -->
-
- <para>Lojban has a group of cmavo known as
- <quote>attitudinal indicators</quote> which specifically covers this type of commentary on spoken statements. They are both written and spoken, but require no specific intonation or gestures. Grammatically they are very simple: one or more attitudinals at the beginning of a bridi apply to the entire bridi; anywhere else in the bridi they apply to the word immediately to the left. For example:</para>
-
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1LH">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e16d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <cmavo>.ie</cmavo>
- <sumti>mi</sumti>
- <elidable>cu</elidable>
- <selbri>klama</selbri>
- </jbo>
- <gloss>
- <cmavo>Agreement!</cmavo>
- <sumti>I</sumti>
- <elidable></elidable>
- <selbri>go.</selbri>
- </gloss>
- <natlang>Yep! I'll go.</natlang>
-
-
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1mS">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e16d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <cmavo>.ei</cmavo>
- <sumti>mi</sumti>
- <elidable>cu</elidable>
- <selbri>klama</selbri>
- </jbo>
- <gloss>
- <cmavo>Obligation!</cmavo>
- <sumti>I</sumti>
- <elidable></elidable>
- <selbri>go.</selbri>
- </gloss>
- <natlang>I should go.</natlang>
-
-
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1pF">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e16d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>mi</sumti>
- <elidable>cu</elidable>
- <selbri>klama</selbri>
- <sumti>le melbi</sumti>
- <cmavo>.ui</cmavo>
- <elidable>ku</elidable>
- </jbo>
- <gloss>
- <sumti>I</sumti>
- <elidable></elidable>
- <selbri>go</selbri>
- <sumti>to-the beautiful-thing</sumti>
- <cmavo>and I am happy because it is the beautiful thing I'm going to</cmavo>
- <elidable></elidable>
- </gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>but/and equivalence</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>metalinguistic words</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>discursives</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> Not all indicators indicate attitudes. Discursives, another group of cmavo with the same grammatical rules as attitudinal indicators, allow free expression of certain kinds of commentary about the main utterances. Using discursives allows a clear separation of these so-called
-
- <quote>metalinguistic</quote> features from the underlying statements and logical structure. By comparison, the English words
-
- <quote>but</quote> and
- <quote>also</quote>, which discursively indicate contrast or an added weight of example, are logically equivalent to
- <quote>and</quote>, which does not have a discursive content. The average English-speaker does not think about, and may not even realize, the paradoxical idea that
- <quote>but</quote> basically means
- <quote>and</quote>.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1Rd">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e16d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>mi</sumti>
- <elidable>cu</elidable>
- <selbri>klama</selbri>
- <cmavo>.i</cmavo>
- <sumti>do</sumti>
- <elidable>cu</elidable>
- <selbri>stali</selbri>
- </jbo>
- <gloss>
- <sumti>I</sumti>
- <elidable></elidable>
- <selbri>go.</selbri>
- <cmavo></cmavo>
- <sumti>You</sumti>
- <elidable></elidable>
- <selbri>stay.</selbri>
- </gloss>
-
-
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1Rv">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e16d5"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>mi</sumti>
- <elidable>cu</elidable>
- <selbri>klama</selbri>
- <cmavo>.i</cmavo>
- <cmavo>ji'a</cmavo>
- <sumti>do</sumti>
- <elidable>cu</elidable>
- <selbri>stali</selbri>
- </jbo>
- <gloss>
- <sumti>I</sumti>
- <elidable></elidable>
- <selbri>go.</selbri>
- <cmavo></cmavo>
- <cmavo>In addition,</cmavo>
- <sumti>you</sumti>
- <elidable></elidable>
- <selbri>stay.</selbri>
- <comment>added weight</comment>
- </gloss>
-
-
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1sb">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e16d6"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>mi</sumti>
- <elidable>cu</elidable>
- <selbri>klama</selbri>
- <cmavo>.i</cmavo>
- <cmavo>ku'i</cmavo>
- <sumti>do</sumti>
- <elidable>cu</elidable>
- <selbri>stali</selbri>
- </jbo>
- <gloss>
- <sumti>I</sumti>
- <elidable></elidable>
- <selbri>go.</selbri>
- <cmavo></cmavo>
- <cmavo>However,</cmavo>
- <sumti>you</sumti>
- <elidable></elidable>
- <selbri>stay.</selbri>
- <comment>contrast</comment>
- </gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>evidentials</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> Another group of indicators are called
- <quote>evidentials</quote>. Evidentials show the speaker's relationship to the statement, specifically how the speaker came to make the statement. These include
-
-
- <valsi>za'a</valsi> (I directly observe the relationship),
-
- <valsi>pe'i</valsi> (I believe that the relationship holds),
-
- <valsi>ru'a</valsi> (I postulate the relationship), and others. Many American Indian languages use this kind of words.</para>
-
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1uT">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e16d7"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
-
- <jbo>
- <cmavo>pe'i</cmavo>
- <sumti>do</sumti>
- <elidable>cu</elidable>
- <selbri>melbi</selbri>
- </jbo>
- <gloss>
- <cmavo>I opine!</cmavo>
- <sumti>You</sumti>
- <elidable></elidable>
- <selbri>are beautiful.</selbri>
- </gloss>
-
-
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1Xs">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e16d8"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
-
- <jbo>
- <cmavo>za'a</cmavo>
- <sumti>do</sumti>
- <elidable>cu</elidable>
- <selbri>melbi</selbri>
- </jbo>
- <gloss>
- <cmavo>I directly observe!</cmavo>
- <sumti>You</sumti>
- <elidable></elidable>
- <selbri>are beautiful.</selbri>
- </gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-tenses">
- <title>Tenses</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>time tenses</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tenses</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> In English, every verb is tagged for the grammatical category called tense: past, present, or future. The sentence</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-xIVa">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e17d1"/>
- </title>
- <para>John went to the store</para>
- </example>
- <para>necessarily happens at some time in the past, whereas</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-1Acu">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e17d2"/>
- </title>
- <para>John is going to the store</para>
- </example>
- <para>is necessarily happening right now.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sentences</primary><secondary>tenseless</secondary><tertiary>quick-tour version</tertiary></indexterm> The Lojban sentence</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1xz">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e17d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>la djan.</sumti>
- <elidable>cu</elidable>
- <selbri>klama</selbri>
- <sumti>le zarci</sumti>
- </jbo>
- <gloss>
- <sumti>John</sumti>
- <elidable></elidable>
- <selbri>goes/went/will-go</selbri>
- <sumti>to-the store</sumti>
- </gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <para>serves as a translation of either
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-xIVa"/> or
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-1Acu"/>, and of many other possible English sentences as well. It is not marked for tense, and can refer to an event in the past, the present or the future. This rule does not mean that Lojban has no way of representing the time of an event. A close translation of
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-xIVa"/> would be:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1Y5">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e17d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>la djan.</sumti>
- <cmavo>pu</cmavo>
- <selbri>klama</selbri>
- <sumti>le zarci</sumti>
- </jbo>
- <gloss>
- <sumti>John</sumti>
- <cmavo>[past]</cmavo>
- <selbri>goes</selbri>
- <sumti>to-the store</sumti>
- </gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <para>where the tag
- <valsi>pu</valsi> forces the sentence to refer to a time in the past. Similarly,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k1Y8">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e17d5"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>la djan.</sumti>
- <cmavo>ca</cmavo>
- <selbri>klama</selbri>
- <sumti>le zarci</sumti>
- </jbo>
- <gloss>
- <sumti>John</sumti>
- <cmavo>[present]</cmavo>
- <selbri>goes</selbri>
- <sumti>to-the store</sumti>
- </gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <para>necessarily refers to the present, because of the tag
- <valsi>ca</valsi>. Tags used in this way always appear at the very beginning of the selbri, just after the
- <valsi>cu</valsi>, and they may make a
- <valsi>cu</valsi> unnecessary, since tags cannot be absorbed into tanru. Such tags serve as an equivalent to English tenses and adverbs. In Lojban, tense information is completely optional. If unspecified, the appropriate tense is picked up from context.</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>space tenses</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> Lojban also extends the notion of
- <quote>tense</quote> to refer not only to time but to space. The following example uses the tag
- <valsi>vu</valsi> to specify that the event it describes happens far away from the speaker:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k20b">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e17d6"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>do</sumti>
- <selbri>vu vecnu</selbri>
- <sumti>zo'e</sumti>
- </jbo>
- <gloss>
- <sumti>You</sumti>
- <selbri>yonder sell</selbri>
- <sumti>something-unspecified.</sumti>
- </gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <para>In addition, tense tags (either for time or space) can be prefixed to the selbri of a description, producing a tensed sumti:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k26N">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e17d7"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>le pu bajra</sumti>
- <elidable>ku</elidable>
- <elidable elidable="false">cu</elidable>
- <selbri>tavla</selbri>
- </jbo>
- <gloss>
- <sumti>The earlier/former/past runner</sumti>
- <elidable></elidable>
- <elidable></elidable>
- <selbri>talked/talks.</selbri>
- </gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <para>(Since Lojban tense is optional, we don't know when he or she talks.)</para>
- <para>Tensed sumti with space tags correspond roughly to the English use of
- <quote>this</quote> or
- <quote>that</quote> as adjectives, as in the following example, which uses the tag
-
- <valsi>vi</valsi> meaning
- <quote>nearby</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k28N">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e17d8"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>le vi bajra </sumti>
- <elidable>ku</elidable>
- <elidable elidable="false">cu</elidable>
- <selbri>tavla</selbri>
- </jbo>
- <gloss>
- <sumti>The nearby runner</sumti>
- <elidable></elidable>
- <elidable></elidable>
- <selbri>talks.</selbri>
- </gloss>
- <natlang>This runner talks.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- <para>Do not confuse the use of
- <valsi>vi</valsi> in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-k28N"/> with the cmavo
- <valsi>ti</valsi>, which also means
- <quote>this</quote>, but in the sense of
- <quote>this thing</quote>.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti with tenses</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> Furthermore, a tense tag can appear both on the selbri and within a description, as in the following example (where
- <valsi>ba</valsi> is the tag for future time):</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k29L">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c2e17d9"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- <jbo>
- <sumti>le vi tavla </sumti>
- <elidable>ku</elidable>
- <elidable elidable="false">cu</elidable>
- <selbri>ba klama</selbri>
- </jbo>
- <gloss>
- <sumti>The here talker</sumti>
- <elidable></elidable>
- <elidable></elidable>
- <selbri>[future] goes.</selbri>
- </gloss>
- <natlang>The talker who is here will go.</natlang>
- <natlang>This talker will go.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss-itemized>
- </example>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-terms">
- <title>Lojban grammatical terms</title>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>grammatical terms</primary><secondary>quick-tour version</secondary></indexterm> Here is a review of the Lojban grammatical terms used in this chapter, plus some others used throughout this book. Only terms that are themselves Lojban words are included: there are of course many expressions like
-
- <quote>indicator</quote> in
- <xref linkend="chapter-quantifiers"/> that are not explained here. See the Index for further help with these.</para>
- <variablelist>
- <varlistentry>
- <term>bridi:</term>
- <listitem>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi</primary><secondary>definition</secondary><tertiary>quick-tour version</tertiary></indexterm> predication; the basic unit of Lojban expression; the main kind of Lojban sentence; a claim that some objects stand in some relationship, or that some single object has some property.</para>
-
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term>sumti:</term>
- <listitem>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>definition</secondary><tertiary>quick-tour version</tertiary></indexterm> argument; words identifying something which stands in a specified relationship to something else, or which has a specified property. See
- <xref linkend="chapter-sumti"/>.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term>selbri:</term>
- <listitem>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri</primary><secondary>definition</secondary><tertiary>quick-tour version</tertiary></indexterm> logical predicate; the core of a bridi; the word or words specifying the relationship between the objects referred to by the sumti. See
- <xref linkend="chapter-selbri"/>.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term>cmavo:</term>
- <listitem>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmavo</primary><secondary>definition</secondary><tertiary>quick-tour version</tertiary></indexterm> one of the Lojban parts of speech; a short word; a structural word; a word used for its grammatical function.</para>
-
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term>brivla:</term>
- <listitem>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>brivla</primary><secondary>definition</secondary><tertiary>quick-tour version</tertiary></indexterm> one of the Lojban parts of speech; a content word; a predicate word; can function as a selbri; is a gismu, a lujvo, or a fu'ivla. See
-
- <xref linkend="chapter-morphology"/>.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term>gismu:</term>
- <listitem>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>definition</secondary><tertiary>quick-tour version</tertiary></indexterm> a root word; a kind of brivla; has associated rafsi. See
- <xref linkend="chapter-morphology"/>.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term>lujvo:</term>
- <listitem>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>definition</secondary><tertiary>quick-tour version</tertiary></indexterm> a compound word; a kind of brivla; may or may not appear in a dictionary; does not have associated rafsi. See
- <xref linkend="chapter-morphology"/> and
- <xref linkend="chapter-lujvo"/>.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term>fu'ivla:</term>
- <listitem>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>definition</secondary><tertiary>quick-tour version</tertiary></indexterm> a borrowed word; a kind of brivla; may or may not appear in a dictionary; copied in a modified form from some non-Lojban language; usually refers to some aspect of culture or the natural world; does not have associated rafsi. See
-
- <xref linkend="chapter-morphology"/>.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term>rafsi:</term>
- <listitem>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>definition</secondary><tertiary>quick-tour version</tertiary></indexterm> a word fragment; one or more is associated with each gismu; can be assembled according to rules in order to make lujvo; not a valid word by itself. See
- <xref linkend="chapter-morphology"/>.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term>tanru:</term>
- <listitem>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>definition</secondary><tertiary>quick-tour version</tertiary></indexterm> a group of two or more brivla, possibly with associated cmavo, that form a selbri; always divisible into two parts, with the first part modifying the meaning of the second part (which is taken to be basic). See
- <xref linkend="chapter-selbri"/>.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term>selma'o:</term>
- <listitem>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selma'o</primary><secondary>definition</secondary><tertiary>quick-tour version</tertiary></indexterm> a group of cmavo that have the same grammatical use (can appear interchangeably in sentences, as far as the grammar is concerned) but differ in meaning or other usage. See
- <xref linkend="chapter-catalogue"/>.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- </variablelist>
- </section>
-</chapter>
diff --git a/chapters/3.xml b/chapters/3.xml
deleted file mode 100644
index bfb447c..0000000
--- a/chapters/3.xml
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,2209 +0,0 @@
-<chapter xml:id="chapter-phonology">
- <title>The Hills Are Alive With The Sounds Of Lojban</title>
- <mediaobject xml:id="chapter-phonology-picture">
- <alt>The picture for chapter 3</alt>
- <imageobject>
- <imagedata fileref="media/chapter-phonology.gif" />
- </imageobject>
- </mediaobject>
- <section xml:id="section-orthography">
- <title>Orthography</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>orthography</primary><secondary>relation to pronunciation</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pronunciation</primary><secondary>relation to orthography</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>audio-visual isomorphism</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>isomorphism</primary><secondary>audio-visual</secondary></indexterm> Lojban is designed so that any properly spoken Lojban utterance can be uniquely transcribed in writing, and any properly written Lojban can be spoken so as to be uniquely reproduced by another person. As a consequence, the standard Lojban orthography must assign to each distinct sound, or phoneme, a unique letter or symbol. Each letter or symbol has only one sound or, more accurately, a limited range of sounds that are permitted pronunciations for that phoneme. Some symbols indicate stress (speech emphasis) and pause, which are also essential to Lojban word recognition. In addition, everything that is represented in other languages by punctuation (when written) or by tone of voice (when spoken) is represented in Lojban by words. These two properties together are known technically as <quote>audio-visual isomorphism</quote>.</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>alphabet</primary><secondary>Lojban</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Lojban alphabet</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Latin alphabet</primary></indexterm> Lojban uses a variant of the Latin (Roman) alphabet, consisting of the following letters and symbols:
- <simplelist type="horiz" columns="26">
- <member>'</member>
- <member>,</member>
- <member>.</member>
- <member>a</member>
- <member>b</member>
- <member>c</member>
- <member>d</member>
- <member>e</member>
- <member>f</member>
- <member>g</member>
- <member>i</member>
- <member>j</member>
- <member>k</member>
- <member>l</member>
- <member>m</member>
- <member>n</member>
- <member>o</member>
- <member>p</member>
- <member>r</member>
- <member>s</member>
- <member>t</member>
- <member>u</member>
- <member>v</member>
- <member>x</member>
- <member>y</member>
- <member>z</member>
- </simplelist>
- omitting the letters
- <quote>h</quote>,
- <quote>q</quote>, and
- <quote>w</quote>.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>alphabetic order</primary></indexterm> The alphabetic order given above is that of the ASCII coded character set, widely used in computers. By making Lojban alphabetical order the same as ASCII, computerized sorting and searching of Lojban text is facilitated.</para>
-
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>stress</primary><secondary>showing non-standard</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>capital letters</primary><secondary>use of</secondary></indexterm> Capital letters are used only to represent non-standard stress, which can appear only in the representation of Lojbanized names. Thus the English name
- <quote>Josephine</quote>, as normally pronounced, is Lojbanized as
- <cmevla>DJOsefin.</cmevla>, pronounced
- <phrase role="IPA">['dʒosɛfinʔ]</phrase>. (See
- <xref linkend="section-basic-phonetics"/> for an explanation of the symbols within square brackets.) Technically, it is sufficient to capitalize the vowel letter, in this case
-
- <letteral>O</letteral>, but it is easier on the reader to capitalize the whole syllable.</para>
- <para>Without the capitalization, the ordinary rules of Lojban stress would cause the
-
- <valsi>se</valsi> syllable to be stressed. Lojbanized names are meant to represent the pronunciation of names from other languages with as little distortion as may be; as such, they are exempt from many of the regular rules of Lojban phonology, as will appear in the rest of this chapter.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-basic-phonetics">
- <title>Basic Phonetics</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>brackets</primary><secondary>use in IPA notation</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>phonetic alphabet</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>IPA</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>International Phonetic Alphabet (see also IPA)</primary></indexterm> Lojban pronunciations are defined using the International Phonetic Alphabet, or IPA, a standard method of transcribing pronunciations. By convention, IPA transcriptions are always within square brackets: for example, the word
-
- <quote>cat</quote> is pronounced (in General American pronunciation)
-
- <phrase role="IPA">[kæt]</phrase>.
- <xref linkend="section-anglophone-phonetics"/> contains a brief explanation of the IPA characters used in this chapter, with their nearest analogues in English, and will be especially useful to those not familiar with the technical terms used in describing speech sounds.</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>standard pronunciation</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pronunciation</primary><secondary>standard</secondary></indexterm> The standard pronunciations and permitted variants of the Lojban letters are listed in the table below. The descriptions have deliberately been made a bit ambiguous to cover variations in pronunciation by speakers of different native languages and dialects. In all cases except
-
- <letteral>r</letteral> the first IPA symbol shown represents the preferred pronunciation; for
- <letteral>r</letteral>, all of the variations (and any other rhotic sound) are equally acceptable.</para>
- <informaltable>
- <thead>
- <tr>
- <td>Letter</td>
- <td>IPA</td>
- <td>X-SAMPA</td>
- <td>Description</td>
- </tr>
- </thead>
- <tr>
- <td><letteral>'</letteral></td>
- <td><phrase role="IPA">[h]</phrase></td>
- <td><phrase role="X-SAMPA">[h]</phrase></td>
- <td>an unvoiced glottal spirant</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><letteral>,</letteral></td>
- <td>-</td>
- <td>-</td>
- <td>the syllable separator</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><letteral>.</letteral></td>
- <td><phrase role="IPA">[ʔ]</phrase></td>
- <td><phrase role="X-SAMPA">[?]</phrase></td>
- <td>a glottal stop or a pause</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><letteral>a</letteral></td>
- <td><phrase role="IPA">[a]</phrase>, <phrase role="IPA">[ɑ]</phrase>
- </td>
- <td><phrase role="X-SAMPA">[a]</phrase>, <phrase role="X-SAMPA">[A]</phrase>
- </td>
- <td>an open vowel</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><letteral>b</letteral></td>
- <td><phrase role="IPA">[b]</phrase></td>
- <td><phrase role="X-SAMPA">[b]</phrase></td>
- <td>a voiced bilabial stop</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><letteral>c</letteral></td>
- <td><phrase role="IPA">[ʃ]</phrase>, <phrase role="IPA">[ʂ]</phrase>
- </td>
- <td><phrase role="X-SAMPA">[S]</phrase>, <phrase role="X-SAMPA">[s`]</phrase>
- </td>
- <td>an unvoiced coronal sibilant</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><letteral>d</letteral></td>
- <td><phrase role="IPA">[d]</phrase></td>
- <td><phrase role="X-SAMPA">[d]</phrase></td>
- <td>a voiced dental/alveolar stop</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><letteral>e</letteral></td>
- <td><phrase role="IPA">[ɛ]</phrase>, <phrase role="IPA">[e]</phrase>
- </td>
- <td><phrase role="X-SAMPA">[E]</phrase>, <phrase role="X-SAMPA">[e]</phrase>
- </td>
- <td>a front mid vowel</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><letteral>f</letteral></td>
- <td><phrase role="IPA">[f]</phrase>, <phrase role="IPA">[ɸ]</phrase>
- </td>
- <td><phrase role="X-SAMPA">[f]</phrase>, <phrase role="X-SAMPA">[p\]</phrase>
- </td>
- <td>an unvoiced labial fricative</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><letteral>g</letteral></td>
- <td><phrase role="IPA">[ɡ]</phrase></td>
- <td><phrase role="X-SAMPA">[g]</phrase></td>
- <td>a voiced velar stop</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><letteral>i</letteral></td>
- <td><phrase role="IPA">[i]</phrase></td>
- <td><phrase role="X-SAMPA">[i]</phrase></td>
- <td>a front close vowel</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><letteral>j</letteral></td>
- <td><phrase role="IPA">[ʒ]</phrase>, <phrase role="IPA">[ʐ]</phrase>
- </td>
- <td><phrase role="X-SAMPA">[Z]</phrase>, <phrase role="X-SAMPA">[z`]</phrase>
- </td>
- <td>a voiced coronal sibilant</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><letteral>k</letteral></td>
- <td><phrase role="IPA">[k]</phrase></td>
- <td><phrase role="X-SAMPA">[k]</phrase></td>
- <td>an unvoiced velar stop</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><letteral>l</letteral></td>
- <td><phrase role="IPA">[l]</phrase>, <phrase role="IPA">[l̩]</phrase>
- </td>
- <td><phrase role="X-SAMPA">[l]</phrase>, <phrase role="X-SAMPA">[l=]</phrase>
- </td>
- <td>a voiced lateral approximant (may be syllabic)</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><letteral>m</letteral></td>
- <td><phrase role="IPA">[m]</phrase>, <phrase role="IPA">[m̩]</phrase>
- </td>
- <td><phrase role="X-SAMPA">[m]</phrase>, <phrase role="X-SAMPA">[m=]</phrase>
- </td>
- <td>a voiced bilabial nasal (may be syllabic)</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><letteral>n</letteral></td>
- <td><phrase role="IPA">[n]</phrase>, <phrase role="IPA">[n̩]</phrase>, <phrase role="IPA">[ŋ]</phrase>, <phrase role="IPA">[ŋ̍]</phrase>
- </td>
- <td><phrase role="X-SAMPA">[n]</phrase>, <phrase role="X-SAMPA">[n=]</phrase>, <phrase role="X-SAMPA">[N]</phrase>, <phrase role="X-SAMPA">[N=]</phrase>
- </td>
- <td>a voiced dental or velar nasal (may be syllabic)</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><letteral>o</letteral></td>
- <td><phrase role="IPA">[o]</phrase>, <phrase role="IPA">[ɔ]</phrase>
- </td>
- <td><phrase role="X-SAMPA">[o]</phrase>, <phrase role="X-SAMPA">[O]</phrase>
- </td>
- <td>a back mid vowel</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><letteral>p</letteral></td>
- <td><phrase role="IPA">[p]</phrase></td>
- <td><phrase role="X-SAMPA">[p]</phrase></td>
- <td>an unvoiced bilabial stop</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><letteral>r</letteral></td>
- <td><phrase role="IPA">[r]</phrase>, <phrase role="IPA">[ɹ]</phrase>, <phrase role="IPA">[ɾ]</phrase>, <phrase role="IPA">[ʀ]</phrase>, <phrase role="IPA">[r̩]</phrase>, <phrase role="IPA">[ɹ̩]</phrase>, <phrase role="IPA">[ɾ̩]</phrase>, <phrase role="IPA">[ʀ̩]</phrase>
- </td>
- <td><phrase role="X-SAMPA">[r]</phrase>, <phrase role="X-SAMPA">[r\]</phrase>, <phrase role="X-SAMPA">[4]</phrase>, <phrase role="X-SAMPA">[R\]</phrase>, <phrase role="X-SAMPA">[r=]</phrase>, <phrase role="X-SAMPA">[r\=]</phrase>, <phrase role="X-SAMPA">[4=]</phrase>, <phrase role="X-SAMPA">[R\=]</phrase>
- </td>
- <td>a rhotic sound</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><letteral>s</letteral></td>
- <td><phrase role="IPA">[s]</phrase></td>
- <td><phrase role="X-SAMPA">[s]</phrase></td>
- <td>an unvoiced alveolar sibilant</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><letteral>t</letteral></td>
- <td><phrase role="IPA">[t]</phrase></td>
- <td><phrase role="X-SAMPA">[t]</phrase></td>
- <td>an unvoiced dental/alveolar stop</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><letteral>u</letteral></td>
- <td><phrase role="IPA">[u]</phrase></td>
- <td><phrase role="X-SAMPA">[u]</phrase></td>
- <td>a back close vowel</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><letteral>v</letteral></td>
- <td><phrase role="IPA">[v]</phrase>, <phrase role="IPA">[β]</phrase>
- </td>
- <td><phrase role="X-SAMPA">[v]</phrase>, <phrase role="X-SAMPA">[B]</phrase>
- </td>
- <td>a voiced labial fricative</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><letteral>x</letteral></td>
- <td><phrase role="IPA">[x]</phrase></td>
- <td><phrase role="X-SAMPA">[x]</phrase></td>
- <td>an unvoiced velar fricative</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><letteral>y</letteral></td>
- <td><phrase role="IPA">[ə]</phrase></td>
- <td><phrase role="X-SAMPA">[@]</phrase></td>
- <td>a central mid vowel</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><letteral>z</letteral></td>
- <td><phrase role="IPA">[z]</phrase></td>
- <td><phrase role="X-SAMPA">[z]</phrase></td>
- <td>a voiced alveolar sibilant</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sounds</primary><secondary>clarity of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>clarity of sounds</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Lojban letters</primary><secondary>list with IPA pronunciation</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Lojban letters</primary><secondary>IPA for pronouncing</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pronunciation</primary><secondary>IPA for Lojban</secondary></indexterm> The Lojban sounds must be clearly pronounced so that they are not mistaken for each other. Voicing and placement of the tongue are the key factors in correct pronunciation, but other subtle differences will develop between consonants in a Lojban-speaking community. At this point these are the only mandatory rules on the range of sounds.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rounded/unrounded vowels</primary></indexterm> Note in particular that Lojban vowels can be pronounced with either rounded or unrounded lips; typically
- <letteral>o</letteral> and
- <letteral>u</letteral> are rounded and the others are not, as in English, but this is not a requirement; some people round
- <letteral>y</letteral> as well. Lojban consonants can be aspirated or unaspirated. Palatalizing of consonants, as found in Russian and other languages, is not generally acceptable in pronunciation, though a following
- <letteral>i</letteral> may cause it.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sounds for letters</primary><secondary>Lojban contrasted with English</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sounds</primary><secondary>difficult</secondary></indexterm> The sounds represented by the letters
- <letteral>c</letteral>,
- <letteral>g</letteral>,
- <letteral>j</letteral>,
- <letteral>s</letteral>, and
- <letteral>x</letteral> require special attention for speakers of English, either because they are ambiguous in the orthography of English (
-
- <letteral>c</letteral>,
- <letteral>g</letteral>,
- <letteral>s</letteral>), or because they are strikingly different in Lojban (
- <letteral>c</letteral>,
- <letteral>j</letteral>,
- <letteral>x</letteral>). The English
- <quote>c</quote> represents three different sounds,
- <phrase role="IPA">[k]</phrase> in
- <quote>cat</quote> and
- <phrase role="IPA">[s]</phrase> in
- <quote>cent</quote>, as well as the
- <phrase role="IPA">[ʃ]</phrase> of
- <quote>ocean</quote>. Similarly, English
- <quote>g</quote> can represent
- <phrase role="IPA">[ɡ]</phrase> as in
- <quote>go</quote>,
- <phrase role="IPA">[dʒ]</phrase> as in
- <quote>gentle</quote>, and
- <phrase role="IPA">[ʒ]</phrase> as in the second "g" in
- <quote>garage</quote> (in some pronunciations). English
- <quote>s</quote> can be either
- <phrase role="IPA">[s]</phrase> as in
- <quote>cats</quote>,
- <phrase role="IPA">[z]</phrase> as in
- <quote>cards</quote>,
- <phrase role="IPA">[ʃ]</phrase> as in
- <quote>tension</quote>, or
- <phrase role="IPA">[ʒ]</phrase> as in
- <quote>measure</quote>. The sound of Lojban
- <letteral>x</letteral> doesn't appear in most English dialects at all.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>j-sound in English</primary><secondary>representation in Lojban</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ch-sound in English</primary><secondary>representation in Lojban</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ts-sound in Russian</primary><secondary>representation in Lojban</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sounds</primary><secondary>complex</secondary></indexterm> There are two common English sounds that are found in Lojban but are not Lojban consonants: the
- <quote>ch</quote> of
- <quote>church</quote> and the
- <quote>j</quote> of
- <quote>judge</quote>. In Lojban, these are considered two consonant sounds spoken together without an intervening vowel sound, and so are represented in Lojban by the two separate consonants:
- <morphology>tc</morphology> (IPA
- <phrase role="IPA">[tʃ]</phrase>) and
- <morphology>dj</morphology> (IPA
- <phrase role="IPA">[dʒ]</phrase>). In general, whether a complex sound is considered one sound or two depends on the language: Russian views
- <quote>ts</quote> as a single sound, whereas English, French, and Lojban consider it to be a consonant cluster.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-lojban-characters">
- <title>The Special Lojban Characters</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>characters</primary><secondary>special</secondary></indexterm> The apostrophe, period, and comma need special attention. They are all used as indicators of a division between syllables, but each has a different pronunciation, and each is used for different reasons:</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>apostrophe</primary><secondary>type of letter in word-formation</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>' symbol</primary><secondary>definition (see also apostrophe)</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>apostrophe</primary><secondary>definition of</secondary></indexterm> The apostrophe represents a phoneme similar to a short, breathy English
- <quote>h</quote>, (IPA
- <phrase role="IPA">[h]</phrase>). The letter
- <quote>h</quote> is not used to represent this sound for two reasons: primarily in order to simplify explanations of the morphology, but also because the sound is very common, and the apostrophe is a visually lightweight representation of it. The apostrophe sound is a consonant in nature, but is not treated as either a consonant or a vowel for purposes of Lojban morphology (word-formation), which is explained in
- <xref linkend="chapter-morphology"/>. In addition, the apostrophe visually parallels the comma and the period, which are also used (in different ways) to separate syllables.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>unvoiced vowel glide</primary><secondary>apostrophe as</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>apostrophe</primary><secondary>purpose of</secondary></indexterm> The apostrophe is included in Lojban only to enable a smooth transition between vowels, while joining the vowels within a single word. In fact, one way to think of the apostrophe is as representing an unvoiced vowel glide.</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>apostrophe</primary><secondary>variant of</secondary></indexterm> As a permitted variant, any unvoiced fricative other than those already used in Lojban may be used to render the apostrophe: IPA
- <phrase role="IPA">[θ]</phrase> is one possibility. The convenience of the listener should be regarded as paramount in deciding to use a substitute for
- <phrase role="IPA">[h]</phrase>.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pause</primary><secondary>representation of in Lojban</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>glottal stop</primary><secondary>as pause in Lojban</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>period</primary><secondary>definition of</secondary></indexterm> The period represents a mandatory pause, with no specified length; a glottal stop (IPA
-
- <phrase role="IPA">[ʔ]</phrase>) is considered a pause of shortest length. A pause (or glottal stop) may appear between any two words, and in certain cases – explained in detail in
-
- <xref linkend="section-pauses"/> – must occur. In particular, a word beginning with a vowel is always preceded by a pause, and a word ending in a consonant is always followed by a pause.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>period</primary><secondary>optional</secondary></indexterm> Technically, the period is an optional reminder to the reader of a mandatory pause that is dictated by the rules of the language; because these rules are unambiguous, a missing period can be inferred from otherwise correct text. Periods are included only as an aid to the reader.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>period</primary><secondary>within a word</secondary></indexterm> A period also may be found apparently embedded in a word. When this occurs, such a written string is not one word but two, written together to indicate that the writer intends a unitary meaning for the compound. It is not really necessary to use a space between words if a period appears.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pause</primary><secondary>contrasted with syllable break</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>syllable break</primary><secondary>contrasted with pause</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>syllable break</primary><secondary>representation in Lojban</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>comma</primary><secondary>definition of</secondary></indexterm> The comma is used to indicate a syllable break within a word, generally one that is not obvious to the reader. Such a comma is written to separate syllables, but indicates that there must be no pause between them, in contrast to the period. Between two vowels, a comma indicates that some type of glide may be necessary to avoid a pause that would split the two syllables into separate words. It is always legal to use the apostrophe (IPA
-
- <phrase role="IPA">[h]</phrase>) sound in pronouncing a comma. However, a comma cannot be pronounced as a pause or glottal stop between the two letters separated by the comma, because that pronunciation would split the word into two words.</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>comma</primary><secondary>optional</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>comma</primary><secondary>main use of</secondary></indexterm> Otherwise, a comma is usually only used to clarify the presence of syllabic
- <letteral>l</letteral>,
- <letteral>m</letteral>,
- <letteral>n</letteral>, or
- <letteral>r</letteral> (discussed later). Commas are never required: no two Lojban words differ solely because of the presence or placement of a comma.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>period</primary><secondary>example of</secondary></indexterm> Here is a somewhat artificial example of the difference in pronunciation between periods, commas and apostrophes. In the English song about Old MacDonald's Farm, the vowel string which is written as
- <quote>ee-i-ee-i-o</quote> in English could be Lojbanized with periods as:</para>
- <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k2B4">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>Old McDonald</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c3e3d1"/>
- </title>
- <pronunciation>
- <jbo>.i.ai.i.ai.o</jbo>
- <ipa>[ʔi ʔaj ʔi ʔaj ʔo]</ipa>
- <natlang>Ee! Eye! Ee! Eye! Oh!</natlang>
- </pronunciation>
- </example>
- <para>However, this would sound clipped, staccato, and unmusical compared to the English. Furthermore, although
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-k2B4"/> is a string of meaningful Lojban words, as a sentence it makes very little sense. (Note the use of periods embedded within the written word.)</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>comma</primary><secondary>example of</secondary></indexterm> If commas were used instead of periods, we could represent the English string as a Lojbanized name, ending in a consonant:</para>
- <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k2b9">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c3e3d2"/>
- </title>
- <pronunciation>
- <jbo>.i,ai,i,ai,on.</jbo>
- <ipa>[ʔi jaj ji jaj jonʔ]</ipa>
- </pronunciation>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>comma</primary><secondary>variant of</secondary></indexterm> The commas represent new syllable breaks, but prohibit the use of pauses or glottal stop. The pronunciation shown is just one possibility, but closely parallels the intended English pronunciation.</para>
-
- <para>However, the use of commas in this way is risky to unambiguous interpretation, since the glides might be heard by some listeners as diphthongs, producing something like</para>
- <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-dQfn">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c3e3d3"/>
- </title>
- <pronunciation>
- <jbo>.i,iai,ii,iai,ion.</jbo>
- </pronunciation>
- </example>
- <para>which is technically a different Lojban name. Since the intent with Lojbanized names is to allow them to be pronounced more like their native counterparts, the comma is allowed to represent vowel glides or some non-Lojbanic sound. Such an exception affects only spelling accuracy and the ability of a reader to replicate the desired pronunciation exactly; it will not affect the recognition of word boundaries.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>apostrophe</primary><secondary>as preferable over comma in names</secondary></indexterm> Still, it is better if Lojbanized names are always distinct. Therefore, the apostrophe is preferred in regular Lojbanized names that are not attempting to simulate a non-Lojban pronunciation perfectly. (Perfection, in any event, is not really achievable, because some sounds simply lack reasonable Lojbanic counterparts.)</para>
- <para>If apostrophes were used instead of commas in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-k2b9"/>, it would appear as:</para>
- <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k2bc">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c3e3d4"/>
- </title>
- <pronunciation>
- <jbo>.i'ai'i'ai'on.</jbo>
- <ipa>[ʔi hai hi hai honʔ]</ipa>
- </pronunciation>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>apostrophe</primary><secondary>example of</secondary></indexterm> which preserves the rhythm and length, if not the exact sounds, of the original English.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-diphthongs">
- <title>Diphthongs and Syllabic Consonants</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>diphthongs</primary><secondary>definition of</secondary></indexterm> There exist 16 diphthongs in the Lojban language. A diphthong is a vowel sound that consists of two elements, a short vowel sound and a glide, either a labial (IPA
- <phrase role="IPA">[w]</phrase>) or palatal (IPA
- <phrase role="IPA">[j]</phrase>) glide, that either precedes (an on-glide) or follows (an off-glide) the main vowel. Diphthongs always constitute a single syllable.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vowels</primary><secondary>contrasted with consonants</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>consonants</primary><secondary>contrasted with vowels</secondary></indexterm> For Lojban purposes, a vowel sound is a relatively long speech-sound that forms the nucleus of a syllable. Consonant sounds are relatively brief and normally require an accompanying vowel sound in order to be audible. Consonants may occur at the beginning or end of a syllable, around the vowel, and there may be several consonants in a cluster in either position. Each separate vowel sound constitutes a distinct syllable; consonant sounds do not affect the determination of syllables.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vowels</primary><secondary>definition of</secondary></indexterm> The six Lojban vowels are
- <letteral>a</letteral>,
- <letteral>e</letteral>,
- <letteral>i</letteral>,
- <letteral>o</letteral>,
- <letteral>u</letteral>, and
- <letteral>y</letteral>. The first five vowels appear freely in all kinds of Lojban words. The vowel
- <letteral>y</letteral> has a limited distribution: it appears only in Lojbanized names, in the Lojban names of the letters of the alphabet, as a glue vowel in compound words, and standing alone as a space-filler word (like English
-
- <quote>uh</quote> or
- <quote>er</quote>).</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>diphthongs</primary><secondary>list of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>diphthongs</primary><secondary>IPA for</secondary></indexterm> The Lojban diphthongs are shown in the table below. (Variant pronunciations have been omitted, but are much as one would expect based on the variant pronunciations of the separate vowel letters:
- <diphthong>ai</diphthong> may be pronounced
- <phrase role="IPA">[ɑj]</phrase>, for example.)</para>
- <informaltable>
- <thead>
- <tr>
- <td>Letters</td>
- <td>IPA</td>
- <td>Description</td>
- </tr>
- </thead>
- <!-- found the first row of the very first table pasted here for some reason; if you find anything funny going on that may have to do with it -->
- <tr>
- <td><diphthong>ai</diphthong></td>
- <td><phrase role="IPA">[aj]</phrase></td>
- <td>an open vowel with palatal off-glide</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><diphthong>ei</diphthong></td>
- <td><phrase role="IPA">[ɛj]</phrase></td>
- <td>a front mid vowel with palatal off-glide</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><diphthong>oi</diphthong></td>
- <td><phrase role="IPA">[oj]</phrase></td>
- <td>a back mid vowel with palatal off-glide</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><diphthong>au</diphthong></td>
- <td><phrase role="IPA">[aw]</phrase></td>
- <td>an open vowel with labial off-glide</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><diphthong>ia</diphthong></td>
- <td><phrase role="IPA">[ja]</phrase></td>
- <td>an open vowel with palatal on-glide</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><diphthong>ie</diphthong></td>
- <td><phrase role="IPA">[jɛ]</phrase></td>
- <td>a front mid vowel with palatal on-glide</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><diphthong>ii</diphthong></td>
- <td><phrase role="IPA">[ji]</phrase></td>
- <td>a front close vowel with palatal on-glide</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><diphthong>io</diphthong></td>
- <td><phrase role="IPA">[jo]</phrase></td>
- <td>a back mid vowel with palatal on-glide</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><diphthong>iu</diphthong></td>
- <td><phrase role="IPA">[ju]</phrase></td>
- <td>a back close vowel with palatal on-glide</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><diphthong>ua</diphthong></td>
- <td><phrase role="IPA">[wa]</phrase></td>
- <td>an open vowel with labial on-glide</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><diphthong>ue</diphthong></td>
- <td><phrase role="IPA">[wɛ]</phrase></td>
- <td>a front mid vowel with labial on-glide</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><diphthong>ui</diphthong></td>
- <td><phrase role="IPA">[wi]</phrase></td>
- <td>a front close vowel with labial on-glide</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><diphthong>uo</diphthong></td>
- <td><phrase role="IPA">[wo]</phrase></td>
- <td>a back mid vowel with labial on-glide</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><diphthong>uu</diphthong></td>
- <td><phrase role="IPA">[wu]</phrase></td>
- <td>a back close vowel with labial on-glide</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><diphthong>iy</diphthong></td>
- <td><phrase role="IPA">[jə]</phrase></td>
- <td>a central mid vowel with palatal on-glide</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><diphthong>uy</diphthong></td>
- <td><phrase role="IPA">[wə]</phrase></td>
- <td>a central mid vowel with labial on-glide</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <para>(Approximate English equivalents of most of these diphthongs exist: see
- <xref linkend="section-anglophone-diphthongs"/> for examples.)</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>diphthongs</primary><secondary>classification of</secondary></indexterm> The first four diphthongs above (
- <diphthong>ai</diphthong>,
- <diphthong>ei</diphthong>,
- <diphthong>oi</diphthong>, and
- <diphthong>au</diphthong>, the ones with off-glides) are freely used in most types of Lojban words; the ten following ones are used only as stand-alone words and in Lojbanized names and borrowings; and the last two (
-
- <diphthong>iy</diphthong> and
- <diphthong>uy</diphthong>) are used only in Lojbanized names.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>syllabic consonants</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>consonants</primary><secondary>syllabic</secondary></indexterm> The syllabic consonants of Lojban,
-
- <phrase role="IPA">[l̩]</phrase>,
- <phrase role="IPA">[m̩]</phrase>,
- <phrase role="IPA">[n̩]</phrase>, and
- <phrase role="IPA">[r̩]</phrase>, are variants of the non-syllabic
- <phrase role="IPA">[l]</phrase>,
- <phrase role="IPA">[m]</phrase>,
- <phrase role="IPA">[n]</phrase>, and
- <phrase role="IPA">[r]</phrase> respectively. They normally have only a limited distribution, appearing in Lojban names and borrowings, although in principle any
-
- <letteral>l</letteral>,
- <letteral>m</letteral>,
- <letteral>n</letteral>, or
- <letteral>r</letteral> may be pronounced syllabically. If a syllabic consonant appears next to a
-
- <letteral>l</letteral>,
- <letteral>m</letteral>,
- <letteral>n</letteral>, or
- <letteral>r</letteral> that is not syllabic, it may not be clear which is which:</para>
- <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k2CE">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c3e4d1"/>
- </title>
- <pronunciation>
- <jbo>brlgan.</jbo>
- <ipa>[br̩l gan]</ipa>
- or <!--FIXME: this gets deleted-->
- <ipa>[brl̩ gan]</ipa>
- </pronunciation>
- </example>
- <para>is a hypothetical Lojbanized name with more than one valid pronunciation; however it is pronounced, it remains the same word.</para>
- <para>
-
-<indexterm type="general"><primary>Earl</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
- <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>syllabic consonants</primary><secondary>final in word</secondary></indexterm> Syllabic consonants are treated as consonants rather than vowels from the standpoint of Lojban morphology. Thus Lojbanized names, which are generally required to end in a consonant, are allowed to end with a syllabic consonant. An example is
-
- <cmevla>rl.</cmevla>, which is an approximation of the English name
- <quote>Earl</quote>, and has two syllabic consonants.</para>
-
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>syllabic consonants</primary><secondary>effect on stress</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>stress</primary><secondary>effect of syllabic consonants on</secondary></indexterm> Syllables with syllabic consonants and no vowel are never stressed or counted when determining which syllables to stress (see
-
- <xref linkend="section-stress"/>).</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-vowel-pairs">
- <title>Vowel Pairs</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vowel pairs</primary><secondary>use of apostrophe in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>apostrophe</primary><secondary>use in vowel pairs</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vowel pairs</primary><secondary>definition of</secondary></indexterm> Lojban vowels also occur in pairs, where each vowel sound is in a separate syllable. These two vowel sounds are connected (and separated) by an apostrophe. Lojban vowel pairs should be pronounced continuously with the
-
- <phrase role="IPA">[h]</phrase> sound between (and not by a glottal stop or pause, which would split the two vowels into separate words).</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>diphthongs</primary><secondary>contrasted with vowel pairs</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vowel pairs</primary><secondary>contrasted with diphthongs</secondary></indexterm> All vowel combinations are permitted in two-syllable pairs with the apostrophe separating them; this includes those which constitute diphthongs when the apostrophe is not included.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vowel pairs</primary><secondary>list of</secondary></indexterm> The Lojban vowel pairs are:</para>
-
- <simplelist type="horiz" columns="6">
- <member><morphology>a'a</morphology></member>
- <member><morphology>a'e</morphology></member>
- <member><morphology>a'i</morphology></member>
- <member><morphology>a'o</morphology></member>
- <member><morphology>a'u</morphology></member>
- <member><morphology>a'y</morphology></member>
-
-
-
- <member><morphology>e'a</morphology></member>
- <member><morphology>e'e</morphology></member>
- <member><morphology>e'i</morphology></member>
- <member><morphology>e'o</morphology></member>
- <member><morphology>e'u</morphology></member>
- <member><morphology>e'y</morphology></member>
-
-
-
- <member><morphology>i'a</morphology></member>
- <member><morphology>i'e</morphology></member>
- <member><morphology>i'i</morphology></member>
- <member><morphology>i'o</morphology></member>
- <member><morphology>i'u</morphology></member>
- <member><morphology>i'y</morphology></member>
-
- <member><morphology>o'a</morphology></member>
- <member><morphology>o'e</morphology></member>
- <member><morphology>o'i</morphology></member>
- <member><morphology>o'o</morphology></member>
- <member><morphology>o'u</morphology></member>
- <member><morphology>o'y</morphology></member>
-
-
- <member><morphology>u'a</morphology></member>
- <member><morphology>u'e</morphology></member>
- <member><morphology>u'i</morphology></member>
- <member><morphology>u'o</morphology></member>
- <member><morphology>u'u</morphology></member>
- <member><morphology>u'y</morphology></member>
-
- <member><morphology>y'a</morphology></member>
- <member><morphology>y'e</morphology></member>
- <member><morphology>y'i</morphology></member>
- <member><morphology>y'o</morphology></member>
- <member><morphology>y'u</morphology></member>
- <member><morphology>y'y</morphology></member>
- </simplelist>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vowel pairs</primary><secondary>involving y</secondary></indexterm> Vowel pairs involving
- <letteral>y</letteral> appear only in Lojbanized names. They could appear in cmavo (structure words), but only
-
- <valsi>.y'y.</valsi> is so used – it is the Lojban name of the apostrophe letter (see
- <xref linkend="section-lerfu-liste"/>).</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vowel pairs</primary><secondary>grouping of</secondary></indexterm> When more than two vowels occur together in Lojban, the normal pronunciation pairs vowels from the left into syllables, as in the Lojbanized name:</para>
- <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-RxtI">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c3e5d1"/>
- </title>
- <pronunciation>
- <jbo>meiin.</jbo>
- <jbo role="pronunciation">mei,in.</jbo>
- </pronunciation>
- </example>
- <para>
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-RxtI"/> contains the diphthong
- <diphthong>ei</diphthong> followed by the vowel
- <letteral>i</letteral>. In order to indicate a different grouping, the comma must always be used, leading to:</para>
- <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-H0wB">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c3e5d2"/>
- </title>
- <pronunciation>
- <jbo role="pronunciation">me,iin.</jbo>
- </pronunciation>
- </example>
- <para>which contains the vowel
- <letteral>e</letteral> followed by the diphthong
- <diphthong>ii</diphthong>. In rough English representation,
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-RxtI"/> is
- <quote>May Een</quote>, whereas
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-H0wB"/> is
- <quote>Meh Yeen</quote>.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-clusters">
- <title>Consonant Clusters</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>consonant</primary><secondary>effect on syllable count</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>consonant</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> A consonant sound is a relatively brief speech-sound that precedes or follows a vowel sound in a syllable; its presence either preceding or following does not add to the count of syllables, nor is a consonant required in either position for any syllable. Lojban has seventeen consonants: for the purposes of this section, the apostrophe is not counted as a consonant.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>consonants</primary><secondary>voicing of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>consonants</primary><secondary>voiced/unvoiced equivalents</secondary></indexterm> An important distinction dividing Lojban consonants is that of voicing. The following table shows the unvoiced consonants and the corresponding voiced ones:</para>
-
- <informaltable>
- <thead>
- <tr>
- <td>UNVOICED</td>
- <td>VOICED</td>
- </tr>
- </thead>
- <tr>
- <td><letteral>p</letteral></td>
- <td><letteral>b</letteral></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><letteral>t</letteral></td>
- <td><letteral>d</letteral></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><letteral>k</letteral></td>
- <td><letteral>g</letteral></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><letteral>f</letteral></td>
- <td><letteral>v</letteral></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><letteral>c</letteral></td>
- <td><letteral>j</letteral></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><letteral>s</letteral></td>
- <td><letteral>z</letteral></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><letteral>x</letteral></td>
- <td>-</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <para>The consonant
- <letteral>x</letteral> has no voiced counterpart in Lojban. The remaining consonants,
- <letteral>l</letteral>,
- <letteral>m</letteral>,
- <letteral>n</letteral>, and
- <letteral>r</letteral>, are typically pronounced with voice, but can be pronounced unvoiced.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>consonant clusters</primary><secondary>contrasted with single consonants</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>consonant clusters</primary><secondary>contrasted with doubled consonants</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>doubled consonants</primary><secondary>contrasted with consonant clusters</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>doubled consonants</primary><secondary>contrasted with single consonants</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>single consonants</primary><secondary>contrasted with consonant clusters</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>single consonants</primary><secondary>contrasted with doubled consonants</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>consonant clusters</primary><secondary>definition of</secondary></indexterm> Consonant sounds occur in languages as single consonants, or as doubled, or as clustered combinations. Single consonant sounds are isolated by word boundaries or by intervening vowel sounds from other consonant sounds. Doubled consonant sounds are either lengthened like
- <phrase role="IPA">[s]</phrase> in English
- <quote>hiss</quote>, or repeated like
- <phrase role="IPA">[k]</phrase> in English
- <quote>backcourt</quote>. Consonant clusters consist of two or more single or doubled consonant sounds in a group, each of which is different from its immediate neighbor. In Lojban, doubled consonants are excluded altogether, and clusters are limited to two or three members, except in Lojbanized names.</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>consonants</primary><secondary>position of</secondary></indexterm> Consonants can occur in three positions in words: initial (at the beginning), medial (in the middle), and final (at the end). In many languages, the sound of a consonant varies depending upon its position in the word. In Lojban, as much as possible, the sound of a consonant is unrelated to its position. In particular, the common American English trait of changing a
- <quote>t</quote> between vowels into a
- <quote>d</quote> or even an alveolar tap (IPA
- <phrase role="IPA">[ɾ]</phrase>) is unacceptable in Lojban.
- </para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>consonants</primary><secondary>final</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>consonants</primary><secondary>restrictions on</secondary></indexterm> Lojban imposes no restrictions on the appearance of single consonants in any valid consonant position; however, no consonant (including syllabic consonants) occurs final in a word except in Lojbanized names.</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>consonant pairs</primary><secondary>restrictions on</secondary></indexterm> Pairs of consonants can also appear freely, with the following restrictions:</para>
- <orderedlist>
- <listitem>
- <para>It is forbidden for both consonants to be the same, as this would violate the rule against double consonants.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>voiced/unvoiced consonants</primary><secondary>restrictions on</secondary></indexterm> It is forbidden for one consonant to be voiced and the other unvoiced. The consonants
- <letteral>l</letteral>,
- <letteral>m</letteral>,
- <letteral>n</letteral>, and
- <letteral>r</letteral> are exempt from this restriction. As a result,
- <morphology>bf</morphology> is forbidden, and so is
- <morphology>sd</morphology>, but both
- <morphology>fl</morphology> and
- <morphology>vl</morphology>, and both
- <morphology>ls</morphology> and
- <morphology>lz</morphology>, are permitted.
- </para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>It is forbidden for both consonants to be drawn from the set
- <letteral>c</letteral>,
- <letteral>j</letteral>,
- <letteral>s</letteral>,
- <letteral>z</letteral>.
- </para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>The specific pairs
- <morphology>cx</morphology>,
- <morphology>kx</morphology>,
- <morphology>xc</morphology>,
- <morphology>xk</morphology>, and
- <morphology>mz</morphology> are forbidden.
- </para>
- </listitem>
- </orderedlist>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>y</primary><secondary>use in avoiding forbidden consonant pairs</secondary></indexterm> These rules apply to all kinds of words, even Lojbanized names. If a name would normally contain a forbidden consonant pair, a
- <letteral>y</letteral> can be inserted to break up the pair:
- </para>
- <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k2cK">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>James</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c3e6d1"/>
- </title>
- <pronunciation>
- <jbo>djeimyz.</jbo>
- <ipa>[dʒɛj məzʔ]</ipa>
- <natlang>James</natlang>
- </pronunciation>
- </example>
- <para>The regular English pronunciation of
- <quote>James</quote>, which is
- <phrase role="IPA">[dʒɛjmz]</phrase>, would Lojbanize as
- <cmevla valid="false">djeimz.</cmevla>, which contains a forbidden consonant pair.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-initial-pairs">
- <title>Initial Consonant Pairs</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>consonant pairs</primary><secondary>initial</secondary></indexterm> The set of consonant pairs that may appear at the beginning of a word (excluding Lojbanized names) is far more restricted than the fairly large group of permissible consonant pairs described in
-
- <xref linkend="section-clusters"/>. Even so, it is more than English allows, although hopefully not more than English-speakers (and others) can learn to pronounce.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>initial consonant pairs</primary><secondary>list of</secondary></indexterm> There are just 48 such permissible initial consonant pairs, as follows:</para>
- <informaltable>
- <tr>
- <td><morphology>bl</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>br</morphology></td>
- <td/>
- <td/>
- <td/>
- <td/>
- <td/>
- <td/>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><morphology>cf</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>ck</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>cl</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>cm</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>cn</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>cp</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>cr</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>ct</morphology></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><morphology>dj</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>dr</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>dz</morphology></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><morphology>fl</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>fr</morphology></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><morphology>gl</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>gr</morphology></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><morphology>jb</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>jd</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>jg</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>jm</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>jv</morphology></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><morphology>kl</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>kr</morphology></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><morphology>ml</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>mr</morphology></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><morphology>pl</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>pr</morphology></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><morphology>sf</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>sk</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>sl</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>sm</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>sn</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>sp</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>sr</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>st</morphology></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><morphology>tc</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>tr</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>ts</morphology></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><morphology>vl</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>vr</morphology></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><morphology>xl</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>xr</morphology></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><morphology>zb</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>zd</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>zg</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>zm</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>zv</morphology></td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <para>Lest this list seem almost random, a pairing of voiced and unvoiced equivalent vowels will show significant patterns which may help in learning:</para>
- <informaltable>
- <tr>
- <td><morphology>pl</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>pr</morphology></td>
- <td/>
- <td/>
- <td/>
- <td/>
- <td/>
- <td/>
- <td/>
- <td/>
- <td><morphology>fl</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>fr</morphology></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><morphology>bl</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>br</morphology></td>
- <td/>
- <td/>
- <td/>
- <td/>
- <td/>
- <td/>
- <td/>
- <td/>
- <td><morphology>vl</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>vr</morphology></td>
- </tr>
-
- <tr><td><para/></td></tr>
-
- <tr>
- <td><morphology>cp</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>cf</morphology></td>
- <td/>
- <td/>
- <td><morphology>ct</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>ck</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>cm</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>cn</morphology></td>
- <td/>
- <td/>
- <td><morphology>cl</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>cr</morphology></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><morphology>jb</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>jv</morphology></td>
- <td/>
- <td/>
- <td><morphology>jd</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>jg</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>jm</morphology></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><morphology>sp</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>sf</morphology></td>
- <td/>
- <td/>
- <td><morphology>st</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>sk</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>sm</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>sn</morphology></td>
- <td/>
- <td/>
- <td><morphology>sl</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>sr</morphology></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><morphology>zb</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>zv</morphology></td>
- <td/>
- <td/>
- <td><morphology>zd</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>zg</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>zm</morphology></td>
- </tr>
-
- <tr><td><para/></td></tr>
-
- <tr>
- <td><morphology>tc</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>tr</morphology></td>
- <td/>
- <td/>
- <td><morphology>ts</morphology></td>
- <td/>
- <td/>
- <td/>
- <td/>
- <td/>
- <td><morphology>kl</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>kr</morphology></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><morphology>dj</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>dr</morphology></td>
- <td/>
- <td/>
- <td><morphology>dz</morphology></td>
- <td/>
- <td/>
- <td/>
- <td/>
- <td/>
- <td><morphology>gl</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>gr</morphology></td>
- </tr>
-
- <tr><td><para/></td></tr>
-
- <tr>
- <td><morphology>ml</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>mr</morphology></td>
- <td/>
- <td/>
- <td/>
- <td/>
- <td/>
- <td/>
- <td/>
- <td/>
- <td><morphology>xl</morphology></td>
- <td><morphology>xr</morphology></td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>unvoiced consonants</primary><secondary>contrasted with voiced in allowable consonant pairs</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>voiced consonants</primary><secondary>contrasted with unvoiced in allowable consonant pairs</secondary></indexterm> Note that if both consonants of an initial pair are voiced, the unvoiced equivalent is also permissible, and the voiced pair can be pronounced simply by voicing the unvoiced pair. (The converse is not true:
- <morphology>cn</morphology> is a permissible initial pair, but
- <morphology>jn</morphology> is not.)</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>consonant triples</primary></indexterm> Consonant triples can occur medially in Lojban words. They are subject to the following rules:</para>
- <orderedlist>
- <listitem>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>consonant triples</primary><secondary>restrictions on</secondary></indexterm> The first two consonants must constitute a permissible consonant pair;</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>The last two consonants must constitute a permissible initial consonant pair;</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>The triples
- <morphology>ndj</morphology>,
- <morphology>ndz</morphology>,
- <morphology>ntc</morphology>, and
- <morphology>nts</morphology> are forbidden.</para>
- </listitem>
- </orderedlist>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>consonant clusters</primary><secondary>more than three consonants in</secondary></indexterm> Lojbanized names can begin or end with any permissible consonant pair, not just the 48 initial consonant pairs listed above, and can have consonant triples in any location, as long as the pairs making up those triples are permissible. In addition, names can contain consonant clusters with more than three consonants, again requiring that each pair within the cluster is valid.</para>
-
-
-
-
-
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-buffer-vowels">
- <title>Buffering Of Consonant Clusters</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vowel</primary><secondary>buffer</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>buffer vowel</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>consonant clusters</primary><secondary>buffering of</secondary></indexterm> Many languages do not have consonant clusters at all, and even those languages that do have them often allow only a subset of the full Lojban set. As a result, the Lojban design allows the use of a buffer sound between consonant combinations which a speaker finds unpronounceable. This sound may be any non-Lojbanic vowel which is clearly separable by the listener from the Lojban vowels. Some possibilities are IPA
- <phrase role="IPA">[ɪ]</phrase>,
- <phrase role="IPA">[ɨ]</phrase>,
- <phrase role="IPA">[ʊ]</phrase>, or even
- <phrase role="IPA">[ʏ]</phrase>, but there probably is no universally acceptable buffer sound. When using a consonant buffer, the sound should be made as short as possible. Two examples showing such buffering (we will use
- <phrase role="IPA">[ɪ]</phrase> in this chapter) are:</para>
- <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k2dg">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c3e8d1"/>
- </title>
- <pronunciation>
- <jbo>vrusi</jbo>
- <ipa>[ˈvru si]</ipa>
- or <!--FIXME: this gets deleted-->
- <ipa>[vɪ ˈru si]</ipa>
- </pronunciation>
- </example>
- <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k2dI">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c3e8d2"/>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>Amsterdam</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- </title>
- <pronunciation>
- <jbo role="pronunciation">.AMsterdam.</jbo>
- <ipa>[ʔam ster damʔ]</ipa>
- or <!--FIXME: this gets deleted-->
- <ipa>[ˈʔa mɪ sɪ tɛ rɪ da mɪʔ]</ipa>
- </pronunciation>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>stress</primary><secondary>effect of buffer vowel on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>buffer vowel</primary><secondary>and stress</secondary></indexterm> When a buffer vowel is used, it splits each buffered consonant into its own syllable. However, the buffering syllables are never stressed, and are not counted in determining stress. They are, in effect, not really syllables to a Lojban listener, and thus their impact is ignored.</para>
-
- <para>Here are more examples of unbuffered and buffered pronunciations:</para>
- <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k2DT">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c3e8d3"/>
- </title>
- <pronunciation>
- <jbo>klama</jbo>
- <ipa>[ˈkla ma]</ipa>
- <ipa>[kɪ ˈla ma]</ipa>
- </pronunciation>
- </example>
- <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k2Gg">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c3e8d4"/>
- </title>
- <pronunciation>
- <jbo>xapcke</jbo>
- <ipa>[ˈxap ʃkɛ]</ipa>
- <ipa>[ˈxa pɪ ʃkɛ]</ipa>
- <ipa>[ˈxa pɪ ʃɪ kɛ]</ipa>
- </pronunciation>
- </example>
- <para>In
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-k2Gg"/>, we see that buffering vowels can be used in just some, rather than all, of the possible places: the second pronunciation buffers the
- <morphology>pc</morphology> consonant pair but not the
- <morphology>ck</morphology>. The third pronunciation buffers both.</para>
- <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k2hN">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c3e8d5"/>
- </title>
- <pronunciation>
- <jbo>ponyni'u</jbo>
- <ipa>[po nə 'ni hu]</ipa>
- </pronunciation>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>y sound</primary><secondary>contrasted with vowel buffer</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vowel buffer</primary><secondary>contrasted with y sound</secondary></indexterm>
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-k2hN"/> cannot contain any buffering vowel. It is important not to confuse the vowel
- <letteral>y</letteral>, which is pronounced
- <phrase role="IPA">[ə]</phrase>, with the buffer, which has a variety of possible pronunciations and is never written. Consider the contrast between</para>
- <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k2jU">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>bone bread</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c3e8d6"/>
- </title>
- <pronunciation>
- <jbo>bongynanba</jbo>
- <ipa>[boŋ gə ˈnan ba]</ipa>
- </pronunciation>
- </example>
- <para>an unlikely Lojban compound word meaning
- <quote>bone bread</quote> (note the use of
-
- <phrase role="IPA">[ŋ]</phrase> as a representative of
- <letteral>n</letteral> before
- <letteral>g</letteral>) and</para>
- <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k2jv">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c3e8d7"/>
- </title>
- <pronunciation>
- <jbo>bongnanba</jbo>
- <ipa>[boŋ ˈgnan ba]</ipa>
- </pronunciation>
- </example>
- <para>a possible borrowing from another language (Lojban borrowings can only take a limited form). If
-
-
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-k2jv"/> were pronounced with buffering, as</para>
- <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k2Kb">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c3e8d8"/>
- </title>
- <pronunciation>
- <ipa>[boŋ gɪ ˈnan ba]</ipa>
- </pronunciation>
- </example>
- <para>it would be very similar to
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-k2jU"/>. Only a clear distinction between
- <letteral>y</letteral> and any buffering vowel would keep the two words distinct.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>buffer vowel</primary><secondary>shortening of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vowels</primary><secondary>length of</secondary></indexterm> Since buffering is done for the benefit of the speaker in order to aid pronounceability, there is no guarantee that the listener will not mistake a buffer vowel for one of the six regular Lojban vowels. The buffer vowel should be as laxly pronounced as possible, as central as possible, and as short as possible. Furthermore, it is worthwhile for speakers who use buffers to pronounce their regular vowels a bit longer than usual, to avoid confusion with buffer vowels. The speakers of many languages will have trouble correctly hearing any of the suggested buffer vowels otherwise. By this guideline,
-
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-k2Kb"/> would be pronounced</para>
- <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k2oF">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c3e8d9"/>
- </title>
- <pronunciation>
- <ipa>[boːŋ gɪ ˈnaːn baː]</ipa>
- </pronunciation>
- </example>
- <para>with lengthened vowels.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-stress">
- <title>Syllabication And Stress</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>syllabication</primary><secondary>definition of</secondary></indexterm> A Lojban word has one syllable for each of its vowels, diphthongs, and syllabic consonants (referred to simply as
-
- <quote>vowels</quote> for the purposes of this section.) Syllabication rules determine which of the consonants separating two vowels belong to the preceding vowel and which to the following vowel. These rules are conventional only; the phonetic facts of the matter about how utterances are syllabified in any language are always very complex.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>syllabication</primary><secondary>rules for</secondary></indexterm> A single consonant always belongs to the following vowel. A consonant pair is normally divided between the two vowels; however, if the pair constitute a valid initial consonant pair, they are normally both assigned to the following vowel. A consonant triple is divided between the first and second consonants. Apostrophes and commas, of course, also represent syllable breaks. Syllabic consonants usually appear alone in their syllables.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>syllabication</primary><secondary>and names</secondary></indexterm> It is permissible to vary from these rules in Lojbanized names. For example, there are no definitive rules for the syllabication of names with consonant clusters longer than three consonants. The comma is used to indicate variant syllabication or to explicitly mark normal syllabication.</para>
-
-
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>syllabication</primary><secondary>examples of</secondary></indexterm> Here are some examples of Lojban syllabication:</para>
-
- <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-C9tX">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c3e9d1"/>
- </title>
- <pronunciation>
- <jbo>pujenaicajeba</jbo>
- <jbo role="pronunciation">pu,je,nai,ca,je,ba</jbo>
- </pronunciation>
- </example>
- <para>This word has no consonant pairs and is therefore syllabified before each medial consonant.</para>
-
- <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-WfXq">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c3e9d2"/>
- </title>
- <pronunciation>
- <jbo>ninmu</jbo>
- <jbo role="pronunciation">nin,mu</jbo>
- </pronunciation>
- </example>
- <para>This word is split at a consonant pair.</para>
- <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-cwtY">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c3e9d3"/>
- </title>
- <pronunciation>
- <jbo>fitpri</jbo>
- <jbo role="pronunciation">fit,pri</jbo>
- </pronunciation>
- </example>
- <para>This word is split at a consonant triple, between the first two consonants of the triple.</para>
- <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-WHAV">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c3e9d4"/>
- </title>
- <pronunciation>
- <jbo>sairgoi</jbo>
- <jbo role="pronunciation">sair,goi</jbo>
- <jbo role="pronunciation">sai,r,goi</jbo>
-
- </pronunciation>
- </example>
- <para>This word contains the consonant pair
- <morphology>rg</morphology>; the
- <letteral>r</letteral> may be pronounced syllabically or not.</para>
- <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nK5r">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c3e9d5"/>
- </title>
- <pronunciation>
- <jbo>klezba</jbo>
- <jbo role="pronunciation">klez,ba</jbo>
- <jbo role="pronunciation">kle,zba</jbo>
- </pronunciation>
- </example>
- <para>This word contains the permissible initial pair
- <morphology>zb</morphology>, and so may be syllabicated either between
- <letteral>z</letteral> and
- <letteral>b</letteral> or before
- <morphology>zb</morphology>.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>stressed vowel</primary><secondary>compared with stressed syllable</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>stressed syllable</primary><secondary>compared with stressed vowel</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>stress</primary><secondary>definition of</secondary></indexterm> Stress is a relatively louder pronunciation of one syllable in a word or group of words. Since every syllable has a vowel sound (or diphthong or syllabic consonant) as its nucleus, and the stress is on the vowel sound itself, the terms
- <quote>stressed syllable</quote> and
- <quote>stressed vowel</quote> are largely interchangeable concepts.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>stress</primary><secondary>rules for</secondary></indexterm> Most Lojban words are stressed on the next-to-the-last, or penultimate, syllable. In counting syllables, however, syllables whose vowel is
- <letteral>y</letteral> or which contain a syllabic consonant (
-
- <letteral>l</letteral>,
- <letteral>m</letteral>,
- <letteral>n</letteral>, or
- <letteral>r</letteral>) are never counted. (The Lojban term for penultimate stress is
- <jbophrase>da'amoi terbasna</jbophrase>.) Similarly, syllables created solely by adding a buffer vowel, such as
- <phrase role="IPA">[ɪ]</phrase>, are not counted.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>stress</primary><secondary>levels of</secondary></indexterm> There are actually three levels of stress – primary, secondary, and weak. Weak stress is the lowest level, so it really means no stress at all. Weak stress is required for syllables containing
- <letteral>y</letteral>, a syllabic consonant, or a buffer vowel.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>stress on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>brivla</primary><secondary>stress on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmavo</primary><secondary>stress on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>stress</primary><secondary>primary</secondary></indexterm> Primary stress is required on the penultimate syllable of Lojban content words (called
- <valsi>brivla</valsi>). Lojbanized names may be stressed on any syllable, but if a syllable other than the penultimate is stressed, the syllable (or at least its vowel) must be capitalized in writing. Lojban structural words (called
- <valsi>cmavo</valsi>) may be stressed on any syllable or none at all. However, primary stress may not be used in a syllable just preceding a brivla, unless a pause divides them; otherwise, the two words may run together.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>stress</primary><secondary>secondary</secondary></indexterm> Secondary stress is the optional and non-distinctive emphasis used for other syllables besides those required to have either weak or primary stress. There are few rules governing secondary stress, which typically will follow a speaker's native language habits or preferences. Secondary stress can be used for contrast, or for emphasis of a point. Secondary stress can be emphasized at any level up to primary stress, although the speaker must not allow a false primary stress in brivla, since errors in word resolution could result.</para>
- <para> The following are Lojban words with stress explicitly shown:</para>
- <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-cxzt">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c3e9d6"/>
- </title>
- <pronunciation>
- <jbo>dikyjvo</jbo>
- <jbo role="pronunciation">DI,ky,jvo</jbo>
- </pronunciation>
- </example>
- <para>(In a fully-buffered dialect, the pronunciation would be:
- <phrase role="IPA">['di kə ʒɪ vo]</phrase>.) Note that the syllable
- <valsi>ky</valsi> is not counted in determining stress. The vowel
- <letteral>y</letteral> is never stressed in a normal Lojban context.</para>
- <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Sz52">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>Armstrong</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c3e9d7"/>
- </title>
- <pronunciation>
- <jbo>.armstrong.</jbo>
- <jbo role="pronunciation">.ARM,strong.</jbo>
- </pronunciation>
- </example>
- <para>This is a Lojbanized version of the name
- <quote>Armstrong</quote>. The final
-
- <letteral>g</letteral> must be explicitly pronounced. With full buffering, the name would be pronounced:</para>
- <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k2PA">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c3e9d8"/>
- </title>
- <pronunciation>
- <ipa>[ˈʔa rɪ mɪ sɪ tɪ ro nɪ gɪʔ]</ipa>
- </pronunciation>
- </example>
- <para>However, there is no need to insert a buffer in every possible place just because it is inserted in one place: partial buffering is also acceptable. In every case, however, the stress remains in the same place: on the first syllable.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>-ng</primary><secondary>Lojban contrasted with English</secondary></indexterm> The English pronunciation of
- <quote>Armstrong</quote>, as spelled in English, is not correct by Lojban standards; the letters
-
- <quote>ng</quote> in English represent a velar nasal (IPA
- <phrase role="IPA">[ŋ]</phrase>) which is a single consonant. In Lojban,
- <morphology>ng</morphology> represents two separate consonants that must both be pronounced; you may not use
- <phrase role="IPA">[ŋ]</phrase> to pronounce Lojban
- <morphology>ng</morphology>, although
- <phrase role="IPA">[ŋg]</phrase> is acceptable. English speakers are likely to have to pronounce the ending with a buffer, as one of the following:</para>
- <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-k2T5">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c3e9d9"/>
- </title>
- <pronunciation>
- <ipa>[ˈʔarm stron gɪʔ]</ipa>
- or <!--FIXME: this gets deleted-->
- <ipa>[ˈʔarm stroŋ gɪʔ]</ipa>
- or even <!--FIXME: this gets deleted-->
- <ipa>[ˈʔarm stro nɪgʔ]</ipa>
- </pronunciation>
- </example>
- <para>The normal English pronunciation of the name
- <quote>Armstrong</quote> could be Lojbanized as:</para>
-
- <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-vY2y">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c3e9d10"/>
- </title>
- <pronunciation>
- <jbo role="pronunciation">.ARMstron.</jbo>
- </pronunciation>
- </example>
- <para>since Lojban
- <letteral>n</letteral> is allowed to be pronounced as the velar nasal
- <phrase role="IPA">[ŋ]</phrase>.</para>
- <para>Here is another example showing the use of
- <letteral>y</letteral>:</para>
- <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hNb7">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c3e9d11"/>
- </title>
- <pronunciation>
- <jbo>bisydja</jbo>
- <jbo role="pronunciation">BI,sy,dja</jbo>
- <jbo role="pronunciation">BI,syd,ja</jbo>
- </pronunciation>
- </example>
- <para>This word is a compound word, or lujvo, built from the two affixes
- <rafsi>bis</rafsi> and
- <rafsi>dja</rafsi>. When they are joined, an impermissible consonant pair results:
- <morphology>sd</morphology>. In accordance with the algorithm for making lujvo, explained in
- <xref linkend="section-lujvo-making"/>, a
- <letteral>y</letteral> is inserted to separate the impermissible consonant pair; the
- <letteral>y</letteral> is not counted as a syllable for purposes of stress determination.</para>
- <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-5g4j">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c3e9d12"/>
- </title>
- <pronunciation>
- <jbo>da'udja</jbo>
- <jbo role="pronunciation">da'UD,ja</jbo>
- <jbo role="pronunciation">da'U,dja</jbo>
- </pronunciation>
- </example>
- <para> These two syllabications sound the same to a Lojban listener – the association of unbuffered consonants in syllables is of no import in recognizing the word.</para>
- <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Ki4a">
- <title>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>syllabication</primary><secondary>variants of</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c3e9d13"/>
- </title>
- <pronunciation>
- <jbo>e'u bridi</jbo>
- <jbo role="pronunciation">e'u BRI,di</jbo>
- <jbo role="pronunciation">E'u BRI,di</jbo>
- <jbo role="pronunciation">e'U.BRI,di</jbo>
- </pronunciation>
- </example>
- <para>In
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-Ki4a"/>,
- <valsi>e'u</valsi> is a cmavo and
- <valsi>bridi</valsi> is a brivla. Either of the first two pronunciations is permitted: no primary stress on either syllable of
- <valsi>e'u</valsi>, or primary stress on the first syllable. The third pronunciation, which places primary stress on the second syllable of the cmavo, requires that – since the following word is a brivla – the two words must be separated by a pause. Consider the following two cases:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qIXo" role="pronunciation-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c3e9d14"/>
- </title>
- <pronunciation>
- <jbo>le re nobli prenu</jbo>
- <jbo role="pronunciation">le re NObli PREnu</jbo>
- </pronunciation>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qiXR" role="pronunciation-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c3e9d15"/>
- </title>
- <pronunciation>
- <jbo>le re no bliprenu</jbo>
- <jbo role="pronunciation">le re no bliPREnu</jbo>
- </pronunciation>
- </example>
- <para>If the cmavo
- <valsi>no</valsi> in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qiXR"/> were to be stressed, the phrase would sound exactly like the given pronunciation of
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qIXo"/>, which is unacceptable in Lojban: a single pronunciation cannot represent both.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-anglophone-phonetics">
- <title>IPA For English Speakers</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>IPA pronunciation</primary><secondary>description</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>television</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Received Pronunciation</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>General American</primary></indexterm> There are many dialects of English, thus making it difficult to define the standardized symbols of the IPA in terms useful to every reader. All the symbols used in this chapter are repeated here, in more or less alphabetical order, with examples drawn from General American. In addition, some attention is given to the Received Pronunciation of (British) English. These two dialects are referred to as GA and RP respectively. Speakers of other dialects should consult a book on phonetics or their local television sets.</para>
-
-
-
- <variablelist>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase role="IPA">[ˈ]</phrase></term>
- <listitem>
- <para>An IPA indicator of primary stress; the syllable which follows
- <phrase role="IPA">[ˈ]</phrase> receives primary stress.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase role="IPA">[ʔ]</phrase></term>
- <listitem>
- <para>An allowed variant of Lojban
- <letteral>.</letteral>. This sound is not usually considered part of English. It is the catch in your throat that sometimes occurs prior to the beginning of a word (and sometimes a syllable) which starts with a vowel. In some dialects, like Cockney and some kinds of American English, it is used between vowels instead of
- <quote>t</quote>:
- <quote>bottle</quote>
- <phrase role="IPA">[boʔl̩]</phrase>. The English interjection
- <quote>uh-oh!</quote> almost always has it between the syllables.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase role="IPA">[ː]</phrase></term>
- <listitem>
- <para>A symbol indicating that the previous vowel is to be spoken for a longer time than usual. Lojban vowels can be pronounced long in order to make a greater contrast with buffer vowels.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase role="IPA">[a]</phrase></term>
- <listitem>
- <para>The preferred pronunciation of Lojban
- <letteral>a</letteral>. This sound doesn't occur in GA, but sounds somewhat like the
- <quote>ar</quote> of
- <quote>park</quote>, as spoken in RP or New England American. It is pronounced further forward in the mouth than
- <phrase role="IPA">[ɑ]</phrase>.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase role="IPA">[ɑ]</phrase></term>
- <listitem>
- <para>An allowed variant of Lojban
- <letteral>a</letteral>. The
- <quote>a</quote> of GA
- <quote>father</quote>. The sound
- <phrase role="IPA">[a]</phrase> is preferred because GA speakers often relax an unstressed
- <phrase role="IPA">[ɑ]</phrase> into a schwa
- <phrase role="IPA">[ə]</phrase>, as in the usual pronunciations of
- <quote>about</quote> and
- <quote>sofa</quote>. Because schwa is a distinct vowel in Lojban, English speakers must either learn to avoid this shift or to use
- <phrase role="IPA">[a]</phrase> instead: the Lojban word for
- <quote>sofa</quote> is
- <valsi>sfofa</valsi>, pronounced
- <phrase role="IPA">[sfofa]</phrase> or
- <phrase role="IPA">[sfofɑ]</phrase> but never
- <phrase role="IPA">[sfofə]</phrase> which would be the non-word
- <valsi valid="false">sfofy</valsi>.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase role="IPA">[æ]</phrase></term>
- <listitem>
- <para>Not a Lojban sound. The
- <quote>a</quote> of English
- <quote>cat</quote>.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase role="IPA">[b]</phrase></term>
- <listitem>
- <para>The preferred pronunciation of Lojban
- <letteral>b</letteral>. As in English
- <quote>boy</quote>,
- <quote>sober</quote>, or
- <quote>job</quote>.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase role="IPA">[β]</phrase></term>
- <listitem>
- <para>An allowed variant of Lojban
- <letteral>v</letteral>. Not an English sound; the Spanish
- <quote xml:lang="es">b</quote> or
- <quote xml:lang="es">v</quote> between vowels. This sound should not be used for Lojban
- <letteral>b</letteral>.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase role="IPA">[d]</phrase></term>
- <listitem>
- <para>The preferred pronunciation of Lojban
- <letteral>d</letteral>. As in English
- <quote>dog</quote>,
- <quote>soda</quote>, or
- <quote>mad</quote>.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase role="IPA">[ɛ]</phrase></term>
- <listitem>
- <para>The preferred pronunciation of Lojban
- <letteral>e</letteral>. The
- <quote>e</quote> of English
- <quote>met</quote>.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase role="IPA">[e]</phrase></term>
- <listitem>
- <para>An allowed variant of Lojban
- <letteral>e</letteral>. This sound is not found in English, but is the Spanish
- <quote xml:lang="es">e</quote>, or the tense
- <quote xml:lang="it">e</quote> of Italian. The vowel of English
- <quote>say</quote> is similar except for the off-glide: you can learn to make this sound by holding your tongue steady while saying the first part of the English vowel.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase role="IPA">[ə]</phrase></term>
- <listitem>
- <para>The preferred pronunciation of Lojban
- <letteral>y</letteral>. As in the
- <quote>a</quote> of English
- <quote>sofa</quote> or
- <quote>about</quote>. Schwa is generally unstressed in Lojban, as it is in English. It is a totally relaxed sound made with the tongue in the middle of the mouth.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase role="IPA">[f]</phrase></term>
- <listitem>
- <para>The preferred pronunciation of Lojban
- <letteral>f</letteral>. As in
- <quote>fee</quote>,
- <quote>loafer</quote>, or
- <quote>chef</quote>.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase role="IPA">[ɸ]</phrase></term>
- <listitem>
- <para>An allowed variant of Lojban
- <letteral>f</letteral>. Not an English sound; the Japanese
- <!-- if you put xml:lang="ja" here, it tries to render f
- as a japanese character; this does not work well -->
- <quote>f</quote> sound.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase role="IPA">[g]</phrase></term>
- <listitem>
- <para>The preferred pronunciation of Lojban
- <letteral>g</letteral>. As in English
- <quote>go</quote>,
- <quote>eagle</quote>, or
- <quote>dog</quote>.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase role="IPA">[h]</phrase></term>
- <listitem>
- <para>The preferred pronunciation of the Lojban apostrophe sound. As in English
- <quote>aha</quote> or the second "h" in
- <quote>oh, hello</quote>.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase role="IPA">[i]</phrase></term>
- <listitem>
- <para>The preferred pronunciation of Lojban
- <letteral>i</letteral>. Essentially like the English vowel of
- <quote>pizza</quote> or
- <quote>machine</quote>, although the English vowel is sometimes pronounced with an off-glide, which should not be present in Lojban.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase role="IPA">[ɪ]</phrase></term>
- <listitem>
- <para>A possible Lojban buffer vowel. The
-
- <quote>i</quote> of English
- <quote>bit</quote>.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase role="IPA">[ɨ]</phrase></term>
- <listitem>
- <para>A possible Lojban buffer vowel. The
-
- <quote>u</quote> of
- <quote>just</quote> in some varieties of GA, those which make the word sound more or less like
- <quote>jist</quote>. Also Russian
- <quote xml:lang="ru">y</quote> as in
- <quote xml:lang="ru">byt'</quote> (to be); like a schwa
- <phrase role="IPA">[ə]</phrase>, but higher in the mouth.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase role="IPA">[j]</phrase></term>
- <listitem>
- <para>Used in Lojban diphthongs beginning or ending with
- <letteral>i</letteral>. Like the
- <quote>y</quote> in English
- <quote>yard</quote> or
- <quote>say</quote>.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase role="IPA">[k]</phrase></term>
- <listitem>
- <para>The preferred pronunciation of Lojban
- <letteral>k</letteral>. As in English
- <quote>kill</quote>,
- <quote>token</quote>, or
- <quote>flak</quote>.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase role="IPA">[l]</phrase></term>
- <listitem>
- <para>The preferred pronunciation of Lojban
- <letteral>l</letteral>. As in English
- <quote>low</quote>,
- <quote>nylon</quote>, or
- <quote>excel</quote>.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term>[l̩]</term>
- <listitem>
- <para>The syllabic version of Lojban
- <letteral>l</letteral>, as in English
- <quote>bottle</quote> or
- <quote>middle</quote>.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase role="IPA">[m]</phrase></term>
- <listitem>
- <para>The preferred pronunciation of Lojban
- <letteral>m</letteral>. As in English
- <quote>me</quote>,
- <quote>humor</quote>, or
- <quote>ham</quote>.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term>[m̩]</term>
- <listitem>
- <para>The syllabic version of Lojban
- <letteral>m</letteral>. As in English
- <quote>catch 'em</quote> or
- <quote>bottom</quote>.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase role="IPA">[n]</phrase></term>
- <listitem>
- <para>The preferred pronunciation of Lojban
- <letteral>n</letteral>. As in English
- <valsi>no</valsi>,
- <quote>honor</quote>, or
- <quote>son</quote>.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term>[n̩]</term>
- <listitem>
- <para>The syllabic version of Lojban
- <letteral>n</letteral>. As in English
- <quote>button</quote>.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase role="IPA">[ŋ]</phrase></term>
- <listitem>
- <para>An allowed variant of Lojban
- <letteral>n</letteral>, especially in Lojbanized names and before
- <letteral>g</letteral> or
- <letteral>k</letteral>. As in English
- <quote>sing</quote> or
- <quote>singer</quote> (but not
- <quote>finger</quote> or
- <quote>danger</quote>).</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term>[ŋ̍]</term>
- <listitem>
- <para>An allowed variant of Lojban syllabic
- <letteral>n</letteral>, especially in Lojbanized names.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase role="IPA">[o]</phrase></term>
- <listitem>
- <para>The preferred pronunciation of Lojban
- <letteral>o</letteral>. As in the French
- <quote xml:lang="fr">haute (cuisine)</quote> or Spanish
- <quote xml:lang="es">como</quote>. There is no exact English equivalent of this sound. The nearest GA equivalent is the
- <quote>o</quote> of
- <quote>dough</quote> or
- <quote>joke</quote>, but it is essential that the off-glide (a
- <phrase role="IPA">[w]</phrase>-like sound) at the end of the vowel is not pronounced when speaking Lojban. The RP sound in these words is
- <phrase role="IPA">[əw]</phrase> in IPA terms, and has no
- <phrase role="IPA">[o]</phrase> in it at all; unless you can speak with a Scots, Irish, or American accent, you may have trouble with this sound.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase role="IPA">[ɔ]</phrase></term>
- <listitem>
- <para>An allowed variant of Lojban
- <letteral>o</letteral>, especially before
- <letteral>r</letteral>. This sound is a shortened form of the
- <quote>aw</quote> in GA
- <quote>dawn</quote> (for those people who don't pronounce
- <quote>dawn</quote> and
- <quote>Don</quote> alike; if you do, you may have trouble with this sound). In RP, but not GA, it is the
- <quote>o</quote> of
- <quote>hot</quote>.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase role="IPA">[p]</phrase></term>
- <listitem>
- <para>The preferred pronunciation of Lojban
- <letteral>p</letteral>. As in English
- <quote>pay</quote>,
- <quote>super</quote>, or
- <quote>up</quote>.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase role="IPA">[r]</phrase></term>
- <listitem>
- <para>One version of Lojban
- <letteral>r</letteral>. Not an English sound. The Spanish
- <quote xml:lang="es">rr</quote> and the Scots
- <quote>r</quote>, a tongue-tip trill.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase role="IPA">[ɹ]</phrase></term>
- <listitem>
- <para>One version of Lojban
- <letteral>r</letteral>. As in GA
- <quote>right</quote>,
- <quote>baron</quote>, or
- <quote>car</quote>. Not found in RP.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase role="IPA">[ɾ]</phrase></term>
- <listitem>
- <para>One version of Lojban
- <letteral>r</letteral>. In GA, appears as a variant of
- <quote>t</quote> or
- <quote>d</quote> in the words
- <quote>metal</quote> and
- <quote>medal</quote> respectively. A tongue-tip flap.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase role="IPA">[ʀ]</phrase></term>
- <listitem>
- <para>One version of Lojban
- <letteral>r</letteral>. Not an English sound. The French or German
- <phrase xml:lang="de"><quote xml:lang="fr">r</quote></phrase> in <!--not sure how else to designate two languages at once-->
- <quote xml:lang="fr">reine</quote> or
- <quote xml:lang="de">rot</quote> respectively. A uvular trill.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term>
- <phrase role="IPA">[r̩]</phrase>,
- <phrase role="IPA">[ɹ̩]</phrase>,
- <phrase role="IPA">[ɾ̩]</phrase>,
- <phrase role="IPA">[ʀ̩]</phrase></term>
- <listitem>
- <para>are syllabic versions of the above.
- <phrase role="IPA">[ɹ̩]</phrase> appears in the GA (but not RP) pronunciation of
- <quote>bird</quote>.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase role="IPA">[s]</phrase></term>
- <listitem>
- <para>The preferred pronunciation of Lojban
- <letteral>s</letteral>. As in English
- <quote>so</quote>,
- <quote>basin</quote>, or
- <quote>yes</quote>.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase role="IPA">[ʃ]</phrase></term>
- <listitem>
- <para>The preferred pronunciation of Lojban
- <letteral>c</letteral>. The
- <quote>sh</quote> of English
- <quote>ship</quote>,
- <quote>ashen</quote>, or
- <quote>dish</quote>.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase role="IPA">[ʂ]</phrase></term>
- <listitem>
- <para>An allowed variant of Lojban
- <letteral>s</letteral>. Not an English sound. The Hindi retroflex
- <quote xml:lang="hi">s</quote> with dot below, or Klingon
- <quote xml:lang="tlh">S</quote>.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase role="IPA">[t]</phrase></term>
- <listitem>
- <para>The preferred pronunciation of Lojban
- <letteral>t</letteral>. As in English
- <quote>tea</quote>,
- <quote>later</quote>, or
- <quote>not</quote>. It is important to avoid the GA habit of pronouncing the
- <quote>t</quote> between vowels as
- <phrase role="IPA">[d]</phrase> or
- <phrase role="IPA">[ɾ]</phrase>.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase role="IPA">[θ]</phrase></term>
- <listitem>
- <para>Not normally a Lojban sound, but a possible variant of Lojban
- <letteral>'</letteral>. The
- <quote>th</quote> of English
- <quote>thin</quote> (but not
- <quote>then</quote>).</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase role="IPA">[v]</phrase></term>
- <listitem>
- <para>The preferred pronunciation of Lojban
- <letteral>v</letteral>. As in English
- <quote>voice</quote>,
- <quote>savor</quote>, or
- <quote>live</quote>.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase role="IPA">[w]</phrase></term>
- <listitem>
- <para>Used in Lojban diphthongs beginning or ending with
- <letteral>u</letteral>. Like the
- <quote>w</quote> in English
- <quote>wet</quote>
- <phrase role="IPA">[wɛt]</phrase> or
- <quote>cow</quote>
- <phrase role="IPA">[kɑw]</phrase>.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase role="IPA">[x]</phrase></term>
- <listitem>
- <para>The preferred pronunciation of Lojban
- <letteral>x</letteral>. Not normally an English sound, but used in some pronunciations of
- <quote>loch</quote> and
- <quote>Bach</quote>;
- <quote>gh</quote> in Scots
- <quote>might</quote> and
- <quote>night</quote>. The German
- <quote xml:lang="de">Ach-Laut</quote>. To pronounce
- <phrase role="IPA">[x]</phrase>, force air through your throat without vibrating your vocal chords; there should be lots of scrape.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase role="IPA">[ʏ]</phrase></term>
- <listitem>
- <para>A possible Lojban buffer vowel. Not an English sound: the
-
- <quote xml:lang="de">ü</quote> of German
- <quote xml:lang="de">hübsch</quote>.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase role="IPA">[z]</phrase></term>
- <listitem>
- <para>The preferred pronunciation of Lojban
- <letteral>z</letteral>. As in English
- <quote>zoo</quote>,
- <quote>hazard</quote>, or
- <quote>fizz</quote>.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase role="IPA">[ʒ]</phrase></term>
- <listitem>
- <para>The preferred pronunciation of Lojban
- <letteral>j</letteral>. The
- <quote>si</quote> of English
- <quote>vision</quote>, or the consonant at the end of GA
- <quote>garage</quote>.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase role="IPA">[ʐ]</phrase></term>
- <listitem>
- <para>An allowed variant of Lojban
- <letteral>z</letteral>. Not an English sound. The voiced version of
- <phrase role="IPA">[ʂ]</phrase>.</para>
- </listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- </variablelist>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-anglophone-diphthongs">
- <title>English Analogues For Lojban Diphthongs</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>diphthongs</primary><secondary>English analogues of</secondary></indexterm> Here is a list of English words that contain diphthongs that are similar to the Lojban diphthongs. This list does not constitute an official pronunciation guide; it is intended as a help to English-speakers.</para>
- <informaltable>
- <thead>
- <tr>
- <td>Lojban</td>
- <td>English</td>
- </tr>
- </thead>
- <tr>
- <td><diphthong>ai</diphthong></td>
- <td><quote>pie</quote></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><diphthong>ei</diphthong></td>
- <td><quote>pay</quote></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><diphthong>oi</diphthong></td>
- <td><quote>boy</quote></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><diphthong>au</diphthong></td>
- <td><quote>cow</quote></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><diphthong>ia</diphthong></td>
- <td><quote>yard</quote></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><diphthong>ie</diphthong></td>
- <td><quote>yes</quote></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><diphthong>ii</diphthong></td>
- <td><quote>ye</quote></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><diphthong>io</diphthong></td>
- <td><quote>yodel</quote> (in GA only)</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><diphthong>iu</diphthong></td>
- <td><quote>unicorn</quote> or <quote>few</quote></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><diphthong>ua</diphthong></td>
- <td><quote>suave</quote></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><diphthong>ue</diphthong></td>
- <td><quote>wet</quote></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><diphthong>ui</diphthong></td>
- <td><quote>we</quote></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><diphthong>uo</diphthong></td>
- <td><quote>woe</quote> (in GA only)</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><diphthong>uu</diphthong></td>
- <td><quote>woo</quote></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><diphthong>iy</diphthong></td>
- <td><quote>million</quote> (the <quote>io</quote> part, that is)</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><diphthong>uy</diphthong></td>
- <td><quote>was</quote> (when unstressed)</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-oddball-orthographies">
- <title>Oddball Orthographies</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>orthography</primary><secondary>non-standard</secondary></indexterm> The following notes describe ways in which Lojban has been written or could be written that differ from the standard orthography explained in the rest of this chapter. Nobody needs to read this section except people with an interest in the obscure. Technicalities are used without explanation or further apology.</para>
-
- <para>There exists an alternative orthography for Lojban, which is designed to be as compatible as possible (but no more so) with the orthography used in pre-Lojban versions of Loglan. The consonants undergo no change, except that
-
- <letteral>x</letteral> is replaced by
- <letteral>h</letteral>. The individual vowels likewise remain unchanged. However, the vowel pairs and diphthongs are changed as follows:</para>
-
- <itemizedlist>
- <listitem>
- <para>
- <diphthong>ai</diphthong>,
- <diphthong>ei</diphthong>,
- <diphthong>oi</diphthong>,
- <diphthong>au</diphthong> become
- <diphthong>ai</diphthong>,
- <diphthong>ei</diphthong>,
- <diphthong>oi</diphthong>,
- <diphthong>ao</diphthong>.
- </para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>
- <diphthong>ia</diphthong> through
- <diphthong>iu</diphthong> and
- <diphthong>ua</diphthong> through
- <diphthong>uu</diphthong> remain unchanged.
- </para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>
- <morphology>a'i</morphology>,
-
- <morphology>e'i</morphology>,
- <morphology>o'i</morphology> and
-
- <morphology>a'o</morphology> become
-
- <diphthong>a,i</diphthong>,
- <diphthong>e,i</diphthong>,
- <diphthong>o,i</diphthong> and
- <diphthong>a,o</diphthong>.
- </para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>
- <morphology>i'a</morphology> through
- <morphology>i'u</morphology> and
- <morphology>u'a</morphology> through
- <morphology>u'u</morphology> are changed to
-
- <diphthong>ia</diphthong> through
- <diphthong>iu</diphthong> and
- <diphthong>ua</diphthong> through
- <diphthong>uu</diphthong> in lujvo and cmavo other than attitudinals, but become
- <diphthong>i,a</diphthong> through
- <diphthong>i,u</diphthong> and
- <diphthong>u,a</diphthong> through
- <diphthong>u,u</diphthong> in names, fu'ivla, and attitudinal cmavo.
- </para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>All other vowel pairs simply drop the apostrophe.</para>
-
- </listitem>
- </itemizedlist>
- <para>The result of these rules is to eliminate the apostrophe altogether, replacing it with comma where necessary, and otherwise with nothing. In addition, names and the cmavo
- <valsi>i</valsi> are capitalized, and irregular stress is marked with an apostrophe (now no longer used for a sound) following the stressed syllable.</para>
-
-
- <para>Three points must be emphasized about this alternative orthography:</para>
-
- <itemizedlist>
- <listitem>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-standard orthographies</primary><secondary>caveat</secondary></indexterm> It is not standard, and has not been used.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>It does not represent any changes to the standard Lojban phonology; it is simply a representation of the same phonology using a different written form.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>It was designed to aid in a planned rapprochement between the Logical Language Group and The Loglan Institute, a group headed by James Cooke Brown. The rapprochement never took place.</para>
-
- </listitem>
- </itemizedlist>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-standard orthographies</primary><secondary>Cyrillic</secondary></indexterm> There also exists a Cyrillic orthography for Lojban which was designed when the introductory Lojban brochure was translated into Russian. It uses the
- <quote>а</quote>,
- <quote>б</quote>,
- <quote>в</quote>,
- <quote>г</quote>,
- <quote>д</quote>,
- <quote>е</quote>,
- <quote>ж</quote>,
- <quote>з</quote>,
- <quote>и</quote>,
- <quote>к</quote>,
- <quote>л</quote>,
- <quote>м</quote>,
- <quote>н</quote>,
- <quote>о</quote>,
- <quote>п</quote>,
- <quote>р</quote>,
- <quote>с</quote>,
- <quote>т</quote>,
- <quote>у</quote>,
- <quote>ф</quote>,
- <quote>х</quote>, and
- <quote>ш</quote> in the obvious ways. The Latin letter
- <quote>y</quote> is mapped onto the hard sign
- <quote>ъ</quote>, as in Bulgarian. The apostrophe, comma, and period are unchanged. Diphthongs are written as vowel pairs, as in the Roman representation.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Tolkien</primary><secondary>and non-standard Lojban orthography</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-standard orthographies</primary><secondary>Tengwar</secondary></indexterm> Finally, an orthography using the Tengwar of Féanor, a fictional orthography invented by J. R. R. Tolkien and described in the Appendixes to
-
-
- <citetitle pubwork="book">The Lord Of The Rings</citetitle>, has been devised for Lojban. The following mapping, which closely resembles that used for Westron, will be meaningful only to those who have read those appendixes. In brief, the tincotéma and parmatéma are used in the conventional ways; the calmatéma represents palatal consonants, and the quessetéma represents velar consonants.</para>
-
- <variablelist>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase xml:lang="qya">tinco</phrase></term>
- <listitem><para><letteral>t</letteral></para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase xml:lang="qya">calma</phrase></term>
- <listitem><para>-</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase xml:lang="qya">ando</phrase></term>
- <listitem><para><letteral>d</letteral></para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase xml:lang="qya">anga</phrase></term>
- <listitem><para>-</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase xml:lang="qya">thule</phrase></term>
- <listitem><para>-</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase xml:lang="qya">harma</phrase></term>
- <listitem><para><letteral>c</letteral></para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase xml:lang="qya">anto</phrase></term>
- <listitem><para>-</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase xml:lang="qya">anca</phrase></term>
- <listitem><para><letteral>j</letteral></para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase xml:lang="qya">numen</phrase></term>
- <listitem><para><letteral>n</letteral></para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase xml:lang="qya">noldo</phrase></term>
- <listitem><para>-</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase xml:lang="qya">ore</phrase></term>
- <listitem><para><letteral>r</letteral></para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase xml:lang="qya">anna</phrase></term>
- <listitem><para><letteral>i</letteral></para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase xml:lang="qya">parma</phrase></term>
- <listitem><para><letteral>p</letteral></para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase xml:lang="qya">quesse</phrase></term>
- <listitem><para><letteral>k</letteral></para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase xml:lang="qya">umbar</phrase></term>
- <listitem><para><letteral>b</letteral></para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase xml:lang="qya">ungwe</phrase></term>
- <listitem><para><letteral>g</letteral></para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase xml:lang="qya">formen</phrase></term>
- <listitem><para><letteral>f</letteral></para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase xml:lang="qya">hwesta</phrase></term>
- <listitem><para><letteral>x</letteral></para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase xml:lang="qya">ampa</phrase></term>
- <listitem><para><letteral>v</letteral></para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase xml:lang="qya">unque</phrase></term>
- <listitem><para>-</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase xml:lang="qya">malta</phrase></term>
- <listitem><para><letteral>m</letteral></para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase xml:lang="qya">nwalme</phrase></term>
- <listitem><para>-</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase xml:lang="qya">vala</phrase></term>
- <listitem><para><letteral>u</letteral></para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><phrase xml:lang="qya">vilya</phrase></term>
- <listitem><para>-</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- </variablelist>
-
- <para>The letters
- <quote xml:lang="qya">vala</quote> and
- <quote xml:lang="qya">anna</quote> are used for
- <letteral>u</letteral> and
- <letteral>i</letteral> only when those letters are used to represent glides. Of the additional letters,
- <letteral>r</letteral>,
- <letteral>l</letteral>,
- <letteral>s</letteral>, and
- <letteral>z</letteral> are written with
- <quote xml:lang="qya">rómen</quote>,
- <quote xml:lang="qya">lambe</quote>,
- <quote xml:lang="qya">silme</quote>, and
- <quote xml:lang="qya">áre</quote>/
- <quote xml:lang="qya">esse</quote> respectively; the inverted forms are used as free variants.</para>
- <para>Lojban, like Quenya, is a vowel-last language, so tehtar are read as following the tengwar on which they are placed. The conventional tehtar are used for the five regular vowels, and the dot below for <letteral>y</letteral>. The Lojban apostrophe is represented by <quote xml:lang="qya">halla</quote>. There is no equivalent of the Lojban comma or period.</para>
- </section>
-</chapter>
diff --git a/chapters/4.xml b/chapters/4.xml
deleted file mode 100644
index 103fd92..0000000
--- a/chapters/4.xml
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,3214 +0,0 @@
-<chapter xml:id="chapter-morphology">
- <title>The Shape Of Words To Come: Lojban Morphology</title>
- <mediaobject xml:id="chapter-morphology-picture">
- <alt>The picture for chapter 4</alt>
- <imageobject>
- <imagedata fileref="media/chapter-morphology.gif"/>
- </imageobject>
- </mediaobject>
-
- <section xml:id="section-morphology-introduction">
- <title>Introductory</title>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>word forms</primary><secondary>in Lojban (see also morphology)</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>morphology</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>morphology</primary><secondary>simplicity of</secondary></indexterm> Morphology is the part of grammar that deals with the form of words. Lojban's morphology is fairly simple compared to that of many languages, because Lojban words don't change form depending on how they are used. English has only a small number of such changes compared to languages like Russian, but it does have changes like
- <quote>boys</quote> as the plural of
-
- <quote>boy</quote>, or
- <quote>walked</quote> as the past-tense form of
- <quote>walk</quote>. To make plurals or past tenses in Lojban, you add separate words to the sentence that express the number of boys, or the time when the walking was going on.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>word forms</primary><secondary>as related to grammatical uses</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>derivational morphology</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>morphology</primary><secondary>derivational</secondary></indexterm> However, Lojban does have what is called
- <quote>derivational morphology</quote>: the capability of building new words from old words. In addition, the form of words tells us something about their grammatical uses, and sometimes about the means by which they entered the language. Lojban has very orderly rules for the formation of words of various types, both the words that already exist and new words yet to be created by speakers and writers.</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>morphology</primary><secondary>conventions for</secondary></indexterm> A stream of Lojban sounds can be uniquely broken up into its component words according to specific rules. These so-called
- <quote>morphology rules</quote> are summarized in this chapter. (However, a detailed algorithm for breaking sounds into words has not yet been fully debugged, and so is not presented in this book.) First, here are some conventions used to talk about groups of Lojban letters, including vowels and consonants.</para>
-
- <orderedlist>
- <listitem>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>y</primary><secondary>considered not to be a vowel for morphological discussions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>V</primary><secondary>as a symbol for a single vowel</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>morphology</primary><secondary>symbolic conventions for discussing</secondary></indexterm> V represents any single Lojban vowel except
- <letteral>y</letteral>; that is, it represents
- <letteral>a</letteral>,
- <letteral>e</letteral>,
- <letteral>i</letteral>,
- <letteral>o</letteral>, or
- <letteral>u</letteral>.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>VV string</primary><secondary>as a symbol for a double vowel</secondary></indexterm> VV represents either a diphthong, one of the following:
- <simplelist type="horiz" columns="4">
- <member><diphthong>ai</diphthong></member>
- <member><diphthong>ei</diphthong></member>
- <member><diphthong>oi</diphthong></member>
- <member><diphthong>au</diphthong></member>
- </simplelist>
- or a two-syllable vowel pair with an apostrophe separating the vowels, one of the following:
- <simplelist type="horiz" columns="5">
- <member><morphology>a'a</morphology></member>
- <member><morphology>a'e</morphology></member>
- <member><morphology>a'i</morphology></member>
- <member><morphology>a'o</morphology></member>
- <member><morphology>a'u</morphology></member>
-
- <member><morphology>e'a</morphology></member>
- <member><morphology>e'e</morphology></member>
- <member><morphology>e'i</morphology></member>
- <member><morphology>e'o</morphology></member>
- <member><morphology>e'u</morphology></member>
-
- <member><morphology>i'a</morphology></member>
- <member><morphology>i'e</morphology></member>
- <member><morphology>i'i</morphology></member>
- <member><morphology>i'o</morphology></member>
- <member><morphology>i'u</morphology></member>
-
- <member><morphology>o'a</morphology></member>
- <member><morphology>o'e</morphology></member>
- <member><morphology>o'i</morphology></member>
- <member><morphology>o'o</morphology></member>
- <member><morphology>o'u</morphology></member>
-
- <member><morphology>u'a</morphology></member>
- <member><morphology>u'e</morphology></member>
- <member><morphology>u'i</morphology></member>
- <member><morphology>u'o</morphology></member>
- <member><morphology>u'u</morphology></member>
- </simplelist>
- </para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>apostrophe</primary><secondary>as not a consonant for morphological discussions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>syllabic r</primary><secondary>as a consonant for morphological discussions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>syllabic n</primary><secondary>as a consonant for morphological discussions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>syllabic m</primary><secondary>as a consonant for morphological discussions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>syllabic l</primary><secondary>considered as a consonant for morphological discussions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>C string</primary><secondary>as a symbol for a single consonant</secondary></indexterm> C represents a single Lojban consonant, not including the apostrophe, one of
- <simplelist type="inline">
- <member><letteral>b</letteral></member>
- <member><letteral>c</letteral></member>
- <member><letteral>d</letteral></member>
- <member><letteral>f</letteral></member>
- <member><letteral>g</letteral></member>
- <member><letteral>j</letteral></member>
- <member><letteral>k</letteral></member>
- <member><letteral>l</letteral></member>
- <member><letteral>m</letteral></member>
- <member><letteral>n</letteral></member>
- <member><letteral>p</letteral></member>
- <member><letteral>r</letteral></member>
- <member><letteral>s</letteral></member>
- <member><letteral>t</letteral></member>
- <member><letteral>v</letteral></member>
- <member><letteral>x</letteral></member>
- <member> or <letteral>z</letteral></member>
- </simplelist>
- . Syllabic <letteral>l</letteral>, <letteral>m</letteral>, <letteral>n</letteral>, and <letteral>r</letteral> always count as consonants for the purposes of this chapter.
- </para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>CC string</primary><secondary>as a symbol for a permissible initial consonant pair</secondary></indexterm> CC represents two adjacent consonants of type C which constitute one of the 48 permissible initial consonant pairs:
- <!-- FIXME: There's a table of the permissible initial pairs in chapter 3, too; however, the pairs are grouped differently in that table. Can we copy that or must we use this specific grouping here? Also, in draft CLL it's not even a table, just a straight inline list. -->
- <programlisting xml:space="preserve">
- bl br
- cf ck cl cm cn cp cr ct
- dj dr dz
- fl fr
- gl gr
- jb jd jg jm jv
- kl kr
- ml mr
- pl pr
- sf sk sl sm sn sp sr st
- tc tr ts
- vl vr
- xl xr
- zb zd zg zm zv
- </programlisting></para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>C/C string</primary><secondary>as a symbol for a permissible consonant pair</secondary></indexterm> C/C represents two adjacent consonants which constitute one of the permissible consonant pairs (not necessarily a permissible initial consonant pair). The permissible consonant pairs are explained in <xref linkend="section-clusters"/>. In brief, any consonant pair is permissible unless it: contains two identical letters, contains both a voiced (excluding <letteral>r</letteral>, <letteral>l</letteral>, <letteral>m</letteral>, <letteral>n</letteral>) and an unvoiced consonant, or is one of certain specified forbidden pairs.
- </para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>C/CC string</primary><secondary>as a symbol for a consonant triple</secondary></indexterm> C/CC represents a consonant triple. The first two consonants must constitute a permissible consonant pair; the last two consonants must constitute a permissible initial consonant pair.</para>
- </listitem>
- </orderedlist>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>brivla</primary><secondary>as one of the 3 basic word classes</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>as one of the 3 basic word classes</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmavo</primary><secondary>as one of the 3 basic word classes</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>parts of speech</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>word classes</primary></indexterm> Lojban has three basic word classes – parts of speech – in contrast to the eight that are traditional in English. These three classes are called cmavo, brivla, and cmene. Each of these classes has uniquely identifying properties – an arrangement of letters that allows the word to be uniquely and unambiguously recognized as a separate word in a string of Lojban, upon either reading or hearing, and as belonging to a specific word-class.</para>
-
-
- <para>They are also functionally different: cmavo are the structure words, corresponding to English words like
-
- <quote>and</quote>,
- <quote>if</quote>,
- <quote>the</quote> and
- <quote>to</quote>; brivla are the content words, corresponding to English words like
- <quote>come</quote>,
- <quote>red</quote>,
- <quote>doctor</quote>, and
- <quote>freely</quote>; cmene are proper names, corresponding to English
- <quote>James</quote>,
- <quote>Afghanistan</quote>, and
- <quote>Pope John Paul II</quote>.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-cmavo">
- <title>cmavo</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>punctuation marks</primary><secondary>cmavo as Lojban equivalents</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>numbers</primary><secondary>cmavo as Lojban equivalents</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>prepositions</primary><secondary>cmavo as Lojban equivalents</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>conjunctions</primary><secondary>cmavo as Lojban equivalents</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>articles</primary><secondary>cmavo as Lojban equivalents</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>structure words</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selma'o</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmavo</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> The first group of Lojban words discussed in this chapter are the cmavo. They are the structure words that hold the Lojban language together. They often have no semantic meaning in themselves, though they may affect the semantics of brivla to which they are attached. The cmavo include the equivalent of English articles, conjunctions, prepositions, numbers, and punctuation marks. There are over a hundred subcategories of cmavo, known as <valsi>selma'o</valsi>, each having a specifically defined grammatical usage. The various selma'o are discussed throughout
- <xref linkend="chapter-selbri"/> to
- <xref linkend="chapter-structure"/> and summarized in
- <xref linkend="chapter-catalogue"/>.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmavo</primary><secondary>structure of</secondary></indexterm> Standard cmavo occur in four forms defined by their word structure. Here are some examples of the various forms:</para>
- <informaltable>
- <tr>
- <td>V-form</td>
- <td><valsi>.a</valsi></td>
- <td><valsi>.e</valsi></td>
- <td><valsi>.i</valsi></td>
- <td><valsi>.o</valsi></td>
- <td><valsi>.u</valsi></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>CV-form</td>
- <td><valsi>ba</valsi></td>
- <td><valsi>ce</valsi></td>
- <td><valsi>di</valsi></td>
- <td><valsi>fo</valsi></td>
- <td><valsi>gu</valsi></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>VV-form</td>
- <td><valsi>.au</valsi></td>
- <td><valsi>.ei</valsi></td>
- <td><valsi>.ia</valsi></td>
- <td><valsi>o'u</valsi></td>
- <td><valsi>u'e</valsi></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>CVV-form</td>
- <td><valsi>ki'a</valsi></td>
- <td><valsi>pei</valsi></td>
- <td><valsi>mi'o</valsi></td>
- <td><valsi>coi</valsi></td>
- <td><valsi>cu'u</valsi></td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <para>In addition, there is the cmavo
- <valsi>.y.</valsi> (remember that
- <letteral>y</letteral> is not a V), which must have pauses before and after it.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmavo</primary><secondary>lack of relation of form to grammatical use</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>experimental cmavo</primary><secondary>forms for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmavo</primary><secondary>for experimental use</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmavo</primary><secondary>simple</secondary></indexterm> A simple cmavo thus has the property of having only one or two vowels, or of having a single consonant followed by one or two vowels. Words consisting of three or more vowels in a row, or a single consonant followed by three or more vowels, are also of cmavo form, but are reserved for experimental use: a few examples are
- <!-- FIXME: is this valid="false"? probably not, but just checking -->
- <jbophrase>ku'a'e</jbophrase>,
-
- <jbophrase>sau'e</jbophrase>, and
- <jbophrase>bai'ai</jbophrase>. All CVV cmavo beginning with the letter
- <letteral>x</letteral> are also reserved for experimental use. In general, though, the form of a cmavo tells you little or nothing about its grammatical use.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>experimental cmavo</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmavo</primary><secondary>experimental</secondary></indexterm>
- <quote>Experimental use</quote> means that the language designers will not assign any standard meaning or usage to these words, and words and usages coined by Lojban speakers will not appear in official dictionaries for the indefinite future. Experimental-use words provide an escape hatch for adding grammatical mechanisms (as opposed to semantic concepts) the need for which was not foreseen.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmavo</primary><secondary>diphthongs in</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo of VV-form include not only the diphthongs and vowel pairs listed in
-
- <xref linkend="section-morphology-introduction"/>, but also the following ten additional diphthongs:</para>
- <simplelist type="horiz" columns="5">
- <member><valsi>.ia</valsi></member>
- <member><valsi>.ie</valsi></member>
- <member><valsi>.ii</valsi></member>
- <member><valsi>.io</valsi></member>
- <member><valsi>.iu</valsi></member>
-
- <member><valsi>.ua</valsi></member>
- <member><valsi>.ue</valsi></member>
- <member><valsi>.ui</valsi></member>
- <member><valsi>.uo</valsi></member>
- <member><valsi>.uu</valsi></member>
- </simplelist>
- <para>In addition, cmavo can have the form
- <morphology>Cy</morphology>, a consonant followed by the letter
- <letteral>y</letteral>. These cmavo represent letters of the Lojban alphabet, and are discussed in detail in
-
- <xref linkend="chapter-letterals"/>.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>compound cmavo</primary><secondary>compared with sequence of simple cmavo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>compound cmavo</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmavo</primary><secondary>compound</secondary></indexterm> Compound cmavo are sequences of cmavo attached together to form a single written word. A compound cmavo is always identical in meaning and in grammatical use to the separated sequence of simple cmavo from which it is composed. These words are written in compound form merely to save visual space, and to ease the reader's burden in identifying when the component cmavo are acting together.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>compound cmavo</primary><secondary>recognition of</secondary></indexterm> Compound cmavo, while not visually short like their components, can be readily identified by two characteristics:</para>
- <orderedlist>
- <listitem>
- <para>They have no consonant pairs or clusters, and</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>They end in a vowel.</para>
- </listitem>
- </orderedlist>
- <para>For example:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qiXV" role="compound-cmavo-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c4e2d1"/>
- </title>
- <compound-cmavo>
- <jbo>.iseci'i</jbo>
- <jbo>.i se ci'i</jbo>
- </compound-cmavo>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qIYK" role="compound-cmavo-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c4e2d2"/>
- </title>
- <compound-cmavo>
- <jbo>punaijecanai</jbo>
- <jbo>pu nai je ca nai</jbo>
- </compound-cmavo>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qiz6" role="compound-cmavo-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c4e2d3"/>
- </title>
- <compound-cmavo>
- <jbo>ki'e.u'e</jbo>
- <jbo>ki'e .u'e</jbo>
- </compound-cmavo>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pauses</primary><secondary>before vowels</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo
- <valsi>u'e</valsi> begins with a vowel, and like all words beginning with a vowel, requires a pause (represented by
- <letteral>.</letteral>) before it. This pause cannot be omitted simply because the cmavo is incorporated into a compound cmavo. On the other hand,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-FDhH">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c4e2d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ki'e'u'e</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>is a single cmavo reserved for experimental purposes: it has four vowels.</para>
- <example role="compound-cmavo-example" xml:id="example-random-id-CtnR">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c4e2d5"/>
- </title>
- <compound-cmavo>
- <jbo>cy.ibu.abu</jbo>
- <jbo>cy. .ibu .abu</jbo>
- </compound-cmavo>
- </example>
- <para>Again the pauses are required (see
- <xref linkend="section-pauses"/>); the pause after
- <valsi>cy.</valsi> merges with the pause before
- <valsi>.ibu</valsi>.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>stress</primary><secondary>on cmavo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmavo</primary><secondary>stress on</secondary></indexterm> There is no particular stress required in cmavo or their compounds. Some conventions do exist that are not mandatory. For two-syllable cmavo, for example, stress is typically placed on the first vowel; an example is</para>
- <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pdGY">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c4e2d6"/>
- </title>
- <pronunciation>
- <jbo>.e'o ko ko kurji</jbo>
- <jbo role="pronunciation">.E'o ko ko KURji</jbo>
- </pronunciation>
- </example>
- <para>This convention results in a consistent rhythm to the language, since brivla are required to have penultimate stress; some find this esthetically pleasing.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pause</primary><secondary>requirement between stressed syllables</secondary></indexterm> If the final syllable of one word is stressed, and the first syllable of the next word is stressed, you must insert a pause or glottal stop between the two stressed syllables. Thus</para>
-
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-uqDz">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c4e2d7"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le re nanmu</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>can be optionally pronounced</para>
- <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-dfzc">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c4e2d8"/>
- </title>
- <pronunciation>
- <jbo role="pronunciation">le RE. NANmu</jbo>
- </pronunciation>
- </example>
- <para>since there are no rules forcing stress on either of the first two words; the stress on
- <valsi>re</valsi>, though, demands that a pause separate
- <valsi>re</valsi> from the following syllable
- <jbophrase>nan</jbophrase> to ensure that the stress on
- <jbophrase>nan</jbophrase> is properly heard as a stressed syllable. The alternative pronunciation</para>
-
-
- <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-bLbf">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c4e2d9"/>
- </title>
- <pronunciation>
- <jbo>LE re NANmu</jbo>
- </pronunciation>
- </example>
- <para>is also valid; this would apply secondary stress (used for purposes of emphasis, contrast or sentence rhythm) to
- <valsi>le</valsi>, comparable in rhythmical effect to the English phrase
- <quote>THE two men</quote>. In
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-dfzc"/>, the secondary stress on
- <valsi>re</valsi> would be similar to that in the English phrase
- <quote>the TWO men</quote>.</para>
- <para>Both cmavo may also be left unstressed, thus:</para>
- <example role="pronunciation-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sg0p">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c4e2d10"/>
- </title>
- <pronunciation>
- <jbo role="pronunciation">le re NANmu</jbo>
- </pronunciation>
- </example>
- <para>This would probably be the most common usage.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-morphology-brivla">
- <title>brivla</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>adverbs</primary><secondary>brivla as Lojban equivalents</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>verbs</primary><secondary>brivla as Lojban equivalents</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>adjectives</primary><secondary>brivla as Lojban equivalents</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>nouns</primary><secondary>brivla as Lojban equivalents</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>brivla</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> Predicate words, called
- <valsi>brivla</valsi>, are at the core of Lojban. They carry most of the semantic information in the language. They serve as the equivalent of English nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, all in a single part of speech.</para>
-
-
-
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>subtypes of words</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>types and subtypes of words</primary></indexterm> Every brivla belongs to one of three major subtypes. These subtypes are defined by the form, or morphology, of the word – all words of a particular structure can be assigned by sight or sound to a particular type (cmavo, brivla, or cmene) and subtype. Knowing the type and subtype then gives you, the reader or listener, significant clues to the meaning and the origin of the word, even if you have never heard the word before.</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>flexible vocabulary</primary></indexterm> The same principle allows you, when speaking or writing, to invent new brivla for new concepts
- <quote>on the fly</quote>; yet it offers people that you are trying to communicate with a good chance to figure out your meaning. In this way, Lojban has a flexible vocabulary which can be expanded indefinitely.</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>brivla</primary><secondary>properties of</secondary></indexterm> All brivla have the following properties:</para>
- <orderedlist>
- <listitem>
- <para>always end in a vowel;</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>always contain a consonant pair in the first five letters, where
- <letteral>y</letteral> and apostrophe are not counted as letters for this purpose (see
- <xref linkend="section-rafsi"/>.);</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>always are stressed on the next-to-the-last (penultimate) syllable; this implies that they have two or more syllables.</para>
- </listitem>
- </orderedlist>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene form</primary><secondary>contrasted with brivla form</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmavo form</primary><secondary>contrasted with brivla form</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>brivla form</primary><secondary>contrasted with cmene form</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>brivla form</primary><secondary>contrasted with cmavo form</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>brivla</primary><secondary>recognition of</secondary></indexterm> The presence of a consonant pair distinguishes brivla from cmavo and their compounds. The final vowel distinguishes brivla from cmene, which always end in a consonant. Thus
- <jbophrase>da'amei</jbophrase> must be a compound cmavo because it lacks a consonant pair;
- <valsi>lojban.</valsi> must be a name because it lacks a final vowel.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>consonant pairs</primary><secondary>letter y within</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>y</primary><secondary>letter</secondary><tertiary>between letters of consonant pair</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>consonant pairs</primary><secondary>in brivla</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>brivla</primary><secondary>consonant pairs in</secondary></indexterm> Thus,
- <valsi>bisycla</valsi> has the consonant pair
- <morphology>sc</morphology> in the first five non-
- <letteral>y</letteral> letters even though the
- <morphology>sc</morphology> actually appears in the form of
- <valsi>sy.</valsi>. Similarly, the word
- <valsi>ro'inre'o</valsi> contains
- <morphology>nr</morphology> in the first five letters because the apostrophes are not counted for this purpose.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>brivla</primary><secondary>subtypes of</secondary></indexterm> The three subtypes of brivla are:</para>
- <orderedlist>
- <listitem>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>as a subtype of brivla</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>primitive roots</primary><secondary>gismu as</secondary></indexterm> gismu, the Lojban primitive roots from which all other brivla are built;</para>
-
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>compound of gismu</primary><secondary>lujvo as</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>as a subtype of brivla</secondary></indexterm> lujvo, the compounds of two or more gismu; and</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>borrowing from other language</primary><secondary>fu'ivla as</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>as a subtype of brivla</secondary></indexterm> fu'ivla (literally
- <quote>copy-word</quote>), the specialized words that are not Lojban primitives or natural compounds, and are therefore borrowed from other languages.</para>
- </listitem>
- </orderedlist>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-gismu">
- <title>gismu</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>rationale for choice of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> The gismu, or Lojban root words, are those brivla representing concepts most basic to the language. The gismu were chosen for various reasons: some represent concepts that are very familiar and basic; some represent concepts that are frequently used in other languages; some were added because they would be helpful in constructing more complex words; some because they represent fundamental Lojban concepts (like
- <valsi>cmavo</valsi> and
- <valsi>gismu</valsi> themselves).</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>as partitioning semantic space</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>selection of</secondary></indexterm> The gismu do not represent any sort of systematic partitioning of semantic space. Some gismu may be superfluous, or appear for historical reasons: the gismu list was being collected for almost 35 years and was only weeded out once. Instead, the intention is that the gismu blanket semantic space: they make it possible to talk about the entire range of human concerns.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>learning Lojban</primary><secondary>magnitude of task</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmavo and gismu</primary><secondary>major</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>and cmavo</secondary><tertiary>major</tertiary></indexterm> There are about 1350 gismu. In learning Lojban, you need only to learn most of these gismu and their combining forms (known as
-
-
- <valsi>rafsi</valsi>) as well as perhaps 200 major cmavo, and you will be able to communicate effectively in the language. This may sound like a lot, but it is a small number compared to the vocabulary needed for similar communications in other languages.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>rules for</secondary></indexterm> All gismu have very strong form restrictions. Using the conventions defined in
- <xref linkend="section-morphology-introduction"/>, all gismu are of the forms CVC/CV or CCVCV. They must meet the rules for all brivla given in
- <xref linkend="section-morphology-brivla"/>; furthermore, they:</para>
- <orderedlist>
- <listitem>
- <para>always have five letters;</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>always start with a consonant and end with a single vowel;</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>always contain exactly one consonant pair, which is a permissible initial pair (CC) if it's at the beginning of the gismu, but otherwise only has to be a permissible pair (C/C);</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>are always stressed on the first syllable (since that is penultimate).</para>
- </listitem>
- </orderedlist>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>length of</secondary></indexterm> The five letter length distinguishes gismu from lujvo and fu'ivla. In addition, no gismu contains
- <letteral>'</letteral>.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>conflicts between</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>special</secondary></indexterm> With the exception of five special brivla variables,
- <valsi>broda</valsi>,
- <valsi>brode</valsi>,
- <valsi>brodi</valsi>,
- <valsi>brodo</valsi>, and
- <valsi>brodu</valsi>, no two gismu differ only in the final vowel. Furthermore, the set of gismu was specifically designed to reduce the likelihood that two similar sounding gismu could be confused. For example, because
- <valsi>gismu</valsi> is in the set of gismu,
- <valsi>kismu</valsi>,
- <valsi>xismu</valsi>,
- <valsi>gicmu</valsi>,
- <valsi>gizmu</valsi>, and
- <valsi>gisnu</valsi> cannot be.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>source of</secondary></indexterm> Almost all Lojban gismu are constructed from pieces of words drawn from other languages, specifically Chinese, English, Hindi, Spanish, Russian, and Arabic, the six most widely spoken natural languages. For a given concept, words in the six languages that represent that concept were written in Lojban phonetics. Then a gismu was selected to maximize the recognizability of the Lojban word for speakers of the six languages by weighting the inclusion of the sounds drawn from each language by the number of speakers of that language. See
-
- <xref linkend="section-gismu-making"/> for a full explanation of the algorithm.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>examples of</secondary></indexterm> Here are a few examples of gismu, with rough English equivalents (not definitions):</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJ0x" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c4e4d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>creka</jbo>
- <natlang>shirt</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qj4M" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c4e4d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>lijda</jbo>
- <natlang>religion</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJ4M" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c4e4d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>blanu</jbo>
- <natlang>blue</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJ5Y" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c4e4d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mamta</jbo>
- <natlang>mother</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qj6K" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c4e4d5"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>cukta</jbo>
- <natlang>book</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJ6R" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c4e4d6"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>patfu</jbo>
- <natlang>father</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJ6y" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c4e4d7"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>nanmu</jbo>
- <natlang>man</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qj71" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c4e4d8"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ninmu</jbo>
- <natlang>woman</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>A small number of gismu were formed differently; see
- <xref linkend="section-cultural-gismu"/> for a list.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-lujvo">
- <title>lujvo</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modifying brivla (see also seltau)</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>seltau</primary><secondary>compared with English adverb</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>seltau</primary><secondary>compared with English adjective</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>explanation of</secondary></indexterm> When specifying a concept that is not found among the gismu (or, more specifically, when the relevant gismu seems too general in meaning), a Lojbanist generally attempts to express the concept as a tanru. Lojban tanru are an elaboration of the concept of
- <quote>metaphor</quote> used in English. In Lojban, any brivla can be used to modify another brivla. The first of the pair modifies the second. This modification is usually restrictive – the modifying brivla reduces the broader sense of the modified brivla to form a more narrow, concrete, or specific concept. Modifying brivla may thus be seen as acting like English adverbs or adjectives. For example,</para>
-
-
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-xhQP">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c4e5d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>skami pilno</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>is the tanru which expresses the concept of
- <quote>computer user</quote>.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>combination of</secondary></indexterm> The simplest Lojban tanru are pairings of two concepts or ideas. Such tanru take two simpler ideas that can be represented by gismu and combine them into a single more complex idea. Two-part tanru may then be recombined in pairs with other tanru, or with individual gismu, to form more complex or more specific ideas, and so on.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>ambiguity of</secondary></indexterm> The meaning of a tanru is usually at least partly ambiguous:
- <jbophrase>skami pilno</jbophrase> could refer to a computer that is a user, or to a user of computers. There are a variety of ways that the modifier component can be related to the modified component. It is also possible to use cmavo within tanru to provide variations (or to prevent ambiguities) of meaning.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>and creativity</secondary></indexterm> Making tanru is essentially a poetic or creative act, not a science. While the syntax expressing the grouping relationships within tanru is unambiguous, tanru are still semantically ambiguous, since the rules defining the relationships between the gismu are flexible. The process of devising a new tanru is dealt with in detail in
- <xref linkend="chapter-selbri"/>.</para>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>expression of</secondary></indexterm> To express a simple tanru, simply say the component gismu together. Thus the binary metaphor
- <quote>big boat</quote> becomes the tanru</para>
-
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-oLE3">
- <title>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>big boat</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c4e5d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>barda bloti</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>representing roughly the same concept as the English word
- <quote>ship</quote>.</para>
- <para>
-
-<indexterm type="general"><primary>paternal grandmother</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
- The binary metaphor
- <quote>father mother</quote> can refer to a paternal grandmother (
-
-
- <quote>a father-ly type of mother</quote>), while
- <quote>mother father</quote> can refer to a maternal grandfather (
-
- <quote>a mother-ly type of father</quote>). In Lojban, these become the tanru</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4wK9">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>father mother</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c4e5d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>patfu mamta</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>and</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KQ4s">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>mother father</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c4e5d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mamta patfu</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>respectively.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>ambiguity in</secondary></indexterm> The possibility of semantic ambiguity can easily be seen in the last case. To interpret
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-KQ4s"/>, the listener must determine what type of motherliness pertains to the father being referred to. In an appropriate context,
- <jbophrase>mamta patfu</jbophrase> could mean not
- <quote>grandfather</quote> but simply
- <quote>father with some motherly attributes</quote>, depending on the culture. If absolute clarity is required, there are ways to expand upon and explain the exact interrelationship between the components; but such detail is usually not needed.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>to lujvo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>from tanru</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>brivla</primary><secondary>from tanru</secondary></indexterm> When a concept expressed in a tanru proves useful, or is frequently expressed, it is desirable to choose one of the possible meanings of the tanru and assign it to a new brivla. For
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-xhQP"/>, we would probably choose
- <quote>user of computers</quote>, and form the new word</para>
- <example role="lujvo-example" xml:id="example-random-id-v5YD">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c4e5d5"/>
- </title>
- <lujvo-making>
- <jbo>sampli</jbo>
- </lujvo-making>
- </example>
- <para>Such a brivla, built from the rafsi which represent its component words, is called a
- <valsi>lujvo</valsi>. Another example, corresponding to the tanru of
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-oLE3"/>, would be:</para>
- <example role="lujvo-example" xml:id="example-random-id-aiAR">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c4e5d6"/>
- </title>
- <lujvo-making>
- <jbo>bralo'i</jbo>
- <gloss>big-boat</gloss>
- <natlang>ship</natlang>
- </lujvo-making>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>construction of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>unambiguous decomposition of</secondary></indexterm> The lujvo representing a given tanru is built from units representing the component gismu. These units are called
- <valsi>rafsi</valsi> in Lojban. Each rafsi represents only one gismu. The rafsi are attached together in the order of the words in the tanru, occasionally inserting so-called
- <quote>hyphen</quote> letters to ensure that the pieces stick together as a single word and cannot accidentally be broken apart into cmavo, gismu, or other word forms. As a result, each lujvo can be readily and accurately recognized, allowing a listener to pick out the word from a string of spoken Lojban, and if necessary, unambiguously decompose the word to a unique source tanru, thus providing a strong clue to its meaning.</para>
-
- <para>The lujvo that can be built from the tanru
- <jbophrase>mamta patfu</jbophrase> in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-KQ4s"/> is</para>
- <example role="lujvo-example" xml:id="example-random-id-TCUH">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c4e5d7"/>
- </title>
- <lujvo-making>
- <jbo>mampa'u</jbo>
- </lujvo-making>
- </example>
- <para>which refers specifically to the concept
- <quote>maternal grandfather</quote>. The two gismu that constitute the tanru are represented in
- <valsi>mampa'u</valsi> by the rafsi
- <rafsi>mam-</rafsi> and
- <rafsi>-pa'u</rafsi>, respectively; these two rafsi are then concatenated together to form
- <valsi>mampa'u</valsi>.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>long rafsi form</primary><secondary>compared with short form in effect on lujvo meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>short rafsi form</primary><secondary>compared with long form in effect on lujvo meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi form</primary><secondary>effect of choice on meaning of lujvo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>multiple forms of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>meaning of</secondary></indexterm> Like gismu, lujvo have only one meaning. When a lujvo is formally entered into a dictionary of the language, a specific definition will be assigned based on one particular interrelationship between the terms. (See
- <xref linkend="chapter-lujvo"/> for how this has been done.) Unlike gismu, lujvo may have more than one form. This is because there is no difference in meaning between the various rafsi for a gismu when they are used to build a lujvo. A long rafsi may be used, especially in noisy environments, in place of a short rafsi; the result is considered the same lujvo, even though the word is spelled and pronounced differently. Thus the word
-
-
- <valsi>brivla</valsi>, built from the tanru
- <jbophrase>bridi valsi</jbophrase>, is the same lujvo as
- <valsi>brivalsi</valsi>,
- <valsi>bridyvla</valsi>, and
- <valsi>bridyvalsi</valsi>, each of which uses a different combination of rafsi.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>apostrophe</primary><secondary>and consonant cluster determination in lujvo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>' symbol</primary><secondary>and consonant cluster determination in lujvo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>y-hyphen</primary><secondary>and consonant cluster determination</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>rules for combining to form lujvo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>rules for formation of</secondary></indexterm> When assembling rafsi together into lujvo, the rules for valid brivla must be followed: a consonant cluster must occur in the first five letters (excluding
- <letteral>y</letteral> and
- <letteral>'</letteral>), and the lujvo must end in a vowel.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>glue in lujvo</primary><secondary>y-hyphen as</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>y-hyphen</primary><secondary>and stress determination</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>y-hyphen</primary><secondary>use of</secondary></indexterm> A
- <letteral>y</letteral> (which is ignored in determining stress or consonant clusters) is inserted in the middle of the consonant cluster to glue the word together when the resulting cluster is either not permissible or the word is likely to break up. There are specific rules describing these conditions, detailed in
-
-
- <xref linkend="section-rafsi"/>.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>glue in lujvo</primary><secondary>n-hyphen as</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>n-hyphen</primary><secondary>use of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>glue in lujvo</primary><secondary>r-hyphen as</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>r-hyphen</primary><secondary>use of</secondary></indexterm> An
- <letteral>r</letteral> (in some cases, an
- <letteral>n</letteral>) is inserted when a CVV-form rafsi attaches to the beginning of a lujvo in such a way that there is no consonant cluster. For example, in the lujvo</para>
- <example role="lujvo-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3Qtv">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>field rations</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c4e5d8"/>
- </title>
- <lujvo-making>
- <jbo>soirsai</jbo>
- <veljvo>sonci sanmi</veljvo>
- <gloss>soldier meal</gloss>
- <natlang>field rations</natlang>
- </lujvo-making>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmavo</primary><secondary>contrasted with same-form rafsi in meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>contrasted with same-form cmavo in meaning</secondary></indexterm> the rafsi
- <rafsi>soi-</rafsi> and
- <rafsi>-sai</rafsi> are joined, with the additional
-
- <letteral>r</letteral> making up the
- <morphology>rs</morphology> consonant pair needed to make the word a brivla. Without the
- <letteral>r</letteral>, the word would break up into
- <jbophrase>soi sai</jbophrase>, two cmavo. The pair of cmavo have no relation to their rafsi lookalikes; they will either be ungrammatical (as in this case), or will express a different meaning from what was intended.</para>
-
- <para>Learning rafsi and the rules for assembling them into lujvo is clearly seen to be necessary for fully using the potential Lojban vocabulary.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>invention of</secondary></indexterm> Most important, it is possible to invent new lujvo while you speak or write in order to represent a new or unfamiliar concept, one for which you do not know any existing Lojban word. As long as you follow the rules for building these compounds, there is a good chance that you will be understood without explanation.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-rafsi">
- <title>rafsi</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>selection considerations in making lujvo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>level of uniqueness of rafsi relating to</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>level of uniqueness of relation to gismu</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>multiplicity of for single gismu</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>uniqueness in gismu referent of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>use of</secondary></indexterm> Every gismu has from two to five rafsi, each of a different form, but each such rafsi represents only one gismu. It is valid to use any of the rafsi forms in building lujvo – whichever the reader or listener will most easily understand, or whichever is most pleasing – subject to the rules of lujvo making. There is a scoring algorithm which is intended to determine which of the possible and legal lujvo forms will be the standard dictionary form (see
- <xref linkend="section-lujvo-scoring"/>).</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>unreduced lujvo</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>long rafsi</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>4-letter rafsi</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>5-letter rafsi</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>basic rafsi for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>unreduced</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>long</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>forms of</secondary></indexterm> Each gismu always has at least two rafsi forms; one is the gismu itself (used only at the end of a lujvo), and one is the gismu without its final vowel (used only at the beginning or middle of a lujvo). These forms are represented as CVC/CV or CCVCV (called
- <quote>the 5-letter rafsi</quote>), and CVC/C or CCVC (called
- <quote>the 4-letter rafsi</quote>) respectively. The dashes in these rafsi form representations show where other rafsi may be attached to form a valid lujvo. When lujvo are formed only from 4-letter and 5-letter rafsi, known collectively as
-
- <quote>long rafsi</quote>, they are called
-
- <quote>unreduced lujvo</quote>.</para>
-
- <para>Some examples of unreduced lujvo forms are:</para>
-
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qj84" role="lujvo-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c4e6d1"/>
- </title>
- <lujvo-making>
- <jbo>mamtypatfu</jbo>
- <veljvo>mamta patfu</veljvo>
- <gloss><quote>mother father</quote></gloss>
- <natlang>or <quote>maternal grandfather</quote></natlang>
- </lujvo-making>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qj99" role="lujvo-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c4e6d2"/>
- </title>
- <lujvo-making>
- <jbo>lerfyliste</jbo>
- <veljvo>lerfu liste</veljvo>
- <gloss><quote>letter list</quote> or a <quote>list of letters</quote></gloss>
- <natlang>(letters of the alphabet)</natlang>
- </lujvo-making>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qj9G" role="lujvo-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c4e6d3"/>
- </title>
- <lujvo-making>
- <jbo>nancyprali</jbo>
- <veljvo>nanca prali</veljvo>
- <gloss><quote>year profit</quote></gloss>
- <natlang>or <quote>annual profit</quote></natlang>
- </lujvo-making>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJbi" role="lujvo-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c4e6d4"/>
- </title>
- <lujvo-making>
- <jbo>prunyplipe</jbo>
- <veljvo>pruni plipe</veljvo>
- <gloss><quote>elastic (springy) leap</quote></gloss>
- <natlang>or <quote>spring</quote> (the verb)</natlang>
- </lujvo-making>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjbP" role="lujvo-example">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>supper</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c4e6d5"/>
- </title>
- <lujvo-making>
- <jbo>vancysanmi</jbo>
- <veljvo>vanci sanmi</veljvo>
- <gloss><quote>evening meal</quote></gloss>
- <natlang>or <quote>supper</quote></natlang>
-
- </lujvo-making>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>short rafsi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>short</secondary></indexterm> In addition to these two forms, each gismu may have up to three additional short rafsi, three letters long. All short rafsi have one of the forms CVC, CCV, or CVV. The total number of rafsi forms that are assigned to a gismu depends on how useful the gismu is, or is presumed to be, in making lujvo, when compared to other gismu that could be assigned the rafsi.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>-er</primary><secondary>use of zmadu in forming</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>comparatives</primary><secondary>use of zmadu in forming</secondary></indexterm> For example,
- <valsi>zmadu</valsi> (
- <quote>more than</quote>) has the two short rafsi
- <rafsi>zma</rafsi> and
- <rafsi>mau</rafsi> (in addition to its unreduced rafsi
-
- <rafsi>zmad</rafsi> and
- <valsi>zmadu</valsi>), because a vast number of lujvo have been created based on
- <valsi>zmadu</valsi>, corresponding in general to English comparative adjectives ending in
-
- <quote>-er</quote> such as
- <quote>whiter</quote> (Lojban
- <valsi>labmau</valsi>). On the other hand,
- <valsi>bakri</valsi> (
- <quote>chalk</quote>) has no short rafsi and few lujvo.</para>
- <para>There are at most one CVC-form, one CCV-form, and one CVV-form rafsi per gismu. In fact, only a tiny handful of gismu have both a CCV-form and a CVV-form rafsi assigned, and still fewer have all three forms of short rafsi. However, gismu with both a CVC-form and another short rafsi are fairly common, partly because more possible CVC-form rafsi exist. Yet CVC-form rafsi, even though they are fairly easy to remember, cannot be used at the end of a lujvo (because lujvo must end in vowels), so justifying the assignment of an additional short rafsi to many gismu.</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>rationale for assignments of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi space</primary></indexterm> The intention was to use the available
- <quote>rafsi space</quote>- the set of all possible short rafsi forms – in the most efficient way possible; the goal is to make the most-used lujvo as short as possible (thus maximizing the use of short rafsi), while keeping the rafsi very recognizable to anyone who knows the source gismu. For this reason, the letters in a rafsi have always been chosen from among the five letters of the corresponding gismu. As a result, there are a limited set of short rafsi available for assignment to each gismu. At most seven possible short rafsi are available for consideration (of which at most three can be used, as explained above).</para>
-
-
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>possible forms for construction of</secondary></indexterm> Here are the only short rafsi forms that can possibly exist for gismu of the form CVC/CV, like <valsi>sakli</valsi>. The digits in the second column represent the gismu letters used to form the rafsi.</para>
- <informaltable>
- <tr>
- <td>CVC</td>
- <td>123</td>
- <td><rafsi>-sak-</rafsi></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>CVC</td>
- <td>124</td>
- <td><rafsi>-sal-</rafsi></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>CVV</td>
- <td>12'5</td>
- <td><rafsi>-sa'i-</rafsi></td>
-
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>CVV</td>
- <td>125</td>
- <td><rafsi>-sai-</rafsi></td>
-
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>CCV</td>
- <td>345</td>
- <td><rafsi>-kli-</rafsi></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>CCV</td>
- <td>132</td>
- <td><rafsi>-ska-</rafsi></td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <para>(The only actual short rafsi for
- <valsi>sakli</valsi> is
- <rafsi>-sal-</rafsi>.)</para>
- <para>For gismu of the form CCVCV, like
- <valsi>blaci</valsi>, the only short rafsi forms that can exist are:</para>
- <informaltable>
- <tr>
- <td>CVC</td>
- <td>134</td>
- <td><rafsi>-bac-</rafsi></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>CVC</td>
- <td>234</td>
- <td><rafsi>-lac</rafsi></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>CVV</td>
- <td>13'5</td>
- <td><rafsi>-ba'i-</rafsi></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>CVV</td>
- <td>135</td>
- <td><rafsi>-bai-</rafsi></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>CVV</td>
- <td>23'5</td>
- <td><rafsi>-la'i-</rafsi></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>CVV</td>
- <td>235</td>
- <td><rafsi>-lai-</rafsi></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>CCV</td>
- <td>123</td>
- <td><rafsi>-bla-</rafsi></td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi assignments</primary><secondary>non-reassignability of</secondary></indexterm> (In fact,
- <valsi>blaci</valsi> has none of these short rafsi; they are all assigned to other gismu. Lojban speakers are not free to reassign any of the rafsi; the tables shown here are to help understand how the rafsi were chosen in the first place.)</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>considerations restricting construction of</secondary></indexterm> There are a few restrictions: a CVV-form rafsi without an apostrophe cannot exist unless the vowels make up one of the four diphthongs
- <diphthong>ai</diphthong>,
- <diphthong>ei</diphthong>,
- <diphthong>oi</diphthong>, or
- <diphthong>au</diphthong>; and a CCV-form rafsi is possible only if the two consonants form a permissible initial consonant pair (see
- <xref linkend="section-morphology-introduction"/>). Thus
- <valsi>mamta</valsi>, which has the same form as
- <valsi>salci</valsi>, can only have
- <rafsi>mam</rafsi>,
- <rafsi>mat</rafsi>, and
- <rafsi>ma'a</rafsi> as possible rafsi: in fact, only
-
- <rafsi>mam</rafsi> is assigned to it.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>numbers</primary><secondary>rafsi for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi for numbers</primary></indexterm> Some cmavo also have associated rafsi, usually CVC-form. For example, the ten common numerical digits, which are all CV form cmavo, each have a CVC-form rafsi formed by adding a consonant to the cmavo. Most cmavo that have rafsi are ones used in composing tanru.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fully reduced lujvo</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>fully reduced</secondary></indexterm> The term for a lujvo made up solely of short rafsi is
- <quote>fully reduced lujvo</quote>. Here are some examples of fully reduced lujvo:</para>
-
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJc2" role="lujvo-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c4e6d6"/>
- </title>
- <lujvo-making>
- <jbo>cumfri</jbo>
- <veljvo>cumki lifri</veljvo>
- <gloss><quote>possible experience</quote></gloss>
- </lujvo-making>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjcA" role="lujvo-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c4e6d7"/>
- </title>
- <lujvo-making>
- <jbo>klezba</jbo>
- <veljvo>klesi zbasu</veljvo>
- <gloss><quote>category make</quote></gloss>
- </lujvo-making>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjD7" role="lujvo-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c4e6d8"/>
- </title>
- <lujvo-making>
- <jbo>kixta'a</jbo>
- <veljvo>krixa tavla</veljvo>
- <gloss><quote>cry-out talk</quote></gloss>
- </lujvo-making>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJDa" role="lujvo-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c4e6d9"/>
- </title>
- <lujvo-making>
- <jbo>sniju'o</jbo>
- <veljvo>sinxa djuno</veljvo>
- <gloss><quote>sign know</quote></gloss>
- </lujvo-making>
- </example>
- <para>In addition, the unreduced forms in <xref linkend="example-random-id-qj84"/> and <xref linkend="example-random-id-qj99"/> may be fully reduced to:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjdE" role="lujvo-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c4e6d10"/>
- </title>
- <lujvo-making>
- <jbo>mampa'u</jbo>
- <veljvo>mamta patfu</veljvo>
- <gloss><quote>mother father</quote></gloss>
- <natlang>or <quote>maternal grandfather</quote></natlang>
- </lujvo-making>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJDg" role="lujvo-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c4e6d11"/>
- </title>
- <lujvo-making>
- <jbo>lerste</jbo>
- <veljvo>lerfu liste</veljvo>
- <gloss><quote>letter list</quote> or a <quote>list of letters</quote></gloss>
- </lujvo-making>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>recognizing</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo form</primary><secondary>number of letters in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo form</primary><secondary>consonant cluster requirement in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo form</primary><secondary>final letter of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>summary of form characteristics</secondary></indexterm> As noted above, CVC-form rafsi cannot appear as the final rafsi in a lujvo, because all lujvo must end with one or two vowels. As a brivla, a lujvo must also contain a consonant cluster within the first five letters – this ensures that they cannot be mistaken for compound cmavo. Of course, all lujvo have at least six letters since they have two or more rafsi, each at least three letters long; hence they cannot be confused with gismu.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo form</primary><secondary>requirements for hyphen insertion in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>hyphen letter</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>hyphens</primary><secondary>use of</secondary></indexterm> When attaching two rafsi together, it may be necessary to insert a hyphen letter. In Lojban, the term
-
- <quote>hyphen</quote> always refers to a letter, either the vowel
- <letteral>y</letteral> or one of the consonants
- <letteral>r</letteral> and
- <letteral>n</letteral>. (The letter
- <letteral>l</letteral> can also be a hyphen, but is not used as one in lujvo.)</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo form</primary><secondary>requirements for y-hyphen insertion in</secondary></indexterm> The
- y-hyphen is used after a CVC-form rafsi when joining it with the following rafsi could result in an impermissible consonant pair, or when the resulting lujvo could fall apart into two or more words (either cmavo or gismu).</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>and consonant pairs</secondary></indexterm> Thus, the tanru
- <jbophrase>pante tavla</jbophrase> (
- <quote>protest talk</quote>) cannot produce the lujvo
- <valsi valid="false">patta'a</valsi>, because
- <morphology>tt</morphology> is not a permissible consonant pair; the lujvo must be
- <valsi>patyta'a</valsi>. Similarly, the tanru
- <jbophrase>mudri siclu</jbophrase> (
- <quote>wooden whistle</quote>) cannot form the lujvo
- <valsi valid="false">mudsiclu</valsi>; instead,
- <valsi>mudysiclu</valsi> must be used. (Remember that
- <letteral>y</letteral> is not counted in determining whether the first five letters of a brivla contain a consonant cluster: this is why.)</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>four-letter</secondary><tertiary>requirement for y-hyphen</tertiary></indexterm> The
- y-hyphen is also used to attach a 4-letter rafsi, formed by dropping the final vowel of a gismu, to the following rafsi. (This procedure was shown, but not explained, in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qj84"/> to
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjbP"/>.)</para>
- <para>The lujvo forms
- <valsi>zunlyjamfu</valsi>,
- <valsi>zunlyjma</valsi>,
- <valsi>zuljamfu</valsi>, and
- <valsi>zuljma</valsi> are all legitimate and equivalent forms made from the tanru
- <jbophrase>zunle jamfu</jbophrase> (
- <quote>left foot</quote>). Of these,
- <valsi>zuljma</valsi> is the preferred one since it is the shortest; it thus is likely to be the form listed in a Lojban dictionary.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo form</primary><secondary>requirements for n-hyphen insertion in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo form</primary><secondary>requirements for r-hyphen insertion in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>r-hyphen</primary><secondary>use of</secondary></indexterm> The
- r-hyphen and its close relative, the
- n-hyphen, are used in lujvo only after CVV-form rafsi. A hyphen is always required in a two-part lujvo of the form CVV-CVV, since otherwise there would be no consonant cluster.</para>
- <para>An
- r-hyphen or
- n-hyphen is also required after the CVV-form rafsi of any lujvo of the form CVV-CVC/CV or CVV-CCVCV since it would otherwise fall apart into a CVV-form cmavo and a gismu. In any lujvo with more than two parts, a CVV-form rafsi in the initial position must always be followed by a hyphen. If the hyphen were to be omitted, the supposed lujvo could be broken into smaller words without the hyphen: because the CVV-form rafsi would be interpreted as a cmavo, and the remainder of the word as a valid lujvo that is one rafsi shorter.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>r-hyphen</primary><secondary>contrasted with n-hyphen in requirements for use</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>n-hyphen</primary><secondary>contrasted with r-hyphen in requirements for use</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>n-hyphen</primary><secondary>use of</secondary></indexterm> An
- n-hyphen is only used in place of an
- r-hyphen when the following rafsi begins with
- <letteral>r</letteral>. For example, the tanru
- <jbophrase>rokci renro</jbophrase> (
- <quote>rock throw</quote>) cannot be expressed as
- <jbophrase valid="false">ro'ire'o</jbophrase> (which breaks up into two cmavo), nor can it be
- <jbophrase valid="false">ro'irre'o</jbophrase> (which has an impermissible double consonant); the
- n-hyphen is required, and the correct form of the hyphenated lujvo is
- <valsi>ro'inre'o</valsi>. The same lujvo could also be expressed without hyphenation as
- <valsi>rokre'o</valsi>.</para>
- <para>
-<indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>with zei</secondary></indexterm>
-There is also a different way of building lujvo, or rather phrases which are grammatically and semantically equivalent to lujvo. You can make a phrase containing any desired words, joining each pair of them with the special cmavo
- <valsi>zei</valsi>. Thus,</para>
- <example role="lujvo-example" xml:id="example-random-id-VeGL">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c4e6d12"/>
- </title>
- <lujvo-making>
- <jbo>bridi zei valsi</jbo>
- </lujvo-making>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmavo without rafsi</primary><secondary>method of including in lujvo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>method of including in lujvo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>method of including in lujvo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>lack of</secondary><tertiary>effect on forming lujvo</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>from cmavo with no rafsi</secondary></indexterm> is the exact equivalent of
- <valsi>brivla</valsi> (but not necessarily the same as the underlying tanru
- <jbophrase>bridi valsi</jbophrase>, which could have other meanings.) Using
- <valsi>zei</valsi> is the only way to get a cmavo lacking a rafsi, a cmene, or a fu'ivla into a lujvo:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJe1" role="lujvo-example">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>X-ray</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c4e6d13"/>
- </title>
- <lujvo-making>
- <jbo>xy. zei kantu</jbo>
- <natlang>X ray</natlang>
- </lujvo-making>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJeE" role="lujvo-example">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>Persian rug</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>rug</primary><secondary>Persian</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c4e6d14"/>
- </title>
- <lujvo-making>
- <jbo>kulnr,farsi zei lolgai</jbo>
- <gloss>Farsi floor-cover</gloss>
- <natlang>Persian rug</natlang>
- </lujvo-making>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJef" role="lujvo-example">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>hepatitis</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c4e6d15"/>
- </title>
- <lujvo-making>
- <jbo>na'e zei .a zei na'e zei by. livgyterbilma</jbo>
- <gloss>non-A, non-B liver-disease</gloss>
- <natlang>non-A, non-B hepatitis</natlang>
- </lujvo-making>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJEh" role="lujvo-example">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>Sherman tank</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>tank</primary><secondary>Sherman</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c4e6d16"/>
- </title>
- <lujvo-making>
- <jbo>.cerman. zei jamkarce</jbo>
- <gloss>Sherman war-car</gloss>
- <natlang>Sherman tank</natlang>
- </lujvo-making>
- </example>
- <para><xref linkend="example-random-id-qJef"/> is particularly noteworthy because the phrase that would be produced by removing the
- <valsi>zei</valsi>s from it doesn't end with a brivla, and in fact is not even grammatical. As written, the example is a tanru with two components, but by adding a
- <valsi>zei</valsi> between
- <valsi>by.</valsi> and
- <valsi>livgyterbilma</valsi> to produce</para>
- <example role="lujvo-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Wnaz">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>hepatitis</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c4e6d17"/>
- </title>
- <lujvo-making>
- <jbo>na'e zei .a zei na'e zei by. zei livgyterbilma</jbo>
- <natlang>non-A-non-B-hepatitis</natlang>
- </lujvo-making>
- </example>
- <para>the whole phrase would become a single lujvo. The longer lujvo of
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-Wnaz"/> may be preferable, because its place structure can be built from that of
- <valsi>bilma</valsi>, whereas the place structure of a lujvo without a brivla must be constructed ad hoc.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmavo</primary><secondary>contrasted with rafsi in usage</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>contrasted with cmavo in usage</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>contrasted with words</secondary></indexterm> Note that rafsi may not be used in
- <valsi>zei</valsi> phrases, because they are not words. CVV rafsi look like words (specifically cmavo) but there can be no confusion between the two uses of the same letters, because cmavo appear only as separate words or in compound cmavo (which are really just a notation for writing separate but closely related words as if they were one); rafsi appear only as parts of lujvo.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-fuhivla">
- <title>fu'ivla</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>unsuitability of for concrete/specific terms and jargon</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>food</primary><secondary>use of fu'ivla for specific</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>animals</primary><secondary>use of fu'ivla for specific</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>plants</primary><secondary>use of fu'ivla for specific</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>jargon</primary><secondary>use of fu'ivla for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>specific terms</primary><secondary>use of fu'ivla for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>concrete terms</primary><secondary>use of fu'ivla for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>use of</secondary></indexterm> The use of tanru or lujvo is not always appropriate for very concrete or specific terms (e.g.
-
- <quote>brie</quote> or
-
- <quote>cobra</quote>), or for jargon words specialized to a narrow field (e.g.
-
-
- <quote>quark</quote>,
-
- <quote>integral</quote>, or
-
- <quote>iambic pentameter</quote>). These words are in effect names for concepts, and the names were invented by speakers of another language. The vast majority of words referring to plants, animals, foods, and scientific terminology cannot be easily expressed as tanru. They thus must be borrowed (actually
-
- <quote>copied</quote>) into Lojban from the original language.</para>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>borrowings</primary><secondary>Stage 1</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>borrowings</primary><secondary>using foreign-language name</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>borrowing</primary><secondary>four stages of</secondary></indexterm> There are four stages of borrowing in Lojban, as words become more and more modified (but shorter and easier to use). Stage 1 is the use of a foreign name quoted with the cmavo
-
- <valsi>la'o</valsi> (explained in full in
- <xref linkend="section-more-quotations"/>):</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-QpNm">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c4e7d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>me la'o ly. spaghetti .ly.</jbo>
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>spaghetti</primary></indexterm> is a predicate with the place structure
- <quote>x1 is a quantity of spaghetti</quote>.</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>borrowings</primary><secondary>Stage 2</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>borrowings</primary><secondary>using lojbanized name</secondary></indexterm> Stage 2 involves changing the foreign name to a Lojbanized name, as explained in
- <xref linkend="section-cmene"/>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-zijY">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c4e7d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>me la spagetis.</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>One of these expedients is often quite sufficient when you need a word quickly in conversation. (This can make it easier to get by when you do not yet have full command of the Lojban vocabulary, provided you are talking to someone who will recognize the borrowing.)</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>as Stage 3 borrowings</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>borrowings</primary><secondary>Stage 3</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>borrowings</primary><secondary>fu'ivla form with categorizing rafsi</secondary></indexterm> Where a little more universality is desired, the word to be borrowed must be Lojbanized into one of several permitted forms. A rafsi is then usually attached to the beginning of the Lojbanized form, using a hyphen to ensure that the resulting word doesn't fall apart.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>borrowings</primary><secondary>most common form for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>uniqueness of meaning in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>as fu'ivla categorizer</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla categorizer</primary></indexterm> The rafsi categorizes or limits the meaning of the fu'ivla; otherwise a word having several different jargon meanings in other languages would require the word-inventor to choose which meaning should be assigned to the fu'ivla, since fu'ivla (like other brivla) are not permitted to have more than one definition. Such a Stage 3 borrowing is the most common kind of fu'ivla.</para>
-
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>as Stage 4 borrowings</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>borrowings</primary><secondary>Stage 4</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>borrowings</primary><secondary>fu'ivla form without categorizing rafsi</secondary></indexterm> Finally, Stage 4 fu'ivla do not have any rafsi classifier, and are used where a fu'ivla has become so common or so important that it must be made as short as possible. (See
- <xref linkend="section-rafsi-fuhivla"/> for a proposal concerning Stage 4 fu'ivla.)</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>form of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>construction of</secondary></indexterm> The form of a fu'ivla reliably distinguishes it from both the gismu and the cmavo. Like cultural gismu, fu'ivla are generally based on a word from a single non-Lojban language. The word is
- <quote>borrowed</quote> (actually
- <quote>copied</quote>, hence the Lojban tanru
- <jbophrase>fukpi valsi</jbophrase>) from the other language and Lojbanized – the phonemes are converted to their closest Lojban equivalent and modifications are made as necessary to make the word a legitimate Lojban fu'ivla-form word. All fu'ivla:</para>
- <orderedlist>
- <listitem>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>initial consonant cluster in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>rules for formation of</secondary></indexterm> must contain a consonant cluster in the first five letters of the word; if this consonant cluster is at the beginning, it must either be a permissible initial consonant pair, or a longer cluster such that each pair of adjacent consonants in the cluster is a permissible initial consonant pair:
- <valsi>spraile</valsi> is acceptable, but not
- <valsi valid="false">ktraile</valsi> or
- <valsi valid="false">trkaile</valsi>;</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>must end in one or more vowels;</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>slinku'i test</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> must not be gismu or lujvo, or any combination of cmavo, gismu, and lujvo; furthermore, a fu'ivla with a CV cmavo joined to the front of it must not have the form of a lujvo (the so-called
- <quote>slinku'i test</quote>, not discussed further in this book);</para>
-
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>
-<indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>y</primary><secondary>letter</secondary><tertiary>prohibition from fu'ivla</tertiary></indexterm> cannot contain
- <letteral>y</letteral>, although they may contain syllabic pronunciations of Lojban consonants;</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>stress in</secondary></indexterm> like other brivla, are stressed on the penultimate syllable.</para>
- </listitem>
- </orderedlist>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>consonant clusters in</secondary></indexterm> Note that consonant triples or larger clusters that are not at the beginning of a fu'ivla can be quite flexible, as long as all consonant pairs are permissible. There is no need to restrict fu'ivla clusters to permissible initial pairs except at the beginning.</para>
-
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>borrowings</primary><secondary>Stage 3 contrasted with Stage 4 in ease of construction</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>categorized contrasted with uncategorized in ease of construction</secondary></indexterm> This is a fairly liberal definition and allows quite a lot of possibilities within
- <quote>fu'ivla space</quote>. Stage 3 fu'ivla can be made easily on the fly, as lujvo can, because the procedure for forming them always guarantees a word that cannot violate any of the rules. Stage 4 fu'ivla require running tests that are not simple to characterize or perform, and should be made only after deliberation and by someone knowledgeable about all the considerations that apply.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>algorithm for constructing</secondary></indexterm> Here is a simple and reliable procedure for making a non-Lojban word into a valid Stage 3 fu'ivla:</para>
- <orderedlist>
- <listitem>
- <para>Eliminate all double consonants and silent letters.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>Convert all sounds to their closest Lojban equivalents. Lojban
- <letteral>y</letteral>, however, may not be used in any fu'ivla.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>If the last letter is not a vowel, modify the ending so that the word ends in a vowel, either by removing a final consonant or by adding a suggestively chosen final vowel.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>If the first letter is not a consonant, modify the beginning so that the word begins with a consonant, either by removing an initial vowel or adding a suggestively chosen initial consonant.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla categorizer</primary><secondary>selection consideration for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>l-hyphen</primary><secondary>use of</secondary></indexterm> Prefix the result of steps 1-5 with a 4-letter rafsi that categorizes the fu'ivla into a
- <quote>topic area</quote>. It is only safe to use a 4-letter rafsi; short rafsi sometimes produce invalid fu'ivla. Hyphenate the rafsi to the rest of the fu'ivla with an
- r-hyphen; if that would produce a double
- <letteral>r</letteral>, use an
- n-hyphen instead; if the rafsi ends in
- <letteral>r</letteral> and the rest of the fu'ivla begins with
- <letteral>n</letteral> (or vice versa), or if the rafsi ends in "r" and the rest of the fu'ivla begins with "tc", "ts", "dj", or "dz" (using "n" would result in a phonotactically impermissible cluster), use an
- l-hyphen. (This is the only use of
- l-hyphen in Lojban.)</para>
- <para>Alternatively, if a CVC-form short rafsi is available it can be used instead of the long rafsi.</para>
-
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>Remember that the stress necessarily appears on the penultimate (next-to-the-last) syllable.</para>
- </listitem>
- </orderedlist>
- <para> In this section, the hyphen is set off with commas in the examples, but these commas are not required in writing, and the hyphen need not be pronounced as a separate syllable.</para>
- <para>Here are a few examples:</para>
- <example role="lojbanization-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ufin">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>spaghetti</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c4e7d3"/>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>syllabic pronunciations of consonants</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>syllabic pronunciations of consonants</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla category attachment</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
- </title>
- <lojbanization>
- <natlang>spaghetti <comment>from English or Italian</comment></natlang>
-
- <jbo>spageti <comment>Lojbanize</comment></jbo>
- <jbo>cidj,r,spageti <comment>prefix long rafsi</comment></jbo>
-
- <jbo>dja,r,spageti <comment>prefix short rafsi</comment></jbo>
- </lojbanization>
- </example>
- <para> where
- <rafsi>cidj-</rafsi> is the 4-letter rafsi for
- <valsi>cidja</valsi>, the Lojban gismu for
- <quote>food</quote>, thus categorizing
- <valsi>cidjrspageti</valsi> as a kind of food. The form with the short rafsi happens to work, but such good fortune cannot be relied on: in any event, it means the same thing.</para>
- <example role="lojbanization-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pzXe">
- <title>
-
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>syllabic pronunciations of consonants</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla category attachment</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>syllabic pronunciations of consonants</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>maple trees</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>Acer</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>maple sugar</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c4e7d4"/>
- </title>
- <lojbanization>
- <natlang>Acer <comment>the scientific name of maple trees</comment></natlang>
-
-
- <jbo>acer <comment>Lojbanize</comment></jbo>
- <jbo>xaceru <comment>add initial consonant and final vowel</comment></jbo>
- <jbo>tric,r,xaceru <comment>prefix rafsi</comment></jbo>
- <jbo>ric,r,xaceru <comment>prefix short rafsi</comment></jbo>
- </lojbanization>
- </example>
- <para>where
- <rafsi>tric-</rafsi> and
- <rafsi>ric-</rafsi> are rafsi for
- <valsi>tricu</valsi>, the gismu for
- <quote>tree</quote>. Note that by the same principles,
- <quote>maple sugar</quote> could get the fu'ivla
-
- <valsi>saktrxaceru</valsi>, or could be represented by the tanru
- <jbophrase>tricrxaceru sakta</jbophrase>. Technically,
- <valsi>ricrxaceru</valsi> and
- <valsi>tricrxaceru</valsi> are distinct fu'ivla, but they would surely be given the same meanings if both happened to be in use.</para>
- <example role="lojbanization-example" xml:id="example-random-id-C0YS">
- <title>
-
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>syllabic pronunciations of consonants</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla category attachment</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>syllabic pronunciations of consonants</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>brie</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c4e7d5"/>
- </title>
- <lojbanization>
- <natlang>brie <comment>from French</comment></natlang>
-
- <jbo>bri <comment>Lojbanize</comment></jbo>
- <jbo>cirl,r,bri <comment>prefix rafsi</comment></jbo>
- </lojbanization>
- </example>
- <para> where
- <rafsi>cirl-</rafsi> represents
- <valsi>cirla</valsi> (
- <quote>cheese</quote>).</para>
- <example role="lojbanization-example" xml:id="example-random-id-DQju">
- <title>
-
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>syllabic pronunciations of consonants</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla category attachment</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>syllabic pronunciations of consonants</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>cobra</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c4e7d6"/>
- </title>
- <lojbanization>
- <natlang>cobra</natlang>
-
- <jbo>kobra <comment>Lojbanize</comment></jbo>
- <jbo>sinc,r,kobra <comment>prefix rafsi</comment></jbo>
- </lojbanization>
- </example>
- <para> where
- <rafsi>sinc-</rafsi> represents
- <valsi>since</valsi> (
- <quote>snake</quote>).</para>
- <example role="lojbanization-example" xml:id="example-random-id-TFzH">
- <title>
-
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>syllabic pronunciations of consonants</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla category attachment</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>syllabic pronunciations of consonants</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>quark</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c4e7d7"/>
- </title>
- <lojbanization>
- <natlang>quark</natlang>
-
- <jbo>kuark <comment>Lojbanize</comment></jbo>
- <jbo>kuarka <comment>add final vowel</comment></jbo>
- <jbo>sask,r,kuarka <comment>prefix rafsi</comment></jbo>
- </lojbanization>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>allowable diphthongs</primary><secondary>in gismu and lujvo contrasted with in fu'ivla</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>allowable diphthongs</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla contrasted with in gismu and lujvo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>diphthongs</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>diphthongs in</secondary></indexterm> where
- <rafsi>sask-</rafsi> represents
- <valsi>saske</valsi> (
- <quote>science</quote>). Note the extra vowel
- <letteral>a</letteral> added to the end of the word, and the diphthong
- <diphthong>ua</diphthong>, which never appears in gismu or lujvo, but may appear in fu'ivla.</para>
- <example role="lojbanization-example" xml:id="example-random-id-FTfQ">
- <title>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>syllabic pronunciations of consonants</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla category attachment</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>syllabic pronunciations of consonants</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c4e7d8"/>
- </title>
- <lojbanization>
- <natlang xml:lang="ko">자모 <comment>from Korean</comment></natlang>
- <jbo>djamo <comment>Lojbanize</comment></jbo>
- <jbo>lerf,r,djamo <comment>prefix rafsi</comment></jbo>
- <jbo>ler,l,djamo <comment>prefix rafsi</comment></jbo>
- </lojbanization>
- </example>
- <para>where
- <rafsi>ler-</rafsi> represents
- <valsi>lerfu</valsi> (
- <quote>letter</quote>). Note the l-hyphen in "lerldjamo", since "lerndjamo" contains the forbidden cluster "ndj".</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla categorizer</primary><secondary>for distinguishing fu'ivla form</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>disambiguation of</secondary></indexterm> The use of the prefix helps distinguish among the many possible meanings of the borrowed word, depending on the field. As it happens,
- <valsi>spageti</valsi> and
- <valsi>kuarka</valsi> are valid Stage 4 fu'ivla, but
- <valsi valid="false">xaceru</valsi> looks like a compound cmavo, and
- <valsi valid="false">kobra</valsi> like a gismu.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla categorizer</primary><secondary>for distinguishing specialized meanings</secondary></indexterm> For another example,
- <quote>integral</quote> has a specific meaning to a mathematician. But the Lojban fu'ivla
-
- <valsi>integrale</valsi>, which is a valid Stage 4 fu'ivla, does not convey that mathematical sense to a non-mathematical listener, even one with an English-speaking background; its source – the English word
- <quote>integral</quote> – has various other specialized meanings in other fields.</para>
-
- <para>Left uncontrolled,
- <valsi>integrale</valsi> almost certainly would eventually come to mean the same collection of loosely related concepts that English associates with
- <quote>integral</quote>, with only the context to indicate (possibly) that the mathematical term is meant.</para>
-
- <para>
-<indexterm type="general"><primary>integral</primary><secondary>architectural concept</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general"><primary>integral</primary><secondary>mathematical concept</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
-
-The prefix method would render the mathematical concept as
- <valsi>cmacrntegrale</valsi>, if the
- <letteral>i</letteral> of
- <valsi>integrale</valsi> is removed, or something like
- <valsi>cmacrnintegrale</valsi>, if a new consonant is added to the beginning;
- <rafsi>cmac-</rafsi> is the rafsi for
- <valsi>cmaci</valsi> (
- <quote>mathematics</quote>). The architectural sense of
- <quote>integral</quote> might be conveyed with
-
- <valsi>djinrnintegrale</valsi> or
- <valsi>tarmrnintegrale</valsi>, where
- <valsi>dinju</valsi> and
- <valsi>tarmi</valsi> mean
- <quote>building</quote> and
- <quote>form</quote> respectively.</para>
- <para>Here are some fu'ivla representing cultures and related things, shown with more than one rafsi prefix:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJG8" role="lojbanization-example">
- <title>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>syllabic pronunciations of consonants</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>syllabic pronunciations of consonants</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla category attachment</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>Bulgarian</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c4e7d9"/>
- </title>
- <lojbanization>
- <jbo role="pronunciation">bang,r,blgaria</jbo>
- <natlang>Bulgarian <comment>in language</comment></natlang>
-
- </lojbanization>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJga" role="lojbanization-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c4e7d10"/>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>syllabic pronunciations of consonants</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla category attachment</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>syllabic pronunciations of consonants</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>Bulgarian</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- </title>
- <lojbanization>
- <jbo role="pronunciation">kuln,r,blgaria</jbo>
- <natlang>Bulgarian <comment>in culture</comment></natlang>
-
- </lojbanization>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjGf" role="lojbanization-example">
- <title>
-
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>syllabic pronunciations of consonants</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla category attachment</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>Bulgarian</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c4e7d11"/>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>syllabic pronunciations of consonants</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
- </title>
- <lojbanization>
- <jbo role="pronunciation">gugd,r,blgaria</jbo>
- <natlang>Bulgaria <comment>the country</comment></natlang>
- </lojbanization>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJGv" role="lojbanization-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c4e7d12"/>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>syllabic pronunciations of consonants</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla category attachment</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>Korean</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>syllabic pronunciations of consonants</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
- </title>
- <lojbanization>
- <jbo role="pronunciation">bang,r,kore,a</jbo>
- <natlang>Korean <comment>the language</comment></natlang>
-
- </lojbanization>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjh0" role="lojbanization-example">
- <title>
-
-
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>syllabic pronunciations of consonants</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla category attachment</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>Korean</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c4e7d13"/>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>syllabic pronunciations of consonants</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
- </title>
- <lojbanization>
- <jbo role="pronunciation">kuln,r,kore,a</jbo>
- <natlang>Korean <comment>the culture</comment></natlang>
-
- </lojbanization>
- </example>
- <para>
-
-<indexterm type="general"><primary>Navajo</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
- <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>considerations for choosing basis word</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>with invalid diphthongs</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>invalid diphthongs</primary><secondary>in fu'ivla</secondary></indexterm> Note the commas in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qJGv"/> and
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjh0"/>, used because
- <diphthong>ea</diphthong> is not a valid diphthong in Lojban. Arguably, some form of the native name
- <quote>Chosen</quote> should have been used instead of the internationally known
- <quote>Korea</quote>; this is a recurring problem in all borrowings. In general, it is better to use the native name unless using it will severely impede understanding:
-
- <quote>Navajo</quote> is far more widely known than
-
- <quote>Dine'e</quote>.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-cmene">
- <title>cmene</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names in Lojban (see also cmene)</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>purpose of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>purpose of</secondary></indexterm> Lojbanized names, called
- <valsi>cmene</valsi>, are very much like their counterparts in other languages. They are labels applied to things (or people) to stand for them in descriptions or in direct address. They may convey meaning in themselves, but do not necessarily do so.</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>rationale for lojbanizing</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>rationale for lojbanizing</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>and analyzability of speech stream</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>examples of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>examples of</secondary></indexterm> Because names are often highly personal and individual, Lojban attempts to allow native language names to be used with a minimum of modification. The requirement that the Lojban speech stream be unambiguously analyzable, however, means that most names must be modified somewhat when they are Lojbanized. Here are a few examples of English names and possible Lojban equivalents:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjhN" role="lojbanization-example">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>Jim</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c4e8d1"/>
- </title>
- <lojbanization>
- <jbo>djim.</jbo>
- <natlang>Jim</natlang>
- </lojbanization>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjHo" role="lojbanization-example">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>Jane</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c4e8d2"/>
- </title>
- <lojbanization>
- <jbo>djein.</jbo>
- <natlang>Jane</natlang>
- </lojbanization>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjIj" role="lojbanization-example">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>Arnold</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c4e8d3"/>
- </title>
- <lojbanization>
- <jbo>.arnold.</jbo>
- <natlang>Arnold</natlang>
-
- </lojbanization>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjim" role="lojbanization-example">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>Pete</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c4e8d4"/>
- </title>
- <lojbanization>
- <jbo>pit.</jbo>
- <natlang>Pete</natlang>
-
- </lojbanization>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjin" role="lojbanization-example">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>Katrina</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c4e8d5"/>
- </title>
- <lojbanization>
- <jbo>katrinas.</jbo>
- <natlang>Katrina</natlang>
-
- </lojbanization>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjIq" role="lojbanization-example">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>Catherine</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c4e8d6"/>
- </title>
- <lojbanization>
- <jbo>kat,r,in.</jbo>
- <natlang>Catherine</natlang>
-
- </lojbanization>
- </example>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>syllabic consonant</primary><secondary>effect on stress determination</secondary></indexterm> (Note that syllabic
- <letteral>r</letteral> is skipped in determining the stressed syllable, so
-
-
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjIq"/> is stressed on the
- <valsi>ka</valsi>.)</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJiv" role="lojbanization-example">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>Cathy</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c4e8d7"/>
- </title>
- <lojbanization>
- <jbo>katis.</jbo>
- <natlang>Cathy</natlang>
-
- </lojbanization>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjIy" role="lojbanization-example">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>Kate</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c4e8d8"/>
- </title>
- <lojbanization>
- <jbo>keit.</jbo>
- <natlang>Kate</natlang>
-
- </lojbanization>
- </example>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>unusual stress in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>unusual stress in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>stress in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>stress in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>rules for formation</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>rules for formation</secondary></indexterm> Names may have almost any form, but always end in a consonant, and are followed by a pause. They are penultimately stressed, unless unusual stress is marked with capitalization. A name may have multiple parts, each ending with a consonant and pause, or the parts may be combined into a single word with no pause. For example,</para>
-
- <example role="lojbanization-example" xml:id="example-random-id-43uP">
- <title>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>John Brown</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>Brown</primary><secondary>John</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c4e8d9"/>
- </title>
- <lojbanization>
- <jbo>djan. braun.</jbo>
- </lojbanization>
- </example>
- <para>and</para>
- <example role="lojbanization-example" xml:id="example-random-id-QnyL">
- <title>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>John Brown</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>Brown</primary><secondary>John</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c4e8d10"/>
- </title>
- <lojbanization>
- <jbo>djanbraun.</jbo>
- </lojbanization>
- </example>
- <para>are both valid Lojbanizations of
- <quote>John Brown</quote>.</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>authority for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>authority for</secondary></indexterm> The final arbiter of the correct form of a name is the person doing the naming, although most cultures grant people the right to determine how they want their own name to be spelled and pronounced. The English name
- <quote>Mary</quote> can thus be Lojbanized as
- <cmevla>meris.</cmevla>,
- <cmevla>maris.</cmevla>,
- <cmevla>meiris.</cmevla>,
- <cmevla>merix.</cmevla>, or even
- <cmevla>marys.</cmevla>. The last alternative is not pronounced much like its English equivalent, but may be desirable to someone who values spelling over pronunciation. The final consonant need not be an
- <letteral>s</letteral>; there must, however, be some Lojban consonant at the end.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>restrictions on form of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>restrictions on form of</secondary></indexterm> Names are not permitted to have the sequences
- <valsi>la</valsi>,
- <valsi>lai</valsi>, or
- <valsi>doi</valsi> embedded in them, unless the sequence is immediately preceded by a consonant. These minor restrictions are due to the fact that all Lojban cmene embedded in a speech stream will be preceded by one of these words or by a pause. With one of these words embedded, the cmene might break up into valid Lojban words followed by a shorter cmene. However, break-up cannot happen after a consonant, because that would imply that the word before the
- <valsi>la</valsi>, or whatever, ended in a consonant without pause, which is impossible.</para>
- <para>
-
-<indexterm type="general"><primary>Nederlands</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
- <indexterm type="general"><primary>Laplace</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> For example, the invalid name
- <cmevla>laplas.</cmevla> would look like the Lojban words
- <jbophrase>la plas.</jbophrase>, and
- <cmevla>ilanas.</cmevla> would be misunderstood as
- <jbophrase>.i la nas.</jbophrase>. However,
- <pronunciation><jbo>NEderlants.</jbo></pronunciation> cannot be misheard as
- <pronunciation><jbo>NEder lants.</jbo></pronunciation>, because
- <pronunciation><jbo>NEder</jbo></pronunciation> with no following pause is not a possible Lojban word.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>alternatives for restricted sequences in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>alternatives for restricted sequences in</secondary></indexterm> There are close alternatives to these forbidden sequences that can be used in Lojbanizing names, such as
- <valsi>ly</valsi>,
- <valsi>lei</valsi>, and
- <valsi>dai</valsi> or
-
- <valsi>do'i</valsi>, that do not cause these problems.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>rules for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>rules for</secondary></indexterm> Lojban cmene are identifiable as word forms by the following characteristics:</para>
-
- <orderedlist>
- <listitem>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>consonant clusters permitted in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>final letter in</secondary></indexterm> They must end in one or more consonants. There are no rules about how many consonants may appear in a cluster in cmene, provided that each consonant pair (whether standing by itself, or as part of a larger cluster) is a permissible pair.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>diphthongs</primary><secondary>specific to cmene</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>diphthongs</primary><secondary>specific to names</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>uy diphthong</primary><secondary>in cmene</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>iy diphthong</primary><secondary>in cmene</secondary></indexterm> They may contain the letter y as a normal, non-hyphenating vowel. They are the only kind of Lojban word that may contain the two diphthongs
- <diphthong>iy</diphthong> and
- <diphthong>uy</diphthong>.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>requirement for pause after</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>requirement for pause after</secondary></indexterm> They are always followed in speech by a pause after the final consonant, written as
- <letteral>.</letteral>.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>capitalization</primary><secondary>use of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>capitalization</primary><secondary>for unusual stress in names</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>capitalization</primary><secondary>use in names</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>stress in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>stress in</secondary></indexterm> They may be stressed on any syllable; if this syllable is not the penultimate one, it must be capitalized when writing. Neither names nor words that begin sentences are capitalized in Lojban, so this is the only use of capital letters.</para>
-
- </listitem>
- </orderedlist>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>from Lojban words</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>from Lojban words</secondary></indexterm> Names meeting these criteria may be invented, Lojbanized from names in other languages, or formed by appending a consonant onto a cmavo, a gismu, a fu'ivla or a lujvo. Some cmene built from Lojban words are:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjj1" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>One</primary><secondary>the</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c4e8d11"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>pav.</jbo>
- <natlang>the One</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>from the cmavo <valsi>pa</valsi>, with rafsi <rafsi>pav</rafsi>, meaning <quote>one</quote></para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjjN" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>Sun</primary><secondary>the</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c4e8d12"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>sol.</jbo>
- <natlang>the Sun</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>from the gismu <valsi>solri</valsi>, meaning <quote>solar</quote>, or actually <quote>pertaining to the Sun</quote></para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjJz" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>Chief</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c4e8d13"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ralj.</jbo>
- <natlang>Chief <comment>as a title</comment></natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>from the gismu <valsi>ralju</valsi>, meaning <quote>principal</quote>.</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJKt" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>Lord</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>Lady</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c4e8d14"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>nol.</jbo>
- <natlang>Lord/Lady</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>from the gismu <valsi>nobli</valsi>, with rafsi <rafsi>nol</rafsi>, meaning <quote>noble</quote>.</para>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>algorithm for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>algorithm for</secondary></indexterm> To Lojbanize a name from the various natural languages, apply the following rules:</para>
- <orderedlist>
- <listitem>
- <para>Eliminate double consonants and silent letters.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>Add a final
- <letteral>s</letteral> or
- <letteral>n</letteral> (or some other consonant that sounds good) if the name ends in a vowel.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>Convert all sounds to their closest Lojban equivalents.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>If possible and acceptable, shift the stress to the penultimate (next-to-the-last) syllable. Use commas and capitalization in written Lojban when it is necessary to preserve non-standard syllabication or stress. Do not capitalize names otherwise.</para>
-
-
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>avoiding impermissible consonant clusters in</secondary></indexterm> If the name contains an impermissible consonant pair, insert a vowel between the consonants:
- <letteral>y</letteral> is recommended.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>proscribed syllables in</secondary></indexterm> No cmene may have the syllables
- <valsi>la</valsi>,
- <valsi>lai</valsi>, or
- <valsi>doi</valsi> in them, unless immediately preceded by a consonant. If these combinations are present, they must be converted to something else. Possible substitutions include
- <valsi>ly</valsi>,
- <jbophrase>ly'i</jbophrase>, and
- <valsi>dai</valsi> or
-
- <valsi>do'i</valsi>, respectively.</para>
- </listitem>
- </orderedlist>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>scientific names</primary><secondary>rules for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Linnaean names</primary><secondary>rules for</secondary></indexterm> There are some additional rules for Lojbanizing the scientific names (technically known as
-
- <quote>Linnaean binomials</quote> after their inventor) which are internationally applied to each species of animal or plant. Where precision is essential, these names need not be Lojbanized, but can be directly inserted into Lojban text using the cmavo
-
-
- <valsi>la'o</valsi>, explained in
- <xref linkend="section-more-quotations"/>. Using this cmavo makes the already lengthy Latinized names at least four syllables longer, however, and leaves the pronunciation in doubt. The following suggestions, though incomplete, will assist in converting Linnaean binomals to valid Lojban names. They can also help to create fu'ivla based on Linnaean binomials or other words of the international scientific vocabulary. The term
-
-
-
- <quote>back vowel</quote> in the following list refers to any of the letters
- <letteral>a</letteral>,
- <letteral>o</letteral>, or
- <letteral>u</letteral>; the term
- <quote>front vowel</quote> correspondingly refers to any of the letters
- <letteral>e</letteral>,
- <letteral>i</letteral>, or
- <letteral>y</letteral>.</para>
- <orderedlist>
- <listitem>
- <para>Change double consonants other than
- <morphology>cc</morphology> to single consonants.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>Change
- <morphology>cc</morphology> before a front vowel to
- <morphology>kc</morphology>, but otherwise to
- <letteral>k</letteral>.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>Change
- <letteral>c</letteral> before a back vowel and final
- <letteral>c</letteral> to
- <letteral>k</letteral>.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>Change
- <morphology>ng</morphology> before a consonant (other than
- <letteral>h</letteral>) and final
- <morphology>ng</morphology> to
- <letteral>n</letteral>.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>Change
- <letteral>x</letteral> to
- <letteral>z</letteral> initially, but otherwise to
- <morphology>ks</morphology>.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>Change
- <morphology>pn</morphology> to
- <letteral>n</letteral> initially.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>Change final
- <diphthong>ie</diphthong> and
- <diphthong>ii</diphthong> to
- <letteral>i</letteral>.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>Make the following idiosyncratic substitutions:</para>
- <informaltable>
- <tr>
- <td>aa</td><td>a</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>ae</td><td>e</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>ch</td><td>k</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>ee</td><td>i</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>eigh</td><td>ei</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>ew</td><td>u</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>igh</td><td>ai</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>oo</td><td>u</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>ou</td><td>u</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>ow</td><td>au</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>ph</td><td>f</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>q</td><td>k</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>sc</td><td>sk</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>w</td><td>u</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>y</td><td>i</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <para>However, the diphthong substitutions should not be done if the two vowels are in two different syllables.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>Change
- <quote>h</quote> between two vowels to
- <letteral>'</letteral>, but otherwise remove it completely. If preservation of the
- <quote>h</quote> seems essential, change it to
- <letteral>x</letteral> instead.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>Place <letteral>'</letteral> between any remaining vowel pairs that do not form Lojban diphthongs.</para>
- </listitem>
- </orderedlist>
- <para>Some further examples of Lojbanized names are:</para>
- <informaltable>
- <tr>
- <td>English</td>
- <td><quote>Mary</quote></td>
- <td><cmevla>meris.</cmevla> or <cmevla>meiris.</cmevla></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>English</td>
- <td><quote>Smith</quote></td>
- <td><cmevla>smit.</cmevla></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>English</td>
- <td><quote>Jones</quote></td>
- <td><cmevla>djonz.</cmevla></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>English</td>
- <td><quote>John</quote></td>
- <td><cmevla>djan.</cmevla> or <cmevla>jan.</cmevla> (American) or <cmevla>djon.</cmevla> or <cmevla>jon.</cmevla> (British)</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>English</td>
- <td><quote>Alice</quote></td>
- <td><cmevla>.alis.</cmevla></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>English</td>
- <td><quote>Elise</quote></td>
- <td><cmevla>.eLIS.</cmevla></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>English</td>
- <td><quote>Johnson</quote></td>
- <td><cmevla>djansn.</cmevla></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>English</td>
- <td><quote>William</quote></td>
- <td><cmevla>.uiliam.</cmevla> or <cmevla>.uil,iam.</cmevla></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>English</td>
- <td><quote>Brown</quote></td>
- <td><cmevla>braun.</cmevla></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>English</td>
- <td><quote>Charles</quote></td>
- <td><cmevla>tcarlz.</cmevla></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>French</td>
- <td><quote>Charles</quote></td>
- <td><cmevla>carl.</cmevla></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>French</td>
- <td><quote>De Gaulle</quote></td>
- <td><cmevla>dyGOL.</cmevla></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>German</td>
- <td><quote>Heinrich</quote></td>
- <td><cmevla>xainrix.</cmevla></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>Spanish</td>
- <td><quote>Joaquin</quote></td>
- <td><cmevla>xuaKIN.</cmevla></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>Russian</td>
- <td><quote>Svetlana</quote></td>
- <td><cmevla>sfietlanys.</cmevla></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>Russian</td>
- <td><quote>Khrushchev</quote></td>
- <td><cmevla>xrucTCOF.</cmevla></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>Hindi</td>
- <td><quote>Krishna</quote></td>
- <td><cmevla>kricnas.</cmevla></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>Polish</td>
- <td><quote>Lech Walesa</quote></td>
- <td><cmevla>lex. va,uensas.</cmevla></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>Spanish</td>
- <td><quote>Don Quixote</quote></td>
- <td><cmevla>don. kicotes.</cmevla> or modern Spanish: <cmevla>don. kixotes.</cmevla> or Mexican dialect: <cmevla>don. ki'otes.</cmevla></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>Chinese</td>
- <td><quote>Mao Zedong</quote></td>
- <td><cmevla>maudzydyn.</cmevla></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>Japanese</td>
- <td><quote>Fujiko</quote></td>
- <td><cmevla>fudjikos.</cmevla> or <cmevla>fujikos.</cmevla></td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- </section>
-
- <section xml:id="section-pauses">
- <title>Rules for inserting pauses</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pauses</primary><secondary>rules for</secondary></indexterm> Summarized in one place, here are the rules for inserting pauses between Lojban words:</para>
- <orderedlist>
- <listitem>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pause</primary><secondary>between words</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pause</primary><secondary>proscribed within words</secondary></indexterm> Any two words may have a pause between them; it is always illegal to pause in the middle of a word, because that breaks up the word into two words.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pause</primary><secondary>and consonant-final words</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>consonant-final words</primary><secondary>necessity for pause after</secondary></indexterm> Every word ending in a consonant must be followed by a pause. Necessarily, all such words are cmene.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pause</primary><secondary>and vowel-initial words</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vowel-initial words</primary><secondary>necessity for pause before</secondary></indexterm> Every word beginning with a vowel must be preceded by a pause. Such words are either cmavo, fu'ivla, or cmene; all gismu and lujvo begin with consonants.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pause</primary><secondary>and cmene</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmene</primary><secondary>rules for pause before</secondary></indexterm> Every cmene must be preceded by a pause, unless the immediately preceding word is one of the cmavo
- <valsi>la</valsi>,
- <valsi>lai</valsi>,
- <valsi>la'i</valsi>, or
- <valsi>doi</valsi> (which is why those strings are forbidden in cmene). However, the situation triggering this rule rarely occurs.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pause</primary><secondary>and final-syllable stress</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>final syllable stress</primary><secondary>rules for pause after</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>stress</primary><secondary>final syllable</secondary><tertiary>rules for pause after</tertiary></indexterm> If the last syllable of a word bears the stress, and a brivla follows, the two must be separated by a pause, to prevent confusion with the primary stress of the brivla. In this case, the first word must be either a cmavo or a cmene with unusual stress (which already ends with a pause, of course).</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pause</primary><secondary>and Cy-form cmavo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cmavo</primary><secondary>rules for pause after Cy-form</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Cy-form cmavo</primary><secondary>rules for pause after</secondary></indexterm> A cmavo of the form
- <quote>Cy</quote> must be followed by a pause unless another
- <quote>Cy</quote>-form cmavo follows.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-Lojban text</primary><secondary>rules for pause with</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pause</primary><secondary>and non-Lojban text</secondary></indexterm> When non-Lojban text is embedded in Lojban, it must be preceded and followed by pauses. (How to embed non-Lojban text is explained in
-
- <xref linkend="section-more-quotations"/>.)</para>
- </listitem>
- </orderedlist>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-lujvo-considerations">
- <title>Considerations for making lujvo</title>
- <para>Given a tanru which expresses an idea to be used frequently, it can be turned into a lujvo by following the lujvo-making algorithm which is given in
- <xref linkend="section-lujvo-making"/>.</para>
- <para>In building a lujvo, the first step is to replace each gismu with a rafsi that uniquely represents that gismu. These rafsi are then attached together by fixed rules that allow the resulting compound to be recognized as a single word and to be analyzed in only one way.</para>
- <para>There are three other complications; only one is serious.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>multiple for each gismu</secondary></indexterm> The first is that there is usually more than one rafsi that can be used for each gismu. The one to be used is simply whichever one sounds or looks best to the speaker or writer. There are usually many valid combinations of possible rafsi. They all are equally valid, and all of them mean exactly the same thing. (The scoring algorithm given in
- <xref linkend="section-lujvo-scoring"/> is used to choose the standard form of the lujvo – the version which would be entered into a dictionary.)</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>linguistic drift in Lojban</primary><secondary>possible source of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>consideration in choosing meaning for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>unambiguity of</secondary></indexterm> The second complication is the serious one. Remember that a tanru is ambiguous – it has several possible meanings. A lujvo, or at least one that would be put into the dictionary, has just a single meaning. Like a gismu, a lujvo is a predicate which encompasses one area of the semantic universe, with one set of places. Hopefully the meaning chosen is the most useful of the possible semantic spaces. A possible source of linguistic drift in Lojban is that as Lojbanic society evolves, the concept that seems the most useful one may change.</para>
-
-
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>za'e</primary><secondary>use to avoid lujvo misunderstandings</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>meaning drift of</secondary></indexterm> You must also be aware of the possibility of some prior meaning of a new lujvo, especially if you are writing for posterity. If a lujvo is invented which involves the same tanru as one that is in the dictionary, and is assigned a different meaning (or even just a different place structure), linguistic drift results. This isn't necessarily bad. Every natural language does it. But in communication, when you use a meaning different from the dictionary definition, someone else may use the dictionary and therefore misunderstand you. You can use the cmavo
-
- <valsi>za'e</valsi> (explained in
-
- <xref linkend="section-bahe"/>) before a newly coined lujvo to indicate that it may have a non-dictionary meaning.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>ultimate guideline for choice of meaning/place-structure</secondary></indexterm> The essential nature of human communication is that if the listener understands, then all is well. Let this be the ultimate guideline for choosing meanings and place structures for invented lujvo.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>dropping elements of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Zipf's Law</primary></indexterm> The third complication is also simple, but tends to scare new Lojbanists with its implications. It is based on Zipf's Law, which says that the length of words is inversely proportional to their usage. The shortest words are those which are used more; the longest ones are used less. Conversely, commonly used concepts will be tend to be abbreviated. In English, we have abbreviations and acronyms and jargon, all of which represent complex ideas that are used often by small groups of people, so they shortened them to convey more information more rapidly.</para>
-
-
-
- <para>Therefore, given a complicated tanru with grouping markers, abstraction markers, and other cmavo in it to make it syntactically unambiguous, the psychological basis of Zipf's Law may compel the lujvo-maker to drop some of the cmavo to make a shorter (technically incorrect) tanru, and then use that tanru to make the lujvo.</para>
-
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>based on multiple tanru</secondary></indexterm> This doesn't lead to ambiguity, as it might seem to. A given lujvo still has exactly one meaning and place structure. It is just that more than one tanru is competing for the same lujvo. But more than one meaning for the tanru was already competing for the
- <quote>right</quote> to define the meaning of the lujvo. Someone has to use judgment in deciding which one meaning is to be chosen over the others.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>shorter for more general concepts</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>considerations for retaining elements of</secondary></indexterm> If the lujvo made by a shorter form of tanru is in use, or is likely to be useful for another meaning, the decider then retains one or more of the cmavo, preferably ones that set this meaning apart from the shorter form meaning that is used or anticipated. As a rule, therefore, the shorter lujvo will be used for a more general concept, possibly even instead of a more frequent word. If both words are needed, the simpler one should be shorter. It is easier to add a cmavo to clarify the meaning of the more complex term than it is to find a good alternate tanru for the simpler term.</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>and plausibility</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>and the listener</secondary></indexterm> And of course, we have to consider the listener. On hearing an unknown word, the listener will decompose it and get a tanru that makes no sense or the wrong sense for the context. If the listener realizes that the grouping operators may have been dropped out, he or she may try alternate groupings, or try inserting an abstraction operator if that seems plausible. (The grouping of tanru is explained in
- <xref linkend="chapter-selbri"/>; abstraction is explained in
- <xref linkend="chapter-abstractions"/>.) Plausibility is the key to learning new ideas and to evaluating unfamiliar lujvo.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-lujvo-making">
- <title>The lujvo-making algorithm</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>algorithm for</secondary></indexterm> The following is the current algorithm for generating Lojban lujvo given a known tanru and a complete list of gismu and their assigned rafsi. The algorithm was designed by Bob LeChevalier and Dr. James Cooke Brown for computer program implementation. It was modified in 1989 with the assistance of Nora LeChevalier, who detected a flaw in the original
-
- <quote>tosmabru test</quote>.</para>
-
- <para>Given a tanru that is to be made into a lujvo:</para>
- <orderedlist>
- <listitem>
- <para>Choose a 3-letter or 4-letter rafsi for each of the gismu and cmavo in the tanru except the last.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>Choose a 3-letter (CVV-form or CCV-form) or 5-letter rafsi for the final gismu in the tanru.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>Join the resulting string of rafsi, initially without hyphens.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>hyphens in lujvo</primary><secondary>proscribed where not required</secondary></indexterm> Add hyphen letters where necessary. It is illegal to add a hyphen at a place that is not required by this algorithm. Right-to-left tests are recommended, for reasons discussed below.</para>
- <orderedlist>
- <listitem>
- <para>If there are more than two words in the tanru, put an
- r-hyphen (or an
- n-hyphen) after the first rafsi if it is CVV-form. If there are exactly two words, then put an
- r-hyphen (or an
- n-hyphen) between the two rafsi if the first rafsi is CVV-form, unless the second rafsi is CCV-form (for example,
- <jbophrase>saicli</jbophrase> requires no hyphen). Use an
- r-hyphen unless the letter after the hyphen is
- <letteral>r</letteral>, in which case use an
- n-hyphen. Never use an
- n-hyphen unless it is required.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>Put a
- y-hyphen between the consonants of any impermissible consonant pair. This will always appear between rafsi.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tosmabru test</primary></indexterm> Put a
- y-hyphen after any 4-letter rafsi form.</para>
- </listitem>
- </orderedlist>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>Test all forms with one or more initial CVC-form rafsi – with the pattern
- <quote>CVC ... CVC + X</quote> – for
- <quote>tosmabru failure</quote>. X must either be a CVCCV long rafsi that happens to have a permissible initial pair as the consonant cluster, or is something which has caused a
- y-hyphen to be installed between the previous CVC and itself by one of the above rules.</para>
- <para>The test is as follows:</para>
- <orderedlist>
- <listitem>
- <para>Examine all the C/C consonant pairs up to the first y-hyphen, or up to the end of the word in case there are no y-hyphens.</para>
- <para>These consonant pairs are called "joints”.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>If all of those joints are permissible initials, then the trial word will break up into a cmavo and a shorter brivla. If not, the word will not break up, and no further hyphens are needed.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>Install a y-hyphen at the first such joint.</para>
- </listitem>
- </orderedlist>
- </listitem>
-</orderedlist>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>selection of best form of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>scoring of</secondary></indexterm> Note that the
- <quote>tosmabru test</quote> implies that the algorithm will be more efficient if rafsi junctures are tested for required hyphens from right to left, instead of from left to right; when the test is required, it cannot be completed until hyphenation to the right has been determined.</para>
-
-
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-lujvo-scoring">
- <title>The lujvo scoring algorithm</title>
- <para>This algorithm was devised by Bob and Nora LeChevalier in 1989. It is not the only possible algorithm, but it usually gives a choice that people find preferable. The algorithm may be changed in the future. The lowest-scoring variant will usually be the dictionary form of the lujvo. (In previous versions, it was the highest-scoring variant.)</para>
- <orderedlist>
- <listitem>
- <para>Count the total number of letters, including hyphens and apostrophes; call it
- <varname>L</varname>.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>Count the number of apostrophes; call it
- <varname>A</varname>.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>Count the number of
- <letteral>y-</letteral>,
- <letteral>r-</letteral>, and
- n-hyphens; call it
-
- <varname>H</varname>.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>For each rafsi, find the value in the following table. Sum this value over all rafsi; call it
- <varname>R</varname>:
- <informaltable>
- <tr>
- <td>CVC/CV (final)</td>
- <td>(<rafsi>-sarji</rafsi>)</td>
- <td>1</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>CVC/C</td>
- <td>(<rafsi>-sarj-</rafsi>)</td>
- <td>2</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>CCVCV (final)</td>
- <td>(<rafsi>-zbasu</rafsi>)</td>
- <td>3</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>CCVC</td>
- <td>(<rafsi>-zbas-</rafsi>)</td>
- <td>4</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>CVC</td>
- <td>(<rafsi>-nun-</rafsi>)</td>
- <td>5</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>CVV with an apostrophe</td>
- <td>(<rafsi>-ta'u-</rafsi>)</td>
- <td>6</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>CCV</td>
- <td>(<rafsi>-zba-</rafsi>)</td>
- <td>7</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>CVV with no apostrophe</td>
- <td>(<rafsi>-sai-</rafsi>)</td>
- <td>8</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- </para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>Count the number of vowels, not including
- <letteral>y</letteral>; call it
- <varname>V</varname>.</para>
- </listitem>
- </orderedlist>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo form</primary><secondary>hierarchy of priorities for selection of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>hierarchy of priorities for selecting lujvo form</primary></indexterm> The score is then:
- <math>(1000 * L) - (500 * A) + (100 * H) - (10 * R) - V</math>
- <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>scored examples of</secondary></indexterm> In case of ties, there is no preference. This should be rare. Note that the algorithm essentially encodes a hierarchy of priorities: short words are preferred (counting apostrophes as half a letter), then words with fewer hyphens, words with more pleasing rafsi (this judgment is subjective), and finally words with more vowels are chosen. Each decision principle is applied in turn if the ones before it have failed to choose; it is possible that a lower-ranked principle might dominate a higher-ranked one if it is ten times better than the alternative.</para>
-
- <para>
-
-
- <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>examples of making</secondary></indexterm> Here are some lujvo with their scores (not necessarily the lowest scoring forms for these lujvo, nor even necessarily sensible lujvo):</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJKu" role="lujvo-making-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c4e12d1"/>
- </title>
- <lujvo-making>
- <jbo>zbasai</jbo>
- <rafsi>zba + sai</rafsi>
- <score><inlinemath>(1000 * 6) - (500 * 0) + (100 * 0) - (10 * 15) - 3 = 5847</inlinemath></score>
- </lujvo-making>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjLd" role="lujvo-making-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c4e12d2"/>
- </title>
- <lujvo-making>
- <jbo>nunynau</jbo>
- <rafsi>nun + y + nau</rafsi>
- <score><inlinemath>(1000 * 7) - (500 * 0) + (100 * 1) - (10 * 13) - 3 = 6967</inlinemath></score>
- </lujvo-making>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJLQ" role="lujvo-making-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c4e12d3"/>
- </title>
- <lujvo-making>
- <jbo>sairzbata'u</jbo>
- <rafsi>sai + r + zba + ta'u</rafsi>
- <score><inlinemath>(1000 * 11) - (500 * 1) + (100 * 1) - (10 * 21) - 5 = 10385</inlinemath></score>
- </lujvo-making>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJmn" role="lujvo-making-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c4e12d4"/>
- </title>
- <lujvo-making>
- <jbo>zbazbasysarji</jbo>
- <rafsi>zba + zbas + y + sarji</rafsi>
- <score><inlinemath>(1000 * 13) - (500 * 0) + (100 * 1) - (10 * 12) - 4 = 12976</inlinemath></score>
- </lujvo-making>
- </example>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-lujvo-making-examples">
- <title>lujvo-making examples</title>
- <para>
-<indexterm type="general"><primary>doghouse</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-This section contains examples of making and scoring lujvo. First, we will start with the tanru
- <jbophrase>gerku zdani</jbophrase> (
- <quote>dog house</quote>) and construct a lujvo meaning
-
-
- <quote>doghouse</quote>, that is, a house where a dog lives. We will use a brute-force application of the algorithm in
- <xref linkend="section-lujvo-scoring"/>, using every possible rafsi.</para>
- <para>The rafsi for
- <valsi>gerku</valsi> are:</para>
- <simplelist type="horiz" columns="4">
- <member><rafsi>-ger-</rafsi>, </member>
- <member><rafsi>-ge'u-</rafsi>, </member>
- <member><rafsi>-gerk-</rafsi>, </member>
- <member><rafsi>-gerku</rafsi></member>
- </simplelist>
- <para>The rafsi for
- <valsi>zdani</valsi> are:</para>
- <simplelist type="horiz" columns="3">
- <member><rafsi>-zda-</rafsi>, </member>
- <member><rafsi>-zdan-</rafsi>, </member>
- <member><rafsi>-zdani</rafsi>.</member>
- </simplelist>
- <para>Step 1 of the algorithm directs us to use
- <rafsi>-ger-</rafsi>,
- <rafsi>-ge'u-</rafsi> and
- <rafsi>-gerk-</rafsi> as possible rafsi for
- <valsi>gerku</valsi>; Step 2 directs us to use
- <rafsi>-zda-</rafsi> and
- <rafsi>-zdani</rafsi> as possible rafsi for
- <valsi>zdani</valsi>. The six possible forms of the lujvo are then:</para>
- <simplelist type="vert" columns="1">
- <member><rafsi>ger</rafsi><rafsi>-zda</rafsi></member>
- <member><rafsi>ger</rafsi><rafsi>-zdani</rafsi></member>
- <member><rafsi>ge'u</rafsi><rafsi>-zda</rafsi></member>
- <member><rafsi>ge'u</rafsi><rafsi>-zdani</rafsi></member>
- <member><rafsi>gerk</rafsi><rafsi>-zda</rafsi></member>
- <member><rafsi>gerk</rafsi><rafsi>-zdani</rafsi></member>
- </simplelist>
- <para>We must then insert appropriate hyphens in each case. The first two forms need no hyphenation:
-
- <valsi>ge</valsi> cannot fall off the front, because the following word would begin with
- <morphology>rz</morphology>, which is not a permissible initial consonant pair. So the lujvo forms are
- <valsi>gerzda</valsi> and
- <valsi>gerzdani</valsi>.</para>
- <para>The third form,
- <rafsi>ge'u</rafsi><rafsi>-zda</rafsi>, needs no hyphen, because even though the first rafsi is CVV, the second one is CCV, so there is a consonant cluster in the first five letters. So
- <valsi>ge'uzda</valsi> is this form of the lujvo.</para>
- <para>The fourth form,
- <valsi valid="false">ge'u-zdani</valsi>, however, requires an
- r-hyphen; otherwise, the
- <rafsi>ge'u-</rafsi> part would fall off as a cmavo. So this form of the lujvo is
- <valsi>ge'urzdani</valsi>.</para>
- <para>The last two forms require
- y-hyphens, as all 4-letter rafsi do, and so are
-
- <valsi>gerkyzda</valsi> and
- <valsi>gerkyzdani</valsi> respectively.</para>
- <para>
-
-<indexterm type="general"><primary>boat class</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
- The scoring algorithm is heavily weighted in favor of short lujvo, so we might expect that
- <valsi>gerzda</valsi> would win. Its <varname>L</varname> score is 6, its <varname>A</varname> score is 0, its <varname>H</varname> score is 0, its <varname>R</varname> score is 12, and its <varname>V</varname> score is 3, for a final score of 5878. The other forms have scores of 7917, 6367, 9506, 8008, and 10047 respectively. Consequently, this lujvo would probably appear in the dictionary in the form
- <valsi>gerzda</valsi>.</para>
- <para>For the next example, we will use the tanru
- <jbophrase>bloti klesi</jbophrase> (
- <quote>boat class</quote>) presumably referring to the category (rowboat, motorboat, cruise liner) into which a boat falls. We will omit the long rafsi from the process, since lujvo containing long rafsi are almost never preferred by the scoring algorithm when there are short rafsi available.</para>
- <para>The rafsi for
- <valsi>bloti</valsi> are
- <rafsi>-lot-</rafsi>,
- <rafsi>-blo-</rafsi>, and
- <rafsi>-lo'i-</rafsi>; for
- <valsi>klesi</valsi> they are
- <rafsi>-kle-</rafsi> and
- <rafsi>-lei-</rafsi>. Both these gismu are among the handful which have both CVV-form and CCV-form rafsi, so there is an unusual number of possibilities available for a two-part tanru:</para>
- <simplelist type="horiz" columns="3">
- <member><valsi>lotkle</valsi></member>
- <member><valsi>blokle</valsi></member>
- <member><valsi>lo'ikle</valsi></member>
-
- <member><valsi>lotlei</valsi></member>
- <member><valsi>blolei</valsi></member>
- <member><valsi>lo'irlei</valsi></member>
- </simplelist>
- <para>Only
- <valsi>lo'irlei</valsi> requires hyphenation (to avoid confusion with the cmavo sequence
- <jbophrase>lo'i lei</jbophrase>). All six forms are valid versions of the lujvo, as are the six further forms using long rafsi; however, the scoring algorithm produces the following results:</para>
- <informaltable>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>lotkle</valsi></td>
- <td>5878</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>blokle</valsi></td>
- <td>5858</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>lo'ikle</valsi></td>
- <td>6367</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>lotlei</valsi></td>
- <td>5867</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>blolei</valsi></td>
- <td>5847</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>lo'irlei</valsi></td>
- <td>7456</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <para>
-
-<indexterm type="general"><primary>Logical Language Group</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
- So the form
- <valsi>blolei</valsi> is preferred, but only by a tiny margin over
- <valsi>blokle</valsi>; "lotlei" and "lotkle" are only slightly worse;
- <valsi>lo'ikle</valsi> suffers because of its apostrophe, and
- <valsi>lo'irlei</valsi> because of having both apostrophe and hyphen.</para>
- <para>Our third example will result in forming both a lujvo and a name from the tanru
- <jbophrase>logji bangu girzu</jbophrase>, or
- <quote>logical-language group</quote> in English. (
- <quote>The Logical Language Group</quote> is the name of the publisher of this book and the organization for the promotion of Lojban.)</para>
- <para>The available rafsi are
- <rafsi>-loj-</rafsi> and
- <rafsi>-logj-</rafsi>;
- <rafsi>-ban-</rafsi>,
- <rafsi>-bau-</rafsi>, and
- <rafsi>-bang-</rafsi>; and
- <rafsi>-gri-</rafsi> and
- <rafsi>-girzu</rafsi>, and (for name purposes only)
- <rafsi>-gir-</rafsi> and
- <rafsi>-girz-</rafsi>. The resulting 12 lujvo possibilities are:</para>
- <simplelist type="horiz" columns="3">
- <member><rafsi>loj</rafsi><rafsi>-ban</rafsi><rafsi>-gri</rafsi></member>
- <member><rafsi>loj</rafsi><rafsi>-bau</rafsi><rafsi>-gri</rafsi></member>
- <member><rafsi>loj</rafsi><rafsi>-bang</rafsi><rafsi>-gri</rafsi></member>
-
- <member><rafsi>logj</rafsi><rafsi>-ban</rafsi><rafsi>-gri</rafsi></member>
- <member><rafsi>logj</rafsi><rafsi>-bau</rafsi><rafsi>-gri</rafsi></member>
- <member><rafsi>logj</rafsi><rafsi>-bang</rafsi><rafsi>-gri</rafsi></member>
-
- <member><rafsi>loj</rafsi><rafsi>-ban</rafsi><rafsi>-girzu</rafsi></member>
- <member><rafsi>loj</rafsi><rafsi>-bau</rafsi><rafsi>-girzu</rafsi></member>
- <member><rafsi>loj</rafsi><rafsi>-bang</rafsi><rafsi>-girzu</rafsi></member>
-
- <member><rafsi>logj</rafsi><rafsi>-ban</rafsi><rafsi>-girzu</rafsi></member>
- <member><rafsi>logj</rafsi><rafsi>-bau</rafsi><rafsi>-girzu</rafsi></member>
- <member><rafsi>logj</rafsi><rafsi>-bang</rafsi><rafsi>-girzu</rafsi></member>
- </simplelist>
- <para>and the 12 name possibilities are:</para>
- <simplelist type="horiz" columns="3">
- <member><rafsi>loj</rafsi><rafsi>-ban</rafsi><rafsi>-gir</rafsi></member>
- <member><rafsi>loj</rafsi><rafsi>-bau</rafsi><rafsi>-gir</rafsi></member>
- <member><rafsi>loj</rafsi><rafsi>-bang</rafsi><rafsi>-gir</rafsi></member>
-
- <member><rafsi>logj</rafsi><rafsi>-ban</rafsi><rafsi>-gir</rafsi></member>
- <member><rafsi>logj</rafsi><rafsi>-bau</rafsi><rafsi>-gir</rafsi></member>
- <member><rafsi>logj</rafsi><rafsi>-bang</rafsi><rafsi>-gir</rafsi></member>
-
- <member><rafsi>loj</rafsi><rafsi>-ban</rafsi><rafsi>-girz</rafsi></member>
- <member><rafsi>loj</rafsi><rafsi>-bau</rafsi><rafsi>-girz</rafsi></member>
- <member><rafsi>loj</rafsi><rafsi>-bang</rafsi><rafsi>-girz</rafsi></member>
-
- <member><rafsi>logj</rafsi><rafsi>-ban</rafsi><rafsi>-girz</rafsi></member>
- <member><rafsi>logj</rafsi><rafsi>-bau</rafsi><rafsi>-girz</rafsi></member>
- <member><rafsi>logj</rafsi><rafsi>-bang</rafsi><rafsi>-girz</rafsi></member>
- </simplelist>
- <para>After hyphenation, we have:</para>
- <simplelist type="horiz" columns="3">
- <member><valsi>lojbangri</valsi></member>
- <member><valsi>lojbaugri</valsi></member>
- <member><valsi>lojbangygri</valsi></member>
-
- <member><valsi>logjybangri</valsi></member>
- <member><valsi>logjybaugri</valsi></member>
- <member><valsi>logjybangygri</valsi></member>
-
- <member><valsi>lojbangirzu</valsi></member>
- <member><valsi>lojbaugirzu</valsi></member>
- <member><valsi>lojbangygirzu</valsi></member>
-
- <member><valsi>logjybangirzu</valsi></member>
- <member><valsi>logjybaugirzu</valsi></member>
- <member><valsi>logjybangygirzu</valsi></member>
-
- <member><valsi>lojbangir</valsi></member>
- <member><valsi>lojbaugir</valsi></member>
- <member><valsi>lojbangygir</valsi></member>
-
- <member><valsi>logjybangir</valsi></member>
- <member><valsi>logjybaugir</valsi></member>
- <member><valsi>logjybangygir</valsi></member>
-
- <member><valsi>lojbangirz</valsi></member>
- <member><valsi>lojbaugirz</valsi></member>
- <member><valsi>lojbangygirz</valsi></member>
-
- <member><valsi>logjybangirz</valsi></member>
- <member><valsi>logjybaugirz</valsi></member>
- <member><valsi>logjybangygirz</valsi></member>
- </simplelist>
- <para>
-<indexterm type="general"><primary>sexual teacher</primary><secondary>male</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
-
-<indexterm type="general"><primary>male sexual teacher</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
- The only fully reduced lujvo forms are
-
- <valsi>lojbangri</valsi> and
- <valsi>lojbaugri</valsi>, of which the latter has a slightly lower score: 8827 versus 8796, respectively. However, for the name of the organization, we chose to make sure the name of the language was embedded in it, and to use the clearer long-form rafsi for
- <valsi>girzu</valsi>, producing
- <cmevla>lojbangirz.</cmevla></para>
- <para>Finally, here is a four-part lujvo with a cmavo in it, based on the tanru
- <jbophrase>nakni ke cinse ctuca</jbophrase> or
- <quote>male (sexual teacher)</quote>. The
-
- <valsi>ke</valsi> cmavo ensures the interpretation
- <quote>teacher of sexuality who is male</quote>, rather than
- <quote>teacher of male sexuality</quote>. Here are the possible forms of the lujvo, both before and after hyphenation:</para>
- <simplelist type="horiz" columns="2">
- <member><rafsi>nak</rafsi><rafsi>-kem</rafsi><rafsi>-cin</rafsi><rafsi>-ctu</rafsi></member>
- <member><valsi>nakykemcinctu</valsi></member>
-
- <member><rafsi>nak</rafsi><rafsi>-kem</rafsi><rafsi>-cin</rafsi><rafsi>-ctuca</rafsi></member>
- <member><valsi>nakykemcinctuca</valsi></member>
-
- <member><rafsi>nak</rafsi><rafsi>-kem</rafsi><rafsi>-cins</rafsi><rafsi>-ctu</rafsi></member>
- <member><valsi>nakykemcinsyctu</valsi></member>
-
- <member><rafsi>nak</rafsi><rafsi>-kem</rafsi><rafsi>-cins</rafsi><rafsi>-ctuca</rafsi></member>
- <member><valsi>nakykemcinsyctuca</valsi></member>
-
- <member><rafsi>nakn</rafsi><rafsi>-kem</rafsi><rafsi>-cin</rafsi><rafsi>-ctu</rafsi></member>
- <member><valsi>naknykemcinctu</valsi></member>
-
- <member><rafsi>nakn</rafsi><rafsi>-kem</rafsi><rafsi>-cin</rafsi><rafsi>-ctuca</rafsi></member>
- <member><valsi>naknykemcinctuca</valsi></member>
-
- <member><rafsi>nakn</rafsi><rafsi>-kem</rafsi><rafsi>-cins</rafsi><rafsi>-ctu</rafsi></member>
- <member><valsi>naknykemcinsyctu</valsi></member>
-
- <member><rafsi>nakn</rafsi><rafsi>-kem</rafsi><rafsi>-cins</rafsi><rafsi>-ctuca</rafsi></member>
- <member><valsi>naknykemcinsyctuca</valsi></member>
- </simplelist>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>algorithm for</secondary></indexterm> Of these forms,
- <valsi>nakykemcinctu</valsi> is the shortest and is preferred by the scoring algorithm. On the whole, however, it might be better to just make a lujvo for
- <jbophrase>cinse ctuca</jbophrase> (which would be
- <valsi>cinctu</valsi>) since the sex of the teacher is rarely important. If there was a reason to specify
- <quote>male</quote>, then the simpler tanru
- <jbophrase>nakni cinctu</jbophrase> (
- <quote>male sexual-teacher</quote>) would be appropriate. This tanru is actually shorter than the four-part lujvo, since the
- <valsi>ke</valsi> required for grouping need not be expressed.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-gismu-making">
- <title>The gismu creation algorithm</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>source languages</primary><secondary>use in creating gismu</secondary></indexterm> The gismu were created through the following process:</para>
- <orderedlist>
- <listitem>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>creation</secondary><tertiary>scoring rules</tertiary></indexterm> At least one word was found in each of the six source languages (Chinese, English, Hindi, Spanish, Russian, Arabic) corresponding to the proposed gismu. This word was rendered into Lojban phonetics rather liberally: consonant clusters consisting of a stop and the corresponding fricative were simplified to just the fricative (
- <morphology>tc</morphology> became
- <letteral>c</letteral>,
- <morphology>dj</morphology> became
- <letteral>j</letteral>) and non-Lojban vowels were mapped onto Lojban ones. Furthermore, morphological endings were dropped. The same mapping rules were applied to all six languages for the sake of consistency.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>All possible gismu forms were matched against the six source-language forms. The matches were scored as follows:
- <orderedlist>
- <listitem>
- <para>If three or more letters were the same in the proposed gismu and the source-language word, and appeared in the same order, the score was equal to the number of letters that were the same. Intervening letters, if any, did not matter.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>If exactly two letters were the same in the proposed gismu and the source-language word, and either the two letters were consecutive in both words, or were separated by a single letter in both words, the score was 2. Letters in reversed order got no score.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>creation</secondary><tertiary>considerations for selection after scoring</tertiary></indexterm> Otherwise, the score was 0.</para>
- </listitem>
- </orderedlist></para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>creation</secondary><tertiary>proscribed gismu pairs</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>too-similar</secondary></indexterm> The scores were divided by the length of the source-language word in its Lojbanized form, and then multiplied by a weighting value specific to each language, reflecting the proportional number of first-language and second-language speakers of the language. (Second-language speakers were reckoned at half their actual numbers.) The weights were chosen to sum to 1.00. The sum of the weighted scores was the total score for the proposed gismu form.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>Any gismu forms that conflicted with existing gismu were removed. Obviously, being identical with an existing gismu constitutes a conflict. In addition, a proposed gismu that was identical to an existing gismu except for the final vowel was considered a conflict, since two such gismu would have identical 4-letter rafsi.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>creation</secondary><tertiary>and transcription blunders</tertiary></indexterm> More subtly: If the proposed gismu was identical to an existing gismu except for a single consonant, and the consonant was "too similar” based on the following table, then the proposed gismu was rejected.</para>
- <informaltable>
- <thead>
- <tr>
- <td>proposed gismu</td>
- <td>existing gismu</td>
- </tr>
- </thead>
- <tr>
- <td><letteral>b</letteral></td>
- <td><letteral>p</letteral>, <letteral>v</letteral></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><letteral>c</letteral></td>
- <td><letteral>j</letteral>, <letteral>s</letteral></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><letteral>d</letteral></td>
- <td><letteral>t</letteral></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><letteral>f</letteral></td>
- <td><letteral>p</letteral>, <letteral>v</letteral></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><letteral>g</letteral></td>
- <td><letteral>k</letteral>, <letteral>x</letteral></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><letteral>j</letteral></td>
- <td><letteral>c</letteral>, <letteral>z</letteral></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><letteral>k</letteral></td>
- <td><letteral>g</letteral>, <letteral>x</letteral></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><letteral>l</letteral></td>
- <td><letteral>r</letteral></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><letteral>m</letteral></td>
- <td><letteral>n</letteral></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><letteral>n</letteral></td>
- <td><letteral>m</letteral></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><letteral>p</letteral></td>
- <td><letteral>b</letteral>, <letteral>f</letteral></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><letteral>r</letteral></td>
- <td><letteral>l</letteral></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><letteral>s</letteral></td>
- <td><letteral>c</letteral>, <letteral>z</letteral></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><letteral>t</letteral></td>
- <td><letteral>d</letteral></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><letteral>v</letteral></td>
- <td><letteral>b</letteral>, <letteral>f</letteral></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><letteral>x</letteral></td>
- <td><letteral>g</letteral>, <letteral>k</letteral></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><letteral>z</letteral></td>
- <td><letteral>j</letteral>, <letteral>s</letteral></td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>source-language weights for</secondary></indexterm> See <xref linkend="section-gismu"/> for an example.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>The gismu form with the highest score usually became the actual gismu. Sometimes a lower-scoring form was used to provide a better rafsi. A few gismu were changed in error as a result of transcription blunders (for example, the gismu
- <valsi>gismu</valsi> should have been
- <valsi>gicmu</valsi>, but it's too late to fix it now).</para>
- <para>The language weights used to make most of the gismu were as follows:</para>
- <informaltable>
- <tr>
- <td>Chinese</td><td>0.36</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>English</td><td>0.21</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>Hindi</td><td>0.16</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>Spanish</td><td>0.11</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>Russian</td><td>0.09</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>Arabic</td><td>0.07</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <para>reflecting 1985 number-of-speakers data. A few gismu were made much later using updated weights:</para>
- <informaltable>
- <tr>
- <td>Chinese</td><td>0.347</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>Hindi</td><td>0.196</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>English</td><td>0.160</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>Spanish</td><td>0.123</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>Russian</td><td>0.089</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>Arabic</td><td>0.085</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>coined</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>exceptions to gismu creation by algorithm</secondary></indexterm> (English and Hindi switched places due to demographic changes.)</para>
- </listitem>
- </orderedlist>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>Lojban-specific</secondary></indexterm> Note that the stressed vowel of the gismu was considered sufficiently distinctive that two or more gismu may differ only in this vowel; as an extreme example,
-
- <valsi>bradi</valsi>,
- <valsi>bredi</valsi>,
- <valsi>bridi</valsi>, and
- <valsi>brodi</valsi> (but fortunately not
- <valsi>brudi</valsi>) are all existing gismu.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-cultural-gismu">
- <title>Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu</title>
- <para>The following gismu were not made by the gismu creation algorithm. They are, in effect, coined words similar to fu'ivla. They are exceptions to the otherwise mandatory gismu creation algorithm where there was sufficient justification for such exceptions. Except for the small metric prefixes and the assignable predicates beginning with
- <rafsi>brod-</rafsi>, they all end in the letter
- <letteral>o</letteral>, which is otherwise a rare letter in Lojban gismu.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>scientific-mathematical</secondary></indexterm> The following gismu represent concepts that are sufficiently unique to Lojban that they were either coined from combining forms of other gismu, or else made up out of whole cloth. These gismu are thus conceptually similar to lujvo even though they are only five letters long; however, unlike lujvo, they have rafsi assigned to them for use in building more complex lujvo. Assigning gismu to these concepts helps to keep the resulting lujvo reasonably short.</para>
- <variablelist>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>broda</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>1st assignable predicate</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>brode</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>2nd assignable predicate</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>brodi</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>3rd assignable predicate</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>brodo</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>4th assignable predicate</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>brodu</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>5th assignable predicate</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>cmavo</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>structure word (from <jbophrase>cmalu valsi</jbophrase>)</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>lojbo</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>Lojbanic (from <jbophrase>logji bangu</jbophrase>)</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>lujvo</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>compound word (from <jbophrase>pluja valsi</jbophrase>)</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>mekso</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>Mathematical EXpression</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- </variablelist>
- <para>It is important to understand that even though
- <valsi>cmavo</valsi>,
- <valsi>lojbo</valsi>, and
- <valsi>lujvo</valsi> were made up from parts of other gismu, they are now full-fledged gismu used in exactly the same way as all other gismu, both in grammar and in word formation.</para>
- <para>The following three groups of gismu represent concepts drawn from the international language of science and mathematics. They are used for concepts that are represented in most languages by a root which is recognized internationally.</para>
- <para>Small metric prefixes (values less than 1):</para>
- <informaltable>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>decti</valsi></td>
- <td>.1</td>
- <td>deci</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>centi</valsi></td>
- <td>.01</td>
- <td>centi</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>milti</valsi></td>
- <td>.001</td>
- <td>milli</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>mikri</valsi></td>
- <td><inlinemath>10<superscript>-6</superscript></inlinemath></td>
- <td>micro</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>nanvi</valsi></td>
- <td><inlinemath>10<superscript>-9</superscript></inlinemath></td>
- <td>nano</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>picti</valsi></td>
- <td><inlinemath>10<superscript>-12</superscript></inlinemath></td>
- <td>pico</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>femti</valsi></td>
- <td><inlinemath>10<superscript>-15</superscript></inlinemath></td>
- <td>femto</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>xatsi</valsi></td>
- <td><inlinemath>10<superscript>-18</superscript></inlinemath></td>
- <td>atto</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>zepti</valsi></td>
- <td><inlinemath>10<superscript>-21</superscript></inlinemath></td>
- <td>zepto</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>gocti</valsi></td>
- <td><inlinemath>10<superscript>-24</superscript></inlinemath></td>
- <td>yocto</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <para>Large metric prefixes (values greater than 1):</para>
- <informaltable>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>dekto</valsi></td>
- <td>10</td>
- <td>deka</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>xecto</valsi></td>
- <td>100</td>
- <td>hecto</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>kilto</valsi></td>
- <td>1000</td>
- <td>kilo</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>megdo</valsi></td>
- <td><inlinemath>10<superscript>6</superscript></inlinemath></td>
- <td>mega</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>gigdo</valsi></td>
- <td><inlinemath>10<superscript>9</superscript></inlinemath></td>
- <td>giga</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>terto</valsi></td>
- <td><inlinemath>10<superscript>12</superscript></inlinemath></td>
- <td>tera</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>petso</valsi></td>
- <td><inlinemath>10<superscript>15</superscript></inlinemath></td>
- <td>peta</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>xexso</valsi></td>
- <td><inlinemath>10<superscript>18</superscript></inlinemath></td>
- <td>exa</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>zetro</valsi></td>
- <td><inlinemath>10<superscript>21</superscript></inlinemath></td>
- <td>zetta</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>gotro</valsi></td>
- <td><inlinemath>10<superscript>24</superscript></inlinemath></td>
- <td>yotta</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>cultural</secondary></indexterm> Other scientific or mathematical terms:</para>
- <variablelist>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>delno</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>candela</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>kelvo</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>kelvin</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>molro</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>mole</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>radno</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>radian</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>sinso</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>sine</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>stero</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>steradian</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>tanjo</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>tangent</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>xampo</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>ampere</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- </variablelist>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>for Lojban source languages</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>for languages</secondary></indexterm> The gismu
- <valsi>sinso</valsi> and
- <valsi>tanjo</valsi> were only made non-algorithmically because they were identical (having been borrowed from a common source) in all the dictionaries that had translations. The other terms in this group are units in the international metric system; some metric units, however, were made by the ordinary process (usually because they are different in Chinese).</para>
- <para>Finally, there are the cultural gismu, which are also borrowed, but by modifying a word from one particular language, instead of using the multi-lingual gismu creation algorithm. Cultural gismu are used for words that have local importance to a particular culture; other cultures or languages may have no word for the concept at all, or may borrow the word from its home culture, just as Lojban does. In such a case, the gismu algorithm, which uses weighted averages, doesn't accurately represent the frequency of usage of the individual concept. Cultural gismu are not even required to be based on the six major languages.</para>
- <para>The six Lojban source languages:</para>
-
- <variablelist>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>jungo</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>Chinese (from <quote xml:lang="zh">Zhong <superscript>1</superscript> guo <superscript>2</superscript></quote>)</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>glico</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>English</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>xindo</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>Hindi</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>spano</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>Spanish</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>rusko</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>Russian</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>xrabo</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>Arabic</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- </variablelist>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>for countries</secondary></indexterm> Seven other widely spoken languages that were on the list of candidates for gismu-making, but weren't used:</para>
- <variablelist>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>bengo</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>Bengali</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>porto</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>Portuguese</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>baxso</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>Bahasa Melayu/Bahasa Indonesia</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>ponjo</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>Japanese (from <quote>Nippon</quote>)</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>dotco</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>German (from <quote xml:lang="de">Deutsch</quote>)</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>fraso</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>French (from <quote xml:lang="fr">Français</quote>)</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>xurdo</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>Urdu</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- </variablelist>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>continents</primary><secondary>gismu for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>geographical</secondary></indexterm> (Urdu and Hindi began as the same language with different writing systems, but have now become somewhat different, principally in borrowed vocabulary. Urdu-speakers were counted along with Hindi-speakers when weights were assigned for gismu-making purposes.)</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>ethnic</secondary></indexterm> Countries with a large number of speakers of any of the above languages (where the meaning of <quote>large</quote> is dependent on the specific language):</para>
- <para>
- <informaltable>
- <tr><td colspan="0">English:</td></tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>merko</valsi></td>
- <td>American</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>brito</valsi></td>
- <td>British</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>skoto</valsi></td>
- <td>Scottish</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>sralo</valsi></td>
- <td>Australian</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>kadno</valsi></td>
- <td>Canadian</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <informaltable>
- <tr><td colspan="0">Spanish:</td></tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>gento</valsi></td>
- <td>Argentinian</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>mexno</valsi></td>
- <td>Mexican</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <informaltable>
- <tr><td colspan="0">Russian:</td></tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>softo</valsi></td>
- <td>Soviet/USSR</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>vukro</valsi></td>
- <td>Ukrainian</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <informaltable>
- <tr><td colspan="0">Arabic:</td></tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>filso</valsi></td>
- <td>Palestinian</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>jerxo</valsi></td>
- <td>Algerian</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>jordo</valsi></td>
- <td>Jordanian</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>libjo</valsi></td>
- <td>Libyan</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>lubno</valsi></td>
- <td>Lebanese</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>misro</valsi></td>
- <td>Egyptian (from <quote xml:lang="he">Mizraim</quote>)</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>morko</valsi></td>
- <td>Moroccan</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>rakso</valsi></td>
- <td>Iraqi</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>sadjo</valsi></td>
- <td>Saudi</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>sirxo</valsi></td>
- <td>Syrian</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <informaltable>
- <tr><td colspan="0">Bahasa Melayu/Bahasa Indonesia:</td></tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>bindo</valsi></td>
- <td>Indonesian</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>meljo</valsi></td>
- <td>Malaysian</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <informaltable>
- <tr><td colspan="0">Portuguese:</td></tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>brazo</valsi></td>
- <td>Brazilian</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <informaltable>
- <tr><td colspan="0">Urdu:</td></tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>kisto</valsi></td>
- <td>Pakistani</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- </para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gismu</primary><secondary>religious</secondary></indexterm> The continents (and oceanic regions) of the Earth:</para>
-
- <variablelist>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>bemro</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>North American (from <jbophrase>berti merko</jbophrase>)</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>dzipo</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>Antarctican (from <jbophrase>cadzu cipni</jbophrase>)</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>ketco</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>South American (from <quote xml:lang="qu">Quechua</quote>)</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>friko</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>African</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>polno</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>Polynesian/Oceanic</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>ropno</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>European</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>xazdo</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>Asiatic</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- </variablelist>
- <para>A few smaller but historically important cultures:</para>
- <variablelist>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>latmo</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>Latin/Roman</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>srito</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>Sanskrit</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>xebro</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>Hebrew/Israeli/Jewish</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>xelso</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>Greek (from <quote xml:lang="el">Hellas</quote>)</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- </variablelist>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cultural words</primary><secondary>rafsi fu'ivla proposal for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi fu'ivla</primary></indexterm> Major world religions:</para>
- <variablelist>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>budjo</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>Buddhist</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>dadjo</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>Taoist</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>muslo</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>Islamic/Moslem</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>xriso</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>Christian</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- </variablelist>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fu'ivla</primary><secondary>form for rafsi fu'ivla proposal</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>CCVVCV fu'ivla</primary><secondary>and rafsi fu'ivla proposal</secondary></indexterm> A few terms that cover multiple groups of the above:</para>
- <variablelist>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>jegvo</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>Jehovist (Judeo-Christian-Moslem)</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>semto</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>Semitic</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>slovo</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>Slavic</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>xispo</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>Hispanic (New World Spanish)</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- </variablelist>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-rafsi-fuhivla">
- <title>rafsi fu'ivla: a proposal</title>
- <para>The list of cultures represented by gismu, given in
- <xref linkend="section-cultural-gismu"/>, is unavoidably controversial. Much time has been spent debating whether this or that culture
- <quote>deserves a gismu</quote> or
- <quote>must languish in fu'ivla space</quote>. To help defuse this argument, a last-minute proposal was made when this book was already substantially complete. I have added it here with experimental status: it is not yet a standard part of Lojban, since all its implications have not been tested in open debate, and it affects a part of the language (lujvo-making) that has long been stable, but is known to be fragile in the face of small changes. (Many attempts were made to add general mechanisms for making lujvo that contained fu'ivla, but all failed on obvious or obscure counterexamples; finally the general
- <valsi>zei</valsi> mechanism was devised instead.)</para>
- <para>The first part of the proposal is uncontroversial and involves no change to the language mechanisms. All valid Type 4 fu'ivla of the form CCVVCV would be reserved for cultural brivla analogous to those described in
- <xref linkend="section-cultural-gismu"/>. For example,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PMb2">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="general"><primary>Chilean desert</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c4e16d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo valid="false">tci'ile</jbo>
- <natlang>Chilean</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> is of the appropriate form, and passes all tests required of a Stage 4 fu'ivla. No two fu'ivla of this form would be allowed to coexist if they differed only in the final vowel; this rule was applied to gismu, but does not apply to other fu'ivla or to lujvo.</para>
- <para>The second, and fully experimental, part of the proposal is to allow rafsi to be formed from these cultural fu'ivla by removing the final vowel and treating the result as a 4-letter rafsi (although it would contain five letters, not four). These rafsi could then be used on a par with all other rafsi in forming lujvo. The tanru</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hcR6">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c4e16d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo valid="false">tci'ile ke canre tutra</jbo>
- <gloss>Chilean type-of <comment>sand territory</comment></gloss>
- <natlang>Chilean desert</natlang>
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>could be represented by the lujvo</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-0rzn">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c4e16d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo valid="false">tci'ilykemcantutra</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>which is an illegal word in standard Lojban, but a valid lujvo under this proposal. There would be no short rafsi or 5-letter rafsi assigned to any fu'ivla, so no fu'ivla could appear as the last element of a lujvo.</para>
- <para>The cultural fu'ivla introduced under this proposal are called
- <jbophrase>rafsi fu'ivla</jbophrase>, since they are distinguished from other Type 4 fu'ivla by the property of having rafsi. If this proposal is workable and introduces no problems into Lojban morphology, it might become standard for all Type 4 fu'ivla, including those made for plants, animals, foodstuffs, and other things.</para>
-
- </section>
-</chapter>
diff --git a/chapters/5.xml b/chapters/5.xml
deleted file mode 100644
index 7fc0abe..0000000
--- a/chapters/5.xml
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,4050 +0,0 @@
-<chapter xml:id="chapter-selbri">
- <title><quote>Pretty Little Girls' School</quote>: The Structure Of Lojban selbri</title>
- <mediaobject xml:id="chapter-selbri-picture">
- <alt>The picture for chapter 5</alt>
- <imageobject>
- <imagedata fileref="media/chapter-selbri.gif"/>
- </imageobject>
- </mediaobject>
-
- <section xml:id="section-content-words-brivla">
- <title>Lojban content words: brivla</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi</primary><secondary>relation to selbri</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri</primary><secondary>relation to bridi</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> At the center, logically and often physically, of every Lojban bridi is one or more words which constitute the selbri. A bridi expresses a relationship between things: the selbri specifies which relationship is referred to. The difference between:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-do-mamta-mi">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e1d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>do mamta mi</jbo>
- <gloss>You are-a-mother-of me</gloss>
- <natlang>You are my mother</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>and</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-B0aR">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e1d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>do patfu mi</jbo>
- <gloss>You are-a-father-of me.</gloss>
- <natlang>You are my father.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>lies in the different selbri.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>brivla</primary><secondary>types</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>brivla as selbri</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri</primary><secondary>brivla as</secondary></indexterm> The simplest kind of selbri is a single Lojban content word: a brivla. There are three different varieties of brivla: those which are built into the language (the gismu), those which are derived from combinations of the gismu (the lujvo), and those which are taken (usually in a modified form) from other languages (the fu'ivla). In addition, there are a few cmavo that can act like brivla; these are mentioned in
- <xref linkend="section-cmavo-selbri"/>, and discussed in full in
- <xref linkend="chapter-anaphoric-cmavo"/>.</para>
- <para>For the purposes of this chapter, however, all brivla are alike. For example,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-483c">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e1d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ta bloti</jbo>
- <gloss>That is-a-boat.</gloss>
- <natlang>That is a boat.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mdxB">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e1d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ta brablo</jbo>
- <gloss>That is-a-large-boat.</gloss>
- <natlang>That is a ship.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-UMjE">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>schooner</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c5e1d5"/>
- </title>
-
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ta blotrskunri</jbo>
- <gloss>That is-a-(boat)-schooner.</gloss>
- <natlang>That is a schooner.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> illustrate the three types of brivla (gismu, lujvo, and fu'ivla respectively), but in each case the selbri is composed of a single word whose meaning can be learned independent of its origins.</para>
- <para>The remainder of this chapter will mostly use gismu as example brivla, because they are short. However, it is important to keep in mind that wherever a gismu appears, it could be replaced by any other kind of brivla.</para>
- </section>
-
- <section xml:id="section-simple-tanru">
- <title>Simple tanru</title>
-
-
-
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>simple</secondary></indexterm> Beyond the single brivla, a selbri may consist of two brivla placed together. When a selbri is built in this way from more than one brivla, it is called a tanru, a word with no single English equivalent. The nearest analogue to tanru in English are combinations of two nouns such as
- <quote>lemon tree</quote>. There is no way to tell just by looking at the phrase
- <quote>lemon tree</quote> exactly what it refers to, even if you know the meanings of
- <quote>lemon</quote> and
- <quote>tree</quote> by themselves. As English-speakers, we must simply know that it refers to
- <quote>a tree which bears lemons as fruits</quote>. A person who didn't know English very well might think of it as analogous to
- <quote>brown tree</quote> and wonder,
- <quote>What kind of tree is lemon-colored?</quote></para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>adjective-noun combination</primary><secondary>with tanru</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>adverb-verb combination</primary><secondary>with tanru</secondary></indexterm> In Lojban, tanru are also used for the same purposes as English adjective-noun combinations like
- <quote>big boy</quote> and adverb-verb combinations like
- <quote>quickly run</quote>. This is a consequence of Lojban not having any such categories as
- <quote>noun</quote>,
- <quote>verb</quote>,
- <quote>adjective</quote>, or
- <quote>adverb</quote>. English words belonging to any of these categories are translated by simple brivla in Lojban. Here are some examples of tanru:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-lemon-tree">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>lemon tree</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c5e2d1"/>
- </title>
-
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>tu pelnimre tricu</jbo>
- <gloss>That-yonder is-a-(lemon tree).</gloss>
- <natlang>That is a lemon tree.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-qHNA">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e2d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la djan. barda nanla</jbo>
- <gloss>That-named John is-a-big boy.</gloss>
- <natlang>John is a big boy.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-eD63">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>quick runner</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c5e2d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi sutra bajra</jbo>
- <gloss>I quick run</gloss>
- <natlang>I quickly run./I run quickly.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>Note that
- <valsi>pelnimre</valsi> is a lujvo for
- <quote>lemon</quote>; it is derived from the gismu
- <valsi>pelxu</valsi>, yellow, and
- <valsi>nimre</valsi>, citrus. Note also that
- <valsi>sutra</valsi> can mean
- <quote>fast/quick</quote> or
- <quote>quickly</quote> depending on its use:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-cjhN">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e2d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi sutra</jbo>
- <gloss>I am-fast/quick</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> shows
- <valsi>sutra</valsi> used to translate an adjective, whereas in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-eD63"/> it is translating an adverb. (Another correct translation of
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-eD63"/>, however, would be
- <quote>I am a quick runner</quote>.)</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tertau</primary><secondary>definition of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>seltau</primary><secondary>definition of</secondary></indexterm> There are special Lojban terms for the two components of a tanru, derived from the place structure of the word
- <valsi>tanru</valsi>. The first component is called the
- <valsi>seltau</valsi>, and the second component is called the
- <valsi>tertau</valsi>.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tertau</primary><secondary>effect on meaning of tanru</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>primary meaning of</secondary></indexterm> The most important rule for use in interpreting tanru is that the tertau carries the primary meaning. A
- <jbophrase>pelnimre tricu</jbophrase> is primarily a tree, and only secondarily is it connected with lemons in some way. For this reason, an alternative translation of
- <xref linkend="example-lemon-tree"/> would be:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hP9j">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e2d5"/>
- </title>
- <para>That is a lemon type of tree.</para>
- </example>
- <para>This
- <quote>type of</quote> relationship between the components of a tanru is fundamental to the tanru concept.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modifier</primary><secondary>seltau as</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>seltau</primary><secondary>effect on meaning of tanru</secondary></indexterm> We may also say that the seltau modifies the meaning of the tertau:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4fvn">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e2d6"/>
- </title>
- <para>That is a tree which is lemon-ish (in the way appropriate to trees)</para>
- </example>
- <para>would be another possible translation of
- <xref linkend="example-lemon-tree"/>. In the same way, a more explicit translation of
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qHNA"/> might be:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-asRA">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e2d7"/>
- </title>
- <para>John is a boy who is big in the way that boys are big.</para>
- </example>
- <para>This
- <quote>way that boys are big</quote> would be quite different from the way in which elephants are big; big-for-a-boy is small-for-an-elephant.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ambiguity of tanru</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>ambiguity of</secondary></indexterm> All tanru are ambiguous semantically. Possible translations of:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-aIfM">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>goer table</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c5e2d8"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ta klama jubme</jbo>
- <gloss>That is-a-goer type-of-table.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>include:</para>
- <itemizedlist>
- <listitem>
- <para> That is a table which goes (a wheeled table, perhaps).</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>That is a table owned by one who goes.</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>That is a table used by those who go (a sports doctor's table?).</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>That is a table when it goes (otherwise it is a chair?).</para>
- </listitem>
- </itemizedlist>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>as ambiguous</secondary></indexterm> In each case the object referred to is a
- <quote>goer type of table</quote>, but the ambiguous
- <quote>type of</quote> relationship can mean one of many things. A speaker who uses tanru (and pragmatically all speakers must) takes the risk of being misunderstood. Using tanru is convenient because they are short and expressive; the circumlocution required to squeeze out all ambiguity can require too much effort.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>meaning of</secondary></indexterm> No general theory covering the meaning of all possible tanru exists; probably no such theory can exist. However, some regularities obviously do exist:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Lczh">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e2d9"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>do barda prenu</jbo>
- <gloss>You are-a-large person.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Ldb1">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e2d10"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>do cmalu prenu</jbo>
- <gloss>You are-a-small person.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>are parallel tanru, in the sense that the relationship between
- <valsi>barda</valsi> and
- <valsi>prenu</valsi> is the same as that between
- <valsi>cmalu</valsi> and
- <valsi>prenu</valsi>.
- <xref linkend="section-asymmetric-tanru"/> and
- <xref linkend="section-symmetric-tanru"/> contain a partial listing of some types of tanru, with examples.</para>
- </section>
-
- <section xml:id="section-three-part-tanru">
- <title>Three-part tanru grouping with
- <valsi>bo</valsi></title>
-
- <para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>bo</cmavo>
- <selmaho>BO</selmaho>
- <description>closest scope grouping</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru grouping</primary><secondary>three-part</secondary></indexterm> Consider the English sentence:</para>
- <!-- FIXME: The indexterm "girls' school" applies to all three of the following examples; should it go in all three or just the first? -->
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gCLr">
- <title>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>girls' school</primary><secondary>little</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e3d1"/>
- </title>
- <para>That's a little girls' school.</para>
- </example>
- <para>What does it mean? Two possible readings are:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-5UBW">
- <title>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>girls' school</primary><secondary>little</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e3d2"/>
- </title>
- <para>That's a little school for girls.</para>
- </example>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-5UBJ">
- <title>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>girls' school</primary><secondary>little</secondary><tertiary>example</tertiary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e3d3"/>
- </title>
- <para>That's a school for little girls.</para>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>speech rhythm</primary><secondary>for grouping in English</secondary></indexterm> This ambiguity is quite different from the simple tanru ambiguity described in
- <xref linkend="section-simple-tanru"/>. We understand that
- <quote>girls' school</quote> means
- <quote>a school where girls are the students</quote>, and not
- <quote>a school where girls are the teachers</quote> or
- <quote>a school which is a girl</quote> (!). Likewise, we understand that
- <quote>little girl</quote> means
- <quote>girl who is small</quote>. This is an ambiguity of grouping. Is
- <quote>girls' school</quote> to be taken as a unit, with
- <quote>little</quote> specifying the type of girls' school? Or is
- <quote>little girl</quote> to be taken as a unit, specifying the type of school? In English speech, different tones of voice, or
- exaggerated speech rhythm showing the grouping, are used to make the distinction; English writing usually leaves it unrepresented.</para>
-
- <para> Lojban makes no use of tones of voice for any purpose; explicit words are used to do the work. The cmavo
- <valsi>bo</valsi> (which belongs to selma'o BO) may be placed between the two brivla which are most closely associated. Therefore, a Lojban translation of
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-5UBW"/> would be:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nwuU">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e3d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ta cmalu nixli bo ckule</jbo>
- <gloss>That is-a-small girl [] school.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para><xref linkend="example-random-id-5UBJ"/> might be translated:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-jquh">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e3d5"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ta cmalu bo nixli ckule</jbo>
- <gloss>That is-a-small [] girl school.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>The
- <valsi>bo</valsi> is represented in the literal translation by a hyphen because in written English a hyphen is sometimes used for the same purpose:
- <quote>a big dog-catcher</quote> would be quite different from a
- <quote>big-dog catcher</quote> (presumably someone who catches only big dogs).</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru nested within tanru</primary></indexterm> Analysis of
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-nwuU"/> and
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-jquh"/> reveals a tanru nested within a tanru. In
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-nwuU"/>, the main tanru has a seltau of
- <valsi>cmalu</valsi> and a tertau of
- <jbophrase>nixli bo ckule</jbophrase>; the tertau is itself a tanru with
- <valsi>nixli</valsi> as the seltau and
- <valsi>ckule</valsi> as the tertau. In
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-jquh"/>, on the other hand, the seltau is
- <jbophrase>cmalu bo nixli</jbophrase> (itself a tanru), whereas the tertau is
- <valsi>ckule</valsi>.
- This structure of tanru nested within tanru forms the basis for all the more complex types of selbri that will be explained below.</para>
- <para>What about
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-9FPm"/>? What does it mean?</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9FPm">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e3d6"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ta cmalu nixli ckule</jbo>
- <gloss>That is-a-small girl school.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>default left-grouping of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>left-grouping rule</primary><secondary>definition of</secondary></indexterm> The rules of Lojban do not leave this sentence ambiguous, as the rules of English do with
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-gCLr"/>. The choice made by the language designers is to say that
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-9FPm"/> means the same as
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-jquh"/>. This is true no matter what three brivla are used: the leftmost two are always grouped together. This rule is called the
- <quote>left-grouping rule</quote>. Left-grouping in seemingly ambiguous structures is quite common – though not universal – in other contexts in Lojban.</para>
- <para>Another way to express the English meaning of
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-nwuU"/> and
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-jquh"/>, using parentheses to mark grouping, is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ERBx">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e3d7"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ta cmalu [] nixli bo ckule</jbo>
- <gloss>That is-a-small type-of (girl type-of school).</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ERBQ">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e3d8"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ta cmalu bo nixli [] ckule</jbo>
- <gloss>That is-a-(small type-of girl) type-of school.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>Because
- <quote>type-of</quote> is implicit in the Lojban tanru form, it has no Lojban equivalent.</para>
- <para>Note: It is perfectly legal, though pointless, to insert
- <valsi>bo</valsi> into a simple tanru:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-q6br">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e3d9"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ta klama bo jubme</jbo>
- <gloss>That is-a-goer [] table.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>is a legal Lojban bridi that means exactly the same thing as
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-aIfM"/>, and is ambiguous in exactly the same ways. The cmavo
- <valsi>bo</valsi> serves only to resolve grouping ambiguity: it says nothing about the more basic ambiguity present in all tanru.</para>
- </section>
-
- <section xml:id="section-complex-grouping">
- <title>Complex tanru grouping</title>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru grouping</primary><secondary>complex</secondary></indexterm> If one element of a tanru can be another tanru, why not both elements?</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-m5SD">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e4d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>do mutce bo barda gerku bo kavbu</jbo>
- <gloss>You are-a-(very type-of large) (dog type-of capturer).</gloss>
- <natlang>You are a very large dog-catcher.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>In
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-m5SD"/>, the selbri is a tanru with seltau
- <jbophrase>mutce bo barda</jbophrase> and tertau
- <jbophrase>gerku bo kavbu</jbophrase>. It is worth emphasizing once again that this tanru has the same fundamental ambiguity as all other Lojban tanru: the sense in which the
- <quote>dog type-of capturer</quote> is said to be
- <quote>very type-of large</quote> is not precisely specified. Presumably it is his body which is large, but theoretically it could be one of his other properties.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pretty</primary><secondary>English ambiguity of</secondary></indexterm> We will now justify the title of this chapter by exploring the ramifications of the phrase
- <quote>pretty little girls' school</quote>, an expansion of the tanru used in
-
- <xref linkend="section-three-part-tanru"/> to four brivla. (Although this example has been used in the Loglan Project almost since the beginning – it first appeared in Quine's book
- <citetitle pubwork="book">Word and Object</citetitle> (1960) – it is actually a mediocre example because of the ambiguity of English
- <quote>pretty</quote>; it can mean
- <quote>beautiful</quote>, the sense intended here, or it can mean
- <quote>very</quote>. Lojban
- <valsi>melbi</valsi> is not subject to this ambiguity: it means only
- <quote>beautiful</quote>.)</para>
- <para>Here are four ways to group this phrase:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjmr" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e4d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ta melbi cmalu nixli ckule</jbo>
- <gloss>That is-a-((pretty type-of little) type-of girl) type-of school.</gloss>
- <natlang>That is a school for girls who are beautifully small.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjNi" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e4d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ta melbi cmalu nixli bo ckule</jbo>
- <gloss>That is-a-(pretty type-of little) (girl type-of school).</gloss>
- <natlang>That is a girls' school which is beautifully small.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjog" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e4d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ta melbi cmalu bo nixli ckule</jbo>
- <gloss>That is-a-(pretty type-of (little type-of girl)) type-of school.</gloss>
- <natlang>That is a school for small girls who are beautiful.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjop" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e4d5"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ta melbi cmalu bo nixli bo ckule</jbo>
- <gloss>That is-a-pretty type-of (little type-of (girl type-of school)).</gloss>
- <natlang>That is a small school for girls which is beautiful.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bo</primary><secondary>for right-grouping in tanru</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru grouping</primary><secondary>with bo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>right-grouping in tanru</primary><secondary>with bo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>right-grouping rule</primary><secondary>definition of</secondary></indexterm>
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjop"/> uses a construction which has not been seen before:
- <jbophrase>cmalu bo nixli bo ckule</jbophrase>, with two consecutive uses of
- <valsi>bo</valsi> between brivla. The rule for multiple
- <valsi>bo</valsi> constructions is the opposite of the rule when no
- <valsi>bo</valsi> is present at all: the last two are grouped together. Not surprisingly, this is called the
- <quote>right-grouping rule</quote>, and it is associated with every use of
-
- <valsi>bo</valsi> in the language. Therefore,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-snKn">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e4d6"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ta cmalu bo nixli bo ckule</jbo>
- <gloss>That is-a-little type-of (girl type-of school).</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>means the same as
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-nwuU"/>, not
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-jquh"/>. This rule may seem peculiar at first, but one of its consequences is that
- <valsi>bo</valsi> is never necessary between the first two elements of any of the complex tanru presented so far: all of
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjmr"/> through
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjop"/> could have
- <valsi>bo</valsi> inserted between
- <valsi>melbi</valsi> and
- <valsi>cmalu</valsi> with no change in meaning.</para>
- </section>
-
- <section xml:id="section-ke-grouping">
- <title>Complex tanru with
- <valsi>ke</valsi> and
- <valsi>ke'e</valsi></title>
-
- <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ke</cmavo>
- <selmaho>KE</selmaho>
- <description>start grouping</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ke'e</cmavo>
- <selmaho>KEhE</selmaho>
- <description>end grouping</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru grouping</primary><secondary>with ke</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>grouping parentheses</primary></indexterm> There is, in fact, a fifth grouping of
- <quote>pretty little girls' school</quote> that cannot be expressed with the resources explained so far. To handle it, we must introduce the grouping parentheses cmavo,
-
-
- <valsi>ke</valsi> and
- <valsi>ke'e</valsi> (belonging to selma'o KE and KEhE respectively). Any portion of a selbri sandwiched between these two cmavo is taken to be a single tanru component, independently of what is adjacent to it. Thus,
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjmr"/> can be rewritten in any of the following ways:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjqu" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e5d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ta ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ckule</jbo>
- <gloss>That is-a-( pretty little ) girl school.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJQz" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e5d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ta ke ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ke'e ckule</jbo>
- <gloss>That is-a-( ( pretty little ) girl ) school.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjSA" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e5d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ta ke ke ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ke'e ckule ke'e</jbo>
- <gloss>That is-a-( ( ( pretty little ) girl ) school ).</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>Even more versions could be created simply by placing any number of
- <valsi>ke</valsi> cmavo at the beginning of the selbri, and a like number of
- <valsi>ke'e</valsi> cmavo at its end. Obviously, all of these are a waste of breath once the left-grouping rule has been grasped. However, the following is equivalent to
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjog"/> and may be easier to understand:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-zV26">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e5d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ta melbi ke cmalu nixli ke'e ckule</jbo>
- <gloss>That is-a-( pretty type-of ( little type-of girl ) ) type-of school.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>Likewise, a
- <valsi>ke</valsi> and
- <valsi>ke'e</valsi> version of
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjNi"/> would be:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-AUdM">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e5d5"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ta melbi cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e]</jbo>
- <gloss>That is-a-(pretty type-of little) ( girl type-of school ).</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>The final
- <valsi>ke'e</valsi> is given in square brackets here to indicate that it can be elided. It is always possible to elide
-
- <valsi>ke'e</valsi> at the end of the selbri, making
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-AUdM"/> as terse as
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjNi"/>.</para>
- <para>Now how about that fifth grouping? It is</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-tz0L">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e5d6"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ta melbi ke cmalu nixli ckule [ke'e]</jbo>
- <gloss>That is-a-pretty type-of ( ( little type-of girl ) type-of school ).</gloss>
- <natlang>That is a beautiful school for small girls.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-tz0L"/> is distinctly different in meaning from any of Examples 4.2 through 4.5. Note that within the
- <valsi>ke</valsi>…<valsi>ke'e</valsi> parentheses, the left-grouping rule is applied to
- <jbophrase>cmalu nixli ckule</jbophrase>.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru grouping</primary><secondary>with ke and bo</secondary></indexterm>
- It is perfectly all right to mix
- <valsi>bo</valsi> and
- <valsi>ke</valsi>…<valsi>ke'e</valsi> in a single selbri. For instance,
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjop"/>, which in pure
- <valsi>ke</valsi>…<valsi>ke'e</valsi> form is</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-uBS4">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e5d7"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ta melbi ke cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e] [ke'e]</jbo>
- <gloss>That is-a-pretty type-of ( little type-of ( girl type-of school ) ).</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>can equivalently be expressed as:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Ei5U">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e5d8"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ta melbi ke cmalu nixli bo ckule [ke'e]</jbo>
- <gloss>That is-a-pretty type-of ( little type-of ( girl type-of school ) ).</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>and in many other different forms as well.</para>
- </section>
-
- <section xml:id="section-logical-connection">
- <title>Logical connection within tanru</title>
- <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>je</cmavo>
- <selmaho>JA</selmaho>
- <description>tanru logical <quote>and</quote></description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ja</cmavo>
- <selmaho>JA</selmaho>
- <description>tanru logical <quote>or</quote></description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>joi</cmavo>
- <selmaho>JOI</selmaho>
- <description>mixed mass <quote>and</quote></description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>gu'e</cmavo>
- <selmaho>GUhA</selmaho>
- <description>tanru forethought logical <quote>and</quote></description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>gi</cmavo>
- <selmaho>GI</selmaho>
- <description>forethought connection separator</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
- <para> Consider the English phrase
- <quote>big red dog</quote>. How shall this be rendered as a Lojban tanru? The naive attempt:</para>
-
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-riAq">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>big red dog</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c5e6d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo valid="iffy">barda xunre gerku</jbo>
- <gloss>(big type-of red) type-of dog</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>will not do, as it means a dog whose redness is big, in whatever way redness might be described as
- <quote>big</quote>. Nor is</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-6MqF">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e6d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo valid="iffy">barda xunre bo gerku</jbo>
- <gloss>big type-of (red type-of dog)</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>adjective ordering</primary></indexterm> much better. After all, the straightforward understanding of the English phrase is that the dog is big as compared with other dogs, not merely as compared with other red dogs. In fact, the bigness and redness are independent properties of the dog, and only obscure rules of English adjective ordering prevent us from saying
-
- <quote>red big dog</quote>.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connectives</primary><secondary>in tanru</secondary></indexterm> The Lojban approach to this problem is to introduce the cmavo
- <valsi>je</valsi>, which is one of the many equivalents of English
- <quote>and</quote>. A big red dog is one that is both big and red, and we can say:</para>
-
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-0UrF">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e6d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>barda je xunre gerku</jbo>
- <gloss>(big and red) type-of dog</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>Of course,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-DzeP">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e6d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>xunre je barda gerku</jbo>
- <gloss>(red and big) type-of dog</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connectives in tanru</primary><secondary>effect on tanru grouping</secondary></indexterm> is equally satisfactory and means the same thing. As these examples indicate, joining two brivla with
- <valsi>je</valsi> makes them a unit for tanru purposes. However, explicit grouping with
- <valsi>bo</valsi> or
- <valsi>ke</valsi>…<valsi>ke'e</valsi> associates brivla more closely than
- <valsi>je</valsi> does:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-LES9">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e6d5"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>barda je pelxu bo xunre gerku</jbo>
- <jbo>barda je ke pelxu xunre ke'e gerku</jbo>
- <gloss>(big and (yellow type-of red)) dog</gloss>
- <natlang>big yellowish-red dog</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>With no grouping indicators, we get:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-fuhg">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e6d6"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo valid="iffy">barda je pelxu xunre gerku</jbo>
- <gloss>((big and yellow) type-of red) type-of dog</gloss>
- <gloss>biggish- and yellowish-red dog</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>which again raises the question of
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-riAq"/>: what does
- <quote>biggish-red</quote> mean?</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connectives in tanru</primary><secondary>usefulness of</secondary></indexterm> Unlike
- <valsi>bo</valsi> and
- <valsi>ke</valsi>…<valsi>ke'e</valsi>,
- <valsi>je</valsi> is useful as well as merely legal within simple tanru. It may be used to partly resolve the ambiguity of simple tanru:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-W56H">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e6d7"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ta blanu je zdani</jbo>
- <gloss>that is-blue and is-a-house</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>definitely refers to something which is both blue and is a house, and not to any of the other possible interpretations of simple
- <jbophrase>blanu zdani</jbophrase>. Furthermore,
- <jbophrase>blanu zdani</jbophrase> refers to something which is blue in the way that houses are blue;
- <jbophrase>blanu je zdani</jbophrase> has no such implication – the blueness of a
- <jbophrase>blanu je zdani</jbophrase> is independent of its houseness.</para>
- <para>With the addition of
- <valsi>je</valsi>, many more versions of
- <quote>pretty little girls' school</quote> are made possible: see
-
- <xref linkend="section-pretty-school-groupings"/> for a complete list.</para>
- <para>A subtle point in the semantics of tanru like
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-0UrF"/> needs special elucidation. There are at least two possible interpretations of:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-N5Bt">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e6d8"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ta melbi je nixli ckule</jbo>
- <gloss>That is-a-(beautiful and girl) type-of school.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>It can be understood as:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-FCDa">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e6d9"/>
- </title>
- <para>That is a girls' school and a beautiful school.</para>
- </example>
- <para>or as:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-aFxm">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e6d10"/>
- </title>
- <para>That is a school for things which are both girls and beautiful.</para>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connectives in tanru</primary><secondary>ambiguity of</secondary></indexterm> The interpretation specified by
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-FCDa"/> treats the tanru as a sort of abbreviation for:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pHHw">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e6d11"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ta ke melbi ckule ke'e je ke nixli ckule [ke'e]</jbo>
- <gloss>That is-a-( beautiful type-of school ) and ( girl type-of school )</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>whereas the interpretation specified by
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-aFxm"/> does not. This is a kind of semantic ambiguity for which Lojban does not compel a firm resolution. The way in which the school is said to be of type
- <quote>beautiful and girl</quote> may entail that it is separately a beautiful school and a girls' school; but the alternative interpretation, that the members of the school are beautiful and girls, is also possible. Still another interpretation is:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-2cjH">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e6d12"/>
- </title>
- <para>That is a school for beautiful things and also for girls.</para>
- </example>
- <para>so while the logical connectives help to resolve the meaning of tanru, they by no means compel a single meaning in and of themselves.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connectives in tanru</primary><secondary>effect on formal logical manipulations</secondary></indexterm> In general, logical connectives within tanru cannot undergo the formal manipulations that are possible with the related logical connectives that exist outside tanru; see
- <xref linkend="section-tanru"/> for further details.</para>
- <para> The logical connective
- <valsi>je</valsi> is only one of the fourteen logical connectives that Lojban provides. Here are a few examples of some of the others:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJse" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e6d13"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le bajra cu jinga ja te jinga</jbo>
- <natlang>the runner(s) is/are winner(s) or loser(s).</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJsg" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e6d14"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>blanu naja lenku skapi</jbo>
- <gloss>(blue only-if cold) skin</gloss>
- <natlang>skin which is blue only if it is cold</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjsy" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e6d15"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>xamgu jo tordu nuntavla</jbo>
- <gloss>(good if-and-only-if short) speech</gloss>
- <natlang>speech which is good if (and only if) it is short</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjtD" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e6d16"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>vajni ju pluka nuntavla</jbo>
- <gloss>(important whether-or-not pleasing) event-of-talking</gloss>
- <natlang>speech which is important, whether or not it is pleasing</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>In
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qJse"/>,
- <valsi>ja</valsi> is grammatically equivalent to
- <valsi>je</valsi> but means
- <quote>or</quote> (more precisely,
- <quote>and/or</quote>). Likewise,
- <valsi>naja</valsi> means
- <quote>only if</quote> in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qJsg"/>,
- <valsi>jo</valsi> means
- <quote>if and only if</quote> in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjsy"/>, and
- <valsi>ju</valsi> means
- <quote>whether or not</quote> in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjtD"/>.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple logical connectives</primary><secondary>within tanru</secondary></indexterm> Now consider the following example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-NuWM">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e6d17"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ricfu je blanu jabo crino</jbo>
- <gloss>rich and (blue or green)</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru grouping with JA+BO</primary><secondary>effect on tanru grouping</secondary></indexterm> which illustrates a new grammatical feature: the use of both
- <valsi>ja</valsi> and
- <valsi>bo</valsi> between tanru components. The two cmavo combine to form a compound whose meaning is that of
- <valsi>ja</valsi> but which groups more closely;
- <valsi>ja</valsi><valsi>bo</valsi> is to
-
- <valsi>ja</valsi> as plain
- <valsi>bo</valsi> is to no cmavo at all. However, both
- <valsi>ja</valsi> and
- <valsi>ja</valsi><valsi>bo</valsi> group less closely than
-
- <valsi>bo</valsi> does:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KxqX">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e6d18"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ricfu je blanu jabo crino bo blanu</jbo>
- <gloss>rich and (blue or green - blue)</gloss>
- <gloss>rich and (blue or greenish-blue)</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>An alternative form of
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-NuWM"/> is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2WtT">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e6d19"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ricfu je ke blanu ja crino [ke'e]</jbo>
- <gloss>rich and (blue or green)</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-logical connectives</primary><secondary>within tanru</secondary></indexterm> In addition to the logical connectives, there are also a variety of non-logical connectives, grammatically equivalent to the logical ones. The only one with a well-understood meaning in tanru contexts is
- <valsi>joi</valsi>, which is the kind of
- <quote>and</quote> that denotes a mixture:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Hr1L">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e6d20"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ti blanu joi xunre bolci</jbo>
- <gloss>This is-a-(blue and red) ball.</gloss>
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>The ball described is neither solely red nor solely blue, but probably striped or in some other way exhibiting a combination of the two colors.
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-Hr1L"/> is distinct from:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-NAhT">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e6d21"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ti blanu xunre bolci</jbo>
- <natlang>This is a bluish-red ball</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>which would be a ball whose color is some sort of purple tending toward red, since
- <valsi>xunre</valsi> is the more important of the two components. On the other hand,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-78C3">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e6d22"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ti blanu je xunre bolci</jbo>
- <gloss>This is a (blue and red) ball</gloss>
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>is probably self-contradictory, seeming to claim that the ball is independently both blue and red at the same time, although some sensible interpretation may exist.</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>forethought logical connectives</primary><secondary>within tanru</secondary></indexterm> Finally, just as English
- <quote>and</quote> has the variant form
- <quote>both ... and</quote>, so
- <valsi>je</valsi> between tanru components has the variant form
- <valsi>gu'e</valsi>…<valsi>gi</valsi>, where
- <valsi>gu'e</valsi> is placed before the components and
- <valsi>gi</valsi> between them:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gLbh">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e6d23"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>gu'e barda gi xunre gerku</jbo>
- <gloss>(both big and red) type-of dog</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>is equivalent in meaning to
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-0UrF"/>. For each logical connective related to
- <valsi>je</valsi>, there is a corresponding connective related to
- <valsi>gu'e</valsi>…<valsi>gi</valsi> in a systematic way.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>forethought logical connectives in tanru</primary><secondary>effect on tanru grouping</secondary></indexterm> The portion of a
- <valsi>gu'e</valsi>…<valsi>gi</valsi> construction before the
- <valsi>gi</valsi> is a full selbri, and may use any of the selbri resources including
- <valsi>je</valsi> logical connections. After the
- <valsi>gi</valsi>, logical connections are taken to be wider in scope than the
- <valsi>gu'e</valsi>…<valsi>gi</valsi>, which has in effect the same scope as
- <valsi>bo</valsi>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ETVe">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e6d24"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>gu'e barda je xunre gi gerku ja mlatu</jbo>
- <gloss>(both (big and red) and dog) or cat</gloss>
- <natlang>something which is either big, red, and a dog, or else a cat</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>leaves
- <valsi>mlatu</valsi> outside the
- <valsi>gu'e</valsi>…<valsi>gi</valsi> construction. The scope of the
- <valsi>gi</valsi> arm extends only to a single brivla or to two or more brivla connected with
- <valsi>bo</valsi> or
- <valsi>ke</valsi>…<valsi>ke'e</valsi>.</para>
- </section>
-
- <section xml:id="section-be-sumti">
- <title>Linked sumti: <valsi>be</valsi>-<valsi>bei</valsi>-<valsi>be'o</valsi></title>
- <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>be</cmavo>
- <selmaho>BE</selmaho>
- <description>linked sumti marker</description>
-
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>bei</cmavo>
- <selmaho>BEI</selmaho>
- <description>linked sumti separator</description>
-
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>be'o</cmavo>
- <selmaho>BEhO</selmaho>
- <description>linked sumti terminator</description>
-
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
- <para>The question of the place structures of selbri has been glossed over so far. This chapter does not attempt to treat place structure issues in detail; they are discussed in
- <xref linkend="chapter-sumti-tcita"/>. One grammatical structure related to places belongs here, however. In simple sentences such as
- <xref linkend="example-do-mamta-mi"/>, the place structure of the selbri is simply the defined place structure of the gismu
- <valsi>mamta</valsi>. What about more complex selbri?</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>place structures of</secondary></indexterm> For tanru, the place structure rule is simple: the place structure of a tanru is always the place structure of its tertau. Thus, the place structure of
- <jbophrase>blanu zdani</jbophrase> is that of
- <valsi>zdani</valsi>: the x1 place is a house or nest, and the x2 place is its occupants.</para>
- <para>What about the places of
- <valsi>blanu</valsi>? Is there any way to get them into the act? In fact,
- <valsi>blanu</valsi> has only one place, and this is merged, as it were, with the x1 place of
- <valsi>zdani</valsi>. It is whatever is in the x1 place that is being characterized as blue-for-a-house. But if we replace
- <valsi>blanu</valsi> with
- <valsi>xamgu</valsi>, we get:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-tffW">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>good house</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c5e7d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ti xamgu zdani</jbo>
- <gloss>This is-a-good house.</gloss>
-
- <natlang>This is a good (for someone, by some standard) house.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>Since
- <valsi>xamgu</valsi> has three places (x1, the good thing; x2, the person for whom it is good; and x3, the standard of goodness),
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-tffW"/> necessarily omits information about the last two: there is no room for them. Room can be made, however!</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Uuio">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e7d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ti xamgu be do bei mi [be'o] zdani</jbo>
- <gloss>This is-a-good (for you by-standard me) house.</gloss>
- <natlang>This is a house that is good for you by my standards.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>linked sumti</primary><secondary>in tanru</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>seltau</primary><secondary>filling sumti places in</secondary></indexterm> Here, the gismu
- <valsi>xamgu</valsi> has been followed by the cmavo
- <valsi>be</valsi> (of selma'o BE), which signals that one or more sumti follows. These sumti are not part of the overall bridi place structure, but fill the places of the brivla they are attached to, starting with x2. If there is more than one sumti, they are separated by the cmavo
- <valsi>bei</valsi> (of selma'o BEI), and the list of sumti is terminated by the elidable terminator
- <valsi>be'o</valsi> (of selma'o BEhO).</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>linked sumti</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> Grammatically, a brivla with sumti linked to it in this fashion plays the same role in tanru as a simple brivla. To illustrate, here is a fully fleshed-out version of
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-nwuU"/>, with all places filled in:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7vxB">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>Brooklyn</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c5e7d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ti cmalu be le ka canlu bei lo'e ckule be'o</jbo>
- <gloss>This is a small (in-dimension the property-of volume by-standard the-typical school)</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>nixli be li mu bei lo merko be'o bo ckule</jbo>
- <gloss>(girl (of-years the-number five by-standard some American-thing) school)</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la bryklyn. loi pemci</jbo>
- <gloss>in-Brooklyn with-subject poems</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le mela nu,IORK. prenu le jecta</jbo>
- <gloss>for-audience New-York persons with-operator the state.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- <para>This is a school, small in volume compared to the typical school, pertaining to five-year-old girls (by American standards), in Brooklyn, teaching poetry to the New York community and operated by the state.</para>
- </example>
- <para>Here the three places of
- <valsi>cmalu</valsi>, the three of
- <valsi>nixli</valsi>, and the four of
- <valsi>ckule</valsi> are fully specified. Since the places of
- <valsi>ckule</valsi> are the places of the bridi as a whole, it was not necessary to link the sumti which follow
- <valsi>ckule</valsi>. It would have been legal to do so, however:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-YIty">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e7d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi klama be le zarci bei le zdani [be'o]</jbo>
- <gloss>I go (to-the market from-the house).</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>means the same as</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-UtBR">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e7d5"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi klama le zarci le zdani</jbo>
- <gloss>I go to-the market from-the house.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>place structures of</secondary></indexterm> No matter how complex a tanru gets, the last brivla always dictates the place structure: the place structure of</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Twmx">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e7d6"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>melbi je cmalu nixli bo ckule</jbo>
- <gloss>a (pretty and little) (girl school)</gloss>
- <natlang>a school for girls which is both beautiful and small</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>is simply that of
- <valsi>ckule</valsi>. (The sole exception to this rule is discussed in
- <xref linkend="section-co-inversion"/>.)</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>FA tags and linked sumti</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>linked sumti and FA tags</primary></indexterm> It is possible to precede linked sumti by the place structure ordering tags
-
- <valsi>fe</valsi>,
- <valsi>fi</valsi>,
- <valsi>fo</valsi>, and
- <valsi>fu</valsi> (of selma'o FA, discussed further in
- <xref linkend="section-FA"/>), which serve to explicitly specify the x2, x3, x4, and x5 places respectively. Normally, the place following the
- <valsi>be</valsi> is the x2 place and the other places follow in order. If it seems convenient to change the order, however, it can be accomplished as follows:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mhS7">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e7d7"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ti xamgu be fi mi bei fe do [be'o] zdani</jbo>
- <gloss>This is-a-good ( by-standard me for you ) house.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>which is equivalent in meaning to
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-Uuio"/>. Note that the order of
- <valsi>be</valsi>,
- <valsi>bei</valsi>, and
- <valsi>be'o</valsi> does not change; only the inserted
- <valsi>fi</valsi> tells us that
- <valsi>mi</valsi> is the x3 place (and correspondingly, the inserted
- <valsi>fe</valsi> tells us that
- <valsi>do</valsi> is the x2 place). Changing the order of sumti is often done to match the order of another language, or for emphasis or rhythm.</para>
- <para>Of course, using FA cmavo makes it easy to specify one place while omitting a previous place:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9b37">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e7d8"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ti xamgu be fi mi [be'o] zdani</jbo>
- <gloss>This is-a-good (by-standard me) house.</gloss>
- <natlang>This is a good house by my standards.</natlang>
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti tcita and tense tags</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense tags and sumti tcita</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti tcita and modal tags</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal tags and sumti tcita</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti tcita and linked sumti</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>linked sumti and sumti tcita</primary></indexterm> Similarly, sumti labeled by modal or tense tags can be inserted into strings of linked sumti just as they can into bridi:</para>
-
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-GstI">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e7d9"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ta blanu be ga'a mi [be'o] zdani</jbo>
- <gloss>That is-a-blue (to-observer me) house.</gloss>
- <natlang>That is a blue, as I see it, house.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>The meaning of
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-GstI"/> is slightly different from:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-63c5">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e7d10"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ta blanu zdani ga'a mi</jbo>
- <gloss>That is-a-blue house to-observer me.</gloss>
- <natlang>That is a blue house, as I see it.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>See discussions in
- <xref linkend="chapter-sumti-tcita"/> of modals and in
- <xref linkend="chapter-tenses"/> of tenses for more explanations.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>be'o</primary><secondary>effect of relative clauses on elidability of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>effect on elidability of be'o</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>be'o</primary><secondary>elidability of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>elidability of be'o</primary></indexterm> The terminator
- <valsi>be'o</valsi> is almost always elidable: however, if the selbri belongs to a description, then a relative clause following it will attach to the last linked sumti unless
-
- <valsi>be'o</valsi> is used, in which case it will attach to the outer description:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJTI" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e7d11"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le xamgu be do noi barda cu zdani</jbo>
- <gloss>The good-thing for you (who are-large) is-a-house.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjTj" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e7d12"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le xamgu be do be'o noi barda cu zdani</jbo>
- <gloss>The (good-thing for you) (which is-large) is-a-house</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>(Relative clauses are explained in
- <xref linkend="chapter-relative-clauses"/>.)</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>be'o</primary><secondary>effect of ku on elidability of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ku</primary><secondary>effect on elidability of be'o</secondary></indexterm> In other cases, however,
- <valsi>be'o</valsi> cannot be elided if
- <valsi>ku</valsi> has also been elided:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-zb4A">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e7d13"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le xamgu be le ctuca [ku] be'o zdani</jbo>
- <gloss>the good (for the teacher) house</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>requires either
- <valsi>ku</valsi> or
- <valsi>be'o</valsi>, and since there is only one occurrence of
- <valsi>be</valsi>, the
- <valsi>be'o</valsi> must match it, whereas it may be confusing which occurrence of
- <valsi>le</valsi> the
- <valsi>ku</valsi> terminates (in fact the second one is correct).</para>
- </section>
-
- <section xml:id="section-co-inversion">
- <title>Inversion of tanru:
- <valsi>co</valsi></title>
- <para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>co</cmavo>
- <selmaho>CO</selmaho>
- <description>tanru inversion marker</description>
-
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru inversion</primary></indexterm> The standard order of Lojban tanru, whereby the modifier precedes what it modifies, is very natural to English-speakers: we talk of
- <quote>blue houses</quote>, not of
- <quote>houses blue</quote>. In other languages, however, such matters are differently arranged, and Lojban supports this reverse order (tertau before seltau) by inserting the particle
- <valsi>co</valsi>.
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjtV"/> and
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjty"/> mean exactly the same thing:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjtV" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e8d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ta blanu zdani</jbo>
- <gloss>That is-a-blue type-of-house.</gloss>
- <natlang>That is a blue house.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjty" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e8d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ta zdani co blanu</jbo>
- <gloss>That is-a-house of-type blue.</gloss>
- <natlang>That is a blue house.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>seltau</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tertau</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru inversion</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> This change is called
- <quote>tanru inversion</quote>. In tanru inversion, the element before
-
- <valsi>co</valsi> (
- <valsi>zdani</valsi> in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjty"/>) is the tertau, and the element following
- <valsi>co</valsi> (
- <valsi>blanu</valsi>) in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjty"/>) is the seltau.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>place structure and tanru inversion</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru inversion and place structure</primary></indexterm> The meaning, and more specifically, the place structure, of a tanru is not affected by inversion: the place structure of
- <jbophrase>zdani co blanu</jbophrase> is still that of
- <valsi>zdani</valsi>. However, the existence of inversion in a selbri has a very special effect on any sumti which follow that selbri. Instead of being interpreted as filling places of the selbri, they actually fill the places (starting with x2) of the seltau. In
- <xref linkend="section-be-sumti"/>, we saw how to fill interior places with
- <valsi>be</valsi>…<valsi>bei</valsi>…<valsi>be'o</valsi>, and in fact
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjuc"/> and
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjVx"/> have the same meaning:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjuc" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e8d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi klama be le zarci bei le zdani be'o troci</jbo>
- <gloss>I am-a-(goer to the market from the house) type-of trier.</gloss>
- <natlang>I try to go to the market from the house.</natlang>
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjVx" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>try to go</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c5e8d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi troci co klama le zarci le zdani</jbo>
- <gloss>I am-a-trier of-type (goer to-the market from-the house).</gloss>
- <natlang>I try to go to the market from the house.</natlang>
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjVx"/> is a less deeply nested construction, requiring fewer cmavo. As a result it is probably easier to understand.</para>
- <para> Note that in Lojban
- <quote>trying to go</quote> is expressed using
- <valsi>troci</valsi> as the tertau. The reason is that
- <quote>trying to go</quote> is a
- <quote>going type of trying</quote>, not a
- <quote>trying type of going</quote>. The trying is more fundamental than the going – if the trying fails, we may not have a going at all.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>inverted tanru</primary><secondary>effect on sumti after the selbri</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>inverted tanru</primary><secondary>effect on sumti before the selbri</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>unfilled places of inverted tanru</primary></indexterm> Any sumti which precede a selbri with an inverted tanru fill the places of the selbri (i.e., the places of the tertau) in the ordinary way. In
-
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjVx"/>,
- <valsi>mi</valsi> fills the x1 place of
- <jbophrase>troci co klama</jbophrase>, which is the x1 place of
- <valsi>troci</valsi>. The other places of the selbri remain unfilled. The trailing sumti
- <jbophrase>le zarci</jbophrase> and
- <jbophrase>le zdani</jbophrase> do not occupy selbri places, despite appearances.</para>
- <para>As a result, the regular mechanisms (involving selma'o VOhA and GOhI, explained in
- <xref linkend="chapter-anaphoric-cmavo"/>) for referring to individual sumti of a bridi cannot refer to any of the trailing places of
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjVx"/>, because they are not really
- <quote>sumti of the bridi</quote> at all.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru inversion</primary><secondary>where allowed</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru inversion</primary><secondary>in complex tanru</secondary></indexterm> When inverting a more complex tanru, it is possible to invert it only at the most general modifier-modified pair. The only possible inversion of
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-nwuU"/>, for instance, is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7uS2">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e8d5"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ta nixli [bo] ckule co cmalu</jbo>
- <gloss>That (is-a-girl type-of school) of-type little.</gloss>
- <natlang>That's a girls' school which is small.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru grouping</primary><secondary>effect of tanru inversion on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru inversion</primary><secondary>effect on tanru grouping</secondary></indexterm>
- Note that the
- <valsi>bo</valsi> of
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-nwuU"/> is optional in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-7uS2"/>, because
- <valsi>co</valsi> groups more loosely than any other cmavo used in tanru, including none at all. Not even
- <valsi>ke</valsi>…<valsi>ke'e</valsi> parentheses can encompass a
- <valsi>co</valsi>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-y501">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e8d6"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ta cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e] co melbi</jbo>
- <gloss>That is-a-(little type-of (girl type-of school)) of-type pretty.</gloss>
- <natlang>That's a small school for girls which is beautiful.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru inversion</primary><secondary>rule for removing</secondary></indexterm> In
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-y501"/>, the
- <valsi>ke'e</valsi> is automatically inserted before the
- <valsi>co</valsi> rather than at its usual place at the end of the selbri. As a result, there is a simple and mechanical rule for removing
- <valsi>co</valsi> from any selbri: change
- <quote>A co B</quote> to
- <quote>ke B ke'e A</quote>. (At the same time, any sumti following the selbri must be transformed into
- <valsi>be</valsi>…<valsi>bei</valsi>…<valsi>be'o</valsi> form and attached following B.) Therefore,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4c0A">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e8d7"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ckule co melbi nixli</jbo>
- <gloss>school of-type pretty girl</gloss>
- <natlang>school for beautiful girls</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>means the same as:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-w5cI">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e8d8"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ke melbi nixli ke'e ckule</jbo>
- <gloss>(pretty girl) school</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple tanru inversion</primary><secondary>effect on grouping</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru inversion</primary><secondary>multiple</secondary></indexterm> Multiple
- <valsi>co</valsi> cmavo can appear within a selbri, indicating multiple inversions: a right-grouping rule is employed, as for
-
- <valsi>bo</valsi>. The above rule can be applied to interpret such selbri, but all
- <valsi>co</valsi> cmavo must be removed simultaneously:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-yLn5">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e8d9"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ckule co nixli co cmalu</jbo>
- <gloss>school of-type (girl of-type little)</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>becomes formally</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mM3Q">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e8d10"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ke ke cmalu ke'e nixli ke'e ckule</jbo>
- <gloss>( (little) girl ) school</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>which by the left-grouping rule is simply</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-LGRz">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e8d11"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>cmalu nixli ckule</jbo>
- <gloss>little girl school</gloss>
- <natlang>school for little girls</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>As stated above, the selbri places, other than the first, of</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Qcwd">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e8d12"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi klama co sutra</jbo>
- <gloss>I am-a-goer of-type quick</gloss>
- <natlang>I go quickly</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>cannot be filled by placing sumti after the selbri, because any sumti in that position fill the places of
- <valsi>sutra</valsi>, the seltau. However, the tertau places (which means in effect the selbri places) can be filled with
- <valsi>be</valsi>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PDAh">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e8d13"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi klama be le zarci be'o co sutra</jbo>
- <gloss>I am-a-goer (to the store) of-type quick.</gloss>
- <natlang>I go to the store quickly.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- </section>
-
- <section xml:id="section-cmavo-selbri">
- <title>Other kinds of simple selbri</title>
- <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>go'i</cmavo>
- <selmaho>GOhA</selmaho>
- <description>repeats the previous bridi</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>du</cmavo>
- <selmaho>GOhA</selmaho>
- <description>equality</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>nu'a</cmavo>
- <selmaho>NUhA</selmaho>
- <description>math operator to selbri</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>moi</cmavo>
- <selmaho>MOI</selmaho>
- <description>changes number to ordinal selbri</description>
-
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>mei</cmavo>
- <selmaho>MOI</selmaho>
- <description>changes number to cardinal selbri</description>
-
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>nu</cmavo>
- <selmaho>NU</selmaho>
- <description>event abstraction</description>
-
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>kei</cmavo>
- <selmaho>KEI</selmaho>
- <description>terminator for NU</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>equivalents to brivla</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>brivla equivalents</primary></indexterm> So far we have only discussed brivla and tanru built up from brivla as possible selbri. In fact, there are a few other constructions in Lojban which are grammatically equivalent to brivla: they can be used either directly as selbri, or as components in tanru. Some of these types of simple selbri are discussed at length in
- <xref linkend="chapter-anaphoric-cmavo"/>,
- <xref linkend="chapter-abstractions"/>, and
- <xref linkend="chapter-mekso"/>; but for completeness these types are mentioned here with a brief explanation and an example of their use in selbri.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>with GOhA</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri</primary><secondary>with GOhA</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>GOhA selma'o</primary><secondary>as component in tanru</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>GOhA selma'o</primary><secondary>as selbri</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo of selma'o GOhA (with one exception) serve as pro-bridi, providing a reference to the content of other bridi; none of them has a fixed meaning. The most commonly used member of GOhA is probably
- <valsi>go'i</valsi>, which amounts to a repetition of the previous bridi, or part of it. If I say:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2UvG">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e9d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la djan. klama le zarci</jbo>
- <gloss>John goes-to the market.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> you may retort:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-EvoD">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e9d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la djan. go'i troci</jbo>
- <gloss>John [repeat last] are-a-tryer</gloss>
- <natlang>John tries to.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-EvoD"/> is short for:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nKQ3">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e9d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la djan. klama be le zarci be'o troci</jbo>
- <gloss>John is-a-goer (to the market) type-of trier.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>because the whole bridi of
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-2UvG"/> has been packaged up into the single word
- <valsi>go'i</valsi> and inserted into
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-EvoD"/>.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>du</primary><secondary>as an exception within GOhA selma'o</secondary></indexterm> The exceptional member of GOhA is
- <valsi>du</valsi>, which represents the relation of identity. Its place structure is:</para>
- <definition><content>x1 is identical with x2, x3, ...</content></definition>
- <para>for as many places as are given. More information on selma'o GOhA is available in
- <xref linkend="chapter-anaphoric-cmavo"/>.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>containing mathematical expressions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mathematical expressions in tanru</primary></indexterm> Lojban mathematical expressions (mekso) can be incorporated into selbri in two different ways. Mathematical operators such as
-
- <valsi>su'i</valsi>, meaning
- <quote>plus</quote>, can be transformed into selbri by prefixing them with
- <valsi>nu'a</valsi> (of selma'o NUhA). The resulting place structure is:</para>
- <definition><content>x1 is the result of applying (the operator) to arguments x2, x3, etc.</content></definition>
- <para>for as many arguments as are required. (The result goes in the x1 place because the number of following places may be indefinite.) For example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pp6j">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e9d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>li vo nu'a su'i li re li re</jbo>
- <gloss>The-number 4 is-the-sum-of the-number 2 and-the-number 2.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>A possible tanru example might be:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-K7yz">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>addition problems</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c5e9d5"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi jimpe tu'a loi nu'a su'i nabmi</jbo>
- <gloss>I understand something-about the-mass-of is-the-sum-of problems.</gloss>
- <natlang>I understand addition problems.</natlang>
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>MOI selma'o</primary></indexterm> More usefully, it is possible to combine a mathematical expression with a cmavo of selma'o MOI to create one of various numerical selbri. Details are available in
-
- <xref linkend="section-mekso-selbri"/>. Here are a few tanru:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjWh" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>Preem Palver</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c5e9d6"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la prim. palvr. pamoi cusku</jbo>
- <gloss>Preem Palver is-the-1-th speaker.</gloss>
-
- <natlang>Preem Palver is the first speaker.</natlang>
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJwU" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>two brothers</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c5e9d7"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la an,iis. joi la .asun. bruna remei</jbo>
- <gloss>Anyi massed-with Asun are-a-brother type-of-twosome.</gloss>
- <natlang>Anyi and Asun are two brothers.</natlang>
-
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>NU selma'o</primary></indexterm> Finally, an important type of simple selbri which is not a brivla is the abstraction. Grammatically, abstractions are simple: a cmavo of selma'o NU, followed by a bridi, followed by the elidable terminator
- <valsi>kei</valsi> of selma'o KEI. Semantically, abstractions are an extremely subtle and powerful feature of Lojban whose full ramifications are documented in
- <xref linkend="chapter-abstractions"/>. A few examples:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-5szz">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e9d8"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ti nu zdile kei kumfa</jbo>
- <gloss>This is-an-event-of amusement room.</gloss>
- <natlang>This is an amusement room.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstraction bridi</primary><secondary>contrasted with component non-abstraction bridi in meaning</secondary></indexterm>
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-5szz"/> is quite distinct in meaning from:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-yNSI">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e9d9"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ti zdile kumfa</jbo>
- <gloss>This is-an-amuser room.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>which suggests the meaning
- <quote>a room that amuses someone</quote>.</para>
- </section>
-
- <section xml:id="section-me-selbri">
- <title>selbri based on sumti: <valsi>me</valsi></title>
- <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>me</cmavo>
- <selmaho>ME</selmaho>
- <description>changes sumti to simple selbri</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>me'u</cmavo>
- <selmaho>MEhU</selmaho>
- <description>terminator for <valsi>me</valsi></description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>me</primary><secondary>place structure of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>conversion of sumti into selbri</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti into selbri</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri from sumti</primary></indexterm> A sumti can be made into a simple selbri by preceding it with
- <valsi>me</valsi> (of selma'o ME) and following it with the elidable terminator
- <valsi>me'u</valsi> (of selma'o MEhU). This makes a selbri with the place structure</para>
- <definition><content>x1 is one of the referents of <quote>[the sumti]</quote></content></definition>
- <para>which is true of the thing, or things, that are the referents of the sumti, and not of anything else. For example, consider the sumti</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-v6QW">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>Three Kings</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c5e10d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le ci nolraitru</jbo>
- <gloss>the three noblest-governors</gloss>
- <natlang>the three kings</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> If these are understood to be the Three Kings of Christian tradition, who arrive every year on January 6, then we may say:</para>
-
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-99r3">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e10d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la BALtazar. cu me le ci nolraitru</jbo>
- <gloss>Balthazar is one-of-the-referents-of
- <quote>the three kings</quote>.</gloss>
- <natlang>Balthazar is one of the three kings.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>and likewise</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gPnL">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e10d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la kaspar. cu me le ci nolraitru</jbo>
- <natlang>Caspar is one of the three kings.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>and</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4827">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e10d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la melxi,or. cu me le ci nolraitru</jbo>
- <natlang>Melchior is one of the three kings.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>du</primary><secondary>compared with me in effect</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>me</primary><secondary>compared with du in effect</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>me/du equivalence</primary></indexterm> If the sumti refers to a single object, then the effect of
- <valsi>me</valsi> is much like that of
- <valsi>du</valsi>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-HMHc">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e10d5"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>do du la djan.</jbo>
- <gloss>You are-identical-with the-one-called <quote>John</quote>.</gloss>
- <natlang>You are John.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>means the same as</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-GMCc">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e10d6"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>do me la djan.</jbo>
- <gloss>You are-the-referent-of
- <quote>the-one-called <quote>John</quote></quote>.</gloss>
- <natlang>You are John.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>me</primary><secondary>used with names</secondary></indexterm> It is common to use
- <valsi>me</valsi> selbri, especially those based on name sumti using
- <valsi>la</valsi>, as seltau. For example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-raQG">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>Chrysler</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c5e10d7"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ta me lai kraislr. [me'u] karce</jbo>
- <gloss>That (is-a-referent of
- <quote>the-mass-called <quote>Chrysler</quote></quote>) car.</gloss>
-
- <natlang>That is a Chrysler car.</natlang>
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connectives</primary><secondary>relative precedence with me'u</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>me'u</primary><secondary>relative precedence with logical connectives</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>elidability of me'u</primary></indexterm> The elidable terminator
- <valsi>me'u</valsi> can usually be omitted. It is absolutely required only if the
- <valsi>me</valsi> selbri is being used in an indefinite description (a type of sumti explained in
-
-
- <xref linkend="section-indefinite-descriptions"/>), and if the indefinite description is followed by a relative clause (explained in
-
-
- <xref linkend="chapter-relative-clauses"/>) or a sumti logical connective (explained in
- <xref linkend="section-sumti-connection"/>). Without a
- <valsi>me'u</valsi>, the relative clause or logical connective would appear to belong to the sumti embedded in the
- <valsi>me</valsi> expression. Here is a contrasting pair of sentences:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJyi" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e10d8"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>re me le ci nolraitru .e la djan. [me'u] cu blabi</jbo>
- <natlang>Two of the group
- <quote>the three kings and John</quote> are white.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJyK" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e10d9"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>re me le ci nolraitru me'u .e la djan. cu blabi</jbo>
- <natlang>Two of the three kings, and John, are white.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>In
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qJyi"/> the
- <valsi>me</valsi> selbri covers the three kings plus John, and the indefinite description picks out two of them that are said to be white: we cannot say which two. In
-
-
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qJyK"/>, though, the
- <valsi>me</valsi> selbri covers only the three kings: two of them are said to be white, and so is John.</para>
- <para>Finally, here is another example requiring
- <valsi>me'u</valsi>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ygzq">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e10d10"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ta me la'e le se cusku be do me'u cukta</jbo>
- <gloss>That is-a-(what-you-said) type of book.</gloss>
- <natlang>That is the kind of book you were talking about.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>There are other sentences where either
- <valsi>me'u</valsi> or some other elidable terminator must be expressed:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-8yDj">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e10d11"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le me le ci nolraitru [ku] me'u nunsalci</jbo>
- <gloss>the (the three kings) type-of-event-of-celebrating</gloss>
- <natlang>the Three Kings celebration</natlang>
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>requires either
- <valsi>ku</valsi> or
- <valsi>me'u</valsi> to be explicit, and (as with
- <valsi>be'o</valsi> in
- <xref linkend="section-be-sumti"/>) the
- <valsi>me'u</valsi> leaves no doubt which cmavo it is paired with.</para>
- </section>
-
- <section xml:id="section-place-conversion">
- <title>Conversion of simple selbri</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>xe</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ve</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>te</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>se</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>SE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>place structure</primary><secondary>re-ordering by conversion</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>conversion</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru and conversion</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>conversion and tanru</primary></indexterm> Conversion is the process of changing a selbri so that its places appear in a different order. This is not the same as labeling the sumti with the cmavo of FA, as mentioned in
- <xref linkend="section-be-sumti"/>, and then rearranging the order in which the sumti are spoken or written. Conversion transforms the selbri into a distinct, though closely related, selbri with renumbered places.</para>
- <para>In Lojban, conversion is accomplished by placing a cmavo of selma'o SE before the selbri:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-29Gu">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e11d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi prami do</jbo>
- <natlang>I love you.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>is equivalent in meaning to:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-DWcN">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e11d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>do se prami mi</jbo>
- <gloss>You [swap x1 and x2] love me.</gloss>
- <natlang>You are loved by me.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>Conversion is fully explained in
- <xref linkend="section-SE"/>. For the purposes of this chapter, the important point about conversion is that it applies only to the following simple selbri. When trying to convert a tanru, therefore, it is necessary to be careful! Consider
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-mPX8"/>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mPX8">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>walk to market</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c5e11d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la .alis. cu cadzu klama le zarci</jbo>
- <gloss>Alice is-a-walker type-of goer to-the market.</gloss>
- <gloss>Alice walkingly goes to the market.</gloss>
- <natlang>Alice walks to the market.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>To convert this sentence so that
- <jbophrase>le zarci</jbophrase> is in the x1 place, one correct way is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4mbn">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e11d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le zarci cu se ke cadzu klama [ke'e] la .alis.</jbo>
- <gloss>The market is-a-[swap x1/x2] (walker type-of goer) Alice.</gloss>
- <gloss>The market is-walkingly gone-to by-Alice.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ke</primary><secondary>for conversion of tanru</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>conversion with ke</primary></indexterm> The
- <valsi>ke</valsi>…<valsi>ke'e</valsi> brackets cause the entire tanru to be converted by the
- <valsi>se</valsi>, which would otherwise convert only
- <valsi>cadzu</valsi>, leading to:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-UNt0">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e11d5"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le zarci cu se cadzu klama la .alis.</jbo>
- <gloss>The market (is-a-[swap x1/x2] walker) type-of goer to Alice.</gloss>
- <gloss>The market is-a-walking-surface type-of goer to Alice.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>whatever that might mean. An alternative approach, since the place structure of
- <jbophrase>cadzu klama</jbophrase> is that of
- <valsi>klama</valsi> alone, is to convert only the latter:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-U0fo">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e11d6"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le zarci cu cadzu se klama la .alis.</jbo>
- <gloss>The market walkingly is-gone-to by-Alice.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>But the tanru in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-U0fo"/> may or may not have the same meaning as that in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-mPX8"/>; in particular, because
- <valsi>cadzu</valsi> is not converted, there is a suggestion that although Alice is the goer, the market is the walker. With a different sumti as x1, this seemingly odd interpretation might make considerable sense:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-XEnd">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e11d7"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la djan. cu cadzu se klama la .alis</jbo>
- <gloss>John walkingly is-gone-to by Alice</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>suggests that Alice is going to John, who is a moving target.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense conversion</primary><secondary>with jai</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>jai</primary><secondary>for modal conversion</secondary></indexterm> There is an alternative type of conversion, using the cmavo
- <valsi>jai</valsi> of selma'o JAI optionally followed by a modal or tense construction. Grammatically, such a combination behaves exactly like conversion using SE. More details can be found in
- <xref linkend="section-modal-jai"/>.</para>
- </section>
-
- <section xml:id="section-selbri-scalar-negation">
- <title>Scalar negation of selbri</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri</primary><secondary>scalar negation of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>scalar negation</primary><secondary>effect on selbri</secondary></indexterm> Negation is too large and complex a topic to explain fully in this chapter; see
- <xref linkend="chapter-negation"/>. In brief, there are two main types of negation in Lojban. This section is concerned with so-called
- <quote>scalar negation</quote>, which is used to state that a true relation between the sumti is something other than what the selbri specifies. Scalar negation is expressed by cmavo of selma'o NAhE:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4oxH">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e12d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la .alis. cu na'e ke cadzu klama [ke'e] le zarci</jbo>
- <gloss>Alice non- (walkingly goes) to-the market.</gloss>
- <gloss>Alice other-than (walkingly goes) to-the market.</gloss>
- <natlang>Alice doesn't walk to the market.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ke</primary><secondary>for expanding scope of scalar negation</secondary></indexterm> meaning that Alice's relationship to the market is something other than that of walking there. But if the
- <valsi>ke</valsi> were omitted, the result would be:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-NL2Y">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e12d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la .alis. cu na'e cadzu klama le zarci</jbo>
- <gloss>Alice non- walkingly goes to-the market.</gloss>
- <natlang>Alice doesn't walk to the market.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>meaning that Alice does go there in some way (
- <valsi>klama</valsi> is not negated), but by a means other than that of walking.
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-4oxH"/> negates both
- <valsi>cadzu</valsi> and
- <valsi>klama</valsi>, suggesting that Alice's relation to the market is something different from walkingly-going; it might be walking without going, or going without walking, or neither.</para>
- <para>Of course, any of the simple selbri types explained in
- <xref linkend="section-cmavo-selbri"/> may be used in place of brivla in any of these examples:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-YB00">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e12d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la djonz. cu na'e pamoi cusku</jbo>
- <gloss>Jones is non-1st speaker</gloss>
- <natlang>Jones is not the first speaker.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>Since only
- <valsi>pamoi</valsi> is negated, an appropriate inference is that he is some other kind of speaker.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>negation</primary><secondary>complex examples</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>complex negation</primary><secondary>examples</secondary></indexterm> Here is an assortment of more complex examples showing the interaction of scalar negation with
- <valsi>bo</valsi> grouping,
- <valsi>ke</valsi> and
- <valsi>ke'e</valsi> grouping, logical connection, and sumti linked with
- <valsi>be</valsi> and
- <valsi>bei</valsi>:</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>na'e</primary><secondary>contrasted with na'e ke</secondary></indexterm></para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-I1Rd">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e12d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi na'e sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o klama le zarci</jbo>
- <gloss>I ( (non-quickly) ( walking using the arms) ) go-to the market.</gloss>
- <natlang>I go to the market, walking using my arms other than quickly.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>In
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-I1Rd"/>,
- <valsi>na'e</valsi> negates only
- <valsi>sutra</valsi>. Contrast
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-KcK8"/>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KcK8">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e12d5"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka [be'o] ke'e klama le zarci</jbo>
- <gloss>I non- ( quickly (walking using the arms) ) go-to the market.</gloss>
- <natlang>I go to the market, other than by walking quickly on my arms.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>Now consider
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjyW"/> and
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjyy"/>, which are equivalent in meaning, but use
- <valsi>ke</valsi> grouping and
- <valsi>bo</valsi> grouping respectively:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjyW" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e12d6"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o je masno klama le zarci</jbo>
- <gloss>I (quickly – (walking using the arms) and slowly) go-to the market.</gloss>
- <natlang>I go to the market, both quickly walking using my arms and slowly.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjyy" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e12d7"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka [be'o] ke'e je masno klama le zarci</jbo>
- <gloss>I ( (quickly (walking using the arms) ) and slowly) go-to the market.</gloss>
- <natlang>I go to the market, both quickly walking using my arms and slowly.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>However, if we place a
- <valsi>na'e</valsi> at the beginning of the selbri in both
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjyW"/> and
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjyy"/>, we get different results:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjyz" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e12d8"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi na'e sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o je masno klama le zarci</jbo>
- <gloss>I ( (non- quickly) - (walking using the arms) and slowly) go-to the market.</gloss>
- <natlang>I go to the market, both walking using my arms other than quickly, and also slowly.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qJzr" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e12d9"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka [be'o] ke'e je masno klama le zarci</jbo>
- <gloss>I (non-(quickly (walking using the arms) ) and slowly) go-to the market.</gloss>
- <natlang>I go to the market, both other than quickly walking using my arms, and also slowly.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>The difference arises because the
- <valsi>na'e</valsi> in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qJzr"/> negates the whole construction from
- <valsi>ke</valsi> to
- <valsi>ke'e</valsi>, whereas in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjyz"/> it negates
- <valsi>sutra</valsi> alone.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>perils of omitting terminators</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>omitting terminators</primary><secondary>perils of</secondary></indexterm> Beware of omitting terminators in these complex examples! If the explicit
-
- <valsi>ke'e</valsi> is left out in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qJzr"/>, it is transformed into:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Y53U">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e12d10"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o je masno klama [ke'e] le zarci</jbo>
- <gloss>I non-(quickly ( (walking using the arms) ) and slowly) go-to) the market.</gloss>
- <gloss>I do something other than quickly both going to the market walking</gloss>
- <natlang>using my arms and slowly going to the market.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>And if both
- <valsi>ke'e</valsi> and
- <valsi>be'o</valsi> are omitted, the results are even sillier:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-0WLq">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e12d11"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka je masno klama [be'o] [ke'e] le zarci</jbo>
- <gloss>I non-(quickly walk on my (arm-type and slow) goers) on the market.</gloss>
- <natlang>I do something other than quickly walking using the goers, both arm-type and slow, relative-to the market.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>In
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-0WLq"/>, everything after
- <valsi>be</valsi> is a linked sumti, so the place structure is that of
-
- <valsi>cadzu</valsi>, whose x2 place is the surface walked upon. It is less than clear what an
- <quote>arm-type goer</quote> might be. Furthermore, since the x3 place has been occupied by the linked sumti, the
-
- <jbophrase>le zarci</jbophrase> following the selbri falls into the nonexistent x4 place of
- <valsi>cadzu</valsi>. As a result, the whole example, though grammatical, is complete nonsense. (The bracketed Lojban words appear where a fluent Lojbanist would understand them to be implied.)</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>na'e</primary><secondary>before gu'e</secondary></indexterm> Finally, it is also possible to place
- <valsi>na'e</valsi> before a
- <valsi>gu'e</valsi>…<valsi>gi</valsi> logically connected tanru construction. The meaning of this usage has not yet been firmly established.</para>
- </section>
-
- <section xml:id="section-bridi-negation-tenses">
- <title>Tenses and bridi negation</title>
- <para>A bridi can have cmavo associated with it which specify the time, place, or mode of action. For example, in</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-uz13">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e13d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi pu klama le zarci</jbo>
- <gloss>I [past] go to-the market.</gloss>
- <natlang>I went to the market.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>the cmavo
- <valsi>pu</valsi> specifies that the action of the speaker going to the market takes place in the past. Tenses are explained in full detail in
- <xref linkend="chapter-tenses"/>. Tense is semantically a property of the entire bridi; however, the usual syntax for tenses attaches them at the front of the selbri, as in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-uz13"/>. There are alternative ways of expressing tense information as well. Modals, which are explained in
- <xref linkend="chapter-sumti-tcita"/>, behave in the same way as tenses.</para>
- <para>Similarly, a bridi may have the particle
- <valsi>na</valsi> (of selma'o NA) attached to the beginning of the selbri to negate the bridi. A negated bridi expresses what is false without saying anything about what is true. Do not confuse this usage with the scalar negation of
- <xref linkend="section-selbri-scalar-negation"/>. For example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PYSP">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e13d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la djonz. na pamoi cusku</jbo>
- <gloss>Jones (Not!) is-the-first speaker</gloss>
- <gloss>It is not true that Jones is the first speaker.</gloss>
- <natlang>Jones isn't the first speaker.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>Jones may be the second speaker, or not a speaker at all;
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-PYSP"/> doesn't say. There are other ways of expressing bridi negation as well; the topic is explained fully in
- <xref linkend="chapter-negation"/>.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi negation</primary><secondary>relative order with tense</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense</primary><secondary>relative order with bridi negation</secondary></indexterm> Various combinations of tense and bridi negation cmavo are permitted. If both are expressed, either order is permissible with no change in meaning:</para>
-
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-RV4C">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e13d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi na pu klama le zarci</jbo>
- <gloss>mi pu na klama le zarci</gloss>
- <gloss>It is false that I went to the market.</gloss>
- <natlang>I didn't go to the market.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi negation</primary><secondary>multiple</secondary></indexterm> It is also possible to have more than one
- <valsi>na</valsi>, in which case pairs of
- <valsi>na</valsi> cmavo cancel out:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-TuP7">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e13d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi na na klama le zarci</jbo>
- <gloss>It is false that it is false that I go to the market.</gloss>
- <natlang>I go to the market.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense and na</primary><secondary>multiple</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>na and tense</primary><secondary>multiple</secondary></indexterm> It is even possible, though somewhat pointless, to have multiple
- <valsi>na</valsi> cmavo and tense cmavo mixed together, subject to the limitation that two adjacent tense cmavo will be understood as a compound tense, and must fit the grammar of tenses as explained in
-
-
-
- <xref linkend="chapter-tenses"/>.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hw6g">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e13d5"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi na pu na ca klama le zarci</jbo>
- <gloss>I [not] [past] [not] [present] go to-the market</gloss>
- <gloss>It is not the case that in the past it was not the case that in the present I went to the market.</gloss>
- <gloss>I didn't not go to the market.</gloss>
- <natlang>I went to the market.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>negation cmavo</primary><secondary>position relative to selbri</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal cmavo</primary><secondary>position relative to selbri</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tense cmavo</primary><secondary>position relative to selbri</secondary></indexterm> Tense, modal, and negation cmavo can appear only at the beginning of the selbri. They cannot be embedded within it.</para>
-
- </section>
-
- <section xml:id="section-asymmetric-tanru">
- <title>Some types of asymmetrical tanru</title>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tanru</primary><secondary>asymmetrical</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru</primary></indexterm> This section and
- <xref linkend="section-symmetric-tanru"/> contain some example tanru classified into groups based on the type of relationship between the modifying seltau and the modified tertau. All the examples are paralleled by compounds actually observed in various natural languages. In the tables which follow, each group is preceded by a brief explanation of the relationship. The tables themselves contain a tanru, a literal gloss, an indication of the languages which exhibit a compound analogous to this tanru, and (for those tanru with no English parallel) a translation.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>languages</primary><secondary>abbreviations for</secondary></indexterm> Here are the 3-letter abbreviations used for the various languages (it is presumed to be obvious whether a compound is found in English or not, so English is not explicitly noted):</para>
- <variablelist>
- <varlistentry>
- <term>Aba</term>
- <listitem><para>Abazin</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term>Chi</term>
- <listitem><para>Chinese</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term>Ewe</term>
- <listitem><para>Ewe</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term>Fin</term>
- <listitem><para>Finnish</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term>Geo</term>
- <listitem><para>Georgian</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term>Gua</term>
- <listitem><para>Guarani</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term>Hop</term>
- <listitem><para>Hopi</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term>Hun</term>
- <listitem><para>Hungarian</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term>Imb</term>
- <listitem><para>Imbabura Quechua</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term>Kar</term>
- <listitem><para>Karaitic</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term>Kaz</term>
- <listitem><para>Kazakh</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term>Kor</term>
- <listitem><para>Korean</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term>Mon</term>
- <listitem><para>Mongolian</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term>Qab</term>
- <listitem><para>Qabardian</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term>Que</term>
- <listitem><para>Quechua</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term>Rus</term>
- <listitem><para>Russian</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term>Skt</term>
- <listitem><para>Sanskrit</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term>Swe</term>
- <listitem><para>Swedish</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term>Tur</term>
- <listitem><para>Turkish</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term>Udm</term>
- <listitem><para>Udmurt</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- </variablelist>
- <para>Any lujvo or fu'ivla used in a group are glossed at the end of that group.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> The tanru discussed in this section are asymmetrical tanru; that is, ones in which the order of the terms is fundamental to the meaning of the tanru. For example,
-
- <jbophrase>junla dadysli</jbophrase>, or
- <quote>clock pendulum</quote>, is the kind of pendulum used in a clock, whereas
- <jbophrase>dadysli junla</jbophrase>, or
- <quote>pendulum clock</quote>, is the kind of clock that employs a pendulum. Most tanru are asymmetrical in this sense. Symmetrical tanru are discussed in
- <xref linkend="section-symmetric-tanru"/>.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>object-of-action + action</secondary></indexterm> The tertau represents an action, and the seltau then represents the object of that action:</para>
- <informaltable>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>pinsi nunkilbra</jbophrase></td>
- <td>pencil sharpener</td>
- <td>Hun</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>zgike nunctu</jbophrase></td>
- <td>music instruction</td>
- <td>Hun</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>mirli nunkalte</jbophrase></td>
- <td>deer hunting</td>
- <td>Hun</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>finpe nunkalte</jbophrase></td>
- <td>fish hunting</td>
- <td>Tur,Kor,Udm,Aba</td>
- <td>fishing</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>smacu terkavbu</jbophrase></td>
- <td>mousetrap</td>
- <td>Tur,Kor,Hun,Udm,Aba</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>zdani turni</jbophrase></td>
- <td>house ruler</td>
- <td>Kar</td>
- <td>host</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>zerle'a nunte'a</jbophrase></td>
- <td>thief fear</td>
- <td>Skt</td>
- <td>fear of thieves</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>cevni zekri</jbophrase></td>
- <td>god crime</td>
- <td>Skt</td>
- <td>offense against the gods</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <variablelist>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>nunkilbra</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>sharpness-apparatus</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>nunctu</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>event-of-teaching</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>nunkalte</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>event-of-hunting</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>terkavbu</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>trap</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>zerle'a</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>crime-taker</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>nunte'a</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>event-of-fearing</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- </variablelist>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>elements-in-set + set</secondary></indexterm> The tertau represents a set, and the seltau the type of the elements contained in that set:</para>
- <informaltable>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>zdani lijgri</jbophrase></td>
- <td>house row</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>selci lamgri</jbophrase></td>
- <td>cell block</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>karda mulgri</jbophrase></td>
- <td>card pack</td>
- <td>Swe</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>rokci derxi</jbophrase></td>
- <td>stone heap</td>
- <td>Swe</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>tadni girzu</jbophrase></td>
- <td>student group</td>
- <td>Hun</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>remna girzu</jbophrase></td>
- <td>human-being group</td>
- <td>Qab</td>
- <td>group of people</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>cpumi'i lijgri</jbophrase></td>
- <td>tractor column</td>
- <td>Qab</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>cevni jenmi</jbophrase></td>
- <td>god army</td>
- <td>Skt</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>cevni prenu</jbophrase></td>
- <td>god folk</td>
- <td>Skt</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <variablelist>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>lijgri</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>line-group</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>lamgri</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>adjacent-group</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>mulgri</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>complete-group</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>cpumi'i</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>pull-machine</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- </variablelist>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>set + element-of-set</secondary></indexterm> Conversely: the tertau is an element, and the seltau represents a set in which that element is contained. Implicitly, the meaning of the tertau is restricted from its usual general meaning to the specific meaning appropriate for elements in the given set. Note the opposition between
- <jbophrase>zdani linji</jbophrase> in the previous group, and
- <jbophrase>linji zdani</jbophrase> in this one, which shows why this kind of tanru is called
- <quote>asymmetrical</quote>.</para>
- <informaltable>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>carvi dirgo</jbophrase></td>
- <td>raindrop</td>
- <td>Tur,Kor,Hun,Udm,Aba</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>linji zdani</jbophrase></td>
- <td>row house</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>object + component/detail</secondary></indexterm> The seltau specifies an object and the tertau a component or detail of that object; the tanru as a whole refers to the detail, specifying that it is a detail of that whole and not some other.</para>
- <informaltable>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>junla dadysli</jbophrase></td>
- <td>clock pendulum</td>
- <td>Hun</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>purdi vorme</jbophrase></td>
- <td>garden door</td>
- <td>Qab</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>purdi bitmu</jbophrase></td>
- <td>garden wall</td>
- <td>Que</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>moklu skapi</jbophrase></td>
- <td>mouth skin</td>
- <td>Imb</td>
- <td>lips</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>nazbi kevna</jbophrase></td>
- <td>nose hole</td>
- <td>Imb</td>
- <td>nostril</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>karce xislu</jbophrase></td>
- <td>automobile wheel</td>
- <td>Chi</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>jipci pimlu</jbophrase></td>
- <td>chicken feather</td>
- <td>Chi</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>vinji rebla</jbophrase></td>
- <td>airplane tail</td>
- <td>Chi</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <variablelist>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>dadysli</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>hang-oscillator</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- </variablelist>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>characteristic/detail + object</secondary></indexterm> Conversely: the seltau specifies a characteristic or important detail of the object described by the tertau; objects described by the tanru as a whole are differentiated from other similar objects by this detail.</para>
- <informaltable>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>pixra cukta</jbophrase></td>
- <td>picture book</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>kerfa silka</jbophrase></td>
- <td>hair silk</td>
- <td>Kar</td>
- <td>velvet</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>plise tapla</jbophrase></td>
- <td>apple cake</td>
- <td>Tur</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>dadysli junla</jbophrase></td>
- <td>pendulum clock</td>
- <td>Hun</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <variablelist>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>dadysli</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>hang-oscillator</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- </variablelist>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>general-class + sub-class</secondary></indexterm> The tertau specifies a general class of object (a genus), and the seltau specifies a sub-class of that class (a species):</para>
- <informaltable>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>ckunu tricu</jbophrase></td>
- <td>pine tree</td>
- <td>Hun,Tur,Hop</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>possessor + object</secondary></indexterm> The tertau specifies an object of possession, and the seltau may specify the possessor (the possession may be intrinsic or otherwise). In English, these compounds have an explicit possessive element in them:
- <quote>lion's mane</quote>,
- <quote>child's foot</quote>,
- <quote>noble's cow</quote>.</para>
- <informaltable>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>cinfo kerfa</jbophrase></td>
- <td>lion mane</td>
- <td>Kor,Tur,Hun,Udm,Qab</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>verba jamfu</jbophrase></td>
- <td>child foot</td>
- <td>Swe</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>nixli tuple</jbophrase></td>
- <td>girl leg</td>
- <td>Swe</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>cinfo jamfu</jbophrase></td>
- <td>lion foot</td>
- <td>Que</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>danlu skapi</jbophrase></td>
- <td>animal skin</td>
- <td>Ewe</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>ralju zdani</jbophrase></td>
- <td>chief house</td>
- <td>Ewe</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>jmive munje</jbophrase></td>
- <td>living world</td>
- <td>Skt</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>nobli bakni</jbophrase></td>
- <td>noble cow</td>
- <td>Skt</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>nolraitru ralju</jbophrase></td>
- <td>king chief</td>
- <td>Skt</td>
- <td>emperor</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <variablelist>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>nolraitru</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>nobly-superlative-ruler</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- </variablelist>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>inhabitant + habitat</secondary></indexterm> The tertau specifies a habitat, and the seltau specifies the inhabitant:</para>
- <informaltable>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>lanzu tumla</jbophrase></td>
- <td>family land</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>effect + causative agent</secondary></indexterm> The tertau specifies a causative agent, and the seltau specifies the effect of that cause:</para>
- <informaltable>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>kalselvi'i gapci</jbophrase></td>
- <td>tear gas</td>
- <td>Hun</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>terbi'a jurme</jbophrase></td>
- <td>disease germ</td>
- <td>Tur</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>fenki litki</jbophrase></td>
- <td>crazy liquid</td>
- <td>Hop</td>
- <td>whisky</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>pinca litki</jbophrase></td>
- <td>urine liquid</td>
- <td>Hop</td>
- <td>beer</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <variablelist>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>kalselvi'i</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>eye-excreted-thing</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>terbi'a</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>disease</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- </variablelist>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>cause + effect</secondary></indexterm> Conversely: the tertau specifies an effect, and the seltau specifies its cause.</para>
- <informaltable>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>djacu barna</jbophrase></td>
- <td>water mark</td>
- <td>Chi</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>purpose-of-instrument + instrument</secondary></indexterm> The tertau specifies an instrument, and the seltau specifies the purpose of that instrument:</para>
- <informaltable>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>taxfu dadgreku</jbophrase></td>
- <td>garment rack</td>
- <td>Chi</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>tergu'i ti'otci</jbophrase></td>
- <td>lamp shade</td>
- <td>Chi</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>xirma zdani</jbophrase></td>
- <td>horse house</td>
- <td>Chi</td>
- <td>stall</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>nuzba tanbo</jbophrase></td>
- <td>news board</td>
- <td>Chi</td>
- <td>bulletin board</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <variablelist>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>dadgreku</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>hang-frame</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>tergu'i</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>source of illumination</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>ti'otci</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>shadow-tool</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- </variablelist>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>object-of-purpose-of-instrument + instrument</secondary></indexterm> More vaguely: the tertau specifies an instrument, and the seltau specifies the object of the purpose for which that instrument is used:</para>
- <informaltable>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>cpina rokci</jbophrase></td>
- <td>pepper stone</td>
- <td>Que</td>
- <td>stone for grinding pepper</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>jamfu djacu</jbophrase></td>
- <td>foot water</td>
- <td>Skt</td>
- <td>water for washing the feet</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>grana mudri</jbophrase></td>
- <td>post wood</td>
- <td>Skt</td>
- <td>wood for making a post</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>moklu djacu</jbophrase></td>
- <td>mouth water</td>
- <td>Hun</td>
- <td>water for washing the mouth</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>lanme gerku</jbophrase></td>
- <td>sheep dog</td>
- <td></td>
- <td>dog for working sheep</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>source + product</secondary></indexterm> The tertau specifies a product from some source, and the seltau specifies the source of the product:</para>
- <informaltable>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>moklu djacu</jbophrase></td>
- <td>mouth water</td>
- <td>Aba,Qab</td>
- <td>saliva</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>ractu mapku</jbophrase></td>
- <td>rabbit hat</td>
- <td>Rus</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>jipci sovda</jbophrase></td>
- <td>chicken egg</td>
- <td>Chi</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>sikcurnu silka</jbophrase></td>
- <td>silkworm silk</td>
- <td>Chi</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>mlatu kalci</jbophrase></td>
- <td>cat feces</td>
- <td>Chi</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>bifce lakse</jbophrase></td>
- <td>bee wax</td>
- <td>Chi</td>
- <td>beeswax</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>cribe rectu</jbophrase></td>
- <td>bear meat</td>
- <td>Tur,Kor,Hun,Udm,Aba</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>solxrula grasu</jbophrase></td>
- <td>sunflower oil</td>
- <td>Tur,Kor,Hun,Udm,Aba</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>bifce jisra</jbophrase></td>
- <td>bee juice</td>
- <td>Hop</td>
- <td>honey</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>tatru litki</jbophrase></td>
- <td>breast liquid</td>
- <td>Hop</td>
- <td>milk</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>kanla djacu</jbophrase></td>
- <td>eye water</td>
- <td>Kor</td>
- <td>tear</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <variablelist>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>sikcurnu</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>silk-worm</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>solxrula</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>solar-flower</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- </variablelist>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>product + source</secondary></indexterm> Conversely: the tertau specifies the source of a product, and the seltau specifies the product:</para>
- <informaltable>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>silna jinto</jbophrase></td>
- <td>salt well</td>
- <td>Chi</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>kolme terkakpa</jbophrase></td>
- <td>coal mine</td>
- <td>Chi</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>ctile jinto</jbophrase></td>
- <td>oil well</td>
- <td>Chi</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <variablelist>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>terkakpa</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>source of digging</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- </variablelist>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>source-material + object</secondary></indexterm> The tertau specifies an object, and the seltau specifies the material from which the object is made. This case is especially interesting, because the referent of the tertau may normally be made from just one kind of material, which is then overridden in the tanru.</para>
- <informaltable>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>rokci cinfo</jbophrase></td>
- <td>stone lion</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>snime nanmu</jbophrase></td>
- <td>snow man</td>
- <td>Hun</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>kliti cipni</jbophrase></td>
- <td>clay bird</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>blaci kanla</jbophrase></td>
- <td>glass eye</td>
- <td>Hun</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>blaci kanla</jbophrase></td>
- <td>glass eye</td>
- <td>Que</td>
- <td>spectacles</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>solji sicni</jbophrase></td>
- <td>gold coin</td>
- <td>Tur</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>solji junla</jbophrase></td>
- <td>gold watch</td>
- <td>Tur,Kor,Hun</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>solji djine</jbophrase></td>
- <td>gold ring</td>
- <td>Udm,Aba,Que</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>rokci zdani</jbophrase></td>
- <td>stone house</td>
- <td>Imb</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>mudri zdani</jbophrase></td>
- <td>wood house</td>
- <td>Ewe</td>
- <td>wooden house</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>rokci bitmu</jbophrase></td>
- <td>stone wall</td>
- <td>Ewe</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>solji carce</jbophrase></td>
- <td>gold chariot</td>
- <td>Skt</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>mudri xarci</jbophrase></td>
- <td>wood weapon</td>
- <td>Skt</td>
- <td>wooden weapon</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>cmaro'i dargu</jbophrase></td>
- <td>pebble road</td>
- <td>Chi</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>sudysrasu cutci</jbophrase></td>
- <td>straw shoe</td>
- <td>Chi</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <variablelist>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>cmaro'i</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>small-rock</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>sudysrasu</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>dry-grass</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- </variablelist>
- <para>Note: the two senses of
- <jbophrase>blaci kanla</jbophrase> can be discriminated as:</para>
- <informaltable>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>blaci kanla bo tarmi</jbophrase></td>
- <td>glass (eye shape)</td>
- <td>glass eye</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>blaci kanla bo sidju</jbophrase></td>
- <td>glass (eye helper)</td>
- <td>spectacles</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>object-measured + standard-object</secondary></indexterm> The tertau specifies a typical object used to measure a quantity and the seltau specifies something measured. The tanru as a whole refers to a given quantity of the thing being measured. English does not have compounds of this form, as a rule.</para>
- <informaltable>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>tumla spisa</jbophrase></td>
- <td>land piece</td>
- <td>Tur</td>
- <td>piece of land</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>tcati kabri</jbophrase></td>
- <td>tea cup</td>
- <td>Kor,Aba</td>
- <td>cup of tea</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>nanba spisa</jbophrase></td>
- <td>bread piece</td>
- <td>Kor</td>
- <td>piece of bread</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>bukpu spisa</jbophrase></td>
- <td>cloth piece</td>
- <td>Udm,Aba</td>
- <td>piece of cloth</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>djacu calkyguzme</jbophrase></td>
- <td>water calabash</td>
- <td>Ewe</td>
- <td>calabash of water</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <variablelist>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>calkyguzme</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>shell-fruit, calabash</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- </variablelist>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>overriding-property + object-with-implicit-properties</secondary></indexterm> The tertau specifies an object with certain implicit properties, and the seltau overrides one of those implicit properties:</para>
- <informaltable>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>kensa bloti</jbophrase></td>
- <td>spaceship</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>bakni verba</jbophrase></td>
- <td>cattle child</td>
- <td>Ewe</td>
- <td>calf</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>whole + part</secondary></indexterm> The seltau specifies a whole, and the tertau specifies a part which normally is associated with a different whole. The tanru then refers to a part of the seltau which stands in the same relationship to the whole seltau as the tertau stands to its typical whole.</para>
- <informaltable>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>kosta degji</jbophrase></td>
- <td>coat finger</td>
- <td>Hun</td>
- <td>coat sleeve</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>denci genja</jbophrase></td>
- <td>tooth root</td>
- <td>Imb</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>tricu stedu</jbophrase></td>
- <td>tree head</td>
- <td>Imb</td>
- <td>treetop</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>product + producer</secondary></indexterm> The tertau specifies the producer of a certain product, and the seltau specifies the product. In this way, the tanru as a whole distinguishes its referents from other referents of the tertau which do not produce the product.</para>
- <informaltable>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>silka curnu</jbophrase></td>
- <td>silkworm</td>
- <td>Tur,Hun,Aba</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>object-giving-characteristic + other-object</secondary></indexterm> The tertau specifies an object, and the seltau specifies another object which has a characteristic property. The tanru as a whole refers to those referents of the tertau which possess the property.</para>
- <informaltable>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>sonci manti</jbophrase></td>
- <td>soldier ant</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>ninmu bakni</jbophrase></td>
- <td>woman cattle</td>
- <td>Imb</td>
- <td>cow</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>mamta degji</jbophrase></td>
- <td>mother finger</td>
- <td>Imb</td>
- <td>thumb</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>cifnu degji</jbophrase></td>
- <td>baby finger</td>
- <td>Imb</td>
- <td>pinky</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>pacraistu zdani</jbophrase></td>
- <td>hell house</td>
- <td>Skt</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>fagri dapma</jbophrase></td>
- <td>fire curse</td>
- <td>Skt</td>
- <td>curse destructive as fire</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <variablelist>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>pacraistu</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>evil-superlative-site</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- </variablelist>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>similar-appearance-object + object</secondary></indexterm> As a particular case (when the property is that of resemblance): the seltau specifies an object which the referent of the tanru resembles.</para>
- <informaltable>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>grutrceraso jbama</jbophrase></td>
- <td>cherry bomb</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>solji kerfa</jbophrase></td>
- <td>gold hair</td>
- <td>Hun</td>
- <td>golden hair</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>kanla djacu</jbophrase></td>
- <td>eye water</td>
- <td>Kar</td>
- <td>spring</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>bakni rokci</jbophrase></td>
- <td>bull stone</td>
- <td>Mon</td>
- <td>boulder</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <variablelist>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>grutrceraso</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>fu'ivla for <quote>cherry</quote> based on Linnean name</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- </variablelist>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>typical-place + object</secondary></indexterm> The seltau specifies a place, and the tertau an object characteristically located in or at that place.</para>
- <informaltable>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>ckana boxfo</jbophrase></td>
- <td>bed sheet</td>
- <td>Chi</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>mrostu mojysu'a</jbophrase></td>
- <td>tomb monument</td>
- <td>Chi</td>
- <td>tombstone</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>jubme tergusni</jbophrase></td>
- <td>table lamp</td>
- <td>Chi</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>foldi smacu</jbophrase></td>
- <td>field mouse</td>
- <td>Chi</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>briju ci'ajbu</jbophrase></td>
- <td>office desk</td>
- <td>Chi</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>rirxe xirma</jbophrase></td>
- <td>river horse</td>
- <td>Chi</td>
- <td>hippopotamus</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>xamsi gerku</jbophrase></td>
- <td>sea dog</td>
- <td>Chi</td>
- <td>seal</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>cagyce'u zdani</jbophrase></td>
- <td>village house</td>
- <td>Skt</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <variablelist>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>mrostu</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>dead-site</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>mojysu'a</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>remember-structure</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>ci'ajbu</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>write-table</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>cagyce'u</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>farm-community</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- </variablelist>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>object + place-sold</secondary></indexterm> Specifically: the tertau is a place where the seltau is sold or made available to the public.</para>
- <informaltable>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>cidja barja</jbophrase></td>
- <td>food bar</td>
- <td>Chi</td>
- <td>restaurant</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>cukta barja</jbophrase></td>
- <td>book bar</td>
- <td>Chi</td>
- <td>library</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>locus-of-application + object</secondary></indexterm> The seltau specifies the locus of application of the tertau.</para>
- <informaltable>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>kanla velmikce</jbophrase></td>
- <td>eye medicine</td>
- <td>Chi</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>jgalu grasu</jbophrase></td>
- <td>nail oil</td>
- <td>Chi</td>
- <td>nail polish</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>denci pesxu</jbophrase></td>
- <td>tooth paste</td>
- <td>Chi</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <variablelist>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>velmikce</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>treatment used by doctor</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- </variablelist>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>activity + implement-used</secondary></indexterm> The tertau specifies an implement used in the activity denoted by the seltau.</para>
- <informaltable>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>me la pinpan. bolci</jbophrase></td>
- <td>Ping-Pong ball</td>
- <td>Chi</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>undesired-object + protection-object</secondary></indexterm> The tertau specifies a protective device against the undesirable features of the referent of the seltau.</para>
- <informaltable>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>carvi mapku</jbophrase></td>
- <td>rain cap</td>
- <td>Chi</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>carvi taxfu</jbophrase></td>
- <td>rain garment</td>
- <td>Chi</td>
- <td>raincoat</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>vindu firgai</jbophrase></td>
- <td>poison mask</td>
- <td>Chi</td>
- <td>gas mask</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <variablelist>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>firgai</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>face-cover</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- </variablelist>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>object + usual-container</secondary></indexterm> The tertau specifies a container characteristically used to hold the referent of the seltau.</para>
- <informaltable>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>cukta vasru</jbophrase></td>
- <td>book vessel</td>
- <td>Chi</td>
- <td>satchel</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>vanju kabri</jbophrase></td>
- <td>wine cup</td>
- <td>Chi</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>spatrkoka lanka</jbophrase></td>
- <td>coca basket</td>
- <td>Que</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>rismi dakli</jbophrase></td>
- <td>rice bag</td>
- <td>Ewe,Chi</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>tcati kabri</jbophrase></td>
- <td>tea cup</td>
- <td>Chi</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>ladru botpi</jbophrase></td>
- <td>milk bottle</td>
- <td>Chi</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>rismi patxu</jbophrase></td>
- <td>rice pot</td>
- <td>Chi</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>festi lante</jbophrase></td>
- <td>trash can</td>
- <td>Chi</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>bifce zdani</jbophrase></td>
- <td>bee house</td>
- <td>Kor</td>
- <td>beehive</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>cladakyxa'i zdani</jbophrase></td>
- <td>sword house</td>
- <td>Kor</td>
- <td>sheath</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>manti zdani</jbophrase></td>
- <td>ant nest</td>
- <td>Gua</td>
- <td>anthill</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <variablelist>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>spatrkoka</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>fu'ivla for <quote>coca</quote></para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>cladakyxa'i</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>(long-knife)-weapon</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- </variablelist>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>characteristic-time + event</secondary></indexterm> The seltau specifies the characteristic time of the event specified by the tertau.</para>
- <informaltable>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>vensa djedi</jbophrase></td>
- <td>spring day</td>
- <td>Chi</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>crisa citsi</jbophrase></td>
- <td>summer season</td>
- <td>Chi</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>cerni bumru</jbophrase></td>
- <td>morning fog</td>
- <td>Chi</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>critu lunra</jbophrase></td>
- <td>autumn moon</td>
- <td>Chi</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>dunra nicte</jbophrase></td>
- <td>winter night</td>
- <td>Chi</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>nicte ckule</jbophrase></td>
- <td>night school</td>
- <td>Chi</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>energy-source + powered</secondary></indexterm> The seltau specifies a source of energy for the referent of the tertau.</para>
- <informaltable>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>dikca tergusni</jbophrase></td>
- <td>electric lamp</td>
- <td>Chi</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>ratni nejni</jbophrase></td>
- <td>atom energy</td>
- <td>Chi</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>brife molki</jbophrase></td>
- <td>windmill</td>
- <td>Tur,Kor,Hun,Udm,Aba</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <variablelist>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>tergusni</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>illumination-source</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- </variablelist>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>asymmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>miscellaneous</secondary></indexterm> Finally, some tanru which don't fall into any of the above categories.</para>
- <informaltable>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>ladru denci</jbophrase></td>
- <td>milk tooth</td>
- <td>Tur,Hun,Udm,Qab</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>kanla denci</jbophrase></td>
- <td>eye tooth</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <para>It is clear that
- <quote>tooth</quote> is being specified, and that
- <quote>milk</quote> and
- <quote>eye</quote> act as modifiers. However, the relationship between
- <valsi>ladru</valsi> and
- <valsi>denci</valsi> is something like
- <quote>tooth which one has when one is drinking milk from one's mother</quote>, a relationship certainly present nowhere except in this particular concept. As for
- <jbophrase>kanla denci</jbophrase>, the relationship is not only not present on the surface, it is hardly possible to formulate it at all.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-symmetric-tanru">
- <title>Some types of symmetrical tanru</title>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>symmetrical tanru</primary></indexterm> This section deals with symmetrical tanru, where order is not important. Many of these tanru can be expressed with a logical or non-logical connective between the components.</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>symmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>both separately true</secondary></indexterm> The tanru may refer to things which are correctly specified by both tanru components. Some of these instances may also be seen as asymmetrical tanru where the seltau specifies a material. The connective
-
- <valsi>je</valsi> is appropriate:</para>
- <informaltable>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>cipnrstrigi pacru'i</jbophrase></td>
- <td>owl demon</td>
- <td>Skt</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>nolraitru prije</jbophrase></td>
- <td>royal sage</td>
- <td>Skt</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>remna nakni</jbophrase></td>
- <td>human-being male</td>
- <td>Qab</td>
- <td>man</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>remna fetsi</jbophrase></td>
- <td>human-being female</td>
- <td>Qab</td>
- <td>woman</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>sonci tolvri</jbophrase></td>
- <td>soldier coward</td>
- <td>Que</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>panzi nanmu</jbophrase></td>
- <td>offspring man</td>
- <td>Ewe</td>
- <td>son</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>panzi ninmu</jbophrase></td>
- <td>offspring woman</td>
- <td>Ewe</td>
- <td>daughter</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>solji sicni</jbophrase></td>
- <td>gold coin</td>
- <td>Tur</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>solji junla</jbophrase></td>
- <td>gold watch</td>
- <td>Tur,Kor,Hun</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>solji djine</jbophrase></td>
- <td>gold ring</td>
- <td>Udm,Aba,Que</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>rokci zdani</jbophrase></td>
- <td>stone house</td>
- <td>Imb</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>mudri zdani</jbophrase></td>
- <td>wooden house</td>
- <td>Ewe</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>rokci bitmu</jbophrase></td>
- <td>stone wall</td>
- <td>Ewe</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>solji carce</jbophrase></td>
- <td>gold chariot</td>
- <td>Skt</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>mudri xarci</jbophrase></td>
- <td>wooden weapon</td>
- <td>Skt</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>zdani tcadu</jbophrase></td>
- <td>home town</td>
- <td>Chi</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <variablelist>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>cipnrstrigi</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>fu'ivla for <quote>owl</quote> based on Linnean name</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>pacru'i</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>evil-spirit</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>tolvri</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>opposite-of-brave</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- </variablelist>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>symmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>one or other true</secondary></indexterm> The tanru may refer to all things which are specified by either of the tanru components. The connective
- <valsi>ja</valsi> is appropriate:</para>
- <informaltable>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>nunji'a nunterji'a</jbophrase></td>
- <td>victory defeat</td>
- <td>Skt</td>
- <td>victory or defeat</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>donri nicte</jbophrase></td>
- <td>day night</td>
- <td>Skt</td>
- <td>day and night</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>lunra tarci</jbophrase></td>
- <td>moon stars</td>
- <td>Skt</td>
- <td>moon and stars</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>patfu mamta</jbophrase></td>
- <td>father mother</td>
- <td>Imb,Kaz,Chi</td>
- <td>parents</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>tuple birka</jbophrase></td>
- <td>leg arm</td>
- <td>Kaz</td>
- <td>extremity</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>nuncti nunpinxe</jbophrase></td>
- <td>eating drinking</td>
- <td>Udm</td>
- <td>cuisine</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>bersa tixnu</jbophrase></td>
- <td>son daughter</td>
- <td>Chi</td>
- <td>children</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <variablelist>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>nunji'a</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>event-of-winning</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>nunterji'a</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>event-of-losing</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>nuncti</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>event-of-eating</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>nunpinxe</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>event-of-drinking</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- </variablelist>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>symmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>using more inclusive class</secondary></indexterm> Alternatively, the tanru may refer to things which are specified by either of the tanru components or by some more inclusive class of things which the components typify:</para>
- <informaltable>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>curnu jalra</jbophrase></td>
- <td>worm beetle</td>
- <td>Mon</td>
- <td>insect</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>jalra curnu</jbophrase></td>
- <td>beetle worm</td>
- <td>Mon</td>
- <td>insect</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>kabri palta</jbophrase></td>
- <td>cup plate</td>
- <td>Kaz</td>
- <td>crockery</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>jipci gunse</jbophrase></td>
- <td>hen goose</td>
- <td>Qab</td>
- <td>housefowl</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>xrula tricu</jbophrase></td>
- <td>flower tree</td>
- <td>Chi</td>
- <td>vegetation</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>symmetrical tanru types</primary><secondary>using crucial/typical parts</secondary></indexterm> The tanru components specify crucial or typical parts of the referent of the tanru as a whole:</para>
- <informaltable>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>tumla vacri</jbophrase></td>
- <td>land air</td>
- <td>Fin</td>
- <td>world</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>moklu stedu</jbophrase></td>
- <td>mouth head</td>
- <td>Aba</td>
- <td>face</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>sudysrasu cunmi</jbophrase></td>
- <td>hay millet</td>
- <td>Qab</td>
- <td>agriculture</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>gugde ciste</jbophrase></td>
- <td>state system</td>
- <td>Mon</td>
- <td>politics</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>prenu so'imei</jbophrase></td>
- <td>people multitude</td>
- <td>Mon</td>
- <td>masses</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><jbophrase>djacu dertu</jbophrase></td>
- <td>water earth</td>
- <td>Chi</td>
- <td>climate</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <variablelist>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>sudysrasu</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>dry-grass</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>so'imei</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>manysome</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- </variablelist>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-pretty-school-groupings">
- <title>
- <quote>Pretty little girls' school</quote>: forty ways to say it</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pretty little girls' school</primary><secondary>forty ways</secondary></indexterm> The following examples show every possible grouping arrangement of
- <jbophrase>melbi cmalu nixli ckule</jbophrase> using
- <valsi>bo</valsi> or
- <valsi>ke</valsi>…<valsi>ke'e</valsi> for grouping and
- <valsi>je</valsi> or
- <valsi>je</valsi><valsi>bo</valsi> for logical connection. Most of these are definitely not plausible interpretations of the English phrase
- <quote>pretty little girls' school</quote>, especially those which describe something which is both a girl and a school.</para>
- <para>Examples <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjmr"/>, <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjNi"/>, <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjog"/>, <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjop"/>, and <xref linkend="example-random-id-tz0L"/> are repeated here as Examples <xref linkend="example-random-id-qjzw"/>, <xref linkend="example-random-id-qKaM"/>, <xref linkend="example-random-id-qKfX"/>, <xref linkend="example-random-id-qKmg"/>, and <xref linkend="example-random-id-qKPQ"/> respectively.
- <!-- was: Examples 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, and 5.6 are repeated here as Examples 16.1, 16.9, 16.17, 16.25, and 16.33 respectively. -->
- The seven examples following each of these share the same grouping pattern, but differ in the presence or absence of
- <valsi>je</valsi> at each possible site. Some of the examples have more than one Lojban version. In that case, they differ only in grouping mechanism, and are always equivalent in meaning.</para>
- <para>The logical connective
- <valsi>je</valsi> is associative: that is,
- <quote>A and (B and C)</quote> is the same as
- <quote>(A and B) and C</quote>. Therefore, some of the examples have the same meaning as others. In particular, <xref linkend="example-random-id-qKAG"/>, <xref linkend="example-random-id-qKFA"/>, <xref linkend="example-random-id-qKLN"/>, <xref linkend="example-random-id-qKpo"/>, and <xref linkend="example-random-id-qKU6"/> all have the same meaning because all four brivla are logically connected and the grouping is simply irrelevant.
- <!-- was: In particular, 16.8, 16.16, 16.24, 16.32, and 16.40 all have the same meaning -->
- Other equivalent forms are noted in the examples themselves. However, if
-
- <valsi>je</valsi> were replaced by
- <valsi>naja</valsi> or
- <valsi>jo</valsi> or most of the other logical connectives, the meanings would become distinct.</para>
- <para>It must be emphasized that, because of the ambiguity of all tanru, the English translations are by no means definitive – they represent only one possible interpretation of the corresponding Lojban sentence.</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qjzw" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e16d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>melbi cmalu nixli ckule</jbo>
- <gloss>((pretty type-of little) type-of girl) type-of school</gloss>
- <natlang>school for girls who are beautifully small</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qK2W" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e16d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>melbi je cmalu nixli ckule</jbo>
- <gloss>((pretty and little) type-of girl) type-of school</gloss>
- <natlang>school for girls who are beautiful and small</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qK2x" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e16d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>melbi bo cmalu je nixli ckule</jbo>
- <gloss>((pretty type-of little) and girl) type-of school</gloss>
- <natlang>school for girls and for beautifully small things</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qK5r" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e16d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ke melbi cmalu nixli ke'e je ckule</jbo>
- <gloss>((pretty type-of little) type-of girl) and school</gloss>
- <natlang>thing which is a school and a beautifully small girl</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qK5Y" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e16d5"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>melbi je cmalu je nixli ckule</jbo>
- <gloss>((pretty and little) and girl) type-of school</gloss>
- <gloss>school for things which are beautiful, small, and girls</gloss>
- <para>Note: same as <xref linkend="example-random-id-qKjr"/></para>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qK7I" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e16d6"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>melbi bo cmalu je nixli je ckule</jbo>
- <gloss>((pretty type-of little) and girl) and school</gloss>
- <gloss>thing which is beautifully small, a school, and a girl</gloss>
- <para>Note: same as <xref linkend="example-random-id-qKdY"/></para>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qK90" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e16d7"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ke melbi je cmalu nixli ke'e je ckule</jbo>
- <gloss>((pretty and little) type-of girl) and school</gloss>
- <natlang>thing which is a school and a girl who is both beautiful and small</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKAG" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e16d8"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>melbi je cmalu je nixli je ckule</jbo>
- <gloss>((pretty and little) and girl) and school</gloss>
- <natlang>thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKaM" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e16d9"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>melbi cmalu nixli bo ckule</jbo>
- <gloss>(pretty type-of little) type-of (girl type-of school)</gloss>
- <natlang>girls' school which is beautifully small</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKat" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e16d10"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>melbi je cmalu nixli bo ckule</jbo>
- <gloss>(pretty and little) type-of (girl type-of school)</gloss>
- <natlang>girls' school which is beautiful and small</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKBQ" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e16d11"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>melbi cmalu nixli je ckule</jbo>
- <gloss>(pretty type-of little) type-of (girl and school)</gloss>
- <natlang>something which is a girl and a school which is beautifully small</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKBy" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e16d12"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>melbi bo cmalu je nixli bo ckule</jbo>
- <gloss>(pretty type-of little) and (girl type-of school)</gloss>
- <natlang>something which is beautifully small and a girls' school</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKcH" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e16d13"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>melbi je cmalu nixli je ckule</jbo>
- <gloss>(pretty and little) type-of (girl and school)</gloss>
- <natlang>a pretty and little type of thing which is both a girl and a school</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKdY" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e16d14"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>melbi bo cmalu je nixli jebo ckule</jbo>
- <gloss>(pretty type-of little) and (girl and school)</gloss>
- <natlang>thing which is beautifully small, a school, and a girl</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>Note: same as <xref linkend="example-random-id-qK7I"/></para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKEI" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e16d15"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>melbi jebo cmalu je nixli bo ckule</jbo>
- <gloss>(pretty and little) and (girl type-of school)</gloss>
- <natlang>thing which is beautiful and small and a girl's school</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>Note: same as <xref linkend="example-random-id-qKpm"/></para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKFA" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e16d16"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>melbi jebo cmalu je nixli jebo ckule</jbo>
- <gloss>(pretty and little) and (girl and school)</gloss>
- <natlang>thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKfX" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e16d17"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>melbi cmalu bo nixli ckule</jbo>
- <gloss>(pretty type-of (little type-of girl)) type-of school</gloss>
- <natlang>school for beautiful girls who are small</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKGW" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e16d18"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>melbi cmalu je nixli ckule</jbo>
- <gloss>(pretty type-of (little and girl)) type-of school</gloss>
- <natlang>school for beautiful things which are small and are girls</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKHA" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e16d19"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>melbi je cmalu bo nixli ckule</jbo>
- <gloss>(pretty and (little type-of girl)) type-of school</gloss>
- <natlang>school for things which are beautiful and are small girls</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKjJ" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e16d20"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ke melbi cmalu bo nixli ke'e je ckule</jbo>
- <jbo>melbi bo cmalu bo nixli je ckule</jbo>
- <gloss>(pretty type-of (little type-of girl)) and school</gloss>
- <natlang>thing which is a school and a small girl who is beautiful</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKjr" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e16d21"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>melbi je cmalu jebo nixli ckule</jbo>
- <gloss>(pretty and (little and girl)) type-of school</gloss>
- <natlang>school for things which are beautiful, small, and girls</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>Note: same as <xref linkend="example-random-id-qK5Y"/></para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKKM" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e16d22"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>melbi je cmalu bo nixli je ckule</jbo>
- <gloss>(pretty and (little type-of girl)) and school</gloss>
- <natlang>thing which is beautiful, a small girl, and a school</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>Note: same as <xref linkend="example-random-id-qKsA"/></para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKLi" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e16d23"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ke melbi cmalu je nixli ke'e je ckule</jbo>
- <gloss>(pretty type-of (little and girl)) and school</gloss>
- <natlang>thing which is beautifully small, a beautiful girl, and a school</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKLN" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e16d24"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>melbi je cmalu jebo nixli je ckule</jbo>
- <gloss>(pretty and (little and girl)) and school</gloss>
- <natlang>thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKmg" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e16d25"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>melbi cmalu bo nixli bo ckule</jbo>
- <jbo>melbi ke cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e] [ke'e]</jbo>
- <gloss>pretty type-of (little type-of (girl type-of school))</gloss>
- <natlang>small school for girls which is beautiful</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKn8" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e16d26"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>melbi ke cmalu nixli je ckule [ke'e]</jbo>
- <gloss>pretty type-of (little type-of (girl and school))</gloss>
- <natlang>small thing, both a girl and a school, which is beautiful</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKNY" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e16d27"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>melbi cmalu je nixli bo ckule</jbo>
- <gloss>pretty type-of (little and (girl type-of school))</gloss>
- <natlang>thing which is beautifully small and a girls' school that is beautiful</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKp6" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e16d28"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>melbi je cmalu bo nixli bo ckule</jbo>
- <jbo>melbi je ke cmalu nixli bo ckule [ke'e]</jbo>
- <jbo>melbi je ke cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e] [ke'e]</jbo>
- <gloss>pretty and (little type-of (girl type-of school))</gloss>
- <natlang>thing which is beautiful and a small type of girls' school</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKp9" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e16d29"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>melbi cmalu je nixli jebo ckule</jbo>
- <gloss>melbi cmalu je ke nixli je ckule [ke'e]</gloss>
- <gloss>pretty type-of (little and (girl and school))</gloss>
- <natlang>thing which is beautifully small, a beautiful girl, and a beautiful school</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>Note: same as <xref linkend="example-random-id-qKR5"/></para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKpm" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e16d30"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>melbi je cmalu jebo nixli bo ckule</jbo>
- <jbo>melbi je ke cmalu je nixli bo ckule [ke'e]</jbo>
- <gloss>pretty and (little and (girl type-of school))</gloss>
- <natlang>thing which is beautiful, small and a girls' school</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>Note: same as <xref linkend="example-random-id-qKEI"/></para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKPn" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e16d31"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>melbi je ke cmalu nixli je ckule [ke'e]</jbo>
- <gloss>pretty and (little type-of (girl and school))</gloss>
- <natlang>beautiful thing which is a small girl and a small school</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKpo" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e16d32"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>melbi jebo cmalu jebo nixli jebo ckule</jbo>
- <gloss>pretty and (little and (girl and school))</gloss>
- <natlang>thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKPQ" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e16d33"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>melbi ke cmalu nixli ckule [ke'e]</jbo>
- <gloss>pretty type-of ((little type-of girl) type-of school)</gloss>
- <natlang>beautiful school for small girls</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKpX" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e16d34"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>melbi ke cmalu je nixli ckule [ke'e]</jbo>
- <gloss>pretty type-of ((little and girl) type-of school</gloss>
- <natlang>beautiful school for things which are small and are girls</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKPz" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e16d35"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>melbi ke cmalu bo nixli je ckule [ke'e]</jbo>
- <gloss>pretty type-of ((little type-of girl) and school)</gloss>
- <natlang>beautiful thing which is a small girl and a school</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKQ3" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e16d36"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>melbi je ke cmalu nixli ckule [ke'e]</jbo>
- <gloss>pretty and ((little type-of girl) type-of school)</gloss>
- <natlang>thing which is beautiful and a school for small girls</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKR5" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e16d37"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>melbi cmalu je nixli je ckule</jbo>
- <gloss>pretty type-of ((little and girl) and school)</gloss>
- <natlang>thing which is beautifully small, a beautiful girl, and a beautiful school</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>Note: same as <xref linkend="example-random-id-qKp9"/></para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKsA" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e16d38"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>melbi je ke cmalu bo nixli je ckule [ke'e]</jbo>
- <gloss>pretty and ((little type-of girl) and school)</gloss>
- <natlang>thing which is beautiful, a small girl and a school</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>Note: same as <xref linkend="example-random-id-qKKM"/></para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKSK" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e16d39"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>melbi je ke cmalu je nixli ckule [ke'e]</jbo>
- <gloss>pretty and ((little and girl) type-of school)</gloss>
- <natlang>thing which is beautiful and is a small school and a girls' school</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKU6" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c5e16d40"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>melbi je ke cmalu je nixli je ckule [ke'e]</jbo>
- <gloss>pretty and ((little and girl) and school)</gloss>
- <natlang>thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- </section>
-
-</chapter>
diff --git a/chapters/6.xml b/chapters/6.xml
deleted file mode 100644
index 59acd47..0000000
--- a/chapters/6.xml
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,2205 +0,0 @@
-<chapter xml:id="chapter-sumti">
- <title>To Speak Of Many Things: The Lojban sumti</title>
- <mediaobject xml:id="chapter-sumti-picture">
- <alt>The picture for chapter 6</alt>
- <imageobject>
- <imagedata fileref="media/chapter-sumti.gif"/>
- </imageobject>
- </mediaobject>
-
- <section xml:id="section-simple-sumti-kinds">
- <title>The five kinds of simple sumti</title>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>simple sumti</primary></indexterm> If you understand anything about Lojban, you know what a sumti is by now, right? An argument, one of those things that fills the places of simple Lojban sentences like:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-VKU6">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e1d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi klama le zarci</jbo>
- <gloss>I go-to the market</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>contrasted with description</secondary></indexterm> In
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-VKU6"/>,
- <valsi>mi</valsi> and
- <jbophrase>le zarci</jbophrase> are the sumti. It is easy to see that these two sumti are not of the same kind:
- <valsi>mi</valsi> is a pro-sumti (the Lojban analogue of a pronoun) referring to the speaker, whereas
- <jbophrase>le zarci</jbophrase> is a description which refers to something described as being a market.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>kinds of</secondary></indexterm> There are five kinds of simple sumti provided by Lojban:</para>
-
- <orderedlist>
- <listitem>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>gadri</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>descriptions as</secondary></indexterm> descriptions like
- <jbophrase>le zarci</jbophrase>, which usually begin with a descriptor (called a
- <valsi>gadri</valsi> in Lojban) such as
-
- <valsi>le</valsi>;</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>pro-sumti as</secondary></indexterm> pro-sumti, such as
- <valsi>mi</valsi>;</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>names as</secondary></indexterm> names, such as
- <jbophrase>la lojban.</jbophrase>, which usually begin with
- <valsi>la</valsi>;</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>quotations as</secondary></indexterm> quotations, which begin with
- <valsi>lu</valsi>,
- <valsi>le'u</valsi>,
- <valsi>zo</valsi>, or
- <valsi>zoi</valsi>;</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>numbers as</secondary></indexterm> pure numbers, which usually begin with
- <valsi>li</valsi>.</para>
- </listitem>
- </orderedlist>
- <para>Here are a few examples of each kind of sumti:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Dx1s">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e1d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>e'osai ko sarji la lojban.</jbo>
- <natlang>Please support Lojban!</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-Dx1s"/> exhibits
- <valsi>ko</valsi>, a pro-sumti; and
- <jbophrase>la lojban.</jbophrase>, a name.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-v1mS">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e1d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi cusku lu e'osai li'u le tcidu</jbo>
- <natlang>I express
- <quote>Please!</quote> to-the reader.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <!-- FIXME: these three indexterms aren't tagged alone --><indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>le</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>li'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>lu</primary></indexterm>
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-v1mS"/> exhibits
- <valsi>mi</valsi>, a pro-sumti;
- <jbophrase>lu e'osai li'u</jbophrase>, a quotation; and
- <jbophrase>le tcidu</jbophrase>, a description.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-0YaH">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e1d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ti mitre li ci</jbo>
- <gloss>This measures-in-meters the-number three.</gloss>
- <natlang>This is three meters long.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <!-- FIXME: this indexterm isn't tagged alone --><indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>li</primary></indexterm>
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-0YaH"/> exhibits
- <valsi>ti</valsi>, a pro-sumti; and
- <jbophrase>li ci</jbophrase>, a number.</para>
- <para>Most of this chapter is about descriptions, as they have the most complicated syntax and usage. Some attention is also given to names, which are closely interwoven with descriptions. Pro-sumti, numbers, and quotations are described in more detail in
- <xref linkend="chapter-anaphoric-cmavo"/>,
- <xref linkend="chapter-mekso"/>, and
- <xref linkend="chapter-structure"/> respectively, so this chapter only gives summaries of their forms and uses. See
- <xref linkend="section-pro-sumti"/> through
- <xref linkend="section-number-summary"/> for these summaries.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-basic-descriptors">
- <title>The three basic description types</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>descriptions</primary><secondary>types of</secondary></indexterm> The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>le</cmavo>
- <selmaho>LE</selmaho>
- <description>the, the one(s) described as</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>lo</cmavo>
- <selmaho>LE</selmaho>
- <description>some, some of those which really are</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>la</cmavo>
- <selmaho>LA</selmaho>
- <description>the one(s) named</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ku</cmavo>
- <selmaho>KU</selmaho>
- <description>elidable terminator for LE, LA</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri</primary><secondary>as part of description</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>descriptor</primary><secondary>as part of description</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>descriptions</primary><secondary>components of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>descriptions</primary><secondary>types of</secondary></indexterm> The syntax of descriptions is fairly complex, and not all of it can be explained within the confines of this chapter: relative clauses, in particular, are discussed in
- <xref linkend="chapter-relative-clauses"/>. However, most descriptions have just two components: a descriptor belonging to selma'o LE or LA, and a selbri. (The difference between selma'o LE and selma'o LA is not important until
- <xref linkend="section-names"/>.) Furthermore, the selbri is often just a single brivla. Here is an elementary example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rBuQ">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e2d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le zarci</jbo>
- <gloss>one-or-more-specific-things-each-of-which-I-describe-as being-a-market</gloss>
- <natlang>the market</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le</primary><secondary>compared with English the</secondary></indexterm> The long gloss for
- <valsi>le</valsi> is of course far too long to use most of the time, and in fact
-
- <valsi>le</valsi> is quite close in meaning to English
- <quote>the</quote>. It has particular implications, however, which
- <quote>the</quote> does not have.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>descriptions</primary><secondary>importance of selbri first place in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>descriptors</primary><secondary>purpose of</secondary></indexterm> The general purpose of all descriptors is to create a sumti which might occur in the x1 place of the selbri belonging to the description. Thus
- <jbophrase>le zarci</jbophrase> conveys something which might be found in the x1 place of
- <valsi>zarci</valsi>, namely a market.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le</primary><secondary>and truth of selbri</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le</primary><secondary>and specificity</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le</primary><secondary>implications of</secondary></indexterm> The specific purpose of
- <valsi>le</valsi> is twofold. First, it indicates that the speaker has one or more specific markets in mind (whether or not the listener knows which ones they are). Second, it also indicates that the speaker is merely describing the things he or she has in mind as markets, without being committed to the truth of that description.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ULGC">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e2d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le zarci cu barda</jbo>
- <gloss>One-or-more-specific-things-which-I-describe as <quote>markets</quote> is/are-big.</gloss>
- <natlang>The market is big.</natlang>
- <natlang>The markets are big.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>plurals</primary><secondary>Lojban contrasted with English in necessity of marking</secondary></indexterm> Note that English-speakers must state whether a reference to markets is to just one (
- <quote>the market</quote>) or to more than one (
- <quote>the markets</quote>). Lojban requires no such forced choice, so both colloquial translations of
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-ULGC"/> are valid. Only the context can specify which is meant. (This rule does not mean that Lojban has no way of specifying the number of markets in such a case: that mechanism is explained in
- <xref linkend="section-quantified-descriptions"/>.)</para>
- <para>Now consider the following strange-looking example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PutX">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>The men are women</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c6e2d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le nanmu cu ninmu</jbo>
- <gloss>One-or-more-specific-things-which-I-describe as <quote>men</quote> are women.</gloss>
- <natlang>The man is a woman.</natlang>
- <natlang>The men are women.</natlang>
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le</primary><secondary>in false-to-fact descriptions</secondary></indexterm>
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-PutX"/> is not self-contradictory in Lojban, because
- <jbophrase>le nanmu</jbophrase> merely means something or other which, for my present purposes, I choose to describe as a man, whether or not it really is a man. A plausible instance would be: someone we had assumed to be a man at a distance turned out to be actually a woman on closer observation.
-
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-PutX"/> is what I would say to point out my observation to you.</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>descriptions</primary><secondary>specific</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>specific descriptions</primary></indexterm> In all descriptions with
- <valsi>le</valsi>, the listener is presumed to either know what I have in mind or else not to be concerned at present (perhaps I will give more identifying details later). In particular, I might be pointing at the supposed man or men:
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-PutX"/> would then be perfectly intelligible, since
- <jbophrase>le nanmu</jbophrase> merely clarifies that I am pointing at the supposed man, not at a landscape, or a nose, which happens to lie in the same direction.</para>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo</primary><secondary>implications of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>descriptions</primary><secondary>non-specific</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-specific descriptions</primary></indexterm> The second descriptor dealt with in this section is
- <valsi>lo</valsi>. Unlike
- <valsi>le</valsi>,
- <valsi>lo</valsi> is nonspecific:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-t11z">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e2d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>lo zarci</jbo>
- <gloss>one-or-more-of-all-the-things-which-really are-markets</gloss>
- <natlang>a market</natlang>
- <natlang>some markets</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo</primary><secondary>and truth of selbri</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo</primary><secondary>contrasted with le in truth requirement</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le</primary><secondary>contrasted with lo in truth requirement</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le</primary><secondary>contrasted with lo in specificity</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo</primary><secondary>contrasted with le in specificity</secondary></indexterm> Again, there are two colloquial English translations. The effect of using
- <valsi>lo</valsi> in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-t11z"/> is to refer generally to one or more markets, without being specific about which. Unlike
- <jbophrase>le zarci</jbophrase>,
- <jbophrase>lo zarci</jbophrase> must refer to something which actually is a market (that is, which can appear in the x1 place of a truthful bridi whose selbri is
- <valsi>zarci</valsi>). Thus</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-fSxN">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e2d5"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>lo nanmu cu ninmu</jbo>
- <natlang>Some man is a woman.</natlang>
- <natlang>Some men are women.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>must be false in Lojban, given that there are no objects in the real world which are both men and women. Pointing at some specific men or women would not make
-
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-fSxN"/> true, because those specific individuals are no more both-men-and-women than any others. In general,
- <valsi>lo</valsi> refers to whatever individuals meet its description.</para>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>la</primary><secondary>use with descriptions contrasted with use before Lojbanized names</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le</primary><secondary>compared with la in specificity</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>la</primary><secondary>compared with le in specificity</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>la</primary><secondary>implications of</secondary></indexterm> The last descriptor of this section is
- <valsi>la</valsi>, which indicates that the selbri which follows it has been dissociated from its normal meaning and is being used as a name. Like
- <valsi>le</valsi> descriptions,
- <valsi>la</valsi> descriptions are implicitly restricted to those I have in mind. (Do not confuse this use of
- <valsi>la</valsi> with its use before regular Lojbanized names, which is discussed in
- <xref linkend="section-names"/>.) For example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PrGp">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>bear wrote story</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c6e2d6"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la cribe pu finti le lisri</jbo>
- <gloss>The-one-named
- <quote>bear</quote> [past] creates the story.</gloss>
- <natlang>Bear wrote the story.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>naming predicate</primary></indexterm> In
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-PrGp"/>,
- <jbophrase>la cribe</jbophrase> refers to someone whose naming predicate is
-
- <valsi>cribe</valsi>, i.e.
- <quote>Bear</quote>. In English, most names don't mean anything, or at least not anything obvious. The name
- <quote>Frank</quote> coincides with the English word
- <quote>frank</quote>, meaning
- <quote>honest</quote>, and so one way of translating
- <quote>Frank ate some cheese</quote> into Lojban would be:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-yyBX">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e2d7"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la stace pu citka lo cirla</jbo>
- <gloss>The-one-called <quote>Honest/Frank</quote> [past] eats some cheese.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>English-speakers typically would not do this, as we tend to be more attached to the sound of our names than their meaning, even if the meaning (etymological or current) is known. Speakers of other languages may feel differently. (In point of fact,
- <quote>Frank</quote> originally meant
- <quote>the free one</quote> rather than
- <quote>the honest one</quote>.)</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>la</primary><secondary>contrasted with le in implications</secondary></indexterm> It is important to note the differences between
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-PrGp"/> and the following:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nXyo">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e2d8"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le cribe pu finti le lisri</jbo>
- <gloss>One-or-more-specific-things-which-I-describe-as a-bear [past] creates the story.</gloss>
- <natlang>The bear(s) wrote the story.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-93Yv">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e2d9"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>lo cribe pu finti le lisri</jbo>
- <gloss>One-or-more-of-the-things-which-really are-bears [past] creates the story.</gloss>
- <natlang>A bear wrote the story.</natlang>
- <natlang>Some bears wrote the story.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>la</primary><secondary>contrasted with lo in implications</secondary></indexterm>
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-nXyo"/> is about a specific bear or bearlike thing(s), or thing(s) which the speaker (perhaps whimsically or metaphorically) describes as a bear (or more than one);
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-93Yv"/> is about one or more of the really existing, objectively defined bears. In either case, though, each of them must have contributed to the writing of the story, if more than one bear (or
- <quote>bear</quote>) is meant.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>descriptions with lo</primary><secondary>teddy bear contrasted with real bear</secondary></indexterm> (The notion of a
- <quote>really existing, objectively defined bear</quote> raises certain difficulties. Is a panda bear a
- <quote>real bear</quote>? How about a teddy bear? In general, the answer is
- <quote>yes</quote>. Lojban gismu are defined as broadly as possible, allowing tanru and lujvo to narrow down the definition. There probably are no necessary and sufficient conditions for defining what is and what is not a bear that can be pinned down with complete precision: the real world is fuzzy. In borderline cases,
-
- <valsi>le</valsi> may communicate better than
- <valsi>lo</valsi>.)</para>
- <para>So while
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-PrGp"/> could easily be true (there is a real writer named
- <quote>Greg Bear</quote>), and
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-nXyo"/> could be true if the speaker is sufficiently peculiar in what he or she describes as a bear,
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-93Yv"/> is certainly false.</para>
- <para>Similarly, compare the following two examples, which are analogous to
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-nXyo"/> and
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-93Yv"/> respectively:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKw7" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e2d10"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le remna pu finti le lisri</jbo>
- <natlang>The human being(s) wrote the story.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qKYf" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e2d11"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>lo remna pu finti le lisri</jbo>
- <natlang>A human being wrote the story.</natlang>
- <natlang>Some human beings wrote the story.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo</primary><secondary>contrasted with le in implications</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le</primary><secondary>contrasted with lo in implications</secondary></indexterm>
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qKw7"/> says who the author of the story is: one or more particular human beings that the speaker has in mind. If the topic of conversation is the story, then
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qKw7"/> identifies the author as someone who can be pointed out or who has been previously mentioned; whereas if the topic is a person, then
- <jbophrase>le remna</jbophrase> is in effect a shorthand reference to that person.
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qKYf"/> merely says that the author is human.</para>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ku</primary><secondary>uses of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cu</primary><secondary>effect on elidability of ku</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ku</primary><secondary>effect of following selbri on elidability of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ku</primary><secondary>as elidable terminator for descriptions</secondary></indexterm> The elidable terminator for all descriptions is
- <valsi>ku</valsi>. It can almost always be omitted with no danger of ambiguity. The main exceptions are in certain uses of relative clauses, which are discussed in
- <xref linkend="section-descriptors"/>, and in the case of a description immediately preceding the selbri. In this latter case, using an explicit
- <valsi>cu</valsi> before the selbri makes the
- <valsi>ku</valsi> unnecessary. There are also a few other uses of
- <valsi>ku</valsi>: in the compound negator
- <jbophrase>naku</jbophrase> (discussed in
- <xref linkend="chapter-quantifiers"/>) and to terminate place-structure, tense, and modal tags that do not have associated sumti (discussed in
- <xref linkend="chapter-sumti-tcita"/> and
- <xref linkend="chapter-tenses"/>).</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-masses">
- <title>Individuals and masses</title>
- <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>lei</cmavo>
- <selmaho>LE</selmaho>
- <description>the mass I describe as</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>loi</cmavo>
- <selmaho>LE</selmaho>
- <description>part of the mass of those which really are</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>lai</cmavo>
- <selmaho>LA</selmaho>
- <description>the mass of those named</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>for set objects</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>for mass objects</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>for individual objects</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>classified by types of objects referred to</secondary></indexterm> All Lojban sumti are classified by whether they refer to one of three types of objects, known as
- <quote>individuals</quote>,
- <quote>masses</quote>, and
- <quote>sets</quote>. The term
- <quote>individual</quote> is misleading when used to refer to more than one object, but no less-confusing term has as yet been found. All the descriptions in
- <xref linkend="section-simple-sumti-kinds"/> and
- <xref linkend="section-basic-descriptors"/> refer to individuals, whether one or more than one. Consider the following example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-mwhq">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e3d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le prenu cu bevri le pipno</jbo>
- <gloss>One-or-more-of-those-I-describe-as persons carry the piano.</gloss>
-
- <natlang>The person(s) carry the piano.</natlang>
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>(Of course the second
- <valsi>le</valsi> should really get the same translation as the first, but I am putting the focus of this discussion on the first
- <valsi>le</valsi>, the one preceding
- <valsi>prenu</valsi>. I will assume that there is only one piano under discussion.)</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>individual objects</primary><secondary>multiple</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple individual objects</primary><secondary>meaning of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le</primary><secondary>meaning of in the plural</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>plurals with le</primary><secondary>meaning of</secondary></indexterm> Suppose the context of
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-mwhq"/> is such that you can determine that I am talking about three persons. What am I claiming? I am claiming that each of the three persons carried the piano. This claim can be true if the persons carried the piano one at a time, or in turns, or in a variety of other ways. But in order for
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-mwhq"/> to be true, I must be willing to assert that person 1 carried the piano, and that person 2 carried the piano, and that person 3 carried the piano.</para>
- <para>But suppose I am not willing to claim that. For in fact pianos are heavy, and very few persons can carry a piano all by themselves. The most likely factual situation is that person 1 carried one end of the piano, and person 2 the other end, while person 3 either held up the middle or else supervised the whole operation without actually lifting anything. The correct way of expressing such a situation in Lojban is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-eCsh">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>piano-moving</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c6e3d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>lei prenu cu bevri le pipno</jbo>
- <gloss>The-mass-of-one-or-more-of-those-I-describe-as persons carry the piano.</gloss>
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mass object</primary><secondary>and logical reasoning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mass object</primary><secondary>properties of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple individual objects</primary><secondary>contrasted with mass object</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mass object</primary><secondary>contrasted with multiple individual objects</secondary></indexterm> Here the same three persons are treated not as individuals, but as a so-called
- <quote>mass entity</quote>, or just
- <quote>mass</quote>. A mass has the properties of each individual which composes it, and may have other properties of its own as well. This can lead to apparent contradictions. Thus suppose in the piano-moving example above that person 1 has fair skin, whereas person 2 has dark skin. Then it is correct to say that the person-mass has both fair skin and dark skin. Using the mass descriptor
-
- <valsi>lei</valsi> signals that ordinary logical reasoning is not applicable: contradictions can be maintained, and all sorts of other peculiarities may exist. However, we can safely say that a mass inherits only the component properties that are relevant to it; it would be ludicrous to say that a mass of two persons is of molecular dimensions, simply because some of the parts (namely, the molecules) of the persons are that small.</para>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lai</primary><secondary>as mass counterpart of lai</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>loi</primary><secondary>as mass counterpart of lo</secondary></indexterm> The descriptors
- <valsi>loi</valsi> and
- <valsi>lai</valsi> are analogous to
- <valsi>lo</valsi> and
- <valsi>la</valsi> respectively, but refer to masses either by property (
- <valsi>loi</valsi>) or by name (
- <valsi>lai</valsi>). A classic example of
- <valsi>loi</valsi> use is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-T1pF">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>lions in Africa</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c6e3d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>loi cinfo cu xabju le fi'ortu'a</jbo>
- <gloss>Part-of-the-mass-of-those-which-really are-lions dwell in-the African-land.</gloss>
- <natlang>The lion dwells in Africa.</natlang>
- <natlang>Lions dwell in Africa.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>loi</primary><secondary>contrasted with lei in specificity</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lei</primary><secondary>contrasted with loi in specificity</secondary></indexterm> The difference between
- <valsi>lei</valsi> and
- <valsi>loi</valsi> is that
- <jbophrase>lei cinfo</jbophrase> refers to a mass of specific individuals which the speaker calls lions, whereas
- <jbophrase>loi cinfo</jbophrase> refers to some part of the mass of all those individuals which actually are lions. The restriction to
- <quote>some part of the mass</quote> allows statements like
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-T1pF"/> to be true even though some lions do not dwell in Africa – they live in various zoos around the world. On the other hand,
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-T1pF"/> doesn't actually say that most lions live in Africa: equally true is</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-JzXc">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>Englishman in Africa</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c6e3d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>loi glipre cu xabju le fi'ortu'a</jbo>
- <gloss>Part-of-the-mass-of-those-which-really are-English-persons dwell in-the African-land.</gloss>
- <natlang>The English dwell in Africa.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>since there is at least one English person living there.
- <xref linkend="section-sets"/> explains another method of saying what is usually meant by
- <quote>The lion lives in Africa</quote> which does imply that living in Africa is normal, not exceptional, for lions.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mass objects</primary><secondary>peculiarities of English translation of</secondary></indexterm> Note that the Lojban mass articles are sometimes translated by English plurals (the most usual case), sometimes by English singulars (when the singular is used to express typicalness or abstraction), and sometimes by singulars with no article:</para>
-
-
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-yDCF">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>butter is soft</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c6e3d5"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>loi matne cu ranti</jbo>
-
- <gloss>Part-of-the-mass-of-that-which-really is-a-quantity-of-butter is-soft.</gloss>
- <natlang>Butter is soft.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mass object</primary><secondary>as dependent on intention</secondary></indexterm> Of course, some butter is hard (for example, if it is frozen butter), so the
- <quote>part-of</quote> implication of
- <valsi>loi</valsi> becomes once again useful. The reason this mechanism works is that the English words like
- <quote>butter</quote>, which are seen as already describing masses, are translated in Lojban by non-mass forms. The place structure of
- <valsi>matne</valsi> is
-
- <quote>x1 is a quantity of butter from source x2</quote>, so the single English word
- <quote>butter</quote> is translated as something like
- <quote>a part of the mass formed from all the quantities of butter that exist</quote>. (Note that the operation of forming a mass entity does not imply, in Lojban, that the components of the mass are necessarily close to one another or even related in any way other than conceptually. Masses are formed by the speaker's intention to form a mass, and can in principle contain anything.)</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mass name</primary><secondary>use of</secondary></indexterm> The mass name descriptor
-
-
- <valsi>lai</valsi> is used in circumstances where we wish to talk about a mass of things identified by a name which is common to all of them. It is not used to identify a mass by a single name peculiar to it. Thus the mass version of
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-fSxN"/>,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-H8z5">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>Bears wrote book</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c6e3d6"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>lai cribe pu finti le vi cukta</jbo>
- <gloss>The-mass-of-those-named
- <quote>bear</quote> [past] creates the nearby book.</gloss>
- <natlang>The Bears wrote this book.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lai</primary><secondary>contrasted with la in implications</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>la</primary><secondary>contrasted with lai in implications</secondary></indexterm> in a context where
- <jbophrase>la cribe</jbophrase> would be understood as plural, would mean that either Tom Bear or Fred Bear (to make up some names) might have written the book, or that Tom and Fred might have written it as collaborators. Using
-
- <valsi>la</valsi> instead of
- <valsi>lai</valsi> in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-H8z5"/> would give the implication that each of Tom and Fred, considered individually, had written it.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-sets">
- <title>Masses and sets</title>
- <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>le'i</cmavo>
- <selmaho>LE</selmaho>
- <description>the set described as</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>lo'i</cmavo>
- <selmaho>LE</selmaho>
- <description>the set of those which really are</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>la'i</cmavo>
- <selmaho>LA</selmaho>
- <description>the set of those named</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mass</primary><secondary>compared with set as abstract of multiple individuals</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>set</primary><secondary>compared with mass as abstract of multiple individuals</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mass</primary><secondary>contrasted with set in attribution of component properties</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>set</primary><secondary>contrasted with mass in attribution of component properties</secondary></indexterm> Having said so much about masses, let us turn to sets. Sets are easier to understand than masses, but are more rarely used. Like a mass, a set is an abstract object formed from a number of individuals; however, the properties of a set are not derived from any of the properties of the individuals that compose it.</para>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>la'i</primary><secondary>as set counterpart of lai</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo'i</primary><secondary>as set counterpart of loi</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le'i</primary><secondary>as set counterpart of lei</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sets</primary><secondary>properties of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cardinality</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cardinality</primary><secondary>property of sets</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>membership</primary><secondary>property of sets</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>inclusion</primary><secondary>property of sets</secondary></indexterm> Sets have properties like cardinality (how many elements in the set), membership (the relationship between a set and its elements), and set inclusion (the relationship between two sets, one of which – the superset – contains all the elements of the other – the subset). The set descriptors
-
-
-
- <valsi>le'i</valsi>,
- <valsi>lo'i</valsi> and
- <valsi>la'i</valsi> correspond exactly to the mass descriptors
- <valsi>lei</valsi>,
- <valsi>loi</valsi>, and
- <valsi>lai</valsi> except that normally we talk of the whole of a set, not just part of it. Here are some examples contrasting
- <valsi>lo</valsi>,
- <valsi>loi</valsi>, and
- <valsi>lo'i</valsi>:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qL1E" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>rats are brown</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c6e4d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>lo ratcu cu bunre</jbo>
- <gloss>One-or-more-of-those-which-really-are rats are-brown.</gloss>
- <natlang>Some rats are brown.</natlang>
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qL2Y" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e4d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>loi ratcu cu cmalu</jbo>
- <gloss>Part-of-the-mass-of-those-which-really-are rats are-small.</gloss>
- <natlang>Rats are small.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo'i</primary><secondary>contrasted with lo and loi</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>loi</primary><secondary>contrasted with lo and lo'i</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo</primary><secondary>contrasted with loi and lo'i</secondary></indexterm></para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qL3V" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e4d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>lo'i ratcu cu barda</jbo>
- <gloss>The-set-of rats is-large.</gloss>
- <natlang>There are a lot of rats.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>The mass of rats is small because at least one rat is small; the mass of rats is also large; the set of rats, though, is unquestionably large – it has billions of members. The mass of rats is also brown, since some of its components are; but it would be incorrect to call the set of rats brown – brown-ness is not the sort of property that sets possess.</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sets</primary><secondary>use in Lojban place structure</secondary></indexterm> Lojban speakers should generally think twice before employing the set descriptors. However, certain predicates have places that require set sumti to fill them. For example, the place structure of
- <valsi>fadni</valsi> is:</para>
- <definition><content>x1 is ordinary/common/typical/usual in property x2 among the members of set x3</content></definition>
- <para>Why is it necessary for the x3 place of
- <valsi>fadni</valsi> to be a set? Because it makes no sense for an individual to be typical of another individual: an individual is typical of a group. In order to make sure that the bridi containing
- <valsi>fadni</valsi> is about an entire group, its x3 place must be filled with a set:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-xIXo">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>typical Lojban user</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c6e4d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi fadni zo'e lo'i lobypli</jbo>
- <gloss>I am-ordinary among the-set-of Lojban-users.</gloss>
- <natlang>I am a typical Lojban user.</natlang>
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>Note that the x2 place has been omitted; I am not specifying in exactly which way I am typical – whether in language knowledge, or age, or interests, or something else. If
- <valsi>lo'i</valsi> were changed to
- <valsi>lo</valsi> in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-xIXo"/>, the meaning would be something like
- <quote>I am typical of some Lojban user</quote>, which is nonsense.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-typicals">
- <title>Descriptors for typical objects</title>
-
- <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>lo'e</cmavo>
- <selmaho>LE</selmaho>
- <description>the typical</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>le'e</cmavo>
- <selmaho>LE</selmaho>
- <description>the stereotypical</description>
-
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
- <para>As promised in
- <xref linkend="section-masses"/>, Lojban has a method for discriminating between
- <quote>the lion</quote> who lives in Africa and
- <quote>the Englishman</quote> who, generally speaking, doesn't live in Africa even though some Englishmen do. The descriptor
- <valsi>lo'e</valsi> means
- <quote>the typical</quote>, as in</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-AJKt">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>lion in Africa</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c6e5d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>lo'e cinfo cu xabju le fi'ortu'a</jbo>
- <gloss>The-typical lion dwells-in the African-land.</gloss>
- <natlang>The lion dwells in Africa.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>typical objects</primary><secondary>and instantiation</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>typical objects</primary><secondary>determining characteristics of</secondary></indexterm> What is this
- <quote>typical lion</quote>? Surely it is not any particular lion, because no lion has all of the
- <quote>typical</quote> characteristics, and (worse yet) some characteristics that all real lions have can't be viewed as typical. For example, all real lions are either male or female, but it would be bizarre to suppose that the typical lion is either one. So the typical lion has no particular sex, but does have a color (golden brown), a residence (Africa), a diet (game), and so on. Likewise we can say that</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-8PoG">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>typical Englishman</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c6e5d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>lo'e glipre cu xabju le fi'ortu'a na.e le gligugde</jbo>
- <gloss>The-typical English-person dwells-in the African-land (Not!) and the English-country.</gloss>
- <natlang>The typical English person dwells not in Africa but in England.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le'i</primary><secondary>relationship to le'e</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le'e</primary><secondary>relationship to le'i</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo'i</primary><secondary>relationship to lo'e</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo'e</primary><secondary>relationship to lo'i</secondary></indexterm> The relationship between
- <jbophrase>lo'e cinfo</jbophrase> and
- <jbophrase>lo'i cinfo</jbophrase> may be explained thus: the typical lion is an imaginary lion-abstraction which best exemplifies the set of lions. There is a similar relationship between
- <valsi>le'e</valsi> and
- <valsi>le'i</valsi>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-D88V">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e5d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le'e xelso merko cu gusta ponse</jbo>
- <gloss>The-stereotypical Greek-type-of American is-a-restaurant-type-of owner.</gloss>
-
- <natlang>Lots of Greek-Americans own restaurants.</natlang>
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>stereotypical</primary><secondary>compared with typical</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>typical</primary><secondary>compared with stereotypical</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>stereotypical</primary><secondary>as not derogatory in Lojban</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>Greek-Americans own restaurants</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>stereotypical objects</primary></indexterm> Here we are concerned not with the actual set of Greek-Americans, but with the set of those the speaker has in mind, which is typified by one (real or imaginary) who owns a restaurant. The word
- <quote>stereotypical</quote> is often derogatory in English, but
-
- <valsi>le'e</valsi> need not be derogatory in Lojban: it simply suggests that the example is typical in the speaker's imagination rather than in some objectively agreed-upon way. Of course, different speakers may disagree about what the features of
- <quote>the typical lion</quote> are (some would include having a short intestine, whereas others would know nothing of lions' intestines), so the distinction between
- <jbophrase>lo'e cinfo</jbophrase> and
- <jbophrase>le'e cinfo</jbophrase> may be very fine.</para>
- <para>Furthermore,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-NVFy">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>Hollywood</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c6e5d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le'e skina cu se finti ne'i la xali,uyd.</jbo>
- <gloss>The-stereotypical movie is-invented in Hollywood.</gloss>
-
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>is probably true to an American, but might be false (not the stereotype) to someone living in India or Russia.</para>
- <para>
-
-<indexterm type="general"><primary>typical Smith</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
- <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>name equivalent for <quote>typical</quote></primary><secondary>rationale for lack of</secondary></indexterm> Note that there is no naming equivalent of
- <valsi>lo'e</valsi> and
- <valsi>le'e</valsi>, because there is no need, as a rule, for a
- <quote>typical George</quote> or a
- <quote>typical Smith</quote>. People or things who share a common name do not, in general, have any other common attributes worth mentioning.</para>
-
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-quantified-sumti">
- <title>Quantified sumti</title>
- <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ro</cmavo>
- <selmaho>PA</selmaho>
- <description>all of/each of</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>su'o</cmavo>
- <selmaho>PA</selmaho>
- <description>at least (one of)</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
- <para>Quantifiers tell us how many: in the case of quantifiers with sumti, how many things we are talking about. In Lojban, quantifiers are expressed by numbers and mathematical expressions: a large topic discussed in some detail in
-
- <xref linkend="chapter-mekso"/>. For the purposes of this chapter, a simplified treatment will suffice. Our examples will employ either the simple Lojban numbers
- <valsi>pa</valsi>,
- <valsi>re</valsi>,
- <valsi>ci</valsi>,
- <valsi>vo</valsi>, and
- <valsi>mu</valsi>, meaning
- <quote>one</quote>,
- <quote>two</quote>,
- <quote>three</quote>,
- <quote>four</quote>,
- <quote>five</quote> respectively, or else one of four special quantifiers, two of which are discussed in this section and listed above. These four quantifiers are important because every Lojban sumti has either one or two of them implicitly present in it – which one or two depends on the particular kind of sumti. There is more explanation of implicit quantifiers later in this section. (The other two quantifiers,
- <valsi>piro</valsi> and
- <valsi>pisu'o</valsi>, are explained in
-
- <xref linkend="section-quantified-descriptions"/>.)</para>
- <para>Every Lojban sumti may optionally be preceded by an explicit quantifier. The purpose of this quantifier is to specify how many of the things referred to by the sumti are being talked about. Here are some simple examples contrasting sumti with and without explicit quantifiers:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qL61" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e6d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>do cadzu le bisli</jbo>
- <gloss>You walk-on the ice.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLAH" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e6d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>re do cadzu le bisli</jbo>
- <gloss>Two-of you walk-on the ice.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>The difference between
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qL61"/> and
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLAH"/> is the presence of the explicit quantifier
- <valsi>re</valsi> in the latter example. Although
- <valsi>re</valsi> by itself means
- <quote>two</quote>, when used as a quantifier it means
- <quote>two-of</quote>. Out of the group of listeners (the number of which isn't stated), two (we are not told which ones) are asserted to be
- <quote>walkers on the ice</quote>. Implicitly, the others (if any) are not walkers on the ice. In Lojban, you cannot say
- <quote>I own three shoes</quote> if in fact you own four shoes. Numbers need never be specified, but if they are specified they must be correct.</para>
- <para>(This rule does not mean that there is no way to specify a number which is vague. The sentence</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gLpy">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e6d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi ponse su'o ci cutci</jbo>
- <gloss>I possess at-least three shoes.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>is true if you own three shoes, or four, or indeed any larger number. More details on vague numbers appear in the discussion of mathematical expressions in
-
-
- <xref linkend="chapter-mekso"/>.)</para>
- <para>Now consider
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qL61"/> again. How many of the listeners are claimed to walk on the ice? The answer turns out to be: all of them, however many that is. So
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qL61"/> and
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-0qr0"/>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-0qr0">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e6d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ro do cadzu le bisli</jbo>
- <gloss>All-of you walk-on the ice.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>as having implicit quantifiers</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>quantifiers</primary><secondary>with sumti</secondary></indexterm> turn out to mean exactly the same thing. This is a safe strategy, because if one of my listeners doesn't turn out to be walking on the ice, I can safely claim that I didn't intend that person to be a listener! And in fact, all of the personal pro-sumti such as
-
- <valsi>mi</valsi> and
- <valsi>mi'o</valsi> and
- <valsi>ko</valsi> obey the same rule. We say that personal pro-sumti have a so-called
-
- <quote>implicit quantifier</quote> of
- <valsi>ro</valsi> (all). This just means that if no quantifier is given explicitly, the meaning is the same as if the implicit quantifier had been used.</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>implicit quantifier</primary><secondary>on quotations</secondary><tertiary>discussion of</tertiary></indexterm> Not all sumti have
- <valsi>ro</valsi> as the implicit quantifier, however. Consider the quotation in:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3eMo">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e6d5"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi cusku lu do cadzu le bisli li'u</jbo>
- <gloss>I express [quote] you walk-on the ice [unquote].</gloss>
- <natlang>I say,
- <quote>You walk on the ice.</quote></natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>What is the implicit quantifier of the quotation
- <jbophrase>lu do cadzu le bisli li'u</jbophrase>? Surely not
- <valsi>ro</valsi>. If
- <valsi>ro</valsi> were supplied explicitly, thus:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-h4SJ">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e6d6"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi cusku ro lu do cadzu le bisli li'u</jbo>
- <natlang>I express all-of [quote] you walk-on the ice [unquote].</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>the meaning would be something like
- <quote>I say every occurrence of the sentence 'You walk on the ice'</quote>. Of course I don't say every occurrence of it, only some occurrences. One might suppose that
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-3eMo"/> means that I express exactly one occurrence, but it is more Lojbanic to leave the number unspecified, as with other sumti. We can say definitely, however, that I say it at least once.</para>
- <para>The Lojban cmavo meaning
- <quote>at least</quote> is
- <valsi>su'o</valsi>, and if no ordinary number follows,
- <valsi>su'o</valsi> means
- <quote>at least once</quote>. (See
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-gLpy"/> for the use of
- <valsi>su'o</valsi> with an ordinary number). Therefore, the explicitly quantified version of
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-3eMo"/> is</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>implicit quantifier</primary><secondary>for quotations</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>quotations</primary><secondary>implicit quantifier for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>su'o</primary><secondary>as implicit quantifier for quotations</secondary></indexterm></para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-P558">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e6d7"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi cusku su'o lu do cadzu le bisli li'u</jbo>
- <gloss>I express at-least-one-of [quote] you walk-on the ice [unquote].</gloss>
- <gloss>I say one or more instances of
- <quote>You walk on the ice</quote>.</gloss>
- <natlang>I say
- <quote>You walk on the ice</quote>.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>If an explicit ordinary number such as
- <valsi>re</valsi> were to appear, it would have to convey an exact expression, so</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-59dF">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e6d8"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi cusku re lu do cadzu le bisli li'u</jbo>
- <gloss>I express two-of [quote] you walk-on the ice [unquote].</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>means that I say the sentence exactly twice, neither more nor less.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-quantified-descriptions">
- <title>Quantified descriptions</title>
- <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>piro</cmavo>
- <selmaho>PA</selmaho>
- <description>the whole of</description>
- <cmavo>pisu'o</cmavo>
- <selmaho>PA</selmaho>
- <description>a part of</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>quantification</primary><secondary>before description sumti compared with before non-description sumti</secondary></indexterm> Like other sumti, descriptions can be quantified. When a quantifier appears before a description, it has the same meaning as one appearing before a non-description sumti: it specifies how many things, of all those referred to by the description, are being talked about in this particular bridi. Suppose that context tells us that
- <jbophrase>le gerku</jbophrase> refers to three dogs. Then we can say that exactly two of them are white as follows:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-WtUh">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>two dogs are white</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c6e7d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>re le gerku cu blabi</jbo>
- <gloss>Two-of the dogs are-white.</gloss>
- <natlang>Two of the dogs are white.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>inner quantifier</primary><secondary>effect of on meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>outer quantifier</primary><secondary>effect of on meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>inner quantifier</primary><secondary>contrasted with outer quantifier</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>outer quantifier</primary><secondary>contrasted with inner quantifier</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>inner quantifier</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>outer quantifier</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> When discussing descriptions, this ordinary quantifier is called an
- <quote>outer quantifier</quote>, since it appears outside the description. But there is another possible location for a quantifier: between the descriptor and the selbri. This quantifier is called an
- <quote>inner quantifier</quote>, and its meaning is quite different: it tells the listener how many objects the description selbri characterizes.</para>
- <para>For example, the context of
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-WtUh"/> supposedly told us that
- <jbophrase>le gerku</jbophrase> referred to some three specific dogs. This assumption can be made certain with the use of an explicit inner quantifier:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-X3iY">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e7d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>re le ci gerku cu blabi</jbo>
- <gloss>Two-of the three dogs are-white.</gloss>
- <natlang>Two of the three dogs are white.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>(As explained in the discussion of
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-gLpy"/>, simple numbers like those in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-X3iY"/> must be exact: it therefore follows that the third dog cannot be white.)</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>inner quantifier</primary><secondary>explicit</secondary></indexterm> You may also specify an explicit inner quantifier and leave the outer quantifier implicit:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-JxzV">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e7d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le ci gerku cu blabi</jbo>
- <gloss>The three dogs are-white.</gloss>
- <natlang>The three dogs are white.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>outer quantifier</primary><secondary>implicit on descriptors</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>inner quantifier</primary><secondary>implicit on descriptors</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>descriptors</primary><secondary>implicit quantifiers for</secondary></indexterm> There are rules for each of the 11 descriptors specifying what the implicit values for the inner and outer quantifiers are. They are meant to provide sensible default values when context is absent, not necessarily to prescribe hard and fast rules. The following table lists the implicit values:</para>
-
- <informaltable>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>le</valsi>:</td>
- <td><jbophrase>ro le su'o</jbophrase></td>
- <td>all of the at-least-one described as</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>lo</valsi>:</td>
- <td><jbophrase>su'o lo ro</jbophrase></td>
- <td>at least one of all of those which really are</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>la</valsi>:</td>
- <td><jbophrase>ro la su'o</jbophrase></td>
- <td>all of the at least one named</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>lei</valsi>:</td>
- <td><jbophrase>pisu'o lei su'o</jbophrase></td>
- <td>some part of the mass of the at-least-one described as</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>loi</valsi>:</td>
- <td><jbophrase>pisu'o loi ro</jbophrase></td>
- <td>some part of the mass of all those that really are</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>lai</valsi>:</td>
- <td><jbophrase>pisu'o lai su'o</jbophrase></td>
- <td>some part of the mass of the at-least-one named</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>le'i</valsi>:</td>
- <td><jbophrase>piro le'i su'o</jbophrase></td>
- <td>the whole of the set of the at-least-one described as</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>lo'i</valsi>:</td>
- <td><jbophrase>piro lo'i ro</jbophrase></td>
- <td>the whole of the set of all those that really are</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>la'i</valsi>:</td>
- <td><jbophrase>piro la'i su'o</jbophrase></td>
- <td>the whole of the set of the at-least-one named</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>le'e</valsi>:</td>
- <td><jbophrase>ro le'e su'o</jbophrase></td>
- <td>all the stereotypes of the at-least-one described as</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td><valsi>lo'e</valsi>:</td>
- <td><jbophrase>su'o lo'e ro</jbophrase></td>
- <td>at least one of the types of all those that really are</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le-series cmavo</primary><secondary>as encompassing le-series and la-series descriptors for quantification discussion</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le-series cmavo</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>la-series descriptors</primary><secondary>compared with le-series in implicit quantification</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le-series descriptors</primary><secondary>compared with la-series in implicit quantification</secondary></indexterm> When examined for the first time, this table looks dreadfully arbitrary. In fact, there are quite a few regularities in it. First of all, the la-series (that is, the descriptors
- <valsi>la</valsi>,
- <valsi>lai</valsi>, and
- <valsi>la'i</valsi>) and the le-series (that is, the descriptors
- <valsi>le</valsi>,
- <valsi>lei</valsi>,
- <valsi>le'i</valsi>, and
- <valsi>le'e</valsi>) always have corresponding implicit quantifiers, so we may subsume the la-series under the le-series for the rest of this discussion:
- <quote>le-series cmavo</quote> will refer to both the le-series proper and to the la-series.</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le-series cmavo</primary><secondary>rule for implicit inner quantifier</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo-series cmavo</primary><secondary>rule for implicit inner quantifier</secondary></indexterm> The rule for the inner quantifier is very simple: the lo-series cmavo (namely,
-
- <valsi>lo</valsi>,
- <valsi>loi</valsi>,
- <valsi>lo'i</valsi>, and
- <valsi>lo'e</valsi>) all have an implicit inner quantifier of
- <valsi>ro</valsi>, whereas the le-series cmavo all have an implicit inner quantifier of
-
- <valsi>su'o</valsi>.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le-series cmavo</primary><secondary>rationale for implicit inner quantifier</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo-series cmavo</primary><secondary>rationale for implicit inner quantifier</secondary></indexterm> Why? Because lo-series descriptors always refer to all of the things which really fit into the x1 place of the selbri. They are not restricted by the speaker's intention. Descriptors of the le-series, however, are so restricted, and therefore talk about some number, definite or indefinite, of objects the speaker has in mind – but never less than one.</para>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>masses</primary><secondary>rule for implicit outer quantifier</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sets</primary><secondary>rule for implicit outer quantifier</secondary></indexterm> Understanding the implicit outer quantifier requires rules of greater subtlety. In the case of mass and set descriptors, a single rule suffices for each: reference to a mass is implicitly a reference to some part of the mass; reference to a set is implicitly a reference to the whole set. Masses and sets are inherently singular objects: it makes no sense to talk about two distinct masses with the same components, or two distinct sets with the same members. Therefore, the largest possible outer quantifier for either a set description or a mass description is
- <valsi>piro</valsi>, the whole of it.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>plural masses</primary><secondary>possible use for</secondary></indexterm> (Pedantically, it is possible that the mass of water molecules composing an ice cube might be thought of as different from the same mass of water molecules in liquid form, in which case we might talk about
- <jbophrase>re lei djacu</jbophrase>, two masses of the water-bits I have in mind.)</para>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pisu'o</primary><secondary>explanation of meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>piro</primary><secondary>explanation of meaning</secondary></indexterm> Why
- <quote><valsi>pi</valsi>-</quote>? It is the Lojban cmavo for the decimal point. Just as
-
- <jbophrase>pimu</jbophrase> means
- <quote><inlinemath>.5</inlinemath></quote>, and when used as a quantifier specifies a portion consisting of five tenths of a thing,
- <valsi>piro</valsi> means a portion consisting of the all-ness – the entirety – of a thing. Similarly,
- <valsi>pisu'o</valsi> specifies a portion consisting of at least one part of a thing, i.e. some of it.</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>portion</primary><secondary>on set contrasted with on individual</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>outer quantifiers</primary><secondary>for expressing subsets</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>subsets</primary><secondary>expressing with outer quantifiers</secondary></indexterm> Smaller quantifiers are possible for sets, and refer to subsets. Thus
-
- <jbophrase>pimu le'i nanmu</jbophrase> is a subset of the set of men I have in mind; we don't know precisely which elements make up this subset, but it must have half the size of the full set. This is the best way to say
- <quote>half of the men</quote>; saying
- <jbophrase>pimu le nanmu</jbophrase> would give us a half-portion of one of them instead! Of course, the result of
- <jbophrase>pimu le'i nanmu</jbophrase> is still a set; if you need to refer to the individuals of the subset, you must say so (see
- <valsi>lu'a</valsi> in
-
- <xref linkend="section-sumti-qualifiers"/>).</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo</primary><secondary>implicit outer quantifier for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le</primary><secondary>implicit outer quantifier for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>individual descriptors</primary><secondary>different implicit outer quantifiers among</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>outer quantifiers</primary><secondary>rationale for differences in implicit quantifier on descriptors</secondary></indexterm> The case of outer quantifiers for individual descriptors (including
- <valsi>le</valsi>,
- <valsi>lo</valsi>,
- <valsi>la</valsi>, and the typical descriptors
- <valsi>le'e</valsi> and
- <valsi>lo'e</valsi>) is special. When we refer to specific individuals with
- <valsi>le</valsi>, we mean to refer to all of those we have in mind, so
- <valsi>ro</valsi> is appropriate as the implicit quantifier, just as it is appropriate for
- <valsi>do</valsi>. Reference to non-specific individuals with
- <valsi>lo</valsi>, however, is typically to only some of the objects which can be correctly described, and so
- <valsi>su'o</valsi> is the appropriate implicit quantifier, just as for quotations.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo</primary><secondary>contrasted with le in implicit quantification</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>le</primary><secondary>contrasted with lo in implicit quantification</secondary></indexterm> From the English-speaking point of view, the difference in structure between the following example using
- <valsi>le</valsi>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-f643">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e7d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>[ro] le ci gerku cu blabi</jbo>
- <gloss>[All-of] those-described-as three dogs are-white.</gloss>
- <natlang>The three dogs are white.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>and the corresponding form with
- <valsi>lo</valsi>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gr7Y">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e7d5"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ci lo [ro] gerku cu blabi</jbo>
- <gloss>Three-of those-which-are [all] dogs are-white.</gloss>
- <natlang>Three dogs are white.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>looks very peculiar. Why is the number
- <valsi>ci</valsi> found as an inner quantifier in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-f643"/> and as an outer quantifier in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-gr7Y"/>? The number of dogs is the same in either case. The answer is that the
- <valsi>ci</valsi> in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-f643"/> is part of the specification: it tells us the actual number of dogs in the group that the speaker has in mind. In
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-gr7Y"/>, however, the dogs referred to by
- <jbophrase>... lo gerku</jbophrase> are all the dogs that exist: the outer quantifier then restricts the number to three; which three, we cannot tell. The implicit quantifiers are chosen to avoid claiming too much or too little: in the case of
- <valsi>le</valsi>, the implicit outer quantifier
- <valsi>ro</valsi> says that each of the dogs in the restricted group is white; in the case of
- <valsi>lo</valsi>, the implicit inner quantifier simply says that three dogs, chosen from the group of all the dogs there are, are white.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo-series description</primary><secondary>caution on exact numbers as inner quantifiers on</secondary></indexterm> Using exact numbers as inner quantifiers in lo-series descriptions is dangerous, because you are stating that exactly that many things exist which really fit the description. So examples like</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-uYH4">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e7d6"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>[so'o] lo ci gerku cu blabi</jbo>
-
- <gloss>[some-of] those-which-really-are three dogs are-white</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>are semantically anomalous;
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-uYH4"/> claims that some dog (or dogs) is white, but also that there are just three dogs in the universe!</para>
- <para>Nevertheless, inner quantifiers are permitted on
- <valsi>lo</valsi> descriptors for consistency's sake, and may occasionally be useful.</para>
- <para>Note that the inner quantifier of
- <valsi>le</valsi>, even when exact, need not be truthful:
- <jbophrase>le ci nanmu</jbophrase> means
- <quote>what I describe as three men</quote>, not
- <quote>three of what I describe as men</quote>. This follows from the rule that what is described by a
- <valsi>le</valsi> description represents the speaker's viewpoint rather than the objective way things are.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-indefinite-descriptions">
- <title>Indefinite descriptions</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>descriptors</primary><secondary>omission of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lo</primary><secondary>omission of</secondary></indexterm> By a quirk of Lojban syntax, it is possible to omit the descriptor
- <valsi>lo</valsi>, but never any other descriptor, from a description like that of
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-gr7Y"/>; namely, one which has an explicit outer quantifier but no explicit inner quantifier. The following example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-EsVd">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e8d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ci gerku [ku] cu blabi</jbo>
- <natlang>Three dogs are white.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>indefinite description</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>omission of descriptor</primary><secondary>effect on ku</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ku</primary><secondary>effect on of omitting descriptor</secondary></indexterm> is equivalent in meaning to
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-gr7Y"/>. Even though the descriptor is not present, the elidable terminator
- <valsi>ku</valsi> may still be used. The name
- <quote>indefinite description</quote> for this syntactic form is historically based: of course, it is no more and no less indefinite than its counterpart with an explicit
-
-
- <valsi>lo</valsi>. Indefinite descriptions were introduced into the language in order to imitate the syntax of English and other natural languages.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>inner quantifier</primary><secondary>in indefinite description</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>outer quantifier</primary><secondary>in indefinite description</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>indefinite description</primary><secondary>as prohibiting explicit inner quantifier</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>indefinite description</primary><secondary>as needing explicit outer quantifier</secondary></indexterm> Indefinite descriptions must fit this mold exactly: there is no way to make one which does not have an explicit outer quantifier (thus
- <jbophrase valid="false">*gerku cu blabi</jbophrase> is ungrammatical), or which has an explicit inner quantifier (thus
- <jbophrase valid="false">*reboi ci gerku cu blabi</jbophrase> is also ungrammatical –
- <jbophrase>re ci gerku cu blabi</jbophrase> is fine, but means
- <quote>23 dogs are white</quote>).</para>
- <para>Note:
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-gLpy"/> also contains an indefinite description, namely
-
-
- <jbophrase>su'o ci cutci</jbophrase>; another version of that example using an explicit
- <valsi>lo</valsi> would be:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-SMvA">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e8d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi ponse su'o ci lo cutci</jbo>
- <gloss>I possess at-least three things-which-really-are shoes</gloss>
- <natlang>I own three (or more) shoes.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-sumti-based-descriptions">
- <title>sumti-based descriptions</title>
- <para>As stated in
- <xref linkend="section-basic-descriptors"/>, most descriptions consist of just a descriptor and a selbri. (In this chapter, the selbri have always been single gismu, but of course any selbri, however complex, can be employed in a description. The syntax and semantics of selbri are explained in
- <xref linkend="chapter-selbri"/>.) In the intervening sections, inner and outer quantifiers have been added to the syntax. Now it is time to discuss a description of a radically different kind: the sumti-based description.</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti-based description</primary><secondary>outer quantifier on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti-based description</primary><secondary>inner quantifier on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti-based description</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> A sumti-based description has a sumti where the selbri would normally be, and the inner quantifier is required – it cannot be implicit. An outer quantifier is permitted but not required.</para>
-
- <para>A full theory of sumti-based descriptions has yet to be worked out. One common case, however, is well understood. Compare the following:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLaQ" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>the two of you</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c6e9d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>re do cu nanmu</jbo>
- <gloss>Two-of you are-men.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLAr" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e9d2"/>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>the two of you</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le re do cu nanmu</jbo>
- <gloss>The two-of you are men.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLaQ"/> simply specifies that of the group of listeners, size unknown, two are men.
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLAr"/>, which has the sumti-based description
-
- <jbophrase>le re do</jbophrase>, says that of the two listeners, all (the implicit outer quantifier
- <valsi>ro</valsi>) are men. So in effect the inner quantifier
- <valsi>re</valsi> gives the number of individuals which the inner sumti
-
- <valsi>do</valsi> refers to.</para>
- <para>Here is another group of examples:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLbf" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>three bears</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c6e9d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>re le ci cribe cu bunre</jbo>
- <gloss>Two-of the three bears are-brown.</gloss>
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLbh" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e9d4"/>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>three bears</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le re le ci cribe cu bunre</jbo>
- <gloss>The two-of the three bears are-brown.</gloss>
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLBq" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e9d5"/>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>three bears</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>pa le re le ci cribe cu bunre</jbo>
- <gloss>One-of the two-of the three bears are-brown.</gloss>
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti-based descriptions with le</primary><secondary>as increasing restricting to in-mind</secondary></indexterm> In each case,
- <jbophrase>le ci cribe</jbophrase> restricts the bears (or alleged bears) being talked of to some group of three which the speaker has in mind.
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLbf"/> says that two of them (which two is not stated) are brown.
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLbh"/> says that a specific pair of them are brown.
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLBq"/> says that of a specific pair chosen from the original three, one or the other of that pair is brown.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-sumti-qualifiers">
- <title>sumti qualifiers</title>
- <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti qualifiers</primary><secondary>list of</secondary></indexterm></para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>la'e</cmavo>
- <selmaho>LAhE</selmaho>
- <description>something referred to by</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>lu'e</cmavo>
- <selmaho>LAhE</selmaho>
- <description>a reference to</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>tu'a</cmavo>
- <selmaho>LAhE</selmaho>
- <description>an abstraction involving</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>lu'a</cmavo>
- <selmaho>LAhE</selmaho>
- <description>an individual/member/component of</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>lu'i</cmavo>
- <selmaho>LAhE</selmaho>
- <description>a set formed from</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>lu'o</cmavo>
- <selmaho>LAhE</selmaho>
- <description>a mass formed from</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>vu'i</cmavo>
- <selmaho>LAhE</selmaho>
- <description>a sequence formed from</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>na'ebo</cmavo>
- <selmaho>NAhE+BO</selmaho>
- <description>something other than</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>to'ebo</cmavo>
- <selmaho>NAhE+BO</selmaho>
- <description>the opposite of</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>no'ebo</cmavo>
- <selmaho>NAhE+BO</selmaho>
- <description>the neutral form of</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>je'abo</cmavo>
- <selmaho>NAhE+BO</selmaho>
- <description>that which indeed is</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>lu'u</cmavo>
- <selmaho>LUhU</selmaho>
- <description>elidable terminator for LAhE and NAhE+BO</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
- <para>Well, that's quite a list of cmavo. What are they all about?</para>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lu'u</primary><secondary>as elidable terminator for qualified sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti qualifiers</primary><secondary>elidable terminator for qualified sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti qualifiers</primary><secondary>external syntax of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti qualifiers</primary><secondary>internal syntax of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>NAhE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>LAhE selma'o</primary></indexterm> The above cmavo and compound cmavo are called the
- <quote>sumti qualifiers</quote>. All of them are either single cmavo of selma'o LAhE, or else compound cmavo involving a scalar negation cmavo of selma'o NAhE immediately followed by
-
- <valsi>bo</valsi> of selma'o BO. Syntactically, you can prefix a sumti qualifier to any sumti and produce another simple sumti. (You may need to add the elidable terminator
-
- <valsi>lu'u</valsi> to show where the qualified sumti ends.)</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti qualifiers</primary><secondary>as short forms for common special cases</secondary></indexterm> Semantically, sumti qualifiers represent short forms of certain common special cases. Suppose you want to say
- <quote>I see 'The Red Pony'</quote>, where
-
- <quote>The Red Pony</quote> is the title of a book. How about:</para>
-
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>unqualified sumti</primary><secondary>contrasted with qualified sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>qualified sumti</primary><secondary>contrasted with unqualified sumti</secondary></indexterm></para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-6W3v">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>Red Pony</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c6e10d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi viska lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u</jbo>
- <gloss>I see [quote] the red small-horse [unquote].</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>But
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-6W3v"/> doesn't work: it says that you see a piece of text
- <quote>The Red Pony</quote>. That might be all right if you were looking at the cover of the book, where the words
-
- <quote>The Red Pony</quote> are presumably written. (More precisely, where the words
-
- <jbophrase>le xunre cmaxirma</jbophrase> are written – but we may suppose the book has been translated into Lojban.)</para>
- <para>What you really want to say is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-MSVK">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e10d2"/>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>Red Pony</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi viska le selsinxa be lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u</jbo>
- <gloss>I see the thing-represented-by [quote] the red small-horse [unquote].</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>The x2 place of
- <jbophrase>selsinxa</jbophrase> (the x1 place of
- <valsi>sinxa</valsi>) is a sign or symbol, and the x1 place of
- <jbophrase>selsinxa</jbophrase> (the x2 place of
- <valsi>sinxa</valsi>) is the thing represented by the sign.
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-MSVK"/> allows us to use a symbol (namely the title of a book) to represent the thing it is a symbol of (namely the book itself).</para>
- <para>This operation turns out to be needed often enough that it's useful to be able to say:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Ajty">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e10d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi viska la'e lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u [lu'u]</jbo>
-
-
- <gloss>I see the-referent-of [quote] the red small-horse [unquote].</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>referent</primary><secondary>referring to with la'e</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>la'e</primary><secondary>effect of on meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>dereferencing a pointer</primary><secondary>with la'e</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>la'e</primary><secondary>as short for <jbophrase>le selsinxa be</jbophrase></secondary></indexterm> So when
- <valsi>la'e</valsi> is prefixed to a sumti referring to a symbol, it produces a sumti referring to the referent of that symbol. (In computer jargon,
-
- <valsi>la'e</valsi> dereferences a pointer.)</para>
- <para>By introducing a sumti qualifier, we correct a false sentence (
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-6W3v"/>), which too closely resembles its literal English equivalent, into a true sentence (
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-Ajty"/>), without having to change it overmuch; in particular, the structure remains the same. Most of the uses of sumti qualifiers are of this general kind.</para>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>symbol</primary><secondary>referring to with lu'e</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lu'e</primary><secondary>effect of on meaning</secondary></indexterm> The sumti qualifier
- <valsi>lu'e</valsi> provides the converse operation: it can be prefixed to a sumti referring to some thing to produce a sumti referring to a sign or symbol for the thing. For example,</para>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lu'e</primary><secondary>as short for <jbophrase>le sinxa be</jbophrase></secondary></indexterm></para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7ytm">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>title of book</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c6e10d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi pu cusku lu'e le vi cukta</jbo>
- <gloss>I [past] express a-symbol-for the nearby book.</gloss>
- <natlang>I said the title of this book.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>The equivalent form not using a sumti qualifier would be:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-aC9Q">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e10d5"/>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>title of book</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi pu cusku le sinxa be le vi cukta</jbo>
- <gloss>I [past] express the symbol-for the nearby book.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>which is equivalent to
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-7ytm"/>, but longer.</para>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sequence</primary><secondary>contrasted with set</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vu'i</primary><secondary>use for creating sequence</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tu'a</primary><secondary>use for forming abstractions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vu'i</primary><secondary>effect of on meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lu'o</primary><secondary>effect of on meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lu'i</primary><secondary>effect of on meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lu'a</primary><secondary>effect of on meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tu'a</primary><secondary>effect of on meaning</secondary></indexterm> The other sumti qualifiers follow the same rules. The cmavo
- <valsi>tu'a</valsi> is used in forming abstractions, and is explained more fully in
- <xref linkend="section-events-and-contours"/>. The triplet
- <valsi>lu'a</valsi>,
-
- <valsi>lu'i</valsi>, and
-
- <valsi>lu'o</valsi> convert between individuals, sets, and masses;
-
- <valsi>vu'i</valsi> belongs to this group as well, but creates a sequence, which is similar to a set but has a definite order. (The set of John and Charles is the same as the set of Charles and John, but the sequences are different.) Here are some examples:</para>
-
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ioCu">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e10d6"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi troci tu'a le vorme</jbo>
- <gloss>I try some-abstraction-about the door.</gloss>
- <natlang>I try (to open) the door.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tu'a</primary><secondary>as being deliberately vague</secondary></indexterm>
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-ioCu"/> might mean that I try to do something else involving the door; the form is deliberately vague.</para>
- <para>Most of the following examples make use of the cmavo
- <valsi>ri</valsi>, belonging to selma'o KOhA. This cmavo means
- <quote>the thing last mentioned</quote>; it is equivalent to repeating the immediately previous sumti (but in its original context). It is explained in more detail in
- <xref linkend="section-ri-gohi-series"/>.</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLbv" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>set of rats</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c6e10d7"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>lo'i ratcu cu barda .iku'i lu'a ri cmalu</jbo>
-
- <gloss>The-set-of rats is-large. But some-members-of it-last-mentioned is-small.</gloss>
- <natlang>The set of rats is large, but some of its members are small.</natlang>
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLCP" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e10d8"/>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>set of rats</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>lo ratcu cu cmalu .iku'i lu'i ri barda</jbo>
-
- <gloss>Some rats are-small. But the-set-of them-last-mentioned is-large.</gloss>
- <natlang>Some rats are small, but the set of rats is large.</natlang>
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLcy" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e10d9"/>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>set of rats</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi ce do girzu .i lu'o ri gunma .i vu'i ri porsi</jbo>
- <gloss>I in-a-set-with you are-a-set. The-mass-of it-last-mentioned is-a-mass. The-sequence-of it-last-mentioned is-a-sequence</gloss>
- <natlang>The set of you and me is a set. The mass of you and me is a mass. The sequence of you and me is a sequence.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>(Yes, I know these examples are a bit silly. This set was introduced for completeness, and practical examples are as yet hard to come by.)</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>negation sumti qualifiers</primary><secondary>meanings of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti qualifiers</primary><secondary>for negation</secondary></indexterm> Finally, the four sumti qualifiers formed from a cmavo of NAhE and
- <valsi>bo</valsi> are all concerned with negation, which is discussed in detail in
- <xref linkend="chapter-negation"/>. Here are a few examples of negation sumti qualifiers:</para>
-
- <para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4Mte">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e10d10"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi viska na'ebo le gerku</jbo>
-
- <gloss>I see something-other-than the dog.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- </para>
- <para>This compound,
- <jbophrase>na'ebo</jbophrase>, is the most common of the four negation sumti qualifiers. The others usually only make sense in the context of repeating, with modifications, something already referred to:</para>
-
-
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-JwCb">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>lukewarm food</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c6e10d11"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi nelci loi glare cidja .ije do nelci to'ebo ri .ije la djein. nelci no'ebo ra</jbo>
- <gloss>I like part-of-the-mass-of hot-type-of food. And you like the-opposite-of the-last-mentioned. And Jane likes the-neutral-value-of something-mentioned.</gloss>
- <natlang>I like hot food, and you like cold food, and Jane likes lukewarm food.</natlang>
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>(In
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-JwCb"/>, the sumti
- <valsi>ra</valsi> refers to some previously mentioned sumti other than that referred to by
- <valsi>ri</valsi>. We cannot use
- <valsi>ri</valsi> here, because it would signify
- <jbophrase>la djein.</jbophrase>, that being the most recent sumti available to
- <valsi>ri</valsi>. See more detailed explanations in
- <xref linkend="section-ri-gohi-series"/>.)</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-vocative-syntax">
- <title>The syntax of vocative phrases</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vocative phrases</primary><secondary>as a <quote>free modifier</quote></secondary></indexterm> Vocative phrases are not sumti, but are explained in this chapter because their syntax is very similar to that of sumti. Grammatically, a vocative phrase is one of the so-called
-
- <quote>free modifiers</quote> of Lojban, along with subscripts, parentheses, and various other constructs explained in
-
- <xref linkend="chapter-structure"/>. They can be placed after many, but not all, constructions of the grammar: in general, after any elidable terminator (which, however, must not then be elided!), at the beginnings and ends of sentences, and in many other places.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vocative phrase</primary><secondary>purpose of</secondary></indexterm> The purpose of a vocative phrase is to indicate who is being addressed, or to indicate to that person that he or she ought to be listening. A vocative phrase begins with a cmavo of selma'o COI or DOI, all of which are explained in more detail in
-
- <xref linkend="section-vocative-scales"/>. Sometimes that is all there is to the phrase:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLE3" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e11d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>coi</jbo>
- <gloss>[greetings]</gloss>
- <natlang>Hello.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLeB" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e11d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>je'e</jbo>
-
- <gloss>[acknowledgement]</gloss>
- <natlang>Uh-huh.</natlang>
- <natlang>Roger!</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vocative word</primary><secondary>phrase following</secondary></indexterm> In these cases, the person being addressed is obvious from the context. However, a vocative word (more precisely, one or more cmavo of COI, possibly followed by
- <valsi>doi</valsi>, or else just
- <valsi>doi</valsi> by itself) can be followed by one of several kinds of phrases, all of which are intended to indicate the addressee. The most common case is a name:</para>
- <para> <!-- FIXME: this indexterm isn't tagged alone --><indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>coi</primary></indexterm></para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Bega">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e11d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>coi. djan.</jbo>
- <natlang>Hello, John.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>A pause is required (for morphological reasons) between a member of COI and a name. You can use
- <valsi>doi</valsi> instead of a pause:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-QmzB">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e11d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>coi doi djan.</jbo>
- <natlang>Hello, John.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> means exactly the same thing and does not require a pause. Using
- <valsi>doi</valsi> by itself is like just saying someone's name to attract his or her attention:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ULHn">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e11d5"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>doi djan.</jbo>
- <natlang>John!</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vocative phrase</primary><secondary>implicit descriptor on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vocative phrase</primary><secondary>with sumti without descriptor</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vocative phrase</primary><secondary>forms of</secondary></indexterm> In place of a name, a description may appear, lacking its descriptor, which is understood to be
- <valsi>le</valsi>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-V530">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e11d6"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>coi xunre pastu nixli</jbo>
- <gloss>Hello, (red-type-of dress)-type-of girl.</gloss>
- <natlang>Hello, girl with the red dress!</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vocative phrase</primary><secondary>explicit quantifiers prohibited on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vocative phrase</primary><secondary>implicit quantifiers on</secondary></indexterm> The listener need not really be a
- <jbophrase>xunre pastu nixli</jbophrase>, as long as she understands herself correctly from the description. (Actually, only a bare selbri can appear; explicit quantifiers are forbidden in this form of vocative, so the implicit quantifiers
- <jbophrase>su'o le ro</jbophrase> are in effect.)</para>
- <para>Finally, a complete sumti may be used, the most general case.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-tBTa">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e11d7"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>co'o la bab. .e la noras.</jbo>
- <natlang>Goodbye, Bob and Nora.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vocative phrase</primary><secondary>with complete sumti</secondary></indexterm>
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-V530"/> is thus the same as:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3Qac">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e11d8"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>coi le xunre pastu nixli</jbo>
- <gloss>Hello, the-one-described-as red-dress girl!</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>and
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-ULHn"/> is the same as:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-bx2C">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e11d9"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>doi la djan.</jbo>
- <gloss>The-one-named John!</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vocative phrase terminator</primary><secondary>elidability of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vocative phrase</primary><secondary>elidable terminator for</secondary></indexterm> Finally, the elidable terminator for vocative phrases is
- <valsi>do'u</valsi> (of selma'o DOhU), which is rarely needed except when a simple vocative word is being placed somewhere within a bridi. It may also be required when a vocative is placed between a sumti and its relative clause, or when there are a sequence of so-called
-
- <quote>free modifiers</quote> (vocatives, subscripts, utterance ordinals – see
- <xref linkend="chapter-mekso"/> – metalinguistic comments – see
- <xref linkend="section-parentheses"/> – or reciprocals – see
- <xref linkend="chapter-structure"/>) which must be properly separated.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vocative phrase</primary><secondary>effect of position on meaning</secondary></indexterm> The meaning of a vocative phrase that is within a sentence is not affected by its position in the sentence: thus
-
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-bx2C"/> and
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLFi"/> mean the same thing:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLFi" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e11d10"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>doi djan. ko klama mi</jbo>
- <natlang>John, come to me!</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLGC" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e11d11"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ko klama mi doi djan.</jbo>
- <natlang>Come to me, John!</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>As usual for this chapter, the full syntax of vocative phrases has not been explained: relative clauses, discussed in
- <xref linkend="chapter-relative-clauses"/>, make for more possibilities.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-names">
- <title>Lojban names</title>
- <para>Names have been used freely as sumti throughout this chapter without too much explanation. The time for the explanation has now come.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>name words</primary><secondary>recognition of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>two kinds of</secondary></indexterm> First of all, there are two different kinds of things usually called
- <quote>names</quote> when talking about Lojban. The naming predicates of
- <xref linkend="section-basic-descriptors"/> are just ordinary predicates which are being used in a special sense. In addition, though, there is a class of Lojban words which are used only to name things: these can be recognized by the fact that they end in a consonant followed by a pause. Some examples:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-u0zY">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e12d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>djan. meris. djein. .alis.</jbo>
- <natlang>John. Mary. Jane. Alice.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>(Note that
- <cmevla>.alis.</cmevla> begins as well as ends with a pause, because all Lojban words beginning with a vowel must be preceded by a pause. See
- <xref linkend="chapter-morphology"/> for more information.)</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>with LA descriptor</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>in vocative phrase</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>uses of</secondary></indexterm> Names of this kind have two basic uses in Lojban: when used in a vocative phrase (see
-
- <xref linkend="section-vocative-syntax"/>) they indicate who the listener is or should be. When used with a descriptor of selma'o LA, namely
- <valsi>la</valsi>,
- <valsi>lai</valsi>, or
- <valsi>la'i</valsi>, they form sumti which refer to the persons or things known by the name.</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLgw" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e12d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la djonz. klama le zarci</jbo>
- <gloss>Jones goes to-the store.</gloss>
- <natlang>The Joneses go to-the store.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLHn" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e12d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>lai djonz. klama le zarci</jbo>
- <gloss>The-mass-of Joneses go to-the store.</gloss>
- <natlang>The Joneses go to the store.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>In
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLgw"/>, the significance is that all the persons (perhaps only one) I mean to refer to by the name
- <cmevla>djonz.</cmevla> are going to the store. In
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLHn"/>, the Joneses are massified, and only some part of them needs to be going. Of course, by
- <cmevla>djonz.</cmevla> I can mean whomever I want: that person need not use the name
- <cmevla>djonz.</cmevla> at all.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>LA selma'o</primary><secondary>contrasted with LE in use of name-words</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>LE selma'o</primary><secondary>contrasted with LA in use of name-words</secondary></indexterm> The sumti in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLgw"/> and
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLHn"/> operate exactly like the similar uses of
- <valsi>la</valsi> and
- <valsi>lai</valsi> in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-PrGp"/> and
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-H8z5"/> respectively. The only difference is that these descriptors are followed by Lojban name-words. And in fact, the only difference between descriptors of selma'o LA (these three) and of selma'o LE (all the other descriptors) is that the former can be followed by name-words, whereas the latter cannot.</para>
-
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>doi</primary><secondary>effect on necessity for pause before name-word</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>LA selma'o</primary><secondary>effect on necessity for pause before name-word</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>name-words</primary><secondary>pause requirements before</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>name-words</primary><secondary>limitations on</secondary></indexterm> There are certain limitations on the form of name-words in Lojban. In particular, they cannot contain the letter-sequences (or sound-sequences)
-
- <valsi>la</valsi>,
- <valsi>lai</valsi>, or
- <valsi>doi</valsi> unless a consonant immediately precedes within the name. Reciprocally, every name not preceded by
- <valsi>la</valsi>,
- <valsi>lai</valsi>,
- <valsi>la'i</valsi>, or
- <valsi>doi</valsi> must be preceded by a pause instead:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLiB" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e12d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>coi .djan.</jbo>
- <natlang>Hello, John.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLIJ" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e12d5"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>zo .djan. cmene mi</jbo>
- <gloss>The-word <quote>John</quote> is-the-name-of me.</gloss>
- <natlang>My name is John.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>In
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLiB"/> and
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLIJ"/>,
- <cmevla>.djan.</cmevla> appears with a pause before it as well as after it, because the preceding word is not one of the four special cases. These rules force names to always be separable from the general word-stream.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>multiple</secondary></indexterm> Unless some other rule prevents it (such as the rule that
- <valsi>zo</valsi> is always followed by a single word, which is quoted), multiple names may appear wherever one name is permitted, each with its terminating pause:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-cw3p">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>Newport News</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>John Paul Jones</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c6e12d6"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>doi djan. pol. djonz. le bloti cu klama fi la niuport. niuz.</jbo>
- <natlang>John Paul Jones, the boat comes (to somewhere) from Newport News.</natlang>
-
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>name-words</primary><secondary>permissible consonant combinations</secondary></indexterm> A name may not contain any consonant combination that is illegal in Lojban words generally: the
- <quote>impermissible consonant clusters</quote> of Lojban morphology (explained in
-
-
- <xref linkend="section-clusters"/>). Thus
- <cmevla valid="false">djeimz.</cmevla> is not a valid version of
- <quote>James</quote> (because
- <morphology>mz</morphology> is invalid):
- <cmevla>djeimyz</cmevla> will suffice. Similarly,
- <valsi>la</valsi> may be replaced by
- <valsi>ly</valsi>,
- <valsi>lai</valsi> by
- <jbophrase>ly'i</jbophrase>,
- <valsi>doi</valsi> by
- <valsi>do'i</valsi> or
- <valsi>dai</valsi>. Here are a few examples:</para>
-
- <para>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>Doyle</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>Lyra</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>Lottie</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <informaltable>
- <tr>
- <td>Doyle</td>
- <td><cmevla valid="false">*doi,l</cmevla></td>
- <td><cmevla>do'il</cmevla> or <cmevla>dai,l</cmevla></td>
-
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>Lyra</td>
- <td><cmevla valid="false">*lairas</cmevla></td>
- <td><cmevla>ly'iras</cmevla></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>Lottie</td>
- <td><cmevla valid="false">*latis</cmevla></td>
- <td><cmevla>LYtis.</cmevla> or <cmevla>lotis.</cmevla></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>(American pronunciation)</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- </para>
- <para>
-
-<indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>using rafsi</secondary></indexterm> Names may be borrowed from other languages or created arbitrarily. Another common practice is to use one or more rafsi, arranged to end with a consonant, to form a name: thus the rafsi
- <rafsi>loj-</rafsi> for
- <valsi>logji</valsi> (logical) and
- <rafsi>ban-</rafsi> for
- <valsi>bangu</valsi> (language) unite to form the name of this language:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-uXAY">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e12d7"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>lojban.</jbo>
- <natlang>Lojban</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names from vowel-final base</primary><secondary>commonly used consonant endings</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>borrowing from other languages</secondary></indexterm> When borrowing names from another language which end in a vowel, or when turning a Lojban brivla (all of which end in vowels) into a name, the vowel may be removed or an arbitrary consonant added. It is common (but not required) to use the consonants
-
- <rafsi>s</rafsi> or
- <rafsi>n</rafsi> when borrowing vowel-final names from English; speakers of other languages may wish to use other consonant endings.</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names with la</primary><secondary>implicit quantifier for</secondary></indexterm> The implicit quantifier for name sumti of the form
- <valsi>la</valsi> followed by a name is
- <valsi>su'o</valsi>, just as for
- <valsi>la</valsi> followed by a selbri.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-pro-sumti">
- <title>Pro-sumti summary</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>classes of</secondary></indexterm> The Lojban pro-sumti are the cmavo of selma'o KOhA. They fall into several classes: personal, definable, quantificational, reflexive, back-counting, indefinite, demonstrative, metalinguistic, relative, question. More details are given in
- <xref linkend="chapter-anaphoric-cmavo"/>; this section mostly duplicates information found there, but adds material on the implicit quantifier of each pro-sumti.</para>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>implicit quantifier for</secondary></indexterm> The following examples illustrate each of the classes. Unless otherwise noted below, the implicit quantification for pro-sumti is
- <valsi>ro</valsi> (all). In the case of pro-sumti which refer to other sumti, the
- <valsi>ro</valsi> signifies
- <quote>all of those referred to by the other sumti</quote>: thus it is possible to restrict, but not to extend, the quantification of the other sumti.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>personal pro-sumti</primary></indexterm> Personal pro-sumti (
- <valsi>mi</valsi>,
- <valsi>do</valsi>,
- <valsi>mi'o</valsi>,
- <valsi>mi'a</valsi>,
-
- <valsi>ma'a</valsi>,
-
- <valsi>do'o</valsi>,
-
- <valsi>ko</valsi>) refer to the speaker or the listener or both, with or without third parties:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PHPi">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e13d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi prami do</jbo>
- <natlang>I love you.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>personal pro-sumti</primary><secondary>implicit quantifier for</secondary></indexterm> The personal pro-sumti may be interpreted in context as either representing individuals or masses, so the implicit quantifier may be
-
- <valsi>pisu'o</valsi> rather than
-
- <valsi>ro</valsi>: in particular,
- <valsi>mi'o</valsi>,
- <valsi>mi'a</valsi>,
-
- <valsi>ma'a</valsi>, and
-
- <valsi>do'o</valsi> specifically represent mass combinations of the individuals (you and I, I and others, you and I and others, you and others) that make them up.</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>definable pro-sumti</primary></indexterm> Definable pro-sumti (
- <valsi>ko'a</valsi>,
- <valsi>ko'e</valsi>,
- <valsi>ko'i</valsi>,
- <valsi>ko'o</valsi>,
- <valsi>ko'u</valsi>,
- <valsi>fo'a</valsi>,
-
- <valsi>fo'e</valsi>,
- <valsi>fo'i</valsi>,
- <valsi>fo'o</valsi>,
- <valsi>fo'u</valsi>) refer to whatever the speaker has explicitly made them refer to. This reference is accomplished with
- <valsi>goi</valsi> (of selma'o GOI), which means
- <quote>defined-as</quote>.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-8whK">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e13d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le cribe goi ko'a cu xekri .i ko'a citka le smacu</jbo>
- <natlang>The bear defined-as it-1 is-black. It-1 eats the mouse.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>quantificational pro-sumti</primary></indexterm> Quantificational pro-sumti (
- <valsi>da</valsi>,
- <valsi>de</valsi>,
- <valsi>di</valsi>) are used as variables in bridi involving predicate logic:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-FVj8">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e13d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ro da poi prenu cu prami pa de poi finpe</jbo>
- <gloss>All somethings-1 which-are persons love one something-2 which-is a-fish.</gloss>
- <natlang>All persons love a fish (each his/her own).</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>quantificational pro-sumti</primary><secondary>implicit quantification rules</secondary></indexterm> (This is not the same as
- <quote>All persons love a certain fish</quote>; the difference between the two is one of quantifier order.) The implicit quantification rules for quantificational pro-sumti are particular to them, and are discussed in detail in
-
- <xref linkend="chapter-quantifiers"/>. Roughly speaking, the quantifier is
- <valsi>su'o</valsi> (at least one) when the pro-sumti is first used, and
- <valsi>ro</valsi> (all) thereafter.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>reflexive pro-sumti</primary></indexterm> Reflexive pro-sumti (
- <valsi>vo'a</valsi>,
- <valsi>vo'e</valsi>,
- <valsi>vo'i</valsi>,
- <valsi>vo'o</valsi>,
- <valsi>vo'u</valsi>) refer to the same referents as sumti filling other places in the same bridi, with the effect that the same thing is referred to twice:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nMse">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e13d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le cribe cu batci vo'a</jbo>
- <gloss>The bear bites what-is-in-the-x1-place.</gloss>
- <natlang>The bear bites itself.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>back-counting pro-sumti</primary></indexterm> Back-counting pro-sumti (
- <valsi>ri</valsi>,
- <valsi>ra</valsi>,
- <valsi>ru</valsi>) refer to the referents of previous sumti counted backwards from the pro-sumti:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-cjTj">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e13d5"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi klama la frankfurt. ri</jbo>
- <gloss>I go to-Frankfurt from-the-referent-of-the-last-sumti</gloss>
- <natlang>I go from Frankfurt to Frankfurt (by some unstated route).</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>indefinite pro-sumti</primary></indexterm> Indefinite pro-sumti (
- <valsi>zo'e</valsi>,
- <valsi>zu'i</valsi>,
-
- <valsi>zi'o</valsi>) refer to something which is unspecified:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-d5Ee">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e13d6"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi klama la frankfurt. zo'e zo'e zo'e</jbo>
- <gloss>I go to-Frankfurt from-unspecified via-unspecified by-means-unspecified.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>indefinite pro-sumti</primary><secondary>implicit quantifier for</secondary></indexterm> The implicit quantifier for indefinite pro-sumti is, well, indefinite. It might be
-
- <valsi>ro</valsi> (all) or
- <valsi>su'o</valsi> (at least one) or conceivably even
- <valsi>no</valsi> (none), though
- <valsi>no</valsi> would require a very odd context indeed.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>demonstrative pro-sumti</primary></indexterm> Demonstrative pro-sumti (
- <valsi>ti</valsi>,
- <valsi>ta</valsi>,
- <valsi>tu</valsi>) refer to things pointed at by the speaker, or when pointing is not possible, to things near or far from the speaker:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-aqfJ">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e13d7"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ko muvgau ti ta tu</jbo>
- <gloss>You [imperative] move this-thing from-that-nearby-place to-that-further-away-place.</gloss>
- <natlang>Move this from there to over there!</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>metalinguistic pro-sumti</primary></indexterm> Metalinguistic pro-sumti (
- <valsi>di'u</valsi>,
- <valsi>de'u</valsi>,
-
- <valsi>da'u</valsi>,
-
- <valsi>di'e</valsi>,
-
- <valsi>de'e</valsi>,
-
- <valsi>da'e</valsi>,
-
- <valsi>dei</valsi>,
- <valsi>do'i</valsi>) refer to spoken or written utterances, either preceding, following, or the same as the current utterance.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-8VYF">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e13d8"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>li re su'i re du li vo .i la'e di'u jetnu</jbo>
- <gloss>The-number two plus two equals the-number four. The-referent-of the-previous-utterance is-true.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>metalinguistic pro-sumti</primary><secondary>implicit quantifier for</secondary></indexterm> The implicit quantifier for metalinguistic pro-sumti is
-
- <valsi>su'o</valsi> (at least one), because they are considered analogous to
- <valsi>lo</valsi> descriptions: they refer to things which really are previous, current, or following utterances.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative pro-sumti</primary></indexterm> The relative pro-sumti (
-
- <valsi>ke'a</valsi>) is used within relative clauses (see
- <xref linkend="chapter-relative-clauses"/> for a discussion of relative clauses) to refer to whatever sumti the relative clause is attached to.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sf2T">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e13d9"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi viska le mlatu ku poi zo'e zbasu ke'a loi slasi</jbo>
- <gloss>I see the cat(s) such-that something-unspecified makes it/them (the cats) from-a-mass-of plastic.</gloss>
- <natlang>I see the cat(s) made of plastic.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>question pro-sumti</primary></indexterm> The question pro-sumti (
-
- <valsi>ma</valsi>) is used to ask questions which request the listener to supply a sumti which will make the question into a truth:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9tSb">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e13d10"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>do klama ma</jbo>
- <gloss>You go to-what-sumti?</gloss>
- <natlang>Where are you going?</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>question pro-sumti</primary><secondary>implicit quantifier for</secondary></indexterm> The implicit quantifier for the question pro-sumti is
-
- <valsi>su'o</valsi> (at least one), because the listener is only being asked to supply a single answer, not all correct answers.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>definable pro-sumti</primary><secondary>sequences of lerfu words as</secondary></indexterm> In addition, sequences of lerfu words (of selma'o BY and related selma'o) can also be used as definable pro-sumti.</para>
-
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-quotation">
- <title>Quotation summary</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>quotation</primary><secondary>four kinds</secondary></indexterm> There are four kinds of quotation in Lojban: text quotation, words quotation, single-word quotation, non-Lojban quotation. More information is provided in <xref linkend="chapter-structure"/>.</para>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>text quotation</primary><secondary>as internally grammatical</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>text quotation</primary><secondary>syntax of</secondary></indexterm> Text quotations are preceded by
- <valsi>lu</valsi> and followed by
- <valsi>li'u</valsi>, and are an essential part of the surrounding text: they must be grammatical Lojban texts.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-v1DE">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e14d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi cusku lu mi'e djan. li'u</jbo>
- <gloss>I say the-text [quote] I-am John [unquote].</gloss>
- <natlang>I say <quote>I'm John</quote>.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>word quotation</primary><secondary>internal grammar of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>word quotation</primary><secondary>as morphologically valid</secondary></indexterm> Words quotations are quotations of one or more Lojban words. The words need not mean anything, but they must be morphologically valid so that the end of the quotation can be discerned.</para>
- <para> <!-- FIXME: these indexterms aren't tagged alone --><indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>le'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>lo'u</primary></indexterm></para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-UMDQ">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e14d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi cusku lo'u li mi le'u</jbo>
- <gloss>I say the-words [quote] <jbophrase valid="false">li mi</jbophrase> [unquote].</gloss>
- <natlang>I say <quote><jbophrase valid="false">li mi</jbophrase></quote>.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>Note that the translation of
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-UMDQ"/> does not translate the Lojban words, because they are not presumed to have any meaning (in fact, they are ungrammatical).</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>single-word quotation</primary></indexterm> Single-word quotation quotes a single Lojban word. Compound cmavo are not allowed.</para>
-
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-XqKv">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e14d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi cusku zo .ai</jbo>
- <natlang>I say the-word
- <valsi>ai</valsi>.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-Lojban quotation</primary></indexterm> Non-Lojban quotation can quote anything, Lojban or not, even non-speech such as drum talk, whistle words, music, or belching. A Lojban word which does not appear within the quotation is used before and after it to set it off from the surrounding Lojban text.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1Uey">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e14d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi cusku zoi kuot. I'm John .kuot</jbo>
- <natlang>I say
- <quote>I'm John</quote>.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>quotation</primary><secondary>implicit quantifier for</secondary></indexterm> The implicit quantifier for all types of quotation is
- <valsi>su'o</valsi> (at least one), because quotations are analogous to
- <valsi>lo</valsi> descriptions: they refer to things which actually are words or sequences of words.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-number-summary">
- <title>Number summary</title>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>number sumti</primary><secondary>with li</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>number sumti</primary><secondary>syntax of</secondary></indexterm> The sumti which refer to numbers consist of the cmavo
- <valsi>li</valsi> (of selma'o LI) followed by an arbitrary Lojban mekso, or mathematical expression. This can be anything from a simple number up to the most complicated combination of numbers, variables, operators, and so on. Much more information on numbers is given in
- <xref linkend="chapter-mekso"/>. Here are a few examples of increasing complexity:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLIm" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e15d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>li vo</jbo>
- <gloss>the-number four</gloss>
- <math>4</math>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLis" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e15d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>li re su'i re</jbo>
- <gloss>the-number two plus two</gloss>
- <math>2 + 2</math>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLiX" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e15d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>li .abu bopi'i xy. bote'a re su'i by. bopi'i xy. su'i cy.</jbo>
- <gloss>the-number a times x to-power 2 plus b times x plus c</gloss>
- <math>ax<superscript>2</superscript> + bx + c</math>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>number sumti</primary><secondary>with li contrasted with me'o</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>number sumti</primary><secondary>with me'o contrasted with li</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>LI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>me'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>number sumti</primary><secondary>with me'o</secondary></indexterm> An alternative to
- <valsi>li</valsi> is
- <valsi>me'o</valsi>, also of selma'o LI. Number expressions beginning with
- <valsi>me'o</valsi> refer to the actual expression, rather than its value. Thus
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLIm"/> and
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLis"/> above have the same meaning, the number four, whereas</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sW7u">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e15d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>me'o vo</jbo>
- <gloss>the-expression four</gloss>
- <natlang><quote><inlinemath>4</inlinemath></quote></natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>and</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3s82">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c6e15d5"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>me'o re su'i re</jbo>
- <gloss>the-expression two plus two</gloss>
- <natlang><quote><inlinemath>2+2</inlinemath></quote></natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>refer to different pieces of text.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mathematical expressions</primary><secondary>implicit quantifier for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>numbers</primary><secondary>implicit quantifier for</secondary></indexterm> The implicit quantifier for numbers and mathematical expressions is
-
- <valsi>su'o</valsi>, because these sumti are analogous to
- <valsi>lo</valsi> descriptions: they refer to things which actually are numbers or pieces of text. In the case of numbers (with
- <valsi>li</valsi>), this is a distinction without a difference, as there is only one number which is 4; but there are many texts
- <quote>4</quote>, as many as there are documents in which that numeral appears.</para>
- </section>
-</chapter>
diff --git a/chapters/7.xml b/chapters/7.xml
deleted file mode 100644
index 5eb8394..0000000
--- a/chapters/7.xml
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,2424 +0,0 @@
-<chapter xml:id="chapter-anaphoric-cmavo">
- <title>Brevity Is The Soul Of Language: Pro-sumti And Pro-bridi</title>
-
- <mediaobject xml:id="chapter-anaphoric-cmavo-picture">
- <alt>The picture for chapter 7</alt>
- <imageobject>
- <imagedata fileref="media/chapter-anaphoric-cmavo.gif"/>
- </imageobject>
- </mediaobject>
-
- <section xml:id="section-anaphoric-cmavo-introduction">
- <title>What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pronouns in English</primary><secondary>as noun abbreviations</secondary></indexterm> Speakers of Lojban, like speakers of other languages, require mechanisms of abbreviation. If every time we referred to something, we had to express a complete description of it, life would be too short to say what we have to say. In English, we have words called
- <quote>pronouns</quote> which allow us to replace nouns or noun phrases with shorter terms. An English with no pronouns might look something like this:</para>
-
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-KeL4">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e1d1"/>
- </title>
- <para>Speakers of Lojban, like speakers of other languages, require mechanisms of abbreviation. If every time speakers of Lojban referred to a thing to which speakers of Lojban refer, speakers of Lojban had to express a complete description of what speakers of Lojban referred to, life would be too short to say what speakers of Lojban have to say.</para>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pronouns in English</primary><secondary>as independent of abbreviations</secondary></indexterm> Speakers of this kind of English would get mightily sick of talking. Furthermore, there are uses of pronouns in English which are independent of abbreviation. There is all the difference in the world between:</para>
-
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-VISf">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>shook stick</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c7e1d2"/>
- </title>
- <para>John picked up a stick and shook it.</para>
- </example>
- <para>and</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-GoqJ">
- <title>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>shook stick</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e1d3"/>
- </title>
- <para>John picked up a stick and shook a stick.</para>
- </example>
- <para>
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-GoqJ"/> does not imply that the two sticks are necessarily the same, whereas
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-VISf"/> requires that they are.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>GOhA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>series</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>compared to pro-bridi as means of abbreviation</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-bridi</primary><secondary>compared to pro-sumti as means of abbreviation</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-bridi</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>compared to pronouns in usage as abbreviations</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pronouns</primary><secondary>compared to pro-sumti in usage as abbreviations</secondary></indexterm> In Lojban, we have sumti rather than nouns, so our equivalent of pronouns are called by the hybrid term
-
- <quote>pro-sumti</quote>. A purely Lojban term would be
- <jbophrase>sumti cmavo</jbophrase>: all of the pro-sumti are cmavo belonging to selma'o KOhA. In exactly the same way, Lojban has a group of cmavo (belonging to selma'o GOhA) which serve as selbri or full bridi. These may be called
- <quote>pro-bridi</quote> or
- <jbophrase>bridi cmavo</jbophrase>. This chapter explains the uses of all the members of selma'o KOhA and GOhA. They fall into a number of groups, known as series: thus, in selma'o KOhA, we have among others the mi-series, the ko'a-series, the da-series, and so on. In each section, a series of pro-sumti is explained, and if there is a corresponding series of pro-bridi, it is explained and contrasted. Many pro-sumti series don't have pro-bridi analogues, however.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>antecedent of pro-bridi</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>referent of pro-bridi</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>antecedent of pro-sumti</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>referent of pro-sumti</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> A few technical terms: The term
-
- <quote>referent</quote> means the thing to which a pro-sumti (by extension, a pro-bridi) refers. If the speaker of a sentence is James, then the referent of the word
- <quote>I</quote> is James. On the other hand, the term
- <quote>antecedent</quote> refers to a piece of language which a pro-sumti (or pro-bridi) implicitly repeats. In</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-AnBS">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e1d4"/>
- </title>
- <para>John loves himself</para>
- </example>
- <para>the antecedent of
- <quote>himself</quote> is
- <quote>John</quote>; not the person, but a piece of text (a name, in this case). John, the person, would be the referent of
- <quote>himself</quote>. Not all pro-sumti or pro-bridi have antecedents, but all of them have referents.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-mi-series">
- <title>Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series</title>
- <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>mi</cmavo>
- <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
- <series>mi-series</series>
- <description>I, me </description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>do</cmavo>
- <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
- <series>mi-series</series>
- <description>you</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>mi'o</cmavo>
- <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
- <series>mi-series</series>
- <description>you and I</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>mi'a</cmavo>
- <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
- <series>mi-series</series>
- <description>I and others, we but not you</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ma'a</cmavo>
- <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
- <series>mi-series</series>
- <description>you and I and others</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>do'o</cmavo>
- <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
- <series>mi-series</series>
- <description>you and others</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ko</cmavo>
- <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
- <series>mi-series</series>
- <description>you-imperative</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
- <para>
-
-<indexterm type="general"><primary>foreman of a jury</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
- <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>personal pronouns</primary><secondary>with mi-series for I/you</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>for listener(s)</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>for speaker(s)</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>mi-series</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mi-series</primary><secondary>of pro-sumti</secondary></indexterm> The mi-series of pro-sumti refer to the speaker, the listener, and others in various combinations.
- <valsi>mi</valsi> refers to the speaker and perhaps others for whom the speaker speaks; it may be a Lojbanic mass.
- <valsi>do</valsi> refers to the listener or listeners. Neither
- <valsi>mi</valsi> nor
- <valsi>do</valsi> is specific about the number of persons referred to; for example, the foreman of a jury may refer to the members of the jury as
-
- <valsi>mi</valsi>, since in speaking officially he represents all of them.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>COI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>COI selma'o</primary><secondary>effect on referent of "do"<!-- FIXME: what should these "s become? --></secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>COI selma'o</primary><secondary>effect on referent of "mi"</secondary></indexterm> The referents of
- <valsi>mi</valsi> and
- <valsi>do</valsi> are usually obvious from the context, but may be assigned by the vocative words of selma'o COI, explained in
- <xref linkend="section-vocative-scales"/>. The vocative
- <valsi>mi'e</valsi> assigns
- <valsi>mi</valsi>, whereas all of the other vocatives assign
- <valsi>do</valsi>.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4dna">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e2d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi'e djan. doi frank. mi cusku lu mi bajra li'u do</jbo>
- <gloss>I-am John, O Frank, I express [quote] I run [unquote] to-you</gloss>
- <natlang>I am John, Frank; I tell you
- <quote>I run</quote>.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>for listeners and/or speakers and/or others</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo
- <valsi>mi'o</valsi>,
- <valsi>mi'a</valsi>,
-
- <valsi>ma'a</valsi>, and
-
- <valsi>do'o</valsi> express various combinations of the speaker and/or the listener and/or other people:</para>
-
- <itemizedlist>
- <listitem>
- <para>
- <valsi>mi'o</valsi> includes only the speaker and the listener but no one else;</para>
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>
- <valsi>mi'a</valsi> includes the speaker and others but excludes the listener;</para>
-
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>
- <valsi>do'o</valsi> includes the listener and others but excludes the speaker;</para>
-
- </listitem>
- <listitem>
- <para>
- <valsi>ma'a</valsi> includes all three: speaker, listener, others.</para>
-
- </listitem>
- </itemizedlist>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti for speaker/listener/others</primary><secondary>as masses</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti for speaker/listener/others</primary><secondary>relation to joi</secondary></indexterm> All of these pro-sumti represent masses. For example,
- <valsi>mi'o</valsi> is the same as
- <jbophrase>mi joi do</jbophrase>, the mass of me and you considered jointly.</para>
- <para> <!-- FIXME: what should these "s become? --><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti for "we"</primary><secondary>contrasted with English "we"</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>English "we"</primary><secondary>contrasted with Lojban pro-sumti for "we"</secondary></indexterm> In English,
- <quote>we</quote> can mean
- <valsi>mi</valsi> or
- <valsi>mi'o</valsi> or
- <valsi>mi'a</valsi> or even
-
- <valsi>ma'a</valsi>, and English-speakers often suffer because they cannot easily distinguish
-
- <valsi>mi'o</valsi> from
- <valsi>mi'a</valsi>:</para>
-
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-22dg">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e2d2"/>
- </title>
- <para>We're going to the store.</para>
- </example>
- <para>Does this include the listener or not? There's no way to be sure.</para>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ko</primary><secondary>use for commands</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ko</primary><secondary>use for imperatives</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>imperatives</primary><secondary>with ko</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>commands</primary><secondary>with ko</secondary></indexterm> Finally, the cmavo
- <valsi>ko</valsi> is logically equivalent to
- <valsi>do</valsi>; its referent is the listener. However, its use alters an assertion about the listener into a command to the listener to make the assertion true:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-n1Rv">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e2d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>do klama le zarci</jbo>
- <gloss>You go to-the store.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>becomes:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-uwDI">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e2d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ko klama le zarci</jbo>
- <gloss>You [imperative] go to-the store.</gloss>
- <gloss>Make <quote>you go to the store</quote> true!</gloss>
- <natlang>Go to the store!</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ko</primary><secondary>in later selbri place in imperative</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>imperatives</primary><secondary>English contrasted with Lojban in presence of subject of command</secondary></indexterm> In English, the subject of a command is omitted, but in Lojban, the word
- <valsi>ko</valsi> must be used. However,
- <valsi>ko</valsi> does not have to appear in the x1 place:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-5Jbi">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e2d5"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi viska ko</jbo>
- <gloss>I see you [imperative]</gloss>
- <gloss>Make
- <quote>I see you</quote> true!</gloss>
- <natlang>Be seen by me!</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ko</primary><secondary>in sub-clause of main bridi</secondary></indexterm> In
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-5Jbi"/>, it is necessary to make the verb passive in English in order to convey the effect of
- <valsi>ko</valsi> in the x2 place. Indeed,
- <valsi>ko</valsi> does not even have to be a sumti of the main bridi:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-VTRG">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e2d6"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi viska le prenu poi prami ko</jbo>
- <gloss>I see the person that loves you [imperative]</gloss>
- <gloss>Make
- <quote>I see the person that loves you</quote> true!</gloss>
- <gloss>Be such that the person who loves you is seen by me!</gloss>
- <natlang>Show me the person who loves you!</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mi-series pro-sumti</primary><secondary>lack of pro-bridi equivalent</secondary></indexterm> As mentioned in
- <xref linkend="section-anaphoric-cmavo-introduction"/>, some pro-sumti series have corresponding pro-bridi series. However, there is no equivalent of the mi-series among pro-bridi, since a person isn't a relationship.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-ti-series">
- <title>Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series</title>
- <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ti</cmavo>
- <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
- <series>ti-series</series>
- <description>this here, a nearby object </description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ta</cmavo>
- <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
- <series>ti-series</series>
- <description>that there, a medium-distant object</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>tu</cmavo>
- <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
- <series>ti-series</series>
- <description>that yonder, a far-distant object</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>ti-series</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ti-series pro-sumti</primary><secondary>as pointing referents only</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>this/that in English</primary><secondary>compared with ti-series pro-sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ti-series pro-sumti</primary><secondary>compared with English this/that</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>demonstrative pro-sumti</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pointing</primary><secondary>reference by</secondary></indexterm> It is often useful to refer to things by pointing to them or by some related non-linguistic mechanism. In English, the words
- <quote>this</quote> and
- <quote>that</quote> serve this function among others:
- <quote>this</quote> refers to something pointed at that is near the speaker, and
- <quote>that</quote> refers to something further away. The Lojban pro-sumti of the ti-series serve the same functions, but more narrowly. The cmavo
- <valsi>ti</valsi>,
- <valsi>ta</valsi>, and
- <valsi>tu</valsi> provide only the pointing function of
- <quote>this</quote> and
- <quote>that</quote>; they are not used to refer to things that cannot be pointed at.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ti-series pro-sumti</primary><secondary>3 degrees of distance with</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>tu</primary><secondary>archaic English yon as equivalent of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>yon</primary><secondary>as archaic English equivalent of tu</secondary></indexterm> There are three pro-sumti of the ti-series rather than just two because it is often useful to distinguish between objects that are at more than two different distances. Japanese, among other languages, regularly does this. Until the 16th century, English did too; the pronoun
- <quote>that</quote> referred to something at a medium distance from the speaker, and the now-archaic pronoun
- <quote>yon</quote> to something far away.</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ti-series pro-sumti</primary><secondary>problems in written text</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ti-series pro-sumti</primary><secondary>conversational convention for</secondary></indexterm> In conversation, there is a special rule about
- <valsi>ta</valsi> and
- <valsi>tu</valsi> that is often helpful in interpreting them. When used contrastingly,
- <valsi>ta</valsi> refers to something that is near the listener, whereas
- <valsi>tu</valsi> refers to something far from both speaker and listener. This makes for a parallelism between
- <valsi>ti</valsi> and
- <valsi>mi</valsi>, and
- <valsi>ta</valsi> and
- <valsi>do</valsi>, that is convenient when pointing is not possible; for example, when talking by telephone. In written text, on the other hand, the meaning of the ti-series is inherently vague; is the writer to be taken as pointing to something, and if so, to what? In all cases, what counts as
- <quote>near</quote> and
- <quote>far away</quote> is relative to the current situation.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>this</primary><secondary>pronoun expression with ti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ti</primary><secondary>as pronoun expression for English this</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>this</primary><secondary>adjective usage contrasted with pronoun usage</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>this</primary><secondary>pronoun usage contrasted with adjective usage</secondary></indexterm> It is important to distinguish between the English pronoun
- <quote>this</quote> and the English adjective
- <quote>this</quote> as in
- <quote>this boat</quote>. The latter is not represented in Lojban by
-
- <valsi>ti</valsi>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-IWi7">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>this boat</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c7e3d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le ti bloti</jbo>
- <gloss>the this boat</gloss>
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>this</primary><secondary>adjective expression with vi</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vi</primary><secondary>as adjective expression for English this</secondary></indexterm> does not mean
- <quote>this boat</quote> but rather
-
- <quote>this one's boat</quote>,
- <quote>the boat associated with this thing</quote>, as explained in
- <xref linkend="section-possessive-sumti"/>. A correct Lojban translation of
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-IWi7"/> is</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rfUc">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e3d2"/>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>this boat</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le vi bloti</jbo>
- <gloss>the here boat</gloss>
- <natlang>the nearby boat</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>using a spatial tense before the selbri
- <valsi>bloti</valsi> to express that the boat is near the speaker. (Tenses are explained in full in
- <xref linkend="chapter-tenses"/>.) Another correct translation would be:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pRLq">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e3d3"/>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>this boat</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ti noi bloti</jbo>
-
- <gloss>this-thing which-incidentally is-a-boat</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ti-series pro-sumti</primary><secondary>lack of pro-bridi equivalent</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>this</primary><secondary>adjective expression with ti noi</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ti noi</primary><secondary>as adjective expression for this</secondary></indexterm> There are no demonstrative pro-bridi to correspond to the ti-series: you can't point to a relationship.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-dihu-series">
- <title>Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series</title>
- <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>di'u</cmavo>
- <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
- <series>di'u-series</series>
- <description>the previous utterance </description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>de'u</cmavo>
- <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
- <series>di'u-series</series>
- <description>an earlier utterance</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
-
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>da'u</cmavo>
- <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
- <series>di'u-series</series>
- <description>a much earlier utterance</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
-
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>di'e</cmavo>
- <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
- <series>di'u-series</series>
- <description>the next utterance</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
-
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>de'e</cmavo>
- <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
- <series>di'u-series</series>
- <description>a later utterance</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
-
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>da'e</cmavo>
- <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
- <series>di'u-series</series>
- <description>a much later utterance</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
-
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>dei</cmavo>
- <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
- <series>di'u-series</series>
- <description>this very utterance</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>do'i</cmavo>
- <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
- <series>di'u-series</series>
- <description>some utterance</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>di'u-series</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>this</primary><secondary>as utterance reference in English</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>di'u-series pro-sumti</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>utterance pro-sumti (see also di'u-series pro-sumti)</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti for utterances</primary></indexterm> The cmavo of the di'u-series enable us to talk about things that have been, are being, or will be said. In English, it is normal to use
- <quote>this</quote> and
- <quote>that</quote> for this (indeed, the immediately preceding
- <quote>this</quote> is an example of such a usage):</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-KNih">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e4d1"/>
- </title>
- <para>You don't like cats.</para>
- <para>That is untrue.</para>
- </example>
- <para>Here
- <quote>that</quote> does not refer to something that can be pointed to, but to the preceding sentence
- <quote>You don't like cats</quote>. In Lojban, therefore,
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-KNih"/> is rendered:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-nTou">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e4d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>do na nelci loi mlatu .i di'u jitfa jufra</jbo>
- <gloss>You (Not!) like the-mass-of cats. The-previous-utterance is-a-false-sentence.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ti-series pro-sumti</primary><secondary>contrasted with di'u-series pro-sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>di'u</primary><secondary>contrasted with ta</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ta</primary><secondary>contrasted with di'u</secondary></indexterm> Using
- <valsi>ta</valsi> instead of
- <valsi>di'u</valsi> would cause the listener to look around to see what the speaker of the second sentence was physically pointing to.</para>
- <para> As with
- <valsi>ti</valsi>,
- <valsi>ta</valsi>, and
- <valsi>tu</valsi>, the cmavo of the di'u-series come in threes: a close utterance, a medium-distance utterance, and a distant utterance, either in the past or in the future. It turned out to be impossible to use the
- <letteral>i</letteral>/
- <letteral>a</letteral>/
- <letteral>u</letteral> vowel convention of the demonstratives in
- <xref linkend="section-ti-series"/> without causing collisions with other cmavo, and so the di'u-series has a unique
- <letteral>i</letteral>/
- <letteral>e</letteral>/
- <letteral>a</letteral> convention in the first vowel of the cmavo.</para>
- <para> Most references in speech are to the past (what has already been said), so
- <valsi>di'e</valsi>,
-
- <valsi>de'e</valsi>, and
-
- <valsi>da'e</valsi> are not very useful when speaking. In writing, they are frequently handy:</para>
-
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-erEL">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>Simon says</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c7e4d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la saimn. cusku di'e</jbo>
-
- <gloss>Simon expresses the-following-utterance.</gloss>
- <natlang>Simon says:</natlang>
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-erEL"/> would typically be followed by a quotation. Note that although presumably the quotation is of something Simon has said in the past, the quotation utterance itself would appear after
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-erEL"/>, and so
- <valsi>di'e</valsi> is appropriate.</para>
-
- <para> The remaining two cmavo,
- <valsi>dei</valsi> and
- <valsi>do'i</valsi>, refer respectively to the very utterance that the speaker is uttering, and to some vague or unspecified utterance uttered by someone at some time:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLmA" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e4d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>dei jetnu jufra</jbo>
- <gloss>This-utterance is-a-true-sentence.</gloss>
- <natlang>What I am saying (at this moment) is true.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLmV" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e4d5"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>do'i jetnu jufra</jbo>
- <gloss>Some-utterance is-a-true-sentence.</gloss>
- <natlang>That's true (where
- <quote>that</quote> is not necessarily what was just said).</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>The cmavo of the di'u-series have a meaning that is relative to the context. The referent of
- <valsi>dei</valsi> in the current utterance is the same as the referent of
- <valsi>di'u</valsi> in the next utterance. The term
- <quote>utterance</quote> is used rather than
- <quote>sentence</quote> because the amount of speech or written text referred to by any of these words is vague. Often, a single bridi is intended, but longer utterances may be thus referred to.</para>
- <para> Note one very common construction with
- <valsi>di'u</valsi> and the cmavo
- <valsi>la'e</valsi> (of selma'o LAhE; see
- <xref linkend="section-sumti-qualifiers"/>) which precedes a sumti and means
- <quote>the thing referred to by (the sumti)</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-MsUd">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e4d6"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi prami la djein. .i mi nelci la'e di'u</jbo>
- <gloss>I love Jane. And I like the-referent-of the-last-utterance.</gloss>
- <natlang>I love Jane, and I like that.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>la'edi'u</primary><secondary>contrasted with di'u</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>di'u</primary><secondary>contrasted with la'edi'u</secondary></indexterm> The effect of
- <jbophrase>la'e di'u</jbophrase> in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-MsUd"/> is that the speaker likes, not the previous sentence, but rather the state of affairs referred to by the previous sentence, namely his loving Jane. This cmavo compound is often written as a single word:
- <valsi>la'edi'u</valsi>. It is important not to mix up
-
- <valsi>di'u</valsi> and
- <valsi>la'edi'u</valsi>, or the wrong meaning will generally result:</para>
-
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-68ru">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e4d7"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi prami la djein. .i mi nelci di'u</jbo>
- <natlang>I love Jane. And I like the-last-utterance.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>says that the speaker likes one of his own sentences.</para>
- <para>There are no pro-bridi corresponding to the di'u-series.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-koha-broda-series">
- <title>Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series</title>
- <para>The following cmavo and gismu are discussed in this section:</para>
-
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ko'a</cmavo>
- <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
- <series>ko'a-series</series>
- <description>it-1 </description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ko'e</cmavo>
- <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
- <series>ko'a-series</series>
- <description>it-2</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ko'i</cmavo>
- <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
- <series>ko'a-series</series>
- <description>it-3</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ko'o</cmavo>
- <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
- <series>ko'a-series</series>
- <description>it-4</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ko'u</cmavo>
- <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
- <series>ko'a-series</series>
- <description>it-5</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>fo'a</cmavo>
- <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
- <series>ko'a-series</series>
- <description>it-6</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
-
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>fo'e</cmavo>
- <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
- <series>ko'a-series</series>
- <description>it-7</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>fo'i</cmavo>
- <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
- <series>ko'a-series</series>
- <description>it-8</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>fo'o</cmavo>
- <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
- <series>ko'a-series</series>
- <description>it-9</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>fo'u</cmavo>
- <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
- <series>ko'a-series</series>
- <description>it-10</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>broda</cmavo>
- <selmaho>BRIVLA</selmaho>
- <series>broda-series</series>
- <description>is-thing-1</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>brode</cmavo>
- <selmaho>BRIVLA</selmaho>
- <series>broda-series</series>
- <description>is-thing-2</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>brodi</cmavo>
- <selmaho>BRIVLA</selmaho>
- <series>broda-series</series>
- <description>is-thing-3</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>brodo</cmavo>
- <selmaho>BRIVLA</selmaho>
- <series>broda-series</series>
- <description>is-thing-4</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>brodu</cmavo>
- <selmaho>BRIVLA</selmaho>
- <series>broda-series</series>
- <description>is-thing-5</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>goi</cmavo>
- <selmaho>GOI</selmaho>
- <description>pro-sumti assignment</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
-
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>cei</cmavo>
- <selmaho>CEI</selmaho>
- <description>pro-bridi assignment</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
-
- </cmavo-list>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ko'a-series pro-sumti</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>ko'a-series</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>personal pronouns</primary><secondary>with ko'a-series for he/she/it/they</secondary></indexterm> The discussion of personal pro-sumti in
-
- <xref linkend="section-mi-series"/> may have seemed incomplete. In English, the personal pronouns include not only
-
- <quote>I</quote> and
- <quote>you</quote> but also
- <quote>he</quote>,
- <quote>she</quote>,
- <quote>it</quote>, and
- <quote>they</quote>. Lojban does have equivalents of this latter group: in fact, it has more of them than English does. However, they are organized and used very differently.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ko'a-series pro-sumti</primary><secondary>as assignable</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>personal pronouns for he/she/it/they</primary><secondary>English contrasted with Lojban in organization</secondary></indexterm> There are ten cmavo in the ko'a-series, and they may be assigned freely to any sumti whatsoever. The English word
- <quote>he</quote> can refer only to males,
- <quote>she</quote> only to females (and ships and a few other things),
- <quote>it</quote> only to inanimate things, and
- <quote>they</quote> only to plurals; the cmavo of the ko'a-series have no restrictions at all. Therefore, it is almost impossible to guess from the context what ko'a-series cmavo might refer to if they are just used freely:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-qdCR">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e5d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la .alis. klama le zarci .i ko'a blanu</jbo>
- <natlang>Alice goes-to the store. It-1 is-blue.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>The English gloss
- <quote>it-1</quote>, plus knowledge about the real world, would tend to make English-speakers believe that
-
- <valsi>ko'a</valsi> refers to the store; in other words, that its antecedent is
- <jbophrase>le zarci</jbophrase>. To a Lojbanist, however,
- <jbophrase>la .alis.</jbophrase> is just as likely an antecedent, in which case
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qdCR"/> means that Alice, not the store, is blue.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ko'a-series pro-sumti</primary><secondary>assigning with goi</secondary></indexterm> To avoid this pitfall, Lojban employs special syntax, using the cmavo
- <valsi>goi</valsi>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-duGR">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e5d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la .alis. klama le zarci .i ko'a goi la .alis. cu blanu</jbo>
- <gloss>Alice goes-to the store. It-1, also-known-as Alice, is-blue.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ko'a-series pro-sumti</primary><secondary>assignment with goi as symmetrical</secondary></indexterm> Syntactically,
- <jbophrase>goi la .alis.</jbophrase> is a relative phrase (relative phrases are explained in
- <xref linkend="chapter-relative-clauses"/>). Semantically, it says that
- <valsi>ko'a</valsi> and
- <jbophrase>la .alis.</jbophrase> refer to the same thing, and furthermore that this is true because
- <valsi>ko'a</valsi> is being defined as meaning
- <jbophrase>la .alis.</jbophrase>. It is equally correct to say:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-oKaM">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e5d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la .alis. klama le zarci .i la .alis. goi ko'a cu blanu</jbo>
- <gloss>Alice goes-to the store. Alice, also-known-as it-1, is-blue.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> in other words,
- <valsi>goi</valsi> is symmetrical. There is a terminator,
- <valsi>ge'u</valsi> (of selma'o GEhU), which is almost always elidable. The details are in
- <xref linkend="section-relative-phrases"/>.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>goi assignment of ko'a-series pro-sumti</primary><secondary>use in speech contrasted with writing</secondary></indexterm> The afterthought form of
- <valsi>goi</valsi> shown in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-duGR"/> and
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-oKaM"/> is probably most common in speech, where we do not know until part way through our utterance that we will want to refer to Alice again. In writing, though,
- <valsi>ko'a</valsi> may be assigned at the point where Alice is first mentioned. An example of this forethought form of
- <valsi>goi</valsi> is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1FJV">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e5d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la .alis. goi ko'a klama le zarci .i ko'a cu blanu</jbo>
- <gloss>Alice, also-known-as it-1, goes-to the store. It-1 is-blue.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>
-<indexterm type="general"><primary>hereafter known as</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <indexterm type="general"><primary>legal jargon</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
- Again, <jbophrase>ko'a goi la .alis.</jbophrase> would have been entirely acceptable in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-1FJV"/>. This last form is reminiscent of legal jargon: <quote>The party of the first part, hereafter known as Buyer, ...</quote>.</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-bridi</primary><secondary>as abbreviation for bridi</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>broda-series for pro-bridi</primary><secondary>compared with ko'a-series for pro-sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ko'a-series for pro-sumti</primary><secondary>compared with broda-series for pro-bridi</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-bridi</primary><secondary>broda-series</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>broda-series pro-bridi</primary></indexterm> Just as the ko'a-series of pro-sumti allows a substitute for a sumti which is long or complex, or which for some other reason we do not want to repeat, so the broda-series of pro-bridi allows a substitute for a selbri or even a whole bridi:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-yXYT">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>thingy</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c7e5d5"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ti slasi je mlatu bo cidja lante gacri cei broda .i le crino broda cu barda .i le xunre broda cu cmalu</jbo>
- <natlang>These are plastic cat-food can covers or thingies. The green thingy is large. The red thingy is small.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>broda-series pro-bridi</primary><secondary>word-form rationale</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cei</primary><secondary>for broda-series pro-bridi assignment</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>broda-series pro-bridi</primary><secondary>assigning with cei</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>goi for ko'a-series assignment</primary><secondary>compared with cei for broda-series assignment</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cei for broda-series assignment</primary><secondary>compared with goi for ko'a-series assignment</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>antecedent</primary><secondary>for pro-bridi</secondary></indexterm> The pro-bridi
- <valsi>broda</valsi> has as its antecedent the selbri
- <jbophrase>slasi je mlatu bo cidja lante gacri</jbophrase>. The cmavo
- <valsi>cei</valsi> performs the role of
-
- <valsi>goi</valsi> in assigning
- <valsi>broda</valsi> to this long phrase, and
- <valsi>broda</valsi> can then be used just like any other brivla. (In fact,
- <valsi>broda</valsi> and its relatives actually
- <emphasis>are</emphasis> brivla: they are gismu in morphology, although they behave exactly like the members of selma'o GOhA. The reasons for using gismu rather than cmavo are buried in the Loglan Project's history.)</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>antecedent</primary><secondary>for pro-bridi as full bridi</secondary></indexterm> Note that pro-bridi are so called because, even though they have the grammar of selbri, their antecedents are whole bridi. In the following rather contrived example, the antecedent of
- <valsi>brode</valsi> is the whole bridi
- <jbophrase>mi klama le zarci</jbophrase>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-UFJf">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e5d6"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi klama cei brode le zarci .i do brode</jbo>
-
- <gloss>I go-to (which-is claim-1) the store. You claim-1.</gloss>
- <natlang>I go to the store. You, too.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-bridi</primary><secondary>overriding sumti of antecedent bridi for</secondary></indexterm> In the second bridi,
- <jbophrase>do brode</jbophrase> means
- <jbophrase>do klama le zarci</jbophrase>, because
- <valsi>brode</valsi> carries the x2 sumti of
- <jbophrase>mi klama le zarci</jbophrase> along with it. It also potentially carries the x1 sumti as well, but the explicit x1 sumti
- <valsi>do</valsi> overrides the
- <valsi>mi</valsi> of the antecedent bridi. Similarly, any tense or negation that is present in the antecedent is also carried, and can be overridden by explicit tense or negation cmavo on the pro-bridi. These rules hold for all pro-bridi that have antecedents.</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>broda-series pro-bridi</primary><secondary>with no assignment</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>broda-series pro-bridi</primary><secondary>use as abstract pattern</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>broda-series pro-bridi</primary><secondary>use as sample gismu</secondary></indexterm> Another use of
- <valsi>broda</valsi> and its relatives, without assignment, is as
- <quote>sample gismu</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-AYYA">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e5d7"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>broda ke brode brodi</jbo>
- <gloss>a thing-1 type of (thing-2 type-of thing-3)</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>represents an abstract pattern, a certain kind of tanru. (Historically, this use was the original one.)</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu as pro-sumti</primary><secondary>implicit assignment of antecedent</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ko'a-series pro-sumti</primary><secondary>contrasted with lerfu as pro-sumti in explicit assignment of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu as pro-sumti</primary><secondary>contrasted with ko'a-series in explicit assignment of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>lerfu as</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu</primary><secondary>as assignable pro-sumti</secondary></indexterm> As is explained in
- <xref linkend="section-lerfu-pro-sumti"/>, the words for Lojban letters, belonging to selma'o BY and certain related selma'o, are also usable as assignable pro-sumti. The main difference between letter pro-sumti and ko'a-series pro-sumti is that, in the absence of an explicit assignment, letters are taken to refer to the most recent name or description sumti beginning with the same letter:</para>
-
-
-
-
-
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-x1gh">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e5d8"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi viska le gerku .i gy. cusku zo arf.</jbo>
- <gloss>I see the dog. D expresses the-word
- <quote>Arf!</quote>.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>goi</primary><secondary>use in assigning lerfu as pro-sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lerfu as pro-sumti</primary><secondary>explicit assignment of antecedent</secondary></indexterm> The Lojban word
- <valsi>gerku</valsi> begins with
- <letteral>g</letteral>, so the antecedent of
- <valsi>gy.</valsi>, the cmavo for the letter
- <letteral>g</letteral>, must be
- <jbophrase>le gerku</jbophrase>. In the English translation, we use the same principle to refer to the dog as
- <quote>D</quote>. Of course, in case of ambiguity,
- <valsi>goi</valsi> can be used to make an explicit assignment.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>assigning with goi</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>goi</primary><secondary>use in assigning name</secondary></indexterm> Furthermore,
- <valsi>goi</valsi> can even be used to assign a name:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rbPr">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e5d9"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le ninmu goi la sam. cu klama le zarci</jbo>
- <gloss>The woman also-known-as Sam goes to-the store.</gloss>
- <natlang>The woman, whom I'll call Sam, goes to the store.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>This usage does not imply that the woman's name is Sam, or even that the speaker usually calls the woman
- <quote>Sam</quote>.
- <quote>Sam</quote> is simply a name chosen, as if at random, for use in the current context only.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-ri-gohi-series">
- <title>Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series</title>
- <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ri</cmavo>
- <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
- <series>ri-series</series>
- <description>(repeats last sumti) </description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ra</cmavo>
- <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
- <series>ri-series</series>
- <description>(repeats previous sumti)</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ru</cmavo>
- <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
- <series>ri-series</series>
- <description>(repeats long-ago sumti)</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
-
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>go'i</cmavo>
- <selmaho>GOhA</selmaho>
- <series>go'i-series</series>
- <description>(repeats last bridi)</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>go'a</cmavo>
- <selmaho>GOhA</selmaho>
- <series>go'i-series</series>
- <description>(repeats previous bridi)</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
-
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>go'u</cmavo>
- <selmaho>GOhA</selmaho>
- <series>go'i-series</series>
- <description>(repeats long-ago bridi)</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
-
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>go'e</cmavo>
- <selmaho>GOhA</selmaho>
- <series>go'i-series</series>
- <description>(repeats last-but-one bridi)</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
-
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>go'o</cmavo>
- <selmaho>GOhA</selmaho>
- <series>go'i-series</series>
- <description>(repeats future bridi)</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
-
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>nei</cmavo>
- <selmaho>GOhA</selmaho>
- <series>go'i-series</series>
- <description>(repeats current bridi)</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
-
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>no'a</cmavo>
- <selmaho>GOhA</selmaho>
- <series>go'i-series</series>
- <description>(repeats outer bridi)</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
-
-
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ra'o</cmavo>
- <selmaho>RAhO</selmaho>
- <description>pro-cmavo update</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
- <para>The term
- <quote>anaphora</quote> literally means
-
- <quote>repetition</quote>, but is used in linguistics to refer to pronouns whose significance is the repetition of earlier words, namely their antecedents. Lojban provides three pro-sumti anaphora,
-
- <valsi>ri</valsi>,
- <valsi>ra</valsi>, and
- <valsi>ru</valsi>; and three corresponding pro-bridi anaphora,
-
- <valsi>go'i</valsi>,
- <valsi>go'a</valsi>, and
-
- <valsi>go'u</valsi>. These cmavo reveal the same vowel pattern as the ti-series, but the
-
- <quote>distances</quote> referred to are not physical distances, but distances from the anaphoric cmavo to its antecedent.</para>
- <para>The cmavo
- <valsi>ri</valsi> is the simplest of these; it has the same referent as the last complete sumti appearing before the
- <valsi>ri</valsi>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3som">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e6d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la .alis. sipna le ri kumfa</jbo>
- <gloss>Alice sleeps-in the of-[repeat last sumti] room.</gloss>
- <natlang>Alice sleeps in her room.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>The
- <valsi>ri</valsi> in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-3som"/> is equivalent to repeating the last sumti, which is
- <jbophrase>la .alis.</jbophrase>, so
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-3som"/> is equivalent to:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-bs5R">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e6d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la .alis. sipna le la .alis. kumfa</jbo>
- <gloss>Alice sleeps-in the of-Alice room.</gloss>
- <natlang>Alice sleeps in Alice's room.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>Note that
- <valsi>ri</valsi> does not repeat
- <jbophrase>le ri kumfa</jbophrase>, because that sumti is not yet complete when
- <valsi>ri</valsi> appears. This prevents
- <valsi>ri</valsi> from getting entangled in paradoxes of self-reference. (There are plenty of other ways to do that!) Note also that sumti within other sumti, as in quotations, abstractions, and the like, are counted in the order of their beginnings; thus a lower level sumti like
- <jbophrase>la alis.</jbophrase> in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-bs5R"/> is considered to be more recent than a higher level sumti that contains it.</para>
- <para>Certain sumti are ignored by
- <valsi>ri</valsi>; specifically, most of the other cmavo of KOhA, and the almost-grammatically-equivalent lerfu words of selma'o BY. It is simpler just to repeat these directly:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-CVmN">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e6d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi prami mi</jbo>
- <gloss>I love me.</gloss>
- <natlang>I love myself.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>However, the cmavo of the ti-series can be picked up by
- <valsi>ri</valsi>, because you might have changed what you are pointing at, so repeating
- <valsi>ti</valsi> may not be effective. Likewise,
- <valsi>ri</valsi> itself (or rather its antecedent) can be repeated by a later
- <valsi>ri</valsi>; in fact, a string of
- <valsi>ri</valsi> cmavo with no other intervening sumti always all repeat the same sumti:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-eXsN">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e6d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la djan. viska le tricu .i ri se jadni le ri jimca</jbo>
- <gloss>John sees the tree. [repeat last] is-adorned-by the of-[repeat last] branch.</gloss>
- <natlang>John sees the tree. It is adorned by its branches.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>Here the second
- <valsi>ri</valsi> has as antecedent the first
- <valsi>ri</valsi>, which has as antecedent
- <jbophrase>le tricu</jbophrase>. All three refer to the same thing: a tree.</para>
- <para>To refer to the next-to-last sumti, the third-from-last sumti, and so on,
- <valsi>ri</valsi> may be subscripted (subscripts are explained in
- <xref linkend="section-subscripts-general"/>):</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Lc2y">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e6d5"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>lo smuci .i lo forca .i la rik. pilno rixire .i la .alis. pilno riximu</jbo>
- <gloss>A spoon. A fork. Rick uses [repeat next-to-last]. Alice uses [repeat fifth-from-last].</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>Here
- <jbophrase>rixire</jbophrase>, or
- <quote>ri-sub-2</quote>, skips
- <jbophrase>la rik.</jbophrase> to reach
- <jbophrase>lo forca</jbophrase>. In the same way,
- <jbophrase>riximu</jbophrase>, or
- <quote>ri-sub-5</quote>, skips
- <jbophrase>la .alis.</jbophrase>,
- <jbophrase>rixire</jbophrase>,
- <jbophrase>la rik.</jbophrase>, and
- <jbophrase>lo forca</jbophrase> to reach
- <jbophrase>lo smuci</jbophrase>. As can clearly be seen, this procedure is barely practicable in writing, and would break down totally in speech.</para>
- <para>Therefore, the vaguer
- <valsi>ra</valsi> and
- <valsi>ru</valsi> are also provided. The cmavo
- <valsi>ra</valsi> repeats a recently used sumti, and
- <valsi>ru</valsi> one that was further back in the speech or text. The use of
- <valsi>ra</valsi> and
- <valsi>ru</valsi> forces the listener to guess at the referent, but makes life easier for the speaker. Can
- <valsi>ra</valsi> refer to the last sumti, like
- <valsi>ri</valsi>? The answer is no if
- <valsi>ri</valsi> has also been used. If
- <valsi>ri</valsi> has not been used, then
- <valsi>ra</valsi> might be the last sumti. Likewise, if
- <valsi>ra</valsi> has been used, then any use of
- <valsi>ru</valsi> would repeat a sumti earlier than the one
- <valsi>ra</valsi> is repeating. A more reasonable version of Example <xref linkend="example-random-id-Lc2y"/>, but one that depends more on context, is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-N89g">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e6d6"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>lo smuci .i lo forca .i la rik. pilno ra .i la .alis. pilno ru</jbo>
- <gloss>A spoon. A fork. Rick uses [some previous thing]. Alice uses [some more remote thing].</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>In
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-N89g"/>, the use of
- <valsi>ra</valsi> tells us that something other than
- <jbophrase>la rik.</jbophrase> is the antecedent;
- <jbophrase>lo forca</jbophrase> is the nearest sumti, so it is probably the antecedent. Similarly, the antecedent of
- <valsi>ru</valsi> must be something even further back in the utterance than
- <jbophrase>lo forca</jbophrase>, and
- <jbophrase>lo smuci</jbophrase> is the obvious candidate.</para>
- <para>The meaning of
- <valsi>ri</valsi> must be determined every time it is used. Since
- <valsi>ra</valsi> and
- <valsi>ru</valsi> are more vaguely defined, they may well retain the same meaning for a while, but the listener cannot count on this behavior. To make a permanent reference to something repeated by
- <valsi>ri</valsi>,
- <valsi>ra</valsi>, or
- <valsi>ru</valsi>, use
- <valsi>goi</valsi> and a ko'a-series cmavo:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-xIRG">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e6d7"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la .alis. klama le zarci .i ri goi ko'a blanu</jbo>
- <gloss>Alice goes-to the store. It-last-mentioned also-known-as it-1 is-blue.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>allows the store to be referred to henceforth as
- <valsi>ko'a</valsi> without ambiguity.
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-xIRG"/> is equivalent to
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qdCR"/> and eliminates any possibility of
- <valsi>ko'a</valsi> being interpreted by the listener as referring to Alice.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>answers</primary><secondary>go'i for yes/no questions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>questions</primary><secondary>answering with go'i</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>go'i</primary><secondary>as affirmative answer to yes/no question</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>go'i-series pro-bridi</primary><secondary>effect of sumti of referent bridi on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>go'i-series pro-bridi</primary><secondary>as main-bridi anaphora only</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>go'i-series pro-bridi</primary><secondary>effect of sub-clauses on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>go'i-series pro-bridi</primary><secondary>referent of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>go'i-series pro-bridi</primary><secondary>compared with ri-series pro-sumti in rules of reference</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>go'i-series pro-bridi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ri-series pro-sumti</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>anaphora</primary><secondary>pro-bridi go'i-series as</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>anaphora</primary><secondary>pro-sumti ri-series as</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pronouns</primary><secondary>as anaphora</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>anaphora</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo
- <valsi>go'i</valsi>,
- <valsi>go'a</valsi>, and
-
- <valsi>go'u</valsi> follow exactly the same rules as
-
- <valsi>ri</valsi>,
- <valsi>ra</valsi>, and
- <valsi>ru</valsi>, except that they are pro-bridi, and therefore repeat bridi, not sumti – specifically, main sentence bridi. Any bridi that are embedded within other bridi, such as relative clauses or abstractions, are not counted. Like the cmavo of the broda-series, the cmavo of the go'i-series copy all sumti with them. This makes
- <valsi>go'i</valsi> by itself convenient for answering a question affirmatively, or for repeating the last bridi, possibly with new sumti:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLN4" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e6d8"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>xu zo djan. cmene do .i go'i</jbo>
- <gloss>[True-false?] The-word
- <quote>John</quote> is-the-name of you? [repeat last bridi].</gloss>
- <natlang>Is John your name? Yes.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLn5" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e6d9"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi klama le zarci .i do go'i</jbo>
- <gloss>I go-to the store. You [repeat last bridi].</gloss>
- <natlang>I go to the store. You, too.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>cei</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>go'i-series pro-bridi</primary><secondary>assigning for permanent reference</secondary></indexterm> Note that
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLn5"/> means the same as
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-UFJf"/>, but without the bother of assigning an actual broda-series word to the first bridi. For long-term reference, use
- <jbophrase>go'i cei broda</jbophrase> or the like, analogously to
-
- <jbophrase>ri goi ko'a</jbophrase> in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-xIRG"/>.</para>
- <para> The remaining four cmavo of the go'i-series are provided for convenience or for achieving special effects. The cmavo
- <valsi>go'e</valsi> means the same as
-
- <jbophrase>go'ixire</jbophrase>: it repeats the last bridi but one. This is useful in conversation:</para>
-
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9hf5">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e6d10"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>A: mi ba klama le zarci B: mi nelci le si'o mi go'i A: do go'e</jbo>
-
- <gloss>A: I [future] go-to the store. B: I like the concept-of I [repeat last bridi]. A: You [repeat last bridi but one].</gloss>
- <natlang>A: I am going to the store. B: I like the idea of my going. A: You'll go, too.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>Here B's sentence repeats A's within an abstraction (explained in <xref linkend="chapter-abstractions"/>):
- <jbophrase>le si'o mi go'i</jbophrase> means
- <jbophrase>le si'o mi klama le zarci</jbophrase>. Why must B use the word
- <valsi>mi</valsi> explicitly to replace the x1 of
- <jbophrase>mi klama le zarci</jbophrase>, even though it looks like
- <valsi>mi</valsi> is replacing
- <valsi>mi</valsi>? Because B's
- <valsi>mi</valsi> refers to B, whereas A's
- <valsi>mi</valsi> refers to A. If B said:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2uS7">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e6d11"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi nelci le si'o go'i</jbo>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>that would mean:</para>
- <blockquote>
- <para>I like the idea of your going to the store.</para>
- </blockquote>
- <para>The repetition signalled by
- <valsi>go'i</valsi> is not literally of words, but of concepts. Finally, A repeats her own sentence, but with the x1 changed to
- <valsi>do</valsi>, meaning B. Note that in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-9hf5"/>, the tense
- <valsi>ba</valsi> (future time) is carried along by both
- <valsi>go'i</valsi> and
- <valsi>go'e</valsi>.</para>
-
- <para>Descriptions based on go'i-series cmavo can be very useful for repeating specific sumti of previous bridi:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-hwau">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e6d12"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le xekri mlatu cu klama le zarci .i le go'i cu cadzu le bisli</jbo>
- <gloss>The black cat goes-to the store. That-described-as-the-x1-place-of [repeat last bridi] walks-on the ice.</gloss>
- <natlang>The black cat goes to the store. It walks on the ice.</natlang>
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>Here the
- <valsi>go'i</valsi> repeats
- <jbophrase>le xekri mlatu cu klama le zarci</jbophrase>, and since
- <valsi>le</valsi> makes the x1 place into a description, and the x1 place of this bridi is
- <jbophrase>le xekri mlatu</jbophrase>,
- <jbophrase>le go'i</jbophrase> means
- <jbophrase>le xekri mlatu</jbophrase>.</para>
- <para>The cmavo
- <valsi>go'o</valsi>,
-
- <valsi>nei</valsi>, and
-
- <valsi>no'a</valsi> have been little used so far. They repeat respectively some future bridi, the current bridi, and the bridi that encloses the current bridi (
-
- <valsi>no'a</valsi>, unlike the other members of the go'i- series, can repeat non-sentence bridi). Here are a few examples:</para>
-
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-EUmV">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e6d13"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi nupre le nu mi go'o .i ba dunda le djini le bersa .i ba dunda le zdani le tixnu</jbo>
- <gloss>I promise the event-of I [repeat future bridi] [Future] give the money to-the son [Future] give the house to-the daughter</gloss>
- <natlang>I promise to do the following: Give the money to my son. Give the house to my daughter.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>(Note: The Lojban does not contain an equivalent of the
- <valsi>my</valsi> in the colloquial English; it leaves the fact that it is the speaker's son and daughter that are referred to implicit. To make the fact explicit, use
- <jbophrase>le bersa</jbophrase>/<jbophrase>tixnu be mi</jbophrase>.)</para>
- <para>For good examples of
- <valsi>nei</valsi> and
-
- <valsi>no'a</valsi>, we need nested bridi contexts:</para>
-
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLo1" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e6d14"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi se pluka le nu do pensi le nu nei kei pu le nu do zukte</jbo>
-
- <gloss>I am-pleased-by the event-of (you think-about (the event-of [main bridi]) before the-event of (your acting).</gloss>
- <natlang>I am pleased that you thought about whether I would be pleased (about ...) before you acted.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLop" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e6d15"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi ba klama ca le nu do no'a</jbo>
-
- <gloss>I [future] go [present] the event-of you [repeats outer bridi]</gloss>
- <natlang>I will go when you do.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>go'i ra'o</primary><secondary>contrasted with go'i</secondary></indexterm> Finally,
- <valsi>ra'o</valsi> is a cmavo that can be appended to any go'i-series cmavo, or indeed any cmavo of selma'o GOhA, to signal that pro-sumti or pro-bridi cmavo in the antecedent are to be repeated literally and reinterpreted in their new context. Normally, any pro-sumti used within the antecedent of the pro-bridi keep their meanings intact. In the presence of
- <valsi>ra'o</valsi>, however, their meanings must be reinterpreted with reference to the new environment. If someone says to you:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9Uq6">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e6d16"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi ba lumci lemi karce</jbo>
- <natlang>I will wash my car.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>you might reply either:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1fK3">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e6d17"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi go'i</jbo>
- <natlang>I will wash your car.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>or:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-qW1B">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e6d18"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi go'i ra'o</jbo>
-
- <natlang>I will wash my car.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>The
- <valsi>ra'o</valsi> forces the second
- <valsi>mi</valsi> from the original bridi to mean the new speaker rather than the former speaker. This means that
- <jbophrase>go'e ra'o</jbophrase> would be an acceptable alternative to
-
- <jbophrase>do go'e</jbophrase> in B's statement in
-
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-9hf5"/>.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>go'i-series pro-bridi</primary><secondary>in quotations</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ri-series pro-sumti</primary><secondary>in quotations</secondary></indexterm> The anaphoric pro-sumti of this section can be used in quotations, but never refer to any of the supporting text outside the quotation, since speakers presumably do not know that they may be quoted by someone else.</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>go'i-series pro-bridi</primary><secondary>in quotation series</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ri-series pro-sumti</primary><secondary>in quotation series</secondary></indexterm> However, a
- <jbophrase>ri-</jbophrase>series or
- <jbophrase>go'a-</jbophrase>series reference within a quotation can refer to something mentioned in an earlier quotation if the two quotations are closely related in time and context. This allows a quotation to be broken up by narrative material without interfering with the pro-sumti within it. Here's an example:</para>
-
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-LWyE">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e6d19"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la djan. cusku lu mi klama le zarci li'u .i la .alis. cusku lu mi go'i li'u</jbo>
- <gloss>John says [quote] I go-to the store [unquote]. Alice says [quote] I [repeat] [unquote].</gloss>
- <natlang>John says, <quote>I am going to the store.</quote> Alice says, <quote>Me too.</quote></natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>go'i-series pro-bridi</primary><secondary>in narrative about quotation</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ri-series pro-sumti</primary><secondary>in narrative about quotation</secondary></indexterm> Of course, there is no problem with narrative material referring to something within a quotation: people who quote, unlike people who are quoted, are aware of what they are doing.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-zohe-cohe-series">
- <title>Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series</title>
-
-
- <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>zo'e</cmavo>
- <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
- <series>zo'e-series</series>
- <description>the obvious value</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
-
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>zu'i</cmavo>
- <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
- <series>zo'e-series</series>
- <description>the typical value</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
-
-
-
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>zi'o</cmavo>
- <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
- <series>zo'e-series</series>
- <description>the nonexistent value</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
-
-
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>co'e</cmavo>
- <selmaho>GOhA</selmaho>
- <series>co'e-series</series>
- <description>has the obvious relationship</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
-
- </cmavo-list>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>typical value</primary><secondary>contrasted with elliptical value for sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>elliptical value</primary><secondary>contrasted with typical value for sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>elliptical sumti</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>zo'e</primary><secondary>as place-holder for sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>elliptical pro-bridi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>indefinite pro-bridi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>unspecified</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>elliptical pro-sumti</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>indefinite pro-sumti</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>co'e-series pro-bridi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>zo'e-series pro-sumti</primary></indexterm> The cmavo of the zo'e-series represent indefinite, unspecified sumti. The cmavo
-
-
- <valsi>zo'e</valsi> represents an elliptical value for this sumti place; it is the optional spoken place holder when a sumti is skipped without being specified. Note that the elliptical value is not always the typical value. The properties of ellipsis lead to an elliptical sumti being defined as
-
-
-
-
-
- <quote>whatever I want it to mean but haven't bothered to figure out, or figure out how to express</quote>.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>typical sumti</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>typical</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo
- <valsi>zu'i</valsi>, on the other hand, represents the typical value for this place of this bridi:</para>
-
-
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-VScg">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e7d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi klama le bartu be le zdani le nenri be le zdani zu'i zu'i</jbo>
- <gloss>I go to-the outside of the house from-the inside of the house [by-typical-route] [by-typical-means]</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>In
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-VScg"/>, the first
- <valsi>zu'i</valsi> probably means something like
-
- <quote>by the door</quote>, and the second
- <valsi>zu'i</valsi> probably means something like
-
- <quote>on foot</quote>, those being the typical route and means for leaving a house. On the other hand, if you are at the top of a high rise during a fire, neither
- <valsi>zu'i</valsi> is appropriate. It's also common to use
-
- <valsi>zu'i</valsi> in
-
- <quote>by standard</quote> places.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>irrelevant</primary><secondary>specifying of sumti place</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>irrelevant to relationship</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>zi'o</primary></indexterm> Finally, the cmavo
- <valsi>zi'o</valsi> represents a value which does not even exist. When a bridi fills one of its places with
- <valsi>zi'o</valsi>, what is really meant is that the selbri has a place which is irrelevant to the true relationship the speaker wishes to express. For example, the place structure of
-
- <valsi>zbasu</valsi> is:</para>
- <definition><content>actor x1 makes x2 from materials x3</content></definition>
- <para>
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>living things</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
- Consider the sentence</para>
- <blockquote>
- <para>Living things are made from cells.</para>
- </blockquote>
- <para>This cannot be correctly expressed as:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ipCV">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e7d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>loi jmive cu se zbasu [zo'e] fi loi selci</jbo>
- <gloss>The-mass-of living-things is-made [by-something] from the-mass-of cells</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>because the
- <valsi>zo'e</valsi>, expressed or understood, in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-ipCV"/> indicates that there is still a
- <quote>maker</quote> in this relationship. We do not generally suppose, however, that someone
- <quote>makes</quote> living things from cells. The best answer is probably to find a different selbri, one which does not imply a
-
- <quote>maker</quote>: however, an alternative strategy is to use
- <valsi>zi'o</valsi> to eliminate the maker place:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-xxm1">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e7d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>loi jmive cu se zbasu zi'o loi selci</jbo>
- <gloss>The-mass-of living-things is-made [without-maker] from the-mass-of cells.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>zi'o</primary><secondary>as creating new selbri</secondary></indexterm> Note: The use of
- <valsi>zi'o</valsi> to block up, as it were, one place of a selbri actually creates a new selbri with a different place structure. Consider the following examples:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLoY" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e7d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi zbasu le dinju loi mudri</jbo>
- <gloss>I make the building from-some-of-the-mass-of wood.</gloss>
- <natlang>I make the building out of wood.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLPI" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e7d5"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>zi'o zbasu le dinju loi mudri</jbo>
- <gloss>[without-maker] makes the building from-some-of-the-mass-of wood.</gloss>
- <natlang>The building is made out of wood.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLpy" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e7d6"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi zbasu zi'o loi mudri</jbo>
- <gloss>I make [without-thing-made] from-some-of-the-mass-of wood.</gloss>
- <natlang>I build using wood.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLqE" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e7d7"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi zbasu le dinju zi'o</jbo>
- <gloss>I make the building [without-material].</gloss>
- <natlang>I make the building.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>If
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLoY"/> is true, then
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLPI"/> through
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLqE"/> must be true also. However,
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-xxm1"/> does not correspond to any sentence with three regular (non-
- <valsi>zi'o</valsi>) sumti.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>co'e</primary><secondary>as selbri place-holder</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri</primary><secondary>omitting with co'e</secondary></indexterm> The pro-bridi
- <valsi>co'e</valsi> (which by itself constitutes the co'e-series of selma'o GOhA) represents the elliptical selbri. Lojban grammar does not allow the speaker to merely omit a selbri from a bridi, although any or all sumti may be freely omitted. Being vague about a relationship requires the use of
-
- <valsi>co'e</valsi> as a selbri place-holder:</para>
-
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-uy9R">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e7d8"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi troci le nu mi co'e le vorme</jbo>
-
- <gloss>I try the event-of my [doing-the-obvious-action] to-the door.</gloss>
- <natlang>I try the door.</natlang>
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>The English version means, and the Lojban version probably means, that I try to open the door, but the relationship of opening is not actually specified; the Lojbanic listener must guess it from context. Lojban, unlike English, makes it clear that there is an implicit action that is not being expressed.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>co'e</primary><secondary>rationale for word form</secondary></indexterm> The form of
- <valsi>co'e</valsi> was chosen to resemble
-
- <valsi>zo'e</valsi>; the cmavo
- <valsi>do'e</valsi> of selma'o BAI (see
-
- <xref linkend="section-BAI"/>) also belongs to the same group of cmavo.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>zo'e-series</primary><secondary>compared with do'i as indefinite pro-sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>do'i</primary><secondary>compared with zo'e-series as indefinite pro-sumti</secondary></indexterm> Note that
- <valsi>do'i</valsi>, of the di'u-series, is also a kind of indefinite pro-sumti: it is indefinite in referent, but is restricted to referring only to an utterance.</para>
-
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-voha-series">
- <title>Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series</title>
-
-
- <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>vo'a</cmavo>
- <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
- <series>vo'a-series</series>
- <description>x1 of this bridi </description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>vo'e</cmavo>
- <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
- <series>vo'a-series</series>
- <description>x2 of this bridi</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>vo'i</cmavo>
- <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
- <series>vo'a-series</series>
- <description>x3 of this bridi</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>vo'o</cmavo>
- <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
- <series>vo'a-series</series>
- <description>x4 of this bridi</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>vo'u</cmavo>
- <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
- <series>vo'a-series</series>
- <description>x5 of this bridi</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
-
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>soi</cmavo>
- <selmaho>SOI</selmaho>
- <series></series>
- <description>reciprocity</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
-
-
-
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>se'u</cmavo>
- <selmaho>SEhU</selmaho>
- <series></series>
- <description>soi terminator</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>reciprocal pro-sumti</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>reflexive pro-sumti</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>referring to place of same bridi with vo'a-series</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>vo'a-series</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>anaphora</primary><secondary>pro-sumti vo'a-series as</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo of the vo'a-series are pro-sumti anaphora, like those of the ri-series, but have a specific function. These cmavo refer to the other places of the same bridi; the five of them represent up to five places. The same vo'a-series cmavo mean different things in different bridi. Some examples:</para>
-
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLqT" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>wash self</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c7e8d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi lumci vo'a</jbo>
- <natlang>I wash myself</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLqV" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e8d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi klama le zarci vo'e</jbo>
- <natlang>I go to the store from itself [by some route unspecified].</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>referring to place of different bridi with go'i-series</secondary></indexterm> To refer to places of neighboring bridi, constructions like
- <jbophrase>le se go'i ku</jbophrase> do the job: this refers to the 2nd place of the previous main bridi, as explained in
- <xref linkend="section-ri-gohi-series"/>.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vice versa</primary><secondary>English</secondary><tertiary>expressing with vo'a-series pro-sumti and soi</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vo'a-series pro-sumti</primary><secondary>use in expressing reciprocity with soi</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>soi</primary><secondary>use in expressing reciprocity with vo'a-series pro-sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>reciprocity</primary><secondary>expressing with vo'a-series pro-sumti and soi</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo of the vo'a-series are also used with
- <valsi>soi</valsi> (of selma'o SOI) to precisely express reciprocity, which in English is imprecisely expressed with a discursive phrase like
-
-
- <quote>vice versa</quote>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-vpb3">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>vice versa</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c7e8d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi prami do soi vo'a vo'e</jbo>
- <gloss>I love you [reciprocity] [x1 of this bridi] [x2 of this bridi].</gloss>
-
-
- <natlang>I love you and vice versa (swapping
- <quote>I</quote> and
- <quote>you</quote>).</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>soi with one following sumti</primary><secondary>convention</secondary></indexterm> The significance of
- <jbophrase>soi vo'a vo'e</jbophrase> is that the bridi is still true even if the x1 (specified by
- <valsi>vo'a</valsi>) and the x2 (specified by
- <valsi>vo'e</valsi>) places are interchanged. If only a single sumti follows
- <valsi>soi</valsi>, then the sumti immediately preceding
- <valsi>soi</valsi> is understood to be one of those involved:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-CMQ1">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e8d4"/>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>vice versa</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi prami do soi vo'a</jbo>
- <gloss>I love you [reciprocity] [x1 of this bridi].</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>again involves the x1 and x2 places.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>soi</primary><secondary>use in expressing reciprocity</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>reciprocity</primary><secondary>expressing with soi</secondary></indexterm> Of course, other places can be involved, and other sumti may be used in place of vo'a-series cmavo, provided those other sumti can be reasonably understood as referring to the same things mentioned in the bridi proper. Here are several examples that mean the same thing:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rqNJ">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e8d5"/>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>vice versa</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <!-- FIXME: I bet this looks bad; this isn't quite an
- interlinear gloss situation -->
- <jbo>mi bajykla ti ta soi vo'e</jbo>
- <jbo>mi bajykla ti ta soi vo'e vo'i</jbo>
- <jbo>soi vo'e vo'i mi bajykla ti ta</jbo>
- <gloss>I runningly-go to this from that and vice versa (to that from this).</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>se'u</primary><secondary>elidability considerations</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>se'u</primary><secondary>as elidable terminator for soi</secondary></indexterm> The elidable terminator for
- <valsi>soi</valsi> is
- <valsi>se'u</valsi> (selma'o SEhU), which is normally needed only if there is just one sumti after the
- <valsi>soi</valsi>, and the
- <valsi>soi</valsi> construction is not at the end of the bridi. Constructions using
- <valsi>soi</valsi> are free modifiers, and as such can go almost anywhere. Here is an example where
-
- <valsi>se'u</valsi> is required:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-RFBV">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e8d6"/>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>vice versa</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi bajykla ti soi vo'i se'u ta</jbo>
- <gloss>I runningly-go to-this [reciprocity] [x3 of this bridi] from-that</gloss>
- <natlang>I run to this from that and vice versa.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-sumti-and-bridi-questions">
- <title>sumti and bridi questions:
-
- <valsi>ma</valsi> and
- <valsi>mo</valsi></title>
- <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ma</cmavo>
- <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
- <description>sumti question</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>mo</cmavo>
- <selmaho>GOhA</selmaho>
- <description>bridi question</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>questions</primary><secondary>sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ma</primary><secondary>as sumti question</secondary></indexterm> Lojban questions are more fully explained in
- <xref linkend="section-questions-and-answers"/>, but
- <valsi>ma</valsi> and
- <valsi>mo</valsi> are listed in this chapter for completeness. The cmavo
- <valsi>ma</valsi> asks for a sumti to make the bridi true:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Csod">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e9d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>do klama ma</jbo>
- <gloss>You go to-what-destination?</gloss>
- <natlang>Where are you going?</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>go'i</primary><secondary>compared with mo in overriding of arguments</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mo</primary><secondary>compared with go'i in overriding of arguments</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>questions</primary><secondary>selbri</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mo</primary><secondary>as selbri question</secondary></indexterm> The cmavo
- <valsi>mo</valsi>, on the other hand, asks for a selbri which makes the question bridi true. If the answer is a full bridi, then the arguments of the answer override the arguments in the question, in the same manner as the go'i-series cmavo. A simple example is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Ih10">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e9d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>do mo</jbo>
- <gloss>What predicate is true as applied to you?</gloss>
- <natlang>How are you?</natlang>
- <natlang>What are you doing?</natlang>
- <natlang>What are you?</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-8HKo"/> is a truly pregnant question that will have several meanings depending on context.</para>
- <para>(One thing it probably does not mean is
- <quote>Who are you?</quote> in the sense
- <quote>What is your name/identity?</quote>, which is better expressed by:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-8HKo">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>what is your name</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c7e9d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ma cmene do</jbo>
- <gloss>What sumti is-the-name-of you?</gloss>
- <natlang>What is your name?</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>or even</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-y4Yi">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e9d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>doi ma</jbo>
- <gloss>O [what sumti?]</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>which uses the vocative
- <valsi>doi</valsi> to address someone, and simultaneously asks who the someone is.)</para>
-
- <para>A further example of
- <valsi>mo</valsi>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-PP7r">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e9d5"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>lo mo prenu cu darxi do .i barda</jbo>
- <gloss>A [what selbri?] type-of person hit you? (Observative:) A big thing.</gloss>
- <natlang>Which person hit you? The big one.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple mo</primary><secondary>as multiple questions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple ma</primary><secondary>as multiple questions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple questions in one bridi</primary><secondary>expressing</secondary></indexterm> When
- <valsi>ma</valsi> or
- <valsi>mo</valsi> is repeated, multiple questions are being asked simultaneously:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2KPQ">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e9d6"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ma djuno ma</jbo>
- <gloss>[What sumti] knows [what sumti]?</gloss>
- <natlang>Who knows what?</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-keha">
- <title>Relativized pro-sumti:
- <valsi>ke'a</valsi></title>
- <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ke'a</cmavo>
- <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
- <description>relativized sumti</description>
-
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>use of ke'a for referral to relativized sumti in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ke'a</primary><secondary>for relativized sumti in relative clauses</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>for relativized sumti in relative clauses</secondary></indexterm> This pro-sumti is used in relative clauses (explained in
- <xref linkend="chapter-relative-clauses"/>) to indicate how the sumti being relativized fits within the clause. For example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-UNBb">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>cat of plastic</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c7e10d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi catlu lo mlatu poi [zo'e] zbasu ke'a lei slasi</jbo>
- <gloss>I see a cat such-that something-unspecified makes the-thing-being-relativized [the cat] from-some-mass-of plastic.</gloss>
- <natlang>I see a cat made of plastic.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ke'a</primary><secondary>ambiguity when omitted</secondary></indexterm> If
- <valsi>ke'a</valsi> were omitted from
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-UNBb"/>, it might be confused with:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-0EWp">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e10d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi catlu lo mlatu poi [ke'a] zbasu lei slasi</jbo>
- <gloss>I see a cat such-that the-thing-being-relativized [the cat] makes a-mass-of plastic</gloss>
- <natlang>I see a cat that makes plastic.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ri</primary><secondary>contrasted with ke'a in relative clauses</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ke'a</primary><secondary>contrasted with ri in relative clauses</secondary></indexterm> The anaphora cmavo
-
- <valsi>ri</valsi> cannot be used in place of
- <valsi>ke'a</valsi> in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-UNBb"/> and
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-0EWp"/>, because the relativized sumti is not yet complete when the
-
- <valsi>ke'a</valsi> appears.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>subscripts</primary><secondary>on ke'a for nested relative clauses</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ke'a</primary><secondary>subscripting for nested relative clauses</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ke'a</primary><secondary>and abstract descriptions</secondary></indexterm> Note that
- <valsi>ke'a</valsi> is used only with relative clauses, and not with other embedded bridi such as abstract descriptions. In the case of relative clauses within relative clauses,
- <valsi>ke'a</valsi> may be subscripted to make the difference clear (see
- <xref linkend="section-nesting"/>).</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-cehu">
- <title>Abstraction focus pro-sumti:
- <valsi>ce'u</valsi></title>
- <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ce'u</cmavo>
- <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
- <description>abstraction focus</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
- <para> The cmavo
- <valsi>ce'u</valsi> is used within abstraction bridi, particularly property abstractions introduced by the cmavo
-
- <valsi>ka</valsi>. Abstractions, including the uses of
- <valsi>ce'u</valsi>, are discussed in full in
- <xref linkend="chapter-abstractions"/>.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ce'u</primary><secondary>use in specifying sumti place of property in abstraction</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>property abstraction</primary><secondary>specifying sumti place of property with ce'u</secondary></indexterm> In brief: Every property abstraction specifies a property of one of the sumti in it; that sumti place is filled by using
-
-
- <valsi>ce'u</valsi>. This convention enables us to distinguish clearly between:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ELxF">
- <title>
-
-
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>happiness</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
-
- <anchor xml:id="c7e11d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le ka ce'u gleki</jbo>
- <gloss>the property-of (X being-happy)</gloss>
- <gloss>the property of being happy</gloss>
- <natlang>happiness</natlang>
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>and</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-VSw3">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e11d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le ka gleki ce'u</jbo>
- <gloss>the property-of (being-happy about-X)</gloss>
- <natlang>the property of being that which someone is happy about</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-da-buha-series">
- <title>Bound variable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the da-series and the bu'a-series</title>
- <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>da</cmavo>
- <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
- <series>da-series</series>
- <description>something-1 </description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>de</cmavo>
- <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
- <series>da-series</series>
- <description>something-2</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>di</cmavo>
- <selmaho>KOhA</selmaho>
- <series>da-series</series>
- <description>something-3</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
-
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>bu'a</cmavo>
- <selmaho>GOhA</selmaho>
- <series>bu'a-series</series>
- <description>some-predicate-1</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>bu'e</cmavo>
- <selmaho>GOhA</selmaho>
- <series>bu'a-series</series>
- <description>some-predicate-2</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
-
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>bu'i</cmavo>
- <selmaho>GOhA</selmaho>
- <series>bu'a-series</series>
- <description>some-predicate-3</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
-
- </cmavo-list>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bu'a-series pro-sumti</primary><secondary>for bound variables</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>da-series pro-sumti</primary><secondary>for bound variables</secondary></indexterm> Bound variables belong to the predicate-logic part of Lojban, and are listed here for completeness only. Their semantics is explained in
- <xref linkend="chapter-quantifiers"/>. It is worth mentioning that the Lojban translation of
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-VISf"/> is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-6vxz">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e12d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la djan. cu lafti da poi grana ku'o gi'e desygau da</jbo>
- <gloss>John raised something-1 which is-a-stick and shake-did something-1.</gloss>
- <natlang>John picked up a stick and shook it.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-daho">
- <title>Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling</title>
- <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>da'o</cmavo>
-
- <selmaho>DAhO</selmaho>
- <description>cancel all pro-sumti/pro-bridi</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-bridi assignment</primary><secondary>stability of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti assignment</primary><secondary>stability of</secondary></indexterm> How long does a pro-sumti or pro-bridi remain stable? In other words, once we know the referent of a pro-sumti or pro-bridi, how long can we be sure that future uses of the same cmavo have the same referent? The answer to this question depends on which series the cmavo belongs to.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bound variable pro-sumti</primary><secondary>stability of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>assignable pro-sumti</primary><secondary>explicit cancellation of by rebinding</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>assignable pro-sumti</primary><secondary>stability of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>personal pro-sumti</primary><secondary>stability of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>personal pro-sumti</primary><secondary>implicit cancellation of by change of speaker/listener</secondary></indexterm> Personal pro-sumti are stable until there is a change of speaker or listener, possibly signaled by a vocative. Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi last indefinitely or until rebound with
- <valsi>goi</valsi> or
- <valsi>cei</valsi>. Bound variable pro-sumti and pro-bridi also generally last until re-bound; details are available in
-
- <xref linkend="section-notes-on-variables"/>.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>anaphoric pro-bridi</primary><secondary>stability of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>anaphoric pro-sumti</primary><secondary>stability of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ke'a</primary><secondary>stability of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>reflexive pro-sumti</primary><secondary>stability of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>utterance pro-sumti</primary><secondary>stability of</secondary></indexterm> Utterance pro-sumti are stable only within the utterance in which they appear; similarly, reflexive pro-sumti are stable only within the bridi in which they appear; and
-
- <valsi>ke'a</valsi> is stable only within its relative clause. Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi are stable only within narrow limits depending on the rules for the particular cmavo.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>indefinite pro-bridi</primary><secondary>stability of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>indefinite pro-sumti</primary><secondary>stability of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>demonstrative pro-sumti</primary><secondary>stability of</secondary></indexterm> Demonstrative pro-sumti, indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi, and sumti and bridi questions potentially change referents every time they are used.</para>
-
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>da'o</primary><secondary>syntax of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>da'o</primary><secondary>for cancellation of pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignment</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cancellation of pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignment</primary><secondary>with da'o</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-bridi assignment</primary><secondary>explicit cancellation of with da'o</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti assignment</primary><secondary>explicit cancellation of with da'o</secondary></indexterm> However, there are ways to cancel all pro-sumti and pro-bridi, so that none of them have known referents. (Some, such as
- <valsi>mi</valsi>, will acquire the same referent as soon as they are used again after the cancellation.) The simplest way to cancel everything is with the cmavo
- <valsi>da'o</valsi> of selma'o DAhO, which is used solely for this purpose; it may appear anywhere, and has no effect on the grammar of texts containing it. One use of
-
- <valsi>da'o</valsi> is when entering a conversation, to indicate that one's pro-sumti assignments have nothing to do with any assignments already made by other participants in the conversation.</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-bridi assignment</primary><secondary>no'i effect on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti assignment</primary><secondary>no'i effect on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>no'i</primary><secondary>effect on pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignments</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ni'o</primary><secondary>effect on pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignments</secondary></indexterm> In addition, the cmavo
- <valsi>ni'o</valsi> and
- <valsi>no'i</valsi> of selma'o NIhO, which are used primarily to indicate shifts in topic, may also have the effect of canceling pro-sumti and pro-bridi assignments, or of reinstating ones formerly in effect. More explanations of NIhO can be found in
- <xref linkend="section-niho"/>.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-du">
- <title>The identity predicate: du</title>
-
- <para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>du</cmavo>
- <selmaho>GOhA</selmaho>
- <description>identity</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>identity predicate</primary></indexterm> The cmavo
- <valsi>du</valsi> has the place structure:</para>
- <definition><content>x1 is identical with x2, x3, ...</content></definition>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>du</primary><secondary>rationale for selection of selma'o for</secondary></indexterm> and appears in selma'o GOhA for reasons of convenience: it is not a pro-bridi.
- <valsi>du</valsi> serves as mathematical
- <quote>=</quote>, and outside mathematical contexts is used for defining or identifying. Mathematical examples may be found in
- <xref linkend="chapter-mekso"/>.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mintu</primary><secondary>contrasted with du</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>du</primary><secondary>contrasted with mintu</secondary></indexterm> The main difference between</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-GGoH">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e14d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ko'a du le nanmu</jbo>
- <gloss>It-1 is-identical-to the man</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>and</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-prfu">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e14d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ko'a mintu le nanmu</jbo>
-
- <gloss>It-1 is-the-same-as the man</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>du</primary><secondary>meaning of</secondary></indexterm> is this defining nature.
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-GGoH"/> presumes that the speaker is responding to a request for information about what
- <valsi>ko'a</valsi> refers to, or that the speaker in some way feels the need to define
- <valsi>ko'a</valsi> for later reference. A bridi with
- <valsi>du</valsi> is an identity sentence, somewhat metalinguistically saying that all attached sumti are representations for the same referent. There may be any number of sumti associated with
- <valsi>du</valsi>, and all are said to be identical.</para>
- <para>
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-prfu"/>, however, predicates; it is used to make a claim about the identity of
- <valsi>ko'a</valsi>, which presumably has been defined previously.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>dunli</primary><secondary>contrasted with du</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>du</primary><secondary>contrasted with dunli</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>du</primary><secondary>derivation of</secondary></indexterm> Note:
- <valsi>du</valsi> historically is derived from
- <valsi>dunli</valsi>, but
-
- <valsi>dunli</valsi> has a third place which
-
- <valsi>du</valsi> lacks: the standard of equality.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-anaphoric-rafsi">
- <title>lujvo based on pro-sumti</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>rafsi for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>rafsi</primary><secondary>based on pro-sumti</secondary></indexterm> There exist rafsi allocated to a few cmavo of selma'o KOhA, but they are rarely used. (See
- <xref linkend="section-koha-summary"/> for a complete list.) The obvious way to use them is as internal sumti, filling in an appropriate place of the gismu or lujvo to which they are attached; as such, they usually stand as the first rafsi in their lujvo.</para>
- <para>
-
-<indexterm type="general"><primary>you-talk</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
- <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti rafsi</primary><secondary>effect of on place structure of lujvo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>pro-sumti rafsi effect on place structure of</secondary></indexterm> Thus
- <valsi>donta'a</valsi>, meaning
- <quote>you-talk</quote>, would be interpreted as
- <jbophrase>tavla be do</jbophrase>, and would have the place structure</para>
-
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-unmV">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e15d1"/>
- </title>
- <definition><content>t1 talks to you about subject t3 in language t4</content></definition>
- </example>
- <para>since <varname>t2</varname> (the addressee) is already known to be
- <valsi>do</valsi>.</para>
- <para>
-
-<indexterm type="general"><primary>you-cmavo</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
- On the other hand, the lujvo
- <valsi>donma'o</valsi>, literally
- <quote>you-cmavo</quote>, which means
-
- <quote>a second person personal pronoun</quote>, would be interpreted as
- <jbophrase>cmavo be zo do</jbophrase>, and have the place structure:</para>
-
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-H5NB">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e15d2"/>
- </title>
- <definition><content>c1 is a second person pronoun in language c4</content></definition>
- </example>
-
- <para>since both the <varname>c2</varname> place (the grammatical class) and the <varname>c3</varname> place (the meaning) are obvious from the context
- <valsi>do</valsi>.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti rafsi</primary><secondary>anticipated use of for abbreviating inconvenient forms</secondary></indexterm> An anticipated use of rafsi for cmavo in the
-
- <valsi>fo'a</valsi> series is to express lujvo which can't be expressed in a convenient rafsi form, because they are too long to express, or are formally inconvenient (fu'ivla, cmene, and so forth.) An example would be:</para>
-
-
-
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-tH6w">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c7e15d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>fo'a goi le kulnrsu,omi .i lo fo'arselsanga</jbo>
- <gloss>x6 stands for Finnish-culture. An x6-song.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>
-
-<indexterm type="general"><primary>beverage</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
- <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>zi'o rafsi</primary><secondary>effect of on place structure of lujvo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>lujvo</primary><secondary>zi'o rafsi effect on place structure of</secondary></indexterm> Finally, lujvo involving
- <valsi>zi'o</valsi> are also possible, and are fully discussed in
- <xref linkend="chapter-lujvo"/>. In brief, the convention is to use the rafsi for <!-- FIXME: chapter 12 does not talk about zi'o, it's probably supposed to -->
- <valsi>zi'o</valsi> as a prefix immediately followed by the rafsi for the number of the place to be deleted. Thus, if we consider a beverage (something drunk without considering who, if anyone, drinks it) as a
-
-
- <jbophrase>se pinxe be zi'o</jbophrase>, the lujvo corresponding to this is
- <valsi>zilrelselpinxe</valsi> (deleting the second place of
- <jbophrase>se pinxe</jbophrase>). Deleting the x1 place in this fashion would move all remaining places up by one. This would mean that
- <valsi>zilpavypinxe</valsi> has the same place structure as
- <valsi>zilrelselpinxe</valsi>, and
- <jbophrase>lo zilpavypinxe</jbophrase>, like
- <jbophrase>lo zilrelselpinxe</jbophrase>, refers to a beverage, and not to a non-existent drinker.</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-bridi rafsi</primary><secondary>as producing context-dependent meanings</secondary></indexterm> The pro-bridi
- <valsi>co'e</valsi>,
-
- <valsi>du</valsi>, and
- <valsi>bu'a</valsi> also have rafsi, which can be used just as if they were gismu. The resulting lujvo have (except for
- <jbophrase>du-</jbophrase>based lujvo) highly context-dependent meanings.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-koha-summary">
- <title>KOhA cmavo by series</title>
- <para>mi-series</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>mi</cmavo>
- <description>I (rafsi: <rafsi>mib</rafsi>)</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>do</cmavo>
- <description>you (rafsi: <rafsi>don</rafsi> and <valsi>doi</valsi>)</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>mi'o</cmavo>
- <description>you and I</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>mi'a</cmavo>
- <description>I and others, we but not you</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ma'a</cmavo>
- <description>you and I and others</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>do'o</cmavo>
- <description>you and others</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ko</cmavo>
- <description>you-imperative</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
-
- <para>ti-series</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ti</cmavo>
- <description>this here; something nearby (rafsi: <rafsi>tif</rafsi>)</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ta</cmavo>
- <description>that there; something distant (rafsi: <rafsi>taz</rafsi>)</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>tu</cmavo>
- <description>that yonder; something far distant (rafsi: <rafsi>tuf</rafsi>)</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
-
- <para>di'u-series</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>di'u</cmavo>
- <description>the previous utterance</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>de'u</cmavo>
- <description>an earlier utterance</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>da'u</cmavo>
- <description>a much earlier utterance</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>di'e</cmavo>
- <description>the next utterance</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>de'e</cmavo>
- <description>a later utterance</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>da'e</cmavo>
- <description>a much later utterance</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>dei</cmavo>
- <description>this very utterance</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>do'i</cmavo>
- <description>some utterance</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
-
- <para>ko'a-series</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ko'a</cmavo>
- <description>it-1; 1st assignable pro-sumti</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ko'e</cmavo>
- <description>it-2; 2nd assignable pro-sumti</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ko'i</cmavo>
- <description>it-3; 3rd assignable pro-sumti</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ko'o</cmavo>
- <description>it-4; 4th assignable pro-sumti</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ko'u</cmavo>
- <description>it-5; 5th assignable pro-sumti</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>fo'a</cmavo>
- <description>it-6; 6th assignable pro-sumti (rafsi: <valsi>fo'a</valsi>)</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>fo'e</cmavo>
- <description>it-7; 7th assignable pro-sumti (rafsi: <valsi>fo'e</valsi>)</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>fo'i</cmavo>
- <description>it-8; 8th assignable pro-sumti (rafsi: <valsi>fo'i</valsi>)</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>fo'o</cmavo>
- <description>it-9; 9th assignable pro-sumti</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>fo'u</cmavo>
- <description>it-10; 10th assignable pro-sumti</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
-
- <para>ri-series</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ri</cmavo>
- <description>(repeats the last sumti)</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ra</cmavo>
- <description>(repeats a previous sumti)</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ru</cmavo>
- <description>(repeats a long-ago sumti)</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
-
- <para>zo'e-series</para>
- <cmavo-list>
-
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>zo'e</cmavo>
- <description>the obvious value</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>zu'i</cmavo>
- <description>the typical value</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>zi'o</cmavo>
- <description>the nonexistent value (rafsi: <rafsi>zil</rafsi>)</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
-
- <para>vo'a-series</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>vo'a</cmavo>
- <description>x1 of this bridi</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>vo'e</cmavo>
- <description>x2 of this bridi</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>vo'i</cmavo>
- <description>x3 of this bridi</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>vo'o</cmavo>
- <description>x4 of this bridi</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>vo'u</cmavo>
- <description>x5 of this bridi</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
-
- <para>da-series</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>da</cmavo>
- <description>something-1 (rafsi: <rafsi>dav</rafsi>/<rafsi>dza</rafsi>)</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>de</cmavo>
- <description>something-2</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>di</cmavo>
- <description>something-3</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
-
- <para>others:</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ke'a</cmavo>
- <description>relativized sumti</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ma</cmavo>
- <description>sumti question</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ce'u</cmavo>
- <description>abstraction focus</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-goha-summary">
- <title>GOhA and other pro-bridi by series</title>
-
- <para>broda-series (not GOhA):</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>broda</cmavo>
- <description>is-1; 1st assignable pro-bridi</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>brode</cmavo>
- <description>is-2; 2nd assignable pro-bridi</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>brodi</cmavo>
- <description>is-3; 3rd assignable pro-bridi</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>brodo</cmavo>
- <description>is-4; 4th assignable pro-bridi</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>brodu</cmavo>
- <description>is-5; 5th assignable pro-bridi</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
-
- <para>go'i-series</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>go'i</cmavo>
- <description>(repeats the last bridi)</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>go'a</cmavo>
- <description>(repeats a previous bridi)</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>go'u</cmavo>
- <description>(repeats a long-ago bridi)</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>go'e</cmavo>
- <description>(repeats the last-but-one bridi)</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>go'o</cmavo>
- <description>(repeats a future bridi)</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>nei</cmavo>
- <description>(repeats the current bridi)</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>no'a</cmavo>
- <description>(repeats the next outer bridi)</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
-
- <para>bu'a-series</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>bu'a</cmavo>
- <description>some-predicate-1 (rafsi: <rafsi>bul</rafsi>)</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>bu'e</cmavo>
- <description>some-predicate-2</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>bu'i</cmavo>
- <description>some-predicate-3</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
-
- <para>others:</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>co'e</cmavo>
- <description>has the obvious relationship (rafsi: <rafsi>com</rafsi>/<valsi>co'e</valsi>)</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>mo</cmavo>
- <description>bridi question</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>du</cmavo>
- <description role="place-structure">identity: x1 is identical to x2, x3 ...</description>
- <!-- (rafsi: <rafsi>dub</rafsi>/<valsi>du'o</valsi>) -->
- <rafsi>dub</rafsi>
- <rafsi>du'o</rafsi>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-other-summary">
- <title>Other cmavo discussed in this chapter</title>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>goi</cmavo>
- <selmaho>GOI</selmaho>
- <description>pro-sumti assignment (ko'a-series)</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>cei</cmavo>
- <selmaho>CEI</selmaho>
- <description>pro-bridi assignment (broda-series)</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ra'o</cmavo>
- <selmaho>RAhO</selmaho>
- <description>pro-sumti/pro-bridi update</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>soi</cmavo>
- <selmaho>SOI</selmaho>
- <description>reciprocity</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>se'u</cmavo>
- <selmaho>SEhU</selmaho>
- <description>soi terminator</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>da'o</cmavo>
- <selmaho>DAhO</selmaho>
- <description>cancel all pro-sumti/pro-bridi</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
- </section>
-</chapter>
diff --git a/chapters/8.xml b/chapters/8.xml
deleted file mode 100644
index 25d7cdc..0000000
--- a/chapters/8.xml
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,1579 +0,0 @@
-<chapter xml:id="chapter-relative-clauses">
- <title>Relative Clauses, Which Make sumti Even More Complicated</title>
- <mediaobject xml:id="chapter-relative-clauses-picture">
- <alt>The picture for chapter 8</alt>
- <imageobject>
- <imagedata fileref="media/chapter-relative-clauses.gif"/>
- </imageobject>
- </mediaobject>
-
- <section xml:id="section-poi">
- <title>What are you pointing at?</title>
- <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>poi</cmavo>
- <selmaho>NOI</selmaho>
- <description>restrictive relative clause introducer</description>
-
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ke'a</cmavo>
- <selmaho>GOhA</selmaho>
- <description>relative pro-sumti</description>
-
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ku'o</cmavo>
- <selmaho>KUhO</selmaho>
- <description>relative clause terminator</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
- <para>Let us think about the problem of communicating what it is that we are pointing at when we are pointing at something. In Lojban, we can refer to what we are pointing at by using the pro-sumti
- <valsi>ti</valsi> if it is nearby, or
- <valsi>ta</valsi> if it is somewhat further away, or
- <valsi>tu</valsi> if it is distant. (Pro-sumti are explained in full in
- <xref linkend="chapter-anaphoric-cmavo"/>.)</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>reference</primary><secondary>ambiguity of ti/ta/tu</secondary></indexterm> However, even with the assistance of a pointing finger, or pointing lips, or whatever may be appropriate in the local culture, it is often hard for a listener to tell just what is being pointed at. Suppose one is pointing at a person (in particular, in the direction of his or her face), and says:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-QzhK">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e1d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ti cu barda</jbo>
- <gloss>This-one is-big.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>What is the referent of
- <valsi>ti</valsi>? Is it the person? Or perhaps it is the person's nose? Or even (for
- <valsi>ti</valsi> can be plural as well as singular, and mean
-
- <quote>these ones</quote> as well as
- <quote>this one</quote>) the pores on the person's nose?</para>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>reference</primary><secondary>use of relative clause for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clause</primary><secondary>use for reference</secondary></indexterm> To help solve this problem, Lojban uses a construction called a
- <quote>relative clause</quote>. Relative clauses are usually attached to the end of sumti, but there are other places where they can go as well, as explained later in this chapter. A relative clause begins with a word of selma'o NOI, and ends with the elidable terminator
- <valsi>ku'o</valsi> (of selma'o KUhO). As you might suppose,
- <valsi>noi</valsi> is a cmavo of selma'o NOI; however, first we will discuss the cmavo
- <valsi>poi</valsi>, which also belongs to selma'o NOI.</para>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ke'a</primary><secondary>as referent for relativized sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>reference</primary><secondary>to relativized sumti with ke'a</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relativized sumti</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>poi</primary><secondary>syntax of</secondary></indexterm> In between the
- <valsi>poi</valsi> and the
- <valsi>ku'o</valsi> appears a full bridi, with the same syntax as any other bridi. Anywhere within the bridi of a relative clause, the pro-sumti
- <valsi>ke'a</valsi> (of selma'o KOhA) may be used, and it stands for the sumti to which the relative clause is attached (called the
- <quote>relativized sumti</quote>). Here are some examples before we go any further:</para>
-
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLt8" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e1d2"/>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>big person</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ti poi ke'a prenu ku'o cu barda</jbo>
- <gloss>This-thing such-that-(IT is-a-person) is-large.</gloss>
- <gloss>This thing which is a person is big.</gloss>
- <natlang>This person is big.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLtX" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>big nose</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
- <anchor xml:id="c8e1d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ti poi ke'a nazbi ku'o cu barda</jbo>
- <gloss>This-thing such-that-(IT is-a-nose) is-large.</gloss>
- <gloss>This thing which is a nose is big.</gloss>
- <natlang>This nose is big.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLuj" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>big nose-pores</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e1d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ti poi ke'a nazbi kapkevna ku'o cu barda</jbo>
- <gloss>This-thing such-that-(IT is-a-nose-type-of skin-hole) is-big.</gloss>
- <gloss>These things which are nose-pores are big.</gloss>
- <natlang>These nose-pores are big.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>
-
-<indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>IT</primary><secondary>as notation convention in relative clause chapter</secondary></indexterm> In the literal translations throughout this chapter, the word
- <quote>IT</quote>, capitalized, is used to represent the cmavo
- <valsi>ke'a</valsi>. In each case, it serves to represent the sumti (in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLt8"/> through
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLuj"/>, the cmavo
- <valsi>ti</valsi>) to which the relative clause is attached.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ke'a</primary><secondary>non-initial place use in relative clause</secondary></indexterm> Of course, there is no reason why
- <valsi>ke'a</valsi> needs to appear in the x1 place of a relative clause bridi; it can appear in any place, or indeed even in a sub-bridi within the relative clause bridi. Here are two more examples:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLUV" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e1d5"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>tu poi le mlatu pu lacpu ke'a ku'o cu ratcu</jbo>
- <gloss>That-distant-thing such-that (the cat [past] drags IT) is-a-rat.</gloss>
- <gloss>That thing which the cat dragged is a rat.</gloss>
- <natlang>What the cat dragged is a rat.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLxF" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e1d6"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ta poi mi djica le nu mi ponse ke'a [kei] ku'o cu bloti</jbo>
- <gloss>That-thing such-that( I desire the event-of( I own IT ) ) is-a-boat.</gloss>
- <natlang>That thing that I want to own is a boat.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>In
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLxF"/>,
- <valsi>ke'a</valsi> appears in an abstraction clause (abstractions are explained in
- <xref linkend="chapter-abstractions"/>) within a relative clause.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clause</primary><secondary>effect of omission of <valsi>ke'a</valsi> on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ke'a</primary><secondary>effect of omission of</secondary></indexterm> Like any sumti,
- <valsi>ke'a</valsi> can be omitted. The usual presumption in that case is that it then falls into the x1 place:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sMHH">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e1d7"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ti poi nazbi cu barda</jbo>
- <gloss>This-thing which is-a-nose is-big.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>almost certainly means the same thing as
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLtX"/>. However,
- <valsi>ke'a</valsi> can be omitted if it is clear to the listener that it belongs in some place other than x1:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-cUsJ">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e1d8"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>tu poi le mlatu pu lacpu cu ratcu</jbo>
- <gloss>That-distant-thing which the cat [past] drags is-a-rat</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>is equivalent to
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLuj"/>.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ku'o</primary><secondary>elidability for relative clauses</secondary></indexterm> As stated before,
- <valsi>ku'o</valsi> is an elidable terminator, and in fact it is almost always elidable. Throughout the rest of this chapter,
- <valsi>ku'o</valsi> will not be written in any of the examples unless it is absolutely required: thus,
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLt8"/> can be written:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-MtNs">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e1d9"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ti poi prenu cu barda</jbo>
- <gloss>That which is-a-person is-big.</gloss>
- <natlang>That person is big.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>poi</primary><secondary>discussion of translation</secondary></indexterm> without any change in meaning. Note that
- <valsi>poi</valsi> is translated
- <quote>which</quote> rather than
- <quote>such-that</quote> when
- <valsi>ke'a</valsi> has been omitted from the x1 place of the relative clause bridi. The word
- <quote>which</quote> is used in English to introduce English relative clauses: other words that can be used are
- <quote>who</quote> and
- <quote>that</quote>, as in:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-j5ym">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e1d10"/>
- </title>
- <para>I saw a man who was going to the store.</para>
- </example>
- <para>and</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-J9yC">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e1d11"/>
- </title>
- <para>The building that the school was located in is large.</para>
- </example>
- <para>In
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-j5ym"/> the relative clause is
- <quote>who was going to the store</quote>, and in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-J9yC"/> it is
- <quote>that the school was located in</quote>. Sometimes
- <quote>who</quote>,
- <quote>which</quote>, and
- <quote>that</quote> are used in literal translations in this chapter in order to make them read more smoothly.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-noi">
- <title>Incidental relative clauses</title>
- <para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>noi</cmavo>
- <selmaho>NOI</selmaho>
- <description>incidental relative clause introducer</description>
-
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>restricted contrasted with incidental</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-restrictive relative clause</primary><secondary>definition (see also incidental relative clause)</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>incidental relative clause</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>restrictive relative clause</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clause</primary><secondary>restrictive (see also restrictive relative clause)</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>kinds of</secondary></indexterm> There are two basic kinds of relative clauses: restrictive relative clauses introduced by
-
- <valsi>poi</valsi>, and incidental (sometimes called simply
- <quote>non-restrictive</quote>) relative clauses introduced by
- <valsi>noi</valsi>. The difference between restrictive and incidental relative clauses is that restrictive clauses provide information that is essential to identifying the referent of the sumti to which they are attached, whereas incidental relative clauses provide additional information which is helpful to the listener but is not essential for identifying the referent of the sumti. All of the examples in
- <xref linkend="section-poi"/> are restrictive relative clauses: the information in the relative clause is essential to identification. (The title of this chapter, though, uses an incidental relative clause.)</para>
-
-
- <para>Consider the following examples:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLXK" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e2d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le gerku poi blanu cu barda</jbo>
- <gloss>The dog which is-blue is-large.</gloss>
- <natlang>The dog which is blue is large.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qLys" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e2d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le gerku noi blanu cu barda</jbo>
- <gloss>The dog incidentally-which is-blue is-large.</gloss>
- <natlang>The dog, which is blue, is large.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>In
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLXK"/>, the information conveyed by
- <jbophrase>poi blanu</jbophrase> is essential to identifying the dog in question: it restricts the possible referents from dogs in general to dogs that are blue. This is why
- <valsi>poi</valsi> relative clauses are called restrictive. In
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qLys"/>, on the other hand, the dog which is referred to has presumably already been identified clearly, and the relative clause
- <jbophrase>noi blanu</jbophrase> just provides additional information about it. (If in fact the dog hasn't been identified clearly, then the relative clause does not help identify it further.)</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>incidental relative clause</primary><secondary>as a parenthetical device</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>comma</primary><secondary>effect on relative clause in English</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>effect of commas in English</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>restricted contrasted with incidental in English expression</secondary></indexterm> In English, the distinction between restrictive and incidental relative clauses is expressed in writing by surrounding incidental, but not restrictive, clauses with commas. These commas are functioning as parentheses, because incidental relative clauses are essentially parenthetical. This distinction in punctuation is represented in speech by a difference in tone of voice. In addition, English restrictive relative clauses can be introduced by
-
-
- <quote>that</quote> as well as
- <quote>which</quote> and
- <quote>who</quote>, whereas incidental relative clauses cannot begin with
- <quote>that</quote>. Lojban, however, always uses the cmavo
- <valsi>poi</valsi> and
- <valsi>noi</valsi> rather than punctuation or intonation to make the distinction.</para>
- <para>Here are more examples of incidental relative clauses:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-WxJo">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e2d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi noi jdice cu zvati</jbo>
- <gloss>I who-incidentally am-a-judge am-at [some-place].</gloss>
- <natlang>I, a judge, am present.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>In this example,
- <valsi>mi</valsi> is already sufficiently restricted, and the additional information that I am a judge is being provided solely for the listener's edification.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pR53">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e2d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>xu do viska le mi karce noi blabi</jbo>
- <gloss>[True?] You see my car incidentally-which is-white.</gloss>
- <natlang>Do you see my car, which is white?</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>In
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-pR53"/>, the speaker is presumed to have only one car, and is providing incidental information that it is white. (Alternatively, he or she might have more than one car, since
- <jbophrase>le karce</jbophrase> can be plural, in which case the incidental information is that each of them is white.) Contrast
-
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-0qU1"/> with a restrictive relative clause:</para>
-
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-0qU1">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e2d5"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>xu do viska le mi karce poi blabi</jbo>
- <gloss>[True?] You see my car which is-white.</gloss>
- <gloss>Do you see my car that is white?</gloss>
- <natlang>Do you see my white car?</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clause</primary><secondary>compared with tanru</secondary></indexterm> Here the speaker probably has several cars, and is restricting the referent of the sumti
- <jbophrase>le mi karce</jbophrase> (and thereby the listener's attention) to the white one only.
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-0qU1"/> means much the same as
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-zsQ6"/>, which does not use a relative clause:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-zsQ6">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e2d6"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>xu do viska le mi blabi karce</jbo>
- <gloss>[True?] You see my white car.</gloss>
- <natlang>Do you see my car, the white one?</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clause</primary><secondary>contrasted with tanru</secondary></indexterm> So a restrictive relative clause attached to a description can often mean the same as a description involving a tanru. However,
-
- <jbophrase>blabi karce</jbophrase>, like all tanru, is somewhat vague: in principle, it might refer to a car which carries white things, or even express some more complicated concept involving whiteness and car-ness; the restrictive relative clause of
-
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-0qU1"/> can only refer to a car which is white, not to any more complex or extended concept.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-relative-phrases">
- <title>Relative phrases</title>
- <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>pe</cmavo>
- <selmaho>GOI</selmaho>
- <description>restrictive association</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>po</cmavo>
- <selmaho>GOI</selmaho>
- <description>restrictive possession</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>po'e</cmavo>
-
- <selmaho>GOI</selmaho>
- <description>restrictive intrinsic possession</description>
-
-
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>po'u</cmavo>
- <selmaho>GOI</selmaho>
- <description>restrictive identification</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ne</cmavo>
- <selmaho>GOI</selmaho>
- <description>incidental association</description>
-
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>no'u</cmavo>
-
- <selmaho>GOI</selmaho>
- <description>incidental identification</description>
-
-
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ge'u</cmavo>
- <selmaho>GEhU</selmaho>
- <description>relative phrase terminator</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative phrase</primary><secondary>as an abbreviation of a common relative clause</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative phrase</primary><secondary>syntax of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative phrase</primary><secondary>rationale for</secondary></indexterm> There are types of relative clauses (those which have a certain selbri) which are frequently wanted in Lojban, and can be expressed using a shortcut called a relative phrase. Relative phrases are introduced by cmavo of selma'o GOI, and consist of a GOI cmavo followed by a single sumti.</para>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>loose association</primary><secondary>expressing with pe</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pe</primary><secondary>as loose association</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pe</primary><secondary>compared with <jbophrase>poi ke'a srana</jbophrase></secondary></indexterm> Here is an example of
- <valsi>pe</valsi>, plus an equivalent sentence using a relative clause:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qM04" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e3d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le stizu pe mi cu blanu</jbo>
- <gloss>The chair associated-with me is-blue.</gloss>
- <natlang>My chair is blue.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qM1W" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e3d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le stizu poi ke'a srana mi cu blanu</jbo>
- <gloss>The chair such-that( IT is-associated-with me) is-blue.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>In
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qM04"/> and
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qM1W"/>, the link between the chair and the speaker is of the loosest kind.</para>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>specificity</primary><secondary>expressing with po</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>possession</primary><secondary>expressing with po</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>po</primary><secondary>as restrictive possession</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>po</primary><secondary>compared with <jbophrase>poi ke'a se steci srana</jbophrase></secondary></indexterm> Here is an example of
- <valsi>po</valsi>:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qM3D" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e3d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le stizu po mi cu xunre</jbo>
- <gloss>The chair specific-to me is red.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qm3I" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e3d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le stizu poi ke'a se steci srana mi cu xunre</jbo>
- <gloss>The chair such-that (IT is-specifically associated-with me) is-red.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>po</primary><secondary>contrasted with pe</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pe</primary><secondary>contrasted with po</secondary></indexterm>
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qM3D"/> and
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qm3I"/> contrast with
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qM04"/> and
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qM1W"/>: the chair is more permanently connected with the speaker. A plausible (though not the only possible) contrast between
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qM04"/> and
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qM3D"/> is that
- <jbophrase>pe mi</jbophrase> would be appropriate for a chair the speaker is currently sitting on (whether or not the speaker owned that chair), and
- <jbophrase>po mi</jbophrase> for a chair owned by the speaker (whether or not he or she was currently occupying it).</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>po</primary><secondary>contrasted with English <quote>possession</quote></secondary></indexterm> As a result, the relationship expressed between two sumti by
- <valsi>po</valsi> is usually called
- <quote>possession</quote>, although it does not necessarily imply ownership, legal or otherwise. The central concept is that of specificity (
-
- <valsi>steci</valsi> in Lojban).</para>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>inalienable possession</primary><secondary>expressing with po'e</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>intrinsic possession</primary><secondary>expressing with po'e</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>possession</primary><secondary>intrinsic</secondary><tertiary>expressing with po'e</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>po'e</primary><secondary>as intrinsic possession</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>po'e</primary><secondary>compared with <jbophrase>poi ke'a jinzi ke se steci srana</jbophrase></secondary></indexterm> Here is an example of
- <valsi>po'e</valsi>, as well as another example of
-
- <valsi>po</valsi>:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qM3Q" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e3d5"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le birka po'e mi cu spofu</jbo>
-
- <gloss>The arm intrinsically-possessed-by me is-broken</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qm5E" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>person's arm</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e3d6"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le birka poi jinzi ke se steci srana mi cu spofu</jbo>
- <gloss>The arm which is-intrinsically (specifically associated-with) me is-broken.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qm7W" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e3d7"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le botpi po mi cu spofu</jbo>
- <gloss>The bottle specific-to me is-broken</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>
-
-
- <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>alienable possession</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>extrinsic possession</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>inalienable possession</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>intrinsic possession</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>po</primary><secondary>contrasted with po'e</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>po'e</primary><secondary>contrasted with po</secondary></indexterm>
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qM3Q"/> and
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qm5E"/> on the one hand, and
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qm7W"/> on the other, illustrate the contrast between two types of possession called
- <quote>intrinsic</quote> and
- <quote>extrinsic</quote>, or sometimes
- <quote>inalienable</quote> and
-
- <quote>alienable</quote>, respectively. Something is intrinsically (or inalienably) possessed by someone if the possession is part of the possessor, and cannot be changed without changing the possessor. In the case of
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qM3Q"/>, people are usually taken to intrinsically possess their arms: even if an arm is cut off, it remains the arm of that person. (If the arm is transplanted to another person, however, it becomes intrinsically possessed by the new user, though, so intrinsic possession is a matter of degree.)</para>
-
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>inalienable</primary><secondary>distinguishing from alienable</secondary></indexterm> By contrast, the bottle of
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qm7W"/> can be given away, or thrown away, or lost, or stolen, so it is possessed extrinsically (alienably). The exact line between intrinsic and extrinsic possession is culturally dependent. The U.S. Declaration of Independence speaks of the
-
- <quote>inalienable rights</quote> of men, but just what those rights are, and even whether the concept makes sense at all, varies from culture to culture.</para>
-
- <para>Note that
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qM3Q"/> can also be expressed without a relative clause:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-bF0U">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e3d8"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le birka be mi cu spofu</jbo>
- <gloss>The arm of-body me is broken</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>intrinsic possession</primary><secondary>expressing by using place in some selbri</secondary></indexterm> reflecting the fact that the gismu
- <valsi>birka</valsi> has an x2 place representing the body to which the arm belongs. Many, but not all, cases of intrinsic possession can be thus covered without using
-
-
- <valsi>po'e</valsi> by placing the possessor into the appropriate place of the description selbri.</para>
-
- <para>Here is an example of
- <valsi>po'u</valsi>:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qM8u" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e3d9"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le gerku po'u le mi pendo cu cinba mi</jbo>
- <gloss>The dog which-is my friend kisses me.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qm90" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e3d10"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le gerku poi du le mi pendo cu cinba mi</jbo>
- <gloss>The dog which = my friend kisses me.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>identity</primary><secondary>expressing with po'u</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>po'u</primary><secondary>as identity</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>po'u</primary><secondary>compared with <jbophrase>poi ke'a du</jbophrase></secondary></indexterm> The cmavo
- <valsi>po'u</valsi> does not represent possession at all, but rather identity. (Note that it means
- <jbophrase>poi du</jbophrase> and its form was chosen to suggest the relationship.)</para>
- <para>In
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qM8u"/>, the use of
- <valsi>po'u</valsi> tells us that
- <jbophrase>le gerku</jbophrase> and
- <jbophrase>le mi pendo</jbophrase> represent the same thing. Consider the contrast between
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qM8u"/> and:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-wARJ">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e3d11"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le mi pendo po'u le gerku cu cinba mi</jbo>
- <gloss>My friend which-is the dog kisses me.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>po'u</primary><secondary>relative phrase of contrasted with relativized sumti of</secondary></indexterm> The facts of the case are the same, but the listener's knowledge about the situation may not be. In
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qM8u"/>, the listener is presumed not to understand which dog is meant by
- <jbophrase>le gerku</jbophrase>, so the speaker adds a relative phrase clarifying that it is the particular dog which is the speaker's friend.</para>
- <para>
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-wARJ"/>, however, assumes that the listener does not know which of the speaker's friends is referred to, and specifies that it is the friend that is the dog (which dog is taken to be obvious). Here is another example of the same contrast:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMAd" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>New York city</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e3d12"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le tcadu po'u la nu,iork</jbo>
- <natlang>The city of New York [not another city]</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qmaY" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>New York state</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>New York city</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e3d13"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la nu,iork po'u le tcadu</jbo>
- <natlang>New York the city (not the state or some other New York)</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>
-
-
- <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>possessed in relative phrases</primary><secondary>compared with possessor</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>possessor in relative phrases</primary><secondary>compared with possessed</secondary></indexterm> The principle that the possessor and the possessed may change places applies to all the GOI cmavo, and allows for the possibility of odd effects:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMb2" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e3d14"/>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>friend's cup</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le kabri pe le mi pendo cu cmalu</jbo>
- <gloss>The cup associated-with my friend is small.</gloss>
- <natlang>My friend's cup is small</natlang>
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qmbn" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e3d15"/>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>cup's friend</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le mi pendo pe le kabri cu cmalu</jbo>
- <gloss>My friend associated-with the cup is small.</gloss>
- <natlang>My friend, the one with the cup, is small.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>
-
-
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMb2"/> is useful in a context which is about my friend, and states that his or her cup is small, whereas
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qmbn"/> is useful in a context that is primarily about a certain cup, and makes a claim about
- <quote>my friend of the cup</quote>, as opposed to some other friend of mine. Here the cup appears to
- <quote>possess</quote> the person! English can't even express this relationship with a possessive –
- <quote>the cup's friend of mine</quote> looks like nonsense – but Lojban has no trouble doing so.</para>
-
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>incidental identification</primary><secondary>expressing with no'u</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>incidental association</primary><secondary>expressing with ne</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>po'u</primary><secondary>compared with no'u</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pe</primary><secondary>compared with ne</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>no'u</primary><secondary>compared with po'u</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ne</primary><secondary>compared with pe</secondary></indexterm> Finally, the cmavo
- <valsi>ne</valsi> and
- <valsi>no'u</valsi> stand to
-
- <valsi>pe</valsi> and
- <valsi>po'u</valsi>, respectively, as
- <valsi>noi</valsi> does to
- <jbophrase>poi-</jbophrase> they provide incidental information:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Arj8">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e3d16"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le blabi gerku ne mi cu batci do</jbo>
- <gloss>The white dog, incidentally-associated-with me, bites you.</gloss>
- <natlang>The white dog, which is mine, bites you.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>In
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-Arj8"/>, the white dog is already fully identified (after all, presumably the listener knows which dog bit him or her!). The fact that it is yours is merely incidental to the main bridi claim.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>po'u</primary><secondary>contrasted with no'u</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>no'u</primary><secondary>contrasted with po'u</secondary></indexterm> Distinguishing between
- <valsi>po'u</valsi> and
- <valsi>no'u</valsi> can be a little tricky. Consider a room with several men in it, one of whom is named Jim. If you don't know their names, I might say:</para>
-
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-DSf4">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e3d17"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le nanmu no'u la djim. cu terpemci</jbo>
-
- <gloss>The man, incidentally-who-is Jim, is-a-poet.</gloss>
- <natlang>The man, Jim, is a poet.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>Here I am saying that one of the men is a poet, and incidentally telling you that he is Jim. But if you do know the names, then</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-y8nH">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e3d18"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le nanmu po'u la djim. cu terpemci</jbo>
- <gloss>The man who-is Jim is-a-poet.</gloss>
- <natlang>The man Jim is a poet.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>is appropriate. Now I am using the fact that the man I am speaking of is Jim in order to pick out which man I mean.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>possession</primary><secondary>Lojban usage compared with French and German in omission/inclusion</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>possession</primary><secondary>Lojban usage contrasted with English in omission/inclusion</secondary></indexterm> It is worth mentioning that English sometimes over-specifies possession from the Lojban point of view (and the point of view of many other languages, including ones closely related to English). The idiomatic English sentence</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-GXyS">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e3d19"/>
- </title>
- <para>The man put his hands in his pockets.</para>
- </example>
- <para>seems strange to a French- or German-speaking person: whose pockets would he put his hands into? and even odder, whose hands would he put into his pockets? In Lojban, the sentence</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-V4R1">
- <title>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>hands in pockets</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e3d20"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le nanmu cu punji le xance le daski</jbo>
- <gloss>The man puts the hand at-locus-the pocket.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>
-
-
- is very natural. Of course, if the man is in fact putting his hands into another's pockets, or another's hands into his pockets, the fact can be specified.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>goi</primary><secondary>rationale for non-inclusion in relative clause chapter</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ge'u</primary><secondary>effect of following logical connective on elidability</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connectives</primary><secondary>effect on elidability of ge'u from preceding relative phrase</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ge'u</primary><secondary>elidability of from relative phrases</secondary></indexterm> Finally, the elidable terminator for GOI cmavo is
- <valsi>ge'u</valsi> of selma'o GEhU; it is almost never required. However, if a logical connective immediately follows a sumti modified by a relative phrase, then an explicit
- <valsi>ge'u</valsi> is needed to allow the connective to affect the relativized sumti rather than the sumti of the relative phrase. (What about the cmavo after which selma'o GOI is named? It is discussed in
-
- <xref linkend="section-koha-broda-series"/>, as it is not semantically akin to the other kinds of relative phrases, although the syntax is the same.)</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-zihe">
- <title>Multiple relative clauses:
- <valsi>zi'e</valsi></title>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>zi'e</cmavo>
- <selmaho>ZIhE</selmaho>
- <description>relative clause joiner</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple relative clauses</primary><secondary>attaching with zi'e</secondary></indexterm> Sometimes it is necessary or useful to attach more than one relative clause to a sumti. This is made possible in Lojban by the cmavo
- <valsi>zi'e</valsi> (of selma'o ZIhE), which is used to join one or more relative clauses together into a single unit, thus making them apply to the same sumti. For example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-HBMR">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e4d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le gerku poi blabi zi'e poi batci le nanmu cu klama</jbo>
- <natlang>The dog which is white and which bites the man goes.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>zi'e</primary><secondary>compared with English <quote>and</quote></secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>zi'e</primary><secondary>contrasted with logical connectives</secondary></indexterm> The most usual translation of
- <valsi>zi'e</valsi> in English is
- <quote>and</quote>, but
- <valsi>zi'e</valsi> is not really a logical connective: unlike most of the true logical connectives (which are explained in
- <xref linkend="chapter-connectives"/>), it cannot be converted into a logical connection between sentences.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative phrase</primary><secondary>connecting to relative clause with zi'e</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clause</primary><secondary>connecting to relative phrase with zi'e</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple relative clauses</primary><secondary>connecting different kinds with zi'e</secondary></indexterm> It is perfectly correct to use
- <valsi>zi'e</valsi> to connect relative clauses of different kinds:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Vbm7">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e4d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le gerku poi blabi zi'e noi le mi pendo cu ponse ke'a cu klama</jbo>
- <gloss>The dog that-is (white) and incidentally-such-that (my friend owns IT) goes.</gloss>
- <natlang>The dog that is white, which my friend owns, is going.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>In
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-Vbm7"/>, the restrictive clause
- <jbophrase>poi blabi</jbophrase> specifies which dog is referred to, but the incidental clause
- <jbophrase>noi le mi pendo cu ponse</jbophrase> is mere incidental information: the listener is supposed to already have identified the dog from the
- <jbophrase>poi blabi</jbophrase>. Of course, the meaning (though not necessarily the emphasis) is the same if the incidental clause appears first.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>zi'e</primary><secondary>use in connecting relative phrase/clause to relative phrase/clause</secondary></indexterm> It is also possible to connect relative phrases with
- <valsi>zi'e</valsi>, or a relative phrase with a relative clause:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-36tm">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e4d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le botpi po mi zi'e poi blanu cu spofu</jbo>
- <gloss>The bottle specific-to me and which-is blue is-broken.</gloss>
- <natlang>My blue bottle is broken.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>Note that if the colloquial translation of
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-36tm"/> were
- <quote>My bottle, which is blue, is broken</quote>, then
- <valsi>noi</valsi> rather than
- <valsi>poi</valsi> would have been correct in the Lojban version, since that version of the English implies that you do not need to know the bottle is blue. As written,
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-36tm"/> suggests that I probably have more than one bottle, and the one in question needs to be picked out as the blue one.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-FapT">
- <title>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>my chair</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e4d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi ba zutse le stizu pe mi zi'e po do zi'e poi xunre</jbo>
- <gloss>I [future] sit-in the chair associated-with me and specific-to you and which-is red.</gloss>
- <natlang>I will sit in my chair (really yours), the red one.</natlang>
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>
-
-
-
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-FapT"/> illustrates that more than two relative phrases or clauses can be connected with
- <valsi>zi'e</valsi>. It almost defies colloquial translation because of the very un-English contrast between
- <jbophrase>pe mi</jbophrase>, implying that the chair is temporarily connected with me, and
- <jbophrase>po do</jbophrase>, implying that the chair has a more permanent association with you. (Perhaps I am a guest in your house, in which case the chair would naturally be your property.)</para>
- <para>Here is another example, mixing a relative phrase and two relative clauses, a restrictive one and a non-restrictive one:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-erma">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e4d5"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi ba citka le dembi pe mi zi'e poi cpana le mi palta zi'e noi do dunda ke'a mi</jbo>
- <gloss>I [future] eat the beans associated-with me and which are-upon my plate and which-incidentally you gave IT to-me.</gloss>
- <natlang>I'll eat my beans that are on my plate, the ones you gave me.</natlang>
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-voi">
- <title>Non-veridical relative clauses:
- <valsi>voi</valsi></title>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>voi</cmavo>
- <selmaho>NOI</selmaho>
- <description>non-veridical relative clause introducer</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
- <para>There is another member of selma'o NOI which serves to introduce a third kind of relative clause:
- <valsi>voi</valsi>. Relative clauses introduced by
- <valsi>voi</valsi> are restrictive, like those introduced by
- <valsi>poi</valsi>. However, there is a fundamental difference between
- <valsi>poi</valsi> and
- <valsi>voi</valsi> relative clauses. A
- <valsi>poi</valsi> relative clause is said to be veridical, in the same sense that a description using
- <valsi>lo</valsi> or
- <valsi>loi</valsi> is: it is essential to the interpretation that the bridi actually be true. For example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pcvP">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e5d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le gerku poi blabi cu klama</jbo>
- <gloss>The dog which is-white goes.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>it must actually be true that the dog is white, or the sentence constitutes a miscommunication. If there is a white dog and a brown dog, and the speaker uses
- <jbophrase>le gerku poi blabi</jbophrase> to refer to the brown dog, then the listener will not understand correctly. However,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-BDgn">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e5d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le gerku voi blabi cu klama</jbo>
- <gloss>The dog which-I-describe-as white goes.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>puts the listener on notice that the dog in question may not actually meet objective standards (whatever they are) for being white: only the speaker can say exactly what is meant by the term. In this way,
- <valsi>voi</valsi> is like
- <valsi>le</valsi>; the speaker's intention determines the meaning.</para>
- <para>As a result, the following two sentences</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMCc" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e5d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le nanmu cu ninmu</jbo>
- <gloss>That-which-I-describe-as a-man is-a-woman.</gloss>
- <natlang>The
- <quote>guy</quote> is actually a gal.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qmcE" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e5d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ti voi nanmu cu ninmu</jbo>
- <gloss>This-thing which-I-describe-as a-man is-a-woman.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>mean essentially the same thing (except that
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qmcE"/> involves pointing thanks to the use of
- <valsi>ti</valsi>, whereas
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMCc"/> doesn't), and neither one is self-contradictory: it is perfectly all right to describe something as a man (although perhaps confusing to the listener) even if it actually is a woman.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-descriptors">
- <title>Relative clauses and descriptors</title>
- <para>So far, this chapter has described the various kinds of relative clauses (including relative phrases). The list is now complete, and the rest of the chapter will be concerned with the syntax of sumti that include relative clauses. So far, all relative clauses have appeared directly after the sumti to which they are attached. This is the most common position (and originally the only one), but a variety of other placements are also possible which produce a variety of semantic effects.</para>
- <para>There are actually three places where a relative clause can be attached to a description sumti: after the descriptor (
- <valsi>le</valsi>,
- <valsi>lo</valsi>, or whatever), after the embedded selbri but before the elidable terminator (which is
- <valsi>ku</valsi>), and after the
- <valsi>ku</valsi>. The relative clauses attached to descriptors that we have seen have occupied the second position. Thus
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-pcvP"/>, if written out with all elidable terminators, would appear as:</para>
-
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-UmLX">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e6d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le gerku poi blabi ku'o ku cu klama vau</jbo>
- <gloss>The (dog which (is-white) ) goes.</gloss>
- <natlang>The dog which is white is going.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>Here
- <valsi>ku'o</valsi> is the terminator paired with
- <valsi>poi</valsi> and
- <valsi>ku</valsi> with
- <valsi>le</valsi>, and
- <valsi>vau</valsi> is the terminator of the whole bridi.</para>
- <para>When a simple descriptor using
- <valsi>le</valsi>, like
- <jbophrase>le gerku</jbophrase>, has a relative clause attached, it is purely a matter of style and emphasis where the relative clause should go. Therefore, the following examples are all equivalent in meaning to
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-UmLX"/>:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qmCQ" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e6d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le poi blabi ku'o gerku cu klama</jbo>
- <gloss>The such-that (it-is-white) dog goes.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMct" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e6d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le gerku ku poi blabi cu klama</jbo>
- <gloss>The (dog) which is-white goes.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-UmLX"/> will seem most natural to speakers of languages like English, which always puts relative clauses after the noun phrases they are attached to;
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qmCQ"/>, on the other hand, may seem more natural to Finnish or Chinese speakers, who put the relative clause first. Note that in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qmCQ"/>, the elidable terminator
- <valsi>ku'o</valsi> must appear, or the selbri of the relative clause (
- <valsi>blabi</valsi>) will merge with the selbri of the description (
- <valsi>gerku</valsi>), resulting in an ungrammatical sentence. The purpose of the form appearing in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMct"/> will be apparent shortly.</para>
- <para>As is explained in detail in
- <xref linkend="section-quantified-descriptions"/>, two different numbers (known as the
- <quote>inner quantifier</quote> and the
- <quote>outer quantifier</quote>) can be attached to a description. The inner quantifier specifies how many things the descriptor refers to: it appears between the descriptor and the description selbri. The outer quantifier appears before the descriptor, and specifies how many of the things referred to by the descriptor are involved in this particular bridi. In the following example,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3nJN">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e6d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>re le mu prenu cu klama le zarci</jbo>
- <gloss>Two-of the five persons go to-the market.</gloss>
- <natlang>Two of the five people [that I have in mind] are going to the market.</natlang>
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>
- <valsi>mu</valsi> is the inner quantifier and
- <valsi>re</valsi> is the outer quantifier. Now what is meant by attaching a relative clause to the sumti
- <jbophrase>re le mu prenu</jbophrase>? Suppose the relative clause is
- <jbophrase>poi ninmu</jbophrase> (meaning
- <quote>who are women</quote>). Now the three possible attachment points discussed previously take on significance.</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMdb" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e6d5"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>re le poi ninmu ku'o mu prenu cu klama le zarci</jbo>
- <gloss>Two of the such-that([they] are-women) five persons go to-the market.</gloss>
- <natlang>Two women out of the five persons go to the market.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qmDo" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e6d6"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>re le mu prenu poi ninmu [ku] cu klama le zarci</jbo>
- <gloss>Two of the (five persons which are-women) go to-the market.</gloss>
- <natlang>Two of the five women go to the market.</natlang>
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMDQ" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e6d7"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>re le mu prenu ku poi ninmu cu klama le zarci</jbo>
- <gloss>(Two of the five persons) which are-women go to-the market.</gloss>
- <natlang>Two women out of the five persons go to the market.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>As the parentheses show,
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qmDo"/> means that all five of the persons are women, whereas
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMDQ"/> means that the two who are going to the market are women. How do we remember which is which? If the relative clause comes after the explicit
- <valsi>ku</valsi>, as in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMDQ"/>, then the sumti as a whole is qualified by the relative clause. If there is no
- <valsi>ku</valsi>, or if the relative clause comes before an explicit
- <valsi>ku</valsi>, then the relative clause is understood to apply to everything which the underlying selbri applies to.</para>
- <para>What about
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMdb"/>? By convention, it means the same as
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMDQ"/>, and it requires no
- <valsi>ku</valsi>, but it does typically require a
- <valsi>ku'o</valsi> instead. Note that the relative clause comes before the inner quantifier.</para>
- <para>When
- <valsi>le</valsi> is the descriptor being used, and the sumti has no explicit outer quantifier, then the outer quantifier is understood to be
- <valsi>ro</valsi> (meaning
- <quote>all</quote>), as is explained in
- <xref linkend="section-quantified-descriptions"/>. Thus
- <jbophrase>le gerku</jbophrase> is taken to mean
- <quote>all of the things I refer to as dogs</quote>, possibly all one of them. In that case, there is no difference between a relative clause after the
- <valsi>ku</valsi> or before it. However, if the descriptor is
- <valsi>lo</valsi>, the difference is quite important:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qmDS" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e6d8"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>lo prenu ku noi blabi cu klama le zarci</jbo>
- <gloss>(Some persons) incidentally-which are-white go to-the market.</gloss>
- <natlang>Some people, who are white, go to the market.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qmdX" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e6d9"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>lo prenu noi blabi [ku] cu klama le zarci</jbo>
- <gloss>Some (persons incidentally-which are-white) go to-the market.</gloss>
- <natlang>Some of the people, who by the way are white, go to the market.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>Both
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qmDS"/> and
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qmdX"/> tell us that one or more persons are going to the market. However, they make very different incidental claims. Now, what does
- <jbophrase>lo prenu noi blabi</jbophrase> mean? Well, the default inner quantifier is
- <valsi>ro</valsi> (meaning
- <quote>all</quote>), and the default outer quantifier is
- <valsi>su'o</valsi> (meaning
- <quote>at least one</quote>). Therefore, we must first take all persons, then choose at least one of them. That one or more people will be going.</para>
-
- <para>In
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qmDS"/>, the relative clause described the sumti once the outer quantifier was applied: one or more people, who are white, are going. But in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qmdX"/>, the relative clause actually describes the sumti before the outer quantification is applied, so that it ends up meaning
- <quote>First take all persons – by the way, they're all white</quote>. But not all people are white, so the incidental claim being made here is false.</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses on lo</primary><secondary>syntax suggestion</secondary></indexterm> The safe strategy, therefore, is to always use
- <valsi>ku</valsi> when attaching a
- <valsi>noi</valsi> relative clause to a
- <valsi>lo</valsi> descriptor. Otherwise we may end up claiming far too much.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses and names</primary><secondary>placement considerations</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>on names</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>as part of name</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>impact of la on placement</secondary></indexterm> When the descriptor is
- <valsi>la</valsi>, indicating that what follows is a selbri used for naming, then the positioning of relative clauses has a different significance. A relative clause inside the
- <valsi>ku</valsi>, whether before or after the selbri, is reckoned part of the name; a relative clause outside the
- <valsi>ku</valsi> is not. Therefore,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-JYj4">
- <title>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>afraid of horse</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e6d10"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi viska la nanmu poi terpa le ke'a xirma [ku]</jbo>
- <gloss>I see that-named (
- <quote>man which fears the of-IT horse</quote>).</gloss>
- <natlang>I see Man Afraid Of His Horse.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>
-
-
- says that the speaker sees a person with a particular name, who does not necessarily fear any horses, whereas</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9GWR">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e6d11"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi viska la nanmu ku poi terpa le ke'a xirma.</jbo>
- <gloss>I see that-named(
- <quote>Man</quote>) which fears the of-IT horse.</gloss>
- <natlang>I see the person named
- <quote>Man</quote> who is afraid of his horse.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>refers to one (or more) of those named
- <quote>Man</quote>, namely the one(s) who are afraid of their horses.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses and indefinite sumti</primary><secondary>placement considerations</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>impact of indefinite sumti on placement</secondary></indexterm> Finally, so-called indefinite sumti like
-
-
- <jbophrase>re karce</jbophrase>, which means almost the same as
- <jbophrase>re lo karce</jbophrase> (which in turn means the same as
- <jbophrase>re lo ro karce</jbophrase>), can have relative clauses attached; these are taken to be of the outside-the-
- <valsi>ku</valsi> variety. Here is an example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-J11I">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e6d12"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi ponse re karce [ku] poi xekri</jbo>
- <gloss>I possess two cars which-are black.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses on indefinite sumti</primary><secondary>syntax considerations</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>syntax with indefinite sumti</secondary></indexterm> The restrictive relative clause only affects the two cars being affected by the main bridi, not all cars that exist. It is ungrammatical to try to place a relative clause within an indefinite sumti (that is, before an explicitly expressed terminating
-
-
-
- <valsi>ku</valsi>.) Use an explicit
- <valsi>lo</valsi> instead.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-possessive-sumti">
- <title>Possessive sumti</title>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>possessive sumti</primary><secondary>compared with relative phrase</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative phrase</primary><secondary>compared with possessive sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>between descriptor and description selbri</secondary></indexterm> In
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-pR53"/> through
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-zsQ6"/>, the sumti
- <jbophrase>le mi karce</jbophrase> appears, glossed as
- <quote>my car</quote>. Although it might not seem so, this sumti actually contains a relative phrase. When a sumti appears between a descriptor and its description selbri, it is actually a
- <valsi>pe</valsi> relative phrase. So</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pALv">
- <title>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>my</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e7d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le mi karce cu xunre</jbo>
- <gloss>My car is-red.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>
-
-
- and</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1ng6">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e7d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le pe mi karce cu xunre</jbo>
- <gloss>The (associated-with me) car is-red.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>mean exactly the same thing. Furthermore, since there are no special considerations of quantifiers here,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-BCqF">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e7d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le karce pe mi cu xunre</jbo>
- <gloss>The car associated-with me is-red.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>possessor sumti</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>possessive sumti</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> means the same thing as well. A sumti like the one in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-pALv"/> is called a
- <quote>possessive sumti</quote>. Of course, it does not really indicate possession in the sense of ownership, but like
-
- <valsi>pe</valsi> relative phrases, indicates only weak association; you can say
- <jbophrase>le mi karce</jbophrase> even if you've only borrowed it for the night. (In English,
- <quote>my car</quote> usually means
- <jbophrase>le karce po mi</jbophrase>, but we do not have the same sense of possession in
- <quote>my seat on the bus</quote>; Lojban simply makes the weaker sense the standard one.) The inner sumti,
-
- <valsi>mi</valsi> in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-pALv"/>, is correspondingly called the
- <quote>possessor sumti</quote>.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses and possessive sumti</primary><secondary>development history</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>possessive sumti and relative clauses</primary><secondary>development history</secondary></indexterm> Historically, possessive sumti existed before any other kind of relative phrase or clause, and were retained when the machinery of relative phrases and clauses as detailed in this chapter so far was slowly built up. When preposed relative clauses of the
-
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-1ng6"/> type were devised, possessive sumti were most easily viewed as a special case of them.</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>numbers</primary><secondary>as possessive sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>quotations</primary><secondary>as possessive sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>descriptions</primary><secondary>as possessive sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>names</primary><secondary>as possessive sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pro-sumti</primary><secondary>as possessive sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative phrases</primary><secondary>contrasted with possessive sumti in complexity allowed</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>possessive sumti</primary><secondary>contrasted with relative phrases in complexity allowed</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>possessive sumti</primary><secondary>syntax allowed</secondary></indexterm> Although any sumti, however complex, can appear in a full-fledged relative phrase, only simple sumti can appear as possessor sumti, without a
-
- <valsi>pe</valsi>. Roughly speaking, the legal possessor sumti are: pro-sumti, quotations, names and descriptions, and numbers. In addition, the possessor sumti may not be preceded by a quantifier, as such a form would be interpreted as the unusual
- <quote>descriptor + quantifier + sumti</quote> type of description. All these sumti forms are explained in full in
- <xref linkend="chapter-sumti"/>.</para>
- <para>Here is an example of a description used in a possessive sumti:</para>
-
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rBmw">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e7d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le le nanmu ku karce cu blanu</jbo>
- <gloss>The (associated-with-the man) car is blue.</gloss>
- <natlang>The man's car is blue.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>possessive sumti</primary><secondary>effect on elidability of ku</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ku</primary><secondary>effect of possessive sumti on elidability of</secondary></indexterm> Note the explicit
- <valsi>ku</valsi> at the end of the possessor sumti, which prevents the selbri of the possessor sumti from merging with the selbri of the main description sumti. Because of the need for this
- <valsi>ku</valsi>, the most common kind of possessor sumti are pro-sumti, especially personal pro-sumti, which require no elidable terminator. Descriptions are more likely to be attached with relative phrases.</para>
-
- <para>And here is a number used as a possessor sumti:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pYfN">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e7d5"/>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>juror 5</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le li mu jdice se bende</jbo>
- <gloss>The of-the-number-five judging team-member</gloss>
- <natlang>Juror number 5</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>
-
-
- which is not quite the same as
- <quote>the fifth juror</quote>; it simply indicates a weak association between the particular juror and the number 5.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>possessive sumti with relative clauses</primary><secondary>effect of placement</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses with possessive sumti</primary><secondary>effect of placement</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>possessive sumti</primary><secondary>with relative clauses on possessive sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>possessive sumti</primary><secondary>relative clauses on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>on possessive sumti</secondary></indexterm> A possessive sumti may also have regular relative clauses attached to it. This would need no comment if it were not for the following special rule: a relative clause immediately following the possessor sumti is understood to affect the possessor sumti, not the possessive. For example:</para>
-
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-cVjs">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e7d6"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le mi noi sipna vau karce cu na klama</jbo>
- <gloss>The of-me incidentally-which-(is-sleeping) car isn't going.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>means that my car isn't going; the incidental claim of
- <jbophrase>noi sipna</jbophrase> applies to me, not my car, however. If I wanted to say that the car is sleeping (whatever that might mean) I would need:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-iP4q">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e7d7"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le mi karce poi sipna cu na klama</jbo>
- <gloss>The of-me car which sleeps isn't going.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ku'o</primary><secondary>effect of vau on elidability</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vau</primary><secondary>effect on elidability ku'o</secondary></indexterm> Note that
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-cVjs"/> uses
- <valsi>vau</valsi> rather than
- <valsi>ku'o</valsi> at the end of the relative clause: this terminator ends every simple bridi and is almost always elidable; in this case, though, it is a syllable shorter than the equally valid alternative,
-
- <valsi>ku'o</valsi>.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-vuho">
- <title>Relative clauses and complex sumti:
- <valsi>vu'o</valsi></title>
- <para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>vu'o</cmavo>
- <selmaho>VUhO</selmaho>
- <description>relative clause attacher</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
- <para>Normally, relative clauses attach only to simple sumti or parts of sumti: pro-sumti, names and descriptions, pure numbers, and quotations. An example of a relative clause attached to a pure number is:</para>
-
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sfHA">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e8d1"/>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>irrational number</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>li pai noi na'e frinu namcu</jbo>
- <gloss>The-number pi, incidentally-which is-a-non- fraction number</gloss>
- <natlang>The irrational number pi</natlang>
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>
-
-
- <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>on quotation</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>on number</secondary></indexterm> And here is an incidental relative clause attached to a quotation:</para>
-
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-WuBh">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e8d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>lu mi klama le zarci li'u noi mi cusku ke'a cu jufra</jbo>
- <gloss>[quote] I go to-the market [unquote] incidentally-which-(I express IT) is-a-sentence.</gloss>
- <natlang>
- <quote>I'm going to the market</quote>, which I'd said, is a sentence.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>which may serve to identify the author of the quotation or some other relevant, but subsidiary, fact about it. All such relative clauses appear only after the simple sumti, never before it.</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>NAhE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>NAhE selma'o</primary><secondary>effect of relative clause placement with</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>LAhE selma'o</primary><secondary>effect of relative clause placement with</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses and NAhE</primary><secondary>placement considerations</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>impact of NAhE on placement</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses and LAhE</primary><secondary>placement considerations</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>impact of LAhE on placement</secondary></indexterm> In addition, sumti with attached sumti qualifiers of selma'o LAhE or NAhE+BO (which are explained in detail in
-
- <xref linkend="section-sumti-qualifiers"/>) can have a relative clause appearing after the qualifier and before the qualified sumti, as in:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4sqi">
- <title>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>red pony</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e8d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la'e poi tolcitno vau lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u cu zvati le vu kumfa</jbo>
- <gloss>A-referent-of (which is-old) [quote] The Red Small-horse [unquote] is-at the [far distance] room.</gloss>
- <natlang>An old
- <quote>The Red Pony</quote> is in the far room.</natlang>
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>
-
-
-
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-4sqi"/> is a bit complex, and may need some picking apart. The quotation
- <jbophrase>lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u</jbophrase> means the string of words
- <quote>The Red Pony</quote>. If the
-
- <valsi>la'e</valsi> at the beginning of the sentence were omitted,
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-4sqi"/> would claim that a certain string of words is in a room distant from the speaker. But obviously a string of words can't be in a room! The effect of the
- <valsi>la'e</valsi> is to modify the sumti so that it refers not to the words themselves, but to the referent of those words, a novel by John Steinbeck (presumably in Lojban translation). The particular copy of
- <quote>The Red Pony</quote> is identified by the restrictive relative clause.
-
-
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-4sqi"/> means exactly the same as:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-yX24">
- <title>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>red pony</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e8d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la'e lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u lu'u poi to'ercitno cu zvati le vu kumfa</jbo>
- <gloss>A-referent-of ([quote] The Red Small-horse [unquote]) which is-old is-at the [far distance] room.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>and the two sentences can be considered stylistic variants. Note the required
- <valsi>lu'u</valsi> terminator, which prevents the relative clause from attaching to the quotation itself: we do not wish to refer to an old quotation!</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>on connected sumti</secondary></indexterm> Sometimes, however, it is important to make a relative clause apply to the whole of a more complex sumti, one which involves logical or non-logical connection (explained in
-
- <xref linkend="chapter-connectives"/>). For example,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-EYgE">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e8d5"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la frank. .e la djordj. noi nanmu cu klama le zdani</jbo>
- <gloss>Frank and George incidentally-who is-a-man go to-the house.</gloss>
- <natlang>Frank and George, who is a man, go to the house.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>The incidental claim in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-EYgE"/> is not that Frank and George are men, but only that George is a man, because the incidental relative clause attaches only to
-
- <jbophrase>la djordj</jbophrase>, the immediately preceding simple sumti.</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clause scope</primary><secondary>extending to preceding sumti with vu'o</secondary></indexterm> To make a relative clause attach to both parts of the logically connected sumti in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-EYgE"/>, a new cmavo is needed,
- <valsi>vu'o</valsi> (of selma'o VUhO). It is placed between the sumti and the relative clause, and extends the sphere of influence of that relative clause to the entire preceding sumti, including however many logical or non-logical connectives there may be.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9XPz">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e8d6"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la frank. .e la djordj. vu'o noi nanmu cu klama le zdani</jbo>
- <gloss>Frank and George incidentally-who are-men go to-the house.</gloss>
- <natlang>Frank and George, who are men, go to the house.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>The presence of
- <valsi>vu'o</valsi> here means that the relative clause
- <jbophrase>noi nanmu</jbophrase> extends to the entire logically connected sumti
- <jbophrase>la frank. .e la djordj.</jbophrase>; in other words, both Frank and George are claimed to be men, as the colloquial translation shows.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses on complex sumti</primary><secondary>Lojban contrasted with English</secondary></indexterm> English is able to resolve the distinction correctly in the case of
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-EYgE"/> and
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-9XPz"/> by making use of number:
- <quote>who is</quote> rather than
- <quote>who are</quote>. Lojban doesn't distinguish between singular and plural verbs:
-
-
- <valsi>nanmu</valsi> can mean
- <quote>is a man</quote> or
- <quote>are men</quote>, so another means is required. Furthermore, Lojban's mechanism works correctly in general: if
- <valsi>nanmu</valsi> (meaning
- <quote>is-a-man</quote>) were replaced with
- <jbophrase>pu bajra</jbophrase> (
- <quote>ran</quote>), English would have to make the distinction some other way:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qmeb" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e8d7"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la frank. .e la djordj. noi pu bajra cu klama le zdani</jbo>
- <gloss>Frank and (George who [past] runs) go to-the house.</gloss>
- <natlang>Frank and George, who ran, go to the house.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qmEt" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e8d8"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la frank. .e la djordj. vu'o noi pu bajra cu klama le zdani</jbo>
- <gloss>(Frank and George) who [past] run go to-the house.</gloss>
- <natlang>Frank and George, who ran, go to the house.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>In spoken English, tone of voice would serve; in written English, one or both sentences would need rewriting.</para>
-
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-relative-clauses-and-vocatives">
- <title>Relative clauses in vocative phrases</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>DOI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>COI selma'o</primary></indexterm> Vocative phrases are explained in more detail in
- <xref linkend="section-vocative-syntax"/>. Briefly, they are a method of indicating who a sentence or discourse is addressed to: of identifying the intended listener. They take three general forms, all beginning with cmavo from selma'o COI or DOI (called
- <quote>vocative words</quote>; there can be one or many), followed by either a name, a selbri, or a sumti. Here are three examples:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMG8" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e9d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>coi. frank.</jbo>
- <natlang>Hello, Frank.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMGj" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e9d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>co'o xirma</jbo>
- <natlang>Goodbye, horse.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qmgM" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e9d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>fi'i la frank. .e la djordj.</jbo>
-
- <natlang>Welcome, Frank and George!</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>Note that
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMGj"/> says farewell to something which doesn't really have to be a horse, something that the speaker simply thinks of as being a horse, or even might be something (a person, for example) who is named
- <quote>Horse</quote>. In a sense,
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMGj"/> is ambiguous between
- <jbophrase>co'o le xirma</jbophrase> and
- <jbophrase>co'o la xirma</jbophrase>, a relatively safe semantic ambiguity, since names are ambiguous in general: saying
- <quote>George</quote> doesn't distinguish between the possible Georges.</para>
- <para>Similarly,
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMG8"/> can be thought of as an abbreviation of:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-oWPU">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e9d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>coi la frank.</jbo>
- <gloss>Hello, the-one-named
- <quote>Frank</quote>.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>Syntactically, vocative phrases are a kind of free modifier, and can appear in many places in Lojban text, generally at the beginning or end of some complete construct; or, as in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMG8"/> to
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qmgM"/>, as sentences by themselves.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vocative phrase with name</primary><secondary>placement of relative clause on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>placement with vocative phrases</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vocative phrases</primary><secondary>relative clauses on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>on vocative phrases</secondary></indexterm> As can be seen, the form of vocative phrases is similar to that of sumti, and as you might expect, vocative phrases allow relative clauses in various places. In vocative phrases which are simple names (after the vocative words), any relative clauses must come just after the names:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-xECX">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e9d5"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>coi. frank. poi xunre se bende</jbo>
- <gloss>Hello, Frank who is-a-red team-member</gloss>
- <natlang>Hello, Frank from the Red Team!</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>The restrictive relative clause in
-
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-xECX"/> suggests that there is some other Frank (perhaps on the Green Team) from whom this Frank, the one the speaker is greeting, must be distinguished.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vocative phrase with selbri</primary><secondary>placement of relative clause on</secondary></indexterm> A vocative phrase containing a selbri can have relative clauses either before or after the selbri; both forms have the same meaning. Here are some examples:</para>
-
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qmgV" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e9d6"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>co'o poi mi zvati ke'a ku'o xirma</jbo>
- <gloss>Goodbye, such-that-(I am-at IT) horse</gloss>
- <natlang>Goodbye, horse where I am!</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMHc" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e9d7"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>co'o xirma poi mi zvati</jbo>
- <gloss>Goodbye, horse such-that-(I am-at-it).</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qmgV"/> and
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMHc"/> mean the same thing. In fact, relative clauses can appear in both places.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-nesting">
- <title>Relative clauses within relative clauses</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>relative clauses within</secondary></indexterm> For the most part, these are straightforward and uncomplicated: a sumti that is part of a relative clause bridi may itself be modified by a relative clause:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-TGiu">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e10d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le prenu poi zvati le kumfa poi blanu cu masno</jbo>
- <gloss>The person who is-in the room which is-blue is-slow.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ke'a with subscript</primary><secondary>use for outer sumti reference</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>subscripts</primary><secondary>use with ke'a for outer sumti reference</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>inner sumti</primary><secondary>referring to from within relative clause within relative clause</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>outer sumti</primary><secondary>referring to from within relative clause within relative clause</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relativized sumti</primary><secondary>in relative clauses within relative clauses</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ke'a</primary><secondary>meaning in relative clause inside relative clause</secondary></indexterm> However, an ambiguity can exist if
- <valsi>ke'a</valsi> is used in a relative clause within a relative clause: does it refer to the outermost sumti, or to the sumti within the outer relative clause to which the inner relative clause is attached? The latter. To refer to the former, use a subscript on
- <valsi>ke'a</valsi>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-8RdM">
- <title>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>room which he built</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e10d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le prenu poi zvati le kumfa poi ke'axire zbasu ke'a cu masno</jbo>
- <gloss>The person who is-in the room which IT-sub-2 built IT is-slow.</gloss>
- <natlang>The person who is in the room which he built is slow.</natlang>
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>
-
-
- Here, the meaning of
- <quote>IT-sub-2</quote> is that sumti attached to the second relative clause, counting from the innermost, is used. Therefore,
- <jbophrase>ke'axipa</jbophrase> (IT-sub-1) means the same as plain
-
- <valsi>ke'a</valsi>.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>prenex</primary><secondary>use for outer sumti reference</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>outer sumti</primary><secondary>prenex for referring to from within relative clause within relative clause</secondary></indexterm> Alternatively, you can use a prenex (explained in full in
- <xref linkend="chapter-quantifiers"/>), which is syntactically a series of sumti followed by the special cmavo
- <valsi>zo'u</valsi>, prefixed to the relative clause bridi:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-5TuF">
- <title>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>room which he built</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c8e10d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le prenu poi ke'a goi ko'a zo'u ko'a zvati le kumfa poi ke'a goi ko'e zo'u ko'a zbasu ke'a cu masno</jbo>
- <gloss>The man who (IT = it1 : it1 is-in the room which (IT = it2 : it1 built it2) is-slow.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-5TuF"/> is more verbose than
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-8RdM"/>, but may be clearer, since it explicitly spells out the two
- <valsi>ke'a</valsi> cmavo, each on its own level, and assigns them to the assignable cmavo
- <valsi>ko'a</valsi> and
- <valsi>ko'e</valsi> (explained in <xref linkend="section-koha-broda-series"/>).</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-relative-clause-cmavo-summary">
- <title>Index of relative clause cmavo</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative clauses</primary><secondary>list of cmavo for</secondary></indexterm> Relative clause introducers (selma'o NOI):</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>noi</cmavo>
- <description>incidental clauses</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>poi</cmavo>
- <description>restrictive clauses</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>voi</cmavo>
- <description>restrictive clauses (non-veridical)</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
- <para>Relative phrase introducers (selma'o GOI):</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>goi</cmavo>
- <description>pro-sumti assignment</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
-
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>pe</cmavo>
- <description>restrictive association</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ne</cmavo>
- <description>incidental association</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
-
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>po</cmavo>
- <description>extrinsic (alienable) possession</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>po'e</cmavo>
- <description>intrinsic (inalienable) possession</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
-
-
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>po'u</cmavo>
- <description>restrictive identification</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>no'u</cmavo>
- <description>incidental identification</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
-
-
-
- </cmavo-list>
- <para>Relativizing pro-sumti (selma'o KOhA):</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ke'a</cmavo>
- <description>pro-sumti for relativized sumti</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
-
- </cmavo-list>
- <para>Relative clause joiner (selma'o ZIhE):</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>zi'e</cmavo>
- <description>joins relative clauses applying to a single sumti</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
- <para>Relative clause associator (selma'o VUhO):</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>vu'o</cmavo>
- <description>causes relative clauses to apply to all of a complex sumti</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
- <para>Elidable terminators (each its own selma'o):</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ku'o</cmavo>
- <description>relative clause elidable terminator</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ge'u</cmavo>
- <description>relative phrase elidable terminator</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
- </section>
-</chapter>
diff --git a/chapters/9.xml b/chapters/9.xml
deleted file mode 100644
index 001fdde..0000000
--- a/chapters/9.xml
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,2703 +0,0 @@
-<chapter xml:id="chapter-sumti-tcita">
- <title>To Boston Via The Road Go I, With An Excursion Into The Land Of Modals</title>
- <mediaobject xml:id="chapter-sumti-tcita-picture">
- <alt>The picture for chapter 9</alt>
- <imageobject>
- <imagedata fileref="media/chapter-sumti-tcita.gif"/>
- </imageobject>
- </mediaobject>
-
- <section xml:id="section-sumti-tcita-introduction">
- <title>Introductory</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relationship</primary><secondary>objects of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relationship</primary><secondary>as basis of sentence</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sentence</primary><secondary>basic Lojban</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> The basic type of Lojban sentence is the bridi: a claim by the speaker that certain objects are related in a certain way. The objects are expressed by Lojban grammatical forms called
- <valsi>sumti</valsi>; the relationship is expressed by the Lojban grammatical form called a
- <valsi>selbri</valsi>.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>as objects in place structure slots</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>place structure</primary><secondary>empty slots in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>place structure</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri</primary><secondary>place structure of</secondary></indexterm> The sumti are not randomly associated with the selbri, but according to a systematic pattern known as the
- <quote>place structure</quote> of the selbri. This chapter describes the various ways in which the place structure of Lojban bridi is expressed and by which it can be manipulated. The place structure of a selbri is a sequence of empty slots into which the sumti associated with that selbri are placed. The sumti are said to occupy the places of the selbri.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>place structure of selbri</primary><secondary>determining</secondary></indexterm> For our present purposes, every selbri is assumed to have a well-known place structure. If the selbri is a brivla, the place structure can be looked up in a dictionary (or, if the brivla is a lujvo not in any dictionary, inferred from the principles of lujvo construction as explained in
- <xref linkend="chapter-lujvo"/>); if the selbri is a tanru, the place structure is the same as that of the final component in the tanru.</para>
- <para>
-
-
- <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>x1</primary><secondary>in place structure notation</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>place structure</primary><secondary>notation conventions</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>klama</primary><secondary>place structure of</secondary></indexterm> The stock example of a place structure is that of the gismu
- <valsi>klama</valsi>:</para>
- <definition>
- <valsi>klama</valsi> <content>x1 comes/goes to destination x2 from origin x3 via route x4 employing means of transport x5.</content>
- </definition>
- <para>The
- <quote>x1 ... x5</quote> indicates that
- <valsi>klama</valsi> is a five-place predicate, and show the natural order (as assigned by the language engineers) of those places: agent, destination, origin, route, means.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>place structure</primary><secondary>instability of</secondary></indexterm> The place structures of brivla are not absolutely stable aspects of the language. The work done so far has attempted to establish a basic place structure on which all users can, at first, agree. In the light of actual experience with the individual selbri of the language, there will inevitably be some degree of change to the brivla place structures.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-cu">
- <title>Standard bridi form:
- <valsi>cu</valsi></title>
- <para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>cu</cmavo>
- <selmaho>CU</selmaho>
- <description>prefixed selbri separator</description>
-
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi</primary><secondary>building from selbri and sumti</secondary></indexterm> The most usual way of constructing a bridi from a selbri such as
- <valsi>klama</valsi> and an appropriate number of sumti is to place the sumti intended for the x1 place before the selbri, and all the other sumti in order after the selbri, thus:</para>
-
-
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Ji94">
- <title>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>Boston from Atlanta</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>go</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>go to Boston from Atlanta</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e2d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi cu klama la bastn. la .atlantas. le dargu le karce</jbo>
- <gloss>I go to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the road using-the car.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>Here the sumti are assigned to the places as follows:</para>
- <informaltable>
- <colgroup/>
- <tr>
- <td>x1</td>
- <td>agent</td>
- <td><valsi>mi</valsi></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>x2</td>
- <td>destination</td>
- <td><jbophrase>la bastn.</jbophrase></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>x3</td>
- <td>origin</td>
- <td><jbophrase>la .atlantas.</jbophrase></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>x4</td>
- <td>route</td>
- <td><jbophrase>le dargu</jbophrase></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>x5</td>
- <td>means</td>
- <td><jbophrase>le karce</jbophrase></td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <para>(Note: Many of the examples in the rest of this chapter will turn out to have the same meaning as
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-Ji94"/>; this fact will not be reiterated.)</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi</primary><secondary>non-standard form</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>standard bridi form</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi</primary><secondary>standard form of</secondary></indexterm> This ordering, with the x1 place before the selbri and all other places in natural order after the selbri, is called
- <quote>standard bridi form</quote>, and is found in the bulk of Lojban bridi, whether used in main sentences or in subordinate clauses. However, many other forms are possible, such as:</para>
-
-
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-yLqT">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e2d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi la bastn. la .atlantas. le dargu le karce cu klama</jbo>
- <gloss>I, to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the road using-the car, go.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi</primary><secondary>effect of alternate form on sumti order</secondary></indexterm> Here the selbri is at the end; all the sumti are placed before it. However, the same order is maintained.</para>
- <para>Similarly, we may split up the sumti, putting some before the selbri and others after it:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-vzNY">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e2d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi la bastn. cu klama la .atlantas. le dargu le karce</jbo>
- <gloss>I to-Boston go from-Atlanta via-the road using-the car.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>emphasis</primary><secondary>changing by using non-standard form of bridi</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi</primary><secondary>effect of using non-standard form</secondary></indexterm> All of the variant forms in this section and following sections can be used to place emphasis on the part or parts which have been moved out of their standard places. Thus,
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-yLqT"/> places emphasis on the selbri (because it is at the end);
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-vzNY"/> emphasizes
- <jbophrase>la bastn.</jbophrase>, because it has been moved before the selbri. Moving more than one component may dilute this emphasis. It is permitted, but no stylistic significance has yet been established for drastic reordering.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cu</primary><secondary>effect on elidable terminators</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cu</primary><secondary>usefulness of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cu</primary><secondary>necessity of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cu</primary><secondary>as selbri separator</secondary></indexterm> In all these examples, the cmavo
- <valsi>cu</valsi> (belonging to selma'o CU) is used to separate the selbri from any preceding sumti. It is never absolutely necessary to use
- <valsi>cu</valsi>. However, providing it helps the reader or listener to locate the selbri quickly, and may make it possible to place a complex sumti just before the selbri, allowing the speaker to omit elidable terminators, possibly a whole stream of them, that would otherwise be necessary.</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi</primary><secondary>selbri-first as exceptional</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri-first bridi</primary><secondary>effect on sumti places</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>omitted first place in selbri-first bridi</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>order in selbri-first bridi</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>order in selbri</secondary></indexterm> The general rule, then, is that the selbri may occur anywhere in the bridi as long as the sumti maintain their order. The only exception (and it is an important one) is that if the selbri appears first, the x1 sumti is taken to have been omitted:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-aQtM">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e2d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>klama la bastn. la .atlantas. le dargu le karce</jbo>
- <gloss>A-goer to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the road using-the car.</gloss>
- <gloss>Goes to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the road using-the car.</gloss>
- <natlang>Look: a goer to Boston from Atlanta via the road using the car!</natlang>
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>command</primary><secondary>contrasted with observative form</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>observative form</primary><secondary>contrasted with command</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>observative</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi</primary><secondary>exception to sumti place structure in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi</primary><secondary>omitting the first sumti place</secondary></indexterm> Here the x1 place is empty: the listener must guess from context who is going to Boston. In
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-aQtM"/>,
- <valsi>klama</valsi> is glossed
- <quote>a goer</quote> rather than
- <quote>go</quote> because
- <quote>Go</quote> at the beginning of an English sentence would suggest a command:
- <quote>Go to Boston!</quote>.
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-aQtM"/> is not a command, simply a normal statement with the x1 place unspecified, causing the emphasis to fall on the selbri
- <valsi>klama</valsi>. Such a bridi, with empty x1, is called an
- <quote>observative</quote>, because it usually calls on the listener to observe something in the environment which would belong in the x1 place. The third translation above shows this observative nature. Sometimes it is the relationship itself which the listener is asked to observe.</para>
-
- <para>(There is a way to both provide a sumti for the x1 place and put the selbri first in the bridi: see
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-oDES"/>.)</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi</primary><secondary>leaving end sumti places unspecified in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>dropping trailing unspecified</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>unspecified trailing sumti</primary><secondary>dropping</secondary></indexterm> Suppose the speaker desires to omit a place other than the x1 place? (Presumably it is obvious or, for one reason or another, not worth saying.) Places at the end may simply be dropped:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-5Eqa">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e2d5"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi klama la bastn. la .atlantas.</jbo>
- <gloss>I go to-Boston from-Atlanta (via an unspecified route, using an unspecified means).</gloss>
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>
-
- <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>unspecified sumti</primary><secondary>non-trailing</secondary></indexterm>
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-5Eqa"/> has empty x4 and x5 places: the speaker does not specify the route or the means of transport. However, simple omission will not work for a place when the places around it are to be specified: in</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-jh7T">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e2d6"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi klama la bastn. la .atlantas. le karce</jbo>
- <gloss>I go to-Boston from-Atlanta via-the car.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>
- <jbophrase>le karce</jbophrase> occupies the x4 place, and therefore
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-jh7T"/> means:</para>
- <blockquote>
- <para>I go to Boston from Atlanta, using the car as a route.</para>
- </blockquote>
- <para>This is nonsense, since a car cannot be a route. What the speaker presumably meant is expressed by:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-tqoQ">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e2d7"/>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>unspecified route</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi klama la bastn. la .atlantas. zo'e le karce</jbo>
- <gloss>I go to-Boston from-Atlanta via-something-unspecified using-the car.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>place structures</primary><secondary>omitting places with zo'e</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>place structure</primary><secondary>leaving a sumti place unspecified in with zo'e</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi</primary><secondary>leaving a sumti place unspecified in with zo'e</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>zo'e</primary><secondary>as place-holder for unspecified sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>unspecified sumti</primary><secondary>using zo'e as place-holder for</secondary></indexterm> Here the sumti cmavo
- <valsi>zo'e</valsi> is used to explicitly fill the x4 place;
- <valsi>zo'e</valsi> means
- <quote>the unspecified thing</quote> and has the same meaning as leaving the place empty: the listener must infer the correct meaning from context.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-FA">
- <title>Tagging places: FA</title>
- <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>fa</cmavo>
- <selmaho>FA</selmaho>
- <description>tags x1 place</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>fe</cmavo>
- <selmaho>FA</selmaho>
- <description>tags x2 place</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>fi</cmavo>
- <selmaho>FA</selmaho>
- <description>tags x3 place</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>fo</cmavo>
- <selmaho>FA</selmaho>
- <description>tags x4 place</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>fu</cmavo>
- <selmaho>FA</selmaho>
- <description>tags x5 place</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>fi'a</cmavo>
-
- <selmaho>FA</selmaho>
- <description>place structure question</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>FA selma'o</primary><secondary>syntax of</secondary></indexterm> In sentences like
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-Ji94"/>, it is easy to get lost and forget which sumti falls in which place, especially if the sumti are more complicated than simple names or descriptions. The place structure tags of selma'o FA may be used to help clarify place structures. The five cmavo
- <valsi>fa</valsi>,
- <valsi>fe</valsi>,
- <valsi>fi</valsi>,
- <valsi>fo</valsi>, and
- <valsi>fu</valsi> may be inserted just before the sumti in the x1 to x5 places respectively:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-yLop">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e3d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>fa mi cu klama fe la bastn. fi la .atlantas. fo le dargu fu le karce</jbo>
- <gloss>x1= I go x2= Boston x3= Atlanta x4= the road x5= the car.</gloss>
- <natlang>I go to Boston from Atlanta via the road using the car.</natlang>
-
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>FA selma'o</primary><secondary>for accessing a selbri place explicitly by relative number</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>explicitly mapping into place structure with FA</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>place structure</primary><secondary>explicitly mapping sumti to place with FA</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>place structure</primary><secondary>effect of FA on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>FA selma'o</primary><secondary>effect on place structure</secondary></indexterm> In
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-yLop"/>, the tag
- <valsi>fu</valsi> before
- <jbophrase>le karce</jbophrase> clarifies that
- <jbophrase>le karce</jbophrase> occupies the x5 place of
- <valsi>klama</valsi>. The use of
- <valsi>fu</valsi> tells us nothing about the purpose or meaning of the x5 place; it simply says that
- <jbophrase>le karce</jbophrase> occupies it.</para>
- <para>In
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-yLop"/>, the tags are overkill; they serve only to make
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-Ji94"/> even longer than it is. Here is a better illustration of the use of FA tags for clarification:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3CPJ">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e3d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>fa mi klama fe le zdani be mi be'o poi nurma vau fi la nu,IORK.</jbo>
- <gloss>x1= I go x2= (the house of me) which is-rural x3= New York.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>In
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-3CPJ"/>, the place structure of
- <valsi>klama</valsi> is as follows:</para>
- <informaltable>
- <colgroup/>
- <tr>
- <td>x1</td>
- <td>agent</td>
- <td><valsi>mi</valsi></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>x2</td>
- <td>destination</td>
- <td><jbophrase>le zdani be mi be'o poi nurma vau</jbophrase></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>x3</td>
- <td>origin</td>
- <td><jbophrase>la nu,IORK.</jbophrase></td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>x4</td>
- <td>route</td>
- <td>(empty)</td>
- </tr>
- <tr>
- <td>x5</td>
- <td>means</td>
- <td>(empty)</td>
- </tr>
- </informaltable>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>FA selma'o</primary><secondary>as a reminder of place in place structure</secondary></indexterm> The
- <valsi>fi</valsi> tag serves to remind the hearer that what follows is in the x3 place of
- <valsi>klama</valsi>; after listening to the complex sumti occupying the x2 place, it's easy to get lost.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>re-ordering with FA</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri-first bridi</primary><secondary>specifying first sumti place in with fa</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>place structure order</primary><secondary>effect of FA on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>FA selma'o</primary><secondary>effect on place structure order</secondary></indexterm> Of course, once the sumti have been tagged, the order in which they are specified no longer carries the burden of distinguishing the places. Therefore, it is perfectly all right to scramble them into any order desired, and to move the selbri to anywhere in the bridi, even the beginning:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-YmN2">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e3d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>klama fa mi fi la .atlantas. fu le karce fe la bastn. fo le dargu</jbo>
- <gloss>go x1= I x3= Atlanta x5= the car x2= Boston x4= the road.</gloss>
- <natlang>Go I from Atlanta using the car to Boston via the road.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>selbri-first bridi</primary><secondary>effect on use of cu</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>cu</primary><secondary>effect of selbri-first bridi on</secondary></indexterm> Note that no
- <valsi>cu</valsi> is permitted before the selbri in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-YmN2"/>, because
- <valsi>cu</valsi> separates the selbri from any preceding sumti, and
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-YmN2"/> has no such sumti.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-fG8R">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e3d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>fu le karce fo le dargu fi la .atlantas. fe la bastn. cu klama fa mi</jbo>
- <gloss>x5= the car x4= the road x3= Atlanta x2= Boston go x1=I</gloss>
- <natlang>Using the car, via the road, from Atlanta to Boston go I.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-fG8R"/> exhibits the reverse of the standard bridi form seen in
-
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-Ji94"/> and
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-yLop"/>, but still means exactly the same thing. If the FA tags were left out, however, producing:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-j7Nu">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e3d5"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le karce le dargu la .atlantas. la bastn. cu klama mi</jbo>
- <gloss>The car to-the road from-Atlanta via-Boston goes using-me.</gloss>
- <natlang>The car goes to the road from Atlanta, with Boston as the route, using me as a means of transport.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>the meaning would be wholly changed, and in fact nonsensical.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>zo'e</primary><secondary>compared with FA for omitting places</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>FA selma'o</primary><secondary>compared with zo'e for omitting places</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>place structures</primary><secondary>omitting places with FA</secondary></indexterm> Tagging places with FA cmavo makes it easy not only to reorder the places but also to omit undesirable ones, without any need for
- <valsi>zo'e</valsi> or special rules about the x1 place:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-brGX">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e3d6"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>klama fi la .atlantas. fe la bastn. fu le karce</jbo>
- <gloss>A-goer x3= Atlanta x2= Boston x5 = the car.</gloss>
- <natlang>A goer from Atlanta to Boston using the car.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>Here the x1 and x4 places are empty, and so no sumti are tagged with
- <valsi>fa</valsi> or
- <valsi>fo</valsi>; in addition, the x2 and x3 places appear in reverse order.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>FA selma'o</primary><secondary>effect on subsequent non-tagged places</secondary></indexterm> What if some sumti have FA tags and others do not? The rule is that after a FA-tagged sumti, any sumti following it occupy the places numerically succeeding it, subject to the proviso that an already-filled place is skipped:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-oDES">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e3d7"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>klama fa mi la bastn. la .atlantas. le dargu le karce</jbo>
- <gloss>Go x1= I x2= Boston x3= Atlanta x4= the road x5= the car.</gloss>
- <natlang>Go I to Boston from Atlanta via the road using the car.</natlang>
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>In
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-oDES"/>, the
- <valsi>fa</valsi> causes
- <valsi>mi</valsi> to occupy the x1 place, and then the following untagged sumti occupy in order the x2 through x5 places. This is the mechanism by which Lojban allows placing the selbri first while specifying a sumti for the x1 place.</para>
- <para>Here is a more complex (and more confusing) example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-q8is">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e3d8"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi klama fi la .atlantas. le dargu fe la bastn. le karce</jbo>
- <gloss>I go x3= Atlanta, the road x2= Boston, the car.</gloss>
- <natlang>I go from Atlanta via the road to Boston using the car.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>In
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-q8is"/>,
- <valsi>mi</valsi> occupies the x1 place because it is the first sumti in the sentence (and is before the selbri). The second sumti,
- <jbophrase>la .atlantas.</jbophrase>, occupies the x3 place by virtue of the tag
-
- <valsi>fi</valsi>, and
- <jbophrase>le dargu</jbophrase> occupies the x4 place as a result of following
- <jbophrase>la .atlantas.</jbophrase>. Finally,
- <jbophrase>la bastn.</jbophrase> occupies the x2 place because of its tag
- <valsi>fe</valsi>, and
- <jbophrase>le karce</jbophrase> skips over the already-occupied x3 and x4 places to land in the x5 place.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>FA selma'o</primary><secondary>avoidance of complex usage of</secondary></indexterm> Such a convoluted use of tags should probably be avoided except when trying for a literal translation of some English (or other natural-language) sentence; the rules stated here are merely given so that some standard interpretation is possible.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple sumti in one place</primary><secondary>meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti</primary><secondary>multiple in one place with FA</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>FA selma'o</primary><secondary>for putting more than one sumti in a single place</secondary></indexterm> It is grammatically permitted to tag more than one sumti with the same FA cmavo. The effect is that of making more than one claim:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-N1aE">
- <title>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>to movie</primary><secondary>house</secondary><tertiary>office: example</tertiary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e3d9"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>[fa] la rik. fa la djein. klama [fe] le skina fe le zdani fe le zarci</jbo>
- <gloss>[x1=] Rick x1= Jane goes-to [x2=] the movie x2= the house x2= the office</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>
- <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple sumti in one place</primary><secondary>avoiding</secondary></indexterm> may be taken to say that both Rick and Jane go to the movie, the house, and the office, merging six claims into one. More likely, however, it will simply confuse the listener. There are better ways, involving logical connectives (explained in
- <xref linkend="chapter-connectives"/>), to say such things in Lojban. In fact, putting more than one sumti into a place is odd enough that it can only be done by explicit FA usage: this is the motivation for the proviso above, that already-occupied places are skipped. In this way, no sumti can be forced into a place already occupied unless it has an explicit FA cmavo tagging it.</para>
-
-
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>questions</primary><secondary>place structure position</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>place structure questions</primary></indexterm> The cmavo
- <valsi>fi'a</valsi> also belongs to selma'o FA, and allows Lojban users to ask questions about place structures. A bridi containing
-
- <valsi>fi'a</valsi> is a question, asking the listener to supply the appropriate other member of FA which will make the bridi a true statement:</para>
-
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-GnTu">
- <title>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>give or receive</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e3d10"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>fi'a do dunda [fe] le vi rozgu</jbo>
-
- <gloss>[what place]? you give x2= the nearby rose</gloss>
- <gloss>In what way are you involved in the giving of this rose?</gloss>
- <natlang>Are you the giver or the receiver of this rose?</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>In
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-GnTu"/>, the speaker uses the selbri
- <valsi>dunda</valsi>, whose place structure is:</para>
- <definition>
- <valsi>dunda</valsi> <content>x1 gives x2 to x3</content>
- </definition>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>answers</primary><secondary>to place structure questions</secondary></indexterm> The tagged sumti
- <jbophrase>fi'a do</jbophrase> indicates that the speaker wishes to know whether the sumti
-
- <valsi>do</valsi> falls in the x1 or the x3 place (the x2 place is already occupied by
- <jbophrase>le rozgu</jbophrase>). The listener can reply with a sentence consisting solely of a FA cmavo:
- <valsi>fa</valsi> if the listener is the giver,
- <valsi>fi</valsi> if he/she is the receiver.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fi'a</primary><secondary>effect on subsequent untagged sumti</secondary></indexterm> I have inserted the tag
- <valsi>fe</valsi> in brackets into
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-GnTu"/>, but it is actually not necessary, because
- <valsi>fi'a</valsi> does not count as a numeric tag; therefore,
-
- <jbophrase>le vi rozgu</jbophrase> would necessarily be in the x2 place even if no tag were present, because it immediately follows the selbri.</para>
- <para>There is also another member of FA, namely
- <valsi>fai</valsi>, which is discussed in
- <xref linkend="section-modal-jai"/>.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-SE">
- <title>Conversion: SE</title>
- <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>se</cmavo>
- <selmaho>SE</selmaho>
- <description>2nd place conversion</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>te</cmavo>
- <selmaho>SE</selmaho>
- <description>3rd place conversion</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ve</cmavo>
- <selmaho>SE</selmaho>
- <description>4th place conversion</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>xe</cmavo>
- <selmaho>SE</selmaho>
- <description>5th place conversion</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>SE selma'o</primary><secondary>for converting place structure</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>SE selma'o</primary><secondary>effect on selbri place structure</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>converted selbri</primary><secondary>as different selbri from unconverted</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>converted selbri</primary><secondary>place structure of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>converted selbri</primary><secondary>forming with SE</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>converted selbri</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> So far we have seen ways to move sumti around within a bridi, but the actual place structure of the selbri has always remained untouched. The conversion cmavo of selma'o SE are incorporated within the selbri itself, and produce a new selbri (called a converted selbri) with a different place structure. In particular, after the application of any SE cmavo, the number and purposes of the places remain the same, but two of them have been exchanged, the x1 place and another. Which place has been exchanged with x1 depends on the cmavo chosen. Thus, for example, when
-
- <valsi>se</valsi> is used, the x1 place is swapped with the x2 place.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>SE selma'o</primary><secondary>word formation of cmavo in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>SE selma'o</primary><secondary>rationale for no 1st place conversion</secondary></indexterm> Note that the cmavo of SE begin with consecutive consonants in alphabetical order. There is no
- <quote>1st place conversion</quote> cmavo, because exchanging the x1 place with itself is a pointless maneuver.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>se klama</primary><secondary>place structure of</secondary></indexterm> Here are the place structures of
- <jbophrase>se klama</jbophrase>:</para>
- <definition>
- <content>x1 is the destination of x2's going from x3 via x4 using x5</content>
- </definition>
- <para> and
- <jbophrase>te klama</jbophrase>:</para>
- <definition>
- <content>x1 is the origin and x2 the destination of x3 going via x4 using x5</content>
- </definition>
- <para> and
- <jbophrase>ve klama</jbophrase>:</para>
-
- <definition>
- <content>x1 is the route to x2 from x3 used by x4 going via x5</content>
- </definition>
- <para> and
- <jbophrase>xe klama</jbophrase>:</para>
- <definition>
- <content>x1 is the means in going to x2 from x3 via x4 employed by x5</content>
- </definition>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>SE selma'o</primary><secondary>effect on place structure numbering</secondary></indexterm> Note that the place structure numbers in each case continue to be listed in the usual order, x1 to x5.</para>
- <para>Consider the following pair of examples:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qmHh" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e4d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la bastn. cu se klama mi</jbo>
- <gloss>Boston is-the-destination of-me.</gloss>
- <gloss>Boston is my destination.</gloss>
- <natlang>Boston is gone to by me.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMHH" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e4d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>fe la bastn. cu klama fa mi</jbo>
- <gloss>x2 = Boston go x1=I.</gloss>
- <natlang>To Boston go I.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>converted selbri</primary><secondary>as resetting standard order</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>FA in selbri</primary><secondary>compared with converted selbri in meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>converted selbri</primary><secondary>compared with selbri with FA in meaning</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>FA in selbri</primary><secondary>contrasted converted selbri with in structure</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>converted selbri</primary><secondary>contrasted with selbri with FA in structure</secondary></indexterm>
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qmHh"/> and
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMHH"/> mean the same thing, in the sense that there is a relationship of going with the speaker as the agent and Boston as the destination (and with unspecified origin, route, and means). Structurally, however, they are quite different.
-
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qmHh"/> has
- <jbophrase>la bastn.</jbophrase> in the x1 place and
- <valsi>mi</valsi> in the x2 place of the selbri
- <jbophrase>se klama</jbophrase>, and uses standard bridi order;
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMHH"/> has
- <valsi>mi</valsi> in the x1 place and
- <jbophrase>la bastn.</jbophrase> in the x2 place of the selbri
- <valsi>klama</valsi>, and uses a non-standard order.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>LE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>LA selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>converted selbri</primary><secondary>in descriptions</secondary></indexterm> The most important use of conversion is in the construction of descriptions. A description is a sumti which begins with a cmavo of selma'o LA or LE, called the descriptor, and contains (in the simplest case) a selbri. We have already seen the descriptions
- <jbophrase>le dargu</jbophrase> and
- <jbophrase>le karce</jbophrase>. To this we could add:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-3YoA">
- <title>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>the go-er</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e4d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le klama</jbo>
- <gloss>the go-er, the one who goes</gloss>
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>
-
-
- <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>converted selbri</primary><secondary>to access non-first place in description</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>descriptions</primary><secondary>use of SE in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>descriptions</primary><secondary>as based on first place of following selbri</secondary></indexterm> In every case, the description is about something which fits into the x1 place of the selbri. In order to get a description of a destination (that is, something fitting the x2 place of
- <valsi>klama</valsi>), we must convert the selbri to
- <jbophrase>se klama</jbophrase>, whose x1 place is a destination. The result is</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-brDN">
- <title>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>the destination</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e4d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le se klama</jbo>
- <natlang>the destination gone to by someone</natlang>
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>Likewise, we can create three more converted descriptions:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMIQ" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e4d5"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le te klama</jbo>
- <natlang>the origin of someone's going</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMjE" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e4d6"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le ve klama</jbo>
-
- <natlang>the route of someone's going</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qmji" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e4d7"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le xe klama</jbo>
- <natlang>the means by which someone goes</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>pluta</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>ve klama</primary></indexterm>
-
-<indexterm type="general"><primary>Mars road</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
-
- <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>pluta</primary><secondary>contrasted with ve klama</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>ve klama</primary><secondary>contrasted with pluta</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>converted selbri</primary><secondary>retention of basic meaning in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>converted selbri</primary><secondary>contrasted with other similar selbri</secondary></indexterm>
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMjE"/> does not mean
- <quote>the route</quote> plain and simple: that is
- <jbophrase>le pluta</jbophrase>, using a different selbri. It means a route that is used by someone for an act of
-
-
- <valsi>klama</valsi>; that is, a journey with origin and destination. A
- <quote>road</quote> on Mars, on which no one has traveled or is ever likely to, may be called
- <jbophrase>le pluta</jbophrase>, but it cannot be
-
-
- <jbophrase>le ve klama</jbophrase>, since there exists no one for whom it is
-
- <jbophrase>le ve klama be fo da</jbophrase> (the route taken in an actual journey by someone [da]).</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>conversion</primary><secondary>extending scope of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>conversion</primary><secondary>scope of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>SE selma'o</primary><secondary>extending scope of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>SE selma'o</primary><secondary>scope of</secondary></indexterm> When converting selbri that are more complex than a single brivla, it is important to realize that the scope of a SE cmavo is only the following brivla (or equivalent unit). In order to convert an entire tanru, it is necessary to enclose the tanru in
-
- <valsi>ke</valsi>…<valsi>ke'e</valsi> brackets:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-wQbB">
- <title>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>blue house</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e4d8"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi se ke blanu zdani [ke'e] ti</jbo>
- <gloss>I [2nd conversion] blue house this-thing</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>The place structure of
- <jbophrase>blanu zdani</jbophrase> (blue house) is the same as that of
- <valsi>zdani</valsi>, by the rule given in
- <xref linkend="section-sumti-tcita-introduction"/>. The place structure of
- <valsi>zdani</valsi> is:</para>
- <definition>
- <valsi>zdani</valsi> <content>x1 is a house/nest/lair/den for inhabitant x2</content>
- </definition>
- <para>The place structure of
- <jbophrase>se ke blanu zdani [ke'e]</jbophrase> is therefore:</para>
- <definition>
- <content>x1 is the inhabitant of the blue house (etc.) x2</content>
- </definition>
- <para>Consequently,
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-wQbB"/> means:</para>
- <blockquote>
- <para>I am the inhabitant of the blue house which is this thing.</para>
- </blockquote>
- <para>Conversion applied to only part of a tanru has subtler effects which are explained in
- <xref linkend="section-place-conversion"/>.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple conversion</primary><secondary>effect of ordering</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>conversion</primary><secondary>effect of multiple on a selbri</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple SE</primary><secondary>effect of ordering</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>SE selma'o</primary><secondary>effect of multiple on a selbri</secondary></indexterm> It is grammatical to convert a selbri more than once with SE; later (inner) conversions are applied before earlier (outer) ones. For example, the place structure of
- <jbophrase>se te klama</jbophrase> is achieved by exchanging the x1 and x2 place of
-
- <jbophrase>te klama</jbophrase>, producing:</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>se te</primary></indexterm></para>
- <definition>
- <content>x1 is the destination and x2 is the origin of x3 going via x4 using x5</content>
- </definition>
- <para>On the other hand,
- <jbophrase>te se klama</jbophrase> has a place structure derived from swapping the x1 and x3 places of
- <jbophrase>se klama</jbophrase>:</para>
- <definition>
- <content>x1 is the origin of x2's going to x3 via x4 using x5</content>
- </definition>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>multiple conversion</primary><secondary>avoiding</secondary></indexterm> which is quite different. However, multiple conversions like this are never necessary. Arbitrary scrambling of places can be achieved more easily and far more intelligibly with FA tags, and only a single conversion is ever needed in a description.</para>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>conversion</primary><secondary>swapping non-first places</secondary></indexterm> (Although no one has made any real use of it, it is perhaps worth noting that compound conversions of the form
- <jbophrase>setese</jbophrase>, where the first and third cmavo are the same, effectively swap the two given places while leaving the others, including x1, alone:
-
- <jbophrase>setese</jbophrase> (or equivalently
-
- <jbophrase>tesete</jbophrase>) swap the x2 and x3 places, whereas
- <jbophrase>texete</jbophrase> (or
- <jbophrase>xetexe</jbophrase>) swap the x3 and x5 places.)</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-selbri-modals">
- <title>Modal places: FIhO, FEhU</title>
- <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>fi'o</cmavo>
- <selmaho>FIhO</selmaho>
- <description>modal place prefix</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>fe'u</cmavo>
- <selmaho>FEhU</selmaho>
- <description>modal terminator</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
- <para>Sometimes the place structures engineered into Lojban are inadequate to meet the needs of actual speech. Consider the gismu
- <valsi>viska</valsi>, whose place structure is:</para>
- <definition>
- <valsi>viska</valsi> <content>x1 sees x2 under conditions x3</content>
- </definition>
- <para>Seeing is a threefold relationship, involving an agent (le viska), an object of sight (le se viska), and an environment that makes seeing possible (le te viska). Seeing is done with one or more eyes, of course; in general, the eyes belong to the entity in the x1 place.</para>
- <para>
-
-
- <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fi'o</primary><secondary>use in adding places to place structure</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>place structure</primary><secondary>adding new places to with modal sumti</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fi'o</primary><secondary>as modal tag</secondary></indexterm> Suppose, however, that you are blind in one eye and are talking to someone who doesn't know that. You might want to say,
- <quote>I see you with the left eye.</quote> There is no place in the place structure of
- <valsi>viska</valsi> such as
- <quote>with eye x4</quote> or the like. Lojban allows you to solve the problem by adding a new place, changing the relationship:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-BSAc">
- <title>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>see with left eye</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e5d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi viska do fi'o kanla [fe'u] le zunle</jbo>
- <gloss>I see you [modal] eye: the left-thing</gloss>
- <natlang>I see you with the left eye.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fi'o with selbri</primary><secondary>meaning of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal tag</primary><secondary>fi'o with selbri as</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fi'o</primary><secondary>effect on following selbri</secondary></indexterm> The three-place relation
- <valsi>viska</valsi> has now acquired a fourth place specifying the eye used for seeing. The combination of the cmavo
- <valsi>fi'o</valsi> (of selma'o FIhO) followed by a selbri, in this case the gismu
- <valsi>kanla</valsi>, forms a tag which is prefixed to the sumti filling the new place, namely
- <jbophrase>le zunle</jbophrase>. The semantics of
- <jbophrase>fi'o kanla le zunle</jbophrase> is that
- <jbophrase>le zunle</jbophrase> fills the x1 place of
- <valsi>kanla</valsi>, whose place structure is</para>
- <definition>
- <valsi>kanla</valsi> <content>x1 is an/the eye of body x2</content>
- </definition>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal sumti</primary><secondary>as first place of modal tag selbri</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal place relation</primary><secondary>importance of first place in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fi'o tag</primary><secondary>relation of modal sumti following to selbri</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal place</primary><secondary>relation of to selbri</secondary></indexterm> Thus
- <jbophrase>le zunle</jbophrase> is an eye. The x2 place of
- <valsi>kanla</valsi> is unspecified and must be inferred from the context. It is important to remember that even though
- <jbophrase>le zunle</jbophrase> is placed following
- <jbophrase>fi'o kanla</jbophrase>, semantically it belongs in the x1 place of
- <valsi>kanla</valsi>. The selbri may be terminated with
- <valsi>fe'u</valsi> (of selma'o FEhU), an elidable terminator which is rarely required unless a non-logical connective follows the tag (omitting
- <valsi>fe'u</valsi> in that case would make the connective affect the selbri).</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal sumti</primary><secondary>and FA marking</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal sumti</primary><secondary>effect on place structure</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal sumti</primary><secondary>position in bridi</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>seltcita sumti</primary><secondary>definition (see also modal sumti)</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti tcita</primary><secondary>definition (see also modal tag)</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal sumti</primary><secondary>definition (see also seltcita sumti)</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal tag</primary><secondary>definition (see also sumti tcita)</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal place</primary><secondary>rationale for term name</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal place</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> The term for such an added place is a
- <quote>modal place</quote>, as distinguished from the regular numbered places. (This use of the word
- <quote>modal</quote> is specific to the Loglan Project, and does not agree with the standard uses in either logic or linguistics, but is now too entrenched to change easily.) The
- <valsi>fi'o</valsi> construction marking a modal place is called a
- <quote>modal tag</quote>, and the sumti which follows it a
- <quote>modal sumti</quote>; the purely Lojban terms
-
-
- <jbophrase>sumti tcita</jbophrase> and
- <jbophrase>seltcita sumti</jbophrase>, respectively, are also commonly used. Modal sumti may be placed anywhere within the bridi, in any order; they have no effect whatever on the rules for assigning unmarked bridi to numbered places, and they may not be marked with FA cmavo.</para>
-
- <para>Consider
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-BSAc"/> again. Another way to view the situation is to consider the speaker's left eye as a tool, a tool for seeing. The relevant selbri then becomes
- <valsi>pilno</valsi>, whose place structure is</para>
- <definition>
- <valsi>pilno</valsi> <content>x1 uses x2 as a tool for purpose x3</content>
- </definition>
- <para>and we can rewrite
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-BSAc"/> as</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Lu15">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e5d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi viska do fi'o se pilno le zunle kanla</jbo>
- <gloss>I see you [modal] [conversion] use: the left eye.</gloss>
- <natlang>I see you using my left eye.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>Here the selbri belonging to the modal is
- <jbophrase>se pilno</jbophrase>. The conversion of
- <valsi>pilno</valsi> is necessary in order to get the
- <quote>tool</quote> place into x1, since only x1 can be the modal sumti. The
-
-
- <quote>tool user</quote> place is the x2 of
- <jbophrase>se pilno</jbophrase> (because it is the x1 of
- <valsi>pilno</valsi>) and remains unspecified. The tag
- <jbophrase>fi'o pilno</jbophrase> would mean
- <quote>with tool user</quote>, leaving the tool unspecified.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-BAI">
- <title>Modal tags: BAI</title>
- <para>There are certain selbri which seem particularly useful in constructing modal tags. In particular,
- <valsi>pilno</valsi> is one of them. The place structure of
- <valsi>pilno</valsi> is:</para>
- <definition>
- <valsi>pilno</valsi> <content>x1 uses x2 as a tool for purpose x3</content>
- </definition>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>BAI modal tags</primary><secondary>rationale for</secondary></indexterm> and almost any selbri which represents an action may need to specify a tool. Having to say
- <jbophrase>fi'o se pilno</jbophrase> frequently would make many Lojban sentences unnecessarily verbose and clunky, so an abbreviation is provided in the language design: the compound cmavo
- <valsi>sepi'o</valsi>.</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>conversion</primary><secondary>of BAI cmavo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal tags</primary><secondary>short forms as BAI cmavo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fi'o constructs</primary><secondary>short forms as BAI cmavo</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>BAI selma'o</primary><secondary>as short forms for fi'o constructs</secondary></indexterm> Here
- <valsi>se</valsi> is used before a cmavo, namely
- <valsi>pi'o</valsi>, rather than before a brivla. The meaning of this cmavo, which belongs to selma'o BAI, is exactly the same as that of
-
- <jbophrase>fi'o pilno fe'u</jbophrase>. Since what we want is a tag based on
- <jbophrase>se pilno</jbophrase> rather than
- <jbophrase>pilno-</jbophrase> the tool, not the tool user – the grammar allows a BAI cmavo to be converted using a SE cmavo.
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-Lu15"/> may therefore be rewritten as:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-N32m">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e6d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi viska do sepi'o le zunle kanla</jbo>
-
- <gloss>I see you with-tool: the left eye</gloss>
- <natlang>I see you using my left eye.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>The compound cmavo
- <valsi>sepi'o</valsi> is much shorter than
-
- <jbophrase>fi'o se pilno [fe'u]</jbophrase> and can be thought of as a single word meaning
- <quote>with-tool</quote>. The modal tag
- <valsi>pi'o</valsi>, with no
-
- <valsi>se</valsi>, similarly means
- <quote>with-tool-user</quote>, probably a less useful concept. Nevertheless, the parallelism with the place structure of
- <valsi>pilno</valsi> makes the additional syllable worthwhile.</para>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>conversion</primary><secondary>effect on BAI</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>BAI selma'o</primary><secondary>effect of conversion on</secondary></indexterm> Some BAI cmavo make sense with as well as without a SE cmavo; for example,
- <valsi>ka'a</valsi>, the BAI corresponding to the gismu
-
- <valsi>klama</valsi>, has five usable forms corresponding to the five places of
- <valsi>klama</valsi> respectively:</para>
- <variablelist>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>ka'a</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>with-goer</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
-
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>seka'a</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>with-destination</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>teka'a</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>with-origin</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>veka'a</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>with-route</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>xeka'a</valsi></term>
- <listitem><para>with-means-of-transport</para></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- </variablelist>
- <para>Any of these tags may be used to provide modal places for bridi, as in the following examples:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-r0QA">
- <title>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>Avon</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>traveling salesperson</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm> (
- <anchor xml:id="c9e6d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la .eivn. cu vecnu loi flira cinta ka'a mi</jbo>
-
- <gloss>Avon sells a-mass-of face paint with-goer me.</gloss>
-
- <natlang>I am a traveling cosmetics salesperson for Avon.</natlang>
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>
-
-
-
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-r0QA"/> may seem a bit strained, but it illustrates the way in which an existing selbri,
- <valsi>vecnu</valsi> in this case, may have a place added to it which might otherwise seem utterly unrelated.)</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qmJM" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e6d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi cadzu seka'a la bratfyd.</jbo>
- <gloss>I walk with-destination Bradford.</gloss>
- <natlang>I am walking to Bradford.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMjz" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e6d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>bloti teka'a la nu,IORK.</jbo>
- <gloss>[Observative:] is-a-boat with-origin New York</gloss>
- <natlang>A boat from New York!</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qmLX" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e6d5"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>do bajra veka'a lo djine</jbo>
- <gloss>You run with-route a circle.</gloss>
- <natlang>You are running in circles.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMMX" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e6d6"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi citka xeka'a le vinji</jbo>
- <gloss>I eat with-means-of-transport the airplane.</gloss>
- <natlang>I eat in the airplane.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>English prepositions</primary><secondary>contrasted with modal tags in preciseness</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal tags</primary><secondary>contrasted with English prepositions in preciseness</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>BAI cmavo</primary><secondary>rationale for selection</secondary></indexterm> There are sixty-odd cmavo of selma'o BAI, based on selected gismu that seemed useful in a variety of settings. The list is somewhat biased toward English, because many of the cmavo were selected on the basis of corresponding English prepositions and preposition compounds such as <quote>with</quote>,
- <quote>without</quote>, and
- <quote>by means of</quote>. The BAI cmavo, however, are far more precise than English prepositions, because their meanings are fixed by the place structures of the corresponding gismu.</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>BAI selma'o</primary><secondary>form of cmavo in</secondary></indexterm> All BAI cmavo have the form CV'V or CVV. Most of them are CV'V, where the C is the first consonant of the corresponding gismu and the two Vs are the two vowels of the gismu. The table in
- <xref linkend="section-irregular-BAI"/> shows the exceptions.</para>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vague relationship</primary><secondary>modal tag for</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal tag</primary><secondary>for vague relationship</secondary></indexterm> There is one additional BAI cmavo that is not derived from a gismu:
- <valsi>do'e</valsi>. This cmavo is used when an extra place is needed, but it seems useful to be vague about the semantic implications of the extra place:</para>
-
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2vMd">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e6d7"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>lo nanmu be do'e le berti cu klama le tcadu</jbo>
-
- <gloss>Some man [related to] the north came to-the city.</gloss>
- <natlang>A man of the north came to the city.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para><!-- FIXME: what to do with these "s? --><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal place</primary><secondary>on description selbri</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>"of"</primary><secondary>in English</secondary><tertiary>compared with do'e</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>do'e</primary><secondary>compared with English "of"</secondary></indexterm> Here
- <jbophrase>le berti</jbophrase> is provided as a modal place of the selbri
- <valsi>nanmu</valsi>, but its exact significance is vague, and is paralleled in the colloquial translation by the vague English preposition
- <quote>of</quote>.
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-2vMd"/> also illustrates a modal place bound into a selbri with
- <valsi>be</valsi>. This construction is useful when the selbri of a description requires a modal place; this and other uses of
- <valsi>be</valsi> are more fully explained in
- <xref linkend="section-be-sumti"/>.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-causals">
- <title>Modal sentence connection: the causals</title>
-
- <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ri'a</cmavo>
- <selmaho>BAI</selmaho>
- <description>rinka modal: physical cause</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ki'u</cmavo>
-
- <selmaho>BAI</selmaho>
- <description>krinu modal: justification</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>mu'i</cmavo>
-
- <selmaho>BAI</selmaho>
- <description>mukti modal: motivation</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ni'i</cmavo>
-
- <selmaho>BAI</selmaho>
- <description>nibli modal: logical entailment</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
- <para>This section has two purposes. On the one hand, it explains the grammatical construct called
- <quote>modal sentence connection</quote>. On the other, it exemplifies some of the more useful BAI cmavo: the causals. (There are other BAI cmavo which have causal implications:
-
-
- <valsi>ja'e</valsi> means
- <quote>with result</quote>, and so
- <valsi>seja'e</valsi> means
- <quote>with cause of unspecified nature</quote>; likewise,
- <valsi>gau</valsi> means
- <quote>with agent</quote> and
- <valsi>tezu'e</valsi> means
- <quote>with purpose</quote>. These other modal cmavo will not be further discussed here, as my purpose is to explain modal sentence connection rather than Lojbanic views of causation.)</para>
-
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>causals</primary><secondary>gismu</secondary></indexterm> There are four causal gismu in Lojban, distinguishing different versions of the relationships lumped in English as
- <quote>causal</quote>:</para>
- <variablelist>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>rinka</valsi></term>
- <listitem><definition><content>event x1 physically causes event x2</content></definition></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>krinu</valsi></term>
- <listitem><definition><content>event x1 is the justification for event x2</content></definition></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>mukti</valsi></term>
- <listitem><definition><content>event x1 is the (human) motive for event x2</content></definition></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>nibli</valsi></term>
- <listitem><definition><content>event x1 logically entails event x2</content></definition></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- </variablelist>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal causals</primary><secondary>implication differences</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>causals</primary><secondary>modal</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modals</primary><secondary>for causal gismu</secondary></indexterm> Each of these gismu has a related modal:
- <valsi>ri'a</valsi>,
- <valsi>ki'u</valsi>,
-
- <valsi>mu'i</valsi>, and
-
- <valsi>ni'i</valsi> respectively. Using these gismu and these modals, we can create various causal sentences with different implications:</para>
-
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qmMz" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e7d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le spati cu banro ri'a le nu do djacu dunda fi le spati</jbo>
- <gloss>The plant grows with-physical-cause the event-of you water give to the plant.</gloss>
- <natlang>The plant grows because you water it.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qmN2" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e7d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la djan. cpacu le pamoi se jinga ki'u le nu la djan. jinga</jbo>
-
- <gloss>John gets the first prize with-justification the event-of John wins.</gloss>
- <natlang>John got the first prize because he won.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMN7" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e7d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi lebna le cukta mu'i le nu mi viska le cukta</jbo>
-
- <gloss>I took the book with-motivation the event-of I saw the book.</gloss>
- <natlang>I took the book because I saw it.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMNc" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
-<indexterm type="ekxample-imported"><primary>Socrates</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e7d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la sokrates. morsi binxo ni'i le nu la sokrates. remna</jbo>
-
- <gloss>Socrates dead-became with-logical-justification Socrates is-human.</gloss>
-
- <natlang>Socrates died because Socrates is human.</natlang>
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>
-
-
- <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>"because"</primary><secondary>English word</secondary><tertiary>four varieties of</tertiary></indexterm> In
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qmMz"/> through
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMNc"/>, the same English word
- <quote>because</quote> is used to translate all four modals, but the types of cause being expressed are quite different. Let us now focus on
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qmMz"/>, and explore some variations on it.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>causals</primary><secondary>claiming the relation contrasted with claiming cause and/or effect and/or relation</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>abstraction bridi</primary><secondary>effect on claim of bridi</secondary></indexterm> As written,
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qmMz"/> claims that the plant grows, but only refers to the event of watering it in an abstraction bridi (abstractions are explained in
-
- <xref linkend="chapter-abstractions"/>) without actually making a claim. If I express
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qmMz"/>, I have said that the plant in fact grows, but I have not said that you actually water it, merely that there is a causal relationship between watering and growing. This is semantically asymmetrical. Suppose I wanted to claim that the plant was being watered, and only mention its growth as ancillary information? Then we could reverse the main bridi and the abstraction bridi, saying:</para>
-
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ibro">
- <title>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>plant grows</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e7d5"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>do djacu dunda fi le spati seri'a le nu ri banro</jbo>
- <gloss>You water-give to the plant with-physical-effect it grows.</gloss>
- <natlang>You water the plant; therefore, it grows.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>with the
- <valsi>ri'a</valsi> changed to
- <valsi>seri'a</valsi>. In addition, there are also symmetrical forms:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1YHv">
- <title>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>plant grows</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e7d6"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le nu do djacu dunda fi le spati cu rinka le nu le spati cu banro</jbo>
- <gloss>The event-of (you water-give to the plant) causes the event-of (the plant grows).</gloss>
- <natlang>Your watering the plant causes its growth. If you water the plant, then it grows.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>does not claim either event, but asserts only the causal relationship between them. So in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-1YHv"/>, I am not saying that the plant grows nor that you have in fact watered it. The second colloquial translation shows a form of
- <quote>if-then</quote> in English quite distinct from the logical connective
- <quote>if-then</quote> explained in
- <xref linkend="chapter-connectives"/>.</para>
- <para>Suppose we wish to claim both events as well as their causal relationship? We can use one of two methods:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMnX" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>plant grows</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e7d7"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le spati cu banro .iri'abo do djacu dunda fi le spati</jbo>
-
- <gloss>The plant grows. Because you water-give to the plant.</gloss>
- <natlang>The plant grows because you water it.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal sentence connection</primary></indexterm></para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMPn" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>plant grows</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e7d8"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>do djacu dunda fi le spati .iseri'abo le spati cu banro</jbo>
- <gloss>You water-give to the plant. Therefore it grows.</gloss>
- <natlang>You water the plant; therefore, it grows.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>The compound cmavo
- <jbophrase>.iri'abo</jbophrase> and
-
- <jbophrase>.iseri'abo</jbophrase> serve to connect two bridi, as the initial
- <valsi>i</valsi> indicates. The final
- <valsi>bo</valsi> is necessary to prevent the modal from
- <quote>taking over</quote> the following sumti. If the
- <valsi>bo</valsi> were omitted from
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMnX"/> we would have:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Wo6K">
- <title>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>plant grows</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e7d9"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le spati cu banro .i ri'a do djacu dunda fi le spati</jbo>
- <gloss>The plant grows. Because of you, [something] water-gives to the plant.</gloss>
- <natlang>The plant grows. Because of you, water is given to the plant.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>Because
- <jbophrase>ri'a do</jbophrase> is a modal sumti in
-
-
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-Wo6K"/>, there is no longer an explicit sumti in the x1 place of
- <jbophrase>djacu dunda</jbophrase>, and the translation must be changed.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal sentence connection</primary><secondary>relation to modal of second sentence in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal sentence connection</primary><secondary>relation to modal of first sentence in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal sentence connection</primary><secondary>effect on modal</secondary></indexterm> The effect of sentences like
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMnX"/> and
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMPn"/> is that the modal,
- <valsi>ri'a</valsi> in this example, no longer modifies an explicit sumti. Instead, the sumti is implicit, the event given by a full bridi. Furthermore, there is a second implication: that the first bridi fills the x2 place of the gismu
- <valsi>rinka</valsi>; it specifies an event which is the effect. I am therefore claiming three things: that the plant grows, that you have watered it, and that there is a cause-and-effect relationship between the two.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal sentence connection</primary><secondary>with other than causals</secondary></indexterm> In principle, any modal tag can appear in a sentence connective of the type exemplified by
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMnX"/> and
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMPn"/>. However, it makes little sense to use any modals which do not expect events or other abstractions to fill the places of the corresponding gismu. The sentence connective
- <jbophrase>.ibaubo</jbophrase> is perfectly grammatical, but it is hard to imagine any two sentences which could be connected by an
- <quote>in-language</quote> modal. This is because a sentence describes an event, and an event can be a cause or an effect, but not a language.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-modal-connectives">
- <title>Other modal connections</title>
- <para>Like many Lojban grammatical constructions, sentence modal connection has both forethought and afterthought forms. (See
- <xref linkend="chapter-connectives"/> for a more detailed discussion of Lojban connectives.)
- <xref linkend="section-causals"/> exemplifies only afterthought modal connection, illustrated here by:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2D4c">
- <title>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>grasp water</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e8d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi jgari lei djacu .iri'abo mi jgari le kabri</jbo>
- <gloss>I grasp the-mass-of water with-physical-cause I grasp the cup.</gloss>
- <gloss>Causing the mass of water to be grasped by me, I grasped the cup.</gloss>
- <natlang>I grasp the water because I grasp the cup.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>
-
-
- <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>forethought connection</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>afterthought connection</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> An afterthought connection is one that is signaled only by a cmavo (or a compound cmavo, in this case) between the two constructs being connected. Forethought connection uses a signal both before the first construct and between the two: the use of
-
- <quote>both</quote> and
- <quote>and</quote> in the first half of this sentence represents a forethought connection (though not a modal one).</para>
-
-
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal sentence connection</primary><secondary>forethought</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>forethought modal sentence connection</primary></indexterm> To make forethought modal sentence connections in Lojban, place the modal plus
- <valsi>gi</valsi> before the first bridi, and
- <valsi>gi</valsi> between the two. No
- <valsi>i</valsi> is used within the construct. The forethought equivalent of
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-2D4c"/> is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-d2b9">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e8d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>ri'agi mi jgari le kabri gi mi jgari lei djacu</jbo>
- <gloss>With-physical-cause I grasp the cup, I grasp the-mass-of water.</gloss>
- <natlang>Because I grasp the cup, I grasp the water.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>forethought modal sentence connection</primary><secondary>relation to modal of second bridi in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>forethought modal sentence connection</primary><secondary>relation to modal of first bridi in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>forethought modal sentence connection for causals</primary><secondary>order of cause and effect</secondary></indexterm> Note that the cause, the x1 of
- <valsi>rinka</valsi> is now placed first. To keep the two bridi in the original order of
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-2D4c"/>, we could say:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-rQ77">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e8d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>seri'agi mi jgari lei djacu gi mi jgari le kabri</jbo>
- <gloss>With-physical-effect I grasp the-mass-of water, I grasp the cup.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>In English, the sentence
- <quote>Therefore I grasp the water, I grasp the cup</quote> is ungrammatical, because
- <quote>therefore</quote> is not grammatically equivalent to
- <quote>because</quote>. In Lojban,
- <jbophrase>seri'agi</jbophrase> can be used just like
- <jbophrase>ri'agi</jbophrase>.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal sentence connection</primary><secondary>condensing</secondary></indexterm> When the two bridi joined by a modal connection have one or more elements (selbri or sumti or both) in common, there are various condensed forms that can be used in place of full modal sentence connection with both bridi completely stated.</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sumti modal connection</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal sumti connection</primary></indexterm> When the bridi are the same except for a single sumti, as in Examples 8.1 through 8.3, then a sumti modal connection may be employed:</para>
-
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-o7FG">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e8d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi jgari ri'agi le kabri gi lei djacu</jbo>
- <gloss>I grasp because the cup, the-mass-of water.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-o7FG"/> means exactly the same as
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-2D4c"/> through
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-rQ77"/>, but there is no idiomatic English translation that will distinguish it from them.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>termset modal connection</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modals</primary><secondary>termset connection</secondary></indexterm> If the two connected bridi are different in more than one sumti, then a termset may be employed. Termsets are explained more fully in
- <xref linkend="section-termsets"/>, but are essentially a mechanism for creating connections between multiple sumti simultaneously.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-LetE">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e8d5"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi dunda le cukta la djan. .imu'ibo la djan. dunda lei jdini mi</jbo>
- <gloss>I gave the book to John. Motivated-by John gave the-mass-of money to-me.</gloss>
- <natlang>I gave the book to John, because John gave money to me.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>means the same as:</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>nu'u</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>nu'i</primary></indexterm></para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-tFSC">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e8d6"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>nu'i mu'igi la djan. lei jdini mi gi mi le cukta la djan. nu'u dunda</jbo>
- <gloss>[start] because John, the-mass-of money, me; I, the book, John [end] gives.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>Here there are three sumti in each half of the termset, because the two bridi share only their selbri.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi-tail modal connection</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal bridi-tail connection</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal connection of selbri</primary><secondary>using bridi-tail modal connection</secondary></indexterm> There is no modal connection between selbri as such: bridi which differ only in the selbri can be modally connected using bridi-tail modal connection. The bridi-tail construct is more fully explained in
-
- <xref linkend="section-compound-bridi"/>, but essentially it consists of a selbri with optional sumti following it.
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMN7"/> is suitable for bridi-tail connection, and could be shortened to:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Do9b">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e8d7"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi mu'igi viska le cukta gi lebna le cukta</jbo>
- <gloss>I, because saw the book, took the book.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>Again, no straightforward English translation exists. It is even possible to shorten
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-Do9b"/> further to:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-YXps">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e8d8"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi mu'igi viska gi lebna vau le cukta</jbo>
- <gloss>I because saw, therefore took, the book.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>where
- <jbophrase>le cukta</jbophrase> is set off by the non-elidable
- <valsi>vau</valsi> and is made to belong to both bridi-tails – see
- <xref linkend="section-compound-bridi"/> for more explanations.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>shared bridi-tail sumti</primary><secondary>avoiding</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>vau for shared bridi-tail sumti</primary><secondary>avoiding</secondary></indexterm> Since this is a chapter on rearranging sumti, it is worth pointing out that
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-YXps"/> can be further rearranged to:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Pxca">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e8d9"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi le cukta mu'igi viska gi lebna</jbo>
- <gloss>I, the book, because saw, therefore took.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>which doesn't require the extra
- <valsi>vau</valsi>; all sumti before a conjunction of bridi-tails are shared.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>operand modal connection</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal operand connection</primary></indexterm> Finally, mathematical operands can be modally connected.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-J2T5">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e8d10"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>li ny. du li vo .ini'ibo li ny. du li re su'i re</jbo>
- <gloss>the number n = the-number 4. Entailed-by the-number n = the-number 2 + 2.</gloss>
- <natlang>n = 4 because n = 2 + 2.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>can be reduced to:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Mfe4">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e8d11"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>li ny. du li ni'igi vei re su'i re [ve'o] gi vo</jbo>
- <gloss>the-number n = the-number because ( 2 + 2 ) therefore 4.</gloss>
- <natlang>n is 2 + 2, and is thus 4.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>The cmavo
- <valsi>vei</valsi> and
- <valsi>ve'o</valsi> represent mathematical parentheses, and are required so that
- <jbophrase>ni'igi</jbophrase> affects more than just the immediately following operand, namely the first
- <valsi>re</valsi>. (The right parenthesis,
- <valsi>ve'o</valsi>, is an elidable terminator.) As usual, no English translation does
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-Mfe4"/> justice.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal connectives</primary><secondary>fi'o prohibited in</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fi'o</primary><secondary>restriction on use</secondary></indexterm> Note: Due to restrictions on the Lojban parsing algorithm, it is not possible to form modal connectives using the
-
- <jbophrase>fi'o-</jbophrase>plus-selbri form of modal. Only the predefined modals of selma'o BAI can be compounded as shown in
- <xref linkend="section-causals"/> and
- <xref linkend="section-modal-connectives"/>.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-modal-selbri">
- <title>Modal selbri</title>
- <para>Consider the example:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-bT4c">
- <title>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>under compulsion</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e9d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi tavla bau la lojban. bai tu'a la frank.</jbo>
- <gloss>I speak in-language Lojban with-compeller some-act-by Frank.</gloss>
- <natlang>I speak in Lojban, under compulsion by Frank.</natlang>
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>
-
-
- <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal sumti</primary><secondary>unspecified</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal sumti</primary><secondary>leaving vague</secondary></indexterm>
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-bT4c"/> has two modal sumti, using the modals
-
-
- <valsi>bau</valsi> and
- <valsi>bai</valsi>. Suppose we wanted to specify the language explicitly but be vague about who's doing the compelling. We can simplify
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-bT4c"/> to:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-dbSy">
- <title>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>under compulsion</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e9d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi tavla bau la lojban. bai [ku].</jbo>
- <gloss>I speak in-language Lojban under-compulsion.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>In
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-dbSy"/>, the elidable terminator
- <valsi>ku</valsi> has taken the place of the sumti which would normally follow
- <valsi>bai</valsi>. Alternatively, we could specify the one who compels but keep the language vague:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Qc8w">
- <title>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>under compulsion</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e9d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi tavla bau [ku] bai tu'a la frank.</jbo>
- <gloss>I speak in-some-language under-compulsion-by some-act-by Frank.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>We are also free to move the modal-plus-
- <valsi>ku</valsi> around the bridi:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-2utY">
- <title>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>under compulsion</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e9d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>bau [ku] bai ku mi tavla</jbo>
- <gloss>In-some-language under-compulsion I speak.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal followed by selbri</primary><secondary>effect on eliding cu</secondary></indexterm> An alternative to using
- <valsi>ku</valsi> is to place the modal cmavo right before the selbri, following the
-
- <valsi>cu</valsi> which often appears there. When a modal is present, the
- <valsi>cu</valsi> is almost never necessary.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-613h">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e9d5"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi bai tavla bau la lojban.</jbo>
- <gloss>I compelledly speak in-language Lojban.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal followed by selbri</primary><secondary>contrasted with tanru modification in grammar</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal followed by selbri</primary><secondary>compared with tanru modification in meaning</secondary></indexterm> In this use, the modal is like a tanru modifier semantically, although grammatically it is quite distinct.
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-613h"/> is very similar in meaning to:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-pVUT">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e9d6"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi se bapli tavla bau la lojban.</jbo>
- <gloss>I compelledly-speak in-language Lojban.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>The
- <valsi>se</valsi> conversion is needed because
- <jbophrase>bapli tavla</jbophrase> would be a
- <quote>compeller type of speaker</quote> rather than a
- <quote>compelled (by someone) type of speaker</quote>, which is what a
- <jbophrase>bai tavla</jbophrase> is.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fi'o modal followed by selbri</primary><secondary>effect on eliding fe'u</secondary></indexterm> If the modal preceding a selbri is constructed using
- <valsi>fi'o</valsi>, then
- <valsi>fe'u</valsi> is required to prevent the main selbri and the modal selbri from colliding:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-SfwV">
- <title>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>see with eye</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e9d7"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi fi'o kanla fe'u viska do</jbo>
- <gloss>I with-eye see you.</gloss>
- <natlang>I see you with my eye(s).</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>bai ke</primary></indexterm>
-
-
- <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modals</primary><secondary>expanding scope over inner modal connection</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modals</primary><secondary>expanding scope over non-logical connection</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modals</primary><secondary>expanding scope over logical connection with ke ... ke'e</secondary></indexterm> There are two other uses of modals. A modal can be attached to a pair of bridi-tails that have already been connected by a logical, non-logical, or modal connection (see
- <xref linkend="chapter-connectives"/> for more on logical and non-logical connections):</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-vCzL">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e9d8"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi bai ke ge klama le zarci gi cadzu le bisli [ke'e]</jbo>
-
- <gloss>I under-compulsion (both go to-the market and walk on-the ice).</gloss>
- <natlang>Under compulsion, I both go to the market and walk on the ice.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>Here the
- <valsi>bai</valsi> is spread over both
- <jbophrase>klama le zarci</jbophrase> and
- <jbophrase>cadzu le bisli</jbophrase>, and the
- <jbophrase>ge ... gi</jbophrase> represents the logical connection
- <quote>both-and</quote> between the two.</para>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modals</primary><secondary>expanding scope over multiple sentences with tu'e…tu'u</secondary></indexterm> Similarly, a modal can be attached to multiple sentences that have been combined with
- <valsi>tu'e</valsi> and
- <valsi>tu'u</valsi>, which are explained in more detail in
- <xref linkend="section-i"/>:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-boYr">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e9d9"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>bai tu'e mi klama le zarci .i mi cadzu le bisli [tu'u]</jbo>
- <gloss>Under-compulsion [start] I go to-the market. I walk on-the ice [end].</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>means the same thing as
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-vCzL"/>.</para>
- <para>Note: Either BAI modals or
- <jbophrase>fi'o-</jbophrase>plus-selbri modals may correctly be used in any of the constructions discussed in this section.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-modal-relative-phrases">
- <title>Modal relative phrases; Comparison</title>
- <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>pe</cmavo>
- <selmaho>GOI</selmaho>
- <description>restrictive relative phrase</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ne</cmavo>
- <selmaho>GOI</selmaho>
- <description>incidental relative phrase</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>mau</cmavo>
-
- <selmaho>BAI</selmaho>
- <description>zmadu modal</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>me'a</cmavo>
-
- <selmaho>BAI</selmaho>
- <description>mleca modal</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
- <para>Relative phrases and clauses are explained in much more detail in
- <xref linkend="chapter-relative-clauses"/>. However, there is a construction which combines a modal with a relative phrase which is relevant to this chapter. Consider the following examples of relative clauses:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qmPP" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>Artur Rubenstein</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e10d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la .apasionatas. poi se cusku la .artr. rubnstain. cu se nelci mi</jbo>
- <gloss>The Appassionata which is-expressed-by Arthur Rubinstein is-liked-by me.</gloss>
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qmPr" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>Beethoven</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e10d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la .apasionatas. noi se finti la betovn. cu se nelci mi</jbo>
- <gloss>The Appassionata, which is-created-by Beethoven, is-liked-by me.</gloss>
-
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>
-
-
- In
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qmPP"/>,
- <jbophrase>la .apasionatas.</jbophrase> refers to a particular performance of the sonata, namely the one performed by Rubinstein. Therefore, the relative clause
- <jbophrase>poi se cusku</jbophrase> uses the cmavo
- <valsi>poi</valsi> (of selma'o NOI) to restrict the meaning of
- <jbophrase>la .apasionatas</jbophrase> to the performance in question.</para>
- <para>In
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qmPr"/>, however,
- <jbophrase>la .apasionatas.</jbophrase> refers to the sonata as a whole, and the information that it was composed by Beethoven is merely incidental. The cmavo
-
- <valsi>noi</valsi> (also of selma'o NOI) expresses the incidental nature of this relationship.</para>
- <para>The cmavo
- <valsi>pe</valsi> and
- <valsi>ne</valsi> (of selma'o GOI) are roughly equivalent to
- <valsi>poi</valsi> and
- <valsi>noi</valsi> respectively, but are followed by sumti rather than full bridi. We can abbreviate
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qmPP"/> and
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qmPr"/> to:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMq1" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>Appassionata</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>Artur Rubenstein</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e10d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la .apasionatas. pe la .artr. rubnstain. se nelci mi</jbo>
- <gloss>The Appassionata of Arthur Rubinstein is-liked-by me.</gloss>
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMQ1" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>Beethoven</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>Appassionata</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e10d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la .apasionatas. ne la betovn. se nelci mi</jbo>
- <gloss>The Appassionata, which is of Beethoven, is-liked-by me.</gloss>
-
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative phrases</primary><secondary>contrasted with relative clauses in preciseness</secondary></indexterm> Here the precise selbri of the relative clauses is lost: all we can tell is that the Appassionata is connected in some way with Rubinstein (in
-
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMq1"/>) and Beethoven (in
-
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMQ1"/>), and that the relationships are respectively restrictive and incidental.</para>
- <para>It happens that both
- <valsi>cusku</valsi> and
- <valsi>finti</valsi> have BAI cmavo, namely
- <valsi>cu'u</valsi> and
-
- <valsi>fi'e</valsi>. We can recast
-
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMq1"/> and
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMQ1"/> as:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMqF" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>Appassionata</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>Artur Rubenstein</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e10d5"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la .apasionatas pe cu'u la .artr. rubnstain. cu se nelci mi</jbo>
-
- <gloss>The Appassionata expressed-by Arthur Rubinstein is-liked-by me.</gloss>
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qmqy" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>Beethoven</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <indexterm type="example"><primary>Appassionata</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e10d6"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la .apasionatas ne fi'e la betovn. cu se nelci mi</jbo>
-
- <gloss>The Appassionata, invented-by Beethoven, is-liked-by me.</gloss>
-
-
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modals</primary><secondary>improving relative phrase preciseness with </secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative phrases</primary><secondary>improving preciseness with modals</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>relative phrases with modals</primary><secondary>compared to relative clauses in preciseness</secondary></indexterm>
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMqF"/> and
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qmqy"/> have the full semantic content of
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qmPP"/> and
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qmPr"/> respectively.</para>
- <para> <!-- FIXME: what to do with these "s? --><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>"less"</primary><secondary>English word</secondary><tertiary>expressing with relative phrases</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>"more"</primary><secondary>English word</secondary><tertiary>expressing with relative phrases</tertiary></indexterm> Modal relative phrases are often used with the BAI cmavo
- <valsi>mau</valsi> and
-
- <valsi>me'a</valsi>, which are based on the comparative gismu
-
- <valsi>zmadu</valsi> (more than) and
- <valsi>mleca</valsi> (less than) respectively. The place structures are:</para>
- <variablelist>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>zmadu</valsi>:</term>
- <listitem><definition><content>x1 is more than x2 in property/quantity x3 by amount x4</content></definition></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- <varlistentry>
- <term><valsi>mleca</valsi>:</term>
- <listitem><definition><content>x1 is less than x2 in property/quantity x3 by amount x4</content></definition></listitem>
- </varlistentry>
- </variablelist>
- <para>Here are some examples:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-Jr4V">
- <title>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>likes more than</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e10d7"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la frank. nelci la betis. ne semau la meiris.</jbo>
- <gloss>Frank likes Betty, which-is more-than Mary.</gloss>
- <natlang>Frank likes Betty more than (he likes) Mary.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>
-
-
-
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-Jr4V"/> requires that Frank likes Betty, but adds the information that his liking for Betty exceeds his liking for Mary. The modal appears in the form
- <valsi>semau</valsi> because the x2 place of
- <valsi>zmadu</valsi> is the basis for comparison: in this case, Frank's liking for Mary.</para>
-
-
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ecf1">
- <title>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>likes more than</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e10d8"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la frank. nelci la meiris. ne seme'a la betis.</jbo>
- <gloss>Frank likes Mary, which-is less-than Betty.</gloss>
- <natlang>Frank likes Mary less than (he likes) Betty.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>me'a</primary><secondary>avoiding in favor of semau</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mau</primary><secondary>avoiding in favor of seme'a</secondary></indexterm> Here we are told that Frank likes Mary less than he likes Betty; the information about the comparison is the same. It would be possible to rephrase
-
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-Jr4V"/> using
- <valsi>me'a</valsi> rather than
-
- <valsi>semau</valsi>, and
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-ecf1"/> using
- <valsi>mau</valsi> rather than
-
- <valsi>seme'a</valsi>, but such usage would be unnecessarily confusing. Like many BAI cmavo,
- <valsi>mau</valsi> and
-
- <valsi>me'a</valsi> are more useful when converted with
-
- <valsi>se</valsi>.</para>
- <para> <!-- FIXME: what to do with these "s? --><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>"less"</primary><secondary>English word</secondary><tertiary>importance of relative phrase to</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>"more"</primary><secondary>English word</secondary><tertiary>importance of relative phrase to</tertiary></indexterm> If the
- <valsi>ne</valsi> were omitted in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-Jr4V"/> and
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-ecf1"/>, the modal sumti (
-
-
- <jbophrase>la meiris.</jbophrase> and
- <jbophrase>la betis.</jbophrase> respectively) would become attached to the bridi as a whole, producing a very different translation.
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-ecf1"/> would become:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-5QHA">
- <title>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>likes more than</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e10d9"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la frank. nelci la meiris. seme'a la betis.</jbo>
- <gloss>Frank likes Mary is-less-than Betty.</gloss>
- <natlang>Frank's liking Mary is less than Betty.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>which compares a liking with a person, and is therefore nonsense.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>bridi-based comparison</primary><secondary>contrasted with comparison with relative phrase</secondary><tertiary>in claims about parts</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>comparison with relative phrase</primary><secondary>contrasted with bridi-based comparison</secondary><tertiary>in claims about parts</tertiary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>comparison</primary><secondary>claims related to based on form</secondary></indexterm> Pure comparison, which states only the comparative information but says nothing about whether Frank actually likes either Mary or Betty (he may like neither, but dislike Betty less), would be expressed differently, as:</para>
-
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-AAQp">
- <title>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>likes more than</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e10d10"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le ni la frank. nelci la betis. cu zmadu le ni la frank. nelci la meiris.</jbo>
- <gloss>The quantity-of Frank's liking Betty is-more-than the quantity-of Frank's liking Mary.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modals often attached with relative phrases</primary><secondary>list</secondary></indexterm> The mechanisms explained in this section are appropriate to many modals other than
- <valsi>semau</valsi> and
- <valsi>seme'a</valsi>. Some other modals that are often associated with relative phrases are:
- <valsi>seba'i</valsi> (
-
- <quote>instead of</quote>),
- <valsi>ci'u</valsi> (
-
- <quote>on scale</quote>),
- <valsi>de'i</valsi> (
-
- <quote>dated</quote>),
- <valsi>du'i</valsi> (
-
- <quote>as much as</quote>). Some BAI tags can be used equally well in relative phrases or attached to bridi; others seem useful only attached to bridi. But it is also possible that the usefulness of particular BAI modals is an English-speaker bias, and that speakers of other languages may find other BAIs useful in divergent ways.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fi'o modals</primary><secondary>usage in relative phrases</secondary></indexterm> Note: The uses of modals discussed in this section are applicable both to BAI modals and to
- <jbophrase>fi'o-</jbophrase>plus-selbri modals.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-mixed-connection">
- <title>Mixed modal connection</title>
- <para>It is possible to mix logical connection (explained in
- <xref linkend="chapter-connectives"/>) with modal connection, in a way that simultaneously asserts the logical connection and the modal relationship. Consider the sentences:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-4qz4">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e11d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi nelci do .ije mi nelci la djein.</jbo>
- <gloss>I like you. And I like Jane.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>which is a logical connection, and</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-6EE5">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e11d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi nelci do .iki'ubo mi nelci la djein.</jbo>
- <gloss>I like you. Justified-by I like Jane.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mixed modal connection</primary><secondary>of sentences</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal connection</primary><secondary>simultaneous with logical</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>connection</primary><secondary>simultaneously modal and logical</secondary></indexterm> The meanings of
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-4qz4"/> and
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-6EE5"/> can be simultaneously expressed by combining the two compound cmavo, thus:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-W3Le">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e11d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi nelci do .ijeki'ubo mi nelci la djein.</jbo>
- <gloss>I like you. And justified-by I like Jane.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mixed modal connection</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> Here the two sentences
- <jbophrase>mi nelci do</jbophrase> and
- <jbophrase>mi nelci la djein.</jbophrase> are simultaneously asserted, their logical connection is asserted, and their causal relationship is asserted. The logical connective
- <valsi>je</valsi> comes before the modal
- <valsi>ki'u</valsi> in all such mixed connections.</para>
-
- <para>Since
- <jbophrase>mi nelci do</jbophrase> and
- <jbophrase>mi nelci la djein.</jbophrase> differ only in the final sumti, we can transform
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-W3Le"/> into a mixed sumti connection:</para>
-
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-gE1z">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e11d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi nelci do .eki'ubo la djein.</jbo>
- <natlang>I like you and/because Jane.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mixed modal connection</primary><secondary>as proscribed in forethought</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mixed modal connection</primary><secondary>afterthought</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mixed modal connection</primary><secondary>of sumti</secondary></indexterm> Note that this connection is an afterthought one. Mixed connectives are always afterthought; forethought connectives must be either logical or modal.</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>mixed modal connection</primary><secondary>of bridi-tails</secondary></indexterm> There are numerous other afterthought logical and non-logical connectives that can have modal information planted within them. For example, a bridi-tail connected version of
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-gE1z"/> would be:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-7LmA">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e11d5"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi nelci do gi'eki'ubo nelci la djein.</jbo>
- <natlang>I like you and/because like Jane.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>The following three complex examples all mean the same thing.</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMRB" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e11d6"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi bevri le dakli .ijeseri'abo tu'e mi bevri le gerku .ijadu'ibo mi bevri le mlatu [tu'u]</jbo>
- <gloss>I carry the sack. And [effect] (I carry the dog. And/or [equal] I carry the cat.)</gloss>
- <natlang>I carry the sack. As a result I carry the dog or I carry the cat, equally.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qmRL" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e11d7"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi bevri le dakli gi'eseri'ake bevri le gerku gi'adu'ibo bevri le mlatu [ke'e]</jbo>
- <gloss>I carry the sack and [effect] (carry the dog and/or [equal] carry the cat).</gloss>
- <natlang>I carry the sack and as a result carry the dog or carry the cat equally.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMSb" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>carry sack</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e11d8"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi bevri le dakli .eseri'ake le gerku .adu'ibo le mlatu [ke'e]</jbo>
- <gloss>I carry the sack and [effect] (the cat and/or [equal] the dog).</gloss>
- <natlang>I carry the sack, and as a result the cat or the dog equally.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>
-
-
- In
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMRB"/>, the
- <valsi>tu'e</valsi>…<valsi>tu'u</valsi> brackets are the equivalent of the
- <valsi>ke</valsi>…<valsi>ke'e</valsi> brackets in
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qmRL"/> and
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMSb"/>, because
- <valsi>ke</valsi>…<valsi>ke'e</valsi> cannot extend across more than one sentence. It would also be possible to change the
- <jbophrase>.ijeseri'abo</jbophrase> to
- <jbophrase>.ije seri'a</jbophrase>, which would show that the
- <valsi>tu'e</valsi>…<valsi>tu'u</valsi> portion was an effect, but would not pin down the
- <jbophrase>mi bevri le dakli</jbophrase> portion as the cause. It is legal for a modal (or a tense; see
- <xref linkend="chapter-tenses"/>) to modify the whole of a
- <valsi>tu'e</valsi>…<valsi>tu'u</valsi> construct.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fi'o</primary><secondary>mixed modal connection with</secondary></indexterm> Note: The uses of modals discussed in this section are applicable both to BAI modals and to
- <jbophrase>fi'o-</jbophrase>plus-selbri modals.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-modal-jai">
- <title>Modal conversion: JAI</title>
- <para>The following cmavo are discussed in this section:</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>jai</cmavo>
- <selmaho>JAI</selmaho>
- <description>modal conversion</description>
-
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>fai</cmavo>
- <selmaho>FA</selmaho>
- <description>modal place structure tag</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
- <para> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>BAI selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>SE selma'o</primary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>conversion</primary><secondary>swapping with modal place</secondary></indexterm> So far, conversion of numbered bridi places with SE and the addition of modal places with BAI have been two entirely separate operations. However, it is possible to convert a selbri in such a way that, rather than exchanging two numbered places, a modal place is made into a numbered place. For example,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KMMX">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e12d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi cusku bau la lojban.</jbo>
- <gloss>I express [something] in-language Lojban.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>place structure</primary><secondary>effect of modal conversion on</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>conversion</primary><secondary>modal</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal conversion</primary><secondary>place structure of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal conversion</primary><secondary>grammar of</secondary></indexterm> has an explicit x1 place occupied by
- <valsi>mi</valsi> and an explicit
- <valsi>bau</valsi> place occupied by
- <jbophrase>la lojban.</jbophrase> To exchange these two, we use a modal conversion operator consisting of
-
- <valsi>jai</valsi> (of selma'o JAI) followed by the modal cmavo. Thus, the modal conversion of
-
-
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-KMMX"/> is:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-KjyW">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e12d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la lojban. jai bau cusku fai mi</jbo>
- <gloss>Lojban is-the-language-of-expression used-by me.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fai</primary><secondary>as allowing access to original first place in modal conversion</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal conversion</primary><secondary>access to original first place with fai</secondary></indexterm> In
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-KjyW"/>, the modal place
- <jbophrase>la lojban.</jbophrase> has become the x1 place of the new selbri
- <jbophrase>jai bau cusku</jbophrase>. What has happened to the old x1 place? There is no numbered place for it to move to, so it moves to a special
- <quote>unnumbered place</quote> marked by the tag
- <valsi>fai</valsi> of selma'o FA.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fai</primary><secondary>effect on numbering of place structure places</secondary></indexterm> Note: For the purposes of place numbering,
- <valsi>fai</valsi> behaves like
- <valsi>fi'a</valsi>; it does not affect the numbering of the other places around it.</para>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal conversions</primary><secondary>in descriptions</secondary></indexterm> Like SE conversions, JAI conversions are especially convenient in descriptions. We may refer to
- <quote>the language of an expression</quote> as
- <jbophrase>le jai bau cusku</jbophrase>, for example.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal conversion</primary><secondary>with no modal specified</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>jai without modal</primary><secondary>meaning</secondary></indexterm> In addition, it is grammatical to use
- <valsi>jai</valsi> without a following modal. This usage is not related to modals, but is explained here for completeness. The effect of
- <valsi>jai</valsi> by itself is to send the x1 place, which should be an abstraction, into the
- <valsi>fai</valsi> position, and to raise one of the sumti from the abstract sub-bridi into the x1 place of the main bridi. This feature is discussed in more detail in
- <xref linkend="section-sumti-raising"/>. The following two examples mean the same thing:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMsd" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e12d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le nu mi lebna le cukta cu se krinu le nu mi viska le cukta</jbo>
- <gloss>The event-of (I take the book) is-justified-by the event-of (I see the book).</gloss>
- <natlang>My taking the book is justified by my seeing it.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMse" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e12d4"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi jai se krinu le nu mi viska le cukta kei [fai le nu mi lebna le cukta]</jbo>
- <gloss>I am-justified by the event-of (I see the book) [namely, the event-of (I take the book)]</gloss>
- <natlang>I am justified in taking the book by seeing the book.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal conversion without modal</primary><secondary>as vague</secondary></indexterm>
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMse"/>, with the bracketed part omitted, allows us to say that
- <quote>I am justified</quote> whereas in fact it is my action that is justified. This construction is vague, but useful in representing natural-language methods of expression.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fi'o</primary><secondary>and modal conversion</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal conversion with fi'o</primary></indexterm> Note: The uses of modals discussed in this section are applicable both to BAI modals and to
- <jbophrase>fi'o-</jbophrase>plus-selbri modals.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-modal-negation">
- <title>Modal negation</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modals</primary><secondary>negation of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>negation of modals</primary></indexterm> Negation is explained in detail in
- <xref linkend="chapter-negation"/>. There are two forms of negation in Lojban: contradictory and scalar negation. Contradictory negation expresses what is false, whereas scalar negation says that some alternative to what has been stated is true. A simple example is the difference between
- <quote>John didn't go to Paris</quote> (contradictory negation) and
- <quote>John went to (somewhere) other than Paris</quote> (scalar negation).</para>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modals</primary><secondary>contradictory negation of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>negation of modals</primary><secondary>contradictory</secondary></indexterm> Contradictory negation involving BAI cmavo is performed by appending
- <jbophrase>-nai</jbophrase> (of selma'o NAI) to the BAI. A common use of modals with
- <jbophrase>-nai</jbophrase> is to deny a causal relationship:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-ej84">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e13d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi nelci do mu'inai le nu do nelci mi</jbo>
- <natlang>I like you, but not because you like me.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>contradictory negation of modals</primary><secondary>explanation of meaning</secondary></indexterm>
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-ej84"/> denies that the relationship between my liking you (which is asserted) and your liking me (which is not asserted) is one of motivation. Nothing is said about whether you like me or not, merely that that hypothetical liking is not the motivation for my liking you.</para>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modals</primary><secondary>scalar negation of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>negation of modals</primary><secondary>scalar</secondary></indexterm> Scalar negation is achieved by prefixing
- <valsi>na'e</valsi> (of selma'o NAhE), or any of the other cmavo of NAhE, to the BAI cmavo.</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-9WC5">
- <title>
-<indexterm type="example"><primary>plant grows</primary><secondary>example</secondary></indexterm>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e13d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>le spati cu banro na'emu'i le nu do djacu dunda fi le spati</jbo>
- <gloss>The plant grows other-than-motivated-by the event-of you water-give to the plant.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>
-
-
- <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>scalar negation of modals</primary><secondary>explanation of meaning</secondary></indexterm>
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-9WC5"/> says that the relationship between the plant's growth and your watering it is not one of motivation: the plant is not motivated to grow, as plants are not something which can have motivation as a rule. Implicitly, some other relationship between watering and growth exists, but
-
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-9WC5"/> doesn't say what it is (presumably
- <valsi>ri'a</valsi>).</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fi'o modals</primary><secondary>negation of by negating selbri</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>negation of fi'o modals</primary><secondary>by negating selbri</secondary></indexterm> Note: Modals made with
- <valsi>fi'o</valsi> plus a selbri cannot be negated directly. The selbri can itself be negated either with contradictory or with scalar negation, however.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-sticky-modals">
- <title>Sticky modals</title>
- <para>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ki</cmavo>
- <selmaho>KI</selmaho>
- <description>stickiness flag</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
- <para><indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modals</primary><secondary>making sticky</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modals</primary><secondary>making long-scope</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sticky modals</primary><secondary>definition</secondary></indexterm> Like tenses, modals can be made persistent from the bridi in which they appear to all following bridi. The effect of this
- <quote>stickiness</quote> is to make the modal, along with its following sumti, act as if it appeared in every successive bridi. Stickiness is put into effect by following the modal (but not any following sumti) with the cmavo
- <valsi>ki</valsi> of selma'o KI. For example,</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-1UGf">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e14d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi tavla bau la lojban. bai ki tu'a la frank. .ibabo mi tavla bau la gliban.</jbo>
- <gloss>I speak in-language Lojban compelled-by some-property-of Frank. Afterward, I speak in-language English.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>means the same as:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-txFr">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e14d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi tavla bau la lojban. bai tu'a la frank. .ibabo mi tavla bau la gliban. bai tu'a la frank.</jbo>
- <gloss>I speak in-language Lojban compelled-by some-property-of Frank. Afterward, I speak in-language English compelled-by some-property-of Frank.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>In
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-1UGf"/>,
- <valsi>bai</valsi> is made sticky, and so Frank's compelling is made applicable to every following bridi.
- <valsi>bau</valsi> is not sticky, and so the language may vary from bridi to bridi, and if not specified in a particular bridi, no assumption can safely be made about its value.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sticky modals</primary><secondary>canceling</secondary></indexterm> To cancel stickiness, use the form
- <jbophrase>BAI ki ku</jbophrase>, which stops any modal value for the specified BAI from being passed to the next bridi. To cancel stickiness for all modals simultaneously, and also for any sticky tenses that exist (
- <valsi>ki</valsi> is used for both modals and tenses), use
- <valsi>ki</valsi> by itself, either before the selbri or (in the form
- <jbophrase>ki ku</jbophrase>) anywhere in the bridi:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-sYdo">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e14d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>mi ki tavla</jbo>
- <natlang>I speak (no implication about language or compulsion).</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>fi'o</primary><secondary>proscribed for sticky modals</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>sticky modals</primary><secondary>fi'o proscribed from</secondary></indexterm> Note: Modals made with
- <valsi>fi'o</valsi>-plus-selbri cannot be made sticky. This is an unfortunate, but unavoidable, restriction.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-connected-modals">
- <title>Logical and non-logical connection of modals</title>
-
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>non-logical connection</primary><secondary>of modals</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>logical connection</primary><secondary>of modals</secondary></indexterm> Logical and non-logical connectives are explained in detail in
- <xref linkend="chapter-connectives"/>. For the purposes of this chapter, it suffices to point out that a logical (or non-logical) connection between two bridi which differ only in a modal can be reduced to a single bridi with a connective between the modals. As a result,
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMsx"/> and
- <xref linkend="example-random-id-qMte"/> mean the same thing:</para>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMsx" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e15d1"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la frank. bajra seka'a le zdani .ije la frank. bajra teka'a le zdani</jbo>
- <gloss>Frank runs with-destination the house. And Frank runs with-origin the house.</gloss>
- <natlang>Frank runs to the house, and Frank runs from the house.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <example xml:id="example-random-id-qMte" role="interlinear-gloss-example">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e15d2"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la frank. bajra seka'a je teka'a le zdani</jbo>
- <gloss>Frank runs with-destination and with-origin the house.</gloss>
- <natlang>Frank runs to and from the house.</natlang>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para><indexterm type="lojban-word-imported"><primary>je</primary></indexterm> Neither example implies whether a single act, or two acts, of running is referred to. To compel the sentence to refer to a single act of running, you can use the form:</para>
- <example role="interlinear-gloss-example" xml:id="example-random-id-b0LW">
- <title>
- <anchor xml:id="c9e15d3"/>
- </title>
- <interlinear-gloss>
- <jbo>la frank. bajra seka'a le zdani ce'e teka'a le zdani</jbo>
- <gloss>Frank runs with-destination the house [joined-to] with-origin the-house.</gloss>
- </interlinear-gloss>
- </example>
- <para>The cmavo
- <valsi>ce'e</valsi> creates a termset containing two terms (termsets are explained in
- <xref linkend="chapter-connectives"/> and
- <xref linkend="chapter-quantifiers"/>). When a termset contains more than one modal tag derived from a single BAI, the convention is that the two tags are derived from a common event.</para>
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-irregular-BAI">
- <title>CV'V cmavo of selma'o BAI with irregular forms</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal cmavo</primary><secondary>regular form for derivation</secondary></indexterm> There are 65 cmavo of selma'o BAI, of which all but one (
- <valsi>do'e</valsi>, discussed in
-
- <xref linkend="section-BAI"/>), are derived directly from selected gismu. Of these 64 cmavo, 36 are entirely regular and have the form CV'V, where C is the first consonant of the corresponding gismu, and the Vs are the two vowels of the gismu. The remaining BAI cmavo, which are irregular in one way or another, are listed in the table below. The table is divided into sub-tables according to the nature of the exception; some cmavo appear in more than one sub-table, and are so noted.</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-list-head>
- <td>cmavo</td>
- <td>gismu</td>
- <td>comments</td>
- </cmavo-list-head>
- <title>Monosyllables of the form CVV:</title>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>bai</cmavo>
- <gismu>bapli</gismu>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>bau</cmavo>
- <gismu>bangu</gismu>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>cau</cmavo>
- <gismu>claxu</gismu>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>fau</cmavo>
- <gismu>fasnu</gismu>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>gau</cmavo>
- <gismu>gasnu</gismu>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>kai</cmavo>
- <gismu>ckaji</gismu>
- <description>uses 2nd consonant of gismu</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>mau</cmavo>
- <gismu>zmadu</gismu>
- <description>uses 2nd consonant of gismu</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
-
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>koi</cmavo>
- <gismu>korbi</gismu>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>rai</cmavo>
- <gismu>traji</gismu>
- <description>uses 2nd consonant of gismu</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>sau</cmavo>
- <gismu>sarcu</gismu>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>tai</cmavo>
- <gismu>tamsmi</gismu>
- <description>based on lujvo, not gismu</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>zau</cmavo>
- <gismu>zanru</gismu>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-list>
- <title>Second consonant of the gismu as the C: (the gismu is always of the form CCVCV)</title>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ga'a</cmavo>
- <gismu>zgana</gismu>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>kai</cmavo>
- <gismu>ckaji</gismu>
- <description>has CVV form (monosyllable)</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ki'i</cmavo>
- <gismu>ckini</gismu>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>la'u</cmavo>
- <gismu>klani</gismu>
- <description>has irregular 2nd V</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>le'a</cmavo>
- <gismu>klesi</gismu>
- <description>has irregular 2nd V</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>mau</cmavo>
- <gismu>zmadu</gismu>
- <description>has CVV form (monosyllable)</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
-
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>me'e</cmavo>
- <gismu>cmene</gismu>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ra'a</cmavo>
- <gismu>srana</gismu>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ra'i</cmavo>
- <gismu>krasi</gismu>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>rai</cmavo>
- <gismu>traji</gismu>
- <description>has CVV form (monosyllable)</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ti'i</cmavo>
- <gismu>stidi</gismu>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>tu'i</cmavo>
- <gismu>stuzi</gismu>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-list>
- <title>Irregular 2nd V:</title>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>fi'e</cmavo>
- <gismu>finti</gismu>
- </cmavo-entry>
-
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>la'u</cmavo>
- <gismu>klani</gismu>
- <description>uses 2nd consonant of gismu</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>le'a</cmavo>
- <gismu>klesi</gismu>
- <description>uses 2nd consonant of gismu</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ma'e</cmavo>
- <gismu>marji</gismu>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>mu'u</cmavo>
- <gismu>mupli</gismu>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ti'u</cmavo>
- <gismu>tcika</gismu>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>va'o</cmavo>
- <gismu>vanbi</gismu>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-list>
- <title>Special cases:</title>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ri'i</cmavo>
- <gismu>lifri</gismu>
- <description>uses 3rd consonant of gismu</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>tai</cmavo>
- <gismu>tamsmi</gismu>
- <description>based on lujvo, not gismu</description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>va'u</cmavo>
- <gismu>xamgu</gismu>
- <description>CV'V cmavo can't begin with <letteral>x</letteral></description>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
-
- </section>
- <section xml:id="section-all-BAI">
- <title>Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents</title>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal cmavo table</primary><secondary>format of</secondary></indexterm> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal cmavo</primary><secondary>table with English equivalents</secondary></indexterm> The following table shows all the cmavo belonging to selma'o BAI, and has five columns. The first column is the cmavo itself; the second column is the gismu linked to it. The third column gives an English phrase which indicates the meaning of the cmavo; and the fourth column indicates its meaning when preceded by
- <valsi>se</valsi>.</para>
- <para>For those cmavo with meaningful
- <valsi>te</valsi>,
- <valsi>ve</valsi>, and even
- <valsi>xe</valsi> conversions (depending on the number of places of the underlying gismu), the meanings of these are shown on one or two extra rows following the primary row for that cmavo.</para>
- <para> <indexterm type="general-imported"><primary>modal cmavo</primary><secondary>basis in gismu place structure</secondary></indexterm> It should be emphasized that the place structures of the gismu control the meanings of the BAI cmavo. The English phrases shown here are only suggestive, and are often too broad or too narrow to correctly specify what the acceptable range of uses for the modal tag are.</para>
- <cmavo-list>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ba'i</cmavo>
- <gismu>basti</gismu>
- <modal-place>replaced by</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">instead of</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>bai</cmavo>
- <gismu>bapli</gismu>
- <modal-place>compelled by</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">compelling</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>bau</cmavo>
- <gismu>bangu</gismu>
- <modal-place>in language</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">in language of</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>be'i</cmavo>
- <gismu>benji</gismu>
- <modal-place>sent by</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">transmitting</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="te">sent to</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="ve">with transmit origin</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="xe">transmitted via</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ca'i</cmavo>
- <gismu>catni</gismu>
- <modal-place>by authority of</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">with authority over</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>cau</cmavo>
- <gismu>claxu</gismu>
- <modal-place>lacked by</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">without</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ci'e</cmavo>
- <gismu>ciste</gismu>
- <modal-place>in system</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">with system function</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="te">of system components</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ci'o</cmavo>
- <gismu>cinmo</gismu>
- <modal-place>felt by</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">feeling emotion</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ci'u</cmavo>
- <gismu>ckilu</gismu>
- <modal-place>on the scale</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">on scale measuring</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>cu'u</cmavo>
- <gismu>cusku</gismu>
- <modal-place>as said by</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">expressing</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="te">as told to</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="ve">expressed in medium</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>de'i</cmavo>
- <gismu>detri</gismu>
- <modal-place>dated</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">on the same date as</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>di'o</cmavo>
- <gismu>diklo</gismu>
- <modal-place>at the locus of</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">at specific locus</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo><valsi>do'e</valsi></cmavo>
- <gismu>-----</gismu>
- <modal-place>vaguely related to</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>du'i</cmavo>
- <gismu>dunli</gismu>
- <modal-place>as much as</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">equal to</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>du'o</cmavo>
- <gismu>djuno</gismu>
- <modal-place>according to</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">knowing facts</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="te">knowing about</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="ve">under epistemology</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>fa'e</cmavo>
- <gismu>fatne</gismu>
- <modal-place>reverse of</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">in reversal of</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo><valsi>fau</valsi></cmavo>
- <gismu><valsi>fasnu</valsi></gismu>
- <modal-place>in the event of</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>fi'e</cmavo>
- <gismu>finti</gismu>
- <modal-place>created by</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">creating work</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="te">created for purpose</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ga'a</cmavo>
- <gismu>zgana</gismu>
- <modal-place>to observer</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">observing</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="te">observed by means</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="ve">observed under conditions</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>gau</cmavo>
- <gismu>gasnu</gismu>
- <modal-place>with agent</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">as agent in doing</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ja'e</cmavo>
- <gismu>jalge</gismu>
- <modal-place>resulting in</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">results because of</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ja'i</cmavo>
- <gismu>javni</gismu>
- <modal-place>by rule</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">by rule prescribing</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ji'e</cmavo>
- <gismu>jimte</gismu>
- <modal-place>up to limit</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">as a limit of</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ji'o</cmavo>
- <gismu>jitro</gismu>
- <modal-place>under direction</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">controlling</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ji'u</cmavo>
- <gismu>jicmu</gismu>
- <modal-place>based on</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">supporting</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ka'a</cmavo>
- <gismu>klama</gismu>
- <modal-place>gone to by</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">with destination</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="te">with origin</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="ve">via route</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="xe">by transport mode</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ka'i</cmavo>
- <gismu>krati</gismu>
- <modal-place>represented by</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">on behalf of</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>kai</cmavo>
- <gismu>ckaji</gismu>
- <modal-place>characterizing</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">with property</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ki'i</cmavo>
- <gismu>ckini</gismu>
- <modal-place>as relation of</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">related to</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="te">with relation</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ki'u</cmavo>
- <gismu>krinu</gismu>
- <modal-place>justified by</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">with justified result</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>koi</cmavo>
- <gismu>korbi</gismu>
- <modal-place>bounded by</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">as boundary of</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="te">bordering</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ku'u</cmavo>
- <gismu>kulnu</gismu>
- <modal-place>in culture</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">in culture of</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>la'u</cmavo>
- <gismu>klani</gismu>
- <modal-place>as quantity of</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">in quantity</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>le'a</cmavo>
- <gismu>klesi</gismu>
- <modal-place>in category</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">as category of</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="te">defined by quality</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>li'e</cmavo>
- <gismu>lidne</gismu>
- <modal-place>led by</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">leading</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ma'e</cmavo>
- <gismu>marji</gismu>
- <modal-place>of material</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">made from material</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="te">in material form of</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ma'i</cmavo>
- <gismu>manri</gismu>
- <modal-place>in reference frame</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">as a standard of</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>mau</cmavo>
- <gismu>zmadu</gismu>
- <modal-place>exceeded by</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">more than</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>me'a</cmavo>
- <gismu>mleca</gismu>
- <modal-place>undercut by</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">less than</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>me'e</cmavo>
- <gismu>cmene</gismu>
- <modal-place>with name</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">as a name for</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="te">as a name to</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>mu'i</cmavo>
- <gismu>mukti</gismu>
- <modal-place>motivated by</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">motive therefore</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>mu'u</cmavo>
- <gismu>mupli</gismu>
- <modal-place>exemplified by</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">as an example of</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ni'i</cmavo>
- <gismu>nibli</gismu>
- <modal-place>entailed by</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">entails</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>pa'a</cmavo>
- <gismu>panra</gismu>
- <modal-place>in addition to</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">similar to</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="te">similar in pattern</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="ve">similar by standard</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>pa'u</cmavo>
- <gismu>pagbu</gismu>
- <modal-place>with component</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">as a part of</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>pi'o</cmavo>
- <gismu>pilno</gismu>
- <modal-place>used by</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">using tool</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>po'i</cmavo>
- <gismu>porsi</gismu>
- <modal-place>in the sequence</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">sequenced by rule</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>pu'a</cmavo>
- <gismu>pluka</gismu>
- <modal-place>pleased by</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">in order to please</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>pu'e</cmavo>
- <gismu>pruce</gismu>
- <modal-place>by process</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">processing from</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="te">processing into</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="ve">passing through stages</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo><valsi>ra'a</valsi></cmavo>
- <gismu><valsi>srana</valsi></gismu>
- <modal-place>pertained to by</modal-place>
- <modal-place>concerning</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo><valsi>ra'i</valsi></cmavo>
- <gismu><valsi>krasi</valsi></gismu>
- <modal-place>from source</modal-place>
- <modal-place>as an origin of</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>rai</cmavo>
- <gismu>traji</gismu>
- <modal-place>with superlative</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">superlative in</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="te">at extreme</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="ve">superlative among</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ri'a</cmavo>
- <gismu>rinka</gismu>
- <modal-place>caused by</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">causing</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ri'i</cmavo>
- <gismu>lifri</gismu>
- <modal-place>experienced by</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">experiencing</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>sau</cmavo>
- <gismu>sarcu</gismu>
- <modal-place>requiring</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">necessarily for</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="te">necessarily under conditions</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>si'u</cmavo>
- <gismu>sidju</gismu>
- <modal-place>aided by</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">assisting in</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ta'i</cmavo>
- <gismu>tadji</gismu>
- <modal-place>by method</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">as a method for</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>tai</cmavo>
- <gismu>tamsmi</gismu>
- <modal-place>as a form of</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">in form</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="te">in form similar to</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ti'i</cmavo>
- <gismu>stidi</gismu>
- <modal-place>suggested by</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">suggesting</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="te">suggested to</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>ti'u</cmavo>
- <gismu>tcika</gismu>
- <modal-place>with time</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">at the time of</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>tu'i</cmavo>
- <gismu>stuzi</gismu>
- <modal-place>with site</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">as location of</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>va'o</cmavo>
- <gismu>vanbi</gismu>
- <modal-place>under conditions</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">as conditions for</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>va'u</cmavo>
- <gismu>xamgu</gismu>
- <modal-place>benefiting from</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">with beneficiary</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>zau</cmavo>
- <gismu>zanru</gismu>
- <modal-place>approved by</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">approving</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo-entry>
- <cmavo>zu'e</cmavo>
- <gismu>zukte</gismu>
- <modal-place>with actor</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="se">with means to goal</modal-place>
- <modal-place se="te">with goal</modal-place>
- </cmavo-entry>
- </cmavo-list>
- <para>The lujvo
- <valsi>tamsmi</valsi> on which
- <valsi>tai</valsi> is based is derived from the tanru
- <jbophrase>tarmi simsa</jbophrase> and has the place structure:</para>
- <definition>
- <valsi>tamsmi</valsi> <content>x1 has form x2, similar in form to x3 in property/quality x4</content>
- </definition>
- <para>This lujvo is employed because
- <valsi>tarmi</valsi> does not have a place structure useful for the modal's purpose.</para>
- </section>
-</chapter>
diff --git a/scripts/build b/scripts/build
new file mode 100755
index 0000000..0567c2b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/scripts/build
@@ -0,0 +1,75 @@
+#!/bin/bash
+
+usage() {
+ echo "
+
+Usage: $0 [-s] [-t] [-T target] [chapters]
+
+-s: Replaces external xrefs in each chapter, so each chapter works standalone.
+
+-t: Does what -s does, but also prevents most glossary processing so the glossary building goes much faster.
+
+-T target: Specifies the make target. Most of them are obvious. The _web targets copy stuff into your ~/public_html/ web space. Complete list:
+
+$(grep '^[a-z][a-z_]*:' build/Makefile | sed 's/:.*//' | sed 's/^/ /')
+
+[chapters]: defaults to all chapters; if you specify less than all chapters, you must use -s or -t
+"
+ exit 1
+}
+
+optlist=""
+target="all"
+
+while getopts "sthT" opt
+do
+ case "$opt" in
+ s) optlist="$optlist -s";;
+ t) optlist="$optlist -t";;
+ T) target="$OPTARG";;
+ [?h]) usage;;
+ esac
+done
+
+if [ $OPTIND -gt 1 ]
+then
+ shift $(expr $OPTIND - 1)
+fi
+
+chapters="$*"
+
+if [ "$chapters" -a ! "$optlist" ]
+then
+ echo "
+
+Since you specified chapters, you need to specify -s or -t. -t is faster.
+
+"
+
+ usage
+fi
+
+# Set up defaults
+if [ ! "$chapters" ]
+then
+ chapters="$(ls chapters/* | tr '\012' ' ')"
+fi
+
+echo "chapters: $chapters"
+echo "optlist: $optlist"
+
+# See if we need to delete the cll.xml before we run make
+echo "$optlist $chapters" >build/chapter-list.new
+if [ ! -f build/chapter-list ]
+then
+ touch build/chapter-list
+fi
+
+if [ "$(diff -q build/chapter-list build/chapter-list.new)" ]
+then
+ cp build/chapter-list.new build/chapter-list
+ echo -e "\nChapter list differences found; forcing a re-merge.\n"
+ rm -f cll.xml
+fi
+
+make -f build/Makefile test="$optlist" chapters="$chapters" $target
--
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